PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ' QUEENSLAND FOR 1941 VOL LIIL ISSUED 23rd FEBRUARY, 1942, PRICE : FIFTEEN SHILLINGS, Printed for the Society by A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane, NOTICE TO AUTHORS. 1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author ’s name, degrees and official j address. % Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when com- | munieated to the Society and should be as concise as possible. 3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred words. 4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample margins. ; f>. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific i names, foreign words and titles of periodicals. fi. The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author. 7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at approximately cost price. £. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged alphabetically under authors 9 names, e.g , Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Roy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207. Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309. The corresponding references in the text should be: ( 1 Keilin (1929)”, “ Lesage (1895)”. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x 4$ in.a and drawings may be to this size, or preferably to a convenient small multiple thereof. The effect of the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should be borne in mind. Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width not exceeding 4 in. TO. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as good India ink, on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. Excessively fine, scratchy or faint lines are to be avoided. Tints or washes cannot be reproduced in line drawings, in which the maximum degree of contrast is necessary. 11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible, be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or mounted on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most drawing papers becomes visible on reproduction. Single photographs should be sent fiat and unmounted. All prints should be on glossy bromide or gas-light paper. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1941 VOL. LI 1 1. ISSUED 23rd FEBRUARY. 1942. PRICE: FIFTEEN 8HILLING8. Printed for the Society by A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. The Royal Society of Queensland. Patron : HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR LESLIE ORME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O., LL.D. OFFICERS, 1941. President : Professor H. R. SEDDON, D.Y.Sc. V ice -Presidents : F. W. WHITEHOUSE, D.Sc., Pli.D. Professor D. H. K. LEE, M.Sc., M.D., B.S., D.T.M. Hon. Treasurer : E. W. BICK. Hon. Secretary: DOROTHY HILL, M.Sc., Ph.D. Hon. Librarian : KATHLEEN WATSON, B.A. How. Editors: W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc. F. H. S. ROBERTS, D.Sc. Members of Council: Professor J. BOSTOCK, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.P.M., F.R.A.C.P. Professor R. W. HAWKEN, B.A., M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.Aust., D. A. HERBERT, D.Sc., J. H. SMITH, M.Sc., M. WHITE,, M.Sc., Ph.D. Trustees: F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C., and A. J. TURNER, M.D., F.R.E.S. Hon. Auditor: L. P. HERDSMAN. Banlcers : ONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA. SoU-W 3 CONTENTS. Volume LIII. Pages. No. 1. — Presidential Address: The Surface of Western Queensland. By F. W. White house, D.Sc., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . 1-22 No. 2.— Additions to the Mosses of North Queensland. By E. N. Dixon, M.A., F.L.S. . . . . . . . . . . 23-40 No. 3. — The Devonian Tabulata of Douglas and Drummond Creeks, Clermont, Queensland. By 0. A. Jones, M.Sc. ( Cantab . and Qld.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-60 No. 4. — Fragmenta Lepidopterologica. By Jefferis Turner, M.D., F. R.E.S 61-96 No. 5. — Variations in the Vulval Linguiform Process of Haemonchus Contortus. By F. E. S. Roberts, D.Sc. . . . . . . 97-100 No. 6. — Note on a Grooved and Polished Granite Surface near Eulo, Western Queensland. By Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S 101-104 No. 7. — Reactions of Domestic Fowls to Hot Atmospheres. By N. T. M. Yeates, B.Agr.Sc D. E. K. Lee, M.D., M.Sc., D. T.M., and E. J. G. Ernes, B.Sc1. . . . . . . . . 105-128 No. 8. — Reactions of the Rabbit to Hot Atmospheres. By Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc.. M.D., D.T.M., Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and E. J. G. Eines, B.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . 129-144 No. 9. — Reactions of the Pig to Hot Atmospheres. By Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M. 145-158 No. 10. — Reactions of the Cat to Hot Atmospheres. By Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M 159-170 No. 11. — Reactions of the Dog to Hot Atmospheres. By Kathlee7i Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D. T.M 171-188 No. 12. — Reactions of the Sheep to Hot Atmospheres. By Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M., and Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc 189-200 No. 13. — Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 7. White, F.L.S By C. T. No. 14. — The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, III. Burdekin Downs, Fanning R., and Reid Gap, North Queensland. By Dorothy Eill, M.Sc., Ph.D. Report of Council Abstract of Proceedings List of Library Exchanges List of Members 201-228 229-268 v.-vi. vii.-xiv. . xv.-xvii. xviii.-xxii. Vol. LIIL, No. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. Presidential Address: THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. By F. W. Whitehouse, Ph.D., D.Sc. Department of Geology, University of Queensland. (Six Text Figures.) (Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland , 31 st March, 1941.) Western Queensland — conventionally that portion of the State west of that “Great Divide’ ’ that separates the east coast waters from those of other systems — essentially is a land of flat-lying sediments and of great plains. Three minor areas within it are of rugged country with folded rocks; but it is with the flat lands of the region, particu- larly those west of a line from Normanton to Brisbane, that I am concerned to-night. The drainage forms of those great plains have curious features never adequately described and seemingly unlike those recorded from other countries. Incidentally, because of this novelty, peculiar problems arise in conserving the western waters. THE GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK. Most of Western Queensland is occupied by Mesozoic sediments of the Great Artesian Basin. This basin, widening southwards, is flask- shaped. Flanking its bottle-neck are folded and intruded rocks of Pre-Cambrian age. Adjacent to them in the west are Lower Palaeozoic sediments, chiefly Cambrian limestones, that still are undisturbed, having dips usually of the order of 50 feet per mile. In the easterly Pre-Cambrian 'belt folded Lower Palaeozoic rocks occur. A small area of Palaeozoic rocks occurs also in the extreme south-east. The Mesozoic cover to the Great Artesian Basin is an enormous area of Cretaceous shales and calcareous sandstones. In the higher lands of the Great Divide Lower Mesozoic sediments outcrop from below this Cretaceous cover, some of them forming the intake beds to the basin. These earlier Mesozoic beds are an alternating group of impervious calcareous sediments (shales and sandstones) and porous sandstones. Unconformably upon the Mesozoic surface are early Cainozoic beds in the south-west and occasional remnants of late Cainozoic beds in the east. With the exception of the earlier portion of the Cretaceous sequence all post-Palaeozoic sediments are non-marine. In Pliocene times, as has been shown,* these various surface outcrops were converted to laterite soils, the laterite mantle being * An account of the lateritic soils of Western Queensland lately has been published (Whitehouse, 1940, 1) to which reference should be made for details. Con- clusions reached from a study of this cover are stated throughout this address without further explanation. JIW 1 5 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. continuous over the whole of Western Queensland except in the dissected lands of the Pre-Cambrian ranges and possibly in some of the higher country of the Great Divide. Two periods of laterite formation in the Pliocene have been demonstrated. After some measure of denudation of the laterites had taken place basalt was poured out in the region of the Great Divide, extending west of it in three regions — between the parallels of 18° and 21° ; 24° and 27° ; and 26° and 29° S. The latest deposits of the region are a series of alluvia and other transported soils, ranging in age from early Pleistocene to the present. Outstanding among these are the older alluvia, between the lateritic remnants, and the great sand dunes of the Simpson Desert in the south-west. THE GREAT DIVIDE. The Great Divide has a sinuous but rather regular course, occurring relatively close to the coast in the north and in the south and progressively receding from it in Central Queensland. In position there is a complementary agreement with the edge of the continental shelf as Bryan (1928) has noted and discussed. There may be some agreement of the divide with structural features in the north-eastern belt of Pre-Cambrian and Palaeozoic rocks, but I have no personal acquaintance with that region. Elsewhere it is usually an insignificant thing, avoiding the most striking, true mountain masses (of Palaeozoic rocks) such as the Bellenden Ker and Drummond Ranges. At its best, in the basaltic areas, it is an eastern scarp, often quite impressive, from a very gently sloping western surface. But in most places the gradient on either side is very slight, there is no elevated structure to mark its position and the casual traveller crosses it without being aware that he has passed over a divide. There is but one region where it forms an imposing, two-sided ridge — in the basaltic horst of the Bunya Mountains. The absurdity of labelling the whole long line the “ Great Dividing Range,” as is the custom on our maps, has been stressed by many writers. Griffith Taylor (1911, p. 9) has suggested that formerly the main divide was in the zone of the granitic masses near the coast and that relatively recently it has migrated towards the line of major basaltic effusions. Much of this reasoning was based on suggested river captures. There is, however, good reason to believe that the Great Divide was not far from its present position just before the basalts were outpoured. Prom latitude 21° southwards, apart from the region of the basalt plateaux, the natural position of the Great Divide is the imposing scarp, reversed to the direction of dip, of the Bundamba Sandstones (early Jurassic). That scarp is a wall-like feature, particularly between latitudes 24° and 26° S., where there are few passes through it. Sometimes, as at the head of the Nogoa River, the divide does coincide with it; but usually it is some distance away, the scarp being equally prominent whether it is part of the Great Divide or not. Prom that scarp the divide wanders over later Mesozoic formations, sometimes even on the territory of the Walloon Series (late Jurassic) which in general forms a relatively depressed area. In the region of the Mesozoic formations the height of the divide is never much more than 1,500 feet above sea level. Repeatedly in its neighbourhood, and sometimes agreeing in position, there are laterite THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 3 residuals. Only when there is such a direct agreement is there any visible rise in the neighbourhood. From this common association, and from the gentleness of the slopes, it is inevitable to suggest that when the great Pliocene laterite mantle was new it was a continuous sheet with a plainland surface, gently and almost imperceptibly warped across a line that was not far from the present divide ; and that, by subsequent erosion and corrasion by the streams, the Great Divide has received such little emphasis as it has to-day. The areas delimited by double lines are the natural regions OF LATERITIC RESIDUALS . THUS *. I . The Alice Tableland ; II. The Central Region ; HI. The South Western Region ; The Gulf Region ; Y. The Inter - Lateritic Region . Text Figure 1. 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Over the Alice Tableland* that laterite sheet virtually still is continuous, covering an area of over 20,000 square miles and presents a picture slightly modified of what the Great Divide must have been like in Pliocene times. It is the sole considerable remnant of the original divide features. This plateau, so well described by Danes (1910), is a region from 1,000 to 1,600 feet above sea level, with gentle drainage on its surface to east and west. But along its axis, in a very slight depression of the Walloon Series, there are basins of inland drainage that are discussed later in this address. That is, the slope either way is so gentle that the divide is most difficult to define on the monotonous plain. However, towards the eastern edge of this plateau, erosion partially has uncovered the scarp of the Bundamba Sandstone and the Great Divide is tending to become coincident with it — it does coincide over part of the region, but not west of Natal Downs. Later geological events have modified slightly the position of the divide. Most important of these was the outpouring of the basalts. I have been able to show (Whitehouse 1940, pp. 57 and 58) that two of the great basaltic effusions were later than the laterites. Work now in progress suggests that the third and southernmost flows of basalt also were contemporaneous. All three basaltic areas are now dissected, the highest points in each region being of the order of 4,000 feet above sea level, f Since the basalts are later than the laterites their presence must have modified locally to some degree the position of the divide, as defined by the warped laterite surface and its subsequent dissection. A later and most curious modification occurred about latitude 26° 30' S. in a basin 200 square miles in area and 120 miles from the coast. Here, later than the laterites and also than the basalts which they cover, is a series of clays and silts of Pleistocene age. They form a continuous sheet between Burraburri Creek (of the western waters) and the Boyne River (of the eastern group), the alluvial plain of each stream touching the edge of the deposit. Nowhere is the height more than 60 feet above either watercourse. The surface is a monotonously flat, black soil plain not marked by much gullying and it is impossible, without detailed levelling, to define where upon it is the line to mark the divide. Alone of all sections in Queensland the State 2-mile maps delete the term “ Great Dividing Range’ ’ across these plains, though the name appears on the 16-mile sheets. Here the idea of a “ range” has its greatest absurdity. Here, too, the present surface run-off, which is sheet drainage rather than gullying, must be similar to what it was across the laterite divide in Pliocene times — that is, the Pliocene type of divide here has been reconstructed on a minor scale and at a lower level. FORMER PLAINS. Over the vast expanse that they cover in Western Queensland the Mesozoic sediments are almost horizontal. Dips generally are less than 40 feet per mile. The rocks in the Cambrian limestone belt in the furthest west similarly are most gently disposed. It reasonably follows that, except for the rugged lands in the Pre-Cambrian sectors, this * The name Alice Tableland hardly ever has appeared in literature. On the maps it is shown on what is part of the laterite plateau east of Aramac. It has been there since 1866. A name is needed for the whole of this tableland (as delimited on Figure 1) and the name Alice Tableland here is used in that sense. t Other high masses in Queensland, in non-basaltic areas, reach this figure which may have more than passing significance. THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 5 region has been one of great plains continuously almost since the close of Mesozoic sedimentation. There have been, however, some vicissitudes during pluvial periods in its otherwise monotonous history, chiefly with the deposition of Tertiary fluviatile sediments and by the formation and the dissection of laterite soils towards the close of the Tertiary era. The production of the first laterites, although they changed the composition of surface material, probably did little to disturb the form of the pre-existing plains. More likely they intensified the plainness. But there followed, later in the Pliocene, a period of erosion and then a recurrence of lateritic conditions that must have modified to some extent, though possibly slightly, the earlier drainage patterns. THE PRESENT PLAINS. The existing plains for the most part are at a lower level than the laterites, which now remain as remnants of the former surface. In most regions they are of late (post-Tertiary) deposits, properly obscuring the Mesozoic sediments beneath, with the laterities fringing them as marginal tablelands of similar height or scattered between the water- courses as mesas and buttes (see fig. 4). Commonly in such regions the deposits of the plains are composed, in some part, of lateritic detritus, either as little-adulterated material stripped from the ridges or else as ingredients in the various alluvia. Most striking of these latter is in the South-Western Region (as delimited on fig. 1) where a very old, red, alluvial deposit is widespread within which, sub- sequently, thick lime pans have formed. There is little reference to this very extensive deposit in Queensland literature; but laterally it is continuous with similar material in New South Wales, South Australia and the Northern Territory, where it has been described by David (1914, p. 608 f.) under the heading “The Red Soil Plains of the Western District” and by Ward (1927, p. 12) without any special name. Other old alluvial deposits, containing Pleistocene mammalian bones, are greyish-brown silts like the now-forming alluvium, though often more cemented by lime. Over a large territory comprising much of the basins of the Georgina, Thompson and Barcoo Rivers, and of the streams that flow to the Gulf of Carpentaria (that is, the Inter-Lateritic Region of fig. 1), the dismembering of the laterites is practically complete. Lateritic residuals are very few. Often nothing is left but “gibbers” (massed nodules of the siliceous zone) upon a few divides. In this region erosion of the older alluvia is more advanced and the pre- Tertiary sediments, Cambrian or Cretaceous, commonly are exposed. But even these, being almost horizontal and easily eroded (limestones and shales mostly), give rise to plains with pedocalcic soils very similar to and often in the mass indistinguishable from the silts of the river flats. Such are the true “Rolling Downs” of Western Queensland, a typical savannah land. They sweep across the north-central portion of the State within the Inter-Lateritic Region; and coming west of Boulia pass northwards through the Georgina Valley to the Barkly “Table- land,” a downs area nestling in a great curve of the Pre-Cambrian ranges. In the South-Western Region the erosion of the laterites also is far advanced, for the laterite residuals are only of the lowest zones in the profile. But here, more particularly in its western portion, arenaceous Tertiary beds (the Eyrian Series) often cover the Marine Cretaceous shales. The remants of these, dissected by the rivers, 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. remain as mesas, buttes and ridges similar to those of the laterites, and the true plains are at yet a lower level — presumably, although the older alluvia obscure the evidence, about the top of the Cretaceous shales. Thus the plainlands of Western Queensland (the vast “downs” and the old alluvial plains) have been formed by the gradual dissection of a previous level surface — the laterite plain. In one great region this process is now complete and the laterites are gone. In another the laterites are mainly removed but other residuals are present. In the latter, as in the regions where laterites largely remain, the process is still in progress and great sheets of late sediments form very level country between the residuals. Two suggestions may now be advanced —that the process was more rapid in Pleistocene times and now virtually is arrested; and that the action .was further accelerated in the more advanced regions by slight, localised, orogenic movements. The great sheets of old alluvia remote from present watercourses testify to greater depositive powers of the rivers in the past and, correlatively, to considerable erosion in such pluvial times. Collateral evidence of this is given by the great valleys and gorges of many small streams east of the Great Divide. With the present meagre rainfall in Western Queensland the progressive erosion of the laterite remnants now must be relatively slight. Some confirmation of this, as noted below, is given by the Upper Diamantina where the streams, in the broad, inter-lateritic valleys, have mature, well-braided courses. The main drainage lines of Western Queensland converge towards Lake Eyre in South Australia. Two large drainage systems, however, depart from these. In the south-east the streams lead to the Darling River in New South Wales, and an outlet to the Southern Ocean. In the north the rivers flow to the Gulf of Carpentaria. If there was any orogenic factor in the deflection of the south-easterly system it was no doubt slight and is referred to below as a possible sag in the Warrego basin. The difference in direction possibly was impressed upon the old laterite surface ; for the divide is a semi-continuous ridgeland of laterite, the Grey and Warrego Ranges, left as a normal dividing upland. But some other explanation seems desirable for the deflection of waters northwards. About the 21° parallel of latitude there is a marked change not only in surface drainage but also in the sub-surface. The Great Artesian Basin is markedly divisible into two parts in this region, the isopotential lines diverging from such a zone. David (1911, p. 48), Jensen (1920, p. 30) and others have drawn attention to the presence of a buried ridge of old rocks in this region. Since this is the axis of the area from which the laterites have been completely stripped, it is now suggested that relatively recently ( ? in the Pleistocene) there was a slight uplift along this axis allowing locally a greater erosion to take place. It is possible, though I do not wish to stress this matter, that at the same time there was a slight depression in the Lake Eyre basin in South Australia, allowing, by accelerated erosion in the adjoining areas, the laterites to be more completely stripped in the South-Western Region than in the adjacent but more remote Central Region. The plains themselves are remarkably level ; and when as occasion- ally happens, for instance between the Flinders and the Saxb'y Rivers, THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 7 they are treeless and remote from laterite residuals, the perfectly level horizon bounding only grassy plains to all points of the compass is a most memorable sight. THE RIVERS. The rivers of Western Queensland are intermittent streams. Only the Gregory, fed by copious though declining springs from the Cambrian limestones, flows perennially. The remainder, except for an occasional winter flow, are active only in the summer monsoonal season. In times of very heavy rainfall at their heads the summer floods of the more westerly streams spread enormously. There are places towards the South Australian border (between Betoota and Birdsville, and south of Windorah) where then the waters of the Cooper and the Diamantina spread laterally 30 to 50 miles or more; while further on, across the border below Innamincka, it is said that in full flood the Cooper may be 90 miles wide. Flowing over the great, silty plains these rivers have the features of flood plain rivers but on a grander scale than is recorded elsewhere. In flood plains of moderate width a river frequently develops a braided form. It divides into a few sub-parallel courses that here and there connect. Such, but greatly more wide-spreading, are the 'braids of Western Queensland, the braids of the streams increasing in intensity westward to reach their acme in those of the Georgina system. They are so intricate, so more widely imbricating, that really they deserve another name. Curiously enough ox-bow lakes, characteristic features of small flood plains, are rare in these regions due to the rareness of ordinary meanders. Instead the removed waterholes of a stream are long and relatively straight billabongs. On large, normal deltas a stream commonly distributes its waters into several, progressively diverging channels, producing what has been termed the “ bird ’s-f oot ’ ’ type. These, sometimes large but far removed from the river mouths, also are recurrent types in Western Queensland. Occasionally the divergent branches, and more rarely the channels of a braid, deploy around lateritic remnants. Such is the general flatness that commonly a distributary from one stream joins another river system. Beames Brook, for example, leaves the Gregory and joins the Albert, both branches, below the point of departure, flowing permanently. In times of flood Spear Creek unites the Saxby and the Norman Rivers. Other examples are mentioned in the three selected river systems described below. This latter feature together with the large-scale interlacing of watercourses is perhaps more pronounced in the adjacent regions of New South Wales. 1. The Georgina River (fig. 2) : The Georgina River rises in the Northern Territory, flows into Queensland and takes a southerly course modified by an easterly reach about latitude 23° S. After resuming its southerly direction it receives the channels of the Burke and, a little lower down, of the Hamilton. In this junction region there is an amazing tangle of channels. Some of these are shown in fig. 2; but the region is not fully surveyed and the existing maps, as also those of the other regions figured below, show only a selection of the maze of watercourses. The Burke, in its lower reaches, is not markedly braided, having a main bed and only a few minor channels. But from 50 miles above 8 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. the junction distributaries leave the Burke, as Fifteen Mile, Nine Mile and Five Mile Creeks, and join the Hamilton. A few lateritic residuals are present in this divergent region. The Hamilton approaches as a perfect braid. Where the main road from Winton to Boulia crosses there are between forty and fifty channels in a distance of 3 miles. The width of this zone varies as does the intensity of the courses. As it nears the Georgina that river has a channelled zone some 8 miles wide, with the main channel on the western side. The braid of the Hamilton is added to the minor channels on the east, whereupon the full width of the braided area is some 16 to 20 miles. Almost immediately a number of channels become clustered THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 9 into a new braid, diverge from the main course as King Creek which, after both streams have for a time reduced their braids to virtually a single channel, rejoins the Georgina about 80 miles from where it left. 2. The Lower Warrego (fig. 3) : The Warrego River below Wyandra is the best example in Queensland of a divergent river system. The main channel flows south between the Paroo and the Culgoa Rivers, all three streams joining the Darling in New South Wales. Below Wyandra the distributaries begin. Widgeegoara, Noorama and Thurrulgoonia Creeks leave on the eastern side and join the Culgoa and a few minor courses trend in the same direction. On the western side Mirraparoo and Cuttaburra Creeks link the Warrego with the Paroo. Other members (Woggonorra, Horse and Owangowan Creeks) leave the Warrego and return to it forming a broad reticulum* between Tuen and the New South Wales border. At the border the divergent zone is about 140 miles wide, while the distance to the first point of departure of the distributaries is 120 miles. It increases further south in New South Wales so that its maximum width is 160 miles and its length 200. Thus this system, so similar to the divergent watering of a delta, is larger in area than the great deltas of the Nile, the Congo, the Indus, the Irrawaddy, and the Mississippi and is exceeded only in size by the delta of the Ganges. It differs from the normal delta of a river system in that between the distributaries all is not level. Slightly higher land and even some laterite residuals occur between. * ‘ ‘ Reticulum ’ ’ is suggested as a technical term for interlaced anabranches of this type. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Text Figure 4. THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 11 It is possible that the basin of this system is a slight tectonic depression. Flanking it on the west in the Eulo-Hungerford- Thargomindah region is an area in which the old granite-slate bedrock of the Artesian Basin rises close to the surface and, in several places, actually outcrops. Immediately east of the Warrego distributaries, as shown by data of the artesian bores, is another area of shallow bedrock (below the Neebine), although more deeply buried than the western zone. The river region between may represent some slight depression that has influenced surface activities. 3. The Upper Diamantina (fig. 4) : The Diamantina River in its upper courses illustrates particularly well an early stage in the dis- section of a laterite mass, although the streams themselves have mature features. The river rises on the largest lateritic residual west of the Alice Tableland. Shortly it descends to the plains and takes a crescentic course around the mass as far as Elderslie where it re-enters the lateritic area. To this point its larger tributaries all drain the tableland, entering on the right side. All left bank tributaries are very short. It is a good example of what has been called the “ Palm- Tree’ ’ type of drainage. Four features are worthy of notice — in each of the wider swathes carved out of the laterites, in Pleistocene times, the floor is covered with old alluvium over which the watercourse, be it the main stream or a tributary, develops a braided form; the form of the watercourse changes, being usually braided but in places is reduced to a single channel; wide reticula, similar to but smaller than those noted on the Lower Warrego, are present; and, finally, the great northern divide, separating the Gulf waters, comes to within 5 miles of the main stream along the northern arc of its course. The contrast with the adjacent Gulf rivers is striking, for they are not particularly braided. There is no definable feature separating the two systems. Viewed from the air there seems no reason why the initial Diamantina waters should not flow to the Gulf of Carpentaria ; for only a mile or two away, and with nothing but a plain between, gullies make away to the northern rivers. Griffith Taylor (1911, p. 10) has postulated stream capture in this region, the original left-bank tributaries of the Diamantina now being deflected northwards. It may have happened. A similar feature, but on a smaller scale, is exhibited by the Thompson and the Darr Rivers west of Longreach. There the Darr is draining an almost base-levelled lateritic remnant and the long tributaries of the Thompson begin very close to the main channel of the Darr. Whatever be the cause the difference between the braided Diamantina and the adjacent, one-channelled northern streams in similar environment, suggests some difference in origin. Possibly the northern courses are rather later in development which would accord with stream capture (as postulated by Taylor), with late orogenic movements (as suggested above) or with a combination of the two factors. The most striking reduction from a braid is at Diamantina Gates below the junction with the Mayne, where the river is reduced to a single channel that carves a gorge (Hunter’s Gorge) about 50 feet deep through the laterites. Below this it swells again to a braid. However in times of larger flooding other channels become operative around other residuals, not all of the water going through the gorge. Other Aspects. — A particular type of this drainage is illustrated by the Cooper below Windorah. Near the town two main channels 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. separate — the Cooper proper to the west and Wombunderry Channel in the east. These progressively diverge to an interval of 20 miles and rejoin at a point over 100 miles below their place of departure. Each course is flanked by minor channels and over the intervening flood plain there is an intricate, unmapped plexus of dry runnels. The feature is repeated; for Wombunderry Channel itself divides, its lesser eastern member being Goonaghooheeny Billabong that progressively diverges from the parent channel and finally joins the Cooper which meanwhile has curved more to the east. The system, however, is not radically different from those already described since it combines the essential aspects of the King Creek link from the Georgina and the divergent streams of the War r ego. One noticeable feature of these seldom-flowing streams is the presence of long, ribbon-like waterholes sometimes on the main channel, sometimes on minor members. Such permanent natural reservoirs vary from small holes, only a few chains long, to giants 20 miles or more in length (as at Eulbertie and Retreat). Why they, as special portions of the watercourse, should be subject to the undue scour to maintain them is usually not obvious. The braiding, reticulation and other peculiarities of these streams clearly are mature features and have been long in operation. There is evidence that some were in existence at least as early as the Pleistocene. As described elsewhere (Whitehouse, 1940, p. 50) there is a great reticulum of watercourses in the far north-west, in the basin of Lawn Hill and Widallion Creeks, precisely similar in plan to those on the plains, though there they are incised in the rugged, resistant rocks of the western Pre-Cambrian mass. Evidence has been quoted that this system arose on an old silt cover that since has been stripped, leaving the system superimposed upon the underlying rocks. When described the term Incised Braids was suggested for this type. Incised Reticula would be more appropriate. Special circumstances are no doubt necessary to produce such a novel drainage system. With ordinary braided streams of small com- pass the combination exists of an alluvial foundation, slight gradient and occasional flooding. Such three factors in Western Queensland are exaggerated. The alluvial plains are of great width and very slight slope, and the streams for most of the year are dry, the seasonal flood waters inundating dry channels. No doubt to these exaggerated con- ditions are due the peculiarities of the streams. The formation of large recticula by the channels reaches its maximum in the far south near the New South Wales border, with the widely spaced anabranches of the Warrego, the Condamine and the Macintyre. The intricate braiding, however, increases westwards with increasing aridity as far as the Georgina. Beyond that, in the region of greatest aridity, are only the three rivers that 4 ‘ flow ’ 7 through the Simpson Desert — the Mulligan, the Field and the Hay, the two latter rising in the Northern Territory. All three are hemmed in by sandhills. The Mulligan flows sometimes, the Field very rarely (it is said in the west that only two white men have ever seen the Field flow into Queensland). The Play may never have flowed since white men came to the country. Quite a noticeable feature of the Lake Eyre rivers is that towards the South Australian border the three major streams swing westwards abruptly. The Cooper turns almost at right angles in latitude 27° 40' THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 13 after an earlier but less striking bend near Windorah. The Diamantina takes a similar turn about latitude 25° 30' and the Georgina near latitude 25° S. Mr. Wynne Williams lately has drawn attention to this in an unpublished observation and has suggested that the explana- tion may be found in a recent sag in the Lake Eyre region causing the streams to be deflected from their courses. It was suggested that the Wilson is really the original lower portion of the Cooper and that Lake Machattie and the Bilpamorea Claypan are on the line of the original lower reaches of the Georgina (see fig. 6). This matter is mentioned with Mr. Wynne Williams’ permission since, from quite other premises (see above, p. 6), a recent sag in this region has been suggested. There may, however, be some other contributing cause, for instance resistant residuals which do occur near these bends deflecting the streams; for the Georgina, in latitude 23° S. and under similar con- ditions, makes an equally abrupt turn to the east. THE LAKES. Lakes of this region are very shallow pans that, for water storage, are not so permanent as the waterholes of the rivers. Many are parts of the larger river systems, others are small centres of inland drainage. There is no vital distinction between them and claypans, the latter holding a little water after rains, the lakes being more lasting. Any real difference is in the more reliable water supply to the lakes. For convenience they may be treated as two groups — the lakes along the Great Divide on the Alice Tableland and those further west. The Lakes of the Alice Tableland (fig. 5). — Along the eastern edge of the Great Artesian Basin the several earlier series of the Mesozoic sediments outcrop as marginal fringes. Most easterly is the belt of the oldest sediments, the Bundamba Series* (mainly sandstones). Then westerly, as succeeding deposits, follow the Marburg Series (fine sand- stones and shales), the Walloon Series (clays and calcareous sand- stones), the Blythesdale Series (very variable sediments mainly arenaceous), and finally the Cretaceous shales that cap the Basin. All of these in Central Queensland are covered by the continuous sheet of laterite that forms the Alice Tableland. Away from the tableland and its laterite sheet the Walloon Series, as viewed from high vantage points, forms a slightly depressed zone between the more elevated sandstone series on either side. These belts, by a variety of evidence, may be traced through the region of the Alice Tableland, the Walloon Series occurring as a ribbon-like strip that here too forms a depression — depressed so slightly that it may be appreciated only by running a series of east-west levels or aneroid traverses. In this slight depression lie the two large lakes of inland and suspended drainage — Lakes Galilee and Buchanan. Buchanan is broadly fusiform ; Galilee is roughly L-shaped with irregular western and southern shores due to promontories of laterite. * In work now in progress on the Mesozoic sediments of Western Queensland local serial names were employed until such time as proper correlation with the standard succession in South-Eastern Queensland could be made. In an earlier paper (Whitehouse, 1940) some of these local names were quoted. Since then con- siderable advance has been made in correlative work so that now the standard names are employed. The equivalent names of that earlier paper are as follows: — Dooloogarah Series=Bundamba Series; Attica Series— Marburg Series; Cunno Series=Walloon Series. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Each lake is approximately 17 miles long. Neither has any outlet at present. There is no indication that Buchanan ever had one. An old channel connects the south-west of Galilee with Reedy Creek (of the western waters), but never apparently in human memory have waters from the lake flowed through to Reedy Creek. When rain does fall the main portion of the channel is a waterway to Reedy Creek; but about 5 miles from the lake the water flows lakewards. When recently filled in a good rainy season Galilee may be fresh at the southern end and brackish at the northern (as Danes has noted). Buchanan is always brackish when newly filled and both dry back to salt lakes and salt pans. Coarse salt is gathered and used locally from natural pans at the northern end of Buchanan. Apart from concentrations in the normal processes of inland drainage the salt content of the lakes is increased by the saline nature of the local laterites (see Whitehouse. 1940, p. 67). Flo 5. The Lakes of THE AlJCE. ^iy_ELAN^ - Marine Cretaceous CTXmso Series) Blythesdale Series Walloom Series . ' T| Early Mesozoic Beds (BuhdaMBA & Harsuqg Series.) Text Figure 5. THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 15 Two main streams feed Lake Buchanan — Mogga Creek from the north and Bowie Creek from the south. Each enters through ramifying channels of a typical delta. Danes (1910, p. 92) has described a linear (N.N.W. to S.S.E.) arrangement of the claypans around the southern end of the lake. As seen from the air this is revealed as silt pans subdivided by ridges of sandy silt parallel to the delta channels. Shallow excavations near each lake (a dam on Tanka Creek near Galilee and the deep banks of Dinner Creek that enters Buchanan) show that the clays of the Walloon Series occur close to the surface covered merely by the silts. A few small lakes occur also in the region. Some (Webb’s Lake) are tiny basins of inland drainage. Others (Lake Barcoorah) are on western waters. The Far Western Lakes (fig. 6) : With a few exceptions such as Lake Dartmouth (Lake Ambathala), all of which are in the Central Region, the more western lakes are confined to what I have called the South-Western Region. There are a few sheets of water often called lakes, for example, Lakes Idamea and Wonditti on Pituri Creek, which occur on river channels. These are elongated structures, really waterholes slightly wider than usual. The more equidimensional basins are never on the river courses. The largest, Lakes Yamma Yamma, Machattie and Wickamunna, are parts of river systems but lateral to the streams. Yamma, the largest lake, is a subcircular pan 18 to 20 miles in diameter. It is connected to the Cooper by a single, long 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. channel, Gilpeppie Channel. When the river floods the water flows to the lake through this conduit, and as the flood subsides it flows out again by the same vent until the lake assumes its normal, full size. Then it is fresh but very shallow. As a long, dry season advances the shores recede and clover, good cattle feed, grows along them. Progressively the waters become brackish, then salt, and the lake eventually may dry up. Machattie is of the same type with several channels from the Georgina, though being smaller its waters are less lasting. Wiekamunna had a similar relationship to the Mulligan, but a sandhill has grown across its channel and nowadays it is a salt pan. Further along the Mulligan is the double pan of Muncooney and Silesia. Originally this was one lake, laterally filled from the Mulligan; but a sandhill has grown through it, dividing it into two parts, and only that nearer the river (Lake Muncooney) is now filled. Silesia remains dry. The great Bilpamorea Claypan, 28 miles long and up to 10 miles wide, really is a lake lateral to the Diamantina, but nowadays its channels are greatly blocked by sand.* Other western lakes, smaller in size than these, are not lateral to the rivers but fed by distributaries that end in them. Such is Lake Numalla, fed from the Paroo. Others, for instance Lake Dartmouth, Bulloo Lake and the Jerrira Swamp, are true basins of inland drainage. Many of these are salt; but the main salt lakes are the small pans around and west of the Mulligan. Two General Aspects: There is a pertinent comparison of the western lakes with the larger lagoons of Eastern Queensland. They, too, for the most part are lateral to the streams or are separate small basins on the plains. Rarely, as with Lake Nuga Nuga on the Brown River, are they directly upon the watercourses. The most magnificent development possibly is in the Taroom District where all the larger tributaries of the Dawson (Scott, Eurombah, Palm Tree, Robinson, Gwambegwine, Turtle, Tualka and other creeks) are fringed with many large, shallow lagoons, fed by channels from the parent stream in periods of flooding, with some accessory local drainage to them. Such basins almost invariably are in regions of soft, calcareous rocks — shales * The following notes about Bilpamorea Claypan, kindly supplied by Mr. C. C. Morton of Roseberth, Birdsville, graphically illustrate the mode of supply of these great depressions; and they show how, in dry periods with accelerated growth of sand dunes, dry lakes like Wiekamunna have been formed. f( Bilpamorea Claypan fills from the Diamantina. There is a channel (Murra- turley), really an outside channel of the Diamantina, that helps to fill it. B-ut being blocked by sandhills it does not run right to the big claypan. In flood times the channel overflows and spills into Bilpamorea. Between the sandhills there are several claypan flats that are the ends of smaller channels from the river, and overflows from these also go to the pan. No channel exists between Bilpamorea and the Georgina River. When the claypan is filled by the Diamantina flood waters and the Georgina also is in flood the two waters are less than twelve miles apart. Bilpamorea can be filled also by local rains, but only in very good seasons, since several large creeks run into it. About 1920 was the last time that it was filled from local falls, although often since then it has been half filled. The droughts and dry times during the past twenty years have caused sandhills to grow across the claypan flats, so that it might easily happen that the Diamantina flood waters may never get to Bilpamorea again. The same thing has happened on the Cooper, seven or eight miles above Kopperamanna in South Australia. A sandhill, and a big one, has grown right across the river. The last floods through to Kopperamanna were in 1918, twenty-three years ago, so that the next floods will have some clearing to do. At the next flood it will be interesting to see where the water will go before it eventually breaks through — if ever it does break through. ; ’ THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 17 and calcareous sandstones. The territory of the little-disturbed Walloon Series, as a whole a depressed region, particularly is charac- terised by such lagoons. Others occur on flat-lying Permian sediments of similar lithology. Above it has been noted that the two near-western lakes, Galilee and Buchanan, are on the Walloon belt. The other western lakes are in the province of the calcareous Cretaceous beds that form the cover of the Great Artesian Basin, and these are concentrated in the South- Western Region where, as mentioned previously, the dissection of the laterites is virtually complete, base level being approximately at the top of the Cretaceous shales. It may be advocated, accordingly, that the shallow lakes of Queensland are developed in slight depressions, formed by erosion and some solution in regions of flat-lying soft shales and calcareous beds. One curious feature, however is that they do not occur in the ‘ ‘ Inter-Lateritic Region” where one would expect ideal conditions. The border between Queensland and South Australia is defined by lines of latitude and longitude. It is an artificial division. Yet, when reviewing lake and river types, there is something almost natural about the border line. Across into South Australia the active flood plains of the rivers increase quickly in width far in advance of what is known in Queensland and, cor relatively, there is an amazing spread of lakes, far more exuberant than the lake system of the far south-west of Queensland. THE SANDHILLS. In many regions of the laterite residuals reddish sands largely accumulate. Outwashed from the laterites of the Alice Tableland great red sand drifts occur far down the Barcoo. In the South-Western Region there is also a widespread development of red sandy silts with lateritic ingredients. From such sources, most likely, come the materials of the wind-formed sandhills of the far south-west, the region of the Simpson Desert. In its most arid portion, near the western border of the State, the sandhills are arranged in long, serried rows and on an average are a quarter of a mile apart. Between are claypans, alluvial flats and small sand drifts. Some of the great dunes may be as much as 80 miles in length. Although in literature dunes 100 feet high are mentioned, a sandhill of 50 feet would be a fairly tall one. They are aligned in a N.N.W. direction and usually are steepest to the east. They may remain parallel and apart for great distances, but sometimes adjacent dunes] join by a cuspate connection. Yet they are monotonously similar, and small, crescentic, cross-wind dunes of the barkhan type are not developed. Easterly this regipn of the serried dunes is continued a little beyond the Mulligan River, but there are some outliers from this zone. Most important of these is the area immediately east of Lake Machattie. Still further east is a region of isolated and sporadically placed sandhills with the same alignment and slope directions as the grouped dunes. This area ends at the Cooper. Beyond that line are only non-active, eroding, vegetated dunes and some irregular sand drifts related to the old red silts. The easterly, active sandhills between the Mulligan and the Cooper are of quite recent origin, for they ride upon the alluvia in the present flood plains of the streams. R.S. B. 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Bagnold (1937, p. 435), from intensive studies in the Libyan Desert and careful laboratory experiments in a wind tunnel, has shown that for the production of a dune system like that west of the Mulligan it is necessary to have a multiple wind system. The dunes align according to one prevalent wind group and multiply in the direction of another active cross wind. (According to Bagnold the latter system is that of the prevailing wind). Madigan (1936) who has published excellent aerial photographs of the Queensland sandhills has shown that the large grouped dunes of the Australian deserts are developed parallel to the prevailing wind. Very probably, therefore, the isolated sandhills between the Cooper and the Mulligan are lately formed dunes encroaching eastwards in response to an effective minor wind system. There is very little movement to-day of the sandhills in Queensland. Residents to whom I have spoken, who have been twenty, thirty or more years in the sandhill region, unanimously agree that the big sandhills are fixed and are not growing. Ratcliffe (1937, p. 6) from his observa- tions is convinced that movement of established dunes is negligible in this State. Yet in a very dry season, when the binding action of the contained moisture is lowered, a slight increase at the northern end of a dune often is noticeable; and with a series of very dry seasons, as already noted in the Bilpamorea region, minor sandhills may form in the more arid parts where there are wide expanses of claypans or flooded country. This seems to be the only appreciable movement and it is irregular. I have seen no indication of the growth of new dunes in the eastern region. Beyond the Cooper the surface sands are not piled into large dunes. There are certain limiting conditions under which desert sandhills may grow — based on moisture content and wind pressure. It would seem, from these indications, that in the region as far east as the Cooper such conditions are just sufficiently established to maintain the dunes without causing any considerable extension. A variation of conditions — possibly with greater winds but definitely with a more arid season' — causes the only noticeable growth. That is, conditions for sandhill growth are now in equilibrium in this region. But, as I have shown elsewhere (1940, p. 67), such conditions previously existed considerably further east — at least 120 miles further. “Dead” sand- hills, now vegetated and being eroded, occur so far. This indicates extended conditions — either greater wind power or slightly more arid conditions, probably the latter — in the not far distant past. When the time comes to test these things quantitatively and to determine what lateral movement, if any, of the big dunes has been made, one record will be of outstanding value. When, in 1881, Poeppel made the difficult survey of the border between Queensland and South Australia he carefully fixed the position of every sandhill that he crossed in his long, arduous traverse through the desert. Two copies of his plan exist in 'Government offices — the original in Adelaide and. a duplicate in Brisbane. This will form an ideal basis for a comparative survey. In the very arid region of the south-west of Queensland occur the “gibber plains” of Sturt’s Stony Desert, corresponding in their mode to the hammeda types of desert elsewhere. These are lateritic remnants, being dissected sheets of the siliceous zone of such old soils and are not confined to the desert region. They are quite as impressive just west of the Par oo River as they are in the arid corner. THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 19 THE MOUNTAINS. It is not proposed to discuss in detail the mountain groups of Western Queensland, since essentially this is a study of the plains. But one aspect of the mountains is related closely to flat land features. Apart from sand dunes, basalt hills and the laterite residuals there are two types of elevated land forms in Western Queensland. Near the western border immediately south of the tropic of Capricorn is a step-faulted scarp of horizontal Ordovician sandstones (the Toko Ranges) some 60 miles long, aligned in a south-easterly direction. Although called “ranges” they are rarely more than 100 feet above the fronting plains. The most important ranges however are the rugged lands in the folded Palaeozoic and Pre-Cambrian areas. In the north-west (the pertinent region for these purposes) such highlands are strike ridges mainly of old quartzites. Generally they are north-south ranges; but occasionally when the rocks are closely folded they have more complex lines. Rarely do these features appear upon the maps; for a study of drainage lines gives little clue to the existence of such barriers. Such western rivers as the Gregory that rise beyond the ranges and flow through them on to the coastal plains are not modified in their courses as they pass through. Actually the Gregory through these meridional ranges has an easterly course. Streams like the Leichhardt that rise within the ranges and flow out on to the northern plains; are for the most part in strike-valleys between the ranges (with short easterly reaches), and they retain the same directions upon the plains lower in their courses. And yet, for ordinary travelling, these ranges are real and rugged barriers. Mount Isa is some 65 miles due west of Cloncurry; but the railway has to go a long distance south-west to get into a suitable strike valley and then turn northerly to get to Mt. Isa, It seems likely (published studies near Lawn Hill that already have been quoted are most informative) that the present streams; in those regions took their origin on the higher, pre-existing plains of Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits, and that such deposits (laterite and old alluvia) are now almost entirely denuded, leaving the rivers of the earlier plainlands superimposed upon the present rugged country. SOME ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES. Except for some agricultural development in the south-east the plains of Western Queensland are used only for the raising of stock. The brown pedocalcic soils of the Downs and of the more recent alluvia grow rich Mitchell and other grasses. The old red silts of the south-west have a shrub and tree vegetation in which mulga is conspicuous. The hills of laterite residuals support a varied growth, but not of Mitchell grass, the variety being in response to the varied origin of the laterite soils and to the differing composition of the several soil horizons and their derivatives. In this way there is a considerable variety of plant communities and of fodder regions for pastoral and grazing purposes. The region is one of low rainfall and of summer rains. Surface water is scanty, for only one river, the Gregory in the far. north-west, has a permanent flow. Elsewise the lakes and waterholes have the only 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. natural, permanent surface waters. The most desirable properties are those with river frontages on wide flood plains. There, after a flood, even if little or no rain falls locally, the spreading waters fill the waterholes and grow the grass and herbage. For the far western rivers, where the active flood plains and channelled zones are of great width and where local rainfall is very scanty, this is particularly important. There, in a minor flow, a few channels run; with greater waters more channels are filled but water only is provided, no growth of fodder. Only with good flood conditions is there sufficient flow to charge all the channels and to spread the waters laterally across the inter-channelled area, thus to start the growth of pastures in a good season. Irrigation, consequently, to supplement water reserves for pastoral purposes as distinct from the intensive watering of agricultural plots, is difficult to contemplate in the far western portions. Large dams are a standard means of flood prevention; and flood prevention in those parts is precisely what it is necessary to avoid. Also there are local difficulties in the construction of large dams. Such is the general flatness that few places could be cited in Western Queensland where it is possible to build a wall between the laterite hills that would impound a large quantity of water. So many old channels and natural waterways occur around the residuals that storage capacity is very limited. Along the Gregory, with its permanent flow, or in the region of the older, folded rocks, are possibly the only adequate sites. In the more easterly regions and particularly in the south-east, where rainfall is greater and there are more lasting supplies in the rivers, the spreading flood waters are not so important. Here, then, are better opportunities for water conservation. Weiring of such rivers as the Condamine and the Maeintyre is being undertaken and will no doubt be considerably extended in the future. In such a fashion some of this province is changing from a pastoral to an agricultural region. And so the merits of large-scale conservation schemes of other countries hardly are applicable. Here there are no permanently and reliably flowing rivers such as the Nile, the Indus and the Colorado, and there are the added difficulties of inadequate sites. It has been suggested that ample waters from the coastal highlands in the far north- east might be deflected inland to flow the Thompson and the Cooper as a permanent stream; but it is yet to be demonstrated by surveys whether this actually is possible. Generally it would seem that the future of surface water conservation in Western Queensland must be in many small schemes rather than a few large constructions. That, in essence, would be an amplification of present methods; for it is standard practice on these pastoral properties to conserve surface water by excavating earth tanks on very small streams of little gradient, where the tendency to silt is at a minimum. The western lands as a whole, at present, are far from sufficiently provided with usable water. But one may, perhaps, envisage a time when, progressively improved by small dams (and in the more favoured parts by weirs) the country may even rely essentially upon such surface storage, with the great resources of the Artesian Basin as merely an accessory supply. THE SURFACE OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 21 The problem of providing storage water is becoming more insistent, by the development of closer settlement and by the serious diminution of present supplies. Over most of Western Queensland it is evident that springs are declining ; that waterholes are silting ; and that supplies consequently are less lasting. Three factors mainly are responsible. 1. A general decline since Pleistocene times. The springs of the Great Artesian Basin naturally are decreasing as the basin is more and more tapped by bores. But away from its margins the great springs seriously are becoming less. The enormous springs that feed the Gregory River have been declining ever since the region has been settled. A similar decline is noticeable in another area of very great springs — in the Bundamba Sandstone belt at the head of the Maranoa, Warrego and Nogoa Rivers. Carnarvon Station in that region, for example, when first taken up was watered entirely by surface supplies. To-day there is not a permanent waterhole on the property, many of the springs have ceased and the remainder have noticeably lessened. I have attempted to show (1940, pp. 51-53) that, in the region of the Gregory, the decline may have begun shortly after the Pleistocene, since when rainfalls have been less. The same is likely true of other areas. 2. A general decline over the past two decades. The last twenty years seems to have been, as a whole, a lean period for rainfall, particu- larly in the far western regions. It is over twenty years since there have been floods large enough for the waters of the Cooper and the Diamantina to reach Lake Eyre. In those regions, consequently, the floods have less volume and less power; and they tend more to silt than to scour. 3. Soil erosion. Through a decline of vegetation run-off is more rapid and the volume of transported silt is larger than formerly. This decline, noticeable in many countries of the world, is here only partly due to such human agencies as clearing of timber and overstocking of pastures. There has been a natural decrease of vegetation, due to bad seasons, that has contributed largely to the silting processes. Thus two of these factors are beyond human control and the third only partly is subject to arrest. The natural diminution of surface waters consequently must increase. Even if the next decade or the next few decades are of good seasons the silts that have been accumu- lating in the former good waterholes may now be so consolidated that natural scouring may remove relatively little of the material. That being so the problem of providing other surface supplies is quite urgent in the economy of Western Queensland, And so to-night I have attempted to place before you a picture of the western portion of our own State, a land curiously unlike the flat lands that have been described from countries overseas. It has its own peculiarities of . surface structures ; and associated with them are problems of maintenance that may have to be solved by methods as novel as are the features themselves. I think that I am right in believing that in these lands we have developed semi-arid country more profitably than has been done in any other continent without irrigation. And it is comforting to think, that by progressive improvements that readily can be visualised, such / development can be extended considerably by future generations. R.S. — 0. 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. REFERENCES. Bagnold, R. A., 1937. “The Transport of Sand by Wind.” Geogr. J ., LXXXIX, pp. 409-438. Bryan, W. H., 1928. “The Queensland Continental Shelf.” Proc. roy. Soc. Qd., XI, 4, pp. 58-69. Danes, J. V., 1910. “The Report of a Tour along the Dividing Range (better Plateau) from Aranrac to Pentland. ” Qd. geogr. J., n.s., XXV, pp. 83-101. David, T. W. E., 1911. “Notes on Some of the Chief Tectonic Lines of Australia.” J. roy. Soc., N.S. Wales , XLV, pp. 1-60 (Pres. Add.). David, T. W. E., 1914. “Tertiary Stratigraphy of New South Wales.” Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Hand}), for N.S. Wales, pp. 608 a — h. Jensen, H. L., 1920. “The Geology, Mineral Prospects and Future of North Queensland.” Qd. geogr. J., XXXIY, pp. 23-36. Madigan, C. T., 1936. “The Australian Sand-Ridge Deserts.” Geogr. Rev., XXVI, 2, pp. 205-227. Ratoliffe, F. N., 1937. “Further Observations on Soil Erosion and Sand Drift with Special Reference to Western Queensland.” Comm, of Aust., C.S.I.R. Pamphlet 70. Taylor, G., 1911. “Physiography of Eastern Australia.” Comm. Bur. Meteor., Melbourne, Bull. 8. Ward, L. K., 1928. “A New Edition of the Geological Map of South Australia.” Appendix to A. R. Director of Mines, S. Aust. (16 pp.). Whitehouse, F. W., 1940. “Studies in the Late Geological History of Queensland.” TJniv. Qd. Papers, Dept. Geol. n.s., II, 1 (74 pp.). Vol. LIIL, No. 2. 23 ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND. By H. N. Dixon, M.A., F.L.S. {Communicated to the Royal Society of Queensland by C. T. White, 28 th April, 1941.) For some time past I have been receiving specimens of mosses for determination from the North Queensland Naturalists’ Club, sent by various collectors and mostly from the neighbourhood of Cairns. They continue to show an interesting bryological flora, some localities, for example the rain forest area and Mt. Bartle Frere, suggesting promising new fields of study. Watts and Whitelegge (1902, 1905) in their Census Muscorum Australiensium give a number of Queensland localities; while highly interesting contributions to the Queensland moss flora were made by F. M. Bailey; but the greatest additions were made by Brotherus and Watts (1918). The present paper includes about a score of new species, together with a number of species — including two or three genera — newly recorded from Queensland. The newly recorded species are marked by an asterisk. Watts, in the paper mentioned above, speaks of the North Queens- land flora as more closely related to the Malaysian than to the Australasian. The affinities of the new species and the newly recorded ones, in the present paper, are about equally divided between the two floras. I have included a number of records of mosses collected in 1922 by T. Vaughan Sherrin, mostly in the neighbourhood of Ravenshoe, and sent to me by Mr. W. R. Sherrin. F. M. Bailey (1890) adds eight species of mosses to his list. These were collected by C. J. Wild and determined by Brotherus, all but one being new species. Of these, five I believe are unpublished, but I have not had access to the material, and have been unable to describe them. The types of the new species are in my herbarium. FISSIDENTACEAE. Fissidens patulifolius Dix. sp. nov. Bryoidium. Dense, late caespitosus, sordide viridis, sat robustus. Caulis circa 1 cm. longus, crassus; frons lata, circa 2 mm., complanata. sicca dorso, propter folia fortiter decurvo-falcata, convexa. Folia pat- entia, parum conferta, 1 mm. longa, -5—6 mm. lata, breviter, latissime oblong o-ovata, haud acuminata, acute apiculata, ubique pellucide limbata, integra; costa concolor, in apiculo soluta. Lamina vaginans circa 2/3 folii attingens, apice truncato; lamina dorsalis apud basin angustata, haud decurrens. Cellulae parvae, distinct ae, chlorophyllosae, regulariter, aequaliter hexagonae, seriatae, laeves, basilares vix mutatae. Fructus ignotus. R.S. D. 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND . Hab. Forming a large, dense mat on stem or root of tree, more or less submerged, in rain forest, Tully R., above Tully Falls, 1 Oct. 1939 ; coll. H. Flecker (6302). Much encrusted with calcareous deposit, but when clear often of a bright green, with a succulent appearance, and in that condition showing the leaves strongly falcate and decurved when dry. It is very distinct in the large, widely oval-oblong, rather distant leaves. The broadly truncate apex of the vaginant lamina is peculiar. Fissidens cambewarrae Dix. sp. nov. Semilimbidium. Sat robustus, sordide viridis, caespitosus. Caules 1-1*5 cm. alti; folia sat conferta, sicca crispata, 1*5-1*75 mm. longa, lingulato-lanceolata, breviter acuminata, cuspidata seu robust e apiculata _ Lamina vaginans circa 2/3 folii aequans; lamina dorsalis ad basin abrupte desinens ; lamina vaginans sat fortiter hyalino-limbata, margines reliquo minute erenulati. Costa pallida, percurrens. Cellulae minimae, opacae, parietibus tenuibus, pellucidis, sat alte acute papillosae. Heteroicus ; flores $ nonnunquam in caule fertili foliorum inferiorum in axillis siti, nunc in ramo proprio. Seta tenuis, brevis , basi geniculata, circa 3 mm. longa. Theca erecta, minuta. Hab. Among Hepaticae, in jungle, on soil, Cogzell’s Farm, near Tully River, Lower Tully, Sept. 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry, type. Cambewarra Mountain, N.S.W., coll. W. W. Watts, 22 May, 1903 (6373). The N.S.W. plant is identical with the Queensland specimen, though a slightly different form. I had given the name to the former, received some time ago from the collector, but as the Queensland plant is in fruit I have made it the type. F. cairnensis Broth. & Watts, the only other species of Semilim- bidium known from Queensland, is quite different in cells and fruit. The present is an unusually robust plant for this Section. The base of the dorsal lamina usually ends abruptly, but varies somewhat. Fissidens micro-humilis Dix. sp. nov. Crenularia. Humillimus, dense gregarius, pulchre fructificans, viridis. Caules brevissimi ; folia conferta, sicca haud crispata, subfalcata, parva, lingulata, acute acuminata, plerumque apiculo acuta pellucido terrain at a. Lamina vaginans medium folium superans, media lamina terminata; lamina dorsalis longe angustissime decurrens. Margines integri, omnes elimbati. Costa perpellucida, in apiculum excurrens. Cellulae parvae, parietibus tenuibus, pellucidis, laeves, inferiores paullo majores. Autoicus. Flos $ ad basin caulis fertilis situs. Seta tenuis, flex- uosa, 2-3 mm. longa, basi geniculata; theca minuta, erecta, anguste elliptica, in setam defluens, sicca sub ore contracta, urceolata, Hab. Upper Mowbray R., 11 Nov. 1938; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5873). Very like my F. humilis from N.S.W. , but on a much smaller scale, and with much narrower, less lanceolate leaves, and weaker nerve. Fissidens arbor eus Broth. — Hab. Jungle, Cogzell’s Farm, Lower Tully, coll. Miss E. Henry, Sept. 1937 (4458). Fissidens asplenioides Hedw. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, Summer, 1922 coll. T. V. Sherrin (1). ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OP NORTH QUEENSLAND. 25 Moenkemeyera australiensis Dix. sp. nov. Inter Hepaticas, etc., gregari; sordide, pallide viridis, sat mollis. Caules pins minusve elongati, infra fructum saepe innovantes. Folia dense conferta, 1 mm. longa vel paullo ultra, lingulato-spatJmlata, apice rotundato-obtusa, integra vel minutissime papilloso-crenulata ; omnia elimbata nisi folia interna perichaetialia, nbi nonnunquam limbus rudimentarius fere obsoletus invenitur. Costa angusta, pallida, trans- lucens, saepius infra summum folium soluta. Lamina vaginans paullo medium folium superans, apice plerumque media lamina obtuse ter- minata, Lamina dorsalis infra angustissime decurrens, folii basin attingens. Cellulae minutae, obscurae, irregulariter hexagonae, humilliine inconspicue papillosae. Seta brevissima, vix 1-5 mm. longa, viridis. Theca minuta, elliptica, erecta; peristomium e dentibus 16 pulchre rubris, filiformibus, infra latioribus, shmplicibus, nullo modo fissis, vix trabeculatis, ubique alte, dense papillosis, ad basin saepe cohaerentibus, instructum. Spori parvi. Operculum hand visum. Hab. Rain forest, Lower Tully, near Tully River, Sept. 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry (4458). The undivided peristome teeth preclude Fissidens. On the other hand, their well developed, highly papillose structure is unlike that usually found in Moenkemeyera , which, however, shows a considerable variety in this organ. The very short seta, however, is a definite generic character, and the leaves are almost identical with those of the Cameroons M. macro glossa Broth. The genus has hitherto been known only from tropical America and Africa, and from a single, unpublished species from Rarotonga. This seems a suitable opportunity to describe that species, a short description of which is given below. Moenkemeyera rarotongae Dix. sp. nov. Corticola; pulchre viridis. Cellulae axis corticales magnae, elon- gatae, lineares, curvatae. Frons circa 5 mm. longa, flabellata. Folia patentia, sicca leniter decurvo-falcata, inferiora squamata, late ovato- acuminata, superiora lineari-lanceolata, peraeuta, immarginata, pulchre aequaliter crenulata ; costa perpellucida, nitida, in apice soluta. Lamina dorsalis ad basin lata, abrupte terminata. Lamina vaginans circa medium, folium attingens, apice acuto. Cellulae parvae, perdistinctae, hexagonae, opacae, parietibus perpellucidis, sat alte sed obtuse unipapillosae. Folia perichaetialia interna e basi late ovata abrupte lineari-subulata, inferne obsolete hyalino-marginata. Seta perbrevis, circa 2 mm. longa, pallida, basi geniculata. Theca erecta, minuta, collo distincto. Peristomii dentes parvi, irregulares, imperfecti, nunc integri nunc breviter irregulariter fissi, sub ore oriundi, infra trabeculati, supra leniter papillosi. Spori circa 14 Operculum rostellatum. Hab. On bark, Rarotonga, Cook Is., Jan., 1935; coll. A. F. Graham, comm. Miss L. B. Moore (23). A pretty little species, resembling, like most of the genus, species of Fissidens of the Section Crenularia. It differs from the Queensland species at once in the acute leaves, non-decurrent base of the dorsal lamina, and distinct cells. The peristome teeth are mostly entire, but sometimes shortly and unequally divided. 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. DICRANACEAE. Dicranella Dietrichiae (C.M.) Jaeg. — Millaa Millaa, 5 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5946). Dicranella pycnoglossa (Broth.) Par. — Road cutting, Beatrice R., Cairns, 28 June, 1938; coll. H. Flecker (5004). Upper Mowbray R., 24 Nov., 1938; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5876). Dicranella euryphylla Dix. sp. nov. Humillima ; gregaria, laetevirens. Caules pauca mm. alti, ad basin radiculus et protonemate obruti, molles, densifolii. Folia 2-3 mm. longa, patula, cur vat a, e basi concava, latiore sensim in laminam ligulato- lanceolatam, latam, obtusam vel sub obtusam, integrant' (nonnunquam ad apicem obtuse dentatam) angustata. Costa sat angusta, viridis, inde obscura, latiuscula, tenuis, cum vel sub apice desinens. Cellulae latae, magnae, ad basin elongate lineari-rhomboideae, parietibus tenuibus, saepe breviores, chlorophyllosae, versus apicem breviter late rhomb oideae, inanes. Dioica. Seta tenuis, pallida , 5-6 mm. alta; theca elliptica, parva , erecta, aequalis, laevis , pallide fusca vel fuseo-viridis. Operculum longirostrum. Peristomium rubrum, dentes parvi, sub ore siti, ad basin conniventes, remote trabeculati, ubique striolati, hand papillosi. Spori circa 20 /x. Hab. Terrestrial, Upper Mowbray R., 24 Nov., 1938 ; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5877). A pretty little species, distinct in its small size, wide, obtuse leaves, and lax, pellucid, chlorophyllose cells. Holomitrium Muelleri Hampe. — Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936 ; coll. S. Egan (1935). Holomitrium perichaetiale (Hook.) Brid. — Duma Creek, coll. T. V. Sherrin (4, 5, 7). Dicranoloma dicarpum (Hornsch.) Par. — Duma Creek, coll. T. V. Sherrin (13). A slender form. Dicranoloma Menziesii (Tayl.) Par. — Eastern slope, rain forest, Mt. Bartle Frere, North Queensland, coll. H. Flecker, 28 Oct., 1939 (6377). Dicranoloma elimbatum Dix. sp. nov. E minoribus generis. Caules minusquam 2 cm. alti, straminei, cur- vati. Folia subfalcata, sicca minime mutata, divergentia, 4-5 mm. longa, e basi sat angusta oblongo-lanceolata, sensim breviuscule latiuscule acuminata; margines omnino elimbati, e medio folio sensim magis magisque fortiter dentati, apud apicem una cum costa dorso argute fortiter spinulosi. Costa mediocriter valida, circa 40 p, lata, ubique subaequalis, versus basin tenuior et minus definita, superne crassior et optime delimit at a, longiuscule , excurrens , fusca. Cellulae basilares sat late lineares, parietibus firmis, paullo porosis, marginales similes, superiores breviores, irregulariter rectangulares, parietibus imcrassatis , hand porosis ; juxta-co stales breviores, saepe brevissime rectangulares; alares conspicuae, majusculae, late isodiametricae. Fructus ignotus. Hab. Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (10). A small species, very distinct in the size, and in the structure of the leaves. The nerve is conspicuously stronger and well defined in the subula. ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND. 27 Dicranoloma austro-scoparium (C.M.) Par. — On bark in rain forest, summit of Talbunjie, alt, 2710 ft., 12 June, 1939 ; coll, H. Flecker (6085). Dicranoloma serratum (Broth.) Par. — (Syn. Dicranoloma mono- carpum (C.M.) Par), Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (12, 14). D. monocarpum,, from N.S.W., is certainly, as suggested by Watts, the same thing, as is also an unpublished species, distributed as Leucoloma Harrisii Geh. ined., from Cambewarra, N.S.W. Leucoloma subintegrum Broth. — On bark of tree, Platypus Creek, Cairns, 3 Jan., 1936; coll. H. Flecker, (1234). Dicnemoloma clavinerve (C.M.) Broth. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe,, 1922 ; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (3). A very peculiar and, no doubt, rare plant. Most of the leaves end in the remarkable elavate tip of the nerve, which is easily broken off and is no doubt a reproductive organ, but in a few cases the upper leaves show a short, glistening, hyaline hair point, which was not observed by C. Mueller. ^Campylopus novae-valesiae Broth. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (16, 17, 21). The fruit of this species has not been described. No. 21 shows a few young capsules; the calyptra is fringed at the base. Campylopus Wattsii Broth. — Cairns, 13 Nov., 1935 (979). Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936; coll. S. Egan (1949). Moist banks of Campbell’s Creek, 16 May, 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3274). Millaa Millaa.. 2 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5937). This is an unsatisfactory species. Brotherus describes it as “C. (Rigidi) Wattsii,” and it is placed by him, in the “Musci” in that subsection of Palinocraspis. Type specimens distributed by Watts, under the number 366, do not, however, show a Palinocraspis nerve at all, but that of Eu-campylopus. In his diagnosis, Brotherus does not give any description of the nerve Section. I can only suggest that the nerve is rather variable in its structure. In No. 979, and also in No. 3274, I have found the ventral cells in Section not much larger than the Guide cells, in fact, in the former, about equal in size. It is possible that Brotherus having sectioned a nerve of this character may have assumed it to be that of Palinocraspis. In any case, I think it must clearly be considered to be a species of Eu-campylopus. Campylopus Woollsii (C.M.) Par. — Campbell Creek, 17 May, 1936; coll. H. Flecker (1671). Beachview, Millaa Millaa, 5 Oct., 1937; coll. Miss E. Henry (3981). Campylopus introflexus (Hedw.) Brid.— Alpine moor, Burrow’s Creek, alt. 1200 ft., 21 Sept., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2341). A pretty form of the male plant, with slender, shining, pale green stems, neatly comose at apex. ^Campylopus clavatus (R.Br.) Jaeg. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (23). * Campylopus bicolor (Hornsch.) var. ericeticola (C.M.) Dix. — In sand on rock in stream, Herberton, 15 Jan., 1936 ; coll. H. Flecker (1330) . Campylopus excurrens Dix. sp. nov. Eu-campylopus. Sat robustus, olivaceus. Caules 3-4 cm. alti, haud tomentosi, propter folia conferta, aequaliter disposita, sicca adpressa r 28 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL. SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND. crassi, subteretes. Folia 4-5 mm. longa, e basi oblonga, parum concava, circa -6 mm. lata, sensim in subnlam coneavam, strict am, latam, integram vel sub integram angustata. Costa versus basin -3 mm. lata, supra sensim angustata, in cuspidem rob list um, integrum, acutum excurrens . Costa sectione duces magnos, cellulas ventrales parvas, dorsales stereideas exhibens. Cellulae superiores breviter rhomboideae, infra sensim in basilares rectangulares transeuntes; basilares laxae, breviter rectangu- lares ; infimae, ubi folii basis paullo dilatata, magnae, subquadratae, alas vix distinctas, male delimitatas instruentes. Fructus ignotus. Hab. Brown Bay, 11 Aug., 1935; coll. H. Flecker (703), type. Rocky bed of stream, North Toohey Creek, 23 May, 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3371). The North Toohey Creek plant is a more robust form, with tomentose stems, the margin and excurrent point denticulate, and the margin towards apex curiously winged with blunt, hyaline teeth. The habit, rigid leaves with excurrent nerve, and the basal structure are distinct. The leaves are slightly dilated at base so as to form auricles, but there is scarcely any marked delimitation of these cells, all the basal cells being pellucid, wide, and regularly subquadrate. C. Wattsii Broth, has much longer, flexuose leaves, with large, hyaline auricles. Campylopus umbellatus ( W.-Arn.) Bartr. — Root’s Creek track, in jungle, 5 Jan., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (1297). LEUCOBRYACEAE. Leucobryum sanctum (Brid.) Hampe. — Mt. Bartle Frere, 2 June, 1933; coll. H. Flecker (564). The unpublished L. vesiculosum* C.M, is no doubt the same thing. Leucobryum Bowringii var. sericeum (Broth.) Dix. — Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936; coil. S. Egan (1948). A marked and pretty form (949). Leucobryum candidum (Brid.) Hampe. — Mt. Spec, Cairns, Jan., 1940; coll. Miss E. Henry (6756). A rather remarkable form, growing on tree trunks in rain forest. It showed in many leaves a curious dilation of one side of the nerve, producing in cross section a very asymmetrical appearance, one side of the nerve being normal, while the other tapered into an extremely narrow, much longer wing, generally strongly indexed. This condition was most developed about mid-leaf, and was sometimes so pronounced that it could be seen in the dry state with the lens, as a paler, almost membranous border or wing on one side of the leaf. It is, however, quite inconstant, and the plant must be considered a form only of L. candidum. Forma brachyphylla. Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sheirin (11). Leucobryum ballinense Broth. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (9). Murray R., 5 Oct., 1937; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (3914). Brown Bay, 11 Aug., 1935; coll. H. Flecker (702). Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936: coll. S. Egan (1947). The fruit of this species has not been described. Nos. 9 and 3914 are in fruit. The sporogonium is rather small ; the seta 1-1*25 cm., slender; the capsule small, 1 mm. in length ( deoperculate ) , or even less in the Murray R. specimen; struma small and not very distinct. ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND. 29 OCTOBLEPHARUM ALBIDUM Hedw. (951). Arthrocormus Schimperi Doz. & Molk. — Bark of tree, Campbell Creek, 17 May, 1936; coll. II. Flecker (1665). *Leucophanes candidum (Homsch.) Lindb. — Jungle at intake, Mossman Gorge, 20 June, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3499). Not previously recorded from Australia. Leucophanes australe Broth. — Jungle, Botanic reserve, Edge Hill, Cairns, 30 Nov., 1935; coll. H. Flecker (1060). Jungle at intake, Mossman Gorge, 20 June, 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3493). The fruit of this has not, apparently, been described. No. 1060 bears apical jointed gemmae on the leaves. Exodictyon subscabrum (Broth.) Card. — Jungle, Mt. Bellenden Ker, 2 May, 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3134). I have no doubt that this belongs to Brotherus’ species, though in some slight characters it differs from the description, being somewhat more robust than described, with branched stems, and with a rather different subula. It certainly is nearer to that than to any of the known species, and the differences do not seem to warrant the creation of a new species. CALYMPERACEAE. Syrrhopodon cairnensis Broth. & Watts. — Upper Mowbray R., Cairns, 24 Apr., 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5863). ^Syrrhopodon Kindelii Broth. & Par. (Syn. S. parvicaulis CM.). — Bank of Burrow’s Creek, Cairns, 21 Sept., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2342). New to Australia. Distr. New Caledonia ; New Guinea. 8. parvicaulis, the New Guinea plant, is exactly the same thing. Syrrhopodon croceus Mitt. — (952). Syrrhopodon (Thyridium) fasciculatus Hook & Grev. — Bark of tree, bank of Campbell Creek, 17 May, 1936; coll. H. Flecker (1656). This may probably be 8. sub fasciculatus Hampe, but it cannot be separated from the older species. It is a fine, robust form, with long stems, 10 or 12 cm. in length. Calymperes tenerum C.M. — On Terminalia bark, Low Is. Nov., 1928; coll. G. Tandy (3). Calymperes molxuccense Schwaegr. — Rocks in bed of stream, Tringilburra Creek, Cairns, 29 May, 1938; coll. H. Flecker (4734, 4742). This is an unusual habitat for a normally corticolous plant. POTTIACEAE. Tortella calycina (Schwaegr.) Dix. — Lochaber Creek, Eidsvold, Apr., 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin. Hyophila Micholitzii Broth. — Prior Creek, Atherton, 17 Dec., 1938; coll. H. Flecker (5424). I must confess that I find it difficult to see the difference between this and H. involuta (Hook.) Barbula incerta Dix. sp. nov. ?Helicopogon. Fusco, circa 1-5 cm. alta. Dense caespitosa. Folia patula, sicca anguste convoluta, plus minusve spimliter torta , circa 2 mm. 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. longa, e basi convoluta latiore sensim in laminam lanceolato-lingulatam hand acuminatam, late acutatam vel subobtusam, apiculatam angustata. Margines inferne leniter recurvi, integri. Costa validiuscula, apud basin circa 50 p lata, dorso superne minute, distincte ruguloso-papiUosa, in apiculum saepius excnrrens. Cellulae circa 8 p latae, subquadratae, distinctae, seriatae, laeves. Cetera ignota. Hab. Prior Creek, Atherton, 17 Dec., 1938; coll. H. Flecker (5423). Fairly distinct in the colour, the more or less spirally twisted leaves,, their form, and the finely papillose or rugulose back of the nerve. I have given the name on account of some uncertainty as to whether the position is in Helicopogon or Eu-barbula. PTYCHOMITRIACEAE. Ptychomitrium Muelleri (Mitt.) Jaeg. (Syn. Brackysteleum com- mutatum C.M.). — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (8). ORTHOTRICHACEAE. Macromitrium Scottiae C.M. — Millaa Millaa, 2 May, 1939; colL Mrs. Sparvell (5944, 5945, 5999). Macromitrium funiforme Dix. sp. nov. M. W eymouthii Broth, peraffine ; robustius ; folia sicca ad instar funiculi, arete , regulariter, spiraliter torta; e basi multo latiore, ovatar, ra/ptim acutissime acuminata. Fructus ignotus. Hab. Rain forest, eastern slope of Mount Bartle Frere, 28 Oct.,, 1939; coll. H. Flecker (6411). Very near to M. W eymouthii, but the leaves, besides being much wider at base, are narrowed into a very acute, often prolonged, acumen. In M. W eymouthii they are shortly and widely pointed. The funiform leaf arrangement is very marked, but I have seen similar forms in M. W eymouthii. Macromitrium pugionifolium C.M. Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922 ;. coll. T. Y. Sherrin (30). M. hemitrichodes Schwaegr.— Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; eolL T. Y. Sherrin (31, 32). Macromitrium diaphanum C.M. — Bark of tree, bank of North Toohey Creek, 23 May, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3361). The name is given no doubt from the very unusual — in this genus — hyaline hair-point of the leaves. It is rather an unfortunate epithet, since the leaf is probably the most opaque in the genus ! The upper part of the leaf is bi-tri-stratose all over, each cell with high bifid papillae. The colour of the lamina is glaucous green, the nerve is bright yellow, and the hair-point hyaline. The general effect o^ the colouring is that of Tortula muralis. It is altogether one of the most remarkable species of the genus. Macromitrium repandum C.M.— On bare rock on ridge of Murray R. range, 600 m., 3 Sept., 1939; coll. H. Flecker (6275). Macromitrium dimorphum C.M. — Millaa Millaa, 2 May, 1939 ; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5940). Macromitrium Daemelii C.M. — Lochaber Creek, near Eidsvold, Apr., 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (6). ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND. 31 SPLACHNACEAE. Tayloria Henryae Dix. sp. nov. Fusca, brevis, gregaria. Caules circa 1-2 cm. alti, simplices. Folia laxiuscula, superne leniter subcomosa, 3-4 mm. longa, patenti-flexuosa, mollia, e basi angustiore lineari-lanceolata, vel anguste spathulato- lanceolata, sensim breviter acuminata , peracuta, Integra vel subintegra ; costa inf erne validiuscula, fnsca, in cuspidem brevissimam, acutam sensim excurrens. Areolatio laxa, cellnlae superiores late r ect angular es, parietibus tenuissimis, mollissimis; marginales angustiores; infra sensim laxiores. Cetera ignota. Hab. Hidden Vale, Mount Spec, Jan. 1940; coll. Miss E. Henrv (6751). The generic position of this moss is somewhat uncertain, but the foliation is so like that of Tayloria octoblepharis (Hook.) Mitt., that it is almost certainly allied. It differs in fact from that species only — but very markedly — in the leaf apex being shortly and acutely pointed, instead of being terminated by a long, flexuose, almost piliferous arista, as in T. octoblepharis. The leaves are very hard to moisten out, and it is possible that they are normally somewhat wider than I have observed. In any case they must be much narrower than in most of the allied species. BRYACEAE. #Brachymenium indicum (Doz. & Molk.) Bry. jav. — Post Office Hotel, Mossman, 20 June, 1937; coll. IJ. Flecker (2507). Trinity Beach, 15 miles north of Cairns, 13 Feb., 1935; coll. H. Flecker (4106). Brachymenium Wattsii Broth. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. V. Sherrin (33). Zoological Gardens, Edge Hill,, Cairns, 20 Aug., 1908; coll. H. Flecker (5079). Bryum pachytheca C.M. — Upper Mowbray R., 25 June, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (6160). Bryum Baileyi Broth. — Upper Mowbray R., June, 1938 ; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (4943). Bryum argenteum Hedw. — Rocks in bed of North Toohey Creek, 23 May, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3380). Bryum robustum Hampe. 1 — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. V. Sherrin (34). I am not sure of this determination. Bryum subtomentosum Hampe. — North Toohey Creek, 23 May, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3378). Millaa Millaa, 31 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (6194). Tullv R., above Tully Falls, 1 Oct., 1939; coll. H. Flecker (7297). Bryum subfasciculatum Hampe. — Pine Creek, Cairns, 2 Aug., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2093). A fine, robust form. RHIZOGONIACEAE. Mesochaete grandiretis Dix. sp. nov. M. undulatae Lindb. peraffinis et similis; differ! tantum cellulis distincte majoribus, 20-25 p, latis, omnibus subaequalibus. 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Hab. Platypus Creek, 3 Jan., 1936; coll. IJ. Flecker (1225), type. Burrows Creek, 21 Sept., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2551). Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936; coll. S. Egan (1932). This differs from M. undulata only in the constantly larger cells. In three specimens of M. undulata, I find them constantly from 8/4 to 13/x in width. It might be suggested that the Queensland is a diploid form, but in that case one would expect other parts of the plant to share the increase in size, but this is not the case. Whether both species occur in Queensland is uncertain. Watts & Whitelegge record M. undulata for Queensland, but it is quite probable that the size of the cells may have been overlooked, and that the plants may belong to the present species. Rhizogonium spiniforme (Hedw). Bruch. — Numerous gatherings. Rhizogonium paramattense C.M. — Zerda Camp Clearing, Cairns, 1 Jan., 1936 ; coll. H. Flecker (1246). Campbell's Creek, 17 May, 1936; coll. H. Flecker (1673). Upper Mowbray R., 24 Nov., 1938; coll. M!rs. Sparvell (5890). Rhizogonium brevifolium Broth. — On wood, Roots Creek, Feb. 1935; coll. T. Carr (344). HYPNODENDRACEAE. Hypnodendron arcuatum (Hadw.) Mitt. (Syn. H. spininervium (Hook.) Jaeg.). — Several gatherings. Mniodendron comatulum Geh. — Mount Bartle Frere, 6 Oct., 1935 ; coll. H. Flecker (863). This species is omitted, no doubt by accident, from the “Musci, ” by Brotherus. It is quite a good species. B ARTRAMI ACE AE . *Philonotis imbricatula Mitt. — Rocks in bed of North Toohey Creek, 23 May, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3381). Granite rock, Fishery Creek, 16 Aug., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2172). Banks of Campbell’s Creek, 16 May, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3298). All these gatherings show numerous axillary gemmiform brood bodies. Moist rocky bank in jungle, Freshwater Creek, 2 Oct., 1938; coll. H. Flecker (5253). An instructive plant. Some stems show the normal, acute-pointed leaves, with narrowish cells, while others have broad, more obtuse points, with decidedly lax cells, indicating an approach to P. laxissima ( C.M. ) , which is, I feel assured, a derivative of P. imbricatula, and not a distinct species. P. laxissima (C.M.) Bry. jav. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (43). P. pseudo-mollis (C.M.) Jaeg. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (42). Clay bank, Johnstone R., Innisfail, 17 May, 1936; coll. H. Flecker (1735). Jungle at intake, Mossman Gorge, 20 June, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3498). Yery doubtfully distinct from P. tenuis (Tayl.). *Philonotis tenuis (Tayl.) Jaeg. — Moist rocks, Tringilburra Creek, Cairns, 4 June, 1938; coll. PI. Flecker (4760). Moist banks of Campbell’s Creek, 16 May, 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3267). These two plants represent a very lax-leaved form, with the stems prettily plumose. I have however similar forms from New Zealand, ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND. 33 where the species is common and very variable, and I have no doubt that they are only forms of it. ERPODIACEAE. Wildia solmsiellacea C.M. & Broth. — Near Cogzell’s Farm, Lower Tuliy, near Tully River, in jungle, Sept., 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry (4453). This curious, mono ty pic genus is only known from Queensland CRYPHAEACEAE. Cryphaea dilatata H.f. & W. (Syn. Cryphidium dilatatum Broth. Cryphaea Muelleri Hampe). — Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936; coll. S. Egan (2048). CYRTOPODACEAE. Bescherellea cyrtopus F. Muell. — On trees, in jungle, Zarda Root’s Creek track, 5 Jan., 1936; coll. II. Flecker (1285). PTYCHOMNIACEAE. Hampeella pallens (Lac.) Fleisch. — Millaa Millaa, 2 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5943). PTEROBRYACEAE. Trachyloma planifolium (Hedw.) Brid. — On bark of dead tree. Zarda Root’s Creek track, Upper Mossman Creek; coll. H. Flecker, 5 Jan., 1936. (1291.) Endotrichella lepida C.M. — On bark of tree, tributary of Tringil- burra Creek, 29 May, 1938; coll. H. Flecker (4742). Upper Murray R., 12 Sept., 1938; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5238.) The latter a form with short, almost obtuse-pointed leaves. Endotrichella Dietrichiae C.M. — Murray R., 5 Oct., 1937 ; coll. Mfs. Sparvell (3915). Round Beachview, Millaa Millaa, Oct., 1937; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (3955). nov. var. longiseta Dix. Seta longior, thecam aequans. Theca exserta. Bark of tree, Tringilburra Creek, 29 May, 1938 ; coll. H. Flecker (4727). In the type form, the seta is very short, shorter than the capsule, which is nearly hidden in the leaves. In the variety, the theca is well cxserted above the leaves. Garovaglia longicuspes Broth. — On trees, Roots Creek, 5 Feb., 1935; coll. T. Carr (342). This has probably not been collected since the original gathering at Rockingham Bay. Muelleriobryum Whiteleggei (Broth.) Fleisch. — Josephine Creek, 2 June, 1935; coll. H. Flecker (560). Bank of Pine Creek, 2 Aug., 1936; (2073). Mossman Gorge, 8 Aug., 1936; (2112). On rocks, bank of Campbell’s Creek, 17 May, 1936 ; (1650). All collected by H. Flecker. METEORIACEAE. Papillaria crocea (Hampe) Jaeg. — Millaa Millaa, 2 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (6020). Papillaria flexicaulis (Tayl.) Jaeg. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (45). Papillaria nitidiuscula Broth. — On rachis of large pinnate leaf, Millaa Millaa, Sept., 1937; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (3891). Ibidem, 2 May, 1939 (5987b). 34: PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Brotherus appears to have omitted this from the 2nd Edition of the “Musci.” Papillaria regin ae (Hampe) Jaeg. — Millaa Millaa, Sept., 1937 coll. Miss E. Henry (3866, 3867). Meteorium Miquelianum (C.Ml) Fleisch. — Burrow’s Creeks 21 Sept., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2345). On rachis of large pinnate leaf, Millaa Millaa; coll. Miss E. Henry (3887). ^Aerobryopsis longissima (Doz. & Molk.) Fleisch. — In several gatherings, and showing much variation. I cannot separate it from the wide-spread and highly variable A. longissima. No. 172, collected by Miss Walsh at Butcher’s Creek, is a slender, rather flaccid form, and might possibly be different. Meteoriopsis reclinata ( C'.M. ) Fleisch, — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe,, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (47). NECKERACEAE. Calyptothecium acutum (Mitt.) Broth. — North Toohey Creek, 23 May, 1937; coll. H. Flecker (3375). Bark of tree, in rain forest, Tully Falls, 1 Oct., 1939; coll. H. Flecker (6296). Calyptothecium subecostatum Dix. sp. nov. Late expansum, robustum, intense viride ; caules 10 cm. et ultra, rigidi, laxe pinnati, ramis horizontaliter divergentibus, inaequalibus, strictis, obtusis, dense foliosis. Folia fortissimo undulata, e basi lata maxime auriculata sensim angustata, late breviter acutata, versus apieem distanter inconspicue denticulata. Costa perbrevis, tenuis, tertiam partem folii vix attingens, saepe nulla. Fructus haud visus. Hab. Corticolous, Tringilburra Creek, 29 May, 1938 ; coll. PI. Flecker (4935). A very distinct species in the habit, dense, very strongly undulate leaves, and almost or quite total absence of nerve. Neckeropsis Sparvelliae Dix. sp. nov. Paraphysanthus. Intense viridis, caules complanate ramosi, ramis valde divergentibus, strictis, obtusis. Folia complanata, madida haud undulata, sicca irregulariter foveolata, e basi latiore, uno latere (superiore) late expanse, subauriculato, altero late inflexo, decurrente, late oblonga, valde obtusa, rotundato-truncata, apiculo aut nullo aut brevissime obtuso, indistincte crenulata vel subintegra ; costa latiuseula, superne raptim angustata et infra apieem desinens. Cellulae minutae, opacae, ovales, parietibus pellucidis; basilares elongatae, paullo laxiores, eae lateris inferioris omnes elongatae, pellucidiores, ad margines sat alte ascendentes, limburn latum pallidiorem instruentes. Autoica. Perichaetia polyphylla, bractae externae late ligulata, internae setaceo-loriformes, denticulatae, thecam praelonge superantes.. Calyptra pilosa. Hab. Woolkoo, Murray R., 12 Sept., 1938 ; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5237). Differs from the New Guinea N. nano-disticha (Geh.) and the allied species in the leaves not transversely undulate, the minute, opaque cells, almost entire apex, pilose calyptra, etc. *Homaliodendron dendroides (Hook.) P’leisch. — Millaa Millaa, Miss E. Plenry, Sept., 1937; (3894). ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OP NORTH QUEENSLAND. 35 This appears to be new to Australia. Its distribution is Pacific, from New Caledonia to Hawaii. LEMBOPHYLLACEAE. ^Camptochaete arbuscula (Hook.) var. deflexa (Wils.) H.f. & W. — On stem of twining creeper, Beachview, Millaa Millaa, 5 Oct., 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry (3964). Camptochaete ramulosa (Mitt.) Jaeg. — Millaa Millaa, 2 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5932). A soft, lax form. Camptochaete gracilis (H.f. & W.) Par. — Lochaber Creek, near Eidsvold, April, 1932; coll. T. V. Sherrin (48). This species has not been credited to Queensland, but it exists in herbaria under another name, viz., Lembophyllum brisbanicum C.M. This appears to be an unpublished name. I have seen no original specimen, but I have two specimens from New South Wales, collected by W. W. Watts, and so named on the authority of Brotherus. Obviously from the specific name the plant determined by C. Mueller must have been from near Brisbane. C. gracilis differs from the other species of the genus in the habit, which is rarely dendroid. (Brotherus denies it the dendroid habit -altogether, but I have some plants which show this habit quite distinctly. It is a most variable plant in many directions, the leaves may be obtuse, bluntly acute, or apiculate ; they may be entire or faintly denti- culate, and the nerve may be (usually) wanting, very faint and single, or short and double. ^Lembophyllum clandestinum (H.f. & W.) Lindb. — Mount Bartle Frere, 5 Oct., 1935; coll. H. Flecker (844). Jungle at intake, Mossman, 20 June, 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3502). Both these show some difference from the usual form, having a very rigid habit, tapering branches, and apiculate leaves. HOOKERIACEAE. Callicostella rugiseta Dix. sp. nov. Atrofusca, subnitida, tapete late expansum instruens ; stricta, ramis liaud complanatis. Folia oblonga, fusco-purpurea, acuta, versus apicem dense, validiuscule bigeminal ini serrulata. Costae fuscae, dorso dentato. Cellulae ellipticae, parietibus firmis, subincrassatis, superiores acute papillosae. Dioicum videtur. Seta 1 cm. vel paullo ultra, crassiuscula, per totam longitudinem grosse tub erculat o-papill osa . Theca suberecta, oblonga. Peristomium magnum, aurantiacum. Hab. Rocks at edge of stream of Campbell’s Creek, 19 Sept., 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3844). Distinct in the colour, habit, acute, densely bigeminately serrulate leaves, and rough seta. C. KaernbacM Broth, has a similar seta, but the leaves are described as obtuse, and different. HYPOPTERY GIACEAE. Hypopterygium (Lopidium) Daymannianum (Broth. & Geh.) Broth. — Millaa Millaa, on wood, May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5992, 5998, 6006). On small trees in rain forest, Mt. Spec, Jan., 1940; coll. Miss E. Henry (6753). A very distinct and pretty species. 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Hypopterygium Muelleri Hampe. — Round Beachview, Millaa Millaa, 5 Oct,, 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry (3960). Track near Falla, on rotten log, Mt. Spec, Jan., 1940; coll. Miss E. Henry (6734). The variation in the denticulation of the leaves and amphigastria is so great that 1 can find no distinct line of demarcation between this and H. Scottiae, and I incline to think they are not specifically distinct. 1 do not know of any other distinguishing characters. RHACOPILACEAE. Rhacopilum convolutaceum C.M. — Lochaber Creek, near Eidsvold, Apr., 1922; coll. T. V. Sherrin (51, 52). ^Rhacopilum cristatum H.f. & W. — Mt. Bartle Frere, covering a boulder, 29 Nov., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2629). THUIDIACEAE. *Claopodium assurgens (Sull. & Lesq.) Card. — Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936; coll. S. Egan (1941). New to Australasia. Distr. wide in India and Indo-Malaya. Thuidium;1 sparsum (H.f. & W.) Jaeg. — In large, dense mats, Millaa Millaa, Sept., 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry (3901a). With a few capsules. The fruit is rare. Thuidium furfurosum (H.f. & W.) Jaeg. — Barron Gorge, 3 July, 1936; coll. S. Egan (2100). Thuidium plumulosifirme (Hampe) Jaeg. — Mt. Bartle Frere, covering a rock, 29 Nov., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2650). Murray R., 5 Oct., 1937; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (3913). Ibidem, 12 Sept., 1938 (5233). All these are lax forms, both as regards the branching and the foliation. BRACHYTHECIACEAE. Rhynchostegium patulum (Hampe) Jaeg. — North Cedar Creek, Ravenshoe, 23 Dec., 1938; coll. T. V. Sherrin (5486). I determine this from the description. I have not seen specimens. Rhynchostegium inaequale Dix. sp. nov. Viride vel luteo-viride ; sat robustum; caules prostrati, sat regulariter pinnatim ramosi, rarnis supra deserescentibus. Axis caulis crassus. Folia patentia, complanatula, sicca paullo contracta et flexuosa ; 2 mm. longa, late ovata, acute acuminata, asymmetrica (uno margine fortiter, altero parum convexo), apice saepe semitorto, subintegro vel parce denticulato . Costa debilis, plerumque medium folium attingens, ad lotus minus convexum propinquior. Cellulae elongatae, sigmoideae, versus basin laxiores, infimae 1-2-seriebus multo latioribus, pellucidae. Fructus ignotus. Hab. North Cedar Creek, Ravenshoe, 23 Dec., 1938; coll. H. Flecker (5486). Fairly distinct in the asymmetrical leaves, almost entire, with the nerve much nearer to the less convex margin. ENTODONTACEAE. Entodon terrae-reginae Dix. sp. nov. Sat robustus, pallide stramineus , nitidissimm. Rami stricti , plerumque obtusi, subcomplanati ; folia imbricata, concava, ovata,. ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND. 37 per.acuta, saepe acuminata, superne distinct e denticulata • cellulae latius- culae, inf erne latiores, alares multae. Cetera ignota. Hab. North Toohey Creek, 23 May, 1937 ; coll. H. Flecker (3376). Although without fruit this belongs without doubt to the small group of species of which E. pallidus Mitt, is the best known. It is more robust and more rigid than that species, with less julaceous leaves, which are distinctly denticulate above and sometimes nearly all round, which characters bring it still further from E. mackaviensis C.M. Entodon mackaviensis C.M. — Lochaber Creek, near Eidsvold, Apr., 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (49). SEMATOPHYLLACEAE. Acanthocladium extenuatum, (Brid.) Mitt. — This is a rather common moss, and very variable. One of the more frequent forms is the slender, rather rigid plant with the cells distinctly seriately papillose, which has figured more than once at a Taxithelium. Acanthocladium rigidifolium Dix. sp. nov. §Acanthocladiopsis. Pallide viride, intus stramineum, rigidius- culum gracile. Caulis 3-4 cm. longus, sat dense bipinnatus, ramis et ramulis subcurvatis. Folia omnia subsimilia, stricta, erecta vel patula, sicca parum mutata, convoluta, erectiora, 1-1*5 mm. longa, brevia, e basi subcordata dettoideo-ovata, breviter, late, , acute acuminata, superne dense, argute, sat regulariter, subaequaUter serrulata, ecostata; cellulae breviusculae, anguste linear es, interne laxiores, alaribus numerosis, magnis, hyalinis vel flavidis, oblongis vel subquadratis, parietibus tenuibus, alas majusculas, bene notatas instruentes. Folia ramea et ramulina minora, brevius, latius acuminata, nonnunquam subobtusa, argutius serrata. Fructus ignotus. Hab. Lochaber Creek, near Eidsvold, Apr., 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (9). Distinct, from the Australasian species at least, in the rather rigid, bipinnate stems, and broadly, shortly-pointed leaves, which bring it, so far as can be determined from the sterile plant, under the Section Acanthocladiopsis, hitherto known only from Africa and Japan. Meiothecium Wattsii Broth. — Near Cairns, 1 Aug., 1938; coll. A. Glindeman (5077). Acroporium erythropodium (Hampe) Broth. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (60). Acroporium scalarirete Dix. sp. nov. Laete virens, gracile, humile. Caulis brevis, dense pinnatus, ramis brevibus, saepe cuspidatis. Folia conferta, patentia, circa 2 mm. longa, concava, cordato-lanceolata, integerrima, breviter acute cuspidata , apice convoluto; cellulae pulchre chlorophyllosae, august issimae, incrassatae, laeves, alares subito magnae, multae, subquadratae, pulchre aurantiacae scarales, fort iter imcrassatae. Cetera ignota. Hab. Millaa Millaa, 2 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5935). 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. A small, bright green plant, with much the habit of A. erythropodium (Hampe) , but with narrower leaves of quite unique structure, the alar cells being numerous, subquadrate, sealariform in several series, in fact exactly as in Dicranum; they are however highly incrassate with very narrow lumen. # Sematophyllum CALLiFERUM (Geh. & Hampe) Broth.— Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, Summer, 1922; coll. T. V. Sherrin (57). I name this with some doubt. The toothed leaves and perichaetial leaves agree, but the seta is much thinner than it should be. ^Sematophyllum callidioides (Hampe & C.M.) Jaeg. — Dead twig in jungle, Zarda Roots Creek track, 5 Jan., 1936; coll. H. Flecker (1299a). This too is not quite certain. The leaves are often rather too abruptly subulate, as in Warburgiella. Sematophyllum saproxylophilum (C.M.) Broth, forma robusta. — Upper Mowbray R., June, 1938; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (4948, 4949). This is evidently the form recorded by Watts from Frenchman’s Creek. Sematophyllum caespitosum (Sw.) Mitt. — Lower Tully, in jungle, Sept., 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry (4454). Sematophyllum aciculum (C.M.) Dix. — Lochaber Creek, near Eidsvold, Apr., 1922; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (55). Trichosteleum hamatum (Doz. & Molk) Jaeg. — On bark of tree, Tringilburra Creek, 4 June, 1938; coll. H. Flecker (4763). Trichosteleum pallidum Dix. sp. nov. Humillimum, condensatum, albescens , pinnatum. Folia undique patentia, hand complanata, sicca flexuosa, paullo falcata , parva, sericea ; e basi vix constricta august e oblongo-lanceolata, concava, inde sensim tenui-acuminata , fiUformda, integer rima ; cellulae pellucidae, angustis- simae, nunc omnino laeves, nunc sparse, acute, spiculose unipapillatae. Alares magnae, tenerae, vesiculosae. Autoicum. Perichaetii folia eaulinis similia sed majora, longiora, sensim longe filiformia, denticulata. Seta circa 1 cm., laevis. Theca pendula, minuta, vix -5mm longa, ovata, pallida; operculum breviro- stratum. Hab. Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. V. Sherrin (59). A distinct, pretty little species, very pale in colour; T. elegantulum Broth. & Watts has broader, toothed leaves, a roughish seta, and the capsule “majuscula”; here it is very minute. Taxithelium kerianum (Broth.) Broth. — Near Tully River, Lower Tully, in jungle, Sept. 1937; coll. Miss E. Henry (4452). Taxithelium novae-valesiae (Broth.) Broth. — Upper Mowbray R., 11 Nov., 1938 ; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5879). On dead wood, track to falls, near Mt. Spec, Jan., 1940; coll. Miss E. Henry (6739, 6740). Glossadelphus dimorphus Dix. sp. nov. Corticola, pulchre viridis. Caulis complanatus , 2—3 cm. longus vel ultra, frondem circa 3 mm. latam instruens, raimis paucis minutis. Folia caulina patentia, sicca leniter longitudinaliter plicata, 1-5 mm. longa, -75 mm. lata, breviter late oblmgo-elliptica, valde asymmetnca, apice ADDITIONS TO THE MOSSES OF NORTH QUEENSLAND. 39 rot undata, obtusissima; margines plaid, superne minutissime crenulato- denticulati. Costa nulla. Cellulae superiores lineari-fusiformes, elongatae, laeves, parietibus tenuibus, inferne sensim longiores , parum latiores, basilar es et alares vix mutatae, omnes valde chlorophyllosae. Folia ramea multo minora, late obtuse acutata, argute denticulata, Cetera nulla. Hab. On twining shrub, Millaa Millaa, 5 Oct. 1937 ; coll. Miss E. Henry (3964b). A single stem, with Camptochaete arbuscida. Except for Ectropothecium serrifolium Broth, and Watts, which was placed later by Brotherus in Glossadelphus, and in my opinion a rather doubtful alteration, this is the only Australian species of this rather unsatisfactory genus. It is very marked in the complanate, broadly oblong, very obtuse stem leaves, and the very small, almost microphyllous branches, having small, more or less pointed, serrulate leaves. Macrohymenium mitratum (Doz. & Molk.) Fleisch. [Syn. M. r uf um (Reinw. & Hornscli.) C.M.] — Millaa Millaa, 2 May, 1939; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5964). HYPNACEAE. *Hypnum cupressiforme Iledw. var. filiforme Brid. — Millaa Millaa, Sep. 1937; coll. Miss E. Henry (3881). Hypnum subchrysogaster (Broth.) Broth. — Upper Mowbray R., 31 May, 1939; coll. M,rs. Sparvell (6166). Ectropothecium sodale (Sull.) Mitt. — Endeavour R,, Queensland, 1883; coll. W. A. Persieh; herb. W. Mitten. ^Ectropothecium Moritzii (C.M.) Jaeg. — Majuba Falls, Mt. Bartle Frere, 29 Nov. 1936; coll. H. Flecker (2658). I have also a specimen of this from Sydney, N.S.W., coll. Rev.-Collie, ex herb. Mitten. It was sent unnamed from the New York Bot. Garden. I cannot separate these plants from the Malayan species, though it is rather surprising that it has not been recorded from the intermediate regions, e.g., New Guinea. Ectropothecium umbilicatum (C.M.) Jaeg. — Rain forest, Mt. Tyson, 16 Feb. 1939; coll. H. Flecker (5665). Ectropothecium serrifolium Broth. & Watts. — On tree roots over waterfall, Root’s Creek, near Mjonamona Mission Station, 8 Oct. 1939; coll. H. Flecker (6295). On granite boulder, stream of Fishery Creek, 16 Aug. 1936; coll. II. Flecker (2164). Isopterygium taxirameum (Mitt.) Jaeg. — (Syn. Isopterygium robust um Broth.) — Surface of rock in jungle, Smitlifield range; coll, II. Flecker (3403). /. robuslum Broth, is surely the same thing; it is a slightly robust form only. Fleischer and Brotherus say of this wide-spread species that it has the leaves spiculose at the back with the prominent cell ends. I have never detected this, and have no doubt it is an error of observation. Mr. Bartram agrees with me in this. Isopterygium austro-pusillum (C.M.) Jaeg. — Murray R., 5 Oct., 1937; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (3911). Cogzell’s Farm, Lower Tully, near R.S. — E. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Tully K., in jungle, Sept., 1937; coll. Miss E. Henry (4454). Tringil- burra Creek, May, 1938; coll, II. Flecker (4764). Isopterygium candidum (C.M.) Jaeg. — Woolkoo, Upper Murray, 12 Sept. 1938; coll. Mrs. Sparvell (5242). This seems to agree quite well with the species, except that the colour is not whitish, but bright green. I think it is only a form of this species. I much doubt if it be distinct from the Pacific 1. molliculum (Sull.). POLYTRICHACEAE. *Psilopilum australe (H.f. & W.) Jaeg. — Hillcrest, Millaa Millaa Rd., Cairns, 28 June, 1938 ; coll. H. Flecker (4902). Not, I think, known from Queensland. Its most northerly record. Dawsonia longiseta Hampe. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922 ; coll. T. Y. Sherrin (63). Dawsonia polytrichoides R. Br. — Duma Creek, Ravenshoe, 1922; coll. T. V. Sherrin (62). REFERENCES. Bailey (1890). — Synopsis of Queensland Flora, Third Supplement, Second Addenda. Brotherus and Watts (1918). — Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Yol. XLIII, p. 544. Watts and Whitelegge (1902). — Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. XXVII., p. 369. Watts and Whitelegge (1905).-— Proc. Lin. Soc, N.S.W., Yol. XXX, Supplement. Vol. mil., No. 3. 41 THE DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS, CLERMONT, QUEENSLAND. By 0. A. Jones, M.Sc. (Cantab, and Qld.), Department of Geology, University of Queensland. (Plates I.-III.) ( Communicated to the Boyal Society of Queensland by D. Hill , M.8c., Ph.D.y 28th April , 1941.) SUMMARY : This paper is a companion to a paper on the Rugose corals of this district published by Dr. Dorothy Hill in the Proceedings of the Society in 1939. It describes the Tabulate Corals collected by her and those in the collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland. The following genera and species are recorded and described:- — Favosites Lamarck . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 42 Favosites bryani Jones . . . . . . . . . . p. 42 Favosites nitidus Chapman . . . . . . . . p. 43 Alveolites Lamarck . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 43 Alveolites sub orbicularis Lamarck . . . . . . p. 44 Thamnopora Steininger . . . . . . . . . . p. 45 Thamnopora meridionalis (Eth.) var. minor var. nov. . . p. 47 Thamnopora foliata sp. nov. . . . . . . . . p. 48 Striatopora Hail . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 49 Striatapora f hillae sp. nov. . . . . . . . . . . p. 50 Striatopora f plumosa, sp. nov. . . . . . . p. 51 Gephuropora Etheridge . . . . . . . . . . p. 51 Gephuropora duni Etheridge . . . . . . . . p. 54 Scoliopora Lang, Smith & Thomas . . . . . . . . p. 55 Scoliopora flexa sp. nov. . . . . . . . . . . p. 56 Syringopora Goldfuss . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 57 Syringopora cf. spelaeanus Etheridge . . . . . . . . p. 57 Thamnopora meridionalis (Etheridge) although not occurring in the area is redescribed (p. 46) to facilitate the description of the new variety. The species of Scoliopora is the first record of that genus for Australia and Gephuropora duni is recorded for the first time from Queensland. Age of the Limestones : Dr. Hill in her paper gave a summary of the previous work to which account the reader is referred, and determined the age by the Bugosa to be Lower Middle, Devonian and probably the upper part of the Lower Middle Devonian, i.e. Upper Couvinian. All the species of Tabulata are purely Australian. Favosites bryani occurs in the Receptaculites Limestone at Yass, which is fairly high in the Couvinian, and in the probably Lower Devonian Garra beds near Molong. F. nitidus occurs at Deep Creek and Cooper’s Creek, Walhalla, Victoria, which is Upper Silurian [ 1 Devonian], Alveolites suborbicularis occurs throughout the Devonian of Europe. Thamnopora meridionalis var. minor is close to T. meridionalis from the Upper Middle R.S. F. 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Devonian Burdekin beds and is also close to an undescribed species from the Middle Devonian of Buchan, Victoria. Thamnopora foliata occurs in the Couvinian of Silverwood, Queensland, Striatopora? hillce and Striatopora ? plumosa are not closely comparable with any decsribed species and though in size of the coralla they approach the Upper Silurian S. halli, little weight can be placed on such a comparison. Gephuropora duni occurs in the Bluff limestone (base of Couvinian) and the Curra- jong limestone (400 feet above the Bluff) at Taemas, N.S.W., and also in the Middle Devonian of Buchan, Victoria. Of the European species of Gephuropora described by Lecompte it is closest to G. mmllmxxi which occurs in the middle and upper part of the Couvinian Scoliopora flexa is not clearly comparable with any described species, but species of this genus occur in the Givetian and Frasnian of Belgium and in the Devonian of Germany. Syringopora spelaeanus occurs in the Couvinian of Wee Jasper, N.S.W. and S. eifelensis, which it closely resembles occurs in the Upper Couvinian and Lower Givetian of Europe. The age then is clearly Couvinian but it is difficult to place it more closely, as only one of the species, Alveolites sub orbicularis, occurs out- side Australia. But the relationship of Gephuropora duni and Syringopora spelaeanus with European species together with the general assemblage suggest it to be the upper part of the Couvinian. This is in agreement with Dr. Hill’s determination based on the Rugosa. MADREPORARIA TABULATA. Family Favositidae, Genus Favosites Lamarck. Favosites Lamarck 1816, p. 204 ; Smith and Gullick, 1925, p. 117 ; Jones, 1936, p. 2. Genotype: F. gothlandicus, Lamarck, 1816, p. 205. Silurian of Gotland. Favosites bryani Jones. PI. I, Fig. 1. Favosites bryani Jones 1937 ; pp. 96, 97 ; pi. xv. figs. 3-6. Favosites bryani Hill and Jones 1940; p. 190; pi. v, figs. 2a, 2b. Holotype: (by original designation). The specimen in the Australian Museum F. 5550 from the Middle Devonian of Good Hope, Yass, N.S.W. Diagnosis: Favosites with small moderately thick walled polyhedric corallites, long, slender, sharply pointed septal spines, one row of circular mural pores, and fairly numerous tabulae, which are mostly complete. Description of Clermont Specimens: All consist of fragments of colonies — flat pieces of small thickness, probably exfoliation flakes, so that the external form is unknown. The corallites have a diameter of 1 to 1-25 mm., the walls are moderately thick; long sharply pointed septal spines show in the longitudinal section. The mural pores have been observed in only one place where they are in two rows. The tabulae are numerous, mostly complete some incomplete and inosculating about 15 in a space of 5 mm. DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 43 Remarks: The Clermont specimens agree well with the holotype and other Taemas material except that in the Clermont specimens the mural pores in the only place where they can be seen are in two rows. In the Taemas material they are usually in one row but occasionally in two. Locality: Douglas Creek, Clermont (Univ. of Q. collection, F. 3964) and probably Geol. Surv. of Q. collection, 66. F. 3965-6 (Univ. of Q. collection) are placed in this species on macroscopic characters. Favosites nitidus Chapman. PI. I, Fig. 2. Favosites nitida Chapman 1914, p. 309, pi. liv, figs. 21-23; pi. lv, figs. 24, 25. Favosites nitidd Jones, 1937, p. 93, pi. xiii, figs. 4, 5. Favosites nitidus Hill & Jones, 1940, p. 198, pi. vi, figs. 3a-c, Diagnosis: Favosites with small, erect polyhedric corallites, blunt septal spines which are very irregularly distributed and may be entirely absent in parts of the corallum, one row of large circular mural pores and fairly numerous complete tabulae. Remarks: Two specimens from Clermont are quite typical of the species. Septal spines are numerous. A third badly preserved specimen is doubtfully included. Locality: South Limestone belt, Clermont, Por. 73, Par. Copper- field (F. 3967, F. 3968 University of Queensland Collection, collected by D. Hill). The doubtful specimen is in the Geological Survey of Queensland Collection, No. 21, and is from Douglas Creek, Clermont. F. 3969-81 (Univ. of Q. collection) are placed in this species on macroscopic characters. Genus Alveolites Lamarck. Alveolites Lamarck, 1801, p. 375. Alveolites Smith, 1933, p. 135. Alveolites Lecompte, 1933, p. 7 ; 1939, p. 17. Alveolites Hill, 1936, p. 33. Genolectiotype: Alveolites sub orbicularis Lamarck, 1801, p. 376. Upper Devonian, Frasnian. Near Dusseldorf, Germany. See Smith 1933, p. 135. Diagnosis: Massive, ramose or encrusting Tabulate corals, frequently growing in superimposed layers. The corallites grow out horizontally from one or more centres or diverge from an axis. Usually the corallites are small, semilunular or sub-triangular in section; they are more or less compressed, and open to the surface by oblique calices, each with lower lip projecting. The wall may be thin or dilated; the septa when present are represented by spines. The tabulae are complete and thin, and the mural pores are wide and distant. (Emended from S. Smith, 1933, p. 135.) Remarks: The genus Alveolites has recently been discussed by Lecompte 1933, 1939; Smith 1933, and Hill 1936. Lecompte dealing with a wealth of material has described the variation in each species and Miss Hill has made the first observations on the microscopic structure of the skeleton, basing these on material from the Eifel and Western Australia. 44 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND. My observations on the single specimen from Clermont confirm that the fibres of the wall diverge from the "median dark line” which is median or almost so in those corallites which are more erect and sub-polygonal in section, and commonly sub-median in those which are reclined and semilunar in section. But contrary to Miss Hill’s observa- tions on the Eifel material, when sub-median it is more commonly nearer to the upper surface of the wall, though frequently nearer to the lower surface. My observations on a specimen from Torquay are similar. The fibres cannot be seen in longitudinal section nor can the structure of the septal spines. In the Clermont specimen the wall where cut tangentially shows in two places hints of the streaky appearance described below (p. 52) and thought to be due to the septa having exceedingly short lamellar bases, but it cannot be regarded as certain. Alveolites suborbicularis Lamarck. PI. I, fig. 3. Alveolites sub orbicularis Lamarck, 1801, p. 376. Alveolites suborbicularis Smith, 1933, pp. 137-138. Alveolites suborbicularis Lecompte, 1933, pp. 15-25 ; 1936, pp. 6-9 ; 1939, pp. 19-22. Alveolites suborbicularis Hill, 1939 (b), p. 145. Neotype: (chosen by Smith, 1933, p. 138). The original of Calamopora spongites var. tuberosa Goldfuss, 1829, pi. xxviii, figs, la-b ; Upper Devonian of Bensberg, near Cologne, in the Goldfuss Collection, Bonn University. (Lecompte 1936, p. 7 and pi. 1, fig. la, described and figured this specimen as the original of fig. Id of Goldfuss; it is clearly the s'ame specimen as cited by Smith since Lecompte ’s fig. la, pi. 1 is identical with Smith’s figs. 1 and 2, pi. 11). Diagnosis: Alveolites whose small corallites have thick or thin walls and are semi-lunar, sub-triangular or rarely sub-polygonal in section; septal spines absent or represented in some corallites by a a vertical row of strong spines or by a number of rows of small spines ; mural pores uniserial, confined to the small sides of the corallites. (Based on Smith, Hill and Lecompte). Description of the Clermont Specimen: The corallum is encrusting on a colony of Gephuropora and is 6 cm. by 6 cm. by 2 cm. high. The corallites diverge from a number of centres. The corallites are almost all reclined and in section are semi-lunar, rarely sub-triangular or sub-polygonal, 0-6-0-9 mm. in their longer and 0-6-0-5 in their shorter direction. The dilatation of the walls varies in different parts of the corallum, in places it is considerable (0-3 mm.) in other places slight (0-1 mm.). Septal spines are developed irregularly, some corallites showing none at the level of the sections, others as many as five; the spines are short and rather thick, single strong spines not observed. The mural pores are uniserial, usually at the lower angles of the corallites, of the order of size of 0-15 mm. diameter. The tabulae are not numerous, very irregularly distributed, as far apart as 2 mm. and as close as 0-2 mm. ; they are complete, most usually horizontal but frequently inclined. j Remarks: Lecompte (1939, pp. 9-16) has made a valuable study of variation in species of Tabulate corals and indicates the limits of variation he considers permissible in a species. In the same work DEVONIAN TABULATA OP DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 45 (pp. 22-23) he divides A. sub orbicularis into three formae on the type of corallum. Accepting this division into formae the specimen described above would be placed in forma gemmans (p. 22, pi. 1, figs. 1-12). Whether this division into formae can be applied to Australian material must await further collection and examination. In size of corallites the Clermont specimen is slightly smaller than the holotype, but Lecompte (1933) studying a wide range of material gave 12 to 17 corallites in a distance of 10 mm. in a longitudinal direction and about 20 in a transverse direction. Smith, studying the syntypes, concluded that septa are represented by one vertical row of spines, but Lecompte, studying both syntypes and other material, concluded that they are represented by small granular spines in vertical rows but that the median spine on the lower face is often larger than the others which do not appear in all corallites of any one section. In the Clermont specimen the septal spines appear most frequently as dots (cross sections) in the longitudinal section, although they are present in several corallites in the transverse section. I was in some doubt whether these dots and projections were spines or due to recrystal- lisation, but in some the yellowish tinge characteristic of dead coral tissue can be observed, so that some if not all are spines. The most observed in one corallite in transverse section was five while Lecompte observed as many as eight in a para type (1936, p. 8). The number of tabulae varies greatly both in different specimens and in different parts of the same specimen. For the holotype Smith says they are less than 0-5 mm. apart. Lecompte says usually 25 in 10 mm., but that he observed up to 4 in a mm. in which case they were very regularly spaced. This then is a point in which the Clermont specimen differs from the European material for in it the tabulae are very irregularly spaced, varying from 2 mm. apart to 0-2 mm. apart. Locality: Por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Clermont, Queensland (Univ. of Q. coll. F. 3959). Genus Thamnopora Steininger. Thamnopora Steininger, 1831, p. 10. Pachypora Lindstrom, 1874, p. 14. Thamnopora Hill, 1937, p. 56. Genotype: Alveolites cervicornis de Blainville, 1830, p. 370, Middle Devonian, Eifel. Diagnosis: Ramose or laminar Tabulate corals in which the cylin- drical branches may be flattened and coalesced, the corallites are typically polygonal, and diverge from the axis of the branch and usually open normally to the surface; the corallite walls are dilated throughout, and the dilatation increases distally, typically the growth lamination in the sclerenchyme of the wall is obvious, while its fibrous nature is not; septal spines may or not be present and mural pores are usually large. (Emended from Hill 1937, p. 56.) Remarks: For synonomy and genolectotype see Hill, 1937, p. 56. Lindstrom, 1874, founded the genus Pachypora for a Silurian species, P. lamellicornis from Visby, Gotland. Later writers put other species including Alveolites cervicornis de Blainville, the genotype of Thanrno- pora in this genus. Lindstrom, 1896, disagreed with them stating that the structure of the sclerenchyme in Pachypora was essentially different 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. from that in other genera of the Favositidae. Hill, 1937, regarded Pachypora as a synonym of Thamnopora, observing that the growth lamination obscured the fibrous nature of the walls. Lecompte, 1936 pp. 9-34, examined the type of “ Favosites ” cervicomis (which after- wards in 1939, he referred to Thamnopora) and specimens of Lind- strom’s own material of P. lamellicornis. He figured thin sections of the walls of both, some highly magnified, and discussed the wall structure in detail. He concluded, p. 30, that probably Pachypora is distinct from Thamnopora on the basis that the structure of the sclerenchyme in Thamnopora is a layer with a structure “en barbes de plumes, ” i.e., like the feathers of a quill, and another layer with a radiating fibrous struc- ture, while the structure in Pachypora is finely laminated concentric to the calices. I have had the opportunity of examining only a few sections of T. cervicomis but after careful study of Lecompte ’s reasoning and of his excellent plates and study of thin sections of topotypes of P. lamellicornis I am of the opinoin that there is no essential difference between the structure of the two genera, that while the structure in P. lamellicornis is finer than in T. cervicomis both are produced by recrystallisation making the growth laminae more conspicuous than the fibrous trabecular structure, and that this suppression of the fibrous structure has proceeded further in P. lamellicornis. This is the inter- pretation expressed by Miss Hill, 1937, p. 56, and in correspondence with M. Lecompte but is not accepted by the latter. An important paper by Bryan and Hill, 1941, shows this interpre- tation to be correct. They show that in Hexacorals the mechanism of growth is spherulitic, each trabecula of the vertical skeletal elements and each horizontal element being a spherulite, plumose and pilose aggregates respectively. They point out, further, that while the skeleton of the Kugosa, the Tabulata and Heliolitida are ealcite and were pre- sumably deposited as calcite (not aragonite as in the Hexacorals) they are fibrous and their septa trabeculate and thus it may safely be assumed by analogy that their* skeletons were produced by spherulitic crystallisa- tion. Two types of concentric lamellar banding, which interrupt the fibres, were observed by them in Hexacorals, the larger, more conspicuous and less regular of which they consider due to irregular growth of the organism, and the smaller, more delicate and remarkably regular alternations as due to rhythmic deposition of skeletal material, the rhythm being induced by alternate periods of quiescence and active feeding during the hours of daylight and darkness. Thus Thamnopora must originally have had a fibrous structure m common with the rest of the Tabulata, and it is easy to understand that recrystallisation would obscure that structure so that the rhythmic lamination would be relatively more prominent. At Clermont two species of Thamnopora occur. One of these is close to T. meridionalis (Nicholson and Etheridge). As no description of the latter has appeared since 1892 and as I have had the opportunity of examining some of Etheridge’s original material, the species is redescribed and figured here : Thamnopora meridionalis (Nicholson and Etheridge). PI. I, figs. 4-6. Pachypora meridionalis Nicholson and Etheridge 1879, p. 280, pi. xiv, figs. 4-4c. Etheridge 1892, p. 51, pi. 2, figs. 10-15. DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 47 Syntypes: Nicholson and Etheridge’s syntypes are in the British Museum (Natural History) Nos. 90239a, b, 90241 and are unobtainable at the present time owing to the European war. The species is inter- preted here on specimens which were figured with the syntypes by Etheridge, 1892, on other specimens named by Etheridge, and additional material from Burdekin Downs. These specimens are in the collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland, F. 1645 (Etheridge fig. 15), F. 1651 (fig. 14), D3 and D6 (sections only) and in the collection of the University of Queensland. Another specimen apparently named by Etheridge is labelled D3 but is not the one from which the section D3 was cut. It is excluded from T. meridionalis as it is a much larger form. Diagnosis: Thamnopora branching dichotomously at distant intervals, with small corallites, no septa, few but large mural pores and few but complete tabulae. Description of Etheridge’s Specimens: The two figured specimens differ in the diameter of the branches, one being 2 mm., the other 8 nun. All the coralla are embedded in limestone. Dichotonous branching can be observed in one place. The sections show the diameter of the corallites to be about 0-5 mm. in the axial region, increasing rapidly when the corallites diverge towards the surface of the coralla, to reach a diameter of 0*75 mm. at the calices. The diameter of the calices is greatly reduced by thickening and their original polygonal outline is not always dis- cernible. The calices are only slightly oblique, opening almost at right angles to the surface. The cor alii te walls are thickened throughout, slightly in the axial region, but the thickening increases rapidly towards the calices. Septa are absent. Mural pores are rare and apparently irregularly disposed. They are placed in the walls of the corallites, are circular and large. The tabulae are few, irregularly distributed, thin, complete, sometimes 0-5 mm. apart. Remarks: Nicholson and Etheridge record this species from the Fanning River, Burdekin Dowms, Arthur’s Creek (Burdekin Downs), and Regan’s, Northern Railway; Middle Devonian. A variety (described below) occurs at Clermont. T. meridionalis is very close to T. (?) vermicular is (McCoy) as described and figured by Leeompte 1939. In the latter, however, the calices are smaller and very oblique, characters in which the Clermont variety resembles it more closely. T. meridionalis is smaller than T. duhia (de Blainville). Thamnopora meridionalis: (Nicholson and Etheridge), var minor var. nov. PI. I, figs. 7. This variety differs from T. meridionalis in branching more fre- quently; the average diameter of the branches appears smaller, some being as small as 1*5 mm., while the largest observed is 6 mm. wide and 2 mm. thick, but about 2 mm. is the most usual; branches are more frequently flattened ; the calices are much more oblique being like those of T. (?) venmioularis in this respect. The diameter of the corallites is also smaller, being 0-25 mm. in the axial portion and almost 0-5 mm. at the calices. This variety is also very like an undescribed form from Buchan, Victoria, but in the latter the corallites open almost at right angles to the surface. 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Locality: Por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Clermont. (F. 4039, F. 4044, F4045, University of Queensland collection.) Thamnopora foliata sp. nov. PL II, figs. 1-3. Pachypora meridionalis Richards and Bryan 1924, pi. xvi, fig. 2; non Nicholson and Etheridge 1879. Holotype: F. 4104. University of Queensland collection; from near Oakey Creek, Silverwood, Queensland, Couvinian. Diagnosis: Thamnopora , in the form of thin undulating laminae which may bifurcate. Corallites small and diverging from an undulating surface. Corallite walls greatly dilated except for a narrow zone at the axis. Corallites polygonal to round or slightly elliptical at the axis, round at the periphery. Septa absent. Mural pores small and rare. Tabulae complete, rare. Description: The corallum is in the form of thin laminae, 3 to 6 mm. thick. The laminae are mainly undulating but sometimes take a sharp turn of about a right angle. The laminae may divide dichoto- mously but, as far as observation of limited material indicates, only rarely. The corallites diverge outwards in both directions from the median surface of the laminae ; in the centre of the laminae the corallites run parallel to the median surface, this layer consisting of usually two or three, but sometimes four corallites; these usually turn sharply at right angles so that the calices are only slightly or not at all oblique ; in some parts, however, the corallites diverge at an angle as low as 60 degrees to the median surface, and the calices are then oblique. In this median portion of the laminae the corallite walls are thin or slightly dilated. The corallites expand considerably in diameter when they diverge from the axial surface and the walls become greatly dilated. In the undilated axial region the corallites are rounded rarely polygonal or oval, about 0-25 mm. in diameter; at the surface their diameter is about 0-75 mm., but the walls are about 0-2 mm. thick, leaving the lumen about 0-35 mm. in diameter. On the surface or in a tangential section the calices appear as round openings set in the dilatation of the walls. Septa are absent. Mural pores are rare and have only been observed as occasional breaks in the wall in the median portions of cross sections of laminae. Complete horizontal tabulae can occasionally be observed. Remarks: I have had great difficulty in determining the genus to which this form should be referred. In external appearance it agrees very closely with “ Coenites expansus ” de Koninck, and only thin sections show it to be distinct from the latter. The difficulties were increased in two ways — first the loss by fire of the de Koninck ’s types and the fact that all topotypes of C. expansus that I have examined are silicified and badly preserved, and secondly the genus Coenites has not been redescribed from thin sections of topotypic material. Eichwald, 1829, created the genus and described two species C. juniperinus and C. intertextus. He gave a short description and a figure of C. intertextus ; the genolectotype is C. juniperinus (see Bassler 1915, p. 254) topotypic material of which has never been figured. Forms identified as C. juniperinus from other localities have been described and figured by several authors ; these agree with Eichwald ’s description in being lamellar and having semi-circular or triangular calices. Lecompte (1933, p. 10, 1939, p. 62) summarised DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 49 the earlier work and gives the following diagnosis: ‘ ‘ Corallum tabulate branching, lamellae or massive, but in this last case finely zoned. Corallites conical, with very limited development, in consequence of the rapid thickening of the walls, leading to the progressive constriction of the visceral chambers and causing a precocious senility. Caliees semi- lunar or horseshoe shaped. Tabulae few. Mural pores rare. Septa occa- sionally represented by three processes in the calices.” In the absence of a description and figures of the genolectotype I am following Lecompte’s diagnosis. It should be noted, however, that this diagnosis excludes such forms as Coenites seriatopora (Ed. and H.) (see Oakley 1936, p. 20). On this diagnosis Coenites bears a similar relationship to Alveolites as does Thamnopora to Favosites , except that the corallites of Coenites are of more restricted development than in Thamnopora. Thus Thamnopora foliaita is like Coenites in its growth form and like Thamnopora in all other characters, and I therefore propose to emend the diagnosis of Thamnopora , as above p. 45, to include laminar and encrusting forms. The holotype was figured by Richards and Bryan (1924, pi. xvi, fig. 2) as Pachypora meridionalis the identification being made without thin sections and the crystallinity of the limestone obscuring the fact that the corallum is laminar. Localities: Por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Clermont (F. 4037, F. 4038, 4040, 4041, 4042, 4043, Univ. of Q. collection), near Oaky Creek, Silver- wood, Q. (F. 4104, Univ. of Q, collection) ; Limestone Siding, Silverwood, Q. (F. 4356, Univ. of Q. collection). Genus Striatopora Hall. Striatopora Hall 1851, p. 400. Genotype (by monotypy) : S. flexuosa Hall,. 1851, p. 400. Diagnosis: Favositidae with the corallites diverging from an axis or a plane at an angle which is at first acute but rapidly increases to, in some species, 90 degrees but in other species considerably less. The walls are undilated in the axial portions but much dilated towards the surface. Septa are absent in the undilated portions but occur in the dilated portions as short lamellae which may break into spines on the axial edges. Neither lamellae nor spines extend beyond the dilated zone. Tabulae and mural pores are present. Remarks: Many species have been ascribed to this genus but few thin sections have been figured, and many species which belong else- where have been placed in it. The presence of ridges or of striations in the calices has been taken as an important diagnostic character but few appear to have recognised them as lamellar septa although Lind- strom suggested this (1896, p. 21). The above diagnosis is based on sections of topotypic material of the genotype and topotypic material of S. halli Lindstrom. The diagnostic characters have usually been taken to be first oblique much expanded calices and second striations (septal lamellae) in the calyx. These characters are present in S. flexuosa the expanded calices being mainly the result of the obliquity of the calices. In sections septal lamellae can be seen in the calices and also occasionally in the dilated parts of the corallites. In 8. halli the corallites open at right angles to the surface so that the calices are not much expanded, but the corallites increase considerably 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. in size on diverging from the axis. The corallum is much larger than in 8. flexuosa, as are the corallites though the calices are smaller; the septal lamellae are longer and more numerous. In both species dilatation of the walls is absent or almost so until the corallites turn towards the surface when it increases very rapidly, nearly filling the corallites. The expanded cup-shaped nature of the calices with the dilatation and septal striae have generally been taken as the generic characters, but the first of these must be omitted if 8. JialU is to be retained in the genus. In any case it seems to me to be a character more of specific than generic value. Similar expanded calices occur in some species of Thamnopora. Thus the essential difference between Thamnopora 'and Striatopora is the presence of lamellar septa in the latter. All other characters are essentially the same. Figures of 8. flexuosa and 8. halli are included for comparative purposes (PI. 1, figs. 8, 9). In both 8. flexuosa and 8. halli the trabeculae are holacanthine and strong and thick; in the Clermont species the material is not well enough preserved to allow of determination. Tripp (1933, pp. 131-2, pi. xvi, figs. 5-7, text figs. 50, 51) described and figured two varieties of 8. halli from Groganshuvfud, Gotland, in which there is progressively less dilatation and increase in size of the calices. He missed, however, the all-important point that the septal spines have lamellar bases. Two species from Clermont are doubtfully placed in Striatopora. The preservation is such that, in spite of the examination of several sections of each, it is impossible to be certain that septal lamellae are present. It seems probable however that they are present. Striatopora? hillae *sp. nov. * In recognition of Dr. Dorothy Hill’s excellent and extensive work on the coral faunas of Australia. PL II, fig. 4. Holotype: The specimen in the collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland H. 101 with two sections from Douglas Creek, Clermont. Upper Couvinian. Diagnosis: Striatopora f with coralla of large diameter and with the cor alii te walls excessively dilated near the calices, and large, distant, uniserial mural pores. Description : The corallum is up to 4 cm. in length and varies from 8 to 20 mm. in diameter. The coralla are embedded in matrix and branching has not been observed. The corallites are polygonal, but rounded internally by thickening in the peripheral parts, little rounded in the axial; 0-5 to 0-75 mm. in diameter at the axis, expanding rapidly towards the surface of the coralla so that they reach 1 to 1*5 mm. in diameter; they curve away from the axis slightly at first then rapidly so that the calices are only slightly oblique. The dilatation of the corallites is slight in the axial part of the corallum but increases very rapidly towards the calices so that the calices are reduced to one third or less of the diameter of the corallites. Septa are probably represented by short lamellae but no spines are present. The mural pores are large, circular, distant and in one row. The tabulae are thin and complete, about nine in a space of 5 mm. DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 51 Remarks: Whether this species should be placed in Striatopora or Thamnopora turns on the presence or absence of septal lamellae. It is unfortunate that the preservation does not allow this to be determined with certainty, but the evidence seems to me to favour their presence. It is remarkable, however, that the lamellae if present do not break into spines on the axial edges. The rapidity with which the dilatation of the eorallite walls increases once the corallites have diverged from the axis is a conspicuous feature and in this the species approaches S. halli , with which it is also comparable in size of corallum and of corallites. It differs from S. halli in not having septal spines and in having one row of large mural pores instead of one or frequently two rows of small pores. I know of no other species with which it is closely comparable. Locality: Por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Clermont. (Univ. of Q. coll. F. 3985) ; Douglas Creek, Clermont (Geol. Sur. of Q. coll. H. 101). Striatopora? plumosa f sp. nov. t Plumosus, a, urn, feathered, alluding to the frequent plume like appearance of the corallum on natural sections. PL I, fig. 5. Hololype: The specimen F. 3987 (two sections) Univ. of Q. collection, from Por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Clermont, Upper Couvinian. Diagnosis: Striatopora f with cor alia of fairly large size, with the eorallite walls moderately dilated towards the calices and very short lamellar septa breaking into spines on the axial edge. Mural pores are rare but large and uniserial. The tabulae are complete and fairly numerous. Description: Coralla up to 3 cm. in length and 1 cm. in diameter have been observed though smaller than these dimensions are more common. The diameter of the corallites is 0-5 to 0*75 mm. and the walls are slightly dilated in the axial portion and moderately dilated in the peripheral portion. The crystalline and muddy nature of the matrix makes the observation of the type of septa difficult. Septal spines are undoubtedly present and numerous, and while the evidence is not con- clusive, it seems almost certain that the spines have very short lamellar bases. The tabulae are complete, horizontal or concave about 15 in 5 mm. Remarks: As with Striatopora f hillae there is difficulty in deciding whether this species should be placed in Striatopora . With the poor state of preservation it is impossible to be certain whether or not the septa have lamellar bases but the balance of evidence is that very short lamellar bases are present and it is therefore doubtfully placed in Striatopora. Both Sf hillae and St plumosa are larger than most species of the genus although smaller than 8. halli. In S. f plumosa the eorallite walls are much less dilated than usual. Locality: Por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Clermont. University of Q. collection, F. 3987. F. 3988 (each specimen consists of a dozen or more coralla). Upper Couvinian. Genus Gephuropora Etheridge. non Columnopora Nicholson 1874, 1875 (a), (b), 1879 which he later stated to be Calapoecia Billings. Columnopora ( Gephuropora ) Etheridge 1920, pp. 2-6, pis, xiv, xv. Columnopora Lecompte 1939, p. 95. Genotype: (by monotypy) G. duni, Etheridge, 1920, p. 6, pis. xiv, xv, from the Devonian of Cavan, N.S.W. 52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL. SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Diagnosis: Tabulate corals in which small longitudinal tabulate tubules occur in some of the corners of the corallites and more rarely in the common wall of two corallites. The septa are spinose but probably have short lamellar bases. Mural pores are present. Remarks: The Australian material is sufficiently well preserved to show the larger structures, such as septa, well, but insufficiently so to show definitely the microscopic structure of the skeleton. Thus the determination of the relationships of Gephuropora is exceedingly difficult. Billings, 1865, proposed Calapoecia for three Ordovician species of Canadian corals but gave no figures. Nicholson, 1874, proposed Columnopora for certain Ordovician Canadian corals and later, 1875 (a), (b), 1879, described and figured these again, but in 1889 after an examination of some of Billings’s material he agreed that they are con- generic. Rominger in 1876 (see Lang, Smith and Thomas, p. 231) distributed page proofs of his 1876 [ ?1877] work, proposing Houghtonia, genotype H. huronica, but in the completed work, 1876 [ ?1877] he noted this to be a synonym of Columnopora Nicholson. Etheridge, 1920, thought Gephuropora to be closely allied to, if not identical with, Columnopora Nicholson. Lecompte, 1939, described three species from the Couvinian of the Ardennes which he referred to Columnopora Nicholson. He does not discuss its relationship to Calapoecia Billings and had not apparently seen Cox’s, 1936, revision of that genus. These three species are here regarded as congeneric with Gephuropora. Gephuropora appears at first sight very like a massive Favosites but the presence of tubules in the angles and sides of the corallites at once distinguishes it. The corallites are polygonal like those of a Favosites and the young corallites when they appear are three or four sided, the sides rarely being slightly curved, with the concavity towards the interior of the young corallite. In longitudinal sections where a corallite wall is cut tangentially it presents an aspect unusual in the Favositidae ; little work has been done on the microscopic skeletal structure of the Favositidae but from limited observations of my own, it appears that the epitheca consists of a narrow zone of fibres which diverge from the median dark line. These fibres may be continuations of the fibres of septal trabeculae or may be independant of any trabeculae. No observations have been made to show that a granular layer is present as in the epitheca of simple and possibly some compound Rugosa. When a longitudinal section is tangential to the wall these fibres appear in cross section as a multitude of minute dots giving a uniform texture, interrupted, if septal spines are present by much larger circular dots with a fibrous radial structure. Thus each septal spine appears to consist of one trabecula. In Gephuropora the wall, while having the uniform texture and, in parts, cross sections of septal spines, is in other parts disconnectedly streaky in a longitudinal direction as in most Rugosa. In the Rugosa the streaky appearance is due to the trabeculae of the septa being so close together (or alternately the fibres of the trabeculae so long) that the fibres of adjacent trabeculae unite forming a continuous vertical plate, the streaks in the section being the bases of these plates. In Gephuropora there are two possible explanations. First the individual trabeculae forming the septal spines may assume a vertical or almost vertical direction on meeting the wall and continue downwards in the wall for some distance; or second the septa may consist of a very narrow lamellar portion in which inclined trabeculae are in contact, with either some of the trabeculae projecting beyond the DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 53 lamellar portion forming spines or else on the axial edges of the lamellae the radiating fibres of the trabeculae are shorter than those in the lamellar portions so that spines are formed. In the first case there would be discontinuous lamellar bases to the septa, each such lamellar base consisting of one, more or less vertical but probably compound trabecula; in the second the longitudinal streaks would consist of oblique sections of trabeculae in contact. The longitudinal streaks are so close together that it seems that the trabeculae in the lamellar bases must be compound. Better preserved material is required before more definite statements can be made on this subject. Lecompte, 1939, did not recognise lamellar septa in his species. Nicholson, 1874, Lambe, 1899, and Cox, 1936, all describe the septa of Calapoecia as being short lamellae, spinose on the inner edge. The only other Pavositidae in which I have observed this wall structure is in those with lamellar septa as Angopora Jones, 1936, Striatopora Hall and in Favosites goldfussi d’Orb. from the Eifel. The wall of Silurian species of Favosites never in my experience shows this structure. Whether or not it is general in Devonian species I am unable to say, as of the Devonian material at my disposal only that from the Eifel is well enough preserved to show the structure of the wall. The septal spines of Gephuropora are conical in shape with a broad base and sharply pointed, sometimes directed slightly upward. This description applies equally to the spines in Calapoecia but in the latter the septa are “typically twenty” (Cox 1926, diagnosis p. 2). Cox also says, p. 2: “The writer is able to state that in all the specimens of this genus he has examined the number of septa is constantly twenty” (this is the case in the one specimen of which I have thin sections) whereas in Gephuropora it is not possible to state how many septa there are in a cycle because they are very sporadically distributed as in Favosites. Thus parts of some sections, both transverse and longitudinal, of Gephuropora as is also the case in Favosites (except those with long and abundant septa) show no septa at all. Rarely in Gephuropora lamellar septa are suggested in transverse section by the wall appearing like a string of beads as in Angopora. In Calapoecia , as Cox states, the lamellar bases of the septa can be seen in sections and as ridges in weathered specimens. Cox, 1936, examined a large number of specimens of Calapoecia including Billings’s and Nicholson’s material and he says there is “no true wall and the corallites are bounded by an open lattice work of septal elements, recognisable in either longitudinal or transverse sections by the radiation of fibres which constitute them” (p. 8), and “conse- quently the corallite boundary must be considered as a cribriform stereozone” (p. 21). In the Rugosa a tangential section of the epitheca shows, between the trabeculae which are the bases of the septa, innumer- able cross sections of the minute fibres normal either to the median dark line or the dissepiments; this is the case also in Favosites (except possibly F. goldfussi) , but in Calapoecia the fibres of adjacent trabeculae do not meet except at regular intervals where the septal lamella give rise to spines with so broad a base that they usually unite laterally forming cross bars. The spaces bounded by these cross bars and the septal lamellae are the “mural pores.” Thus the “mural pores” in Calapoecia are spaces between the septal elements; in Favosites they are holes piercing the wall fibres. The material of Gephuropora and F. goldfussi is not good enough to determine if there are fibres between the trabeculae (if such they be) or not, but in any case the mural pores pierce the 54 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. trabeculae and any fibres which exist between them. Further in Calapoecia the “mural pores” pierce a median stereozone (see Jones and Hill 1940, footnote p. 194), whereas in Favosites and Gephuropora the mural pores pierce the epitheca. Thus the “mural pores” of Calapoecia are not a structure analogous to the mural pores of Gephuropora and Favosites. Cox found a continuous gradation between Calapoecia canadensis with the corallites in contact and no “ coenenchyme ” to C. anticostiensis with circular corallites, “costae” and a “coenenchyme” of tabulae. The question arises whether the tubules of Gephuropora represent the “coenenchyme” of Calapoecia. At first sight this appears probable especially as two af Nicholson’s figures (1879, pi. vii, figs. 2a, 2b) are very like transverse sections of Gephuropora, except that they show tubules not only piercing the median dark line of the walls but also “accompanied by smaller rounded and definite vacuities (PI. vii, fig. 2b) which are situated in the substance of the walls themselves.” This has not been observed in any transverse sections of Gephuropora (although the tubules are not invariably right in the centre of the wall), but in one instance in a longitudinal section a tubule after following the median line of the wall for some distance diverged from it for a short distance. In Gephuropora the tubules have tabulae at distant and irregular intervals. Etheridge says of the tubules (p. 4) “the walls of these circular bodies are identical in structure with the primordial walls of the corallites, and also have a stereoplasmic thickening.” This is strongly supported though not definitely proved by my own observa- tions. There is also some evidence of mural pores piercing the walls of tubules. It appears then almost certain that the tubules of Gephuropora were occupied by coral tissue. Cox, 1936, examined Nicholson’s specimens of Columnopora and agreed with Nicholson and Lambe that it is identical with Calapoecia, placing Columnopora crib rif or mis Nicholson as a synonym of Calapoecia canadensis, i.e. Calapoecia with no “coenenchyme.” He says the “intra- mural vacuities” (i.e. the “intramural canals” of Nicholson resembling according to Nicholson’s figures, the tubules of Gephuropora) in Nicholson ’s material and his own material of C. canadensis do not always occur in the wall but usually near it; they are in longitudinal section circular to inflated vermiform, and show no structure. He thinks they may be due to some boring animal. If Cox’s interpretation is correct then the tubules of Gephuropora cannot be the same as! the ‘ 4 intramural vacuities” of Calapoecia canadensis but they may still be a much reduced “coenenchyme” like that in C. anticostiensis, but the evidence is that the wall of Gephuropora has a structure like that of Angopora or a “Favosites” with lamellar bases to the septal spines and must therefore be regarded as an epitheca not as a cribriform stereozone such as that of Calapoecia. Gephuropora must therefore be regarded as distinct from Calapoecia. The tubules of the three species described by Lecompte have tabulae so that they may be regarded as congeneric with Gephuropora. Gephuropora duni Etheridge. PI. II, fig. 6 ; pi. Ill, figs. 1-4. Gephuropora duni R. Etheridge jun. 1920 pp. 2-6, pis. xiv, xv. Holotype: Etheridge’s material was probably in the Mining Museum, Sydney, but cannot be traced. The horizon of his material is uncertain but the species is interpreted upon specimens some of which are probably topotypes. DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 55 Diagnosis: Gephuropora in which the corallites are large, septal spines irregularly developed and tubules very irregularly distributed and variable in size. Description: The external form of the corallum is unknown as only fragments have been found, but it was massive and probably the corallites radiated from a point. The corallites are usually of two orders of size, the larger being about 2 mm. in diameter and the smaller 1-5 mm. The corallites are polygonal but may be rounded by thickening, the walls being moderately thin to thick. The wall wherever cut tangentially has a streaky appearance suggesting trabeculae and lamellar bases to the septa. The septal spines are very variable in development, some parts of a corallum being almost free while other parts show many spines. In form they are usually short blunt spines with a broad base and occur at the same level in contiguous corallites ; but longer sharp spines occur in parts and they may alternate in contiguous corallites. The mural pores are large and numerous, typically in two rows which may, but usually do not, alternate, sometimes in one or three rows. The tabulae are usually regular, rarely incomplete, horizontal, inclined or flexuous, usually about 12 in 5 mm., but there may be as many as 22. The tubules vary in number in different parts of the same corallum and in different coralla. They occur more frequently in the angles but also in the sides. They are circular and in size vary from 0-2 mm. to 0*5 mm. Tabulae are rarely and irregularity developed in the tubules. Remarks: The above description is based on specimens from Cler- mont, Cavan and Buchan. There is considerable variation from specimen to specimen but so much variation occurs in individual speci- mens that I consider they are best treated as one variable species. The Clermont specimens are moderately thin walled, while most of the Cavan specimens are thick walled but one is quite thin walled. The Buchan specimen is thin in one part but thick in another. The variation in the development of septa is similar. The Buchan specimen was previously recorded by the writer, 1937, p. 98, as Favosites multitabulata Jones. This error was due to the fact that no tubules appear in the transverse part of the section while the few which show in one part only of the longitudinal were mistaken for cavities caused by some boring animal. F. multitabulata is not known to exist at Buchan. Of the three species described by Lecompte from the Bassin du Dinant, G. durii is closest to 1 1 C olumnopora” maillieuxi but differs in having smaller corallites, tubules in the walls of the corallites as well as the angles, more septa, more mural pores and more numerous tabulae. Localities: Por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Clermont, Queensland, F. 3959-62 (Univ. of Q. collection). Other specimens studied are from the Limestone near the Yass end of the Taemas Bridge, Cavan, N.S.W., the “Currajong” limestone 0-7 miles from the Taemas Bridge towards Wee Jasper, the “ Bluff limestone 0-5 miles from the Taemas Bridge towards Wee Jasper, Cavan, N.S.W. (Lower Middle Devonian). Lecompte ’s species came from the Lower and Upper Couvinian, “ C olumnopora” maillieuxi being from the Upper Couvinian. Genus Scoliopora Lang, Smith and Thomas. Alveolites Milne-Edwards and Haime 1851, p. 258, pars. Plagiopora Gurich 1896, p. 143. Plagiopora Lecompte 1939, p. 139. Scoliopora Lang, Smith and Thomas 1940, pp. 101, 118. 56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Genotype: Alveolites denticulatm Milne-Edwards and Ilaime, 1851; p. 258, pi. xvi, fig. 4. Devonian, Bensberg, Westphalia, Germany. Diagnosis (as given by Lecompte) : Tabulate coral, branching or lamellar, with calices furnished with one to three spiniform projections generally elongated transversely and opening perpendicularly to the surface. Walls thickened distally. Mural pores numerous. Tabulae distant in the axis of the colonies, crowded outside them. Increase by fission. Remarks: This genus was founded by Gurich, 1896, for two species • — Alveolites denticulatus Ed. and H. 1851, p. 258, and Plagiopora dziwkiensis n. sp. Gurich gave a short diagnosis. The genus is apparently rare and until Lecompte, 1939, no author has described the genus in detail though Gurich, 1909, Lebedew, 1902, Cowper Reed, 1908 and 1922, Sobolew, 1909, and Lecompte, 1939, recorded species. Lecompte, 1939, describes the genus, three species and a variety, in detail with figures of thin sections. He was unable to find the holotype of A. denticnlatv\s Ed. and H. in the Yerneuil collection nor were thin sections of topotypes existing in that collection available. Nevertheless there appears little doubt that Lecompte ’s material belongs to this genus. In his diagnosis Lecompte indicates that the thickening of the walls increases distally but shows in his description of the species that this character varies, thus in S. kaisini he says (p. 145) “Parois pen epaisses, a renflenment distal nul ou peu accentue. ’ 7 Lang, Smith and Thomas, 1940, point out that Plagiopora is pre- occupied for a Tertiary Polyzoan and propose the name Scoliopora in its place. Scoliopora flex a* sp. nov. * flexus — winding. PI. Ill, fig. 5. Holotype: Specimen in the collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland, 66, from the Lower Middle Devonian of Douglas Creek, Clermont. Diagnosis: Lamellar, encrusting Scoliopora, with the corallite walls uniformly thickened throughout their length or with a slight increase of thickening distally. Calices circular or meandrine rarely kidney shaped. Mural pores rare, circular, in one row. Tabulae thin, complete pre- dominating, rarely incomplete and inosculating. Description: The external form is difficult to discern as the corallum is embedded in limestone. It is probably lamellar and encrusting with the eorallites frequently changing their direction of growth so that one surface may present both transverse and longitudinal sections of eorallites. The walls of the eorallites are usually thickened uniformly throughout their length, but rarely there is an increase in thickening distally. The thickness ranges from 0-12 mm. to 0-75 mm. The calices open perpendicularly to the surface, are circular, oval, meandrine or occasionally kidney shaped. The diameter of the circular calices ranges from 0-25 mm. to 04 mm., while the meandrine ones may be as long as 2-5 mm. and as wide as 1 mm. The dilatation of the walls frequently reduces the width of the lumen to half or less than half the width of the eorallites. Septa are absent. A thick spiniform projection occasionally present. The mural pores appear in only one place in three sections where they are small circular and apparently in one row. The tabulae are thin and nearly always complete though odd ones are incomplete and inosculating. DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 57 Remarks: Only one specimen of this species has been found at Clermont. There is some slight doubt in my mind as to whether it should be referred to Scoliopora. Scoliopora as interpreted and illus- trated by Lecompte has calices mostly shaped like those of Coenites, whereas in flexa the calices are mostly circular or meandrine. Further the species of Scoliopora described by Lecompte have one to three spines well developed but in flexa it is only rarely that a spine is seen. Mural pores are much more numerous in the species described by Lecompte. Lecompte ’s species are from the Give ti an and Frasnian. Locality: Douglas Creek, Clermont (Geol. Surv. Qld. 66). Family Syringoporidae. Genus Syringopora Goldfuss. Syringopora Goldfuss, 1826, p. 75. Genotype: S. ramulosa Goldfuss, Carboniferous, Olne, near Limber, Germany. Syringopora cf. spelaeanus Etheridge. PI. Ill, fig. 6. Syringopora spelaeanus Etheridge, 1902, p. 258. Pis. xxxvii, fig. 2, pi. xxxviii. Remarks: One poorly preserved specimen which is probably S. spelaeanus is in the Geological Survey of Queensland collection (66). Etheridge described, and figured externals of this species from Cave Flat, Murrumbidgee R., and I have examined thin sections of a specimen collected by Miss Hill from the same horizon at Wee Jasper which agree well with Etheridge’s description. The Clermont specimen is highly crystalline but the size, appearance and what little can be seen of internal structure agree with the Murrumbidgee material. The specimen from Wee Jasper and Etheridge’s description of the Cave Flat specimens suggest a relationship of S. spelaeanus to S. eifeliensis Schluter, 1889, p. 167, pi. xv, figs. 1-5. The size is similar but while S. spelaeanus has very short lamellar septa broken into spines on the axial edge, S. eifeliensis, judging by Schluter ’s description and figure (PL xv, fig 5) has spines alternating with short lamellae, so that it is possibly a Rugose coral, minor septa being unknown in the Tabulata. (Etheridge did not mention the lamellar septa of S. spelaeanus apparently not having examined thin sections. Etheridge compares the species with S. abdita de Verneuil (Edwards and ILaime 1851. p. 295, pi. 15, fig. 4) but points out that the latter has many fewer septa. Lecompte (1939, p. 168) records a slightly smaller form as S. eifeliensis Schluter from the Upper Givetian but says it has no septa, being thus distinguished from S. abdita de Verneuil. Locality: Douglas Creek, Clermont, por. 73, Par. Copperfield, Geol. Surv. Q. 66. Acknowledgments: I am indebted to Mr. Ball, Chief Government Geologist of Queensland and to Dr. Ida Brown of the Sydney University for the loan of specimens, to the authorities of the British Museum (Natural History), and the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, for the loan of sections, to Dr. R. S. Bassler of the Smithsonian Institution and Dr. Alice Wilson of the Department of Mines and Resources, Canada, for the gift of material without which the work could not have been carried out. Discussion with Dr. Dorothy Hill, especially on matters affecting the microscopic structure of the skeleton, has been very valuable. The photographs are the work of Mr. E. V. Robinson. R.S. — G. 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bassler, R. S., 1915. “ Bibliographic Index of American Ordovician and Silurian Fossils. ’ p Bull. U.S. Nat Mus., XCII (1), pp. viii 4- 1-718; (2) pp. iv + 719-1521, pis. I-IV. > \ J RP Billings, E., 1865. ‘ ‘ Notice of some new genera and species of Palaeozoic Fossils.” Can. Nat. and Geol., N.S., 11. de Blainville, H. M. D., 1830. Article Zoophytes in 1 1 Dictionaire des Sciences Naturelle,” Yol. lx, pp. 1-546. Bryan, W. H., and Hill, D., 1941. 1 1 Spherulitic Crystallisation as a Mechanism of Skeletal Growth in the Hexacorals. ’ ’ Proc. Roy. Soe. Qld. Chapman, F., 1914. “ Newer Silurian Fossils of Eastern Victoria. ’ 7 Parts III. Rees. Geol. Surv. Viet., iii., pp. 301-316, pis. xlvi-lxi. Cox, I., 1936. ‘ c Revision of the Genus Calapoecia Billings.” Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. No. 80, Geological Series No. 53. Eichwald, C. E. von, 1829. “Zoologia Specialis ...” I, pp. vi + 1-314, pis. i-v Vilna. Etheridge, R., 1892. In Jack & Etheridge, “ Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland and New Guinea.” Brisbane, 1892. Etheridge, R., 1899. “Descriptions of New or Little Known Victorian Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Fossils No. 1.” Prog. Rept. Geol. Surv. Victoria, No. XI. Etheridge, R., 1902. “Additions to the Middle Devonian and Carboniferous Corals in the Australian Museum.” Rec. Aust. Mus., Vol. IV, No. 7, pp. 253-262, pis. xxxvii-xl. Etheridge, R., 1920. “Further Additions to the Coral Fauna of the Devonian and Silurian of New South Wales ...” Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Vol. ix pt. 2, pp. 55-63, pis. XIII-XV. Frech, F., 1886. “Die Cyathophylliden und Zaphrentiden des deutsehen Mittle- devon ...” Pal. Abband., 3, Heft. 3, pp. 117-233, pi. XIIX-XX. Goldfuss, G. A., 1826-1833. “Petrefacta Germaniae, ” 1, pp. 1-76, pis. i-xxv (1826); pp. 77-164, pis. xxvi-1 (1829); pp. 165-240, pis. li-lxxi (1831), pp. 241-252 (1833). Diisseldorf. GuricH', G., 1896. “Das Palaeozoicum im Polnisehen Mittelgebirge, ” Verhandl. der Russiscli-Kais. Mineral Gesellschaf t, zu St. Petersbourg. Zweite Serie, 32, 539 pp., 39 pi. GURICH, G., 1909. “ Leitf ossilien ...” Zweite Lieferung: Devon, pp. 97-199. Taf. 29-52. Berlin 1909. Hall, J., 1851. “New Genera of Fossil Corals from the Report by James Hall, on the Palaeontology of New York.” Amer. Jour. Sci., (2), XI, pp. 398-401. Hill, D., 1936. “Upper Devonian Corals from Western Australia.” Jour. Roy. Soc. W.A., Vol. XXII, pp. 25-38, pi. 1.. Hill, D., 1937. “The Permian Corals of Western Australia.” Jour. Roy. Soc. W.A., Vol. XXIII, 1937, pp. 43-63, pi. 1, text figs. 3-11. Hill, D., 1938. “The Devonian Rugose Corals of Lilydale and Loyola, Victoria.” Proc. Roy. Soc., Viet., Vol. LI, pt. 11, N.S. Hill, D., 1939 (a). “The Middle Devonian Corals of Queensland, I. Douglas Creek and Drummond Creek, Clermont District.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., Vol. L, No. 10, pp. 55-65, pis. IV-V, June 1939. Hill, D., 1939 (b). “Western Australian Devonian Corals in the Wade Collection.” Jour. Roy. Soc. W.A., Vol. XXV, pp. 141-149, plate 1. Hill, D., and Jones, O. A., 1940. “The Corals of the Garra Beds, Molong District, New South Wales.” Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. Vol. LXXIV, pp. 175-208, pis. II- VII. Jones, O. A., 1936. “The Controlling Effect of Environment upon the Corallum in Favosites, with a revision of some Massive Species on this Basis. ’ ’ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 10, vol. xvii, pp. 1-24, pis. i-iii; January 1936. Jones, O. A., 1937. “The Australian Massive Species of the Coral Genus Favo- sites.” Rec. Aust. Mus., Vol. XVII, pp. 1-24, pi. i-iii. Jones, O. A., and Hill, D., 1940. “The Heliolitidae of Australia, with a discussion of the Morphology and Systematic Position of the Family.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. Vol. LI, No. 12, pp. 183-215, pis. vi-xi. de Koninck, L. G., 1876. “Recherch.es sur les Fossiles Paleozoiques de la Nouvelles- Gelles du Sud (Australie). ” pp. 373, 8vo Atlas, pis. I-IV, 1876, pis. V-XXIV, 1877. Lamarck, J. B. P. A. de M. de, 1801. ...” pp. viii -f- 1-432, Paris. “Systeme des Animaux sans Vertebres DEVONIAN TABULATA OF DOUGLAS AND DRUMMOND CREEKS. 59 Lamarck, J. B. P. A. de; M. de, 1816 “Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, ” 11, pp. 1-568. Paris. Lambe, L. M., 1899. 4 4 Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology.” Vol. IV., Pt. 1, pp. 1-96, Pis. I-V, Geol. Surv. Canada. Lang, W. D., Smith, S., and Thomas, H. D., 1940. 44 Index of Palaeozoic Coral Genera.” British Museum (Nat. Hist), pp. v -f- 231. Lebedew, N., 1902. “Die Bedeutung der Korallen in den devonischen Ablagerung Busslands. ” Mem. Com. Geol., XVII, No. 2, 180 pp., 5 pis. Lecompte, M., 1933. 44 Le Genre Alveolites Lamarck . . .” Mem. Mus. Boy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belgique, No. 55, pp. 1-49, pis. i-iv. Lecompte, M., 1936. “Revision des Tabules Devoniens Deerits par Goldfuss.” Mem. Mus. Boy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belgique, No. 75, pp. 1-111, pis. I-XIV. Lecompte, M., 1939. “Les Tabules du Devonien Moyen ;et Superienr du Bord Sud du Bassin de Dinant. ” Mem. du Musee Royal d ’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique, Mem. No. 90, pp. 1-227, pis. I-XXIII. Lindstrom, G., 1873. “Nagra Anteckningar om Anthozoa tabulata. ” Kongl. Vetens-Akad. Firhandl. 1873, No. 4, pp. 3-20. Lindstrom, G., 1896. “ Beschreibung einiger obesilurische Korallen von der Insel Gotland. ’ ’ Biliang. Till k. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handlingar Bd. 21, Af d. IV. No. 7, pp. 23-32. Milne-Edwards, H., and Haime, J., 1851. “Mon. Pol. Terr. Pal.” Arch. Mus. d ’Hist. Nat. V, 502, pp., 20 pi. Nicholson, H. A., 1874. “On Columnopora, a New Genus of Tabulate Corals.” Geol. Mag. New Series, Vol. 11, pp. 253-4. Nicholson, H. A., 1875 (a). “Descriptions of the Corals of the Silurian and Devonian Systems. ’ ’ Bept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, 11, Geol. and Pal., pt. 11, Pal. Nicholson, H. A., 1875 (6). Bept. Pal. Province of Ontario, Pt. 11. Nicholson, H. A., 1879. “On the Structure and Affinities of the Tabulate Corals of the Palaeozoic Period.” Edinburgh. Nicholson, H. A., 1889, in Nicholson and Lydekker. “A Manual of Palaeon- tology.” Vol. 1, Third edition. Edinburgh and London. Nicholson, H. A., and Etheridge, R., 1879. “Description of Palaeozoic Corals from Northern Queensland.” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., September 1879. Oakley, K. P., 1936. “On the Wenlock Coral Coenttes seriotopora (H. M. Edwards and J. Haime).” Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1934, Pt. 11, pp. 20-27, pi. iii. d’ORBiGNY, A., 1850. “Prodrome de Paleontologie . . .” Paris. Reed, E. B. C., 1908. 4 4 The Devonian Forms of the Northern Shan States. ’ ’ Mem. Geol. Surv. India. Pal. Indiea, N.S. II, 5, 183 pp., 20 pi. Reed, F. B. C., 1922. 4 4 Devonian Fossils from the Chitral and the Pamirs. ’ ’ Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indiea, N.S. Vol. VI, No. 2, pp. V + 132, 1.6 pi. Richards, H. C., and Bryan, W. H., 1924. 4 4 The Geology of the Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area.” Preprint issued August 1924, pp. 44-100, pis. VII-XX of Proc. Boy Soc. Q. Vol. XXXVI, No. 6 for 1924, issued Feb. 1925. Rominger, C., 1876 [? 1877]. 4 4 Palaeontology. Fossil Corals.” Geol. Surv. Michigan, 111, (2) pp. 1-161, pis. I-IV. Schluter, C., 1889. “Anthozoen des rheinischen Mittel Devon. Abhandl. zur. geol. specialkarte von Preussenfund den Tliuringischen Staaten. Bd. viii, lift. 4. Smith, S., 1933. “Sur des especes nouvelles d ’Alveolites ...” Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord., T. LVII, pp. 134-143, pis. ii, iii. Smith, S., and Gullick, B., 1925. 4 4 The Genera Famo sites and Fmmonsia and the species Fmmonsia parasitiva (Phillips).” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), 15, pp. 116-126, pi. VIII. Sobolew, D., 1909. Mittel-Devon des Kielce'-Sandomir-Gebirges. Materialen zur Geologie Busslands. Hergaus-gegeben von der Kayseri. Miner. Gessells. Bd. XXIV., pp. 41-536, pi. II-VI. Steininger, J., 1831. 44 Bemerkungen iiber die Verspeiner ungen Welche in dem Uebergangs-Kalkgebirge der Eifel gefunden werden. ” p. 44. Trier. Tripp, K., 1933. 4 4 Die Favositen Gotlands. ’ ’ Palaeontographica Beitrage zet Naturgeschichte der vorzeit. Bd. LXXIX, Abt. A. 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. All figures by approximately 2 diameters unless otherwise stated. Plate I. Favo sites bryani Jones p. 42. Fig. 1. — F. 3964, University of Queensland. Douglas Creek, Clermont. Favosites nitidus Chapman p. 43. Fig. 2. — F. 3968, University of Queensland. Por. 73, Par Copperfield. 2a, trans- verse section, 2b longitudinal. Alveolites sub orbicularis Lamarck p. 44. Fig. 3. — F. 3959, University of Queensland. Por. 73, Par Copperfield. 3a, trans- verse, 3b longitudinal section. Tliamnopora meridionalis (Nich. and Eth.) p. 46. Fig. 4. — F. 4613, University of Queensland. Weathered surface showing type of branching. Slightly reduced. Fig. 5. — Section Ds. Geological Survey of Queensland. Arthur’s Creek, Burdekin Downs, Queensland. Transverse section of a branch. Fig. 6. — Section D6 Geological Survey of Queensland. Arthur’s Creek, Burdekin Downs, Queensland. Axial section of a branch. Tliamnopora meridionalis (Nieh. and Eth.) var. minor var. nov. p. 47. Fig. 7. — F. 4045, University of Queensland. Por. 73, Par. Copperfield. 7a. Tangential, 7b. axial section of a branch. Striatopora flexuosa Hall, p. 49. Fig. 8. — British Museum, R. 28492. Topotype. Lockport, N.Y. 8a. Section across a branch, 8b. axial section. Striatopora halli , Lindstrom p. 49. Fig. 9. — F. 5341, (University of Queensland). Gustavsvik, Gotland. Plate II. Tliamnopora foliata sp. nov. p. 48. Fig. 1. — F. 4104, University of Queensland. Limestone Siding, Silverwood. Holotype. Fig. 2. — F. 4042, University of Queensland. Por. 73, Par. Copperfield. Tangential section. Fig. 3. — F. 4038, University of Queensland. Por. 73, Par. Copperfield. Axial section of a bifurcating lamina. Striatopora? hillae sp. nov. p. 50. Fig. 4. — H. 101, Geological Survey of Queensland. Douglas Creek, Clermont. Holotype. 4a. Transverse section, 4b. axial section. Striatopora? plumosa sp. nov. p. 51. Fig. 5. — F. 3987, University of Queensland. For. 73, Par Copperfield. Section of the Holotype. Gephuropora duni Etheridge p. 54. Fig. 6. — F. 4612, University of Queensland. Yass end of Taeinas Bridge. Trans- verse section showing fairly thin wall and tubules and few septa. Plate III. Gephuropora duni Etheridge p. 54. Fig. 1. — F. 4612, University of Queensland. Yass end of Taemas Bridge. Longi- tudinal section showing septa, relatively thin walls and tubules. Fig. 2. — F. 4611, University of Queensland. Yass end of Taemas Bridge. Showing thicker walls. 2a. Transverse, 2b. longitudinal section. Fig. 3. — F. 3961, University of Queensland. Por. 73, Par Copperfield. Showing few tubules and no septa. 3a. Transverse section, 3b. longitudinal section. Fig. 4. — F. 3960, University of Queensland. Por. 73, Par Copperfield. Showing few tubules and well developed septa. 4a. Transverse, 4b. longitudinal section. Scoliopora flexa sp. nov. p. 56. Fig. 5. — No. 66, Geological Survey of Queensland. Douglas Creek, Clermont. Holotype. 5a, Transverse, 5b. longitudinal section. Syringopora cf. spelaeanus Etheridge p. 57. Fig. 6. — No. 66, Geological Survey of Queensland. Douglas Creek, Clermont. Transverse section. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land., Yol. LIIL, No. 3. Plate. I. Boy. Soc. Q’land., Yol. LIII., I^p.,3. Plate. II. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land., Vol. LIIIv No. 3. Plate. III. Vol. LIII., No. 4. 61 FRAGMENTA LEPIDOPTEROLOGICA. By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S. ( Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland 25 th November, 1940.) Fam. BOMBYCIDAE. Panacela nyctopa Turn. In describing this species 1 proposed for it the genus! Mallodeta based on veins 3 and 4 arising separately in both wings. Examination of a series of one male and eight females shows that in two of the latter these veins are long-stalked on both sides as in Panacela Wlk. The species must therefore be referred to that genus, with which it corresponds otherwise, and the former genus must be dropped. Fam. NOTODOMTIDAE. Subfam. Cnethocampinae. Epicoma barnardi Luc. $ . 44 mm. Head and thorax ochreous. Forewings pale ochreous, basal half sprinkled with dark fuscous; a dark fusbous discal mark at three-fifths, confluent with a broad sinuate dark fuscous line from three- fourths costa to three-fifths dorsum; a terminal dark fu;scous fascia containing a series of pale ochreous marginal spots ; cilia dark fuscous with a series of pale ochreous sub-basal dots. Hindwings dark fuscous with a series of pale ochreous oval terminal spots; cilia as forewings, but pale ochreous dots less developed. This description is taken from a specimen in the Queensland Museum and should replace that given in Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1922, p. 368, which was drawn from females of E. asholina mistakenly referred to this species. Fam. LARENTIADAE. P OECIL ASTHENA FRAGILIS n.sp. fragilis, frail. S $ . 25-30 mm. Head pale bluish-green ; fillet white ; face reddish- orange. Palpi minute ; white. Antennae pale grey, towards base white, in male minutely ciliated. Thorax pale bluislngreen. Abdomen white, sometimes tinged with pale bluish-green on dorsum. Legs white ; anterior pair grey. Forewings' triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; pale bluish- green with numerous fine transverse rippled white lines, more distinct towards termen; a darker median bluish-green discal dot; costal edge whitish; cilia pale bluish-green, bases white. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded ; as forewings but without discal dot. The coloration is fugitive, worn examples being almost white ; for which reason I have chosen a female as the type. It has been confused with P. oeeanias, but may be distinguished by the discal dot and the disproportionately larger forewings, both these and the hindwings being without any yellowish or ochreous tinge. New South Wales: Ebor in December. Victoria: Sale. Tasmania: Burnie; Zeehan; Rosebery; Cradle Mt. ; and Weldborough in January; seven specimens. R.S.— H. 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. POECILASTHENA OCEANIAS Meyr. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1890, p. 816. This was described from a single female taken at Albany. Seven female examples from Denmark (W. B. Barnard) correspond closely, but a male I took at Collie has a broader ochreous costal streak, the vertex of head brownish, and the antennae pale grey. POECILASTHENA PISICOLOR n.sp. pisicolor. pea-green. S . 22 mm. $ . 25-28 mm. Head pale yellowish-green ; fillet white; face reddish-orange. Palpi brown- whitish. Antennae whitish; eiliations in male one-third. Thorax pale yellowish-green. Abdomen whitish, dorsum greenish-tinged. Legs whitish; anterior pair pale brownish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen nearly straight, oblique; pale yellowish-green with very faint rippled transverse whitish lines ; costal edge whitish ; cilia whitish, bases pale yellowish. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded; colour and cilia as' forewings. Differs from P. oceanias in the yellowish-green, colour of the wings and the more pronounced yellow colour of the cilia. West Australia: Albany and Busselton in February; Denmark in March and April; seven specimens. Type in Queensland Museum. POECILASTHENA SCOLIOTA Meyr. The peculiar rhombiform hindwings are confined to the male, in the female they are normally rounded. West Australia: Busselton, Albany. Denmark. Gen. Aepylopha nov. al7TvXoos , high-crested. Tongue present. Palpi long, porrect. Thorax with a high posterior crest. Tibiae with inner spu'rs twice as long as outer; posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs. Forewings with areole single; 7 from areole connate with 8, 9, 10, which are stalked, 11 running into 12. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate, 5 from middle of cell, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to four-fifths. A derivative of Chlomclystis. Aepylopha thalassia n.sp. daXacrvLos, sea-blue. $. 26 mm. Head green; collar pale ochreous-grey. Palpi two and a half; second joint long, green; terminal joint very short, ochreous- grey. Antennae grey. Thorax blue-green, crest green. Abdomen pale grey. Legs whitish; anterior pair fqscous with whitish rings. Fore- wings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded, oblique ; blue-green with dark fuscous markings ; a small triangular basal patch of darker blue-green partly outlined with dark fuscous; a large triangular spot on costa before middle, giving off two fine parallel dentate whitish lines to one-third dorsum; subapical area suffused with white ; a fine dentate whitish subterminal line, preceded by twin dots on costa and above middle ; a tornal dot ; cilia green- whitish with fuscou,s bars. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded; colour and cilia as forewings ; slender fuscous antemedian and postmedian lines, the latter partly edged posteriorly with white, and with a strong median projec- tion, traces of an interrupted terminal line towards' apex and more distinctly near tornus. FRAGMENTA LEPIDOPTEROLOGICA. 63 North Queensland: Lake Barrine (Atherton Tableland) in February; one specimen received from Mr. E. J. Dumigan. G-ymnoscelis perpusilla n.sp. perpusillus, very small. S $ . 12-14 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi one and a quarter ; fuscous. Antennae grey. Thorax and abdomen ochreous-fuscous sprinkled with fu;seous. Legs whitish. Forewings elongate, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; 11 running into 12 ; ochreous-whitish with markings and slight irroration fuscous; costal dots at base, two-fifths', and three-fifths; a very slender outwardly curved sub-basal transverse line; an interrupted line from second costal dot to one-third dorsum ; another from five-sixths costa to three-fourths dorsum ; ill-defined fuscous suffusions at apex, on mid- termen, and on tornus; a terminal line interrupted on veins; cilia ochreoqs-whitish with obscure fuscous bars. Hindwings with termen excavated above and prominent below middle ; as forewings but without sub-basal line ; postmedian line flattened and slightly indented in middle. Even smaller than G. minima and G. acidna, forewings narrower with termen more oblique, and markings much more slender. North Queensland: Cairns in June. Queensland: Noosa in May; two specimens. Gymnoscelis isci-inophyeea n.sp. iaxvo(j)vX\os , narrow-winged. S . 24 mm. Head grey ; face fuscous. Palpi one and a quarter ; fuscous. Antennae grey. Thorax grey anteriorly ; a transverse line includ- ing tegulae whitish ; posteriorly fuscous. Legs fuscous ; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings narrow, elongate, costa straight to near apex, apex round-pointed, termen very oblique; 11 anastomosing with 12 ; whitish largely suffused with fuscous and grey ; markings dark fuscous; a short dentate transverse sub-basal line joining an oblique streak from base of dorsum towards but not reaching a spot on costa at one-third ; beneath and beyond this is a similar and nearly confluent spot, from which runs1 a fine sinuous line just beneath and parallel with the basal streak; a broad streak from before two-thirds costa, towards mid-termen, acutely angled in mid-disc and continued as a fine wavy line to before tornus ; closely following is a pale slender parallel line and a second line broader and dentate in costal half; a broad median streak from beyond this to midtermen, traversed by a whitish dentate subterminal line ; interrupted on veins ; cilia grey, towards apex fuscous, with slender whitish bars. Hindwings elongate, termen strongly rounded ; as forewings but without sub-basal line ; antemedian line slender, curved, interrupted before dorsum ; postmedian broader and darker with strong prominence above middle ; a whitish dentate subterminal line ; broadly edged with fuscous anteriorly. Similar in wing-shape to G. tanaoptila, but with very different markings. North Queensland: Lake Barrine (Atherton Tableland) in May; one specimen. Gymnoscelis subrufata Warr. Novit. Zool. 1898, p. 24. This species, which should be easily recognised by the reddish underside of both wings, is variable. I examined Warren’s type which 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. came from Duaringa, at Tring, and have since captured two examples both from Brisbane. The first is a male taken at rest on a wooden gate on February 4th, 1908, the second a female taken in my residence on July 11th, 1940. The forewings are whitish with diffused rippled transverse lines grey more or less tinged in parts with reddish and green; the basal patch is small and outlined with fuscous; there is a transverse fascia at one-third, pale reddish defined by fuscous lines in the male, but with anterior margin undefined in the * female and posterior line broadly suffused; postmedian line from two-thirds costa obliquely outwards, straight but slightly rippled to about middle, there sharply angled and dentate to before tornus. Hindwings with sub-basal area except towards dorsum suffused with fuscous and pale reddish and edged by a fuscous line strongly projecting below middle. Chloroclystis delosticha n.sp. &t)Ao(jtlxos, with distinct lines. $ . 22 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen grey-whitish with a few dark fuscous scales. Palpi 1; dark fuscous, apex and a median band whitish. Antennae grey. Legs fu;seous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; whitish-grey with obscure trans- verse grey lines and dark fuscous markings; costaj dots at one-sixth and one-third ; two median dots, each obliquely anterior to one of these ; two faint grey parallel transverse lines before middle ; a very distinct postmedian line from two-thirds costa, nearly straight but slightly waved and slightly outwardly oblique to mid-disc, there angled inwards to three-fourths dorsum; a very slender sharply dentate subterminal white line preceded by dark fuscous beneath costa, opposite mid-termen, and above dorsum; a broad pale grey interrupted subterminal line; an interrupted dark fuscous terminal line; cilia pale grey, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded; as forewings, postmedian line with a projection beneath middle. Nearest C. nigrilineata, but larger and without any ochreous tinge ; antemedian line of forewings indistinct, but postmedian dark and well defined, not indented. Queensland: Brisbane in June and July; two specimens. Tephroclystia tornolopha n.sp. TopwAopoTV7Tos, green-marked. 2 . 19-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax pale grey. Antennae grey. Abdomen grey; apices of segments whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to f , thence arched, apex round-pointed, termen straight, oblique ; pale grey ; markings whitish-green ; a large triangular spot on costa from near base to middle, anterior edge oblique, dentate, apex nearly approaching dorsum ; a spot on f costa; three elongate parallel dots beneath costa before apex; a broad line from f costa around apex to midtermen ; cilia grey, apices white. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; pale grey; cilia as forewings. North Queensland: Cape York in November; two specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard. Type in Queensland Museum. Sylepta octasema Meyr. This species has been bred from a larva in banana fruit (J. L. Froggatt). Gen. Macrobela nov. /xa/cpo^eAo?, with long palpi. Tongue well developed. Face with a short acute anterior projec- tion. Labial palpi straight, porrect, very long (3-§-4), with rough projecting scales at base beneath, otherwise smooth-scaled; terminal joint one-fourth, stout, obtusely pointed. Maxillary palpi short, stout, obtusely pointed, not dilated. Antennae smooth, ciliations minute in both sexes. Posterior tibiae with outer spurs one-half. Forewings with 4 and 5 connate, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 5 approximated to 4 at base, 7 anastomosing with 12 for half its length. I place this next Sceliodes, from which it differs in the longer labial palpi, stouter maxillary palpi, and stalking of 10 of the forewing. Macrobela phaeophasma. (/>aioacr/xa? a dusky spectre. $ 2 . 24-32 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi grey-brown. Antennae grey. Abdomen grey-brown with lateral fringe of whitish 88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. scales. Legs white. Forewings triangular, costa straight to three- fourths, thence arched, apex acute, termen bowed on vein 4, slightly oblique ; grey ; costal edge whitish ; a triangular thinly scaled translucent area from costa beyond middle reaching more than half across disc, indented anteriorly: cilia whitish. Hindwings jwith termen nearly straight; grey with a faintly darker postmedian line; cilia grey. North Queensland: Kuranda in October; Ravenshoe (Atherton Plateau) in January (F. P. Dodd) ; two specimens received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type. Gen. Metallarcha Meyr. This is a natural genus, though it shows some variation in the structure of the frontal process. I propose to drop Panopsia Turn, as a synonym. Metallarcha crocanthes Low. Phlytaenodes chrysalis Hmps. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), xi., p. 522 (1913), is a synonym. Victoria : Sea Lake. South Australia : Hoyleton ; Nantawarra. Metallarcha chrysitis n.sp. XpvoiTts, golden. $ . 30 mm. Head with a truncate conical projection ; yellow. Palpi three and a half; fuscous; yellow beneath. Antennae fuscous. Thorax yellow with a posterior fuscous spot. Abdomen fuscous; bases of segments and tuft yellow. Legs fuscous; posterior pair ochreous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; yellow with f uscous-grey markings ; a rather broad costal streak from base, incised at one-sixth, narrowing to a point shortly before terminal fascia ; terminal fascia moderate ; a short inwardly hooked transverse process from costal streak at two- thirds, its apex touching a circular spot, which is connected to terminal fascia at tornus; cilia yellow. Hindwings with termen moderately rounded; yellow; a V-shaped discal mark and a terminal band, which does not reach tornus', fuscous; cilia yellow. South Australia: Noora, near Renmark, in October; one specimen received from Mr. F. M. Angel. Myriostephes eucosmeta n.sp. evKoafjLpros, very neat. S . 14-16 mm. Head and thorax greyish-ochreous. Labial palpi two and a half, terminal joint minute; ochreous-fuscous. Antennae with joints strongly dilated and angular at apices, cilia in male one-half ; grey. (Abdomen missing.) Legs ochreous- whitish ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen nearly straight, slightly oblique ; greyish-ochreous ; two slender fuscous transverse lines; first from one-third costa to one-fourth dorsum, angled beneath costa, thence straight ; second from three-fourths costa to three-fifths dorsum, edged with whitish posteri- orly, cuved outwards in upper half, thence straight; a white median subcostal discal dot; cilia fuscous with a darker basal line and three whitish bars, above vein 6, above vein 2, and on tornus. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous-whitish ; a faint postmedian fuscous line ; cilia whitish. Victoria: Beaconsfield (Wandin) in November; two specimens received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type. FRAGMENTA LEPIDOPTEROLOGICA. 89 Fam. GL YPHIPTERY GID AE. Gen. Sagalassa Wlk. Oat. Brit. Mus. v., p. 5, Meyr. Gen. Insect Glyphipterygidae, p. 15. Type S. robusta Wlk. from South America. Miscera Wlk. xxviii., p. 457, Meyr. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1907, p. 100. Type 8. resumptana Wlk A genus of moderate size confined to the Neotropical and Australian regions (including one species in the Moluccas). The Australian species are difficult to distinguish on account of their general similarity and frequent variability. So much is this the case, that I have found it difficult to determine new species, and have had to examine critically all the known species. In some cases the scaling of the forewings as seen under a low power objective has proved helpful. The following key should be used with caution, not as a short-cut to diagnosis, but as a preliminary help, which needs confirmation by all the characters given for the species, whether here or in their original descriptions'. S. episcota Low. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A. 1903, p. 68) has been omitted, ns it is unknown to me, as it was to Meyrick. 1. Forewings with an orange postmedian fascia Forewings without a postmedian fascia 2. Forewings with fascia narrow and well removed from term'en Forewings with fascia broad, almost touching termen 3. Hindwings with orange, yellow, or whitish markings Hindwings without markings 4. Hindwings orange or yellow with only a terminal band and extreme base fuscous Hindwings fuscous with orange, yellow, or whitish markings -5. Forewings grey with whitish median streak from base Forewings dark fuscous without median streak . . 6. Forewings with yellowish discal spot Forewings without discal spot 7. Forewings brownish-grey with darker median fascia Forewings without median fascia 8. Hindwings with orange fascia Hindwings with yellowish or whitish spots 9. Palpi with long rough hairs beneath Palpi clothed with scales or short hairs 10. Antennal pectinations of male 6; forewings without white-tipped scales Antennal pectinations of male not over 3; fore- wings often with white-tipped scales 11. Fore wings with whitish discal dot beyond middle, white-tipped scales few or none Forewings without discal dot, white-tipped scales numerous 12. Hindwing spots elongate, yellowish, separated by fuscous streaks on veins Hindwing spots not elongate, more discrete, whitish 13. Forewings with dorsal and median spots sometimes confluent, subcostal spot well developed Forewings with small dorsa-l and median spots only 2 3 . . homotona . . androgyne 4 15 5 7 . . holodisca 6 resumptana . . conspersa poedlota 8 9 12 mesochrysa 10 ambigua 11 . . oentropis orthaula lygropis 13 14 micrasta 90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 14. Forewings dilated posteriorly Forewings narrow, scarcely, if at all, dilated 15. Forewings fuscous with slender white or whitish median streak from base Forewings without median streak, usually grey . . 16 16. Expanse 18-23 mm. • forewings sprinkled with wbite-tippe'd scales Expanse 30-32 mm.; forewings sprinkled with long white-edged scales with central grey stripe desmotona leucopis parnmelas omichleutis ampla Sagalassa homotona Swin. Cat. Oxf. Mus., i., p. 36, PI. 2, f. 18, Turn. Tr. R.S. S.A. 1923, p. 165. heterozya Turn. P.L.S. N.S-.W. 1913, p. 202. $ . With abdomen much longer than fore wing and terminated by a large tuft of long scales. $ . Very similar to the following species; forewings in both sexes with white-tipped scales. North Queensland: Cairns. Queensland: Brisbane. Sagalassa androgyna Turn. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1913, p. 203. $ . Still unknown. $ . Differs from all other Australian species in having unipectinate antennae ; forewings without white-tipped scales. North Queensland : Claudie River ; Cairns. Queensland : Tweed Heads. Sagalassa poecilota Turn. Tr. R.S. S.A. 1923, p. 166. Easily recognised by the brownish-grey forewings with darker median fascia; white-tipped scales present. North Queensland: Cairns. Sagalassa holodisca Meyr. P.L. N.S.W. 1907, p. 105. Peculiar in the grey colour of forewings and the pale yellow of hindwings extending to base ; forewings' sprinkled with white-tipped scales, which may form a whitish streak from base broadening into a central suffusion, which may reach the termen. West Australia : Perth ; Tammin ; Geraldton. Sagalassa resumptana Wlk. xxviii., p. 456. Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 102. anthomera Low. Tr. R.S. S.A. 1896, p. 162. Forewings with an ochreous diseal dot more or less developed and with scattered white-tipped scales above, beneath yellow except on margins. Hindwings with yellow fascia broad almost reaching base, cilia on tornus wholly blackish. My observation has been limteed to three male specimens from Cape York (Barnard). The last characteristic is not mentioned by Meyrick and Lower, but their specimens may have been imperfect. North Queensland: Cape York. Queensland: Rockhampton: Duaringa. Sagalassa conspersa n.sp. conspersus, sprinkled. $. 20 mm. Head fuscous; face finely sprinkled with whitish. Palpi grey above and beneath. Antennae fuscous; pectinations in male FRAGMENT A LEPIDOPTEROLOGICA. 91 one and a half. Thorax fuscous; tegulae grey or finely sprinkled with whitish. Abdomen grey with seven fine yellowish rings. Legs fuscous ; posterior tibiae ochreous-grey. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; fuscous with a variable amount of irroration caused by whitish-tipped scales; which are more dense in an irregular band from three-fourths costa to three-fourths dorsum; cilia fuscous; apices grey. Hindwings dark fuscous; a broad transverse yellow fascia leaving base narrowly fuscous; cilia dark fuscous, apices pale yellow except on tornus. Differs from S. resumptana in the forewings being uniformly fuscous except for slight whitish irroration above, and with only slight central ochreous suffusion beneath. West Australia: Mt. Dale, near Perth, in January; two specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard. Type in Queensland Museum. Sagalassa ambigua n.sp. ambiguus, puzzling. $ . 16-18 mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi shortly rough-scaled beneath, not hairy ; dark fuscous, beneath white. Antennae dark fuscous; pectinations in male 6. Abdomen dark fuscous with six narrow yellowish rings. Legs fuscous; anterior coxae whitish. Fore- wings slightly dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex round- pointed, termen obliquely rounded; dark fuscous sparsely sprinkled with long narrow brown scales in posterior half ; cilia fuscous. Hind- wings blackish; a yellow median fascia not quite reaching dorsum, broader towards costa ; cilia blackish, on tornus apices yellow. Extremely like 8. mesochry sa , but distinguished by the different palpi. West Australia: Perth; Waroona in October; three specimens. Sagalassa mesochrysa Low. Tr. R.S. S.A. 1903, p. 68, Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 103. Always distinguishable from similar species by the hairy palpi; antennal pectinations (6) longer than in any except the preceding species. West Australia: Perth; Waroona; Pinjarrah; Geraldton. Sagalassa orthaula Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 103. isomacha Meyr. Ext. Micro., iii., p. 132. Forewings sprinkled with white-tipped scales and with no discal dot ; hindwings with yellow fascia moderate or narrow. Queensland: Duaringa; Eidsvold. New South Wales: Sydney; Katoomba. Victoria : Melbourne. Sagalassa centropis Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 104. Forewings with whitish discal dot but usually without white-tipped scales; hindwings with yellow fascia moderate or narrow. There are two aberrations in Coll. Lyell, (1) female with a short transverse line from mid-dorsum and a dentate line from two-thirds costa to discal dot, (2) female with unusually distinct discal dot and a similar line from dorsum together with a few white-tipped scales before termen, a character not observed in any other specimen. 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Sagalassa lygropis Turn. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1913, p. 204. Antennal pectinations in male 4; forewings with obscure diseal dot and a few white-tipped scales towards base; hindwings with three yellowish spots very narrowly separate (at least in male), median spot narrow and elongate, dorsal spot consisting of long hair-scales. Queensland: Noosa; Stradbroke Island; Tweed Heads. New South Wales: Sydney. Sagalassa desmotona Low. Tr. R.S. S.A., 1896, p. 162. Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 104. Abdomen sometimes with white rings ; forewings dilated posteriorly, with whitish discal dot often connected by a line with mid-dorsum and with a sprinkling of white-tipped scales posteriorly, but no long brown scales as in 8. micrasta ; hindwing spots very distinct, whitish-oehreous or whitish; dorsal and median spots sometimes confluent. New South Wales: Sydney; Katoomba. Victoria: Melbourne;, Beaconsfield. West Australia: Albany; Waroona. Sagalassa leucopis Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 102. 14-20 mm. Head, thorax, and antennae blackish. Palpi blackish,-, lower surface and a median ring on terminal joint white ; in one example wholly white. Abdomen blackish with a sub-basal and several post- median white lines. Legs blackish ; posterior tarsi with two white spots on dorsum. Porewings narrow, scarcely dilated, costa nearly straight apex rounded, termen oblique ; blackish sparsely sprinkled with white- tipped scales; these form a postmedian discal spot suffusedly connected with dorsum, or sometimes by a defined line; sometimes a costal dot or short line at three-fourths together with another above tornus; cilia blackish. Hindwings blackish; three snow-white spots; median and dorsal spots approximated or confluent, sometimes forming an incomplete fascia, third spot beneath mid-costa, of variable size and sometimes absent. The male is still unknown. The species being variable, I have redescribed it. North Queensland : Cape York. Queensland : Duaringa. New South Wales: Sydney. Victoria: Geelong; Dimboola. Sagalassa micrasta Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 105. Abdomen sometimes with white rings. Forewings with or without discal dot, without white-tipped scales, but with long brown scales. Hindwings with two small whitish spots near base. In one of my examples there is a grey dorsal triangle extending from one-fourth to- tornus and almost reaching half across forewing. West Australia: Perth; York; Waroona. Sagalassa pammelas Turn. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1913, p. 204. Forewings dark fuscous with white or whitish median streak from base and discal dot; sprinkled with brown scales. Hindwings dark fuscous without markings. West Australia: Albany; Denmark; Waroona; Perth. I : FRAGMENTA LEPIDOPTEROEOGICA. 93 Sagalassa omichleutis Meyr. P.L.S. N.S.W. 1907, p. 105. 18-23 mm. Forewings light fuscous or grey without markings, buf sprinkled with white-tipped scales. Hindwings fuscous with a white diseal spot on under-surface only. This last is a distinctive character, but as I have examined two females examples only, I cannot be sure that it is constant. Sagalassa ampla n.sp. ampin's, large. $ . 30-32 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax grey. Antennae grey ; pectinations in male one and a-half. Abdomen pale grey. Legs grey. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa straight, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; grey suffused, except on margins, with whitish, this being the effect of densely packed long white-edged scales each with a central grey stripe; sometimes an oblique blackish streak from above one-fourth dorsum to beneath end of cell; cilia grey, apices and a fine antemedian line whitish. Hindwings grey ; cilia whitish with a grey basal line. $ . 28-32 mm. Fore wings fuscous unevenly sprinkled with whitish beyond middle ; sometimes an oblique whitish streak from above one- fourth dorsum to beneath end of cell; the peculiar white-edged scales present, but much less numerous than in male. Much larger than any of the preceding species. Allied to S. omichleniis, but the scaling of the forewings is quite different. West Australia: Albany in February7 and March; four specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard. One of these is in Coll. Lyelh Type in Queensland Museum. SlMAETHlS EMPLECTA n.Sp. i/inXeKTo^ , intricate. S . 11 mm. Head and thorax pale ochreous-grey, sprinkled with whitish ; thorax with a large posterior fuscous spot. Palpi 2 ; pale ochreous-grey slenderly ringed with white. Antennae with black and white annulations; in male with fascicles of long cilia (5). Abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous with white rings; middle and posterior tarsi broadly white in middle. Fore wings broadly triangular, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly oblique; tawny brown intricately marked with dark fuscous, pale ochreous, and lines of white irroration formed by white-tipped scales; some whitish irroration at base; a straight transverse whitish sub-basal line, and another similar at one-fourth ; a very irregular dentate interrupted pale ochreous line from costa before middle to mid-dorsum, angled outwards beneath costa and in middle and inwards above dorsum, partly edged posteriorly with dark fuscous, and followed by antemedian, subdorsal, and dorsal patches of whitish irroration; a white costal dot at origin of second line, and two approximated at about three -fourths, giving origin to parallel whitish lines angled outwards beneath costa, thence bisinuate to tornus; an incomplete whitish terminal line preceded by dark fuscous irroration ; a white apical dot ; cilia whitish-grey, bases tawny brown. Hindwings fuscous with slight whitish irroration towards termen; cilia as forewings. Queensland: Cairns in August; one specimen. Glyphipteryx autopetes Meyr. G. lychnophora Turn, is a synonym. R.S. — I. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Fam. HYFONOMEUTIDAE. Ethmia pseustis n.sp. iffevGTLs, deceiving. $ $ . 28-32 mm. Head white ; face black with white dots beneath antennae and white scales on lower edge. Palpi just reaching vertex; white, bases’ of second and terminal joints black. Antennae black with incomplete white ampliations not reaching under-surface; ciliations in male minute. Thorax white, bases of tegulae, an anterior spot, a pair of median, and a pair of posterior spots, black. Abdomen black with median and lateral series of white dots. Legs black with white rings. Forewings elongate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen slightly rounded, scarcely oblique; 7 and 8 stalked; white with black markings ; costal edge black to near apex ; basal dots on costa and dorsum; a sub-basal line from costa to fold; a line of three con- fluent dots from one-fifth costa to just beyond fold; costal dots' at two-fifths and three-fifths; a discal dot before middle forming an equilateral triangle with these; a subdorsal dot at one-fifth; a dot beneath fold at one-third ; a dot on fold at three-fifths with another slightly above and beyond; two confluent dots on three-fourths costa connected with an interrupted line towards but not reaching tornus; a tornal dot ; a submarginal line around apex and termen, connected by processes with margin, so as to form a marginal series of white dots ; connected also with a transverse subterminal discal mark; cilia fuscous', bases white. ITindwings with 5 approximated to 6 ; white ; a dark fuscous apical blotch ; cilia white with a median fuscous line, on dorsum and lower half of termen wholly white. From this species E. clytodoxa Turn, differs in the two basal costal lines to fold being replaced by pairs of dots placed obliquely, two obliquely placed dots following costal dot at two-fifths, by the less elaborate terminal markings, and by the terminal joint of palpi being black except at extreme apex. E. sciagrapha Low. has the forewings shorter and proportionally broader, an oblique line of approximated or confluent dots from two-fifths costa, the posterior discal dots nearly or quite confluent, and a tornal spot with hooklike extension towards costa. Queensland : Toowoomba in October ; Injune in November and December ; three specimens received from Mu. W. B. Barnard. Type in Queensland Museum. Ethmia sporadic a n.sp. uTTopahiKog , scattered. S $. 21-22 mm. Head black; side-tufts and face white. Palpi black, second joint with median and apical, terminal joint with apical, white rings. Antennae grey with black annulations; ciliations in male short. Thorax pale grey with black spots, two median and one posterior, also a dot on bases of tegulae. Abdomen grey-whitish, ochreous-tinged on dorsum ; tuft oclireous ; dorsum of fifth and sixth segments in male fuscous. Legs grey-whitish with black rings; naterior pair mostly black ; posterior pair mostly grey-whitish. Forewings elongate-oval, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen oblique; pale grey with black dots'; costal edge black near base; a spot on base of costa emitting a short sub-basal line ; subcostal dots at one-third, one-half, and three-fourths; a dot on lower edge of fold near base and another at one-fourth ; a subdorsal median dot ; a pair of discal dots at three-fourths, the lower slightly posterior; a median subapical dot; FRAGMENTA LEPIDOPTEROLOGICA. 95 a marginal series of dots from three-fourths costa to tornus; cilia pale grey, bases barred with black opposite two subapical dots. Hindwings and cilia grey. Near E . heptasema Turn., but the spots on forewings are more numerous and differently arranged. Queensland: Bunya Mts. in November; three specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard. Type in Queensland Museum. Lacttjra clttodes Turn. In my description (Trans'. Roy. Soc. S.A. 1932, p. 193) the neu;ra- tion of the forewings is wrongly stated ; 7 and 8 are stalked ; 6 separate but approximated to them at origin. In a second male example from Tooloom, N.S.W., the whitish patch on the forewings is absent, being replaced by a slight sprinkling of whitish scales. Lactura riiodomochua n.sp. poSo/xoyAos-, rosy-barred. $ $ . 17-20 mm. Head yellow with a pair of red dots on posterior edge. Palpi minute ; reddish. Antennae yellow ; ciliations in male minute. Thorax red. anterior margin yellow. Abdomen and legs reddish. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; 7 and 8 stalked ; yellow with three broad crimson-red transverse fasciae ; first basal, posterior edge from one-sixth costa to one-fourth dorsum, angled beneath costa and indented in middle ; second median, broad in disc but narrowed on costa and dorsum ; third from costa before apex to tornus, more or less constricted in middle, anteriorly angled beneath constriction ; cilia yellow. Hindwings with 4 and 5 connate or short-stalked ; reddish ; cilia reddish. North Queensland: Cape York in October and April; five specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard. Type in Queensland Museum. Lactura aglaodora n.sp. dyAaoScopa, a splendid gift. $ . 40 mm. Head pale yellow. Palpi very short ; pale yellow. Antennae whitish. Thorax grey, central area rosy-suffused, anterior margin broadly yellow. Abdomen orange-ochreous. Legs whitish. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; 7 and 8 stalked ; grey with longitudinal streaks and a broader band on dorsum rosy ; a yellow costal streak to beyond middle, triangularly dilated at one-fourth • terminal area pale yellow, its anterior edge sharply defined from three-fifths costa to tornus, nearly straight but angled on vein 6, on which a reddish line runs for some distance posteriorly; cilia pale yellow. Hindwings with 4 and 5 con- nate; orange-ochreous except on costa and apical areas, which are whitish; cilia whitish, on dorsum and dorsal half of termen orange- ochreous. North Queensland: Lake Barrine in January; one specimen received from Mr. E. J. Dumigan. Thyridectis psephonoma Meyr. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1886, p. 1046. (Newcastle). Queensland : Macpherson Range in January ; two specimens received from Mr. E. J. Dumigan. 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Gen. Schistocyttara nov. oxLGTOKVTrapos, with divided cell. Head with sidetufts of loose spreading hairs on vertex ; face smooth. Tongue present. Labial palpi long, ascending, recurved, smooth-scaled ; second joint reaching middle of face ; terminal joint longer than second, equally stout, acute. Maxillary palpi filiform, porrect. Antennae about three-fifths. Thorax with a rough posterior crest. Tibiae smooth- scaled ; inner spurs twice as long as outer. Forewings with chorda and forked median vein in cell, from which all the peripheral veins arise separately; 2, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 6 from middle, 7 to termen. Hind- wings broadly ovate ; 2 from two-tliirds, 3 and 4 separate, 5 from middle, 6 and 7 separate, parallel ; a forked median vein in cell. This genus, which presents some primitive characters in its neuration, does not appear to have any close allies, but perhaps comes closest to Ethrma. Schistocyttara nebulosa n.sp. nebu’losus, cloudy. 5 . 22 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen ochreous-whitish. Palpi dark fuscous; extreme apex whitish. Antennae with basal joint long, stout, ochreous-whitish; for an equal length beyond this dark fuscous; beyond this whitish-grey. Legs dark fuscous with white tarsal rings; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, scarcely oblique; white mostly suffused with pale grey and brownish ; markings dark fuscous ; a short slender costal streak from base ; oblong costal spots at one-third, two-thirds, and five-sixths ; the rest of costal area brownish with dark transverse strigulae ; a few strigulae also in posterior part of disc; an oblong dorsal spot at one-third, its upper anterior angle giving off a short process towards base ; a smaller oblong spot beyond middle and a tornal dot; remainder of dorsal area whitish; very faint sinuous fasciae connect second dorsal with first and second costal spots forming a broad V-mark; cilia whitish with broad fuscous bars. Hindwings grey; cilia pale grey, towards tornus whitish. Queensland: Macpherson Range in January; one specimen received from Mr. E. J. Dumigan. Vol. HII., No. 5. 97 VARIATIONS IN THE VULVAL LINGUIFORM PROCESS OF HAEMONCHUS CONTORTUS. F. H. S. Roberts, D.Sc., Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly, Queensland. (1 Text Figure.) (Communicated to the Royal Society of Queensland by the President , 2 6th May , 1941.) INTRODUCTION. It is well known that the vulval linguiform process of Haemonchus contortus presents a number of variations in both size and shape. Veglia (1915) describes the normal type of linguiform process in H. contortus from sheep as commencing just in front of the vulva, extending backwards in a slightly oblique direction and measuring about 0-75 mm. in length by about 0-25 mm. in width. It is featured in Figure 52 of his monograph. The variations observed by him include (i) an unusually short process measuring 0-25 mm. by 0-17 mm., conical in shape, adhering to the body and slanting to the tip, (ii) a process resembling a pimple-like body, protruding for almost 0-25 mm., some- times placed anteriorly and sometimes laterally to the vulva, and (iii) females in which the process is entirely missing. Dikmans (1921) after a study of numerous specimens remarks that “All the anomalies mentioned by Dr. Veglia were observed in our specimens.” The four different types are figured in Plate 3 of Dikmans7 article. Finally, certain observers, Monnig (1928) and the writer (1934), for example, have indicated that in H. contortus from cattle the linguiform process is frequently reduced to a small knob. During some recent work on the transference of sheep helminths to cattle and vice versa, the writer had an opportunity of making some observations on the variations that occur in the linguiform process. These are considered of sufficient interest to warrant publication. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. In the experiments yielding the information contained herein, attempts were made to establish infestations of helminths from sheep in five calves reared under worm-free conditions. In addition, the susceptibility of sheep was tested (a) to helminths of sheep origin after passage through cattle and (b) to cattle helminths, which so far as could be ascertained were of a pure cattle strain. In all series of trials, H. contortus was prominent. .R.S. J. 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. OBSERVATIONS. An examination of a large series of female H. contortas from natural infestations in both sheep and cattle revealed no less than six distinct types of variation in the shape and size of the linguiform process. These are figured in Text Figure 7, where they are designated as Type 1, Type 2, &c. Type Type 0 . 1 Text Figure 7. Types of Variation in the Vulval Linguiform Process of Haemonchus contortus. In the following table, the percentages of the respective types occurring in naturally infested sheep and cattle are compared with those found in the calves and lambs infested during the course of the experiments described above. VARIATIONS IN THE VULVAL LINGUIFORM PROCESS, ETC. 99 TABLE I. Variations in the Linguiform Process of H. contortus. Host. No. Exam- ined. % Type 1. % Type 2. O/ /o Type 3. % Type 4. % Type 5. % Type 6. Origin of Infestation. Sheep . . 706 89-3 5-6 10 3-0 10 01 Natural infestation Cattle . . 587 4-7 0-3 0-3 94-7 Natural infestation Calf 1 253 86-5 11-5 0-5 1-5 Ovine origin Calf 2 . . 315 4-0 0-2 0-6 95-2 At first ovine origin, finally bovine origin Calf 3 86 88-2 3-5 1-2 2-2 4-2 0-7 Ovine origin Calf 4 . . 442 4*2 0-9 0-8 94-1 At first ovine origin, finally bovine origin Calf 5 134 85-9 140 01 Ovine origin Lamb 4. . 500 89-4 21 3-4 21 2*0 10 Ovine origin ex Calf 1 Lamb 5. . 500 90-1 M 3-6 1*2 30 10 Ovine origin ex Calf 1 Lamb 6. . 500 4-8 95-2 Bovine origin Lamb 7 . . 500 30 0-7 0-2 961 Bovine origin Calves 1, 3 and 5 received H. contortus of ovine origin only and the infestations were of 10, 15 and 19 weeks' duration respectively. Calves 2 and 4, after displaying a marked resistance to H. contortus from sheep, as indicated by the almost complete elimination of the infestation after a period of 17 weeks, were fed larvae of bovine origin and slaughtered 9 weeks later. Lambs 4 and 5 were killed 6 weeks after infestation with larvae from calf 1, whilst lambs 6 and 7 received larvae of what was considered to be a pure cattle strain. An examination of the table shows that the great majority of female worms from naturally infested sheep conform to Type 1, and of those from naturally infested cattle to Type 6. The table also reveals that when cattle are infested with an ovine strain and sheep with a bovine strain there is no significant change in the proportions of the respective dominant types. In calves 1, 3 and 5 infested with larvae from sheep for periods of 10, 15 and 19 weeks respectively 86*5 per cent., 88-2 per cent, and 85-9 per cent of the females remained of the dominant sheep type (Type 1), whilst in lambs 6 and 7, given larvae from cattle and infested for 6 weeks, 95-2 per cent, and 96*1 per cent, respectively of the females belonged to the dominant cattle type (Type 6). Calves 2 and 4 infested with larvae from cattle, after losing most of their infestation of sheep origin, gave percentages of 95*2 and 94*1 respectively of Type 6. It is also evident from lambs 4 and 5 which yielded 89*4 per cent, and 90*1 per cent, respectively of Type 1, that passage of an ovine strain through cattle for a period of 10 weeks failed to have any significant effect on the proportions of the dominant ovine type. In his discussion of the anomalies occurring in the vulval lingui- form process, Veglia (1915) remarks “at the time of marked reproduc- tive activity I met with a very large number of rather old female worms showing peculiar differences in the linguiform process." Veglia ’s inference that reproductive activity and age are associated in some way with the appearance of the linguiform process does not, however, accord- ing to the writer’s observations, provide a very satisfactory explanation for this variability. Although the linguiform process is a very variable structure the great majority of those females from sheep possess a fully developed 100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. process, wliiist in cattle, most of the females possess a process which is reduced to a small knob. Does this feature indicate that H. contorius is in a process of evolution into two distinct species or is it merely an expression of some physiological difference occurring in the two respec- tive hosts'? In the writer’s experiments cattle H. contorius was main- tained in sheep for six weeks and sheep H. contort us in cattle for up to 19 weeks without any significant alteration in the proportions of the two dominant types. It would appear then, that each type breeds true for at least one generation irrespective of the host, and that if any alteration of, say, Type 6 of cattle when established in sheep to Type 1 does eventually occur, such alteration requires more than one generation. SUMMARY. 1. A study has been made of the variations which occur in the vulval linguiform process of H. contorius. Six distinct types of process were observed. One of these, Type 1, in which the process is fully developed, is dominant in sheep ; another, Type 6, in which the process is reduced to a small knob, is dominant in cattle. 2. Infestation of sheep with cattle H. contorius for a period of 6 weeks and of cattle with sheep H. contorius for periods of 10 to 19 weeks did not result in any significant alterations in the proportions of the two dominant types — that is, Type 6 was dominant in the sheep and Type 1 in the cattle. 3. It is suggested that this phenomenon may indicate an evolution of H. contorius into two distinct species or it may be merely a result of some physiological difference between the two hosts. If Type 6, for example, does change eventually to Type 1, when sheep are infested with cattle R. contorius, then such a change requires several genera- tions, for each of these two types breeds true for at least one generation irrespective of the host. REFERENCES. Dikmans, Gr. (1921.) ‘‘Preliminary notes on parasites found in ruminants at the Municipal Abattoir, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. M Agric. Exp. Slat., Louisiana, Bull. 183. Monnig, H. O. (1928.) 13th and 14tli Rep. Dir. Vet. Ed. & Res., Pretoria, p. 801. Roberts, F. H. S. (1934.) Q’land Agric. J., vol. 41, p. 245. Veglia, F. (1915.) 3rd and 4th Rep. Dir. Vet. Res., Pretoria, p. 349. VOL. LIII., No. 6. 101 NOTE ON A GROOVED AND POLISHED GRANITE SURFACE NEAR EULOy WESTERN QUEENSLAND. Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.R.C.Sc., F.G.S. (1 Text Figure.) {Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30 th June , 1941.) 1. Location. — The village of Eulo stands in the midst of red sandy plains with occasional low, flat-topped mesas or ridges consisting of rnbbly ferruginous laterite, pale yellow ironstone, brown porcellanitie and quartzitic layers. A measured section exposed about 40 feet of these materials. They are the remnants of a sheet which was formerly much more extensive in this part of Queensland. At Eulo the broad shallow valley of the Paroo River cuts through the plains and, at a distance of about 1^ miles to the south of the village, exposes underlying granite. The granite outcrops occur on both sides of the shallow depression through which the Paroo River runs and are near the western margin of the racecourse. They form a bar in the bed of the river at this place. 2. Description. — The outcrops take the usual form — low hog-backs and rounded boulder-like masses. Evidence of decomposition or weathering, other than exfoliation due to exposure, is slight. The surfaces look as though they had been uncovered in comparatively Scale 2 miles = ! inch. r.s. — K. Text Figure 1. 102 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. recent times by the scouring action of flood waters. They are becoming more exposed as the cover of soft material is removed. The general old granite surface seems to be one of peneplanation. One of the hog-backs near the river on its eastern bank is of interest because on its surface are the remnants of a grooved and polished surface. This can be clearly seen in the accompanying photograph. The grooves are broad, shallow, parallel, and maintain a constant direction which, according to the Author’s notes, run north- west to south-east (subject to more accurate determination). The polished surface, when examined in the vertical sections provided by its fractured margins, is imposed on a thin white layer of rock flour formed by the powdering of the granite surface below. 3. Agents. — How this granite surface came to be grooved and polished in this manner must be a subject for speculation but the occurrence is certainly of scientific interest. Only two agencies seem possible — human or glacial. (a) Human. — It is possible that the grooving and polishing has been caused by aborigines in the course of manufacturing and sharpening stone implements. If this be so the matter can be left to students in another field. The Author has seen a number of rock surfaces which have been so used by natives in various parts of Australia but none seem to have had such regularity as appears in this case. Grooves tended to be narrower and deeper and, in some cases, they were observed to cross one another. To wear down and polish a granite surface in the manner shown would take very many years of work. On the other hand, the locality is, perhaps, one which would be regularly frequented by natives as a camping or hunting centre. (b) Glacial. — This grooved and polished surface does bear resem- blance to the glaciated rock floors which can be seen elsewhere in the world, but if boulder-filled ice was the agency the following questions may be asked: — (1) Why have no similar surfaces been noted? (2) When did this glaciation occur? (3) What form did it take? (4) Where did the ice come from? (5) Where are the boulder beds which might be expected in association with such a pavement? An attempt is made to answer these questions : — (1) The finding of any glaciated rock surface in Northern Australia could only be a most fortuitous happening. Its characteristic features would be destroyed in a comparatively short space of time after exposure by the action of wind-blown sand and other weathering agencies. It could only be preserved beneath some protecting cover and only found, in most circumstances, if the interval between exposure and discovery was relatively short. (2) While the preservation of a glaciated floor of Permo- Carboniferous age so far north as south-western Queensland may be within the bounds of possibility since boulder beds Note on a Grooved and Polished Surface, Etc. 103 of this age are known to occur in regions further north, considerations of probability suggest more recent origin. Several Australian geologists have submitted evidence, based chiefly on occurrences of erratics, of a Cretaceous Ice Age in Australia. Woolnough and David (1926), however, in marshalling part of this evidence, cannot be more certain with regard to the age of the beds from which erratics noted in Central Australia are derived than that they “may range from about Middle Cretaceous to the base of the Miocene. ” Howchin (1923), on the other hand, considered that some of these erratics could have been derived from Pre- Cambrian tillites or even tillites of Permo-Carboniferous, age, exposures of which had been recently found at no great distance from the principal area described by Woolnough and David. Large boulders of Devonian limestone found in the Cretaceous sediments of north-western New South Wales suggest transportation by ice (Dun. 1898). Evidence of glacial action farther to the west in Western Australia, not far from Laverton, have been described by Talbot and Clarke and ascribed to a Cretaceous glaciation but Maitland, in discussing the paper, leaned towards a Permo-Carboniferous origin for the boulder beds dealt with. (3) There is nothing in the records referred to that provides convincing proof of the existence of land ice in Central Australian regions or in Queensland during Cretaceous times. The most that can be inferred from the evidence available is that icebergs and floes occasionally found their way into the Mesozoic inland seas of Australia towards the close of that era. These may have dropped their burdens of boulders and morainic materials as they drifted northwards and melted. (4) The Author’s personal view is that the South Polar region was near to the southern coasts of Australia in the time of the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation and may have still been much nearer than at present to the end of the Mesozoic Era. Any bergs and floes which drifted into these Mesozoic epicontinental seas were most probably derived from the circum-polar ice sheet of Mesozoic Antarctica. (5) Remnants of possible boulder beds in Queensland, probably of Upper Cretaceous age, have been described by Jensen (1921). Erratics noted by him were traced along the south- eastern margin of the Great Artesian Basin in southern Queensland and were found to be most numerous in the vicinity of Injune. Wade has also referred to these occurrences but suggested the possibility of derivation from the Permo-Carboniferous horizons which outcrop not far distant to the north. Much of the material forming the accumulations of boulders on this south-eastern margin of the Great Artesian Basin is clearly derived from the former more extensive cover of siliceous “billy,” but associated with this are erratic blocks of crystalline igneous rocks. 104 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. 4. Conclusions. — Examination of the literature creates a strong- impression that much further work is necessary before this Cretaceous Ice Age leaves the nebulous stage to become recognised as a well- established episode in the geological history of Queensland and other parts of Australia. On such evidence it is impossible to ascribe this grooved and polished surface definitely to glacial action. The alternative agent, the stone-working aborigine, seems at present to be the more probable. In either case the occurrence is worthy of record. 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Clarke, E. de C. Note on Occurrences of Boulders, possibly Glaciated, near Leonora and Laverton, about Lat. 28 degrees 30 minutes South'. J. 4- P.B.S.W.A. , vol. vi. (Pt. 1), 1919-1920. David and Howchin. Report of the Glacial Research Committee. A. A. A. Sci. vol. 16, pp. 74-94. 1923. Dun, W. S. Notes on the Fauna of the Devonian Boulders occurring in the Whitecliffs Opal Fields. Bee. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., V. pp. 160-174. 1898. Jack, R. L. Geology of the Region to the North and North-Wes't of Tarcoola. Geol. Surv. S.A., Bull. 15. 1931. Jensen, H. I. Note read to Sect. C. A.A.A. Sci. Melbourne. 1921. Wade, A. Possibility of Oil Discovery in Queensland. Com. of Aust., Pari. Pap., p. 21. 1925. Ward, L. K. Notes on the Geological Structure of Central Australia. Trans. B.S.S.A . 1925. Woolnough and David. Cretaceous Glaciation in Central Australia. Q.J.G.S., Lond.. 1926. Note. — For further references see bibliography, Woolnough and David, 1926,. pp. 333-334. Most of the works listed above are supplementary. Vol. MIL, No. 7. 105 REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. By N. T. M. Yeates, B.Agr.Sc., D. H. K. Lee, M.D., M.Sc., D.T.M., and H. J. G. Hines, B.Sc., Department of Physiology, University of Queensland. (Plate IY. and 6 Text Figures.) {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30 th June, 1941.) INTRODUCTION. Insufficient attention seems to have been given to the general physiology of the domestic fowl, and in no respect is this apparent neglect greater than in that of its reactions to hot atmospheres. In all countries with high summer temperatures, losses of poultry occur from heat effects. This annually recurring loss assumes serious propor- tions from time to time with the incidence of “heat waves.” Thus much loss was incurred in the United States in July, 1936.3 Our attention was drawn to the problem in Queensland in January, 1940, by a “heat wave” of record proportions. In Table 1 are set out the meteorological records for this period. The losses incurred were estimated at 40,000 birds, valued conservatively at £6,200. To this estimate must be added losses produced by reduction in laying. While Hutt3 gives a good analysis of field observations in the United States, no experimental enquiry seems to have been conducted. Discussion at a meeting of the National Utility Poultry Breeders’ Association in Brisbane produced many suggestions and valuable field observations. The present enquiry was based upon the evidence so obtained and was designed to establish — (i.) The atmospheric conditions which produce heat effects in fowls ; (ii.) The comparative behaviour of different breeds; (iii.) The importance of providing drinking water; (iv.) The effect of the protein level in the diet; (v.) Practical methods of preventing or reducing heat effects in fowls. EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND METHODS. Only hens were studied. They were kept under normal atmospheric conditions when not required. On the day of experiment they were placed singly into cages and introduced at 9.0 a,m. into the air- conditioning room, in which the required dry and wet bulb temperatures had been produced. During the experiments each bird was confined by itself in a wire cage measuring 14| inches high x 11 inches x 17 inches. The floor was covered with a -|-inch pine board. The experimental birds were kept in this atmosphere for seven hours or until removed because of collapse or through having reached a rectal temperature of 113 degrees F. Four series of experiments were conducted: — (i.) Preliminary series. — To produce a partial moult, accustom birds to handling, and establish critical conditions. All experimental birds were given this preliminary treatment. r.s. — L 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 1. Meteorological Data — January, 1940. (Brisbane, Q.). For two record days: — Day. Item. Min. 9. a.m. Max. 3 p.m. 9 p.m. Dry Bulb 78-3 92-8 109-8* 105-3 89-3 26th Wet Bulb 82-2 86-3 76-0 Relative Humidity 62% 29% 44% 52% Dry Bulb 82-4* 92-0 106-4 105-3 88-0 29th Wet Bulb 76-5 78-7 81-4 Relative Humidity 47% 28% 28% 74% * Records. Ten successive days over 90 degrees (second longest heat wave on record). -K — *— RECTAL TEMP. (LEGHORN) x--x--x PULSE (LEGHORN) — o — o — RECTAL TEMP. (A’ORP) -o—®- PULSE (A’ORP) Text Figure 1. Reactions of Rectal Temperature and Pulse Rate of Fowls exposed to 100° F., with 65 per cent. Relative Humidity. REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 107 (ii.) Effective temperature series. — Using various combinations of dry bulb temperature from 70 to 110 degrees F. and of relative humidity from 25 to 95 per cent., to ascertain the co-operative action of these two atmospheric variables upon the fowl’s reactions. Possible combinations were limited below by exterior dew points and above by the workers’ capacity to withstand the conditions. (iii.) Hydration series. — Supplying the birds in successive trials with no water, 15-20 ccs. once an hour, and 15-20 ccs. every half hour, to ascertain the importance of different levels of hydration. Room conditions: D.B. 106 degrees; Rel. Hum. 25 per cent. (iv.) Protein series. — Keeping the birds for one week before each experiment on a diet in which the protein constituted suc- cessively 5, 11, 17, 22, and 28-5 per cent, of the total weight. Room conditions: D.B. 106 degrees; Rel. Hum. 25 per cent. Feeding was continuous up to the time of entering the room. Only two breeds were used — White Leghorns and Australorps (Plate IV.) The birds used were selected as being within the one breed, of similar and fair average build and nutrition. All were in good health. In later experiments it sometimes became necessary to sub- stitute a fresh bird for one indavertently lost in a previous experiment. Experience had shown by that time that variation between individuals was not great, provided that the partial moult had been obtained by preliminary exposure and handling. Once birds were introduced to a particular series they were not transferred to another series. In each series, four White Leghorns and four Australorps were used. Results quoted below represent the average of the observations upon the four birds, unless otherwise stated. All birds not on the special protein diets were maintained over the whole experimental period on a standard laying mash containing 17 per cent, protein to which greenstuff was added. All birds other than those actually being subjected to hydration tests were allowed free water-drinking, both outside and in the experimental room. The following observations were made in an ante-room under normal atmospheric conditions before commencing each experiment and at suitable intervals in the hot room thereafter — pulse rate, measured by listening with a stethoscope and counted over five-second intervals; rectal temperature, measured by a clinical thermometer held in position ; respiratory rate, counted by sight; weight loss, measured on a Sauter balance sensitive to 0-5 gm ; general behaviour. The whole range of experiments described herein was carried out in the four months from winter to spring ( July-October) . Experiments on the same birds were so spaced that, apart from the initial moult, little chance was given them to build up a long-term acclimatisation. The different experiments of the effective temperature series were also well scattered over this period. In all experiments the walls of the room were at approximately the same temperature as the air, so that no new radiation factor was intro- duced, and the air-movement remained constant at an average velocity of 75 feet/min. 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 2. Temperature-Humidity Grids in Respect of Rectal Temp. Australorp. Bel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Per Cent. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 106-0 106-6 105-8 106-5 107-7 110-1 85 105-1 106-2 105-8 106-3 107-0 107-8 [111-1] 5-8 (2) 75 104-8 105-5 106-2 106-5 107-2 108-1 [110-3] 6-4 (2) [120-2] 2-2 (4) 65 105-0 105-4 106-4 107-4 108-5 109-6 [115] 4-1 (4) [118-9] 2 (4) 55 105-6 106-3 106-8 108-4 108-2 [114-9] 3-8 (4) [120-9] 2 (4) 45 105-8 106-5 107-1 109-0 [114] 4-6 (3) [119-3] 2-1 (4) 35 106-6 109-8 [115-2] 3 (3) [110-9] 4-7 (4) 25 [108-8] 6-4 (2) WMte Leghorn. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Rel. Hum. Per Cent. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 105-8 106-1 106-0 106-0 106-8 107-8 85 105-6 106-0 106-0 106-3 106-5 106-8 108-1 75 105-6 106-3 106-7 106-1 106-7 107-4 108-0 [118-9] 3-7 (4) 65 105-8 105-8 106-2 106-7 107-8 108-1 [112-2] 6 (1) [118-9] 2-3 (4) 55 106-1 106-5 106-8 108-0 107-6 [109-2] 6-7 (1) [116-3] 2-1 (4) 45 106-2 106-6 107-1 107-5 [110-2] 6-5 (1) [113-9] 3-1 (4) 35 107-1 107-7 [113-3] 3-1 (1) [111-9] 5-5 (3) 25 [111-2] 6-6 (1) Rectal temperatures represent the average for the period of exposure in degrees E. Figures enclosed in brackets have been weighted for the time of exposure ( see text) . Small figures appearing below bracketed temperatures and to the left indicate the average time (in hours) the fowls remained in the room, those to the right indicate the number of fowls removed. REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 109 RECTAL TEMPERATURE. General Behaviour. — In Fig. 1 is indicated the rise of rectal tem- perature that occurs in hot atmospheres which are just not sufficiently severe to cause collapse of any bird in seven hours exposure. The rise tends to be rapid at first and then declines to a more or less steady rate of rise the gradient of which depends upon many factors. In less trying atmospheres actual equilibrium is obtained. (Fig. 5.) Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — It is obvious that the four climatic factors of radiation, conduction, evaporation, and con- vection must all be included in a complete consideration of energy exchanges between an animal and its environment ; they must all affect positively or negatively, its ability to keep body temperature constant. A more complete consideration will be undertaken at a later date. For the purpose of these experiments radiation was kept low, negative, and in known relationship to the conduction factor, while the convection factor was kept constant. In the “effective temperature”* series, how- ever, different combinations of dry bulb temperature (radiation- conduction factor) and relative humidity (evaporation factor) were used. It is of practical importance to know when and to what extent humidity as well as temperature affects a bird’s reactions. In Table 2 the response of rectal temperature to different combina- tions of temperature and humidity is set out in the form of a grid for each of the two breeds studied. The figure appearing in a square of the grid represents the average temperature of all four birds of that breed in that atmosphere. In the more severe atmospheres birds fre- quently had to be removed before the seven hours had elapsed. In this case the average has been weighted, thus: — If a0 is fowl’s average temperature in the ante-room, ax the fowl’s average temperature during its stay in the hot room, a2 the desired weighted average, and t the duration of its stay in the hot room, then «2 = «o + ~ (at — ay). This assumes a linear progress for the function in question, which, while not being accurate, provides a sufficient weighting for the somewhat gross comparative work here being attempted. The weighted averages are enclosed in brackets on the grids. Inspection of the grids shows the following points: — (i.) Below a dry bulb temperature of 85 degrees F., neither temperature nor humidity produces much apparent effect upon the rectal temperature. There is some tendency for it to be lower over the lower ranges of both factors, but the figures are somewhat irregular. (ii.) A dry bulb temperature of 85 degrees in all instances pro- duces a higher average rectal temperature than one of 80 degrees in the Australorp, but only in some instances in the Leghorn. Humidity would seem to play no part here. An explanation of the term “effective temperature ? ’ is not necessary to this paper, but it is employed here as it will appear in connection with further work now in hand. 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 3. Effect of Free! and Forced Water-feeding. Free. Full Forced. Half Forced. Nil. Av. Beet. Temp. °F. Australorp 108-6 [115-0] 4 (4) [HI 5] 5-6 (3) [112-2] 6-2 (2) White Leghorn 108-0 [116-5] 5-8 (1) 109-4 110-0 Av. Pulse Rate Australorp 278 274 272 261 (Beats/min.) White Leghorn 271 283 275 268 Av. Resp. Rate Australorp 94 [224] [136] [144] (Resp./min.) White Leghorn 89 [384] 154 153 Av. Evap. Loss Australorp 37 [47] [23] [28] (Gms./hr.) White Leghorn 45 [42-5] 22 25 Figures enclosed in square brackets have been weighted for the time of exposure (see text). Small figures appearing below bracketed temperatures and to the left indicate the average time (in hours) the fowls remained in the room, those to the right indicate the number of fowls removed. TABLE 4. Effect of Dietary Protein Levels. 5 Per cent. 11 Per cent. 17 Per cent. 22 Per cent. 28' 5 Per cent. Av. Rect. Temp. °F. Australorp 108-9 [109-9] 6-6 (1) 108-6 [111-7] 5-3 (2) [111-3] 5-8 (2) White Leghorn 107-7 108-5 108-0 108-1 108-5 Av. Pulse Rate/min. Australorp 263 274 278 272 270 White Leghorn 260 269 271 272 269 Av. Resp. Rate/min. Australorp 85 [102] 94 [129] [100] White Leghorn 62 112 89 125 100 Av. Evap. Loss . . (Gms./hr.) Australorp 37 [44] 37 [41] [43] White Leghorn 43 41 45 41 35 Figures enclosed in square brackets have been weighted for the time of exposure ( see text). Small figures appearing below bracketed temperatures and to the left indicate the average time (in hours) the fowls remained in the room, those to the right indicate the number of fowls removed. REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. Ill (iii.) At 90 degrees the average rectal temperature is definitely raised in all instances in both breeds, but more markedly in the Aus- tralorp. Humidity of 55 per cent, and below provides a saving for the Australorps which puts them on a level with the Leghorns, which do not gain anything from these reduced humidities. (iv.) As the dry bulb temperature rises still higher, the effect upon rectal temperature becomes more and more pronounced, but again more markedly so in the Australorp. A sparing action of lower humidities shows up here, though in a somewhat irregular fashion, and on the whole this is more noticeable in the Australorps. It must be realized, of course, that even a relatively small benefit at these levels may save the life of the birds concerned. (v.) At 100 degrees F. some Australorps had to be removed before the conclusion of the seven hours test period on the two most humid days (75 and 85 per cent,), but all Leghorns remained in. At temperatures of 105 degrees and over some or all of both breeds had to be withdrawn, even at the low humidities. The number of fowls withdrawn is shown in the bottom right-hand corner of the squares, and here again the Leghorn shows a lower casualty rate. Effect of Hydration. — The importance of maintaining bodily water content within certain limits has been shown repeatedly for man. 2* 4 The position in the case of fowls was investigated by making the usual observations upon four different occasions. On the first trial free water- drinking from a vessel was permitted and the average rate of evapora- tion measured. On the second occasion, an amount of water approxi- mately equal to the quantity of water so determined as being evaporated was injected from a syringe directly into the crop. On the third occasion, half this amount of water was given and on the fourth no water. (For amounts see above.) In Table 3 appear the average rectal temperatures (calculated as above) for these trials. It will be seen that water administration directly into the crop does nothing to relieve the rise of rectal tempera- ture, but that if free water-drinking is permitted, some relief is obtained. This raises the question as to what difference there is between water injection and free water-drinking. From general observations upon the fowl’s behaviour it is tentatively concluded that with free water- drinking the immersion of the head provides a method of evaporation. Effect of Dietary Protein. — It appears to be well established that for omnivorous and carnivorous mammals protein possesses a high specific dynamic action. For these animals, therefore, a high level of protein in the diet should prove an extra embarrassment when heat regulation is being severely strained by hot conditions. Direct evidence on this point for mammals is, at present, inadequate. In view of the frequent advocacy on other grounds of a high protein diet for fowls, it was determined to apply a direct test to our birds. The diets (details given p. 107) were similar in all respects except that the percentage of protein was varied and starch was added to the lowest diet. Birds were kept on any one diet for a week before the trial. In Table 4 appear the average rectal temperatures (calculated as above) so obtained. It will be seen that while there was some intensifica- tion of heat effects with the very high protein diets the differences are not definitely significant. In the case of the Australorps, there was some tendency for collapse to occur earlier. 112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 5. Variability of Ante-Boom Values in Single Fowls. Bird No. Rectal Temp. °F. Pulse Rate /Min. Resp. Rate /Min. Days of Obser- Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. vation. 1 . . 106-0 104-0 105-2 300 240 282 36 12 20 13 3 . . 107-8 104-6 106-0 300 228 276 60 24 42 33 2 Pi 4 . . 105-6 103-4 105-1 300 216 276 56 36 44 13 0 1 5 . . 106-8 104-4 105-5 324 252 276 48 28 38 47 3 < 11 . . 106-8 105-2 106-1 288 264 276 16 12 16 28 12 . . 107-0 105-4 106-2 300 264 282 56 16 46 32 50 . . 107-2 105-3 105-8 288 264 276 44 24 33 15 9 14 . . 107-5 105-0 106-0 300 192 276 72 36 51 47 o !> 20 .. 107-3 105-0 106-0 300 252 276 72 28 52 47 Hi © 21 . . 106-6 104-0 106-0 288 228 276 80 32 50 47 2 £ 22 . . 106-7 104-4 105-7 288 252 276 84 56 68 47 Variability of Beactions in TABLE 6. Different Fowls after 7 Hours at 95 Degrees F. Relative Humidity. 95 Per Cent. 85 Per Cent. 75 Per Cent. 65 Per Cent. 45 Per Cent. 35 Per Cent. Max. Australorps 112-3 108-7 109-5 111-4 109-0 Min. 111-2 107-8 108-8 108-8 106-5 Max. 108-4 107-9 White Leghorns 108-0 109-0 107-4 Min. 107-7 106-8 107-4 107-0 106-9 108-0 107-0 107-6 107-4 Max. Australorps 324 276 300 288 300 Min. 288 252 276 264 288 276 264 Max. White Leghorns 300 288 300 288 300 Min. 276 252 264 264 264 276 252 Max. 88 52 68 80 72 Australorps Min. 36 28 36 48 32 52 32 Max. White Leghorns 92 80 76 96 76 Min. 40 36 36 48 36 72 32 Max. Australorps 10 14 17 16 24 Min. 13 12 35 30 White Leghorns Max. 22 23 18 35 Min. 13 13 14 40 25 REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 113 V aviations in Reaction. — Any one bird appears to behave in a fairly constant fashion as regards rectal temperature. In Table 5 appear the maximum, minimum, and average ante-room temperatures of those fowls observed over the longest periods. Statistical treatment of the temperatures measured in the ante-room yields the following data: — Breed. No. of Birds. No. of Meas. Min. Max. Mean. S.E. of Mean. Stand. Dev. Australorps 16 250 103-4 107-8 105-87 ±•038 ±•604 Leghorns . . 13 255 104-0 107-5 105-91 ±•028 ±•447 Variation between individuals is thus restricted, especially in the Leghorns. In Table 6 are given the maximum and minimum rectal temperatures prevailing in the fowls of the two breeds at the end of the trials at 95 degrees F. It will be seen that the absolute range of variation is smaller than in the ante-room. In sharp distinction to the constancy of behaviour in any one indi- vidual, and the small degree of variation between different individuals of the same breed, the variation in reaction between the two breeds studied here is marked. Starting from the same mean rectal temperature in the ante-room the Australorps in all atmospheres above the lower critical level show a definitely greater rise of temperature than the Leghorns. This is reflected in the higher average temperatures shown in Tables 2, 3, 4, and 6 by the Australorps and the greater number of Australorps removed for collapse in atmospheres of 100 degrees and 105 degrees F. (Table 2). Possible explanations for this difference will be considered below. (Powers of Heat Regulation.) PULSE RATE. General Behaviour. — In marked contra-distinction to the rectal temperature, pulse rate shows no consistent change upon exposure to heat (Fig. 1). This is markedly different from the behaviour of the pulse rate in man2- 4 and many mammals under similar circumstances. Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — In Table 7 are set out the average pulse rates of the fowls during their tenure of the hot room under different conditions. There is no apparent orientation in this grid. Indeed, considering the relative crudity of the counting method used, the degree of variation anywhere is slight. Effect of Hydration. — In Table 3 appear the average pulse rates of the fowls enjoying different degrees of water replacement. This apparently had no constant effect upon the pulse rate. Effect of Dietary Protein. — Table 4 contains the average pulse rates of the same fowls stabilized upon different levels of dietary protein. Again there is no detectable influence of this factor. Variations. — In Table 5 are set out the maximum, minimum, and average ante-room pulse rates of the fowl studied over the longest periods. The degree of variation in the one individual — taking into account the method of counting used — is not great. 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 7. Temperature-Humidity Grids in Respect of Pulse Rate. Australorp. Rel. Hum. Per Cent. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 280 277 283 271 276 298 85 272 277 271 275 272 270 276 75 266 274 263 275 277 284 272 270 65 277 289 270 271 276 275 271 271 55 269 270 281 275 284 266 295 45 284 278 288 276 276 290 35 263 282 288 283 25 299 White Leghorn. Rel. Hum. Per Cent. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 282 275 281 281 281 288 85 270 272 270 274 266 274 271 75 274 272 268 276 277 281 276 312 65 280 288 276 275 280 281 272 271 55 262 275 282 281 280 282 299 45 288 278 274 277 280 278 35 259 281 280 277 25 295 Pulse rates represent the average for the period of exposure. REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 115 The extremes of variations of pulse rate between individuals is more marked than that of rectal temperature, as is shown by the following statistical data: — Breed. No. of Birds. No. of Meas. Min. Max. Mean. S.E. of Mean. Stand. Dev. Australorps 16 251 204 324 278-0 ±0-8 ±12-6 Leghorns . . 13 254 192 312 275-2 ±0-8 ±12-7 In Table 6 are given the maximum and minimum pulse rates pre- vailing in the fowls of the two breeds at the end of the trials at 95 degrees F. The variation here is again less than in the ante-room. The difference between the means of the ante-room pulse rates of the two breeds is statistically just significant, but in view of the method of measurement, this should probably be discounted. No more significant breed difference was detected in the hot room. Correlation with Body Temperature. — That there is no correlation of pulse rate and body temperature in the fowls studied is seen by comparing the grids of Tables 2 and 7. The significance of this will be considered later. (Powers of Heat Regulation.) RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS. General Behaviour . — In Fig. 2 appears a typical curve of the response of respiratory rate under hot conditions. The rate rises somewhat irregularly, but at a fairly uniform general rate throughout exposure to these trying conditions. The type of breathing was seen to alter from faster but normal respirations, through rapid panting to sighing action with the onset of collapse. Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — In Table 8 is given a temperature-humidity grid in respect of respiratory rate for each of the two breeds studied. The figures represent averages calculated as in the case of rectal temperatures above. Inspection of the grids reveals the following points: — (i.) Below a dry bulb temperature of 90 degrees F., neither temperature nor humidity produces much effect upon the respiratory rate. (ii.) A dry bulb temperature of 90 degrees in most instances produced a higher respiratory rate than one of 85 degrees, particularly in the Australorps. (iii.) At 95 degrees the average respiratory rate is raised in all instances but one in both breeds. There is practically no tendency at this level for low humidities to effect a sparing action. (iv.) As the dry bulb temperature rises higher the respiratory rate increases rapidly, especially at the higher humidities. The rapid rise associated with conditions which produce collapse is reflected in the high values of the weighted averages in these instances. There is some irregularity in the relative sparing effects of medium and low humidities. This matter will arise again in the following section. (Evaporation of Water.) Effect of Hydration. — In Table 3 appear the average respiratory rates for fowls kept at the different hydration levels. It will be seen 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 8. Temperature-Humidity Grids in Respect of Respiratory Rate. Australorp. Rel. Hum. Per Cent. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 32 36 36 36 41 64 85 34 34 36 36 37 44 [128] 75 38 34 39 37 43 44 [112] [252] 65 31 33 37 46 50 68 [170] [262] 55 34 36 38 40 50 [174] [281] 45 33 32 50 74 [124] [171] 35 40 74 [171] [73] 25 [60] White Leghorn. Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F Per Cent. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 55 54 56 44 55 66 85 60 57 58 54 50 62 74 75 47 52 55 51 63 56 73 [308] 65 48 54 53 59 72 76 [153] [308] 55 46 60 55 60 69 [100] [200] 45 50 49 54 74 [129] [246] 35 51 69 [164] [127] 25 [148] Respiratory rates represent the average for the period of exposure, expressed as respirations per minute. Figures enclosed in brackets have been weighted for the time of exposure {see text). REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 117 that, as in the case of body temperature, forced water-feeding afforded no relief to the respiratory rate, whereas with free water-drinking definite relief was obtained. Effect of Dietary Protein. — Table 4 includes average respiratory rates for fowls kept on different protein levels. There is some sugges- tion of a reduced rate with the lowest protein ration, but no regular variation with successive increases of protein above 11 per cent. VARIATIONS IN REACTION. Statistical treatment of the respiratory rates measured in the ante-room yields the following data: — Breed. No. of Birds. No. of Meas. Min. Max. Mean. S.E. of Mean. Stand. Dev. Australorps 16 250 12 76 35-7 ±0-7 ±1M Leghorns . . 13 256 20 84 44-4 ±0-8 ±12-5 The wide range of variation in a single individual is somewhat, but not much, increased when groups of individuals are considered. This rather wide variation of and between individuals in temperate atmospheres is not lessened upon exposure to heat. In Table 6 are given the maximum and minimum respiratory rates prevailing in the fowls of the two breeds at the end of the trials at 95 degrees F. The difference between the two breeds is quite marked. The difference in the means of the ante-room counts is quite significant. This difference, while persisting at intermediate temperatures, tends to disappear or even to become reversed at higher temperatures. (Fig. 2, Table 8.) Correlation with Body Temperature. — Comparison of the tempera- ture-humidity grids in respect of rectal temperature and respiratory rate (Tables 2 and 8) indicates a high degree of correlation, particularly if allowance is made for the irregular nature of respirations associated with the highest temperatures. A correlation of type of respiration with rectal temperature was also observed. At a rectal temperature of about 108 degrees F. nasal breathing changed to panting, at a some- what higher temperature (109 degrees F.) the rate rapidly increased, and as the critical temperature of 113 degrees was reached the respirations changed rather suddenly to slower deep sighs or even gasps. (These changes are to be seen better in curves for individual fowls than in the average graphs of Figs. 1 and 2.) It should be noted that the critical temperature for respiration rise lies higher than that for rectal tempera- ture rise and that in any one bird the respiratory rate does not increase until the rectal temperature has already risen. EVAPORATION OF WATER. General Behaviour. — Evaporative loss tends to be low during exposure to intermediate temperatures and the early stages of exposure to high temperatures. In the latter case, however, it changes rather suddenly to a much higher rate which persists more or less unchanged during the rest of the trial. This change coincides roughly with the onset of panting. (Fig. 2.) 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 9. Temperature-Humidity Grids in Respect op Evaporative Loss. Australorp. Rel. Hum. Per Cent. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 -1-5 -2-5 -3-5 [—1-5 4 3 85 3-5 1-5 2-5 -0-5 1 4-5 [10] 75 3-5 3-5 5 6 6 8-5 [12] [34] 65 4-5 3-5 6 9-5 8-5 15-5 [30] * 55 4 8 9 14-5 21 [22] [49-5] 45 8 10 10 19 [36] [33] 35 11-5 14-5 [36-5] [26] 25 [30] White Leghorn . Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Per Cent. 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 -1 -2-5 -3*5 -1-5 4-5 3-5 85 4-5 — 1*5 4 4 1*5 7 12 75 4 4 4-5 8 8-5 10-5 17 [32] 65 4-5 6-5 6 9-5 11 22-5 [29] * 55 7-5 11-5 14 18 26*5 [35-5] [53] 45 13 12-5 15 26 [38-5] [38-5] 35 13 15-5 [27-5] [39] 25 [37] * Not in liot atmosphere long enough to determine loss. Evaporative losses represent the average for the period of exposure in grams per hour. Figures enclosed in brackets have been weighted for the time of exposure ( see text). REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 119 Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — It is a fair assumption under the conditions of the experiments that the loss of wpight by the cage containing both the bird and its water tin, less a correction for evaporation from the tin directly, represents evaporation of water from the bird. Before this can be identified, however, with insensible evaporation in its physiological sense, an allowance has to be made for water exchange between the atmosphere and the feathers and cage. The extent of the corrections required for this are being determined. In Table 9 appear the temperature-humidity grids for average net weight loss per hour. Inspection of these grids shows that the rate of evaporation increases markedly with rise of temperature. The figures in the lower ranges of temperature would probably conform also if allowance were made as just indicated for changes in feather water content. With decreasing humidity the rate of evaporation generally increases, particularly through the upper ranges. Effect of Hydration. — The average rates of evaporation per hour (calculated as described above under Rectal Temperature) shown by the fowls with different degrees and methods of hydration are included in Table 3. Fowls allowed free water-drinking show greater evapora- tive loss than fowls deprived of water or forcibly fed with half replace- ment amounts. Leghorns show a greater loss than Australorps when allowed free drinking, but not otherwise. The significance of these observations will be discussed below. Effect of Dietary Protein. — As with other reactions, the level of dietary protein appeared to be without effect upon evaporative loss. (Table 4.) Variations in Reaction. — In Table 6 are given the maximum and minimum rates of evaporative loss exhibited by the fowls of the two breeds at the end of the trials at 95 degrees F. The variability is fairly great. Comparison of the temperature-humidity grids for the two breeds (Table 9) indicates a generally greater rate of evaporative loss from the Leghorns at intermediate temperatures. This superiority is lost when water is given directly into the crop. (Table 3.) Correlation with Respiration. — If the temperature-humidity grid in respect of respiratory rate (Table 8) is compared with that in respect of evaporative loss (Table 9), some interesting features are seen. There is a general correlation as regards dry bulb temperature, both respira- tory rate and evaporation rising markedly with increased temperature, but this correlation is not seen as regards humidity. While the respira- tory rate in many instances tends to fall with decreasing humidity, the evaporative loss tends to rise or remain steady. This is, of course, explicable when it is remembered that evaporative loss from the lungs depends upon two factors — the rate of pulmonary ventilation and the humidity of the inspired air — factors which, in this case, move in opposite directions. The sharp rise of evaporative loss in the course of the hotter trials (Fig. 2) was seen to be associated with a change of respiratory type from the normal to panting. POWERS OF HEAT REOULATION. Comparable Atmospheric Conditions. — In Fig. 4a.-d. the results of Tables 2 and 8 are expressed in graphic form, to permit a general 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. •x-.-x---x.RESP. RATE (LEGHORN) -x— x— x WT. LOSS (LEGHORN!) o— -o-RESP. RATE (A’ORP) -o— o— o WT. LOSS (A’ORP) Text Figure 2. Reactions of Respiratory Rate and Rate of Weight Loss of Fowls exposed to 100° F., with 65 per cent. Relative Humidity. 60 and over. 15 and over. 60 and over. 65 and over. 90 and over. 95 and over. Text Figure 2. Diagram to show relative importance of temperature and humidity upon the general reactions of man. (Compiled from the nomogram for effective temperature, designed by the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers.) reactions of domestic fowls to hot atmospheres. 121 analysis of the relative effects of dry bulb temperature and humidity upon the rectal temperature and respiratory rate. It will be seen from this that the dry bulb temperature is the all-important factor deter- mining the behaviour of the hen in these two respects. Humidity is not entirely without effect however. The lowest humidities seem to exert some sparing action at all temperatures, whilst the highest humidities have an enhanced influence at the higher temperatures. The influence of humidity seems to be rather more apparent in the Australorp than the Leghorn. The influence of humidity is, however, not nearly as marked as in man. (Fig. 3.) 5 Critical Temperatures. — A shade dry bulb temperature of 80-85 degrees F. for an Australorp, and of 85-90 degrees F. for a White Leghorn, marks the upper limit at which these hens can maintain their equilibrium undisturbed for seven hours. A rectal temperature of about 108 degrees F. is accompanied by a change to open-mouthed panting, and one of about 109 degrees F. by a sudden increase in rate. These two factors together are accompanied by a marked rise in the rate of water evaporation. A rectal temperature of 113 degrees F. marks the limit of continued existence as an integrated organism. Deep sighing or gasping respira- tions, weakness of the legs, collapse and loss of consciousness follow in rapid succession, and if relief is not rapidly given death ensues. No hens have succeeded in remaining for seven hours at a dry bulb temperature of 105 degrees F. with a relative humidity of 75 per cent., or at 110 degrees F. with a relative humidity of 45 per cent, or over. Methods of Heat Regulation. — Heat loss by radiation and conduc- tion from the general surface of the hen’s body must at all times be severely limited by the depth of the “private atmosphere” provided by the covering of large non-vaseular feathers. This protection against heat loss is somewhat reduced under conditions of stress by the stance of the bird with the wings held out from the body. This position at the same time increases the “effective radiating surface” and exposes the less densely feathered portions of the body. Of the non-feathered parts, the legs have a relatively large, but horny, non-vascular surface, and probably afford but little relief. The wattles and comb, on the other hand, have a very rich vascular supply with a thin skin. Radiation and conduction exchanges from these may very well be of great importance. It is highly probable that the superiority of the Leghorn over the Australorp is due in large part to its larger head appendages. (Plate IV.) This would be in conformity with Hutt’s observations upon Rhode Island Reds and Barred Rocks.3 The remaining method of heat loss available to animals is that of evaporation. This may occur in four ways — evaporation from lungs and air passages, evaporation from surface moisture transuded through the integument, evaporation of moisture supplied by sweat glands, and evaporation of moisture obtained from external sources. The third of these can be dismissed as the hen possesses no sweat glands.1 The second is probably severely restricted by the dense feathery covering, although this point will be subjected to verification at a later date. The two remaining methods are of relatively great importance to the fowl. The fowl, unlike the dog, has a relatively small area of buccal mucous membrane, and much of the tongue is horny, while the nasal r.s. — M 122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Au5tra/orp - Recta! Temp. Text Figure 4a. 30 and over. 40 and over. GO and over, too and over. 200 and over. Average for T Hours. Text Figure 4b. REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. White Leghorn - Recta! Temjp. Under 106’. Over 106° Over 107° Over 108° Over HO° Over (i 15°) Average tor 7 Hours. Text Figure 4c. White L e qhorn - Respiratory Rate . £2 40 and over. 50 and over. 60 and over. HO and over 200 and over. Average for 7 Hours. Text Figure 4d. Diagram to show relative importance of temperature and humidity upon the reactions of the fowl. RECTAL TEMP. °F. RECTAL TEMP. 124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. AUSTRALORPS WHITE LEGHORNS Room Temp, is shown within the Graphs. Text Figure 5. Behaviour of the Rectal Temperature of Fowls exposed to Atmospheres of Different Temperatures (each at 65 per cent. Relative Humidity). REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 125 passages are small, so that evaporation from the upper respiratory passages is limited. Hence, true tachypnoeic respiration, in which the dead space air is pushed back and forth over moist non-pulmonary membranes, could be of little avail in increasing heat loss. Neverthe- less, the fowl does use accelerated breathing as a method of increasing evaporation, as is obvious from Figs. 2 and 6 and Tables 8 and 9, and this use is closely correlated with the fowl’s body temperature. This evaporation must occur from the deep pulmonary epithelium, and must call for marked tolerance or powers of regulation of the acid-base balance. Comparative studies of this mechanism are being made. It is not known to what extent the air-sinuses of the bones aid in this process. Part of the superiority in heat regulation of the Leghorn over the Australorp may be due to its higher respiratory rate. The superiority of fowls permitted free water-drinking over those fed water direct into the crop draws attention to the method of drinking. In our experiments open tins were provided and the fowls definitely took advantage of this to dip the head into the water. The head is thus cooled, mainly by evaporation of water. The anterior portions of the Leghorn’s comb were quite cold to the touch, when the posterior por- tions not dipped into water were burning. The rich vascular supply to these appendages gives every opportunity for a rapid distribution of this cooling effect over the body. The Leghorns appeared to take special advantage of this, and their rate of evaporation is greater when allowed free water-drinking, but the comparative figures (Table 3) do not show that they added any more to their constitutional superiority thereby. A striking feature of the fowl ’s struggle against high environmental temperature is the absence of any response by the heart rate. This may merely indicate that special demands are not made upon the cardio- vascular system, in which case the fowl differs markedly from many mammals, or that there is very little reserve power available to the fowl to increase its heart rate. This matter also is receiving further attention. The part played by such factors as colour, body form, and superficial fat have not been specially studied, so that no opinion will be ventured at this stage. Effects of Heat. — The first effect of heat is upon behaviour. Fowls pant and stand with wings partly outstretched, and are generally dis- inclined to exert themselves. The most dramatic effects are those which come on when the body temperature reaches 113 degrees F. Marked distress as shown by deep sighing respirations and shaky gait is followed by inability to stand, complete collapse with pale comb and outstretched legs, and death in rapid succession. This almost certainly corresponds to true heat-stroke in man, and represents failure of the central nervous system. The staggering gait seen in the earlier stages of decline and persisting for some time after resuscitation is probably due to failure of the striato-rubral mechanism. If a laying hen is exposed without other disturbances to a hot atmosphere, it goes into a state resembling a partial moult. Laying is greatly reduced to about once a week, and some loss of small feathers occurs. Inasmuch as the metabolic rate is reduced thereby, this may be a rapid form of acclimatization. If exposure is frequently repeated the laying becomes a little more frequent but does not (in the course of four months) return to normal. Eggs laid during exposure are often 126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. AU5T RALORPS WHITE LEGHORNS Room Temp, is shown within the Graphs. Text Figure 6. Reaction of the Respiratory Rate of the Fowl to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures, but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). REACTIONS OF DOMESTIC FOWLS TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 127 soft-shelled and misshapen, and the actual act of laying the egg has a pronounced effect upon the body temperature, sometimes raising it by 2 degrees F. This may, of course, just serve to bring on heat-stroke in a bird which would otherwise escape. If exposure is not repeated, the partial moult soon passes off. It is our impression that birds exposed to hot atmospheres contract respiratory and alimentary infections rather readily, but the changes of climate experienced by our birds were somewhat trying and do not afford a fair test. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. Limiting Atmospheric Conditions. — A dry bulb temperature of 80 degrees F. is the highest that hens of the two breeds used here can uniformly tolerate without showing disturbances of temperature and respiration. A dry bulb temperature of 100 degrees F. cannot be safely withstood for seven hours unless the humidity is below 75 per cent. A dry bulb temperature of 105 degrees F. can be safely withstood for only a few hours. As the temperature mounts higher, the tolerance time falls off rapidly. (Fig. 5.) Water Supply. — A good water supply must be readily accessible to birds without undue movement and in wide-mouthed containers which permit the head to be dipped into the water. It is relatively more important that fowls should be able to wet their heads than that they should drink. Up to one pint per bird per day must be provided on hot days. Protein Level m the Diet. — The level of protein in the diet is apparently immaterial. Acclimatisation. — There should be less risk of death amongst laying hens during the later days of a heat wave, provided that the nights afford some relief, since laying is reduced and panic is less evident, but the egg production will be correspondingly reduced. It is possible that fowls resident for some time in hot climates develop a further acclimatisation. Recognition and Treatment of Heat Effects.— Panting and wing holding are early indications that birds are feeling the heat. Some birds “sulk” in the corners, especially amongst the Australorps. In these the early warnings of impending heat-stroke are less easily recog- nised, so that they call for greater supervision. In the standing bird weakness of the legs, or staggering gait, calls for urgent attention. Deep or irregular sighing respiration is a serious sign. Complete collapse is self-evident but allows practically no time for treatment. Rectal tempera- ture, if this can be secured, is a reliable guide; 113 degrees F. is the uppermost limit of safety. We have found simple immersion in cold water a very effective means of resuscitation, especially if the bird can be placed in a cooler place. On a hot day, when the water itself is warm, it is evaporation that cools the bird and there is little risk of chilling effects, so that birds can be safely put in a shady dry and breezy place to dry. Treatment must be instituted, of course, before structural damage has been done to the central nervous system. Selection of Type. — These experiments definitely show the superiority of the White Leghorn over the Australorp in combating high temperatures. Various causes have been suggested for this superiority.3 128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Of these, we feel that the larger combs and wattles and a higher respira- tory rate are very important. This question is being further studied in relation to other breeds. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The investigations here reported were carried out under the Com- monwealth Research Projects Scheme for Universities, financed by the Commonwealth Government, through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. One of the authors (N. T. M. Yeates) was at the same time working as the Robert Philp Scholar in the University of Queensland. Valuable assistance and advice were received from officers of the University Department of Veterinary Science, the State Depart- ment of Agriculture and Stock, the Poultry Farmers Co-operative Society, and the National Utility Poultry Breeders’ Association. The Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau kindly furnished weather data. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 Bradley, 0. C. 1915. “The Structure of the Fowl.” Black, London. 2 Gregory, R. A., Lee., D. H. K. 1936. J. Physiol. 86, 204. 8 Hutt, F. B. 1938. Poultry Science. 17, 454. 4 Lee, D. H. K. 1940. Univ. Queensland Dpt. Physiol. Papers I. (5). 5 Yaglou, C. P. 1926. J. Indust. Hyg. 8, 5. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. LIIL, No. 7. Plate IV, Australorp. White Leghorn. Body Form and Head Characters of Australorp and White Leghorn Hens. [The Australorp is from a photograph authorised by the N.U.P.B.A. (Queensland) . [ The White Leghorn is from a photograph in “ Poultry Breeding and Production by Edward Broxon. Vol. LIIL, No. 8. 129 REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. By Douglas H. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M., Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and H. J. G. Hines, B.Sc., Department of Physiology, University of Queensland. (Six Text Figures.) {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th June, 1941.) INTRODUCTION. Observations made upon domestic fowls when they are exposed to hot atmospheres have already been reported [Yeates, Lee and Hines (1941)]. Many mammals have been subjected to similar experimental enquiries, and the results obtained will be published in due course. Amongst these animals is the rabbit, which has been included in order to give a comparative basis to the series, a basis necessary to an adequate study of heat regulation in mammals. To these animal experiments must be added for this purpose, experiments previously made upon man. [Gregory & Lee (1936) Lee (1940) Lee and Boissard (1940) Lee, Murray, Simmonds and Atherton (1941).] If an additional reason is required for studying the animal, it should be realized that the limitation of the rabbit pest in Australia may well be bound up with biological limiting factors rather than artificial restrictions. The experiments described here were designed to establish three things : — (i.) The atmospheric conditions which produce heat-effects in rabbits ; (ii.) The importance of a drinking water supply; (iii.) The effect of season and acclimatisation upon the rabbit’s reaction. While more animals, more breeds and further variations in conditions are being examined, it is considered desirable to make a preliminary report at this stage. EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND METHODS. Two male white angora rabbits were used. They were kept under normal atmospheric conditions when not required. On the day of the experiment the animal was placed in a cage measuring 9 inches high x 18 inches x 12 inches, with a -§-inch pine board on the floor, and introduced at 9.0 a.m. into the air-conditioning room, in which the required dry and wet bulb temperatures had been produced. It was kept in this room for seven hours unless removed earlier because the rectal temperature had reached 107 degrees F. and heat-stroke was imminent. Three series of experiments were conducted : — (i.) Acclimatisation series. — After preliminary training at normal daily temperatures in January, the rabbit was introduced daily to a hot wet climate (dry bulb temperature 88 degrees F., wet bulb 85 degrees F.) six days a week for four weeks. R.S. — N 130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. After four weeks at normal temperatures (March) the experiment was repeated in a hot dry climate (dry bulb temperature 106 degrees F., wet bulb 80 degrees F.). In June the experiment was repeated for two weeks with the hot wet climate. Observations were made five times a week during the first two weeks and at a week ’s interval thereafter. (ii.) Effective temperature series. — Various combinations of dry bulb temperature from 70 to 110 degrees F. and of relative humidity from 25 to 95 per cent, were used on different days to ascertain the comparative action of these two atmospheric variables upon a rabbit’s reactions. (iii.) Hydration series. — On different days a rabbit was supplied respectively with no water, 8 ccs, of water hourly and 16 ccs. hourly, during exposure to an atmosphere with a dry-bulb temperature of 106 degrees F. and a wet-bulb temperature of 80 degrees F. The rabbits were kept upon a diet of chaff with greens three times a week with pumpkins replacing the greens on the remaining days. Free water drinking was at all times permitted except in the case of animals during exposure in the hydration and acclimatisation series. The following observations were made in an ante-room under normal atmospheric conditions before commencing each experiment and at suitable intervals in the hot room thereafter : — pulse rate, counted over 15-second periods by feeling over the femoral artery, rectal temperature by a clinical thermometer held in position, weight loss, measured by a Sauter balance sensitive to 0-5 gm., and general behaviour. In addition, respiratory rate and volume were measured. For this purpose a metal conical mask with a padded base moulded to the animal’s face, was held firmly over the snout. The mask was fitted with inspiratory and expiratory butterfly valves in such a way as to reduce dead space to a minimum. The outlet was connected to a spirometer of low resistance and a side connection led to a tambour which wrote on a revolving drum. In this way the volume of expired air per minute and the respiratory rate could be determined simultaneously. Both rabbits were trained to this procedure for some days before being used for observation. With the exception of the acclimatisation series, the experiments here described were carried out in the four months from winter to spring ( July-October), and experiments were so spaced that little chance was given the animals to build up a long-term acclimatisation. The different experiments of the effective temperature series were well scattered over this period. In all experiments the walls of the room were at the same temperature as the air, so that no new radiation factor was introduced, and the air-movement remained constant at an average velocity of 75 feet/min. RECTAL TEMPERATURE. General Behaviour. — In Text Fig. 1 is shown the temperature curve of a rabbit exposed to a temperature of 95 degrees F. at 75 per cent, humidity. It will be seen that the temperature rises rapidly at first, then more slowly until some kind of an equilibrium is obtained. REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 131 At less trying temperatures, equilibrium is obtained earlier, and at a lower level and is more stable. With higher temperatures, equilibrium later breaks down or is never attained. (Text Fig. 2.) Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — While it is generally recognised that the higher the temperature, the greater the disturbance of function, it is a matter of considerable argument what effect humidity has upon these reactions. The truth is, of course, that it varies with different animals and different temperatures. In order to present a systematic picture of the relative effects of these two atmospheric variables, a series of temperature-humidity grids have been prepared. In Table 1 is given the grid in respect of rectal temperature. The figure appearing in the square of a grid represents the average temperature of the rabbit during seven hours’ exposure to those conditions. In more severe atmospheres the rabbit had to be removed before the seven hours had elapsed. In such cases the average has been weighted as described for the fowl [Yeates, Lee & Hines (1941)]. The weighted averages are enclosed in brackets on the grid. TABLE 1. Rectal Temperature Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 101-2 101-6 101-5 102-2 103-7 104-9 85 102-3 101-8 103-2 103-0 104-2 104-5 [111-2] 2-0 75 102-3 101-6 102-5 102-5 104-5 104-3 [107-6] 3-7 [114-7] 1-5 65 101-9 103-0 103-6 104-0 [107-9] 4-5 [106-2] 5-3 [110-2] 2-3 [114-5] 1-4 55 102-4 103-0 103-6 105-8 [105-7] 6-0 [108-4] 3-3 [115-8] 1-3 45 102-8 104-6 105-2 [106-0] 6-5 [106-9] 3-5 [111-2] 2-0 35 104-6 104-9 [111-1] 2-5 [106-0] 2-0 25 [105-6] 4-2 [105-6] 4-2 The figures in each square represent the average rectal temperature in degrees F. during the time the rabbit was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before seven hours had elapsed. The number below the bracket indicates the hours that the animal remained in the room. Inspection of the grid shows the following points : — (i.) Below a dry bulb temperature of 85 degrees F., neither temperature nor humidity produces any regular effect upon the rectal temperature. In some instances a temperature of 80 degrees F. was accompanied by a rectal temperature in the upper ranges of the normal distribution (see below). 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. (ii.) With a dry bulb temperature of 85 degrees F. a drift to the upper ranges of the normal distribution is more marked. Humidity apparently plays no part at this stage. (iii.) At 90 degrees F. the average rectal temperature is at the extreme end or definitely outside the normal distribution, while at 95 degrees F. it is still higher. In neither of these temperatures does the degree of humidity seem to make any definite difference, except perhaps that up to 90 degrees F. there is a slight reduction with the highest humidity of 95 degrees over the temperatures at 85 degrees. (iv.) At 100 degrees F. the rabbit had to be removed before seven hours had elapsed in all instances except that with the lowest humidity. With atmospheres of 105 degrees and 110 degrees F. the rabbit could withstand progressively less exposure without reaching the critical rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. At these temperatures, the degree of reaction was definitely and, for the most part, progressively reduced, by decreasing the humidity. 1 >* RECTAL TEMP — x — x — RE SR RATE -x— PULSE ro o—o WT. LOSS Text Figure 1. Effect upon a Rabbit of Exposure to a Hot Atmosphere. (Dry Bulb# 95 degrees F.; Relative Humidity, 75 per cent.) REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 133 Effect of Hydration. — The importance of maintaining bodily hydration within certain limits has been shown repeatedly for man [Gregory and Lee (1936)]. The position in the case of the rabbit was investigated by making the usual observations upon three different occasions in which it was supplied respectively with no water, half the water lost by evaporation, and water equal to the amount lost by evaporation. (For amounts see above.) The water was drunk by the rabbit as soon as it was placed in the tin. HOURS OF EXPOSURE ROOM TEMP. IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 2. Reaction of a Rabbit’s Rectal Temperature to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). TABLE 2. Effect of the Amount of Drinking Water Supplied. — 16ml/hr. 8 ml/hr. Nil. Av. Hect. Temp. °F. [112-6] [111-7] [115-5] Av. Pulse Rate (beats/min.) [181] [167] [187] Av. Resp. Rate (Resp./min.) [1,133] [1,345] [1,589] Av. Resp. Vol. (mis. /hour) . . [2,117] [3,526] [3,713] Av. Tidal Vol. (mis.) 1-9 2-6 2-3 Av. Evap. Loss (gms./hr.) . . 18 12 15 Tolerance Time (mins.) 150 150 120 Figures enclosed in brackets have been weighted as described in the text for the duration of exposure tolerated. In Table 2 is set out the average rectal temperature (calculated as above) for these trials and the tolerance times. It will he seen that 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. half replacement of the water loss was accompanied by a distinct improvement in tolerance, but that further additions of water afforded no further relief. Acclimatisation and Season. — In Text Fig. 3 is given the effect of serial exposure and of season upon the rabbit ’s reactions to standard hot wet and hot dry atmospheres. Some suggestion of rapid acclimatisation to hot exposures is seen in the first few days of the first series in the hot wet atmosphere, but no evidence is seen in either of the other two series. This acclimatisation apparently breaks down later in the series, but this may have been associated with the onset of cooler weather, or with the less frequent manipulation experienced in the last two weeks rendering the animal less submissive on the day of measurement. The effect of season is most marked. The average ante-room rectal temperature in summer was 102-52 degrees F. with an average deviation of 040, in autumn 100-62 degrees and 0-70, and in winter 102-60 degrees and 0-56. The lowering in autumn is thus significant. On the other hand, summer and winter yield almost identical ranges. Some difference between summer and winter is seen however in the rabbit’s reactions to a hot wet atmosphere. In summer, the average rectal temperature in the hot wet room is 103-14 degrees F. with an average deviation of 0-55, in winter, 104-18 degrees F. and 0-26. When allowance is made for short-term acclimatisation in the summer series this difference is probably significant. It would seem that the night temperatures are of more importance to acclimatisation than repeated exposure to hot dry temperatures, and that with the less severe trials of the hot wet room, at least, low night temperatures militate against acclimatisation. This is in accordance with the findings of Mills and Ogle (1933). VARIATIONS IN REACTION. If season is not taken into account, the range of variation within the one individual is great. (Ante-room temperatures of rabbit A range from 103-6 degrees F. in winter to 99-0 degrees F. in autumn.) But even when seasonal factors are excluded, the range is still fairly wide. Thus rabbit A showed a variation in the ante-room on ten occasions within a month from 99-0 to 101-8 degrees F., and on five occasions within a week from 102-0 to 103-6 degrees F. Rabbit B showed less variation (100-5 to 101-8 degrees F.) over six weeks in winter. This range of variation is somewhat reduced when the animal is striving for adaptation to a hot climate. PULSE RATE. The pulse rate shows little rise with continued exposure to a room temperature which produces a marked rise in the rectal temperature. When pulse rates were entered into a temperature-humidity grid no definite trends with either of these factors was discernible. No significant difference in pulse rate behaviour was seen in the rabbit kept on different amounts of water in the hot room. When, however, the effect of serial exposure and season is studied, differences of reaction become apparent (Text Fig. 3). As in the case of rectal temperature, there is a suggestion of acclimatisation in the summer series in the hot, wet atmosphere, but none in the other two series of serial exposures. This also breaks down in the later weeks, and may be REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 135 due to either of the two causes mentioned. The average ante-room rate in summer was 123*2 with an average deviation of 11*2, in autumn 117*6 and 9*1 and in winter 136*8 and 5*8. Thus the autumn rate is significantly lower than the summer, but the winter rate is significantly higher than either. In summer the average pulse rate in the hot wet room is 116*4 with an average deviation of 9*4 ; in winter 142*6 and 1*9. This difference is quite significant. These findings suggest that the pulse rate is determined much more by seasonal factors, external or internal, than by the immediate environmental temperatures. HOT ROOM CONDITIONS • — • — • ANTEROOM HOT ROOM Text Figure 3. Effect of Repeated Exposure to Hot Atmospheres upon the Reactions of a Rabbit. (The hot-room figures represent the average reactions on the days in question, calculated as described in the text.) As in the case of rectal temperature, the range of variation in the ante-room pulse rate in the same rabbit is fairly great, even when seasonal effects are excluded. In this case, the range of variation is not definitely reduced in the hot room. RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS. General Behaviour. — In Text Fig. 1 appears a typical curve of the response of the respiratory rate under hot conditions. There is a 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. rapid early rise of respiratory rate followed by a slower later rise and the establishment of irregular fluctuations about a plateau, or some tendency to fall. With higher temperatures the equilibrium becomes less stable and higher. (Text Fig. 4.) HOURS OF EXPOSURE ROOM TEMP. IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 4. Reaction of the Respiratory Rate of a Rabbit to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity on Respiratory Rate. — In Table 3 is given a temperature-humidity grid in respect of respiratory rate. The figures represent averages calculated as described above. Inspection reveals the following points: — (i.) In some instances at a dry bulb temperature of 75 degrees F. and very definitely in all instances at 80 degrees F. the average respiratory rate is raised above that at 70 degrees F. (ii.) As the dry bulb temperature rises the average rate is steadily increased. (iii.) The effect of humidity is complex. The very high humidity of 95 per cent, is accompanied by a lower respiratory rate on all occasions than the lower humidity of 85 per cent., at which, at any one dry bulb temperature, the respiratory rate is at a maximum. With progressively lower humidities, the rates become in general progressively lower. / ' REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 137 TABLE 3. Respiratory Rate Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Rel. Hum. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 76 97 131 158 457 532 85 130 137 262 473 537 582 [1,740] 75 90 81 148 168 533 421 [1,034] [1,873] 65 57 141 275 392 [695] [695] [1,316] [1,969] 55 95 157 236 382 [468] [948] [2,062] 45 105 207 263 [554] [724] [1,388] 35 330 412 [890] [489] 25 [329] [473] The figures in each square represent the average respiratory rate per minute during the time the rabbit was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before seven hours had elapsed. Respiratory Rate, Respiratory Volume and Tidal Volume. — Variations may occur not only in the rate of respiration, but also in the volume of tidal air inspired and expired with each breath, and thus in the total respiratory volume per minute. Simultaneous observations of respiratory volume and rate were made only in the acclimatisation series, i.e., in the standard hot dry atmosphere of 106 degrees F. dry bulb temperature and 80 degrees F. wet bulb and the standard hot wet atmosphere of 88 degrees F. dry bulb temperature and 85 degrees F. wet bulb. The average values obtained were : — — Resp. Rate. Resp. Volume, ccs./min. Tidal Volume. CCS. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Rabbit A. — Hot Wet (Summer) 109 253 272 521 2-5 20 Hot Dry (Autumn) 54 [789]* 184 [1,868] 3-4 2-4 Hot Wet (Winter) 75 361 467 1,148 6-2 3-2 Rabbit B. — Hot Dry (Spring) 71 [962] 516 [1,675] 7-4 1-8 * For the significance of brackets see Table 1. With the enormous increase in respiratory rate, there is not a comparable reduction in the tidal volume, a state of affairs at times remarkable which calls for further investigation. (Text Fig. 5.) Effect of Hydration. — The figures given in Table 2 indicate a progressive improvement in respiratory reaction with the increased supply of drinking water up to full replacement. 138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Acclimatisation and Season.- — The effects of serial exposure and season upon respiratory rate and volume appear in Text Fig. 3. As in the ease of rectal temperature and pulse rate, there is some evidence of an acclimatisation in rate in the summer series of serial exposures, with some breakdown in the last two weeks. Unlike them, however, the rate undergoes a progressive increase in the five days of the winter series. Some new factor, probably not primarily concerned with exposure to heat is apparently operating here, as the ante-room values show a similar progressive rise. Respiratory volume, in general, follows the rate, the tidal volume fluctuating about a steady mean within any one series of exposures. The effect of season is again noticeable. The following figures relate to ante-room values: — — Respiratory Rate. Respiratory Volume, ccs. /min. Tidal Volume. CCS. Average. Av. Dev. Average. Av. Dev. Average. Av. Dev. Summer 109 30-7 272 166 2-2 0-84 Autumn 54 7-8 184 90 3-2 1-27 Winter 75 290 467 158 6-6 1-52 It will be seen from this and Text Fig. 3 that the autumn rate is lower than the summer rate, while the winter rate shows a progressive return to the summer rate. On the other hand, the autumn tidal volume is somewhat greater than the summer value, while the winter values show a progressive fall from quite high to moderately high values. The rate in the hot wet room in winter is, on the average, higher than that in summer, as is also the tidal volume. The winter respiratory volume in the hot, wet room is thus much greater (see below). Variations in Reaction. — The range of variations within the one individual in both rate and tidal volume is wide, as the following figures for rabbit A show: — — Summer (10). Autumn (10). Winter (5). All Seasons. Ante- Room. Resp. Rate Resp. Volume Tidal Volume 72-212 77-978 0-9-4-6 37-63 51-257* 1-4-41* 35-115 232-788 4-2-9-3 35-212 51-978 0-9-9-3 -8 • Resp. Rate 136-438 262-447 136-447 Resp. Volume 162-987 834-1,507 162-1,507 -tf o &<*-■ Tidal Volume 1-2-2-7 2-5-34 1 -2-3-4 * One higher volume was recorded but was probably due to an error. The range of variation in the hot wet room of respiratory rate and volume is reduced proportionately to their mean values as is the absolute range of variation in tidal volume, but it must be remembered that hot room values are averages, not single readings. Correlation with Body Temperature. — If the temperature-humidity grids for rectal temperature and respiration (Tables 1 and 3) are compared, it will be seen that there is a very high positive correlation between the two. This is also seen in the course of any one exposure (Text Fig. 1). It should be noticed, however, that in the rabbit the REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 139 rise in respiratory rate is antecedent to the rise in rectal temperature. Thus the lowest room temperature to be accompanied by a definite rise in average rectal temperature is 80 degrees F., whereas definite rises of respiratory rate occur at 75 degrees F. The rapid rise of respiratory rate in Text Fig. 1 also suggests an anticipation of rather than a dependence upon rectal temperature. The type of respiration is also fairly well correlated with rectal temperature; panting occurs at about 104 degrees F. -o— RESR RATE --o— RESP, VOL. X- jidal VOL. ■«—-o-WT. LOSS Text Figure 5. Typical Beactions of Bespiratory Functions and Evaporative Loss in the Babbit. (Dry Bulb, 106 degrees F.; Belative Humidity, 33 per cent.) EVAPORATION OF WATER. General Behaviour. — Evaporative loss is low during exposure to intermediate temperatures, but shows a tendency to rise throughout the earlier part of the experiment. With higher temperatures (Text Fig. 1) it rises rapidly to a fairly stable value. In these, hourly weighings may fail to disclose the initial rise. With quite high temperatures a more or less continuous rise may be seen for as long as the animal remains in the hot room. Belative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — It is a fair assumption under the conditions of the experiments that the loss of weight by the cage containing both the animal and its water tin, less 140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. a correction for evaporation from the tin directly, represents evaporation of water from the aniaml. Before this can be identified, however, with insensible evaporation in its physiological sense, an allowance has to be made for water exchange between the atmosphere and the fnr and cage. The extent of the corrections required for this are being determined. TABLE 4. Evaporative Loss Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 + 4 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 1 + 3 85 1 + 2 0 + 2 + 1 2 [5] 75 2 1 1 2 2 5 [12] 65 2 3 5 7 [3] [11] [23] 55 2 3 5 12 [12] [28] 45 3 10 10 [13] [19] [17] 35 12 8 [17] 25 [18] [33] The figures in each square represent the average rate of evaporative loss in grains per hour during the time the rabbit was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before 7 hours had elapsed. In Table 4 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of evaporative loss. It will be seen that evaporative loss increases in general with dry-bulb temperature and decreases with humidity. The temperature at which this increase first, makes its appearance becomes progressively higher as the humidity is increased. It is not known at present how this would be affected by corrections for water exchange between the fur and the atmosphere. Effect of Hydration. — No definite alterations in the rate of evaporation were found when the animal was kept on different amounts of water in the hot room (Table 2). Correlation with Respiration. — If the temperature-humidity grids in respect of respiratory rate (Table 3) and evaporative loss (Table 4) are compared, it will be seen that some correlation exists in the inter- mediate percentages of humidity, as room temperature rises. When reactions in atmospheres of different humidity are compared, however, this correlation is lost. At any one temperature, as the relative humidity decreases, so does the respiratory rate, but the evaporative loss rises. This does not, however, negative a dependence, at least, in part of evaporation upon respiratory rate, as the rate of evaporation from the respiratory tract would tend to increase with the degree of pulmonary ventilation, and decrease with the relative humidity. When the individual curves for the duration of exposure in intermediate temperatures are examined, the correlation of evaporative loss with respiratory rate is more evident. This correlation would probably be more evident if figures were available for respiratory volume rather than rate. Some idea of the REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 141 extent to which pulmonary evaporation could account for the evaporative loss may be obtained by assuming that the expired air leaves in a state of 95 per cent, saturation at the temperature of the body, and using the figures given above (p. 5). Inspired Air. Expired Air. Av. R. Water Loss. Exp. Vol. D.B. R.H. H20/1. R.T. H20/1. 1/hr. Calc. Observ. Hot Wet (Summer) . . 88 90 •027 1031 •051 31 0-7 0-8 Hot Dry (Autumn) . . 106 33 •015 105-1 •052 71 2-6 120 POWERS OF HEAT REGULATION. Comparable Atmospheric Conditions . — In Text Fig. 6 the results of Tables 1 and 3 are expressed in graphic form to permit a general analysis of the relative effects of dry-bulb temperature and humidity upon the rectal temperature and respiratory rate. It will be seen from this that both temperature and humidity play a part in determining the reaction of the rabbit, but that temperature is in general the more important. At high humidities there is some indication of a slight reversal of effect. At high temperatures reduction in humidity has proportionately more effect. Critical Temperatures. — A shade dry-bulb temperature of 75 degrees F. marks the upper limit at which the rabbit could maintain its equilibrium undisturbed for seven hours. At this atmospheric temperature respiratory reactions begin to appear. At an atmospheric temperature of 80 degrees F. some rise in rectal temperature occurs. At a rectal temperature of about 104 degrees F. open-mouthed panting replaces the rapid but closed-mouthed breathing maintained thereto. A rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. is near the limit of continued existence as an integrated organism. The rabbit succeeded in remaining for seven hours at a dry bulb temperature of 100 degrees F. only when the humidity was reduced to 35 per cent. Above this temperature seven hours exposure was not tolerated. Methods of Heat Regulation. — Heat loss by radiation and conduction must be somewhat restricted by the furry covering of the angora rabbit. This interference is somewhat reduced by the large ears and by the attitude of relaxation adopted under hot conditions. Apart from the adoption of a relaxed posture and an increased peripheral blood flow, these channels of heat loss are not susceptible to increase under hot conditions, and the increased blood flow would not appear to be very large in view of the small increase found in pulse rate. It would appear, therefore, that any adaptation the rabbit might be able to make to increasingly hot environments would depend largely upon increasing evaporation of water. That such an increase in evaporation does take place is clearly seen from the figures quoted above. An appreciable portion of this can be accounted for by the increased respiratory volume. Dribbling of saliva from the mouth would account for a further proportion of the water loss at high temperatures, but as the rabbit, unlike the cat and guinea pig [Herrington (1940)] does not spread it over its fur, this is of little value in heat regulation. While the consensus of opinion [Kuno (1934)] seems to be that a rise of temperature has little effect upon the rate of insensible cutaneous evaporation in man, evidence has been produced that a marked rise 142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Rel. hum. °L Dry Bulb Temperature °F 70 75 80 85 90 95 too 105 no 95 ////,- ////,'. //'/// '///// '///// ' / / S S , m 85 75 65 55 45 35 25 / ' / / /t / / s s'/ s s y ' y ' ' ' /'s' s' // '///// ’/'/// -'/'///, ' / / s' / , / s y''//A / / / / / /,'./// /y '/ / ' ' . '///// ' S /' S /' / / / J 11111 Recta / Tern jperature . under i03'F. over IQ3' F. over 104° F. over 105‘F over 107“ F over no' F REL. Dry Bulb Temperature °F Hum. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 lOO 105 no 95 j 85 75 65 55 45 35 s' S S s /' ' / / / / / / / / / ’/// ' / ' s' / s' /', ///'/, m / s'/ ' V ////. / ' / / / ''////v mmm 25 Res toiraforti Rate. C/ //A under too/ min. 7/777, over too/ min. over 300/ min . over 500 /min. over 1,000/ min . over /, 500/ min. Text Figure 6. Diagrammatic Representation of the Comparative Effects of Temperature and Humidity upon the Reactions of the Rabbit. occurs in rabbits [Eimer (1927), Nagayama (1932)]. It is generally believed that a rabbit possesses few if any sweat glands. Both of these claims are being further examined. Increasing the respiratory volume is a common method of heat regulation in birds and mammals, but the special feature of this in the rabbit is the enormous rise in rate, with a much smaller corresponding reduction in tidal volume. While the rabbit is much better off for moist mucous membrane in the upper respiratory tract than the fowl, it has not the advantage possessed by the dog of a large open mouth and drooling tongue. The deeper alveolar portion of the lung must, therefore, share in the hyperventilation for evaporation and create by the consequent acapnia a major problem for the regulation of the acid-base balance. REACTIONS OF THE RABBIT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 143 A further indication of the importance to the rabbit of evaporation of its own body water is the improvement in general reactions, but more especially respiratory reactions, obtained when it is permitted adequate water to drink (Table 2). Acclimatisation. — That it is possible for the rabbit to show progressively reduced reaction to repeated exposure to a hot environment is shown by the reaction of rabbit A in the hot wet room in the summer series. Such an acclimatisation was not obtained in either rabbit in the hot dry room, or in rabbit A in the hot wet room in winter. The conditions for the production of acclimatisation in the rabbit would appear to be somewhat precarious and will require further careful study. On the other hand, the rabbit does show variations in behaviour, both in the ante-room and in the hot room with season. These variations may be in the nature of a long-term true acclimatisation intimately related to the actual conditions experienced, or they may represent the result of a seasonal rhythm in, let us say, the endocrine balance, related only in a general way to the actual temperatures experienced. The incidence, variability and causation of such seasonal change also require extended study. Heat Effects. — At a rectal temperature of about 103-5 degrees F. the rabbit sits quietly upon its haunches and is disinclined to move. At 104 degrees F. it stretches out and lies upon its side. At this level also the rapid breathing turns to rapid panting and salivation occurs. If water is provided it drinks with avidity and makes repeated attempts to upset the tin over itself. At a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. it is obviously in distress, but can still stand and carry out ordinary movements. In these experiments we did not take the animal beyond this stage. SUMMARY. Experiments are described in which two^ white male angora rabbits were subjected to hot atmospheres of different temperatures and humidity, for periods up to seven hours. The effect of varying the supply of drinking water, of repeated exposure, and of season upon the reactions was also studied. Observations were made upon rectal temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate, respiratory volume, tidal volume, evaporative loss and general behaviour. The following observations were made and conclusions reached : — (1) Rectal temperature begins to rise above normal when the dry bulb temperature reaches 80-85 degrees F. When the dry bulb temperature is 100 degrees F. or more, the rabbit is unable to tolerate the conditions for seven hours. Respiratory rate, on the other hand, begins to rise at a dry bulb temperature of 75 degrees F. Very rapid rates are obtained (e.g., 720 respirations per minute). (2) Progressive decrease of the relative humidity below 75 per cent, effects a definite and progressive improvement in the reactions of both rectal temperature and respiration at higher dry bulb temperatures. The improvement is less marked at lower temperatures. (3) The supply of drinking water equivalent to half the water being evaporated from the animal produces a definite improvement in the reactions of the rectal temperature and respiratory functions of a rabbit exposed to a temperature of 106 degrees F. with a wet bulb temperature of 80 degrees F. The full replacement of water loss is accompanied by a 144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. further improvement in the respiratory reactions but not in the rectal temperature. (4) The pulse rate shows little tendency to rise with rectal temperature or respiratory rate upon exposure to heat. (5) Acclimatisation, as revealed by a decrease in the rise of rectal temperature, respiratory rate and respiratory volume with exposure was obtained in one series of repeated daily exposures to a hot wet atmosphere (D.B. 88 degrees F. W.B. 85 degrees F.). It was not obtained in a similar winter series or in a series of exposures to a hot dry atmosphere (D.B. 106 degrees F. W.B. 80 degrees F.). (6) Seasonal variation in the values of the different functions investigated were obtained both in the normal temperature room and in the hot room. These variations are complex and require further study. They appear to influence reactions more strongly than atmospheric conditions recently experienced by the test rabbit. (7) In the course of the rise of respiratory rate with exposure to heat, the tidal volume is not correspondingly reduced, so that the respiratory volume is also greatly increased. (8) The rate of water evaporation from the rabbit increases in general with the dry bulb temperature and decreases with humidity. In hot dry atmospheres the increased pulmonary ventilation could account for about one quarter of the evaporation. Dribbling of saliva would also account for a large part. (9) The range of variation in one individual of the different functions investigated is large, particularly if seasonal effects are not excluded. This variability may be somewhat reduced in the hot room as compared with the temperate room. (10) The rabbit is very largely dependent upon respiratory evaporation for the regulation of its body temperature in hot environments. This regulation is brought into action before body temperature rises. It confers upon the rabbit only a limited power of adaptation to hot atmospheres. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The investigations here reported were carried out under the Commonwealth Research Projects Scheme for Universities, financed by the Commonwealth Government, through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Valuable assistance and advice were received from officers of the University Departments of Veterinary Science and Biology and the State Department of Agriculture and Stock. We are also indebted to the Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau for data. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Eimer, K. (1927) : Arch. exp. Path. Pharmak., vol. 125, p. 150. Gregory, R. A., Lee, D. H. K. (1936) : J. Physiol., vol. 86, p. 204. Herrington, L. P. (1940) : Amer. J. Physiol., vol. 129, p. 123. Kuno, Y. (1934): ‘‘Human Perspiration, ? ’ Churchill, London. Lee, D. H. K. (1940) : Univ. Queensland Dpt. Physiol., Papers vol. 1, No. 5. Lee, D. H. K., Boissard, G. P. B. (1940) : Med. J. Australia vol. II., p. 664. Lee, D. H. K., Murray, R. E., Simmonds, W. J., and Atherton, R. G. (1941) : Med. J. Australia vol. II., p. 249. Mills, C. A., Ogle, C. (1933) : Amer. J. Hyg., vol. 17, p. 686. Nagayama, T. (1932) : Okahama J. Med., vol. 44, p. 1891. Yeates, N. T. M., Lee, D. H. K., Hines, H. J. G. (1941), Proc. Roy. Soc., Qld., vol. LIII., p. 105. Vol. LIII., No. 9. 145 REACTIONS OF THE PIG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. By Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas H. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M., Department of Physiology, University of Queensland. (Six Text Figures.) ( Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 3 Oth June, 1941.) INTRODUCTION. Systematic comparative studies of the reactions of domestic mammals and birds to hot atmospheres are few, but no animal has been neglected in this respect as much as the pig. Yet such studies on this animal are important from both the economic and the scientific point of view. Each year in the hot weather pigs die, apparently from the effect of heat, particularly in the process of trucking. The fact that the home of the pig is in the tropics and that when the domestic pig goes wild it, too, can prosper in the tropics raises interesting questions as to the reason for the domestic animal’s susceptibility. Although more animals, more breeds, and more variations in conditions are being studied, it is considered worth while to report these observations at this stage. HOURS OF EXPOSURE ROOM TEMP. IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 1. Reaction of the Pig’s Rectal Temperature to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.) R.S. — O 146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The methods of investigation were essentially those used in parallel studies upon the rabbit [Lee, Robinson, and Hines (1941)]. Because of the slower respiratory rate, counts were made by sight and it was possible to include counts made without the use of the mask. Three young male Berkshire pigs of 130 lb. average weight were used. One was used for the acclimatisation series, one for the acclimatisation and effective temperature series, and one for the hydration series. In the acclimatisation series, the observations were made in the hot wet room in February (summer), and in the hot dry room in April (autumn) on Pig A, and in the hot dry room in May (winter) on Pig B. The first set was not repeated in winter. The pigs were kept upon a diet of commercial pig food containing 15 per cent, protein, together with pumpkin, given every evening. Free water-drinking was at all times permitted except during exposure to the hot atmosphere in the hydration and acclimatisation series. RECTAL TEMPERATURE. General Behavioiir. — With the mildest degree of heating used here (70 degrees F.) the rectal temperature falls at first but later rises somewhat above normal. With intermediate degrees of heating (up to 90 degrees F.) the rectal temperature rises, but progresses towards some kind of equilibrium. With higher degrees of heating the rectal temperature rises with increasing rapidity without showing any indica- tion of establishing an equilibrium (Text Fig. 1). In this respect the pig resembles the rabbit, except that it gives a somewhat greater response at the lower temperatures. Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — Table 1 presents a temperature-humidity grid showing the average rectal temperatures exhibited by a pig when exposed for seven hours to atmospheres of different composition. The figures shown in brackets have been weighted as previously described [Lee, Robinson, and Hines (1941)] to compen- sate for the reduced time of exposure in the corresponding trials. The actual time of exposure is indicated by the figures in the bottom right- hand corner of the square. The following points will be noticed : — jj (i.) Below a dry bulb temperature of 85 degrees F. neither temperature nor humidity produces any regular effect upon the rectal temperature. (ii.) At a dry bulb temperature of 85 degrees F. definite rises of rectal temperature are obtained with intermediate but not with higher humidities. At 90 degrees F. these rises are rather more constantly present with all humidities. (iii.) At 95 degrees F. the pig had in general to be removed before seven hours had elapsed when the humidity was 65 per cent, or over. At 100 degrees F. this was also true, but the tolerance times were further reduced. (iv.) At 105 degrees F. and above the pig was not able to tolerate any atmosphere for seven hours. (v.) The degree of humidity has little regular effect upon the pig’s reaction until temperatures of 95 degrees F. and over are reached. The higher the temperature the greater is the effect of humidity. REACTIONS OF THE PIG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 147 TABLE I. Rectal, Temperature Grid. Relative Humidity. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 100-5 100-8 100-8 101-1 102-1 [103-2] 5-5 85 101-1 101-4 101-4 101-2 101; 8 [103-9] 6-5 [104-5] 5-3 75 100-3 101-0 101-0 100-7 103-1 103-7 [105-3] 4-8 [107-6] 2-8 65 100-9 101-9 102-7 102-9 [104-2] 5-5 [106-1] 3-8 [109-9] 2-8 [110-0] 2-5 55 101-9 104-3 102-4 102-7 103-3 [106-2] 4-0 [106-0] 3-5 45 103-4 102-8 102-2 102-9 [103-9] 5-0 [103-5] 4-9 35 102-8 103-4 [104-2] 4-8 [103-1] 5-5 25 [103-6] 5-3 [103-8] 4-5 The figures in each square represent the average rectal temperature in degrees E. during the time the pig was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before seven hours had elapsed. The number below the bracket indicates the hours that the animal remained in the room. Effect of Hydration. — In Table 2 is given the rectal temperature of a pig after two hours’ exposure to a hot dry atmosphere (dry bulb 106 degrees F., wet bulb 80 degrees F.) and provided on separate occasions with no water, 120 ccs. per hour and 240 ccs. per hour, respec- tively, for drinking. It will be seen that the rectal temperature was definitely reduced by giving water equivalent to half of that lost by evaporation, but that it was not further reduced by increasing the water supply to full replacement. TABLE 2. Effect of the Amount of Drinking Water Supplied. (Reaction at the end of the second hour.) — 240 ml. /hr. 120 ml. /hr. Nil. Rectal Temp. °F. 105-6 103-4 107-4 Pulse Rate (beats/min.) 104 84 144 Resp. Rate (Free) (Resp./min.) 184 160 264 Resp. Rate (Mask) Resp./min.) 120 116 170 Resp. Vol. (litres/min.) . . . . . . 8-8 8-8 9-0 Tidal Vol. (Mils.) 73 76 53 Evap. Loss (gms./hr.) 175 125 270 (?) Tolerance Time (Mins[) 183 210 110 148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Acclimatisation and Season. — In Text Fig. 2 appear the ante-room and average hot room reactions of a pig repeatedly exposed to high temperatures. It will be seen that when the night temperature was high, the rectal temperature in the ante-room was also high, and that when high night temperatures came between successive exposures to the hot room the pig was unable to tolerate the exposure for seven hours, even though the room temperature was below the usual critical figure (95 degrees F.). When allowance is made for high night temperatures, it will be seen that there is no evidence of any acclimatisation develop- ing in response to repeated exposure with either the hot wet or the hot dry room. HOT ROOM CONDITIONS PIC A. PIG A. P'C B ANTEROOM HOT ROOM Text Figure 2. Effect of Repeated Exposure to Hot Atmospheres upon the Reactions of the Pig. The Hot-room figures for D.B. 88 degrees F., W.B. 84 degrees F., represent the average reactions on the days in question, calculated as described in the text, while those for D.B. 106 degrees F., W.B. 80 degrees F., are readings after the second hour of exposure. Variations in Reaction. — The ante-room rectal temperature of Pig A varied on ten occasions in summer from 101-3 to 104-5 degrees F., REACTIONS OP THE PIG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES, 149 but when the five days following high night temperatures are excluded, the range falls to 101*3 to 102*1 degrees F. In autumn the range upon ten occasions was from 100*2 to 102*2 degrees F. With Pig B the range upon eight occasions in the winter was from 100*8 to 102*1 degrees F. With Pig C, the range upon eight occasions in the winter was from 101*8 to 103*2 degrees F. It will be seen from these figures that the range of rectal temperature in any one individual pig, and even between different pigs is not great, unless the temperatures to which it is exposed are above 78 degrees F. At high atmospheric temperatures, however, the constancy is not always preserved, as will be deduced from the irregularities in the temperature-humidity grid (Table 1). Different individuals do not show the same sensitivity to heat (Text Fig. 2, Pigs A and B). This may be associated with body size. PULSE RATE. General Behaviour. — In distinction from the fowl [Yeates, Lee, and Hines (1941)], and to a large extent from the rabbit [Lee, Robinson, and Hines (1941)], the pig shows a moderate but definite response to high temperatures in its pulse rate, which follows rather closely the curve of rectal temperature (Text Fig. 3). “-RESR RATE -0—0“ RECTAL TEMR PULSE Text Figure 3. Effect upon the Pig of Exposure to a Hot Atmosphere. (Dry Bulb, 100 degrees F.; Relative Humidity, 55 per cent.) 150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — In Table 3 appears the temperature-humidity grid in respect of the pulse rate. It will be seen that the average pulse rate tends to rise above normal when the room temperature is 90 degrees F. This rise tends to increase with the temperature of the room, but more particularly with the higher humidities. TABLE 3. Pulse Rate Grid. Relative Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Humidity. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 73 72 76 74 85 [95] 85 73 80 77 73 80 [91] [98] 75 79 80 82 76 89 93 [97] [121] 65 85 102 98 84 [118] [107] [129] [128] 55 105 105 87 91 91 [112] [122] 45 100 95 85 85 [97] [97] 35 98 88 [107] [113] 25 [104] [122] The figures in each square represent the average pulse rate per minute during the time the pig was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before seven hours had elapsed. Effect of Hydration. — From Table 2 it will be seen that when the pig was given water equivalent to half the evaporated loss there was a marked reduction in the pulse rate as compared with the response when no water was given. Further increases in water intake were not accompanied by any further reduction. Acclimatisation and Season. — In Text Fig. 2 some tendency may be seen on the part of the pulse rate in the ante-room to follow the night temperature during the summer series, but this is offset by the some- what higher rates in the autumn series. The average hot-room pulse rates behave in much the same fashion as the average hot-room rectal temperatures. The effect of night temperatures would seem to influence the pulse rate also. There is no evidence of any acclimatisation through repeated exposure. V aviations in Reaction. — The range of variations in the pulse rate measured in the ante-room is not great — 72-104 (Pig A, summer, ten measurements), 68-100 (Pig A, autumn, ten measurements), 76-104 (Pig B, winter, eight measurements), and 76-128 (Pig C, winter, eight measurements). Correlation with Rectal Temperature. — A fairly close correlation between the pulse rate and rectal temperature is seen both in the curves during a single exposure to hot conditions and in the temperature- humidity grids. RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS. General Behaviour. — The general behaviour of respiratory rate, respiratory volume, and tidal volume during exposure to heat is seen REACTIONS OF THE PIG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 151 in Text Fig. 5. It will be seen that the rate rises fairly rapidly to a plateau which is maintained throughout the rest of the exposure. The pig establishes some kind of a plateau even when the rectal temperature is rising rapidly and showing no signs of reaching an equilibrium (Text Fig. 4). Respiratory volume also rises, but not to the same extent. The tidal volume falls as the rate rises. Both of these latter functions come to equilibrium at the same time as the respiratory rate. ROOM TEMP. IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 4. Reactions of the Respiratory Rate of the Pig to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity upon Respiratory Rate. — In Table 4 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of respiratory rate, counted without the use of a mask. It will be seen that, in general, the average rate rises with room temperatures of 85 degrees F. and above. A reduction of humidity is not accompanied by any reduction in respiratory rate until a room temperature of 95 degrees F. is reached, but above this level the effect is marked. Respiratory Rate, Respiratory Volume, and Tidal Volume. — Simultaneous observations of the respiratory rate and volume were made only in the standard hot-dry (dry bulb 106 degrees F., wet bulb 152 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 80 degrees F.) and standard hot-wet atmosphere (dry bulb 88 degrees F., wet bulb 85 degrees F.). The values obtained are given here and in Text Fig. 5, together with the rates as measured without the mask: — Resp. Rate. Resp. Rate Resp. Vol. Tidal Vol. (Free). (Mask). (Mask). l./min. (Mask.) CCS. Ante- Av. Hot Ante- Av. Hot Ante- Av. Hot Ante- Av. Hot Room. Room. Room. Room. Room. Room. Room. Room. Hot Wet (Summer)* .. 78 197 47 161 4-9 9-3 104 58 Hot Dry ( Autumn )f . . 84 276 41 195 50 101 129 52 * Hot wet room values are average for day. t Hot dry room values are those at end of second horn-. -x--x-RESR RATE (FREE) --o- o-RESR VOL. -o RESP RATE (MASK) ~o o~ WT. LOSS TIDAL VOL. Text Figure 5. Typical Reactions of Respiratory Functions and Evaporative Loss in the Pig. (Dry Bulb, 88 degrees F.; Relative Humidity, 80 per cent.) It will be seen that while the rate is not increased to the enormous values found in the rabbit, the tidal volume is halved in the hot-wet room, and more than halved in the hot-dry. This definite reduction of tidal volume is seen also in Text Fig. 2. The use of the mask has only a slight repressive effect upon the rate. REACTIONS OF THE PIG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 153 Effect of Hydration . — As with rectal temperature and pulse rate* the respiratory rate and tidal volume are definitely reduced when half replacement water is given, but further increases in water supply are not accompanied by further reductions (Table 2). Respiratory volume remains unaltered. TABLE 4. Respiratory Rate Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Humidity. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 38 25 57 70 104 [165] 85 40 56 65 69 70 [193] [210] 75 40 41 34 21 141 197 [236] [432] 65 50 52 110 139 [194] [295] [392] [417] 55 40 182 137 140 197 [298] [345] 45 138 127 115 140 [228] [162] 35 81 177 [172] [189] 25 [183] [140] The figures in each square represent the average respiratory rate per minute during the time the pig was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before seven hours had elapsed. Acclimatisation and, Season. — The respiratory rate in the ante-room (Text Fig. 2) is apparently affected to some extent by the night tempera- tures. Season is without any effect. The hot-room rates are related to night temperatures in much the same way as the rectal temperatures. No acclimatisation effects are noticeable. Respiratory volume shows some increase with high night tempera- tures in both the ante-room and hot room. Tidal volume is not regularly affected by nightly temperatures or seasonal influences. Variations in Reaction. — The following figures indicate the extremes of variation in the ante-room and hot-room values of the respiratory functions in pigs: — — Pig A. (Summer) 10 Days. Pig A. (Autumn) 10 Days. Pig B. (Autumn) 8 Days. Pig C. (Winter) 8 Days. Ante- Room. Resp. Rate (Free) Resp. Rate (Mask) Resp. Vol. (Mask) 1/min. . . Tidal Vol. ccs. 68-110 36-100 4-4-10-4 82-150 52-120 27-70 30-7-2 86-167 28-64 27-60 3-4-43 67-100 32-60 28-44 24-5-6 86-127 Hot Wet Room.* Resp. Rate (Free) Resp. Rate (Mask) Resp. Vol. (Mask) 1/min. . . Tidal Vol. ccs. 183-219 147-175 8-3-10-6 49-66 Hot Dry Room.f j Resp. Rate (Free) Resp. Rate (Mask) Resp. Vol. (Mask) 1/min. . . Tidal Vol. ccs. 240-292 150-232 6-0-12-0 27-78 96-180 48-96 40-12-0 58-125 * Average figures for period of exposure (7 hours), t Figures taken at the end of the second hour. R.S. — P 154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The ranges are fairly large. Correlation with Body Temperature. — If the temperature-humidity grids for rectal temperature and respiratory rate (Tables 1 and 4) and the curves of Text Figs. 1 and 4 are compared it will be seen that there is a high degree of correlation between the two reactions. If anything, respiratory reaction anticipates the rise of rectal temperature, but the lead is not marked. The type of respiration appears to be closely related to the rectal temperature, panting occurring when the rectal temperature reaches 102-5 degrees F. REL. Hum. t Dry Bulb Temperature °F 70 75 80 85 90 95 too 105 no Recta! Temperature Under lOt’F. (Ol'F and over. K)2'F and over. t03'F and over. 105° F and over Text Figure 6a. Rel. Hum. % Dry Bulb Temperature °F 70 75 80 85 30 95 too tos no 95 ////, ///// '/ / / ' / ' S , s / '////, ■'/'/A I 1 85 75 65 55 45 35 25 7* rr r / ''////. //r/; Sv-v; ' / / ' / . P / / / / / / ' ' ' , V///; W\ mJte | Pulse Rate Below 80jmm. So/rntn and over m 85 J mm and over. dO/min. and over tool mm no/min and over. and over. Text Figure 6b. REACTIONS OF THE PIG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 155 REL. Hum. % Dry Bulb Temperature °F 70 75 60 85 90 95 too >05 no 95 ///'// 'A s/s m m 85 ' ' / s / / AAV, m m 75 s'/ / / / . 'y ' s ' ' m m 1 1 65 // ' / ' Z'///, ///^ i§ if if 55 // s / / m P WA - 45 m. m m 35 25 AAA/AaAv. Resjbirafonj Rate . Be/otv SO I min ‘.OO /mm >50/ min 200 J min 300 /min. SOj 'min. ana over. and over. and over. ana aver. ana over. Text Figure 6c. Diagrammatic Representation of the Comparative Effects of Temperature and Humidity upon the Reaction of the Pig. EVAPORATION OF WATER. General Behaviour. — In Text Fig. 5 appears the curve for evapora- tive loss from a pig exposed to a hot-wet atmosphere (dry bulb 88 degrees F., wet bulb 85 degrees F.). The rate rises slowly throughout the period of exposure. At higher temperatures and at lower humidities the rate rises rapidly throughout the period. Quite considerable amounts of moisture are evaporated. (These figures do not include saliva lost by dribbling, which was collected, measured, and deducted from the gross weight loss.) Effect of Hydration. — The period of exposure tolerated by the pig without water was too short for a reliable estimate of evaporative loss to be made. Conclusions on this point, therefore, must remain in abeyance. Correlation with Respiration. — Comparison of figures for respira- tory rate and evaporative loss, as well as of the corresponding curves of Text Fig. 5, indicate that the dependence of evaporative loss upon respiratory rate is not by any means complete. The extent to which Tespiratory reaction could account for the evaporative loss is indicated by the following calculations: — Water Loss (gms. /hr.). Inspired Air Expired Air Av. Resp. Atmosphere. gms. H20/1. gms. H20/1. Vol. 1/hr. Calc. Observ. Hot Wet (Summer) •027 •051 618 11 119 Hot Dry (Autumn) •015 •052 624 28 230 156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. POWERS OF HEAT REGULATION. Comparable Atmospheric Conditions. — In Text Fig. 6a, 6b, and 6c the results of Tables 1, 3, and 4 are expressed in graphic form. It will be seen from these that while both temperature and humidity play a part in determining the reactions of the pig, temperature is the more powerful factor. Critical Temperatures. — At room temperatures of 85-90 degrees F. the pig begins to show evidence of disturbance of its equilibrium. Open-mouthed panting replaces closed-mouth breathing when the rectal temperature reaches 102*5 degrees F. A rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. is near the limit of continued existence as an integrated organism. The pig can tolerate atmospheres of 95 degrees F. and 100 degrees F. for seven hours only when the relative humidity is below 65 per cent. It is unable to withstand atmospheres of 105 degrees F. for seven hours at any humidity. Methods of Heat Regulation . — As opposed to the state of affairs in the rabbit, heat exchange between the pig’s skin and the environment through the channels of radiation and conduction is not restricted by a dense furry covering. That this opportunity is utilised is suggested by the response of the pulse rate. Relaxation of posture cannot mean much to the distinctly rotund domestic pig. Its habit of lying down is probably more effective in conserving heat production. It is commonly stated that the pig has no sweat glands upon its general body surface. Although it salivates profusely (up to 500 ccs. per hour in very hot atmospheres), this saliva dribbles on to the ground and is largely lost to useful evaporation. While the pig does not possess the large drooling tongue of the dog, nevertheless its mouth is fairly large and the anterior surface of the snout is kept moist by nasal secretions, licking, and perhaps also by sweat glands. It therefore possesses a fairly extensive moist mucous membrane at the entrance to the upper respiratory tract over which it is able to play an increased respiratory volume. It is able to do this also without a corresponding degree of over-ventilation of the lung alveoli, whereby it avoids much of the risk of alkalosis incurred by the rabbit. When insufficient water is given to replace the water evaporated the ventilation is increased. It is apparent that increased respiratory ventilation can account for only a part of the increased evaporation, however. It would appear that there must be an important increase of insensible cutaneous evaporation in the pig at high temperatures, with low humidities. In spite of these many advantages over the rabbit, however, the pig is just as sensitive to heat. Equally important disadvantages must, therefore, be present. One of these is probably the fatness of the animal, giving it a superficial layer of material of poor heat conduc- tivity, and a reduced surface area in proportion to mass. This reduction of surface area extends also to the ears. Acclimatisation. — No evidence of acclimatisation to repeated exposures was obtained with the pig. On the other hand, hot nights between successive exposures were found to render the animal more sensitive to heat. REACTIONS OP THE PIG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 157 Heat Effects. — The first sign of the effect of heat on the pig is the onset of drowsiness, which occurs at a rectal temperature between 101 degrees and 102 degrees F. With a further rise of temperature this drowsiness disappears and open-mouthed panting with respirations of about 160 per minute occurs at 102-5 degrees F. A further increase in rectal temperature is accompanied by an increase in respiratory rate to a maximum of 280 per minute. Marked salivation occurs at these temperatures, amounting in extreme cases to as much as 500 ccs. per hour. With a rectal temperature of 106 degrees F. the pig becomes very restless, its respirations are very laboured, and if water is provided it drinks with avidity and makes determined efforts to upset the tin over itself. At 107 degrees F. it is obviously in distress but can still stand. In these experiments we did not take the animal beyond this stage. Sousing the pig with water affords a very effective method of resuscitation. In ten minutes the rectal temperature falls 3 degrees F. and the respirations from 280 to 100 per minute. Repeated exposure to extreme conditions had no deleterious effects upon the growth or meat quality of the animals. Pig A grew from 120 lb. on 29th January to 233 lb. on 26th April, and Pig B from 100 lb. on 27th May to 212 lb. on 19th November . Reports received from the bacon factory were to the effect that the pigs were perfectly normal for their weight and age. SUMMARY. Experiments are described in which three male pigs were subjected to hot atmospheres of different temperatures and humidity, for periods up to seven hours. The following observations were made and conclusions reached: — 1. Rectal temperature begins to rise above normal when the dry bulb temperature reaches 85-90 degrees F. When the dry bulb tempera- ture reaches 95 degrees F. the pig is unable to tolerate an atmosphere of relative humidity 65 per cent, or above for seven hours. When the temperature reaches 105 degrees F. it is unable to tolerate an atmosphere of any humidity. 2. Respiratory rate behaves in much the same fashion. The maximum rate obtained was 280 per minute. 3. The pulse rate tends to rise with the rectal temperature during exposure to heat. 4. Decrease of the relative humidity is accompanied by definite improvements in the reactions of the rectal temperature, pulse rate, and respiratory rate at high temperatures in the higher ranges of humidity. At lower temperatures and humidities this is not so apparent. 5. Half replacement of water lost at high temperatures is accompanied by marked improvement in most reactions and an increase in the tolerance time. 6. No evidence was obtained of acclimatisation to repeated exposures to hot atmospheres. High night temperatures between exposures increased the pig’s sensitivity to heat. 7. As respiratory rates rise with exposure to heat, the respiratory volume rises also, but not in proportion, as the tidal volume is reduced to a half or less. R.s. — Q 158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 8. With a humidity of 95 per cent, the rate of water evaporation rises steadily with room temperature, with intermediate humidities only when the room temperature exceeds 85 degrees F. At high humidities the rate of evaporation is definitely restricted. 9. The range of variation in the one individual of rectal tempera- ture and pulse rate is not large, but that of the respiratory functions is fairly large. 10. The pig makes use of radiation and conduction from exposed skin for heat regulation where these channels are still open, but its principal method is evaporation from a moist mouth, snout, and upper respiratory tract by an increased respiratory volume, and insensible evaporation from the skin. 11. Profuse salivation, up to 500 ccs. per hour, occurs at high temperatures, but this is largely wasted by dribbling. 12. Repeated exposure to extreme conditions did not affect the growth or meat quality of the pigs used. Hosing is an effective means of resuscitation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The investigations here reported were carried out under the Commonwealth Research Projects Scheme for Universities, financed by the Commonwealth Government, through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Valuable assistance and advice were received from officers of the University Departments of Veterinary Science and Biology and the State Department of Agriculture and Stock. The Agricultural High School and College kindly supplied the experimental animals. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lee, D. H. K., Robinson, K., and Hines, H. J. G. (1941), Proc. Roy. Soe. Qld., Yol. LIII., p. 129. Yeates, N. T. MoR,, Lee, D. H. K., and Hines, H. J. G. (1941), Proc Roy. Soc., Qld., Yol. LIII., p. 105. Vol. LIII., No. 10. 159 REACTIONS OF THE CAT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. By Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas H. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M., Department of Physiology, University of Queensland. (Six Text Figures.) {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25 th August, 1941.) INTRODUCTION. More studies have been made upon the reactions of the cat to hot atmospheres than upon those of any other domestic animal except the dog. In spite of this, however, the comparative effects of different combinations of the atmospheric variables such as temperature and humidity seem to have been neglected. To fill this want and to link up our series of experiments with those carried out elsewhere, the cat has been included in our investigations. The methods of investigations were essentially those used in parallel studies upon the rabbit. [Lee, Robinson, and Hines (1941)]. Because of the slower respiratory rate counts were made by sight, and it was possible to include counts made without the use of the mask. In the “acclimatisation series” one cat (A) was used for the hot wet room in February-March, and a second cat (B) for the hot dry room in April-May. A second set of experiments in the hot wet room was not carried out. The cats, males of no specific breed, were kept upon a diet of meat and milk, given every evening. Free water drinking was at all times permitted except during exposure to the hot atmosphere in the hydration and acclimatisation series. RECTAL TEMPERATURE. General Behaviour. — With only mild degrees of heating the rectal temperature actually falls. With higher degrees it fluctuates or rises slowly. At moderately high room temperatures it rises rapidly at first, but then establishes an equilibrium. Only at the highest temperature employed here (110 degrees F.) does it fail to reach an equilibrium. (Text* Fig. 1.) Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — Table 1 presents a temperature-humidity grid showing the average rectal temperatures exhibited by a cat when exposed for seven hours to atmospheres of different composition. The figures shown in brackets have been weighted as previously described [Yeates, Lee, and Hines (1941)] to compensate for the reduced time of exposure in the corresponding trials. The actual time of exposure is indicated by the figures in the bottom right- hand corner of the square. The following points will be noticed : — (i.) With the highest humidities the average rectal temperature rises steadily throughout with increasing room temperatures. (ii.) With intermediate and low humidities the effect is irregular until a room temperature of 90 degrees F. is reached. (iii.) The rectal temperature is in every case higher at a room temperature of 95 degrees F. than at one of 90 degrees F. With further rises of room temperature the effect becomes progressively greater. R.S. — R ICO PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. ROOM TEMP. IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 1. Reaction of a Cat’s Rectal Temperature to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). TABLE 1. Rectal Temperature Grid. Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 no 95 98-4 98-9 99-8 100-6 102-1 104-3 85 98-6 98-3 99-1 99-4 101-0 102-6 104-7 75 100-2 99-0 101-3 100-0 101-3 102-8 104-7 [116-9] 1-8 65 101-3 100-2 99-9 100-2 101-2 104-3 105-1 [115-5] 2-0 55 100-3 100-3 101-9 102-0 103-7 105-1 [112-3] 2-7 45 102-2 101-9 102-5 102-6 103-8 [106-3] 5-0 35 102-1 103-0 103-8 103-7 25 105-1 [104-1] 5-6 The figures in each square represent the average rectal temperature in °F. during the time the cat was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before 7 hours had elapsed. The number below the bracket indicates the hours that the animal remained in the room. REACTIONS OF THE CAT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 161 (iv.) A humidity of 95 per cent, at nearly all room temperatures results in a higher rectal temperature. Otherwise, humidity has no regular effect below a room temperature of 100 degrees F. (y.) At 100 degrees F. and above, reducing the humidity has a sparing action, but it is still more marked in the upper ranges of humidity. Effect of Hydration. — In Table 2 is set out the average rectal temperature of a cat exposed to a hot dry climate (Dry Bulb 106 degrees F., Wet bulb 80 degrees F.) and receiving by oral injection on separate occasions no water, 8 ccs. per hour, and 16 ccs. per hour respectively. It will be seen that the rectal temperature was not essentially different upon the three occasions. Acclimatisation. — The following figures were obtained upon a cat exposed repeatedly to a hot wet climate (Dry bulb 88 degrees F., Wet bulb 85 degrees F.) for five and a half days a week for four weeks. Date Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Mar. Mar. 12 13 14 15 19 20 21 22 1 8 Av. R. T. °F. 102-3 102-6 102-0 101-7 102-1 102-6 101-4 101-9 101-3 101-4 There is here some evidence of moderate- term acclimatisation. (Ante- room temperatures showed no such trend.) A similar series ; .aJ out in the hot dry room showed no such acclimatisation. TABLE 2. Effect of the Amount of Drinking Water Supplied. — 16 ccs. /hr. 8 ccs. /hr. Nil. Av. Rectal Temp. °F. 104-0 103-5 104-1 Av. Pulse Rate (beats/min.) 138 135 137 Av. Resp. Rate (Resp./min.) (Free) 180 165 175 Av. Resp. Rate (Resp./min.) (Mask) 118 102 110 Av. Resp. Vol. (ml./min.) 1,653 1,856 2,306 Av. Tidal Vol. (mis.) 14 18 21 Av. Evap. Loss (gms./hour) 18 16 16 Variations in Reaction. — The range of variation in the normal rectal temperature of an individual cat is a moderate one (Cat A 100-6- 102-3 degrees F. in 10 measurements; Cat B 99-0-100-8 degrees F. in 9 measurements; Cat. E 98-4-100-0 degrees F. in 8 measurements). The variation under hot conditions is no greater (101-3-102-6 degrees F. in the hot wet and 103-9-105-4 degrees F. in the hot dry room). The effect of season as distinct from individual variation was not established. PULSE RATE. General Behaviour. — In distinction from the fowl [Yeates, Lee, and Hines, (1941)] and also to a large extent from the rabbit [Lee, Robinson and Hines (1941)], the cat shows a moderate but definite response to high temperatures in its pulse rate, which follows rather closely the curve of the rectal temperature. (Text Fig. 2). 162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — In Table 3 is given the temperature humidity grid in respect of pulse rate. The same general conclusions can be drawn as were drawn for the rectal temperature, except that the pulse is more generally reactive and a rise of room temperature less regularly effective in producing further rises at lower humidities. RECTAL TEMR — x — h — RESP. RATE PULSE Text Figure 2. Effect upon a Cat of Exposure to a Hot Atmosphere (Dry Bulb, 105 degrees F. ; Kelative Humidity, 65 per cent.) Effect of Hydration. — Variations in the supply of water produced no significant differences in the pulse rate (Table 2). Acclimatisation^ — Repeated exposures to a hot wet atmosphere (see above) produced some reduction in average pulse rate although no alteration occurred over the period in the rate observed in the ante-room. This may be considered a true acclimatisation. While a similar reduction occurred in the hot dry room during repeated exposures, there was upon this occasion a similar reduction in the ante-room rate, so that seasonal factors are more likely to be the cause here. Variations in Reaction. — The range of variation in the pulse-rate of one individual either in the ante-room or under given conditions of heating is not great. (120-148, 100-124, 108-134, 97-127 in four different series of 8-10 measurements). REACTIONS OF THE CAT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 163 TABLE 3. Pulse Rate Grid. Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. 0/ /o 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 109 116 128 136 139 149 85 110 125 129 120 130 137 145 75 113 123 135 130 125 140 143 [239] 65 148 151 140 129 141 144 147 [195] 55 126 155 147 130 147 141 [192] 45 146 136 141 131 148 [153] 35 113 130 139 144 25 153 [142] The figures in each square represent the average pulse rate per minute during the time the cat was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before 7 hours had elapsed. *--*-RESR RATE (FREE) — o-— o- RESP. VOL. — RESP. RATE (MASK) -* * TIDAL VOL. o o WT. LOSS Text Figure 3. Typical Eeactions of Respiratory Functions and Evaporative Loss in the Cat. (Dry Bulb, 106 degrees F. ; Relative Humidity, 33 per cent.) 164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Correlation with Rectal Temperature. — A fairly close correlation between the pulse rate and rectal temperature is seen in the curves during a single exposure to hot conditions. In the temperature-humidity grids, the main point of difference is the reactivity of the pulse-rate to intermediate temperatures at low humidities. HOURS OF EXPOSURE ROOM. TEMP IS" SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 4. Keaction of the Respiratory Rate of a Cat to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS. General Behaviour. — The general behaviour of respiratory rate, respiratory volume and tidal volume during exposure to heat is seen in Text Fig. 3. It will be seen that the rate rises rather rapidly to a higher value which is maintained throughout the exposure. Unlike the rabbit, the cat establishes such a plateau under the highest temperatures used here, temperatures it is unable to tolerate for seven hours. (Text Fig. 4.) Respiratory volume follows respiratory rates rather closely, the tidal volume changing but little throughout the day. Relative Effects of Temperature and humidity upon Respiratory Rate. — In Table 4 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of respiratory rate, counted without the use of a mask. Except for a little irregularity at lower temperatures the raite rises with room temperature at any one level of relative humidity, and the rise becomes increasingly more rapid. At room temperatures of 80 degrees F. and REACTIONS OF THE CAT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 165 above a reduction of humidity has a pronounced effect in lowering the respiratory rate. While this is more marked in the higher ranges of humidity, it tends to progress with progressive reduction in humidity. TABLE 4. Respiratory Rate Grid. Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 53 58 65 72 146 218 85 60 50 61 76 91 192 226 75 51 51 56 62 74 178 227 [625] 65 50 56 72 73 101 225 228 [546] 55 53 70 73 115 206 217 [492] 45 56 63 123 146 217 [282] 35 101 127 205 196 25 170 [200] The figures in each square represent the average respiratory rate per minute during the time the cat was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before 7 hours had elapsed. Respiratory Rate , Respiratory Volume and Tidal Volume. — Simultaneous observations of the respiratory rate and volume were made only in the standard hot dry atmosphere (Dry bulb 106 degrees F. Wet bulb 80 degrees F.), and hot wet atmosphere (Dry bulb 88 degrees F., Wet bulb 85 degrees F.). The average values obtained are given here, together with the rates as measured without the mask. Resp. Rate (Free). Resp. Rate (Mask). Resp. Vol. (Mask), ccs/min. Tidal Vol. (Mask). CCS. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Cat A — Hot Wet (Summer) 40 45 29 28 604 553 22 20 Cat B — Hot Dry (Autumn) 40 167 22 56 483 858 22 16 Cat C — Hot Dry (Spring) 61 171 53 116 765 1,566 15 13 As in the case of the rabbit, the tidal volume is not greatly reduced with the increase in rate occurring in the hot room, but this is probably of less consequence here, as the whole respiratory reaction is less marked than in the rabbit. The repressive effect of a mask upon respiratory rate is well seen. It is not known to what extent this alters the respiratory volume. Effect of Hydration. — From Table 2 it will be seen that while increasing the amount of water supplied by mouth has no constant effect upon the respiratory rate in the hot room, it is accompanied by a marked reduction in tidal volume and thus in respiratory volume. It would appear that the supply of adequate water reduces considerably the risk of over-ventilation. 166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Acclimatisation. — No acclimatisation effects were discernible in the respiratory reactions of cats subjected to repeated exposure to hot atmospheres. Variations in Reaction. — The following figures indicate the extremes of variation in the reactions of different cats. — Cat A. (Summer) 10 days. Cat B. (Autumn) 9 days. Cat C. (Spring) 6 days. s o Resp. Rate (Free) 32-48 36-56 40-72 £h Resp. Rate (Mask) 24-36 18-28 40-72 <£> Resp. Vol. (Mask) 232-876 334-681 361-1,152 < Tidal Vol. (Mask) 7-33 12-26 8-20 > . 5 £ Resp. Rate (Mask) 43-99 111-129 Qo +3 O Resp. Vol. (Mask) 689-1,035 1,219-1,939 Tidal Vol. (Mask) 9-20 11-15 The range of variation is relatively large, although not as large as in the rabbit. Correlation with Body Temperature. — While there is a general correlation between rectal temperature and respiratory rate, close comparison of the grids (Tables 1 and 4) for the two reactions shows that the relationship is not a close one. Respiratory rate is closely related to room temperature and fairly closely to room humidity and the relationship is probably a fairly simple operation of cause and effect. Rectal temperature is related to both room temperature and respiratory rates only towards the upper extremes of the grid, which would be in keeping with a delayed or a residual relationship to both. In other words, it is quite possible that rectal temperature only rises appreciably when increased respiratory activity is unable fully to compensate for a deterioration of room conditions. Also in accordance with this is the rapid rise of respiratory rate after exposure commences, before there is any marked rise in rectal temperature. (Text Fig. 2.) The type of respiration, however, is possibly better related to rectal temperature ; panting occurs between 102-0 and 103-4 degrees F. EVAPORATION OF WATER. General Behaviour. — The general behaviour of the rate of water evaporation during exposure of a cat to a hot dry atmosphere is seen in Text Fig. 3. At intermediate temperatures it rises slowly during the first few hours, and then remains fairly constant. At high temperatures it tends to rise fairly steeply throughout the exposure. Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — In Table 5 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of evaporative loss. It will be seen that evaporative loss is not much affected until a room temperature of 95 degrees F. is reached. Above this it is markedly increased. At high humidities, an initial uptake of moisture by the fur slightly complicates the picture. REACTIONS OF THE CAT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 167 TABLE 5. Evaporative Loss Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 + 2 + 2 + 1 0 4 8 85 1 0 + 1 0 1 6 15 75 2 2 1 4 2 6 19 65 5 1 2 4 3 20 20 [79] 55 3 2 3 9 14 17 [43] 45 5 3 3 8 15 [26] 35 3 5 13 13 25 11 [10] The figures in each square represent the average evaporative loss in grams per hour during the time the cat was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before 7 hours had elapsed. Effect of Hydration. — No significant alterations in the rate of evaporative loss were found when the animal was kept on different amounts of water in the hot room (Table 2). Correlation with Respiration. — Comparison of the temperature- humidity grids for respiratory rates and evaporative loss (Tables 4 and 5) indicates only an imperfect degree of correlation. Text Fig. 3 gives a further indication of the divergences which exist between respiratory rate and evaporation. As in the case of the rabbit, respiratory exchange could account for the observed rate of water! loss in the hot wet atmosphere, but can account for only 1-8 grams per hour in the hot dry room as compared with the 12-0 grams per hour actually lost. It is true that the use of the mask reduces the natural rate of respiration, but even if it is assumed that the tidal volume of each natural respiration is as great as that of each respiration with the mask, the respiratory exchange could account for only 4-5 grams per hour. POWERS OF HEAT REGULATION. Comparable Atmospheric Conditions. — In Text Fig. 5 the results of Tables 1, 3 and 4 are expressed in graphic form. It will be seen from this that both temperature and humidity are important factors in determining the reactions of a cat. Critical Temperatures. — At a room temperature of 85 degrees F. evidence of some disturbance in the cat’s equilibrium often makes its appearance. Open-mouthed panting replaces closed-mouth breathing when the rectal temperature approaches 103 degrees F. A rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. is near the limit of continued existence as an integrated organism. R.s. — s 168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The eat can tolerate a room temperature of 105 degrees F. for seven hours at humidities of 65 per cent, and below, and a room temperature of 110 degrees F. for almost seven hours at humidities of 35 per cent, and below. Methods of Heat Regulation. — As in the case of the rabbit, heat loss by radiation and conduction must be somewhat restricted by the cat's fur. Relaxation of posture gives some relief, but the cat possesses no large glabrous ears to help it. Increased respiratory volume permits increased evaporation from the respiratory tract, but the cat also makes use of its saliva by spreading it over its coat. This latter method probably accounts in large measure for the superiority of the eat over Ret. Hum. t Pry Bulb Temperature °f 70 75 80 85 30 35 too 105 HO ss >/ / / s' s / / / // s / S / s/. y / // , S'///, / / / / / y//// yy///< m 85 s'///' //'// '/// / / * ' / ' ////; S / * / / ' / / / // * / / * // m m, 1 75 •'///A sss / / ASS* / ' */ * s / a'/sa / / / / / / ' // / ' * y s * ; '////■ S S s * * y/' m 95 // *' *'. '///*, , / , s S . / / S / S ' / * * '////, '////' yyy yy>. yymgm 55 r v / / / * ' / / s / , ’ ''//// m 45 w. it W/y////tKk 35 m yyyyyy/y 35 Recta / Temperature . vy7? Y/yy m m m Hi Below tOt a F to 2° F /03BF 104 * F 105" F SQt° F. and orer. and over. and over. end over. and over. REACTIONS OF THE CAT TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 169 Kel. HUM. t Dry Bulb Temperature: °F 70 75 80 85 90 95 /oo /os no 95 O / // / / ' / / / / / '////', m m 85 // / '/ / 4 / / //* ' ' /' , / '/'/'/ / / / / / /'/// //// it M 75 ' / //'/'/ ✓ *'*'/ ’ / / * y / 'M, if m [ m, 65 ' / / , ' S '/'//, 4 S A / / S'/S //// ' / '////,■ m ///// 55 y'//Z m vm 45 S''/// yff/. if if m 35 m Wa pi if 85 | m m Respiratory Rate. Be few 70 /min. loofmin. ISO /min. 200 /min. 3oo/min. lo/min and over. and over. and over. and over. and oven Text Figure 5. Diagrammatic Representation of the Comparative Effects of Temperature and Humidity upon the Reactions of the Cat. the rabbit, and relieves the respiratory apparatus of much of the responsibility of temperature regulation, with a corresponding reduction in the risk of alkalosis. For effective evaporation from the upper respiratory tract and the supply of saliva for its coat, main- tenance of bodily hydration is important. When water replacement is inadequate, the respiration becomes deeper and the risk of acapnia greater. It was not possible to determine in these experiments the true insensible cutaneous perspiration. The few sweat glands of the paws are probably of little importance for heat regulation. The rise in pulse rate with high temperatures is probably associated with the efficacy of salivary evaporation. Acclimatisation. — There is some evidence that an acclimatisation in the reactions of rectal temperature and pulse rate can take place in a hot wet climate. Heat Effects. — The general behaviour of a cat presents a good series of changes as the rectal temperature rises: — 100 degrees F. and below. — Lies curled up. 101 degrees F. — Very drowsy. 102 degrees F. — Begins to stretch out and lie on its side. 103 degrees F. — Panting commences. 104 degrees F. — Starts licking fore-paws and front part of body. 105 degrees F. — Excessive salivation quite noticeable. 106 degrees F. — Goat dripping with saliva. 107 degrees F. — Crying and obviously in distress, but can still stand. We did not go beyond this stage. On one occasion, when the rectal temperature remained at 106 degrees F. for four hours, sitting up to drink appeared to be too much of an effort. 170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. SUMMARY. Experiments are described in which male cats (one for each series of experiments) were subjected to hot atmospheres of different temperatures and humidity, for periods up to seven hours. The* following observations were made and conclusions reached : — 1. Rectal temperature begins to rise above normal when the dry bulb temperature reaches 90 degrees F. When the dry bulb temperature reaches 105 degrees F. the cat is unable to tolerate an atmosphere above 65 per cent, humidity for seven hours ; when it reaches 110 degrees F. it is unable to tolerate one above 35 per cent, humidity for seven hours. Respiratory rate tends to rise before the rectal temperature. 2. Progressive decrease of the relative humidity effects a definite and generally progressive reduction of the respiratory reaction to higher temperatures. Rectal temperature i& correspondingly reduced only in the upper ranges of humidity. 3. Oral replacement of water lost by evaporation at high temperatures reduces the tidal and respiratory volumes,, but leaves other functions unaffected. 4. The pulse rate tends to rise with the rectal temperature, in the course of a day’s exposure to a hot atmosphere. 5. The cat shows only slight evidence of acclimatisation to repeated exposure to a hot wet atmosphere and none to a. hot dry. 6. Tidal volume as measured by a mask is only slightly reduced with the rise of respiratory rate induced by heat. 7. The rate of water evaporation from the cat increases in general with the dry bulb temperature. In hot dry atmospheres salivation accounts for the greater part of this- loss. 8. The range of variation in one individual of the different functions investigated is moderately large. 9. The cat depends upon evaporation by two methods for the regulation of its body temperature in hot environments: — (i.) Increased respiratory evaporation, which comes into action before body temperature rises; (ii.) evaporation of saliva from its coat, which is adopted when the body temperature rises to 104 degrees F. or more. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The investigations here reported were carried out under the Commonwealth Research Projects Scheme for Universities, financed by the Commonwealth Government, through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Valuable assistance and advice "were received from officers of the University Departments of Veterinary Science and Biology and the State Department of Agriculture and Stock. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lee, D. H. K., Robinson, K., and Hines, H. J. G., 1941 Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.r Vol. LIII., p. 129. Yeates, N. T. M., Lee, D. h. K., and Hines, H. J. G., 1941 Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. LIII., p. 105. Vol. LIIL, No. 11. 171 REACTIONS OF THE DOG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. By Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas H. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M., Department of Physiology, University of Queensland. (Eight Text Figures.) (. Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 25 th August, 1941.) INTRODUCTION. The dog has been a favourite animal upon which to investigate the effect of heat experimentally. Unfortunately, the obvious danger of applying the results to man have not always been recognized. Dill, Bock and Edwards (1923) drew attention to the difference between their reactions in a simple direct test. This observation does not appear to have been followed by any systematic plotting of the effects of the different atmospheric variables upon the dog, nor do the possibilities of acclimatisation appear to have been given sufficient attention. For these reasons the dog was included in our comparative experiments. There is also the important practical question of the extent to which dogs can be used by graziers in the hotter parts of Australia. The methods of investigation were essentially those used in parallel studies upon the rabbit [Lee, Robinson and Hines (1941)]. Respiratory counts were made by sight, both with and without the mask used for respiratory volume measurements. In the acclimatisation series Dog A was exposed daily for five and a-half days a week to the hot wet room in Februaxy-March (summer), hot dry room in May (winter), and hot wet room again in June (winter) ; Dog B was exposed to the hot wet room in March (autumn) and to the hot dry room from the middle of April to the middle of June. The dogs, males of the black and tan variety common in Queensland and apparently constituting a definite breed, were kept upon a diet of raw meat and dogs’ biscuits given every evening. Free water drinking was at all times permitted except during exposure to the hot atmosphere in the hydration and acclimatisation series. More animals, more breeds, and further variations in atmospheric conditions are being studied, hut the results reported here are considered to warrant interim publication. RECTAL TEMPERATURE. General Behaviour. — With only mild degrees of heating the rectal temperature does not rise ; with intermediate degrees it rises but reaches a stable equilibrium. Only with the highest atmospheric temperature used here (110 degrees F.) did the rectal temperature fail to establish an equilibrium in the dog (B) used in the effective temperature series. (Text Figs. 1 and 4.) Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — In Table 1 are set out the average rectal temperatures exhibited by a dog exposed for seven hours to atmospheres of different compositions. The figures shown in brackets have been weighted as previously described [Yeates, Lee, R.s. — T 172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. and Hines (1941)] to compensate for the reduced time of exposure in the corresponding trials. The actual time of exposure is indicated by the figures in the right-hand corner of the square. The following points will be noted: — (i.) At a room temperature of 80 degrees F. with the highest humidities and 85 degrees F. with the intermediate and low humidities, the rectal temperature shows a tendency to rise. (ii.) The room temperature at which the average rectal tempera- ture shows a definite rise to 100 degrees F. or above varies with the humidity from 85 degrees F. with 95 per cent, humidity, to 100 degrees F. with 35 per cent, humidity. (iii.) A reduction of humidity has a definite sparing effect upon the effect of hot atmospheres upon the rectal temperature. This becomes more evident as the room temperature increases above 85 degrees F., and is in general progressive. TABLE 1. Rectal Temperature Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Rel. Hum. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 99*3 99-5 99-8 1000 100-4 102-8 85 99-5 99-3 99-8 99-8 99-9 101-6 103-9 75 99-4 99-3 99-4 99-6 100-2 101-6 102-9 [113-4] 2-0 65 99-4 99-5 99-7 100-0 100-1 101-6 102-4 [108-1] 3-5 55 99-4 99-7 99-8 100-1 101-1 102-0 [105-4] 4-5 45 99-8 99-7 100-2 100-4 101-2 102-9 35 99-6 100-2 101-2 101-2 25 100-8 100-8 The figures in each square represent the average rectal temperature in °F. during the time the dog was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before 7 hours had elapsed. The number below the bracket indicates the hours that the animal remained in the room. Effect of Hydration. — In Table 2 is set out the average rectal temperature of a dog exposed to a hot dry climate (dry bulb 106 degrees F., wet bulb 80 degrees F.) and receiving on separate occasions no water, 60 ccs. per hour, and 120 ccs. per hour respectively for drinking. It will be seen that the response is definitely reduced by giving half- replacement quantities of water, and reduced a little more by increasing the water to full replacement. Acclimatisation and Season. — In Text Fig. 2 are set out the reactions of the dog (A) repeatedly exposed to hot atmospheres. It will be seen that no acclimatisation as gauged by the rectal temperature developed in the hot wet room in summer but it did in winter. A REACTIONS OF THE DOG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 173 definite acclimatisation developed in the hot dry room in the course of the second week. 105 iOO 95° 85° 18° 75° HOURS OF EXPOSURE ROOM TEMP IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 1. Reaction of a Dog’s Rectal Temperature to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.) TABLE 2. Effect of the Amount of Drinking Water Supplied. — 120 ml. /hr. 60 ml. /hr. Nil. Av. Rectal Temp. °F. 102-2 102-8 103-9 Av. Pulse Rate (beats/min.) 117 127 152 Av. Resp. Rate (Free) (Resp./min.) 232 228 242 Av. Resp. Rate (Mask) (Resp./min.) 110 105 167 Av. Resp. Vol. (1/min.) 7-9 8-1 6-5 Av. Tidal Vol. (mis.) 72 77 39 Av. Evap. Loss (gms./hour) 84 74 100 Dog B showed no acclimatisation in the hot wet room (autumn). In the hot dry room (autumn-winter) this dog showed a sensitivity on certain days and had to be removed before the full period had elapsed. 174: PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. This sensitivity decreased in the fourth week of the serial exposures, and on this account the series was extended. Text Fig. 3 shows the maximum temperatures attained by the dog in the course of the series, and the tolerance times on the incomplete days. There appears to have occurred an increase in sensitivity rather than an acclimatisation in the first week, with the establishment of increasing acclimatisation in the fourth and successive weeks. HOT ROOM CONDITIONS ANTEROOM HOT ROOM Text Figuee 2. Effects of Repeated Exposure to Hot Atmospheres upon the Reactions of a Hog. The Hot-room Figures Represent the Average Reactions on the Days in Question, Calculated as Described in the Text. Variations in Reaction. — The following figures indicate the range of variations in rectal temperature encountered in our dogs: — — Ante -Room. Av. Hot Wet Room. 4th Hour Hot Dry Room. Dog A. — Summer (10 days) 101-3-102-2 101-0-101-8 Winter (8 days) 100 0-102-2 1010-103-8 Winter (5 days) 101-9-102-5 100-5-101-5 Dog B.— Autumn (7 days) 99-4-102-5 99-5-100-3 Winter (10 days) 99-0-100-2 100-5-1 10-0 Winter (48 days) 98-4-101-4 Dog C.— Winter (8 days) . . 1010-102-6 REACTIONS OF THE DOG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 175 It will be seen that the range of variation in the ante-room temperature is fairly large, even in the one individual. Different individuals may differ fairly markedly in this respect. The reaction of Dog A to hot atmospheres was fairly stable, but that of Dog B inconstant. No definite seasonal effects are to be seen. Text Figure 3. Maximum Kectal Temperatures of a Dog on Successive Days of Exposure. (Dry Bulb, 106 degrees F. ; Relative Humidity 33 per cent.). The dog was removed when its Rectal Temperature reached 108 degrees F., the Tolerance Time in these Cases is shown in the figure. PULSE RATE. General Behaviour. — In Text Fig. 4 the pulse rate at high temperatures will be seen to follow rather closely the curve for rectal temperature, rising with it to a plateau. At intermediate temperatures the pulse rate response is not as marked as that of rectal temperature. Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity. — In Table 3 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of pulse rate. The following points will be noticed : — (i.) At low temperatures and at low humidities with intermediate temperatures the pulse rate tends to be somewhat higher than at intermediate temperatures and intermediate to high humidities. (ii.) The room temperature at which the pulse rate tends to rise definitely above normal varies with the humidity from 95 degrees F. at 75 per cent, to 105 degrees F. with 25 per cent. (iii.) A reduction of humidity has a definite sparing action upon the rise in pulse rate, where this is liable to occur, but the reduction is not uniformly progressive. 176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 3. Pulse Rate Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Rel. Hum. /o 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 94 87 86 81 84 105 85 96 91 86 84 84 108 104 75 91 82 81 81 82 109 109 [202] 65 90 87 80 81 82 112 94 [154] 55 91 86 83 83 107 100 [115] 45 88 85 86 84 102 104 35 90 86 99 100 25 99 96 The figures in each square represent the average pulse rate per minute during the time the dog was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before 7 hours had elapsed. Effect of Hydration . — Half -replacement of the water lost from the body was accompanied by a definite reduction in the average pulse rate, and full replacement was accompanied by a further small reduction (Table 2). Acclimatisation and Season. — With Dog A (Text Fig. 2) no acclimatisation, as measured by the pulse rate, occurred in the hot wet room in summer, but a late acclimatisation appeared in the hot dry room. With both Dog A in winter and Dog B in autumn some reduction occurred in the hot wet room but similar reductions were to be seen in the ante-room rate. There would seem to be some other factor operating in these cases, particularly as the temperature of the room (86 degrees F.) is not such as to produce a definite rise in pulse rate. (See above.) Variations in reaction. — The following figures indicate the range of variation in pulse rate found in our dogs: — — Ante-Room. Av. Hot Wet Room. 4th Hour Hot Dry Room. Dog A. — Summer (10 days) 76-120 80-98 Winter (8 days) 96-112 84-128 Winter (5 days) 68-104 80-io4 Dog B.— Autumn (8 days) 52-96 47-79 Winter (10 days) 64-112 72— i 36 Winter (48 days) 72-112 Dog C. — Winter (8 days) . . 96-132 It will be seen that there is a fairly wide range of variation in the one individual and that the sensitivity of different individuals to heat may differ. REACTIONS OF THE DOG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 177 Correlation with Rectal Temperature. — While a fairly close corre- lation between rectal temperature and pulse rate (Tables 1 and 3) is seen at the higher temperatures, and throughout any one day (Text Fig. 4) the pulse is much less reactive at lower temperatures. There is some hint of a negative correlation at the lowest temperatures used here. -O-O- RECTAL TEMP. RESP. RATE PULSE Text Figure 4. Effect upon a Dog of Exposure to a Hot Atmosphere. (Dry Bulb, 105 degrees F. ; Relative Humidity, 65 per cent.) RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS. General Behaviour. — The general behaviour of respiratory rate, respiratory volume, and tidal volume during exposure to heat is seen in Text Fig. 6, and the behaviour of respiratory rate at different temperatures in Text Fig. 5. It will be seen that with the lowest temperatures the rate does not change, but that with intermediate and high temperatures it rises fairly rapidly to a plateau which is there- after maintained, even though the rectal temperature may still be rising. In this respect the dog resembles the cat rather than the rabbit. As respiratory rate rises, the volume does not rise to the same extent. It may even remain fairly constant (Text Fig. 6). The tidal volume, on the other hand, falls markedly in the early hours of exposure. Relative Effects of T emperature and Humidity upon Respiratory Rate. — In Table 4 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of respiratory rate, counted without the use of a mask. It will be seen that there is a continuous rise of respiratory rate with room tempera- ture at any one level of humidity. The temperature at which the 178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. average rate rises definitely above normal varies from 80 degrees F. at a humidity of 95 per cent, to 90 degrees F. at a humidity of 45 per cent. The transition from a fairly low to a high rate takes place over a range of 5-10 degrees F. ; with further rises in room temperature the increase is not so rapid. A reduction in humidity has a sparing action upon respiration which is, for the most part, progressive. TABLE 4. Respiratory Rate Grid. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. Rel. Hum. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 30 33 63 157 221 259 85 26 26 34 172 200 250 268 75 17 32 34 91 222 247 265 [715] 65 45 28 108 223 204 246 265 [464] 55 19 94 159 203 250 263 [377] 45 42 149 203 236 253 264 35 157 221 261 238 25 223 217 The figures in each square represent the average respiratory rate per minute during the time the dog was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 °F. before 7 hours had elapsed. Respiratory Rate , Respiratory Volume , and Tidal Volume. — Simultaneous observations were made in the standard hot dry (dry bulb 106 degrees F., wet bulb 80 degrees F.) and hot wet (dry bulb 88 degrees F., wet bulb 85 degrees F.) atmospheres of the respiratory rate and volume. The average values obtained were as follows: — — Resp. Rate (Free). Resp. Rate (Mask). Resp. Vol. (Mask). 1/min. Tidal Vol. (Mask). CCS. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- Room. Av. Hot Room. Dog A. Hot Wet (Summer) 105 198 43 128 5-8 6-2 135 48 Hot Dry (Winter) 30 275 19 168 4-6 7-6 242 45 Hot Wet (Winter) 26 182 18 22 4-2 4-2 234 191 Dog B. Hot Wet (Autumn) 115 229 49 97 6-0 10-0 123 103 Hot Dry (Winter) 30 251 19 195 4-3 9-8 233 50 The most noticeable feature here is the marked reduction of the tidal volume in the hot dry room, even when the restrictive mask is used. By this means not only is the total respiratory volume kept down but any risk of over-ventilation of the pulmonary alveoli and consequent acapnia is practically eliminated. This agrees with the observations of Hemingway (1938a) upon mask-free dogs with lower degrees of heating. REACTIONS OF THE DOG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 179 The use of a mask markedly restricts the respiratory rate in the ante- room and usually in the hot wet room, but not so markedly in the hot dry room. ROOM TEMP IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 5. Reaction of the Respiratory Rate of a Dog to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). Effects of Hydration. — From Table 2 it will be seen that varying the amount of drinking water from nil to full replacement is not accompanied by any appreciable change in the free respiratory rate, but a reduction in the mask rate does occur when half replacement water is given. With the reduction in rate goes an actual increase in respira- tory volume, this reverse change being brought about by a marked increase in tidal volume. It would appear that in states of dehydration more strain is thrown upon the respiratory mechanism, in maintaining some sort of heat regulation, and that this is met, not by increasing total volume, but by increasing the rate with a reduction in depth which is more than compensatory. In view of the large variability in respira- tory reaction shown by even the one individual, these results should be treated with caution at this stage. Acclimatisation and Season. — Respiratory rates show some progres- sive reduction with repeated exposure in the hot wet room in winter 180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. with Dog A, but not elsewhere. The tidal volume shows some progres- sive reduction in the hot wet room in summer with Dog A, but with this goes an increase in mask rates. These changes are probably not indicative of a true acclimatisation. _x--x-RE5p RATE (FREE) -o— -o-RESR VOL. -° o-RESR RATE (MASK) * * -TIDAL VOL ••0-- 0-WT. LOSS Text Figure 6. Typical Reactions of Respiratory Functions and Evaporative Loss in a Dog. (Dry Bulb, 106 degrees F. ; Relative Humidity, 33 per cent.). Season, on the other hand, appears to have a definite effect upon the ante-room values of respiratory functions, as is shown in the following table : — — Resp. Rate (Free). Resp. Rate (Mask). Resp. Vol. (Mask). 1/min. Tidal Vol. (Mask). CCS. Rate. Av. Dev. Rate. Av. Dev. Av. Av. Dev. Av. Av. Dev. Dog A. Summer (10 days) 105 25-6 43 12-8 5-8 1-5 135 29-7 Winter (8 days) . . 30 9-8 19 3-8 4-6 1-1 242 58-0 Winter (5 days) . . 26 5-2 18 20 4-2 1-4 234 100-2 Dog B. Autumn (8 days) 115 48-7 49 28-7 60 1-2 123 29-1 Winter (10 days) 30 4-4 20 2-0 4-2 0-6 210 40-2 REACTIONS OF THE DOG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 181 The winter reactions as compared with the summer and autumn reactions are characterised by markedly reduced rates, slightly reduced respiratory volumes, and definitely increased tidal volumes. Variations in Reactions. — The following figures indicate the extremes of variation in the reactions of three dogs: — — Dog A. (Summer) 10 days. Dog A. (Winter) 13 days. Dog B. (Autumn) 8 days. Dog B. (Winter) 10 days. Dog C. (Winter) 8 days. s o Resp. Rate (Free) . . 60-160 16-48 44-184 24-40 28-32 Resp. Rate (Mask) 20-92 16-32 24-112 16-28 16-32 s Resp. Vol. (Mask) . . 4-0-8-4 2-0-8-0 4-0-8-4 3-2-6-0 3- 2-4- 8 < Tidal Vol. (Mask) . . 91-189 100-500 71-229 143-300 100-240 "TV f ' /'y'y'y ' / ' ' / / V / / / / / s/ / '/ '//, y \7 / Y / / / / s / Y / / / / / Y / // ,' ' / '/ ' ' '////.■ V/// ’’///// 75 Y'/d //'/' y'y' / y /' / ///'/ / . / / ' '///a m 65 [ '/*'*/*/ Y y s'y^y'y' / / Y ^Y '///*'/ /'/ s' / s''* V///, ///// m 55 //''//, Y ' ' s t ' / Y / //'/ //t / / / ' ■" / / // / / / / / / ///. m 7///Y 45 ' ' / / / S\ / Y Y ' Y ///AS ' ' ' ' ' / / S / / v * 9 Y Y s / / ' s Y / ✓ yyyy / / s Y / . 'v'V /Zv m vA \ 35 YpYfpr. m yvAA 25 7//// ' / ' / Y . / Y / Y / d/'/Z Recta / Temperature. Below loo ° F. /oo° F and over. IGI* F and over. 102° F and over. 103* F and over. 105° F and over. Rel. Hum. °L dry Bulb Temperature °f 70 75 80 85 30 95 too 105 no 95 WY Y ' Y / Y ''y'/y'sA Y Y Y Y Y ’/// 7 Y ' ' S s' Y / ' y y ' * / / / ' ; '////' '/////. > / f / / '///A Y Y / Y / / AZ/y 65 Wy m > / / // '////, y/y/y//'y' Y y y ' Y > s'y'Z /P * Y y' y'/ y/Z// 75 '/ //s , ' s / r / / ' ' Y y' Y y' y' / ■ / Y Y Y Y Y Y s ' Y Y Y Y Y / '/’///, /, / / , /'.'// y/// y/Z/. 'yy, / 65 , ' / Y /Y V / / // Y ' Y Y y s s. Y Y Y Y Y yy /// 'M zz, ' , S / / y:Z/ / . > / ■ m m 55 'A///, y//// y////' ///, Y Y Y s / m V/Xa v/// 45 'y s'/ A y‘ y' Y Y Y Y //Z/ /X m ! 35 z A/ m ! 25 // Y / Y 7 Z Pulse Rate. ) /7f> . ■ ’ ■ - ■ ///'/ 1 m yyzA Below 30 f min . 30/min. and over. IQOjmin. and over. 150 f min. and over. REACTIONS OF THE DOG TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 185 Respiratory Rate. Belov? 50 /min. too [min. 200 / min. 250 /min. 350 /min. 50 [min. and over. and over. ana over. and over, and over Text Figure 7. Diagrammatic Representation of the Comparative Effects of Temperature and Humidity upon the Reactions of the Dog. The use of the respiratory mechanism has long been postulated as the chief method of heat regulation of the dog. That this mechanism is important is borne out by the low body temperature at which panting takes place, and the rapid rise of respiratory rate with room tempera- ture. In the hot wet room it could very well account for the greater proportion of evaporative loss. In the hot dry room, however, the volume of air actually respired is not sufficiently large to account for more than a part of the observed evaporative loss, and the curves of respiratory volume and weight loss do not run parallel. While it is true that some saliva is lost by dripping from the tongue, the amount is not great enough to account entirely for the discrepancy. There are two remaining possibilities: — (i.) Evaporation of saliva from the tongue, nose, and lips into air which, while not forming part of the true tidal air, does pass over these areas, either by convection currents or by the movements of the head and tongue which accompany panting and licking. (ii.) True insensible perspiration from the general skin surface. The few sweat glands of the paws are probably of little importance for heat regulation. By the marked reduction of tidal volume the risk of acapnia is almost entirely obviated in the dog. Even when water is withheld, the respiratory volume is not increased, although the rate rises. In this respect it differs from the cat. Acclimatisation. — Much more definite evidence of acclimatisation was obtained on the dog than upon any other animal studied hitherto. This occurred to hot dry room exposures in both dogs, and to hot wet 186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. room exposures in one series in one of them. After acclimatisation had been established, the reactions remained very constant. Heat Effects. — When the body temperature is below 100 degrees F. the dog lies quietly curled up in its cage, and tends to sleep. When it reaches 100 degrees F. the type of respiration changes to open-mouthed panting, although the rise in rate is as yet only moderate. At a rectal temperature of 102 degrees F. salivation becomes marked and the typical drooling tongue hangs out of the side of the mouth. As the temperature rises further the animal becomes restless, barks a great deal, and drinks water avidly. At a rectal temperature of 105 degrees F. the animal reaches a crisis. It is extremely excitable, and bites its cage. From this point it may gradually settle down again, or pass over into a rapidly developing hyperpyrexia. At 107 degrees F. the dog is noticeably distressed and its hindquarters show some weakness. At 109 degrees F. typical “staggers” develops, and the tongue is cyanotic. There is incoordination of the limbs, particularly the hind limbs. These tend to collapse, or, if the animal does manage to retain its feet, it is quite unable to steer a straight course. The abdomen appears swollen, probably as a result of aerophagy. While we have had convulsions develop in other dogs, none were seen in the dogs used in this series. A rectal temperature of 111 degrees F. was obtained upon one occasion, but the duration was very short. Hosing rapidly checks the hyperpyrexia, and recovery has on every occasion been complete. Both dogs are in splendid condition, and show no fear or dislike for the experiments. SUMMARY. Experiments are described in which two “black and tan,” short- haired, male dogs were subjected to hot atmospheres of different temperatures and humidity for periods up to seven hours. The following observations were made and conclusions reached: — 1. Rectal temperature shows a tendency to rise above normal with a room temperature of 80 to 85 degrees F., depending upon the humidity. A reduction of humidity has a definite sparing effect which becomes more evident as the room temperature rises above 85 degrees F., and is in general progressive. 2. The pulse rate tends to rise definitely above normal at a room temperature which varies from 95 degrees F. at 75 per cent, relative humidity to 105 degrees F. at 25 per cent. 3. The respiratory rate rises continuously with room temperature over the whole range 75 degrees F. to 110 degrees F. It rises definitely above normal at a room temperature which varies from 80 degrees F. at 95 per cent, relative humidity to 90 degrees F. at 45 per cent. 4. As the respiratory rate rises with exposure to heat the tidal volume is markedly reduced, reaching, in the hot dry atmosphere, a reactions of the dog to hot atmospheres. 187 fifth of the normal value. The respiratory volume is not greatly increased. 5. The rate of water evaporation from the dog rises with the dry bulb temperature, but is not much affected by the humidity until a room temperature of 95 degrees F. is reached, above which reduced humidity is accompanied by reduced evaporative loss. 6. Oral replacement of half the water lost by evaporation at high temperatures is accompanied by a reduction in body temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate (as measured with the mask), and evaporative loss, and an increase in respiratory and tidal volumes. Full replacement is accompanied by a slight further reduction in temperature. 7. Repeated exposure to a hot wet atmosphere resulted in an acclimatisation in one series as judged by the rectal temperature, pulse rate, and respiratory reaction. More marked acclimatisation occurred in both dogs to the hot dry room. 8. While evaporation shows a definite relationship to respiratory functions, this is not complete. In the hot dry room the respiratory volume alone could not account for the observed weight loss. 9. The dog after acclimatisation is unable to tolerate for seven hours an atmosphere of 105 degrees F. with a relative humidity of 75 per cent, or one of 110 degrees F. with a relative humidity of 55 per cent. 10. Open-mouthed panting occurs at the low body temperature of 100 degrees F. Respiratory reactions occur early in the dog and serve to protect it against moderately hot atmospheres, especially hot wet atmospheres. This mechanism has to be supplemented by salivary evaporation to surrounding air with higher temperatures, and probably also by increased insensible evaporation from the body surface. 11. At a rectal temperature of 105 degrees F. the dog faces a crisis. If equilibrium is not established, hyperpyrexia rapidly develops with marked excitability. At 109 degrees F. “ staggers’ ’ develops, affecting mainly the hind limbs. Recovery from hyperpyrexia can be obtained by hosing. 12. The range of variation in one individual of the various reactions investigated is fairly large, especially before acclimatisation. Individuals may differ fairly markedly in their reactions. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, The investigations here reported were carried out under the Commonwealth Research Projects Scheme for Universities, financed by the Commonwealth Government, through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Valuable assistance and advice were received from officers of the University Departments of Veterinary Science and Biology, and the State Department of Agriculture and Stock. R.s. — u 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Dill, D. B., Bock, A. V., Edwards, H. T. (1933) : Amer. J. Physiol., 104 , 36. Hemingway, A. (1938) (a) : Amer. J. Physiol., 181, 747. Hemingway, A. (1938) (&) : Ibid., 128, 511. Lee, D. H. K., Robinson, K., and Hines, H. J. G. (1941) : Proc. Roy. Soc., Qld., Vol. LIII., p. 129. Robinson, K., and Lee, D. H. K. (1941) (a): Ibid., p. 145. Robinson, K., and Lee, D. H. K. (1941) (6): Ibid., p. 159. Yeates, N. T. M., Lee, D. H. K., and Hines, H. J. G. (1941) : Ibid., p. 105. Vol. LIIL, No. 12. 189 REACTIONS OF THE SHEEP TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. By Douglas H. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M., and Kathleen Robinson, Ml Sc., Department of Physiology, University of Queensland. 5 Text Figures. {Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25 th August, 1941.) INTRODUCTION. While the energy metabolism and nutrition of the sheep have been subjected to considerable investigation, the reactions of this animal to hot atmospheres appear to have been almost entirely neglected. Yet such reactions must be of importance to a country which is largely tropical or sub-tropical, and which is, at the same time, one of the leading wool-producing countries of the world. A very little investigation reveals that this animal’s reactions to heat are extraordinarily interesting. Their closer study should be very important to comparative physiology. The methods of investigation used in these studies were essentially those described in connection with the rabbit [Lee, Robinson, and Hines (1941)]. Respiratory counts were made by sight, both with and without the mask used for respiratory volume measurements. In the acclimatisation series two animals were exposed daily for five and a-half days a week for varying periods: — Sheep A for four weeks to the hot wet room in February (summer), for four weeks to the hot dry room in April (autumn), and for two weeks to the hot wet room in June (winter) ; Sheep B for two weeks to the hot wet room in March (autumn), the hot dry room in May (winter), and the hot dry room in June (winter). The sheep, merino wethers, were kept upon a diet of lucerne hay given every evening. Free water drinking was at all times permitted, except during exposure to the hot atmosphere in the hydration and acclimatisation series. More animals, more breeds, and further variations in atmospheric conditions are being studied, but the results reported here are considered to warrant interim publication. RECTAL TEMPERATURE. General Behaviour . — On exposure to moderately hot atmospheres the rectal temperature (Fig. 1) rises gradually throughout the period, with some tendency to progress to an equilibrium. With the highest degrees of heating no equilibrium is established, but the rate of rise is much slower than with any of the domestic animals previously studied by us (Fig. 2). Relative Effects of Tenuperature and Humidity. — Table 1 presents a temperature-humidity grid showing the average rectal temperature exhibited by a sheep when exposed for seven hours to atmospheres of different composition. Inspection shows the following points : — (1) Below a dry bulb of 90 degrees F. neither temperature nor humidity produces any definite effect upon rectal temperatures. R.s. — v. 190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. RECTAL TEMP. -<~-*-RESR RATE PULSE Text Figure 1. Effect upon a Sheep of Exposure to a Hot Atmosphere. (Dry Bulb, 105 degrees F.; Relative Humidity, 45 per cent.) TABLE 1. Rectal Temperature Grid Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 100-2 100-7 101-0 101-2 101-6 102-7 , . 85 100-6 100-6 100-7 100-8 101-6 102-2 103-5 75 101-1 100-6 100-7 101-3 101-6 101-5 103-3 [104-5] 6-8 •• 65 100-9 100-9 100-9 101-3 101-6 102-4 102-7 104-0 55 101-3 102-1 102-0 101-9 102-7 103-7 45 101-6 101-7 101-9 101-9 102-8 102-8 35 102-2 101-9 102-0 101-9 25 102-1 103-0 The figures in each square represent the average rectal temperature in degrees F. during the time the sheep was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before 7 hours had elapsed. The number beloAV the bracket indicates the hours that the animal remained in the room. REACTIONS OF THE SHEEP TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 191 (2) At 90 degrees F. definite rises of rectal temperature are obtained with all humidities, and above this temperature there is a rise in reaction with rise in dry bulb. (3) Only at 105 degrees F. with 75 per cent, humidity was the sheep unable to tolerate the conditions for seven hours, and even then it failed by only a very small margin. (4) There is some indication of an effect by humidity at 95 degrees F. At higher temperatures a reduction of humidity appears to have a definite sparing action. ROOM TEMP IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 2, Reaction, of a Sheep ’s Rectal Temperature to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). Effect of Hydration— In Table 2 is given the average rectal temperature of a sheep exposed to a hot dry atmosphere (dry bulb 106 degrees F., wet bulb 80 degrees F.), and given by oral administration on separate occasions, no water, 70 ccs. per hour and 140 ccs. per hour respectively. It will be seen that the average rectal temperature was reduced slightly by giving water equal to half that lost by evaporation, and rather more definitely by increasing the water supply to full replacement. The differences are not great, however. 192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE 2. Effect of the Amount of Drinking Water Supplied. — 140 ml/hr. 70 ml /hr. Ml. Rectal Temp. °F. 102-2 102-6 102-8 Pulse Rate (beats/min.) 55 64 55 Resp. Rate (Free) 74 103 89 Resp. Rate (Mask) (Resp. /min.) 45 73 44 Resp. Vol. (litres/min.) 5-6 7-5 5-9 Tidal Vol. (mis.) 124 103 134 Acclimatisation and Season. — There was no definite evidence of an acclimatisation to either hot wet or hot dry atmospheres with either animal. The season of the year had some effect on ante-room tempera- tures, which tend to he lower in late winter. (See below.) No difference between summer and winter, however, is seen in the sheep ’s reactions to a hot wet atmosphere. Variations in Reaction. — The following figures indicate the range of variation in rectal temperature encountered in our sheep : — — Ante-room. Ay. Hot Wet Room. Ay. Hot Dry Room. Sheep A — - Summer (10 days) Autumn (10 days) Winter (5 days) Late Winter (48 days) . . 101-7-103-4 101-9-102-8 101-7-103- 1 99-4-102-6 102-3-103-3 102-4-102-8 102-2-103 0 Sheep B — Autumn (8 days) Winter (8 days) Winter (8 days) (shorn) 102-5-103-3 101-2-102-8 101-1-102-9 102-4-103-6 102-1-103 1 102-1-103-3 Sheep C — Spring (5 days) . . 101-8-104-3 It will be seen that the range of ante-room rectal temperatures in any one individual sheep is fairly wide, but that between different sheep may not be great. The range of reactions in the hot room is only moderate. PULSE RATE. General Behaviour. — The sheep often shows a moderate but definite response to high temperatures in its pulse rate (Fig. 1). At milder temperatures the pulse remains constant throughout the period or may fall slightly. Relative Effects on Temperature and Humidity — In Table 3 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of pulse rate. While there is some general tendency for a high average pulse rate at high temperatures, there is considerable variation from day to day. reaLtiOns oe the sheep to hot atmospheres. 19 & TABLE 3. Pulse Rate Grid. Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 35 36 39 40 36 44 85 37 36 40 40 38 50 50 75 50 44 44 36 42 47 50 [61] 65 47 51 43 41 40 46 45 44 55 53 48 44 47 50 45 52 45 52 52 50 41 44 40 35 53 43 41 53 25 53 59 Tlie figures in each square represent the average pulse rate per minute during the time the sheep was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before 7 hours had elapsed. Effect of Hydration . — Variations in the supply of water produced no significant differences in pulse rate (Table 2). Acclimatisation and Season. — Repeated exposures to either hot wet or hot dry atmospheres produced no reduction in average pulse rate. The ante-room pulse rate tends to be higher in early winter than in summer, but it returns to its previous values in late winter. ( See below.) The pulse rate in the hot wet room in early winter tends to be higher than in sumflmer or autumn. Variations in Reaction. — The following figures indicate the range of variation in pulse rates encountered in our sheep : — — Ante-room. Av. Hot Wet Room. Av. Hot Dry Room. Sheep A — Summer (10 days) 44-56 41-53 Autumn (10 days) 44-60 41-52 Winter (5 days) 54-88 44-62 Late Winter (48 days) . . 36-68 Sheep B — Autumn (8 days) 56-88 54-60 Winter (8 days) 56-104 53-66 Winter (8 days) (shorn) 68-108 66-81 Sheep C — Spring (5 days) . . 64-92 The figures show a fairly large variation in the one animal and also between different individuals. C orr elation with Rectal Temperature. — When the pulse rate rises it does so in association with the rectal temperature (Fig. 1), but it is generally much less reactive. 194 PROCEEDINGS Oft THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND. RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS. General Behaviour. — The general behaviour of respiratory rate during exposure to hot atmospheres is shown in Figs. 1 and 3. It will be seen that with the higher temperatures there is a gradual rise in rate to a plateau, even in the severest temperatures. The rate of rise Is far less rapid than with any of the other animals previously studied by us. ROOM TEMP IS SHOWN WITHIN THE GRAPH Text Figure 3. Reaction of the Respiratory Rate of a Sheep to Hot Atmospheres of Different Temperatures but the same Relative Humidity (65 per cent.). Typical reactions for respiratory rate, respiratory volume, and tidal volume are shown in Fig. 4. As the respiratory rate rises, so does the respiratory volume, but not quite to the same extent, as the tidal volume falls somewhat. (However, see table below.) Relative Effects of Temperature and Humidity upon Respiratory Rate.- — In Table 4 is given the temperature-humidity grid in respect of respiratory rate counted without the use of the mask. The first noticeable rise appears at a room temperature of 85 degrees F. with the highest humidity. This critical temperature rises to 95 degrees F. with a relative humidity of 35 per cent. At all temperatures producing a rise in respiratory rate, with the exception of the highest humidity, a progressive reduction in humidity is accompanied by a generally progressive reduction in respiratory rate. REACTIONS OF THE SHEEP TO HOT ATMOSPHERES. 195 RESP RATE (FREE) °* RESP. VOL. o—o—o- RESP RATE (MASK) - - - * -TIDAL VOL . Text Figure 4. Typical Reaction of Respiratory Functions in the Sheep. (Dry Bulb, 106 degrees F. ; Relative Humidity, 33 per cent.) TABLE 4. Respiratory Rate Grid. Rel. Hum. Dry Bulb Temperature °F. % 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 95 12 12 15 27 28 119 85 9 12 12 18 70 157 181 75 16 12 12 12 31 135 179 [209] 65 15 16 14 15 25 146 165 186 55 15 13 15 57 131 163 187 45 12 13 61 60 97 139 35 30 56 66 97 25 •• 88 108 The figures in each square represent the average respiratory rate per minute during the time the sheep was exposed to the particular atmospheric conditions. Figures in square brackets have been weighted as described in the text as the animal had to be removed with a rectal temperature of 107 degrees F. before 7 hours had elapsed. 196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Respiratory Rate , Respiratory Volume, and Tidal Volume. — Simul- taneous observations of respiratory rate and volume were made in standard hot wet (dry bulb 88 degrees F., wet bulb 85 degrees F.) and hot dry (dry bulb 106 degrees F., wet bulb 80 degrees F.) conditions. The values obtained are given in the following table: — Resp. Rate (free). Resp. Rate (mask). Resp. Vol. (mask) 1/min. Tidal Vol. (mask) ccs. Ante- room. Ay. Hot Room. Ante- room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- room. Av. Hot Room. Ante- room. Av. Hot Room. Sheep A — Hot Wet (Summer) 67 109 61 90 61 8-2 100 91 Hot Dry (Autumn) 78 136 58 108 4*8 9-5 83 88 Hot Wet (Winter) 57 141 48 123 2-3 9-0 48 74 Sheep B — Hot Wet (Autumn) 57 126 33 69 3-7 7-4 116 107 Hot Dry (Winter) 47 128 34 102 3-8 9-3 110 91 Hot Dry (Winter shorn) 21 116 19 98 1-9 8-2 100 84 It will be seen that the rate is not increased as markedly as with the other animals, and tidal volume is not greatly altered. The use of the mask does not have a great repressive effect. Effect of Hydration. — Alterations in the supply of drinking water were not accompanied by regular effects upon the respiratory rate, volume, or tidal volume (Table 2). Acclimatisation and Season. — No definite seasonal variations in respiratory rate were detected, either in the ante-room or in the hot wet room, but the respiratory volume tended to be lower in winter than in autumn in the ante-room. (See tables above and below.) No evidence of acclimatisation was obtained. Variations in Reaction. — The following figures indicate the extremes of variation in the ante-room and hot room values of the respiratory functions in sheep : — — Sheep A. (Summer) 10 days. Sheep A. (Autumn) 10 days. Sheep A. (Winter) 5 days. Sheep B. (Autumn) 8 days. Sheep B. (Winter) 8 days. Sheep B. (Winter Shorn) 8 days. a o Resp. Rate (Free) 40-112 40-108 24-84 40-72 36-56 20-24 o Ph Resp. Rate (Mask) 40-104 36-76 16-72 24-44 24-48 16-20 Mesophyllum collar e sp. nov. cf. (not very close to) some Atelophyllum Wdkd. from the upper Honsel beds of Ernst, near Hagen, Germany. 31. ( Dialithopkyllum ) fultum sp. nov. cf. D. complicatum Wdkd., top- most Honsel beds, Genna, Germany. Family Disphyllidae. ' Bisphyllvm gregorii (Eth.) cf. C. caespitosum var. breviseptata Fr. ( fP'lattenkalk), Ref rath near Cologne, Germany; D. emsti (Wdkd.), Upper Givetian of Moravia. D. (or Maegeea) trochoides sp. nov. cf. D . (or M.) spongiosum (Schl.), Biichel beds of Paffrath Basin; D . (or M.) conicum (Kett.), upper Givetian of Moravia. c D. (or M.) excavatum sp. nov. cf. C. bathy calyx Freeh, 1886, pi. v, fig. 24 only, crinoid beds, Muhlberg in the Eifel. Family Endophyllidae. Endophyllum abditnm E. & H. var. columna var. nov. cf. E. colligatum Eth., Middle Devonian of Tamworth, N.S.W. Family Favistellidae. * Favistella rhenana Freeh from the quadrigeminus and Biichel beds near Hand in the Paffrath Basin, Germany. Fasciphyllum ryani sp. nov. Family Spongophyllidae. Spongophyllum immersum sp. nov. cf. 8. kunthi Schl. and 8. parvistella Schl., lower Stringocephalus beds of the Eifel. ^ Grypophyllum sp. cf. G. normale Wdkd., quadrigeminus beds of Hand, in the Paffrath Basin, Germany. r Grypophyllum compactum sp. nov. cf. G. tenue Wdkd., quadrigeminus beds of Hand, in the Paffrath Basin. String ophyllum quasinormale sp. nov. cf. 8 . normale Wdkd., quadrigeminus beds of Hand, in the Paffrath Basin ; Bornhardtina beds of Soetenich in the Eifel. S. quasinormale var. ? 8. quasinormale var. ana nov. r 8. bipartitum sp. nov. cf. 8. buchelense (Schl.), Genna, Germany [? upper Honsel]. 8, irregulare sp. nov. cf. S. tenue Wdkd., Schwelm, Germany [? Massenkalk] . v 8. isactis (Freeh) from the Biichel beds of Schladetal and Biichel in the Paffrath Basin; upper Givetian of Moravia. The relationships may be summarised as follows: — Paffrath Basin. Id.* Comp.* Altena Saddle. Id. Comp. Eifel. Id. Comp. Upper Middle Devonian = Stringocephalus beds = Givetian. Plattenkalk Massenkalk = Biichel 2 1 1 1 Up. Honsel = quadrig. 1 4 Upper Honsel 4 Up. Coral 1st Crinoid beds 3 2 * Id. = Identical, Comp. = comparable species. 234 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Thus there is a striking similarity to the fauna of the qmdrigeminus beds of the Paffrath Basin near Cologne in Germany, and their German equivalents, and I consider that the bulk of the North Queensland limestones are roughly equivalent to the quadrigeminus beds of the j Paffrath Basin. But on the Panning R. at least, the top of the limestone probably equals some part of the succeeding Biichel beds (Massenkalk) of the Paffrath Basin, for it contains a species characteristic of the Biichel beds. The list also indicates a relation to the Chinese province. Only one species is comparable with the American Hamilton fauna. The study thus shows that the Burdekin, Panning and Reid limestones are younger than the Murrumbidgee limestones of New South Wales, and the Clermont and Silverwood limestones of Queensland, all of which are considered to be Couvinian (Hill, 1939b, 1940a, 1940c). SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS. The descriptions given below are based on 524 thin sections and more than 1,000 specimens. It is noticeable that the individuals of many species, particularly those of the genera Acanthophyllum, “ Cystiphyllum,” Disphyllum and Stringophyllum could be divided into local races, from the morphological characters shown by them at the different localities. These races are not herein regarded as varieties, but are mentioned or described in the remarks on the species. All genera described or named herein are interpreted on the geno- types given in Lang, Smith and Thomas, 1940, which should be consulted for references to the works in which the genera and their genotypes were founded. FAMILY ACANTHOPHYLLIDAE. Aeanthophyllidae ; Hill, 1939a, p. 220 ; 1939b, p. 56 ; Hill and Jones, 1940, p. 178. Genus Acanthophyllum Dybowski. A canthophyUum Dybowski ; Hill, 1939a, p. 222 ; 1939b, p. 56 ; Hill and Jones, 1940, p. 179. Remarks: The genus as diagnosed in the references given above has wide limits, and as our knowledge of Devonian Rugosa becomes more soundly based, it may be found reasonable to split it. Thus there appears to be a distinctive morphological sub-group in the Givetian of Germany and Queensland, embracing the two species Cyathophyllum sweeti Etheridge and Stenophyllum diluvianum Amanshauser MS in Wedekind (1925, pp. 9, 12, text-figs. 3-4). These differ only in size and number of septa ; the German species is about 28 mm. in diameter, with 34 septa of each order; but the Queensland species is smaller, up to 14 mm., with at most 28 septa of each order. In both, the septa are rather broadly waved in the dissepimentarium, and frequently show cymatoid carinae in the tabularium; the major septa are unequal and extend almost to the axis, without vortical curvature in the tabularium ; dilatation of the septa occurs only near the epitheca. The calice is concave like an inverse cone, and the tabulae are very close. This sub-group is at present without a separate generic name, for although *8. diluvianum is the genotype of Stenophyllum, this name is pre-occupied (see Lang, Smith and Thomas, 1940, p. 123). In this paper the sub-group is placed in Acanthophyllum . The cymatoid carinae of the septa and the arrangement of the axial ends of the major septa in the sub-group, where the cardinal or counter septum may frequently be longer than the others, are seen also in other genera regarded as THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 235 members of the Acanthophyllidae — the Silurian Cymatelasma and Spongophylloides, and the Devonian Lyrielasma ; and in other species of the genus Acanthophyllum — A. elongatum and A. dianthus (Gold- fuss), both described as Cyathophyllids by Le Maitre, 1934, from beds transitional between the Coblenzian and the Couvinian, Acanthophyllum sweeti (Etheridge) PL V., figs. 1-5. Cyathophyllum sp. ind. Etheridge, 1892, p. 59, pi. 3, figs. 11, 12; Regan’s Quarry, Reid Gap. Cyathophyllum sweeti Etheridge, 1895, p. 521, pi. xl., figs. 3, 4; pi. xli., fig. 1, Reid Gap. Lectotype: on F 1652, Geological Survey of Queensland, from Regan’s Quarry, Reid Gap, figd. Etheridge, 1892, loc. cit. Givetian. Diagnosis: Acanthophyllum with about 26 septa of each order rather broadly wavy in the dissepimentarium, and somewhat dilated towards the periphery; the major septa are unequal and not vertically rotated, and may have eymatoid carinae in the tabularium ; the cardinal or counter septum is frequently longer than the others. Description: The corallum is trocho-cylindrical and probably solitary, and frequently somewhat vermiform. It may attain a diameter of 14 mm., in a height of 45 mm., but most corallites are fragmentary and rather slenderer. The epitheca shows narrow longitudinal septal furrows, and broad intervening ribs, all crossed by fine growth striation, and occasional growth constrictions. The calice is deeply oval like an inverse cone. The corallum is often somewhat oval in transverse section. In the figured section of the lectotype, taken through the base of the calice, there are 26 septa of each order, but in most specimens the number is somewhat smaller. The septa dilate slightly in the outer parts of the dissepimentarium, gradually increasing till nearly at the epitheca, and then suddenly forming a narrow crenulate stereozone; the dilatation may spread over the upper surfaces of the outermost dissepiments. The minor septa are less dilated than the major septa. The septa are broadly and irregularly wavy, particularly near the epitheca. The major septa are unequal and usually fail to reach the axis, but in some corallites one may extend right to the axis; in one specimen at least this long septum is the counter septum, for its neigh- bouring minor septa are longer than the others. The major septa may have eymatoid carinae in the tabularium. The minor septa extend up to two-thirds of the way to the axis. The dissepiments are highly inclined and rather elongate, and the outermost series may be dilated. The tabular floors are thin and close, and concave, sometimes deeply so, or with a median notch, and are formed of numerous elongate tabellae. Localities: Burdekin Downs, A,1 E, F ; Fanning R,, A,F ; Reid Gap, A (type locality), E,F. Remarks: This species is almost identical with A. diluvianum (see p. 234) from the upper coralline limestone ( Cosmophyllum beds) of Niederehe in the Eifei, which are at the top of the middle Middle Devonian of Schulz, i.e. near the top of the lower Givetian. Schmidt (1936, p. 317) has recorded A. diluvianum from the reticularis- marl at the base of the upper Middle Devonian of Soetenich in the Eifei. The only difference is that the Queensland species is smaller and has fewer septa than the German. The specimens from the type locality 1 For explanation of localities referred to by letters see pp. 230-232. 236 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. are frequently slenderer than the type, while those from Burdekin Downs A (on the hill rising from the fowlyard) are somewhat stouter. Specimens from the anabranch of the Burdekin R. near Big Rocks (Burdekin Downs E) are on the whole much slenderer than those from the type locality, though some are stout, and many have recessive minor septa; this last character is so striking that it might prove better to regard the individuals showing it as a variety, but this is not done herein. Other specimens from this locality show a particularly strong development of cymatoid carinae. Specimens from Reid Gap E (portion 370 parish of Magenta) are very similar to those from the type locality. Genus Dohmophyllum Wedekind. Dohmophyllum Wedekind, 1923, pp. 29, 30; 1924, p. 76. T remat ophyllum Wedekind, 1923, pp. 27, 35 (genus caelebs) ; 1924, pp. 72, 75; genolectotype, chosen Lang, Smith and Thomas (1940, p. 135) T. scliulzi Wedekind, 1924, p. 76, text-fig. 104, Lower Middle Devonian (lower coralline limestone), Niederehe, the Eifel. Sparganophyllum Wedekind, 1925, p. 13; genoholotype 8. difficile Borchers MS in Wedekind, 1925, pp. 13, 14, text-fig. 9; quadrigeminus beds of Hand near Bergisch Gladbach ; and Pillingserbachtal, near Letmathe, Germany. Genoholotype: D. involution Wedekind, 1923, text-fig. 7 on p. 30; 1924, text-fig. 108. Crinoid beds (base of String ocephalus beds), Auburg, near Gerolstein in the Eifel. Diagnosis: Large, simple Rugose corals with a wide dissepimen- tarium of fine dissepiments, with numerous close, flattened tabellae arranged in irregular floors without a median notch, with long unequal major septa, sometimes slightly carinate, and with a vortical axial structure or an axial column of discrete, thickened, curved septal ends, often carinate. Remarks: In my opinion the genera given in the synonymy should be merged, the distinctions made by Wedekind, on shape of calice, type of septal carination, and tightness of axial structure being considered of not more than specific value in this group. Together they characterise a relatively short period of time, from the top of the Calceola beds to the top of the lower part of the Stringocephalus beds of the German succession, and they are all covered by the diagnosis given above. The best known member of the genus is perhaps D. helianthoides (Goldfuss) from the crinoid beds of the Eifel. In its long, unequal septa and its close flattened tabellae the genus shows the characters of the Acanthophyllidae ; but these tabellae are arranged in irregular groups, many of which appear to indicate irregularly domed tabular floors ; and by this character they are separable from A.canthophyllum, which typically has regularly concave floors with a median notch. Steno- phyllum implicatum. Wedekind (1925, text-fig. 7) from the coralline crinoidal limestone ( Cosmophyllum beds) of Dachsberg in the Eifel, appears to belong to the genus. Our Queensland species is closest to the German forms from the quadrigeminus beds of Hand in the Paffrath Basin. Dohmophyllum clarkei sp. nov. PI. V., figs. 6-11. Holotype: F. 4531, University of Queensland Collection, base of Fanning R. limestone, about 2 miles upstream from Fanning R. home- stead (1939). Givetian. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OB' QUEENSLAND. 237 Diagnosis: Large trochoid or t r o cho - cylindrical Dohmophyiliim, frequently with rejuvenescence ; the axial ends of the long major septa are usually twisted in a moderately wide vortical axial structure; the minor septa are long and both orders are thin except at the periphery, where they suddenly dilate wedge-wise into a fairly narrow stereozone. Description: The corallum is large and solitary, though usually associated with others of the same species ; it is trochoid at first, tending to become cylindrical later; rejuvenescence may frequently cause a sudden decrease in diameter. It is often somewhat flattened. The holotype has a longer diameter of 28 mm. and a shorter diameter of 24 mm. at about 35 mm. from the apex, and is almost erect. Some coralla may be smaller, others much larger; one is 150 mm. long, with a longer diameter of 60 mm. ; some may show slight curvature. The average number of septa of each order is 28 or 30, but small corallites may show fewer, and large corallites up to 37 of each order (at a diameter of 46 mm.). The septa are thin, and usually without carinae, though some short, ragged trabecular carinae may occur on them near the inner margin of the dissepimentarium or in the tabu- larium. They expand suddenly wedgewise at the periphery, to form a stereozone ; this is almost 1 mm. wide in the holotype ; it tends to be widest near the apex, and thinnest near the calice. The septa are often somewhat wavy just inside the stereozone, and they may sometimes be discontinuous there. The major septa extend unequally towards the axis ; typically many of them are strongly rotated in a counter-clockwise direction in the tabularium, thus forming a vortical axial structure, but they may be almost straight therein ; sometimes they are somewhat withdrawn from the axis. The interseptal loculi in the tabularium are somewhat unequal. The septal ends may be somewhat thickened in the tabularium. In one specimen (F 4471) some of the septa are broken off from their axial ends which are twisted together irregularly, forming an axial column as in some D . helianthoides (Goldfuss). The minor septa extend nearly two-thirds of the way to the axis in the adult stages, rather less in younger stages, and more in very well developed coralla. The dissepiments are numerous and rather globose, but less so than in other species of the genus, and are steeply inclined. They are frequently geniculate in transverse section of the corallum. The tabular floors are usually irregular, sometimes sagging on one side and domed on the other. They are formed by numerous rather flattened tabellae, though occasional arched plates are seen, and are almost as closely spaced as the successive dissepimental floors. The width of the tabularium is variable, up to one-third the diameter of the corallum. The horizontal skeletal elements are consistently thinner than the septa. Localities: Burdekin Downs A?, B?, D, E, F; Fanning It. A. (including type locality), B, D?, E, G?; Reid Gap A?, E, F, G. Remarks: The queries in the locality list refer to specimens, from the locality cited, only doubtfully referred to D. clarkei. The species is close to individuals from the quadrigeminus beds of Hand in the Paffrath Basin, figured by Wedekind (1925) as Sparganophyllum difficile, S. simplex, and 8. gracile ; these have a similar number of septa and a similar external form, but the limits of variation in the German species are unknown. Our species varies within wide limits, and the chief variables are : — size of corallum, the number of septa taking part in the axial structure, the degree of the rotation of the axial ends and the degree to which these are discrete, and the width of the tabularium. 238 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The dilatation and waviness of the septa vary slightly. The variation was not found to be of any strict significance geographically or stratigraphically. Genus Lyrielasma Hill. Lyrielasma Hill, 1939a, p. 243. Genotype : CyathophyUum subcaespitosum Chapman, 1925, p. 112, pi. xiii., figs. 15, 16a, b. Devonian, Cave Hill, Lilydale, Victoria. Diagnosis: Fasciculate Rugosa with the major septa directed towards the median plane, with wide, deeply concave incomplete tabulae,, and with a peripheral stereozone of irregular width, formed by the dilatation of major and minor septa in the dissepimentarium. Range: Lower or Middle Devonian of Victoria. Lyrielasma curvatum sp. nov. PI. V., figs. 12-14. Holotype: F 4423, University of Queensland Collection, base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Diagnosis: Lyrielasma in which the axial ends of the septa may be vortically curved, and the tabulae may be horizontal or even slightly domed. Description: The corallum is probably phaceloid, one section and some specimens showing corallites in such positions in the matrix as to suggest that smaller corallites arise from larger by lateral increase. The average diameter is 15 mm., and the corallites are cylindrical or slenderly trochoid, and may be erect or curved. Neither ealice nor epitheca could be studied. There are about 25 septa of each order, dilated towards the periphery, so that a stereozone of irregular width is formed, varying from one corallite to another from 1 mm. to 4 mm. The major septa reach or almost reach the axis; they are unequal; sometimes they are arranged not very regularly about a median plane, but more often their axial ends are vortically curved. The dissepiments are small and steeply inclined, and are often geniculate in transverse section. The tabular floors are flat or gently domed or saucered, and are formed of numerous, close lying, flat tabellae. Remarks: The species is placed somewhat doubtfully in Lyrielasma because its flat lying tabellae and the vortical curvature of its axial septal ends, which are not very distinctly arranged about a median plane, have not previously been observed in the genus. No foreign species is known to resemble it at all closely. Lyrielasma ( ?) lophophylloides sp. nov. PI. VI., figs. 1, 2. Holotype: F 5129, University of Queensland Collection, Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Diagnosis: Phaceloid Rugosa whose slender corallites have straight septa, with one longer and thicker than the others, highly inclined dissepiments and deeply concave tabulae. Description: The corallum is phaceloid, with cylindrical corallites; increase is lateral. The corallites are about 9 mm. in diameter, and the nature of their epitheca and calice are not known. There is a narrow peripheral stereozone about 0-5 mm. wide, formed by lateral dilatation of the septal bases. There are 20 major septa extending unequally to the axis, all straight throughout their length ; one, possibly THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 239 the counter or the cardinal septum, is longer than the others, and slightly thicker. One septum opposite to this, and two almost at right angles to it, may be but little shorter than it, and a little longer and thicker than the remaining septa. The 20 minor septa extend about two-thirds of the way to the axis. The dissepiments are equal and highly inclined. The tabularium is narrow and contains inversely conical, complete tabulae, rather distantly placed. Remarks: It is doubtful that this species is of the genus Lyrieiasma ; it is provisionally placed therein because in the genotype the cardinal or counter septum is occasionally longer than the others, and the tabulae are inversely conical, and these are characters possessed by the new species. In internal structure it resembles very closely Cyathophyllum hallioides Freeh (1886, p. 177, pi. xix., figs. 6, 6a, 15) from the crinoid beds of Dalbenden near Urft in the Eifel (that is, at the base of the lower part of the Stringocephalus beds of Germany) ; but the German species is solitary and has a wider dissepimentarium. AMPLEXIMORPHS. Ampleximorphs; Hill, 1940b, p. 390. Solitary or fasciculate Rugose corals which have thin walls, short lamellar septa and complete tabulae, and are without dissepiments. Genus Yabeia 1 Lang, Smith and Thomas. Yabeia Lang, Smith and Thomas, 1940, p. 141, nom. nov. for Cylindrophyllum Yabe and Hayasaka, 1915, p. 90. Cylindrophyllum was pre-occupied in 1900. Genoholotype : Cylindrophyllum simplex Yabe and Hayasaka, 1915, p. 90, and 1920, p. 133, pi. vi, figs. 3a-b; Devonian, neighbourhood of Hung:kuo-chi, Ta-kuan-ting, Chao-tung-fu, Province of Yun-nan, China. Diagnosis: “Corallum composite, fasciculate; corallites long, erect, subparallel, only in contact at the point of gemmation ; surface of the corallites transversely wrinkled and finely striated. No septa or septal spines at all. Tabulae complete, moderately close, horizontal. Multiplied by lateral gemmation.” Remarks: Owing to the complete absence of septa it must be ques- tioned whether this genus is a Rugose coral, and it is placed rather doubtfully with the ampleximorphs. Yabeia salmoni sp. nov. PL VI, figs. 3, 4. Holotype: F 5025 University of Queensland Collection, Burdekin Downs station, on the anabranch of the Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. Diagnosis: Yabeia with distant tabulae. Description: The specimens consist of numerous parallel or almost parallel cylindrical corallites, from 5 to 10 mm. in diameter, often crushed. Their manner of aggregation suggests that they are parts of a laterally increasing phaceloid corallum, but increase was not directly observed. The epitheca is transversely wrinkled and finely annulate, but no longitudinal striation can be distinguished. The wall is very thin, less than 0*25 mm. No septa or septal spines can be found. The tabulae are thin, horizontal and inequidistant, from 2 to 4 mm. apart. Walls and tabulae are usually lined with secondary calcite prisms. ATbis name is pre-occupied by Yabeia Resser and Endo, 1935. See Neave’s Nomenclator Zoologicus, Vol. IV., published in 1940. 240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Localities: In addition to the type locality, the species occurs on Bur dekin Downs station at the limestone dam. Remarks: Our form differs from the Chinese genotype in the greater distances between its tabulae. The absence of all traces of septa, either lamellar or spinose, is very striking; none are to be found even in tangential sections cutting obliquely into the lumen from the wall; nor are there any longitudinal striations on the epitheca such as usually correspond with septa. It thus differs from the German Givetian Cyathopaedium, for lamellar septa are well shown in Schluter’s figures of his genotype. Cyathopaedium may be identical with the previously founded Silurian Pycnostylus Whiteaves (Hill, 1940b, p. 391). We have no information on the nature of the septa in another Devonian phaceloid ampleximorph, Placophyllum Simpson, from the Onondaga (Lower Middle Devonian) of North America. FAMILY CALCEOLIDAE. Family Calceolidae Lindstrom, 1883, p. 9, emended Hill, 1940b, p. 393. Calceola Lamarck ; Lindstrom, 1883 ; Richter, 1928, p. 174. Genotype: Anomia Sandalinum Linnaeus, Germany. Diagnosis: Calceoloid corals with semi-circular operculum; with the counter quadrants on the flattened side, and the cardinal on the curved side ; the skeletal elements are so dilated that all interseptal loculi are filled up. Remarks: Richter (1928) has concluded that the genus, which is characteristic of the Middle Devonian of Europe, Asia and Australia, but has not been recorded from America, contains one species only. Calceola sandalina (Linnaeus); Lindstrom, 1883, p. 10; Richter, 1928, p. 174. Diagnosis: As for the genus. Remarks: After statistical work on the variations in external form of German and other individuals, Richter (1928) has divided the species into four sub-species with range and characters as follows: — Calceola sandalina oldest mutation, occurs in the cultrijugatus beds at the base of the Couvinian in the Eifel, and in the lower Couvinian of Spain ; the angle made by the edges of its flat side at the apex varies between 45° and 65°, but mostly between 55° and 62°. Calceola sandalina sandalina (see below). Calceola sandalina alta (see below). Calceola sandalina westfalica Lotze, occurs in the upper part of the Givetian of the German Sauerland, and at Muhlberg in the Eifel, in beds which were previously regarded as basal Givetian (Richter, 1928, p. 176) ; its angle varies between 50° and 75°, but mostly between 60° and 65°, and its sides are curved by a gradual broadening of the angle with growth. Large, broad-angled and small, narrow-angled Calceola occur together in the North Queensland limestones, and appear to be referable on their external form to C. sandalina sandalina and C. sandalina alta , although my measurements of the average angle give in each case an increase of 5° to 10° on those given by Richter. Genus Calceola Lamarck. Calceola sandalina (Linnaeus). THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 241 Calceola sandalina sandalina (Linnaeus) PI. VI, figs. 5, 6. Calceola sandalina sandalina (Linnaeus) ; Richter, 1928, p. 174. Diagnosis: Large and broad Calceola sandalina, with apical angle between 50° and 80°, and usually between 60° and 70°. Description of Queensland forms : The corallum is large, with a height of from 30 to 50 mm., and a breadth of from 50 to 60 mm. The apical angle varies from 70° to 90°, the average being about 80°. The flat (counter) surface is occasionally almost erect, but usually curves inwards during growth. The sides of the flat face are usually straight, so that the angle is constant throughout growth. The epitheca of the flat face shows a median ridge, and numerous ridges and furrows parallel to this. The calice is very deep, reaching almost to the apex. Vertical sections show that the sclerenchyme is deposited in successive growth lamellae. Localities: Burdekin Downs F; Fanning R. D. Remarks: The Queensland specimens agree with the descriptions of the German subspecies, except for the somewhat wider angle in our forms. In Germany the subspecies occurs in the ostiolatus (= Calceola) beds and in the lower part of the Stringocephalus beds. Calceola sandalina alta Richter. PI. VI, figs. 7-9. Calceola sandalina alta Richter; Richter, 1928, p. 175. Diagnosis: Small and narrow Calceola sandalina, with apical angle between 35° and 60°, and usually between 40° and 45°. Description of the Queensland forms: The corallum is small, with a height of from 14 to 25 mm., and a breadth of from 10 to 21 mm. The apical angle varies between 35° and 60°, but most individuals are between 45° and 55°. The flat (counter) surface is often erect, but is more often slightly curved inwards. The sides of the flat face are usually quite straight. The calice is very deep, extending almost to the apex. Localities: Burdekin Downs E, F; Fanning R. A, B, F. Remarks: The Queensland specimens, like those of C. sandalina sandalina are preserved in bedded limestones, and do not weather out, so that it is difficult to measure their apical angle accurately. Our specimens appear to have a wider angle than the German. In Germany the subspecies occurs in the beds with Dechenella verneuili in the Eifel, and in the middle part of the Stringocephalus beds on the right side of the Rhine. CYSTIMORPHS. Cystimorphs; Hill, 1939a, p. 248. Wedekind and Vollbrecht (1931) have considered that the cystimorphs of the lower part of the German Stringocephalus beds which are usually included in Cystiphyllum pseudosept alum Schulz are of the same family as Arcophyllum, Hemicystiphyllum • etc., and have described the family as the Lytophyllidae (i.e., Lithophyllidae). The character which they considered diagnostic of this family is the “ septal cone.” In C. pseudo sept at um and similar forms the septa are visible only as septal remnants in successive zones of skeletal dilatation ; each zone of dilated tissue is deposited on one old calical floor, and thickens the dissepiments and tabulae at this position ; the dilatation is greatest in the middle of the floor, and decreases towards the periphery ; as the calical floor is conical in all these forms, the zone of dilatation is conical also. These successive zones of skeletal dilatation, as the present author 242 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. prefers to call them, rather than “septal cones,” seem to her to repre- sent successive zones of internal structural rejuvenescence, such as were suggested by Lang (1909, p. 290) ; while Ma (1937, p. 8) has considered that they represent the internal structural accommodation of the skeleton to annual seasonal changes. If they represent rejuvenescence, they would be very striking in forms whose young and old developmental stages are unlike, e.g., where the young stage has numerous thick septa, and the old stage no septa at all. In forms on the other hand where there is little difference between the septa of the young and the old stages, the difference would be least noticeable, and the zones of rejuvenescence might easily escape observation. These zones are important in “C.” pseudosept at um, but are much less important in Mesophyllum, though they do occur in this genus as in other Rugosa. They do not seem to be a satisfactory criterion for a family. I have preferred to group the cystimorphs Arcophyllum, Hemicosmophyllum etc. as possible sub-genera of Mesophyllum (see below p. 245), and because these forms all have an elongate minor septum in the counter fossula, I have included them in the Digonophyllidae (see p. 244) . The remaining cystimorphs of the lower part of the German Stringocephalus beds including “0.” pseudo sept at um have been con- sidered by early authors under Cystiphyllum and Microplasma , while lately Wedekind, and Wedekind and Vollbrecht have used Microplasma , Lithophyllum , Paralithophyllum , Nardophyllum and Plagiophyllum. Cystiphyllum was founded for Silurian cystimorphs, which have discrete trabeculae preserved as holacanths, and holaeanths have not been observed in any Givetian cystimorphs. Microplasma has for genotype a Silurian fasciculate eystimorph from Gotland, whose internal structure is insuffi- ciently known for exact taxonomy in such a difficult group as the cystimorphs. Lithophyllum and N ardophyllum (= Plagiophyllum) have for genotypes forms in which the tabularium is not central, but is near or at the wall. Wedekind and Vollbrecht have shown that the position of the tabularium, while usually almost central, is variable in the group about C. pseudo sept at um, and it may be that it is not of generic value in the cystimorphs. The genotype of Paralithophyllum has not been figured. Thus there is at present no satisfactory solution of the taxonomic problem of those Devonian cystimorphs which never show traces of the long counter minor septum of the Digonophyllidae. Such a solution must be based on a re-study of the German forms, since the great majority of the generic names have been applied to these ; but this is not possible at present, and in this paper “Cystiphyllum’’ is used. Some, indeed, may have been derived from the Digonophyllidae, and for such the name Cystiphylloides Yoh (1937, p. 53) is available; but at present we have no certain means of distinguishing them. The position of the cystimorphs of the lower Calceola beds of the Eifel, divided by Wedekind (1924) among Zonophyllum, Legnophyllum and Pseudophyllum must remain in doubt until their characters can be more clearly established. From the figures alone it appears that they could belong to the Digonophyllidae or to the cystimorphs like “C.” pseudosept atum . THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 243 “ CysUphylUtm” australe Etheridge (PI. VI, figs. 10-13.) Cystiphyllum americanum Edw. and Haime, var. australe Etheridge, 1892, p. 58, pi. iii, figs. 13, 14. Lectotype (here chosen) on F 1652, Geological Survey of Queensland Collection, Regan ’s Quarry, Reid Gap ; Givetian. Diagnosis: Cylindrical cystimorphs typically without successive zones of skeletal dilatation, and with traces of trabeculae typically confined to a very narrow peripheral stereozone. Description of the lectotype : The corallum is cylindrical and curved, with a maximum diameter of 28 mm. ; the lectotype is 110 mm. long and incomplete, and in its distal parts shows rejuvenescence by which the diameter is reduced ; this rejuvenescence breaks the epitheca at only one position, that of the thin section figured, and is not associated with skeletal dilatation. There is a peripheral stereozone about 1 mm. wide, in which short trabeculae may be counted indicating between 80 and 100 septa, presumably including both minor and major. The trabeculae may extend about 0-5 mm. into the lumen, and may be repeated on the first series of dissepiments, but none are seen inside this. The tabularium occupies almost one half of the lumen, and its plates are much larger than those of the dissepimentarium ; they are arranged in concave tabular floors, and those which are the more inclined (the outer) are inflated in their upper parts. The tabularium is not quite central in the thin section figured. The plates of the dissepimentarium are smaller, more steeply inclined and less globose than those of the tabularium ; they are not dilated; rarely they are inflated in their upper parts. Apart from the peripheral stereozone, there are no zones of skeletal dilatation. Localities: Burdekin Downs A, B, D, E, F; Fanning R. A, B, C, D, E, F, G; Reid Gap A (the type locality), B, E, F, G. Remarks: This is the commonest species in the north Queensland Givetian limestones. The tabularium is nearly always almost central. There is considerable variation from locality to locality, particularly in size. At the type locality, only a few specimens have a diameter greater than 28 mm., others are smaller. Those collected from the nearby portion 54 Wyoming (Reid Gap F) in large numbers have an average diameter of 16 mm. only, but in internal structure they are indistinguish- able from the lectotype. They are mostly somewhat worn, and some thus show the long thickened bases of the septa ; those weathered a little more may show long rows of dots representing the inner ends of the trabeculae. They show little curvature. One has a talon, probably indicating that the species is haploid (solitary). Specimens from Burdekin Downs, on the hill behind the fowlyard (A), are very close to the lectotype, but some show zones of skeletal dilatation, which may be very slightly or moderately developed. Others have rather larger dissepiments which are also more inflated in their upper parts. Specimens from the fence running N from the E end of the night paddock (Burdekin Downs D) are practically identical with the lecto- type, though larger and smaller coralla occur. Some from the limestone dam on Burdekin Downs (F), where the size is usually greater, show larger dissepiments than the lectotype, which are also more swollen distally, so that circular sections are seen in transverse sections of the corallum; and this variation is yet more pronounced in specimens from the anabranch of the Burdekin R., near the Big Rocks (E) ; when the peripheral stereozone in such forms is very thin, one may imagine a relationship to Mesophyllum,. Specimens from the Fanning R. show all the above variations, but on the whole they are larger. 244 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. This species is perhaps closest in internal structure to i( Cystiphyllum” schluteri (Wedekind) from the upper Honsel beds of Ernst, Germany, i.e. at the top of the lower part of the German 8 tringo cephalus beds. Those specimens of “Cystiphyllum” americanum from the Hamilton (Givetian) of America, which have very little skeletal dilatation are also close, and may be related, as suggested by Etheridge. Some of the slenderer specimens of our species resemble Microplasma fongi Yoh from the lower Givetian beds Kwangsi, China, although Yoh’s figures (1937, pi. iv, figs. 4-6) do not show a peripheral stereozone. Yoh’s Atelophyllum ( Cystiphylloides ) kwangsiense from the same place resembles some of the larger specimens placed in “C.” australe herein, in the absence of skeletal dilatation; but Yoh’s figure (pi. v, fig. 3a) shows long septal trabeculae not observed in any of the Queensland specimens. “Cystiphyllum” cf. pseudoseptatum Schulz. PI. VII, figs, la, b. A specimen from the dome in the Fanning R. near the tank in the cow paddock shows great skeletal dilatation in successive zones, and thus suggests comparison or identity with “C” pseudoseptatum Schulz (1883, pi. xxiii, figs. 3, 4) from the upper coralline limestone (lower part of the 8t ring o cephalus beds) of the Hillesheim Basin in the Eifel, and with “C.” americanum Edw. & H. (Fenton and Fenton, 1938). Specimens from Burdekin Downs, on the hill behind the fowlyard, and from portion 370, parish of Magenta in the Reid Gap, appear inter- mediate in internal structure between it and the lectotype of “C” australe. The Fanning specimen is turbinate. FAMILY DIGONOPHYLLIDAE. Typical Genus, Digonophyllum Wedekind. Large, solitary Rugosa with a greatly lengthened minor septum in the counter fossula, with concave tabular floors of rather globose tabellae, and a wide dissepimentarium of smaller, globose dissepiments. The number of septa is large, and the septa are very variable in develop- ment. They may extend from periphery to axis, or they may be with- drawn from periphery or from axis or from both, leaving only occasional traces; they may be dilated in the tabularium or at the periphery, and the dilatation may proceed from the tabularium into the dissepimen- tarium ; yard-arm carinae may develop on the septa or instead of them near the periphery; lateral dissepiments may buttress the septa. The septal development is often strengthened, at different calical floors, both in thickening and trabecular continuity. Remarks : The family is very important in the Middle Devonian of the Eifel, and good figures of many of its members are given by Wedekind (1921, 1924, 1925), Vollbrecht (1926), Walther (1928) and Wedekind and Vollbrecht (1931). It appears to me to be divisible into two major groups, in one of which the septa are strongly developed, while in the other they are reduced in many ways. These groups con- tain the following genera from the German Devonian, each interpreted on the genotypes listed in Lang, Smith and Thomas (1940). First group : Digonophyllum and Zono digonophyllum from the Nohn beds at the base of the Calceola beds of the Eifel, Mochlophyllum from the crinoid beds at the base of the S tnngocephalus beds of the Eifel, Pseudocosmophyllum from the upper coralline limestone of Niederehe in the lower part of the St ring o cephalus beds of the Eifel, and Enteieiophyllum from the ?upper part of the String o cephalus beds of THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 245 the Sauerland. To these may be added Uralophyllum Sochkina from the Middle Devonian of the Northern Urals. These all show long and moderately persistent major septa, but in some the minor septa are impersistent with the exception of the one long one in the counter fossula, which is characteristic of the family. Second group : Bothriophyllum from the top of the Calceola beds of Heiligenstein in the Eifel, Lekanophyllum from the crinoid beds of Auburg at the base of the String ocephalus beds of the Eifel, Hemicystiphyllum, Hemicosmophyllum and Arcophyllum (= Cosmophyllum, preoccupied) from the lower part of the String ocephalus beds of the Eifel, Mesophyllum and Atelophyllum from Berndorf and the upper Honsel beds of Ernst respectively, near the top of the lower part of the Stringocephalus beds, and Dialithophyllum from the top of the upper Honsel beds of Genna in the Altena saddle. In this group the septa are reduced in various ways, but it is nearly always possible to find the characteristic elongate counter minor septum of the family. In both groups it is very difficult to evaluate species and genera, and it is possible that many of the genera in each group should be merged. For the purposes of this study each group is regarded as a genus ( Digonophyllum and Mesophyllum) , consisting of the sub-genera as named. It is possible that some of the lower Givetian cystimorphs remarked above on p. 241 have been derived from members of the Digonophyllidae, by total suppression of the septa, i.e. as endpoints of the trends in septal reduction characteristic of the Digonophyllidae. Or, it may be possible, as Wedekind has suggested, that forms with well-developed septa have evolved from forms without septa. Many of the morphological groups distinguished by Wedekind show successive zones of skeletal dilatation, and these Wedekind considered diagnostic of the family Lithophyllidae. But (see p. 242) the present author considers these to be the result of internal structural rejuvenescence, such as is found in greater or less degree in all Rugosa. The family is common in the Middle Devonian of Europe ; it also occurs in Western Siberia and the Transcaueasus. In the Australian Middle Devonian some mesophyllids occur, but none of the group with well-developed septa, and the same appears to be the case in N. America, Genus Mesophyllum Schliiter. Mesophyllum Schliiter, 1889, p. 325. Genolectotype (chosen Wedekind, 1925, pp. vii, 28, 38) : — Mesophyllum defectum Schliiter, 1889, p. 333, pi. vii, fig. 2 (re-figured Wedekind, 1925, pi. 13, fig. 76). Upper Middle Devonian, Eifel, and Berndorf, near Hillesheim, the Eifel. Diagnosis: Digonophyllids in which the septa are discontinuous and greatly reduced. Remarks: Wedekind’s figure of Schliiter ’s specimen shows the long minor septum in the counter fossula which is characteristic of the Digonophyllidae. It also shows considerable septal reduction, in that the axial ends of the septa are withdrawn from the axis, while their peripheral ends are replaced by discontinuous cross-bars|, and their median segments are often discontinuous. The minor septa are more reduced than the major. The remaining septal segments are moderately thin. The various morphologies within this genus, see above p. 245, 246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. distinguished with generic names by Wedekind and his co-workers, show different degrees of such septal reductions ; the groups Arcophyllum and Hemicosmophyllum show only those types of reduction found in M. defectum , and in Atelophyllum • these are carried further in the absence of the zone of peripheral, discontinuous cross-bars. In Bothriopkyllum, Hemicystiphyllum and Dialithophyllum, peripheral reduction of the septa is slight, and cross-bars do not occur ; but a different type of septal reduction, by which lateral dissepiments line the septa, characterises all three. In Lekanophyllum, although there is peripheral and axial with- drawal of the septa, there are no cross-bars, and no lateral dissepiments, but the septa may be reduced to a series of cylindrical trabeculae, frequently isolated one from another. The systematic value of these names is doubtful, but in the present paper they are given sub-generic rank. In the German Devonian all of these sub-genera occur in the lower part of the String ocephalus beds of the Eifel, or in the upper Honsel beds of the Altena saddle. Mesophyllum collare sp. nov. PL VII, figs. 2a, b. Holotype: P 4395, University of Queensland Collection, bed c near the top of the Panning R. limestone, on Fanning R. about 1-| miles upstream from Panning R. homestead. Givetian. Diagnosis: Large Mesophyllum in which the septa are completely withdrawn from both axis and periphery, leaving a collar of major and minor septal segments near the inner margin of the dissepimentarium ; cross-bars are not developed. Description: The corallum is very large. One fragment has a diameter of 80 mm., and another of 60 mm. The material available shows neither calice nor epitheca, due to weathering. At a diameter of 60 mm. there are segments of 55 major septa and 55 alternating minor septa, developed in a collar in the dissepimentarium, about half-way between the periphery and the axis. The segments may be up to 8 mm. long, and are dilated. Small wedge-like septal crests may be traced beyond each segment, on the upper surfaces of the dissepiments, both towards the periphery and towards the axis, but none of these crests are in the form of cross-bars. There is a wide peripheral zone of lonsdaleoid dissepiments, and a similar but narrower zone occurs at the inner margin of the dissepimentarium. In vertical section the dissepiments are rather steeply inclined, and somewhat globose in their upper parts; they are slightly thickened in successive zones representing some of the past positions of the calice. The tabularium is about 12 mm. wide, and contains rather large tabellae, arranged in concave tabular floors. The tabellae are much less steeply inclined than the dissepiments. Remarks: None of the specimens figured by Wedekind or his co-workers show exactly this combination of the various types of septal reduction, but some Atelophyllum from the upper Honsel beds of Ernst in the Altena saddle are fairly close, lacking only the segments of minor septa. Subgenus Dialithophyllum Amanshauser emend. Wekekind. Dialytophyllum Amanshauser MS emend. Wedekind, 1925, p. 40. Genotype: D. complicatum Amanshauser MS in Wedekind, 1925,, p. 40 p 43, text-fig. 63, topmost Honsel beds, Genna, Germany. Diagnosis: Mesophyllum with septa withdrawn from the tabularium but continuous in the dissepimentarium, where also they may be buttressed by lateral dissepiments. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 247 Mesophyllum ( Dialithophyllum ) fultum sp. nov. PL VII, figs. 3, 4. Holotype: F4535, University of Queensland Collection, Fanning R., by the cow paddock tank, Fanning R. station. Givetian. Diagnosis: Mesophyllum with the septa (50 of each order) with- drawn from the axis but not from the periphery, and buttressed by lateral dissepiments. Description: the corallum is large and trocho-cylindrical, with a diameter in the holotype of 40 mm. The epitheca shows growth annula- tion and longitudinal striation ; the calice is filled with matrix in the three available specimens. At 38 mm. diameter there are 50 major septa extending a little over half way to the axis, and 50 alternating minor septa nearly half this length. The dissepimentarium is as wide as the length of the major septa. All the septa are buttressed by small lateral dissepiments, which inosculate with the normal dissepiments. The septa may be discontinuous just at the periphery and are then represented by discrete, cylindrical or sometimes cross-bar trabeculae. One minor septum, nearly opposite the cardinal fossula, is as long as the major septa. The dissepiments are geniculate in transverse section of the corallum. In vertical section the wide dissepimentarium is seen to con- sist of small, numerous and fairly steeply inclined plates, while the tabularium contains larger and fewer tabellae, arranged on concave tabular floors. The horizontal elements are dilated in successive zones, representing different positions of the calical floor during growth of the corallum. Remarks: The species resembles the genotype of Dialithophyllum but has many more septa, with also fairly well developed minor septa. The genotype occurs in the topmost Honsel beds of the Altena saddle, in western Germany. These are usually regarded as the very top of the lower part of the German Stringocephalus beds. FAMILY DISPHYLLIDAE. Disphyllidae ; Hill, 1939a, p. 224. Genus Disphyllum de Fromentel. Disphyllum de Fromentel; Lang and Smith, 1935, p. 554; Hill, 1940b, p. 398. Remarks: It would appear from the figures that the genotypes of the genera Megaphyllum , Peneckiella, Pseudostringophyllum and Diplophyllum , all proposed by Soshkina (1939) for fasciculate forms from the Upper Devonian of the Urals, might well be species of Disphyllum as understood by Lang and Smith. Megaphyllum was preoccupied in 1894 for a myriapod, and Diplophyllum in 1851 for a coelenterate. Disphyllum gregorii (Etheridge). PL VIII, figs. 1-4. Campophyllum gregorii Etheridge, 1892. p. 60, pi. iii, figs. 15-18; 1895, p. 522, pi. xl, fig. 2. (Upper Middle) Devonian, Regan’s Benwell’s and Philp’s Quarries, Reid Gap. Non Campophyllum gregorii Chapman, 1912, p. 219, pi. xxxiv, figs. 3-5, which is “ Camvophyllum” recessum Hill, 1940c, p. 254, pi. ix, fig. 7. Type Material: in the Collection of the Geological Survey of Queens- land ; the lectotype, here chosen, is F 1655, figured Etheridge 1892, pi. 3, fig. 15, from Regan’s Quarry. Givetian. 248 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Diagnosis: Disphyllum with ceratoid to cylindrical corallites with about 30 septa of each order; typically the major septa reach about ! half-way to the axis, while the minor septa are less than half as long; there is typically one or two series of small, very globose dissepiments, and the septa are dilated so that they extend laterally over the upper surfaces of the dissepiments; typically the tabulae are complete and 1 horizontal, supplemented at the margins by smaller plates; variability is great; the number of series of dissepiments may increase, the septa may become long, and sometimes curved about a small axial space, when the tabulae become incomplete on concave floors ; the dilation of the septa varies in amount and position. Description: The corallum is phaceloid, the corallites arising by peripheral, parricidal increase, or by lateral non-parricidal increase. Ceratoid and cylindrical individuals occur, the cylindrical corallites being trochoid proximally. Cylindrical individuals are usually between 12 and 15 mm. in diameter. The corallites are all more or less rolled and worn, and are found in thin-bedded limestones consisting of trans- ported skeletal matter. The compound coralla are usually broken up into dissociated fragments, so that hystero-corallites are rarely found connected to the parents, the break usually occurring at the junction of parent and hystero-corallite. There are typically about 30 septa of each order; the major septa extend about half way to the axis, while the minor septa are less than half as long as the major; all the septa are dilated just inside the inner- most dissepiments, so that their dilated tissue extends over the tops of these inner dissepiments; in the dissepimentarium itself the septa may be thin, or may dilate wedge-wise towards the periphery ; the tabulae are complete, and fairly closely but irregularly spaced, with down-turned margins; or they are supplemented at the margins by small tabellae declined towards them from the dissepimentarium. There are two series of small, very globose dissepiments, but only the outer series is persistent. The trabeculae of the septa can be seen in vertical section to form a single series, about 5 in the space of 1 mm., directed upwards and inwards from the epitheca at about 45°. There are many fragments from the Reid Gap, which, while of cylindrical form, differ from typical specimens in the position and amount of septal dilatation, and in having four or even five series of dissepiments. Usually the septal dilatation varies from one side of a corallite to another; thus the septa may be dilated wedge-wise towards the periphery from a point just inside the dissepimentarium, or this dilatation may cease at the inner edge of the dissepimentarium, so that the sections of septa within the dissepimentarium are thin; or these sections may again increase in thickness towards the periphery. In some corallites the zone of dilatation at the inner margin of the dissepi- mentarium may not be continuous from septum to septum, and may sometimes disappear altogether; in this case the septa may be thin throughout, or may thicken wedge-wise towards the periphery. Other cylindrical fragments from the Reid Gap differ from typical forms in having longer major septa; these major septa may almost reach the axis, and they may be slightly curved in the tabularium ; the length of the major septa causes the tabulae to be incomplete, and the supple- mentary tabellae become larger and more numerous, while the axial tabulae shorten and are usually concave; in vertical sections of such individuals there is a narrow axial area where the successive axial tabulae all are concave to approximately the same extent. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 249 Localities: Burdekin Downs E ; Fanning R. A, base and middle sections, F, ?G; Reid Gap A (type), B C, ?E, F. Remarks: The species is very variable in the Reid Gap. Freeh’s figure (1886, p. iii, fig. 3) suggests that C. caespitosum var. breviseptata Freeh from the Refrath beds near Cologne is close to our species. Fliegel (1923) considered these beds to belong to the upper part of the German String ocephalus beds. D. gregorii is also close to the European D. gold- fussi from the Givetian and Frasnian, but differs from the figures of this species given by Lang and Smith (1935) in its septal dilatation and in its typically shorter major septa. Its septal dilatation is quite similar to that of D. goldfussi var. hsianghsienense Yoh (1937, pi. viii, fig. 1) from the String ocephalus beds of North Kwangsi, but this Chinese form has major septa typically long, whereas in the great majority of Queens- land specimens the septa are typically short. There is a close resemblance to species placed in C y lindrophyllum by American authors, particularly to C. panicum (Winchell)1 from the top of the Traverse group of Michigan, in beds regarded as probably equivalent to some part of the Givetian of the European succession ; but the dilatation of the septa over the inner series of dissepiments, so frequent in D. gregorvi does not appear to occur in the American species. In D. panicum the trabeculae are often expanded laterally to form yard-arm carinae, but in D. gregorii the septa merely swell slightly at the trabeculae, in some individuals. Dispkyllum (or Macgeea). Macgeea Webster; Lang and Smith, 1935, pp. 552, 577. It is convenient to use this nomenclature for members of the Disphyllidae when one cannot ascertain whether they are solitary or fasciculate. Disphyllum (or Macgeea) trochoides sp. nov. PI. VIII, figs. 5-10. Holotype: F 4557, University of Queensland Collection, Windmill on Fanning R. station, about 3 miles ESE of homestead. Givetian. Diagnosis ; Trochoid corallites with about 30 septa of each order, the major septa typically extending almost to the axis, and the minor septa being half this length ; the septa may show ill-developed yard-arm carinae, and are typically rather thin; the dissepimentarium is wide, of small globose dissepiments; the tabulae are incomplete, with an inner series of flat or concave plates and an outer of declined tabellae. Description: The corallites are trochoid; from the type locality there is no evidence that they were broken from fasciculate cor alia, though they occur in thin beds of transported material ; some from Burdekin Downs may have been fasciculate; thus two corallites may be joined laterally throughout their course, from apex to calice, or a small corallite may be laterally adherent to a large corallite; others from Burdekin Downs have a talon near the apex, suggesting that they were solitary. No associated difference in internal structure has been noted. The corallites may attain a diameter of 20 mm. in a height of 30 mm. Rejuvenescence occurs in many corallites. There are 26 to 30 septa of each order. In the type locality the major septa usually reach almost to the axis, though occasionally they may be withdrawn almost to the dissepimentarium ; the minor septa JThis species was wrongly referred by Hill, 1939a, p. 226, to the Couvinian. 250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. extend nearly two-thirds of the way to the axis. The septa may become ragged, with irregular boundaries and internal spaces, and their trabeculae are frequently rather distant, and extended laterally into rather sporadically' developed yard-arm carinae ; there may be 6 of these in 3 mm., extending upwards and inwards in a gentle curve away from the . epitheca. In the young stage the septa may be dilated to form a peripheral stereozone at the inner edge of the narrow dissepimentarium, as in D . gregorii, but in the adult such dilatation has disappeared. The dissepimentarium is wide, nearly two-thirds of the radius, and the dis- sepiments are small, globose, and often geniculate in transverse section of the corallum. The tabulae are in two series ; in the holotype there is an inner series of rather large, distant, flat tabulae, and an outer series of tabellae inclined downwards from the dissepimentarium to the tabulae so that the arrangement is like that figured for D. goldfussi by Lang and Smith, 1935, p. 568) ; this arrangement is pronounced in those indi- viduals with shorter major septa, but when the latter are long the large flat axial tabulae tend to be replaced by more numerous, smaller, arched tabellae. Localities: Burdekin Downs A, B, D ; Fanning R. ?A, C (type), F; Reid Gap A, B, E, ?F. Remarks: The species shows considerable local variation. Thus in the specimens from Burdekin Downs the tabellae are frequently smaller and more numerous than in specimens from the type area ; and in some, the septa are slightly curved in the tabularium, or considerably more dilated in the dissepimentarium. Some specimens from the base of the Fanning R. limestone, which are doubtfully included in the species, have a peripheral stereozone of some regularity. In specimens from the lower bed in portion 370 parish of Magenta, there is a striking resemblance to D. goldfussi , for the septa are only rarely ragged, and the major septa usually leave a moderately wide axial space. D. (or M.) spongiosum (Schliiter; Wedekind, 1922, fig. 2) from the Bfichel beds of Bergisch G-ladbach in the Paffrath Basin appears to be very close to our species, but its yard-arm carinae are somewhat more distinct. D. (or M.) conicum (Kettnerova, 1932, p. 55) from the upper Givetian of Moravia, is comparable, but has irregularly yard-armed septa thickened fusiformly at the inner margin of the dissepimentarium, though not so much so as to be in contact. In many individuals the morphology of D. trockoides resembles that of the l). goldfussi group of the Givetian and Frasnian of Europe, but the dissepimentarium is con- stantly wider in our species, and the young stage of its holotype shows the septal dilatation characteristic of D. gregorii, with which indeed it may prove to be continuously variable. Disphyllum (or Macgeea ) excavatum sp. nov. PI. VIII, figs. 11-13. Holotype: D 42, Geological Survey of Queensland Collection, Burdekin Downs, on the N side of R., within three-quarters of a mile of the homestead. Givetian. Diagnosis: The corallites are large, trocho-cylindrical and usually somewhat curved ; they may attain a diameter of 35 mm. in a height of 30 mm., when rejuvenescence may occur. They appear to be solitary. The calice is deeply concave, and the epitheca, which may be discon- tinuous at the rejuvenescences, shows deep, narrow longitudinal grooves corresponding in position to the septa, with faint grooves midway between each. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 251 There are from 28 to 34 septa of each order ; the major septa extend half-way to the axis, or are a little longer; their axial ends may be rotated slightly ; the minor septa are very short in the proximal parts of the corallum, but in the distal parts may be from one-third to one-half as long as the radius ; the septa may be somewhat wavy ; they are thin in the tabularium but are usually somewhat dilated in the dissepimen- tarium; in the proximal parts the dilatation is at the periphery, where they are dilated wedge-wise, and at the inner edge of the dissepimen- tarium, where the dilatation spreads over the dissepiments as in D. gregorii ; or the septa may be but little dilated at the inner edge of the dissepimentarium, but may thicken gradually wedge-wise towards the periphery from this point. The tabularium is wide, and the tabular floors are deeply concave, with small inclined tabellae outside and concave tabulae inside. The dissepiments are small and globose but never horse-shoe shaped. Localities : Burdekin Downs B (type) ; Fanning R. A. (base) ? ; and at Mt. Success (L. C. B. Coll) ; Reid Gap E. Remarks: The Reid Gap individuals suggest by their aggregation that they may be parts of a phaceloid corallum. Freeh’s figure (1886, pi. v, fig. 24) of Cyathophyllum bathycalyx Freeh from the crinoid shales of Muhlberg near Gerolstein, suggests that this one of his syntypes is close to our species. These crinoid shales are presumably at the base of the lower part of the String ocephalus beds of Germany. FAMILY ENDOPHYLLIDAE. Endophyllidae; Torley, 1933, p. 633. Typical Genus, Endophyllum Edwards and Haime. Sub-fasciculate, cerioid or plocoid Rugosa with a lonsdaleoid dis- sepimentarium and domed tabulae with upturned edges, the major septa being vortically arranged about a small axial space. Endophyllum and Sanidophyllum Etheridge (1899, p. 154) which occur together in the Givetian of New South Wales, appear to be closely related. Sanidophyllum differs from Endophyllum in having the tabu- laria naked of dissepiments for the most part, but united at intervals throughout the corallum by dissepimental platforms, which are very thin and form cerioid calical floors, over which the septa are dilated and laterally contiguous. Genus Endophyllum Edwards and Haime. Endophyllum Edwards and Haime ; Jones, 1929, p. 84. Genolectotype: Endophyllum bowerbanki Edwards and Haime; chosen Schliiter, 1889, p. 51. Diagnosis: Sub-phaceloid, cerioid or plocoid Rugose corals in which the septa are discontinuous and dilated within the dissepimentarium, where they are developed as septal crests on the dissepiments. The tabulae are incomplete, and the tabular floors are domes with upturned margins. The dissepiments are large and lonsdaleoid. The major septa are arranged in a vortical axial structure, hollow at the axis. Remarks: The genotype is an aphroid species, there being no wall between the corallites, which are in contact by means of dissepimental tissue. Its neotype is from the Upper Devonian of Rocky Valley, Torquay, but the type was from the Givetian or Frasnian of Barton, near 252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Torquay. Its distribution is not known, as it is not mentioned in the Survey Memoirs on Torquay and Newton Abbott. Schliiter (1889, p. 52, pi. vi, figs. 1-3) identified with it his Darwinia perampla from the German String ocephalus beds, and Torley (1933) has considered Ptychophyllum palmatum Maurer from the Waldgirm limestone to be identical with it. A cerioid species, E. abditum Edwards and Haime was collected from a beach pebble at Teignmouth, and is from an unknown horizon in the English Devonian. The cerioid E. yunnanense Mansuy (1912, p. 48) is from the Middle Devonian (Eifelian) of Yun-nan, S. China. In the New South Wales Givetian, Endophyllum is represented by both cerioid and aphroid forms; the aphroid form is E. schliiteri Etheridge (1898, p. 43, pis. iv, v) and is possibly conspecific with E. bowerbanki ; and the cerioid form is E. schliiteri var. colligatum Etheridge (1920, p. 55, pi. xiii), which is extremely close to if not con- specific with E. abditum. The specimens described below from the Panning R. belong to this cerioid group. Endophyllum abditum var. columna nov. PI. VIII, fig. 14; pi. IX, fig. 1. Holotype : F 4275 University of Queensland Collection, top of limestone, Fanning R., 1J miles upsteam from homestead. Givetian. Diagnosis: Cerioid Endophyllum with septa typically not extending outside the tabularium, which appears as a fairly regular column. Description : The corallum is cerioid, the average diameter of the eorallites of any one corallum varying from 12 to 22 mm., and in the one corallum the eorallites are unequal. There are 23 septa of each order, thin throughout and confined to the tabularium; the major extend towards the axis, showing a slight but somewhat irregular vortical curva- ture, and leaving a rather irregular axial space. The minor septa are seen as short ridges' on the wall of the tabularium, a wall formed by the innermost series of dissepiments. Rarely the septa may be continued as crests on the outer dissepiments and common outer wall of the eorallites. The dissepiments are very large, and rather steeply inclined. The tabularium is on the average 7 mm. wide ; the tabulae are flattened domes with upturned margins, reinforced occasionally with smaller plates at the margins or on the domes. Remarks: This species belongs to the group of E. abditum. It differs from E. abditum figured by Jones (1929, pi. x., figs. 3, 4) in having its septa confined to the tabularium, which is relatively narrow, in the smaller number of septa, and in the absence of trabecular differentiation of the septa ; also, its septa are thin. It differs from the N.S.W. species E. colligatum in the same ways. FAMILY FAVISTELLIDAE (OR COLUMNARIIDAE ) . Favistellidae (or Columnariidae) ; Hill, 1939b, p. 241; 1940a, p. 155; 1940c, p. 262. Genus Favistella Hall. For a discussion of the taxonomy of Favistella and Columnaria see Lang and Smith 1935a, and Hill, 1939b, p. 240 ; 1940a, p. 155. Weissermel (1897, p. 873) has reviewed species which he considered generically related to Columnaria alveolata Hall. He distinguished two groups, one with walls as in C. alveolata (i.e. F. stellata, the genotype of Favistella), and the other with thick walls, including THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 253 Cyathophylloides rhenanum Freeh. This thick-walled group, which consisted of two solitary, two phaceloid and one cerioid species, he placed in the subgenus Pycnophyllum Dybowski, this name being an invalid correction for Densiphyllum Dybowski. He has recently (1938, p. 68) added a second cerioid species. Lang, Smith and Thomas (1940, p. 49) have shown that D. thomsoni Dybowski is genolectotype for Densi- phyllum. But this is a solitary species and I doubt that it is congeneric with the compound forms. Dybowski ?s figures suggest that it is a Streptelasmid. Until material can be assembled for a critical revision of all these thick-walled forms, the most reasonable course appears to be to consider the compound species under the genus Favistella. Favistella rhenana (Freeh). PL IX., figs. 2, 3. Cyathophylloides rhenanum Freeh, 1886, p. 207, pi. xv., figs. 19, 19a; upper String ocephalus limestone (beds with Uncites gryphus) near Hand in the Paffrath Basin, and at the same horizon at Brilon. Type Material: Possibly at Breslau. Diagnosis: Thick-walled phaceloid Favistella ; two opposite septa of the 18 major septa are longer than the others. Description: The corallum is phaceloid, the eorallites being long and straight, and usually from 6 to about 10 mm. in diameter, with a smooth epitheca. Increase is peripheral and may be parricidal. The wall is on the average 1 mm. thick. There are from 16 to 20 major septa, usually 18, of which two opposite ones are frequently longer than the others and thus divide the corallite into two halves; the others are unequal and may be somewhat curved. The alternating minor septa project but little beyond the wall. The septa are moderately thick in the tabularium, but expand greatly at the periphery so that they are closely in contact and thus form the thick wall. The tabulae are thin, rather distant and complete, usually slightly domed, and sometimes with an axial depression. There are no dissepiments. Localities: Burdekin Downs B; Fanning R. A (beds e-g), B, G; Reid Gap D. Remarks: I can find no difference between a specimen kindly sent by Prof. W. Weissermel from Schwelm in Westphalia, and those from North Queensland. In the Paffrath Basin, in addition to the type horizon, it occurs (Fliegel, 1923, p. 370) in the quadrigeminus (upper Honsel) beds. Sochkina has described two very similar species from the Urals, one, F . vulgaris (Sochkina, 1936, p. 22) from the Givetian and the top of the Silurian (Sochkina, 1937, pi. ii., figs. 4, 5) and the other F. quadriseptata (Sochkina, 1937, pi. ii., figs. 2, 3) from the top of the Silurian. Possibly Thamnophyllum murchisoni of Le Miaitre (1937, pi. vii., fig. 12) from the Givetian of Ville-De-d’Ardin is a Favistella near rhenana. Genus Fasciphyllum Sehliiter. Fasciphyllum Sehliiter ; Lang and Smith 1935, p. 548 ; Hill, 1939a, p. 241 ; 1940a, p. 155. Fasciphyllum ryani sp. nov. PL IX, figs. 4, 5. Holotype: F 5018, University of Queensland Collection, anabranch of Burdekin R., near Big Rocks, Burdekin Downs station. Givetian. 254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Diagnosis: Fasciphyllum with corallites about 6 mm. in diameter, and with dissepiments whose curvature in vertical section approximates a right angle. Description : The corallum is phaceloid, and increase is peripheral and non-parricidal ; the corallites are unequal, from 3 to 9 mm. in diameter, the average being 6 mm. They may be in contact or up to 4 mm. apart. There is a narrow peripheral stereozone about 0-5 mm. wide. There are 14 to 17 slightly unequal major septa which extend to or almost to the axis, and which are somewhat wavy in the tabularium. The alternating minor septa are from half to two-thirds as long as the major septa. The septa are thin except where they expand at the periphery to form the stereozone. The dissepiments are in single series, but this may be reinforced either at the periphery or near the tabularium by much smaller plates ; in vertical section they give a curve wnich closely approximates a right angle ; that is, near the periphery it is almost horizontal, but at the tabularium it suddenly curves downwards so that it is almost vertical. The dissepiments do not interrupt the septa except where increase is about to occur. The tabulae are complete, concave and rather distant, except in the proximal parts of young corallites, where they are slightly domed, and extend from stereozone to stereozone without the intervention of any dissepiments. Localities: Burdekin Downs E (type) ; Reid Gap E, and Calcium. Remarks: The inclination of the dissepiments distinguishes this species from others of the genus. FAMILY SPONGOPHYLLIDAE. Spongophyllidae ; Hill, 1939b, p. 58; 1940c, p. 267. Genus Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime. Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime; Hill, 1939, p. 60. Three of the cerioid Middle Devonian species previously placed in the genus (Hill, 1939b, p. 60) appear to form a morphological sub-group to which our species described below may be added, although it is phaceloid. They are Spongophyllum kunthi, S. parvistella and S. ligeriense. All have a peripheral stereozone, and in all, when lonsdaleoid dissepiments occur, the stereozone is frequently developed on their upper surfaces. The first two are lower Givetian and the third transitional from Coblenzian to Couvinian. Our new species is more like the Lower Givetian forms than the earlier one, which sometimes has one of its septa longer than the others and slightly dilated at the axial end. In S. parvistella a morphology like that of the Favistellidae is seen in the proximal parts of the oldest corallites of a colony. Spongophyllum immersum sp. nov. PI. IX, figs. 6a, b. Holotype: Z 82 in the Geological Survey of Queensland Collection from Arthur’s Ck., Burdekin Downs. Givetian. Diagnosis: Phaceloid Spongophyllum with a peripheral stereozone with minor septa infrequently suppressed, and with lonsdaleoid dissepiments irregularly developed, and frequently with a narrow stereozone on their upper surfaces ; there are several series of dissepiments inside the zone of lonsdaleoid dissepiments. Description: The holotype, the only specimen collected, is a phace- loid corallum immersed in a stromatoporoid. Most of the corallites are from 4 to 6 mm. in diameter, but some are smaller and a few are larger ; THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 255 they are at least 40 mm. long (the length of the specimen) and straight; the distance between them varies between nil and 6 to 10 mm. The manner in which the new corallites arise was not observed. Most corallites have a peripheral stereozone about 0-05 mm. wide, but in some it is narrower. There are 14 or 15 major septa, extending unequally to the axis, and somewhat wavy in the tabularium. The minor septa are about half as long as the major septa, and are occasionally suppressed, or at least become discontinuous between dissepiments. Individual trabeculae are not distinguishable in the septa, which are thin except where they expand into the stereozone at the periphery or on the upper surfaces of lonsdaleoid dissepiments. These lonsdaleoid dissepiments are frequently but irregularly developed, and may form a peripheral zone 2 mm. wide. They are large and globose, but smaller, highly inclined dissepiments are developed in the interseptal spaces between them and the tabularium. The tabulae are typically complete, close and concave, and sometimes with a median deepening, when they may be reinforced by an outer series of tabellae. Remarks: This species is closely similar in internal structure to 8. kunthi and 8. parvistella from the lower part of the German String ocephalus beds, but these are cerioid, whereas the Queensland species is phaeeloid. Genus Grypophyllum Wedekind. Grypophyllum Wedekind, 1922, p. 13; 1925, p. 16; partim ; Hill, 1940c. p. 267. Grypophyllum sp. PI. IX, figs. 7a, b. Figured specimen, F 4501, University of Queensland Collection, base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Description: The only specimen is of cylindrical corallites from 8 to 12 mm. in diameter, aggregated as if in a compound corallum. There is a narrow peripheral stereozone 1 mm. wide formed by the sudden expansion of the peripheral ends of the septa. There are 23 septa of each order, all rather thin except in the peripheral stereozone; the major septa extend to the axis, where those from two opposite sides of the corallite interdigitate ; the minor septa are half as long as the major, when fully developed, but some of them are withdrawn to the periphery, leaving large inosculating dissepiments ; in other loculi the dissepiments are normally curved or geniculate. In vertical section the dissepiments are in two zones, an outer of more steeply inclined plates than an inner. The tabular floors are flat lying, and are formed of small, close, flat-lying tabellae. Remarks: The internal structure of this coral is almost identical with that of Grypophyllum normale Wedekind (1925, fig. 25) from the quadrigeminus beds of Hand, in the Paffrath Basin, near Cologne. Grypophyllum compactum sp. nov. PI. X, figs. 1-4. Holotype: F 5317, University of Queensland Collection, portion 81v, parish of Wyoming, lower part of limestone, Reid Gap. Givetian. Diagnosis: The corallum is phaeeloid, the corallites being unequal, 5 to 20 mm. in diameter, arising by lateral increase. Calice and epitheca have not been seen. In corallites of average size (about 14 mm.), there are 23 perfectly developed thin minor septa alternating with 23 long 256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. major septa; in larger corallites there may be 29 each; the septa are dilated at their bases to form a narrow peripheral stereozone about 1 mm. wide, but inside this they are moderately thin, becoming thinner towards the axis. The major septa extend somewhat unequally to the axis, where those from opposite sides may interdigitate ; the minor septa ! may be a little more than half as long as the major. The septa in the largest corallite are slightly carinate, with xyloid carinae. The dissepi- ments are small and somewhat globose, and those of the outer series are more steeply inclined than those in the inner series. The tabularium is narrow, and the tabular floors are almost flat, being either slightly arched or saucered, and are formed by small, closely spaced, flat-lying tabellae. Remarks: The septa of this species are very like those figured for Grypophyllum tenue Wedekind (1925, fig. 27) from the quadrigeminus beds of Hand in the Paffrath Basin, and further examination of material of both species may prove them identical. Genus String ophyllum Wedekind. String ophyllum Wedekind, 1922, p. 8; 1925, p. 64. Neospongophyllum Wedekind, 1922, p. 10; 1925, p. 25; genotype, Neospongophyllum variabile Wedekind, 1922, p. 12, text-fig. 11; 1925, text-fig. 90, quadrigeminus beds of Hand, Paffrath Basin. Loepophyllum Wedekind, 1925, p. 5 5 (as Loipophyllum) genotype, L. kerpense Wedekind, id., text-figs. 80, 81. Kerp ( ? middle coralline limestone), Middle Devonian, Eifel. Schizophyllum Wedekind, 1925, p. 59, genotype Spongophyllum biichelense Schluter, Biichel beds, Biichel, Paffrath Basin. Schizophyllum was pre-occupied in 1895 for a myriapod. Grypophyllum Wedekind, 1922, p. 13, and 1925, p. 14, partim, i.e. Cyathophyllum isactis Freeh and G. schwelmense Wedekind, from the upper part of the String ocephalus beds of Germany. ; Genotype: String ophyllum normale Wedekind, 1922, p. 9; Stringo- cephalus limestone of Sundwig ; and ( quadrigeminus beds of) Hand, Paffrath Basin, Rhenish Prussia. Diagnosis: Rugose corals in which the rather thick septa are arranged bisymmetrically about an elongate axial pit in the plane of the cardinal and counter septa ; each septum consists of a single series of discrete or laterally contiguous monacanths from about 0-3 to 0-6 mm. in diameter, and the tabulae are concave, each with an elongate axial pit ; the septa may withdraw from the periphery, or become discon- tinuous in the peripheral region, when lonsdaleoid dissepiments may develop ; the minor septa are typically more discontinuous than the major septa. Range: The genus is characteristic throughout the String ocephalus beds of Germany ; it also occurs in the lower Givetian of Kwangsi, China (Yoh, 1937) and in the upper Givetian of Moravia (Kettnerova, 1932). It extends as low as the Chaudefonds limestone of France, which Le Maitre (1934) regards as transitional between Coblenzian and Couvinian. I have not recognised it from Africa or the Americas, but it is characteristic of the Givetian of Queensland. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 257 Remarks: There is in the north Queensland String ocephalus beds a number of forms in which moderately thick septa are arranged bisymmetrieally about an axial depression. Each septum consists of a single series of monacanths about 0-3 or 0-6 mm. in diameter. In all forms the axial depression is elongated in the plane of the counter and cardinal septa and deepens the already concave tabulae, which are usually complete. Certain variations are characteristic of the group. The most striking is that the monacanths in a septum tend to become separated ; the second is that the septa tend to withdraw from the periphery ; the third is that this withdrawal affects the minor septa more than the major septa, and in the limiting cases the minor septa are completely suppressed. With the withdrawal of the major septa is associated the development of lonsdaleoid dissepiments at the periphery. There is also some variation in the thickness of the septa, and occasion- ally a tendency for the withdrawal of the septa from the axis. All of the north Queensland specimens of the sub-groups which I take to be species, within this group, possess all these types of variability, the differences being merely in degree, and it seems to me to be best to recognise the whole group as a genus. It will be seen that with the exception of the pronounced bisymmetry of the tabularium, and the septal structure of large monacanths, these characters are those diagnostic of Sppngophyllum; and our forms are therefore regarded as members of the family Spongophyllidae. The same group occurs in Germany, and has there been split up into a number of genera by Wedekind. What I regard as a genus in Australia, he regards as a family (Stringophyllinae) in Germany, and the merits of the two systems must be tested by their practicability. Wedekind’s genera may be analysed in terms of the types of variability outlined above, as follows. String ophyllum ; withdrawal of septa affects only minor septa, consequently the appearance of lonsdaleoid dissepiments is rare : separation of monacanths is but little operative. In his Schizophyllum (this name is pre-occupied) the dominant variation is that of the separation of the monacanths, but withdrawal of the septa from the periphery is also effective, the minor septa being affected but little more than the major, and lonsdaleoid dissepiments are fairly common. In his N eospong ophyllum the dominant variable is the withdrawal of the septa and the occurrence of lonsdaleoid dissepiments; typically there are still traces of minor septa. His Loepophyllum differs from his Neospongophyllum in the typically complete suppression of the minor septa. (Possibly Schliiter’s Spongophyllum torosum and S. elongatum are of this morphology, also S. rosiforme Yoh, 1937, pi. vi., fig. 1 from the lower Givetian of Kwangsi, S. China). In both these genera there is a slight tendency to separation of the monacanths. His Grypophylla with thickened septa, which however he placed in a different family from the Stringophyllinae, show complete major septa, and typically, therefore, no lonsdaleoid dissepiments; those with- out minor septa he placed in Gryp ophyllum, isactis (Freeh), and those with traces of minor septa in the inner part of the dissepimentarium he referred to G. schwelmense. 258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. It will be seen that bis system of generic names does not cover all the mathematical combinations of these lines of variability, but perhaps not all such variations occur in Germany. I have been unable so far to examine individuals from Germany in the large numbers necessary for an independent evaluation of species limits and the variation within species in that country. Wedekind has suggested lines of evolution within the group, but his papers give no discussion on the limits of variability within species, and consequently his lines of evolution cannot be independently evaluated. Examination of collections from other localities and horizons in Germany than those studied by Wedekind is also required. It should be noted that in this genus the appearance of the tabulae in vertical section will vary according to the orientation of the section. Thus if they be cut at right angles to the cardinal-counter axial depression, the tabulae will show this depression centrally; if this type of section be taken through both alar fossulae, these alar depressions will widen the central one ; if the tabulae are cut parallel to the axial depression, they will appear either horizontal, or with but a shallow axial depression, or in some eases, will even appear to be domed. 8 t ringop hy Uum quasinormale sp. nov. PI. X, figs. 5-9. Holotype: F 4528, University of Queensland Collection, base of Fanning R. limestone, 2 miles upstream from Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Diagnosis: Cylindrical String opkyllum with about 38 major septa typically continuous, and minor septa more or less continuous, being frequently represented by long septal crests ; with monacanths only infrequently separate, and with almost horizontal, complete, axially depressed tabulae. Description: The eorallum is cylindrical and fairly straight, usually about 15 mm. in diameter, but sometimes a little more or less. All specimens are fragments, and it may be that the eorallum is phaceloid, although there is no direct evidence of this. Some slight growth constrictions and expansions are characteristic, but the epitheca is continuous across them. The epitheca shows faint growth annulation and longitudinal striation. The fragments from the different localities show slightly different characters and will be described below in groups. Type locality: The holotype is the only specimen from the type locality. It is about 20 mm. in diameter, and has 42 major septa and an equal number of minor septa ; both orders are moderately thickened ; the major septa are arranged more or less Asymmetrically about the cardinal-counter plane, and most of them reach the axial plane. Those near the cardinal and counter and two alar fossulae have their axial ends curved towards these fossulae, but the remainder are directed towards the appropriate points along a narrow space elongated in the cardinal-counter plane. The counter septum is longer than the cardinal, and its two neighbouring minor septa are longer than the other minor septa, which are from half to two-thirds as long as the major septa. The major septa are continuous from periphery to axis, but the minor septa which are thinner than the major, are discontinuous here and there and are represented by segments based on dissepiments. Where the minor septa are discontinuous the dissepiments cross the loculi from one major septum to its neighbour. No monacanths are distinguishable in the transverse section figured in plate X, fig. 5a, but they can be traced in the vertical section, fig. 5b. They are contiguous, and are about 0-5 mm. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 259 in diameter, directed upwards and inwards from the periphery at an angle of about 45°. The dissepiments are arranged in about ten series, and are rather large, the inner ones being more steeply inclined and longer than the outer. The tabulae are complete, moderately distant, and slightly concave, with an axial depression which is elongated along the counter-cardinal plane. Limestone dam, Burdekin Downs. At this locality, whence we have the most specimens of the species (about 30), where the fragments are of a slightly smaller diameter, and the usual number of septa is 38 of each order, we find considerable variation ; in some individuals the minor septa are as infrequently discontinuous as in the holotype; in others there are many discontinuous, when the dissepiments stretch right across the loculi between one major septum and the next, and the minor septa are represented as long crests on the dissepiments ; in others again some of the major septa have withdrawn a little from the periphery, and a few lonsdaleoid dissepiments are consequently found. In general the thickness of the septa is a little greater than in the holo- type. Usually monacanths are indistinguishable in the transverse section, though clearly visible in the vertical section, where they are seen to be usually of a diameter of 0-5 mm., and to make an angle of 45° to the epitheca; occasionally separate monacanths can be seen in transverse section however. The dissepiments and tabulae are as in the holotype. Anabranch of the Burdekin R., near Big Rocks, Burdekin Downs. One specimen differs from the holotype only in having slightly thicker septa, in which the monacanths are occasionally discernible in transverse section, whether contiguous or separate. The septa are also in part slightly withdrawn from the axis. A number of specimens with slightly different characters which occur at this locality are described below as a variety, ana . Portion 370, parish of Magenta, Reid Gap. Two specimens (P 5251 and F 5294) differ from the holotype only in the greater thickness of the septa; the first shows slight withdrawal of some septa from the axis. Two other specimens (F 5247 and F 5299) show almost complete withdrawal of the minor septa, occasional separate mona- canths, and a withdrawal of the septa from the axis, where there are ends of several separate monacanths. Portion 54, parish of "Wyoming, Reid Gap, F 5259, the only specimen, differs from the holotype only in that the minor septa are completely withdrawn and there are several separate monacanths visible in the transverse section. Localities: Burdekin Downs E, F; Fanning R. A (type); Reid Gap E, F. Remarks: Within the individuals comprised in the species, from the various localities, the limits of variability in those four directions proper to the genus are : — withdrawal of the minor septa is typically very slight, but it may be complete ; withdrawal of the major septa is typically very slight, so that only occasional lonsdaleoid dissepiments are developed ; separation of the monacanths is unimportant, but may occur; there may be slight withdrawal of the septa from the axis. The number of septa of each order is typical, usually 38, but not less than 33 and not more than 42 ; the cylindrical, fairly straight form is typical also. 260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. ' This north Queensland species has amongst its individuals some which are practically identical in transverse section with Wedekind’s figured specimen of S. normale, from the String ocephalus limestone of Sundwig, Germany, but our specimens do not show any vertical inner dissepiments (which Wedekind has described as an outer series of ; tabulae), such as are figured for the genotype. And as we do not know the limits of variation in the genotype, which is larger (nearly 30 mm. ; in diameter), I do not feel that specific identity is established between the north Queensland species and the German. Stringophyllum quasinormal e ? var. PI. X, figs. 10a, b. Holotype: F 5087, University of Queensland Collection, limestone dam on Bur dekin Downs station. Givetian. Diagnosis: Large Stringophyllum qnasinormale, with more numerous septa (up to 47 of each order) and some lonsdaleoid dissepiments. Description: The corallum is thick and somewhat vermiform. The holotype is 30 mm. and the other two specimens from the type locality are 20 mm. in diameter. The holotype has 47 major septa, and the other two 44 and 40. In the holotype the minor septa are occasionally withdrawn and discontinuous, long crests being based on the dissepi- ments. In some places also the major septa are discontinuous and lonsdaleoid dissepiments are formed. In the two smaller specimens the minor septa are much less continuous. Some separate monacanths can be found. The major septa are long and reach right to the axis, the arrangement of their axial ends being as in S. qnasinormale, and not at all withdrawn from the axis; in the holotype they tend to be some- what sweepingly curved. The dissepiments are as in S. qnasinormale , but the tabulae, in the only vertical section cut, are V-shaped and complete. Remarks: These three specimens, while much larger than those typical of 8. qnasinormale, and having more septa, yet have a morphology closely comparable to that species, and at most are probably only to be regarded as a variety thereof. These large specimens are known only from one locality, where they occur with numerous speci- mens of the species itself. As so few specimens are known, they are not given a varietal name. They probably indicate the age of the qnadrigeminus beds of Hand or the String ocephalus limestone of Sundwig in Germany. Stringophyllum qnasinormale var. ana nov. PI. X, figs. 11-14. Holotype: F 5011, University of Queensland Collection. Ana- branch of the Burdekin It., near Big Rocks, Burdekin Downs Station. Givetian. Diagnosis: Small S. qnasinormale in which there are fewer septa (32 to 38 of each order), and in which the minor septa are frequently entirely withdrawn. Description: About 30 cylindrical and somewhat vermiform frag- ments suggest that the corallum may have been phaceloid, although no offsets were found. Most are somewhat weathered, though a few show the epithecal characters of 8. qnasinormale. In diameter they vary from 10 to 15 mm. In about half of the specimens, the minor septa are represented by crests on the dissepiments ; in most coralla these occur somewhat sporadically, but in some they form a fringe round the inner THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 261 part of the dissepimentarium. In the other half of the specimens, traces of minor septa are either absent or rare. The specimens with the smaller diameters are usually those without minor septa, but not always. The septa are typically thinner than in 8. quasinormale itself, and are finely wavy. The dissepiments and tabulae are similar to those in 8. quasinormale. Separation of the monacanths is only occasionally observed. Many of the specimens have been crushed so that the septa near one diameter have been smashed together. Remarks: The smaller average size and the frequency with which the minor septa are completely withdrawn distinguish some thirty specimens from the anabranch of the Burdekin R. near Big Rocks as a variety of S. quasinormale. One or two specimens from the locality however are of 8. quasinormale itself. Stringophyllum bipartitum sp. nov. PI. XI, figs. 1-3. Holotype: F 4398, University of Queensland Collection, beds a-g limestone in Fanning R. 1^-2 miles above Fanning R. house; Givetian. Diagnosis: Very large Stringophyllum with 50-58 major septa, extending irregularly nearly to the elongate axis, and typically with- drawn in part from the periphery so that irregular lonsdaleoid dissepi- ments occur ; minor septa are occasionally present, as septal crests ; the monacanths are sometimes separate. Description: The corallum is large, diameters up to 40 mm., being found, though 30-35 mm. is the average. No offsets have been seen, but from the association of individuals in the matrix it is thought that the species might be compound. One fragment is 15 cm. long. Growth constriction and swellings are frequent. There are from 50 to 58 major septa, which extend irregularly to the elongate axis characteristic of the genus; they are moderately thick and are irregularly withdrawn from the periphery so that lonsdaleoid dissepiments occur frequently. They may be represented by separate monacanths in their peripheral parts, or near the axis. The counter septum is frequently longer than all the others. Minor septa are only occasionally developed, as crests on the dissepiments, or as a series of separate monacanths. The dissepiments and tabulae are as is characteristic for the genus ; the dissepiments are more globose and less steeply inclined in the outer series than in the inner. The tabulae are typically complete, and are concave with an axial deepening in the plane of the cardinal and counter septa. Localities : Fanning R. A (a-g type), B, E; Reid Gap D. Remarks: The species somewhat resembles 8. biichelense (Schluter) of Wedekind (1925), from the upper Honsel beds of Genna, Germany; but this Genna specimen shows a better development of minor septa and a greater tendency to separation of the monacanths. Two specimens F 4394 and F 4400, occurring with this species at its type locality have a greater diameter (50 mm.) and more septa (66 to 70) . They show a wider axial space than is typical, and a fair develop- ment of crests on the minor septa. They may represent a variety, but we have too little material to judge. Stringophyllum irregulare sp. nov. PI. XI, figs. 4-8, Holotype: F 4904, University of Queensland Collection, Burdekin Downs station (fence running north from the east end of the night paddock). Givetian. R.S. — BB. 262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Diagnosis': String ophyllum with about 40 major septa, usually some- what withdrawn from the periphery, with irregular development of lonsdaleoid dissepiments; minor septa are typically absent and major septa frequently withdrawn from the axis ; separation of the monacanths is occasionally observed. Description: The corallites are all cylindrical fragments without offsets, so that we do not know if the corallum be solitary or compound. Some talon-like processes are seen on some specimens, and some frag- ments are of small diameter (13 mm.) compared with the average (20 mm.), although they have the same number of septa (40), suggest- ing that the species is compound. Most fragments are rather worn externally, but some show the epitheca with faint growth annulation and longitudinal striation, and small irregular growth swellings and con- strictions. There are on the average 40 moderately thick major septa, which may extend from the epitheca to the elongate axis characteristic of the genus, but usually they are irregularly withdrawn from the periphery, so that lonsdaleoid dissepiments are developed. The septa may occasionally be rather irregularly curved in the tabularium, but typically they have the arrangement characteristic of the genus, although frequently they are somewhat withdrawn from the axis also. Their monacanths may occasionally be separate. The dissepiments and tabulae are those characteristic of the genus ; in some individuals the dissepiments are more globose and less steeply inclined than in others. Localities: Burdekin Downs D (type), F; Fanning R. A. (beds h- j ) , F, ?G; Reid Gap E, G. Remarks: In its internal structure this species is perhaps most closely similar to S. tenue (Wedekind, 1925, figs. 74, 75) from the old calamine mine red earth near Schwelm, i.e. probably in the upper part of the German String ocephalus beds, although his figures show more frequent separation of the monacanths than in our form. There is the same size of corallum and number of septa. There is also a close morphological resemblance to the specimens from the lower part of the German String ocephalus beds of Kerp and Baarley, placed by Wedekind (1925, pi. 14) in Loepophyllum. Our species is also comparable with S. torosum (Schliiter) from the lower part of the String ocephalus beds at Berndorf, as figured by Schliiter (1881, pi. vi, figs. 1-5), although this has fewer septa (35) and a narrower dissepimentarium. It does not appear to resemble at all closely the specimens figured as Spongophyllum torosum Schliiter by Le Maitre (1934, pi. vi, figs. 3-6) from the Chaudefonds limestone transitional between Coblenzian and Couvinian. One specimen from the type locality for S. irregulare, and two from the limestone dam on Burdekin Downs, are similar to the species except that there are more major septa, 44 to 46, and these are only seldom withdrawn from the epitlieca, and then very slightly. As they are so few, they are doubtfully referred to S. irregulare. String ophyllum, isactis (Freeh). PL XI, figs. 9-11. Cyathophyllum isactis Freeh, 1886, p. 75 (189), pi. i, fig. 7, pi. ii, figs. 13-18, non fig. 19 ; upper String ocephalus beds of Schladetal in the Paffrath Basin, and Soetenich in the Eifel. Gryp ophyllum, isactis (Freeh), Wedekind, 1922, p. 15, Biiehel beds near Hand, Paffrath Basin ; Wedekind, 1925, p. 17, figs. 12-14, Massenkalk of Schladetal ; and Soetenich. Type material is probably at Berlin or Breslau. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 263 Diagnosis: Phaceloid String ophyllum with corallites about 10 mm. in diameter ; there are 28 slightly thickened major septa, minor septa being typically completely withdrawn ; the major septa sometimes with- draw so that lonsdaleoid dissepiments form ; separation of the monacanths occasionally occurs. Description : The corallum is phaceloid, increase being by one or sometimes two offsets arising in the outer dissepimentarium and growing laterally without killing the parent. The corallites are from 8 to 12 mm. in diameter, have slight changes in direction of growth and show slight irregular growth swellings. The outer tissue may project in talon-like processes, anchoring one corallite to its neighbour. The epitheca shows only very faint growth annulation and longitudinal striation. There are 28 or 30 major septa, which are usually moderately thick ; they nearly reach an elongate axis, being slightly withdrawn so that there is an oval axial space in many transverse sections, in which however, sections of separate monacanths may be seen. Occasionally the major septa may withdraw from the periphery, so that lonsdaleoid dissepiments develop, particularly where offsets or anchoring processes arise. Usually individual but contiguous monacanths may be distinguished in the septa, although occasionally they may be separate. They are about 0-6 mm. in diameter. Only very occasionally traces of minor septa occur. The dissepiments are large and globose, particularly in the connecting pro- cesses, usually in one to three series, the inclination of the innermost becoming almost vertical. The tabulae are typically concave, complete, with an axial deepening in the cardinal-counter plane ; small plates may develop across this depression. Remarks: Many of the specimens from the top of the Fanning R. limestone are identical in internal structure with S. isactis (Freeh) as figured by Wedekind (1925, p. 19, fig. 12) from Schladetal (Massenkalk, upper part of the German String ocephalus beds) . The species also occurs in the upper Givetian of Moravia (Kettnerova, 1932, figs. 30-32). C yathophyUam cf. isactis Freeh has been recorded from the Givetian and Upper Devonian of Russia by Lebedew (1902, p. 150), but his figures (pi. iii, figs. 43-44) show a morphologj^ rather different from the German species. F 4962 from Burdekin Downs homestead, on the hill rising from the fowlyard, may belong to the species ; it has 29 major septa, and some lonsdaleoid dissepiments, but it is somewhat larger in diameter than the corallites from the Fanning R., with a wider dissepimentarium of smaller dissepiments. It is only a fragment, and it is not known whether it is from a phaceloid corallum or is a solitary individual. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This work has been carried out while the author held a Research Fellowship within the University of Queensland, financed by Common- wealth funds through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Grateful acknowledgment is made of the loan of specimens in the Geological Survey of Queensland Collection, by Mr. L. C. Ball, B.E., Chief Government Geologist, and of the gift by Prof. W. Weissermel of comparative material from Germany. For the photographs illustrating the paper I am indebted to Mr. E. V. Robinson of the Department of Geology of the University of Queensland. My collecting party received the kindest of hospitality from Mr. and Mrs. W. Salmon, of Burdekin Downs, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Clarke, of Fanning R., and Mr. and Mrs, Martin Ryan, of Reid Gap. 264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. LIST OF WORKS TO WHICH REFERENCE IS MADE. Only those references which are not to be found in the bibliography given in Lang, Smith and Thomas’ “Index of Palaeozoic Coral Genera” (British Museum, Natural History, 1940) are given in expanded form. Chapman, F. 1912. Reports on Fossils. — Middle Devonian of the Buchan District. i Bee. geol. Surv. Viet. Ill, pp. 218-223, pis. xxxiii-xxxvi. T , 1925. Pradi. roy Soe. Viet. XXXVII, (NS), p. 104. Etheridge, R., Jr. 1892. Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland and New Guinea. Geol. Surv. Qld. Pub. 92. 3 vols. . 1895. Additional Notes on the Palaeontology of Queensland. Part. I. Palaeozoic. Proc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W. (2), IX, pp. 518-539, pis. xxxix-xli. . 1898. On the Occurrence of the Genus Endopliyllum Ed. and H. (Emend. Schliiter) in the Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of New South Wales. Bee. geol. Surv. N.S.W. VI, pp. 43-46, pis. iv.-v. . 1899. Bee. geol. Surv. N.S.W. VI, p. 151. — . 1920. Bee. geol. Surv. N.S.W. IX, p. 55. Fenton, C. L., and Fenton, M. A. 1938. Heliophyllum and “ Cystiphyllum” Corals of Hall’s “Illustrations of Devonian Corals.” Ann Carneg. Mus. Pittsburgh XXVII, pp. 207-250, pis. xvii-xxiv. Fliegel, G. 1923. Die Kalkmulde von Paffrath. Jb. preuss. geol. Landest. fur 1922, XLIII, pp. 364-410, pi. v. Frech, F. 1886. Palaeont. Abhandl. Ill, p. 115. Hill, D. 1939a. Proc. roy. Soe. Viet. (NS) LI, p. 219. — . 1939b. Proc. roy. Soe. Qld. L, p. 55. 1940a. The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, II. The Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. Proc. roy. Soe. Qld. LI, pp. 150-168, pis. ii-iii. — — , 1940b. The Silurian Rugosa of the Yass-Bowning District. Proc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W. LXV, pp. 388-420, pis. xi-xiii. . 1940c. The Lower Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of the Murrum- bidgee and Goodradigbee Rivers, N.S.W. J. Proc. roy. Soe. N.S.W. LXXIV, pp. 247-276, pis. ix-xi. Hill, D. and Jones, O. A. 1940. The Corals of the Garra Beds, Molong District, N.S.W. J. Proc. roy. Soe. N.S.W. LXXIV, pp. 175-208, pis. ii-viii. Jones, O. A. 1929. On the Coral Genera Endopliyllum Edwards and Haime and Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime. Geol. Mag. London, LXVI, pp. 84-91, pi. x. Kettnerova, M. 1932. Trav. Inst. geol. paleont. Univ. Charles Prague (1932), p. 1. Lang, W. D. 1909. Growth-Stages in the British Species of the Coral Genus Parasmilia. Proc. goal. Soe. London, pp. 285-307. Lang, W. D. and Smith, S. 1935a. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10), XVI, p. 426. . 1935. Quart. J. geol. Soe. London, XCI, p. 538. Lang, W. D., Smith, S., and Thomas, H. D. 1940. Index of Palaeozoic Coral Genera. British Museum (Natural History). 231 pp. London. Le Maitre, D. 1934. Etudes sur la Faune des Calcaires devoniens du Bassin d’Ancenis. Calcaire de Chaudefonds et Calcaire de Chalonnes. Mem. Soc. geol. Nord XII, 261 pp., 18 pis. . 1937. Etude de la Faune corallienne des Calcaires Givetiens de la Ville-De-d ’Ardin. Bull. So(c. geol. France (5), VII, pp. 105-128, pis. vii-x. Lebedew, N. 1902. Die Bedeutung der Korallen in den devonischen Ablagerungen Russlands. Mem Com. geol. XVII (2), 180 pp., 5 pis. Lindstrom, G. 1883. Bihang. K. Svensk. Vetenslc.-Alcad. Handl., VII, (4). Ma, T. Y. H. 1937. On the seasonal growth in Palaeozoic Tetracorals and the Climate during the Devonian Period. Palaeont. Sinica (B), II, Fasc. 3, 96 pp., 22 pis., 1 map. Mansuy, H. 1912. Mem. Serv. geol. Indochine, I, (2). Meyer, G. 1879. Der mitteldevonische Kalk von Paffrath. Bonn. 75 pp. Riohter, R. 1928. Fortschritte in der Kenntnis der Calceola-Mutationen. Senckenbergiana X, pp. 169-184. Sohluter, C. 1881. Verh. naturh. Ver. preuss. Bheinl. West/., XXXVIII, p. 189. . 1889. Abhandl. geol. Specialk. preuss. Thuring, Staat., VIII, (4). Sohmidt, E. 1936. Die Schichtenfolge des Devons bei Soetenich in der Eifel. Jb. preuss. geol. Landest. LVI, pp. 292-323, pi. xxv. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 265 Schulz, E. 1883. Jb. K. preuss. geol. Landest. Bergakad. Berlin Abhandl. (1882), p. 158. Soshkina, E. D. 1936. Trans. Polar Comm. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.B., XXVIII, p. 15. — . 1937. Trav. Inst. Paleozool. Acad. Sci. U.B.S.S., VI, (4). . 1939. Upper Devonian Corals Rugosa of the Ural. Trav. Inst. Paleont. Acad. Sci. U.B.S.S. IX, (2), 88 pp., 14 pis. Torley, K. 1933. Uber Endophyllum bowerbanki M.Ed.u.H. Z. dtsch. geol. Ges. L XXXV, pp. 630-633, pi. lv. Vollbrecht, E. 1926. Nem Jb. Min. Geol. Paldont. LV, B, p. 189. Walther, C. 1928. Z. dtsch. geol. Ges. LXXX, p. 97. Wedekind, R. 1921. Paldont. Z., IV, p. 48. . 1922. Sb. Ges. Beford. ges. Naturw. Marburg (1921), p. 1. . 1923. Sb. Ges. Beford. ges. Naturw. Marburg (1922), p. 24. . 1924. Schr. Ges. Beford. ges. Naturw. Marburg, XIV, (3). . 1925. Schr. Ges. Beford. ges. Naturw. Marburg, XIV, (4). Wedekind, R. and VollbregHt, E. 1931-32. Palaeontogr. Stuttgart LXXV, p. 81, 1931; LXXVI, p. 95, 1932. Weissermel, W. 1897. Z. dtsch. geol. Ges. XLIX, p. 865. . 1938. Eine altpalaozoische Korallenfauna von Chios. Z. dtsch. geol. Ges. XC, pp. 65-74, pi. ii. Yabe, H. and Hayasaka, I. 1915. J. geol. Soc. Tokyo, XXII, pp. 79-92. . 1920. Geographical Research in China, 1911-1916. Palaeontology of Southern China, xxvii + 221 pp., 28 pis. Yoh, S. S. 1937. Palaeontogr. Stuttgart, LXXXVII, A, p. 45. EXPLANATION OP PLATES. Plate V. Except where otherwise noted, the specimens are all in the University of Queensland Collection. All figures X 1*8 diameters. Acanthophyllum sweeti (Etheridge). Fig. 1. F 1652. Lectotype. Geological Survey of Queensland Collection. Regan’s, Reid Gap. Givetian. a, transverse, and b, vertical section. Fig. 2. F 4963. Burdekin Downs, hill behind fowlyard. Givetian. a, transverse, and b, vertical section. Fig. 3. F 4966. Burdekin Downs, hill behind fowlyard. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 4. F 5015. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 5. F 5012. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Dohmophyllum clarkei sp. nov. Fig. 6. F 4531. Holotype. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles upstream from Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 7. F 4451. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles upstream from Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Transverse section, young stage4 Fig. 8. F 4924. Burdekin Downs, fence running North from East end of night paddock. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 9. F. 4471 Limestone on road on left bank of Fanning R. about 14 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 10. F 5166. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Vertical section. Fig. 11. F 5315. Reid Gap, portion 81v, parish of Wyoming, lower part of limestone. Givetian. Transverse section, young stage. Lyrielasma curvatum sp. nov. Fig. 12. F 4423. Holotype. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles upstream from Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 13. F 4502. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles upstream from Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 14. F 4453. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles upstream from Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Transverse section. 266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Plate VI. Except where otherwise stated, the specimens are all in the University of Queensland Collection. Figs. 1-4 and 10-13 X 1.8 diameters. Figs. 5-9 natural size. Lyrielasma? lophophylloides sp. nov. Fig. 1. F 5129. Holotype; Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 2. F 5127. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Yabeia salmoni sp. nov. Fig. 3. F 5025. Holotype. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. Transverse section. A section of Disphyllum gregorii is also seen. Fig. 4. F 5022. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. Vertical section. Calc&ola sandalina sandalina {Linnaeus). Fig. 5. F 5174. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Weathered surfaces. Fig. 6. F 5175. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Polished vertical section, showing operculum at top. The apical part is damaged by weathering. Calceola sandalina alta Richter. Fig. 7. F 5173. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Flat side, slightly weathered. Fig. 8. F 4465. Fanning R. station, limestone on road on left bank of Fanning R., about 14 miles upstream from homestead. Flat side, weathered. Fig. 9. F 4466. Fanning R. station, limestone on road on left bank of Fanning R., about 14 miles upstream from homestead. Polished vertical section. 1 1 Cystiphyllum ’ ’ australe Etheridge. Fig. 10. F 1652. Geological Survey of Queensland Collection. Lectotype. Regan’s, Reid Gap. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 11. F 4900. Burdekin Downs, fence running North from East end of night paddock. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 12. F 4901. Burdekin Downs, fence running North from East end of night paddock. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 13. F 5088. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Plate VII. Except where otherwise stated, the specimens are all in the University of Queensland Collection. All figures X 1.8 diameters. 1 1 Cystiphyllum ’ ’ cf . pseudoseptatum Schulz. Fig. 1. F 4537. Fanning R., dome in Fanning R. by cow paddock tank. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Mesophyllum collate sp. nov. Fig. 2. F 4392. Bed c, Fanning R, limestone, Fanning R. about 14 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section, the latter placed sideways owing to exigencies of space. Mesophyllum ( Bialithophyllum) fultum sp. nov. Fig. 3. F 453 5. Holotype. Dome in Fanning R. by cow paddock tank, Fanning R. station. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 4. F 4536. Dome in Fanning R. by cow paddock tank, Fanning R. station. Givetian. Transverse section. Plate VIII. Except where otherwise stated, the specimens are all in the University of Queensland Collection. All figures X 1.8 diameters. Disphyllum gregorii (Etheridge). Fig. 1. F D34, Geological Survey of Queensland Collection. Paratype. Regan’s, Reid Gap. Givetian. Transverse section. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 267 Fig. 2. F 4437. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 3. F 4448. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 2 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Vertical section. Fig. 4. F 5021. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Disphyll'iim (or Macgeea ) trochoides sp. nov. Fig. 5. F 4557. Holotype. Fanning R. station, windmill 3 miles ESE of homestead. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 6. F 4560. Fanning R. station, windmill 3 miles ESE of homestead. Givetian. a, vertical section; b, transverse section of young stage. Fig. 7. F 5246. Reid Gap, portion 370 parish of Magenta, lower bed. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 8. F 5248. Reid Gap, portion 370 parish of Magenta, lower bed. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 9. F 4911. Burdekin Downs, fence running North from East end of night paddock. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 10. F 4970. Burdekin Downs, hill behind fowlyard. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Dispfoyllum (or Maogeea) excavatum sp. nov. Fig. 11. F D42, Geological Survey of Queensland Collection. Holotype. Burdekin Downs. Givetian. u, transverse and b, vertical section; c, transverse section of young stage, a shows the effect of crushing. Fig. 12. F 13 (in red), Geological Survey of Queensland Collection. Burdekin Downs. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 13. F 5322. Reid Gap, portion 370 parish of Magenta, 30 ft. above lower bed. Givetian. Transverse section. Endophyllvm abditvm var. aolumna var. nov. Fig. 14. F 4274. Top of Fanning R. limestone, road on left bank of Fanning R., H miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Transverse section. Plate IX. Except where otherwise noted, the specimens are all in the University of Queensland Collection. All figures X 1.8 diameters. Endophyllum abditum var. columna var. nov. Fig. 1. F 4275. Holotype. Top of Fanning R. limestone, road on left bank of Fanning R. 1^ miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Favistella rheriana (Freeh). Fig. 2. F 4409. Fanning R. limestone, on Fanning R. lf-2 miles above homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 3. F BD. Geological Survey of Queensland Collection. Burdekin Downs. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fasciphyllum ryani sp. nov. Fig. 4. F 5018. Holotype. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. Fig. 5. F 5364. Calcium (probably Ryans Quarry). Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Spongophyllvjn immersum sp. nov. Fig. 6. F Z82. Geological Survey of Queensland Collection. Holotype. Burdekin Downs, Arthur’s Ck. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Grypophyllvm sp. Fig. 7. F 4501. Base of Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. 2 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a , transverse and b, vertical section. Plate X. Except where otherwise noted, the specimens are all in the University of Queensland Collection. All figures X 1.8 diameters. 268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Grypophyllum compactum sp. nov. Fig. 1. F 5317. Holotype. Reid Gap, portion 81v parish of Wyoming, lower part of limestone. Givetian. a, b, transverse sections, b, shows method of increase. Fig. 2. F 5314. Reid Gap, portion 81 v parish of Wyoming, lower part of limestone. Givetian. Vertical section. Fig. 3. F 5316. Reid Gap, portion 81v parish of Wyoming, lower part of limestone. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 4. F 5307. Reid Gap, portion 81v parish of Wyoming, lower part of limestone. Givetian. Transverse section. S t ring ophy llum quasinormale sp. nov. Fig. 5. F 4528. Holotype. Base of Fanning R. limestone. Fanning R. about 2 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 6. F 5139. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 7. F 5247. Reid Gap, portion 370 parish of Magenta, lower bed. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 8. F 5081. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 9. F 5083. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. Vertical section. String ophyllum quasinormale, var ?. Fig. 10. F 5087. Burdekin Downs, limestone dam. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. String opTiyUum quasinormale var. ana var. nov. Fig. 11. F 5011. Holotype. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 12. F 5027. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 13. F 5007. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 14. F 5006. Burdekin Downs, anabranch of Burdekin R. near Big Rocks. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Plate XI. Except where otherwise noted, all specimens are in the University of Queensland Collection. All figures X 1.8 diameters. String ophyllum bipartitum sp. nov. Fig. 1. F 4398. Holotype. Bed c, Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 3^ miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 2. F 4396. Bed c, Fanning R. limestone, Fanning R. about 11 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse section, b, vertical section along fossula and c, vertical section across fossula. Fig. 3. F 5366. Ryan’s Qy., Calcium, Reid Gap. Givetian. Transverse section. String ophyllum irregulare sp. nov. Fig. 4. F 4904. Holotype. Burdekin Downs, fence running North from East end of night paddock. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 5. F 4895. Burdekin Downs, fence running N from E end of night paddock. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 6. F 4893. Burdekin Downs, fence running N from E end of night paddock. Givetian. Vertical section. Fig. 7. F 4897. Burdekin Downs, fence running N from E end of night paddock. Givetian. Transverse section. Fig. 8. F 4906. Burdekin Downs, fence running N from E end of night paddock. Givetian. Transverse section. String ophyllum isactis (Freeh). Fig. 9. F 4365. Top of Fanning R. limestone, road on left bank of Fanning R., about 11 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical section. Fig. 10. F 4366. Top of Fanning R. limestone, road on left bank of Fanning R., about 11 miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. a, transverse and b, vertical seition. Fig. 11. F 4367. Top of Fanning R. limestone, road on left bank of Fanning R., about 1^ miles above Fanning R. homestead. Givetian. Transverse section. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. LIU., No. 14. Plate V. Middle Devonian Rugose Corals. m i Middle Devonian Rugose Corals, Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LIT I., No. 14. Plate Vi. Prog.' itoy- Soc. Q *land, Vol. Lilt., No. 14. Plate Vll. Middle Devonian Rugose Corals. Plate VIII. Proc. Poy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. Lilt.. No. 14. Middle Devonian Kugose Corals. Proc. Roy. feoc. Q’lAnd, Vol. LIII., No. 14. Plate IX. Middle Devonian Rugose Corals, Proo. Roy. Soc. Q'land, Vol. Lnftj No. 14. Plate %. Middle Devonian Rugose Corals. Proc. Boy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. LTIT., No. 14. Plate XI. Middle Devonian Rugose Corals. The Royal Society of Queensland Report of Counci! for 1940. To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland. Your Council has pleasure in submitting the report for the year 1940. Eleven original papers were read or tabled at Ordinary Meetings, and accepted for publication in the Proceedings ; three symposia were held, and one meeting was devoted to exhibits. The average attendance was thirty-four. In terms of the Government decision that the Chief Secretary’s Department would pay a subsidy for printing on the basis of £1 for £1 up to a maximum of £150 per annum on papers of value from a Govern- ment point of view, the Society has this year received a subsidy of £66 on the volume for 1939. Also, the University made available £15 from the C.S.I.R. Publication Fund towards the cost of certain papers. These subsidies the Council acknowledges with gratitude. There are at present 5 honorary life members, 4 life members, 4 corresponding members, 198 ordinary members, and 3 associate members. This year we have lost 5 members by resignation; 11 new members and 2 new associate members were elected. Several members are on active service abroad, and others are engaged in special scientific work for the war effort. The rearrangement of the periodicals in the library has been completed, and the librarian has finished a catalogue of the American section. Two hundred and thirty periodicals are on our exchange lists, but many have not yet been received owing to war conditions. Attendance at Council meetings was as follows: — E. W. Pick, 9; D. A. Herbert, 7; D. Hill, 8; D. H. K. Lee, 6; H .A. Longman, 6; F. A. Perkins, 8 ; H. C. Richards, 7 ; F. H. S. Roberts, 7 ; H. R. Seddon, 7 ; J. H. Smith, 6 ; K. Watson, 9 ; M. White, 5 ; F. W. Whitehouse, 6. F. W. WHITEHOUSL, President. , D. HILL, Hon Secretary. R.S. — CC. u* e OCMOOOOOOt^ i—) t^0500l0O« O cc >- 3 H g UJ q S ^ O M GO ^ UJ T p=h H EH £ @ EH <1 EH to u» & oo CD CD CM CD Crt cs Ph PH PL| p>* ?-l c$ ,3 3 C3 o -m 3l 02 Ph CO £j C$ © 2 S Hn -S Ph © -fH S © 1 § S r2i £ Ph pq o m do a s O tH CD O CM i — I r-H r — I lO tJH CO CO ° .2 ft © u s pq too Audited and found correct. E. W. BICK, Honorary Treasurer. A. J. M. STONEY, B.E.E., Honorary Auditor. 18th March, 1941. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. VII. Abstract of Proceedings, 25th November, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University on Monday, 25th November, at 8 p.m., with Professor H. R. Seddon in the chair. Apologies for absence were received from Drs. F. W. Whitehouse, D. Hill, and A. J. Turner. Mr. R. F. Langdon, B.Agr.Sc., exhibited specimens and photomicro graphs of Claviceps pusilla, the fungus responsible for ergot of Queens- land Blue Grass (Dicanthium sericeum) . This fungus has not previously been recorded from Australia. Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited specimens of dahlia affected by the yellow ringspot virus at present classified as Dahlia Virus 2 A. This disease appeared on seedling dahlias in 1939. The following papers were read : — (1) “ Notes on Australian Cyperaceae V.,” by S, T. Blake, M.Sc. (2) “The Vegetation of the Lower Stanley River Basin,” by S. T. Blake, M.Sc. (3) “Spherulitic Crystallization as a Mechanism of Skeletal Growth in the Hexacorals,” by W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc., and Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. (4) “Latent Infection in Tropical Fruits and the Part Played by the Genus Gloeosporium, ” by J. H. Simmonds, M.Sc. (5) “Preliminary Note on Photosensitization of Sheep Grazed on Brachiaria brizantha,” by N. W. Briton, B.V.Se., and T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc. A paper by A. J. Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S., entitled “Fragmenta Lepidopterologica, ” was laid on the table. Abstract of Proceedings, 31st March, 1941. The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 31st March, 1940. An apology was received from the Patron, His Excellency the Governor. Fifty-three members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous annual meeting were read and confirmed. The Annual Report and Balance-sheet were adopted. Mr. R. Pennington, M.A., and Mr. N. W. Briton, B.V.Se., were nominated for Ordinary Membership. The following officers and Council were elected for 1941 : — President, Prof. H. R. Seddon; Vice-Presidents, Dr. F. W. Whitehouse and Prof. D. H. K. Lee; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Bick; Hon. Secretary, Dr. D. Hill; Hon. Librarian, Miss K. Watson; Hon. Editors, Dr. W. H. Bryan and Dr. F. H. S. Roberts; Members of the Council, Prof. J. Bostock, Prof. R. W. H. Hawken, Dr. D. A. Herbert, Mr. J. H. Smith, and Dr. M. White; Hon. Auditor, Mr. L. P. Herdsman. The retiring President, Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, inducted to the Chair the President-Elect, Prof. H. R. Seddon. The new President then called on the retiring President to deliver the address “The Surface of Western Queensland.” Mr. H. A. Longman and Dr. A. Wade expressed to Dr. Whitehouse the thanks and appreciation of the meeting for the address. VIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Abstract of Proceedings, 28th April, 1941. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was' held on Monday, 28th April, in the Department of Geology of the University, with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. Twenty- three members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs, R. Pennington, B.A., F.L.A., and N. W. Briton, B.Vet.Sc., were unanimously elected Ordinary Members and Miss. M. Hardy, B.Sc., and Messrs. A. W. Beasley, R. H. Hyland, and V. N. Love were proposed for Associate Membership. Dr. W. H. Bryan exhibited a specimen of rhyolite collected by Mr. Arthur Groom from Binna Burra. The specimen is in the shape of an elongate fluted ribbon and was found inside a large cavernous spheruloid. Dr. Bryan demonstrated that the rhyolite was squeezed into the spheruloid through an irregular crack which acted as a die and imposed the uniform pattern on the viscous rhyolite in much the same way as “ribbon” type biscuits are produced in a biscuit factory. Dr. M. White exhibited a sample of cumic acid derived from p-cymene. This was obtained by feeding sheep the p-cymene and recovering the excreted cu,mic acid conjugated with glycene in the urine. Hydrolysis of the conjugated product with dilute mineral acid readily yielded cumic acid. It is important to note that the oxidation in the animal takes place at the methyl grouping and not in the iso-propyl as occurs under laboratory conditions. Dr. P. W. Whitehouse exhibited two new, unattached echinoderms from early Middle Cambrian deposits of north-western Queensland that are similar, generally, to larval stages (the dipleurula and free pentacula stages) of living echinoderms. The following papers were read: — 1. “Additions to the Mosses of North Queensland,” by H. N. Dixon. M.A., F.L.S., communicated by C. T. White, P.L.S. New species are described and new records given. 2. “The Devonian Tabulata of Douglas and Drummond Creeks, Clermont, Queensland,” by 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., communicated by Dr. D. Hill. Nine species and one variety, belonging to seven genera are described, and their fine structure noted ; four of the species and the variety are new. The genotypes of Striatopora and Gephuropora are discussed. The age indicated is Lower Middle Devonian. Abstract of Proceedings, 26th May, 1941. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on Monday, 26th May, in the Department of Geology of the University, with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. Twenty members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Miss M. Hardy, B.Sc., and Messrs. A. W. Beasley, R. H. Hyland, and Y. N. Love were elected Associate Members, and Miss K. W. Robinson, M.Sc., Miss B. J. Money, B.Sc., Mr. N. T. M. Yeates, B.Agr.Sc., and Mr. J. G. H. Hoeben, B.V.Sc., were nominated for Ordinary Member- ship. It was announced that the librarian would follow the literature in special subjects for members if desired. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. IX. The President communicated the paper “ Variations in the vulval linguiform Process of Hcemonchus contortus,” by F. H. S. Roberts, D.Sc. Dr. Wade exhibited specimens of “zebra” rock from Argyll Station, in the Kimberleys, probably from the Cambrian. The zebra- like markings are possibly due to leaching. He also showed salt crystals with stepped faces from a lake on Keratta Station. Normally, tyrosine is excreted in a completely oxidised state as a phenol, but this process is interrupted in persons suffering from alkaptonuria, and homogentisic acid or p-hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid is excreted. A number of the reactions of the former substance obtained from the urine of a person with this rare error of metabolism were shown by Mr. J. P. Callaghan. Miss Watson exhibited a very large Chama sp. from 17 fathoms in Boucaut Bay, near Darwin ; and also a number of aboriginal stone implements collected by Mr. H. Y. Y. Noone, mainly from E. Sibley’s sand pit at Lindum. These included a number of types already known from south-east Queensland, and some, mainly the arapia, a semi- discoidal piece, and a few microlithic pieces new to the locality. A few elouera from Bundaberg were included. Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited HalopJiila ovalis and Zostera muelleri collected in flower and fruit in December on the sandbanks off Myora, in Moreton Bay, where they are important colonisers. Dr. M. White exhibited (1) a peanut (Arachis) growing in a fungus and showing aerial fruiting. A secondary growth of fungus enveloped part of the plant; (2) portion of a stone-like impaction taken from the omasum of a cow that had died from earth eating; (3) a number of calculi composed chiefly of CaC03 taken from the urinary tract of sheep. Prof. Seddon exhibited a marsupial bone taken from the paunch of a cow ; also a maize unsheathing tool used by the Maoris and made from the rib-bone of an ox. Dr. Hill exhibited Proiomnites planorbiformis and f Pseudarietites ammonitiformis, with associated brachiopods and gastropods, from por. 86, par. Neerkol, west of Rockhampton. Abstract of Proceeding, 30th June, 1941. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on Monday, 30th June, in the Sir William Macgregor School of Physiology, with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. About sixty were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Miss K. W. Robinson, M.Sc., Miss B. J. Money, B.Sc.?J Mr. N. T. M. Yeates, B.Agr.Sc., and Mr. J. G. H. Hoeben, B.Y.Sc., were elected Ordinary Members. The following papers were read and discussed : — 1. “ Note on a grooved and polished granite surface near Eulo, Western Queensland,” by A. Wade. The markings were considerect to be aboriginal artefacts rather than of glacial origin. A review of knowledge of Cretaceous glacial action in Australia was given. 2. “ Reactions of Domestic Fowls to Hot Atmospheres.” N. T. M.. Yeates, D. H. K. Lee, and H. J. G. Hines. Preliminary investigations, are described, and methods and results given. Effects upon heart X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. rate, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and weight loss were measured. Atmospheres of dry bulb temperatures 70-110° F., and of relative humidities 25-95 per cent, were used. Modifications of reactions by varying the amount of drinking water and the protein level of the diet were also studied. Australorps were compared with White Leghorns. Four hens were used in each experiment. Figures were given of individual and seasonal variations. Physiological results were given in some detail, and the following practical applications recorded : — Temperatures above 80° F. produce disturbances. Tempera- tures of 100° F. and above cannot be withstood for seven hours, especially if humidity is high. Humidity is of consequence only at high temperatures. Good water supply into which fowls can dip head is required. The protein level of the diet is apparently immaterial. A rectal temperature of 113° F. is the highest the fowl can reach before developing heat stroke. White Leghorns can definitely withstand heat better than Australorps. 3. 4 4 Reactions of the Rabbit to Hot Atmospheres.” D. H. K. Lee, K. Robinson, and H. J. G. Hines. Effects upon respiratory volume as well as heart rate, rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and weight loss were studied. The effects of atmospheres of different composition, ■different amounts of drinking water, and repeated exposure were examined. (See previous paper.) One rabbit (male white angora) was used in each experiment. Physiological results were given in some detail, and the following conclusions reached : — The tolerance of the rabbit resembles that of the fowl. Half replacement of water improves the rabbit’s reactions. Seasonal variations are complex and important. The respiratory rate may rise to 720, but tidal volume is little reduced. Individual variation is fairly great. 4. 4 ‘Reactions of the Pig to Hot Atmospheres.” K. Robinson and D. H. K. Lee. Studies were made in parallel with those upon the rabbit. The following conclusions were reached : — The tolerance of the pig for hot atmospheres resembles that of the fowl and rabbit. Humidity is important at high temperatures, but not at intermediate temperatures. The respiratory rate may rise to 280, but the tidal volume is reduced to a half or less. Unlike the fowl and the rabbit, the pig’s reactions to heat include a definite rise in pulse rate. Half replacement of water is accompanied by definite improvement in the reactions. Atmospheric conditions between experiments are of import- ance. Variation between individuals may be large. Salivation up to fiOO ccs. per hour may occur. Growth and meat quality are not affected by severe heat experiences. Abstract of Proceedings, 28th July, 1941. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on Monday, ‘28th July, in the Department of Geology of the University, with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. About thirty were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. C. E. Ogilvie exhibited pads of grass seed ( Aristida arenaria and A. anthoxanthoides ) and of hardened mud from the legs and feet of sheep. A discussion on 4 ‘Scientific Societies in Post-war Organisation was held. The President (Prof. H. R. Seddon), in introducing the ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XI. discussion, considered that post-war organisation should he planned, and that the Society should give whatever assistance it could to make such plans scientifically sound. Prof. J. Bostock emphasised that the community needed to prepare plans to combat post-war economic difficulties, and that the scientific method should be used in the preparation and execution. As much as possible should be done to reduce the psychological conflicts in individuals due to social insecurity, for these conflicts adversely affected the health of both individual and community ; they created an emotional bias which is inimical to clear reasoning; in his opinion the desired social security could not be obtained without socialisation. He urged that post-war construction be viewed from the psychological standpoint. Prof. D. K. Lee asked that administrators, through scientists, should be acquainted with the great biological laws, for no plan could succeed which contravened these laws. In any changes made, man should be allowed freedom, of expression, without which he could not exercise his power of abstract thought ; he should be given security, without which creative effort is impossible ; he should have optimum nutrition, particularly in the “outback”; more should be done in the prevention of ill-health; and communal effort should be fostered, but without the elimination of competition. Mr. C. Schindler, Dr. Lockhart Gibson, Mr. F. Gipps, Prof. R. W. Hawken, Mr. H. J. G. Hines, and Mr. K. V. Kesteven joined in the discussion. Points made were that the plans should not submerge the individual ; that people should be shown how best to use their leisure ; that plans for peace treaties should make it impossible for aggressor nations to overrun others; that all administrators should have training in the scientific method, and all scientists be taught administration; that social security should be considered an essential for all; and that plans made should include some for the preventing of waste in the dissemination of results of scientific investigations. Mr. H. Tryon moved that a committee be formed to consider how the Society might assist in planning, and the President, Prof. Bostock, Prof. Lee, and Mr. Hines were appointed. Abstract of Proceedings, 25th August, 1941. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on Monday, 25th August, 1941, in the Department of Geology of the University, with the Vice-President, Prof. D. H. K. Lee in the chair. About twenty members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. Prof. Lee asked permission to read papers of which the following are authors’ abstracts: — “Reactions of the Cat to Hot Atmospheres.” — K. Robinson and D. H. K. Lee. Investigations were made in parallel with those of the Fowl, Rabbit, and Pig. Effects upon respiratory volume as well as heart rate, rectal temperature, respiratory rate and weight loss were studied. The effects of atmospheres of different composition, different amounts of drinking water and repeated exposure were examined. Physiological results were given in some detail and the following conclusions reached : — The cat shows far less reaction to heat than the fowl, rabbit, or pig. Temperatures of 105 degrees F. cannot be tolerated if the humidity is above 65 per cent. Humidity has a definite effect. Oral replacement of water affects only tidal and respiratory volumes. The XII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. pulse rate tends to rise with rectal temperature. Tidal volume is only slightly reduced with rise of respiratory rate. Increased respiratory evaporation comes into action before body temperature rises. At body temperatures above 104 degrees F. use is made of saliva to increase evaporation from its coat. “Reactions of the Dog to Hot Atmospheres.” — K. Robinson and D. H. K. Lee. Methods of investigation were similar to those of the cat. The following conclusions were reached: — The tolerance of the dog to hot atmospheres is slightly greater than that of the cat. The The effect of humidity is marked. With rise of respiratory rate tidal volume is greatly reduced up to J of the usual value. Half replace- ment of water is accompanied by definite improvement in the reactions. Marked acclimatisation to hot atmospheres was developed. Open- mouthed panting occurs at low body temperature. At a rectal temperature of 105 degrees F. the dog nears a crisis. At 109 degrees F. “ staggers” develop. “Reactions of the Sheep to Hot Atmospheres.” — D. H. K. Lee and K. Robinson. Studies were made on merino wethers in parallel with those on the cat. The following conclusions were reached : — The sheep is outstanding amongst domestic animals in tolerating hot atmospheres, withstanding for seven hours a temperature of 110 degrees F. with 65 per cent, humidity. Humidity is important, showing a close resemblance to man and the dog. Respiratory rate may rise to 240 per minute while the tidal volume is little reduced. Replacement of water is accompanied by some improvement in reaction. Panting is not a marked feature, occurring only at a rectal temperature of 106 degrees F. Dr. F. H. S. Roberts addressed the meeting on “Methods of Control of Blowfly Strike in Sheep.” He outlined the predisposing factors which render sheep attractive to the primary fly and then proceeded to show how these factors are best countered. The main lines of attack are — (a) Breeding of plain-bodied as opposed to “wrinkly” sheep; (6) culling sheep with other predisposing conforma- tions and wool characteristics; (c) Mule’s operation; (d) Carcase destruction; ( e ) Jetting and swabbing; (/) Crutching. The lecture was illustrated with photographs and a film taken and exhibited by Mr. K. Kesteven. Abstract of Proceedings, 29th September, 1941. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 29th September, with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. About forty members were present. A welcome was extended to Mr. R. E. Holttum, Director of the Botanic Gardens, Singapore. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. C. T. White read a paper “ Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 7,” of which the following is the author’s abstract: — The paper contains additions to the flora of Queensland made since the publication of the previous contribution (these Proceedings, Vol. 50, pp. 66-87). A number of new species are described, and several plants recorded for the State for the first time. One family (Dichapetalacese or Chailletiaceae) and a genus (Gcertnera- Loganiaceee) are added to the Australian flora. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XIII. During the discussion on the paper it was resolved, on the motion of Mr. H. Try on and Mr. White, that a committee, consisting of Mr. White, Dr. Herbert, Mr. Francis, and Mr. Blake, investigate, in associa- tion with workers in other States, the possibilty of the publication of an eighth volume of Bentham’s “ Flora australiensis, ” Mr. J. Hanson-Lowe gave an address on “ The Climate of the South Chinese-Tibetan Borderland.” He said that two-seasonal (wet and dry) South-eastern Tibet lies on the marginal fringe of “ Monsoon Asia,” and is a transitional area in which the dry, highly continental climate of West Tibet contends with the farthest outpost of the sub- tropical monsoon climate, the peculiar relief (undulating plateau incised by tremendous gorges) permitting penetration of sub-tropical conditions far inland, via the river trenches. To explain the summer thunderstorms of the rainy season, it is suggested that the general circulation of the main air-mass, even in summer, is from a westerly quarter; the monsoon air, largely dried after its passage over the lofty Ta Hsu eh Shan, and warmed by compression on its descent to the plateau, is undercut by the cool main air-flow, with precipitation following adiabatic cooling, and causing storms to come from a westerly or north-westerly quarter. Mr. Hanson-Lowe was accorded a vote of thanks for the address. Mr. H. Tryon exhibited two rare botanical books. Abstract of Proceedings, 27th October, 1941. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 27th October, with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. Twenty-two members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. Dr. D. Hill read a paper “The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, III. Burdekin Downs, Fanning R., and Reid Gap, North Queensland.” Abstract — Twenty-three species of Rugosa, fifteen of them new, are described from the limestones of the Charters Towers and Townsville districts, with some discussions on the genera and families to which they are assigned. The fauna is very closely com- parable to those of the upper Honsel ( quadrigemmm) and Buchel (Massenkalk or Amphipora Banke) beds of the Paffrath Basin, near Cologne, Germany, so that its age is Givetian — and more narrowly, that middle section of the Givetian covered by the quadrigeminus and Buchel beds. Mr. C. T. White exhibited specimens of Duboisia myoporoides R.Br., D. Leichhardtii F. Muelh, and D. Hopwoodii F. Muell. (the Pituri). The first is found in Eastern Australia and New Caledonia. Queensland specimens contain the alkaloid hyoscine, and there is a steady demand for the dried leaf. D. Leichhardtii is confined to Queensland. D. Hopwoodii has been recorded for Queensland, but the exhibitor stated he knew of no authentic records; it is fairly common along the Adelaide-Perth railway. Mr. E. F. Riek exhibited two fresh- water siliceous sponges. One was the living Ephydatia fluviatilis auctt. from a branch of Oxley Creek, showing gemmules ; the other consisted of fossil gemmules from the Tertiary shale at Cooper ’s Plains, which had been provisionally regarded as ostraeods. XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Dr. Roberts demonstrated the stick fast flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea, recently found near Boonah. This is the first authentic record of the species in Eastern Australia, The flea attaches itself to the head of its host ; poultry is the chief domestic animal affected, but it occurs also on native hosts. Control measures were suggested. Dr. White exhibited specimens from the Stassfurt salt deposits, a beautifully-finished old blow-pipe, a new type Squibb funnel* 'and a large magnesium oxalate calculus from a horse. Mr. Try on exhibited a jasper artefact from Russell Island, obsidian from New Zealand, a Maori tiki, and a necklace of beads from Zimbaye, S. Rhodesia, believed to be of Persian workmanship. Mr. R. P. Langdon exhibited a specimen of the ascigerous stage of the ergot of Ischc&mum, australe. This is one of four new species of Claviceps recently discovered in Queensland. Along with 0. Pusilla, they are indigenous to Australia, and we now know that the ergot fungus occurs naturally in all continents. Abstract of Proceedings, 24th November, 1941. A special meeting was held in the Geology Department of the University on Monday, 24th November, at 7.45 p.m., with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair,, to consider a proposed amendment to Rule 19. It was resolved to amend Rule 19 by replacing the amend- ment made in July, 1933, by the following, on the motion of Dr. W. H. Bryan and Prof. H. C. Richards. 4 4 The senior non-official member of Council shall retire anually, and be not eligible for re-election as a non-official member for one year.” Mr. Henry Tryon, C. T. White, and P. A. Perkins spoke against the amendment which was carried. Mr. Henry Tryon then announced his retirement from the Society, as a protest against the passing of the amendment. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 24th November, 1941, at 8 p.m. with the President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. About thirty members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. J. Leeming Scofield, B.Sc., was unanimously elected an Ordinary Member. The report of the special committee to consider "The Royal Society and Post-War Reconstruction” was read, and it was resolved on the motion of Mr. Perkins that it be duplicated and circulated for the consideration of members, and again discussed at an early meeting. Mr. F. A. Perkins gave a brief account of his preliminary study of a large collection of fossil insects from Mt, Crosby. About 6,000 specimens have already been obtained. He showed drawings of some homopterous tegmina which he intends to describe in the near future. Papers on the representatives of other orders will follow. Some of his material was recently obtained by Mr. J. H. Simmonds, senr., who collected the first fossil insects from Denmark Hill, Ipswich, in 1890. Specimens of the wings of Homoptera were tabled. Mr. C. T. White exhibited a fruit of Capparis canescens from Thursday Island. The species was originally collected by Sir J. Banks at the Bay of Inlets. The exhibitor regarded it as one of the commonest and most widely spread members of the genus in Australia. The Chairman expressed the thanks of the meeting to the lecturer and exhibitor. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. XV. The following Institutions, Societies, etc., are on our exchange list, and publications are hereby gratefully acknowledged. Owing to war conditions, many of our ex- changes have temporarily lapsed. Argentine — Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Australia — Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, Canberra. Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Department of Mines, Melbourne. Royal Society of Victoria. Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne. Australian Chemical Institute, Melbourne. Department of Mines, Adelaide. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond. Royal Society of South Australia. Royal Geographical Society of Aus- tralasia, Adelaide. Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery, Adelaide. University of Adelaide. Standards Association of Australia, Sydney. Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Department of Mines, Sydney. Royal Society of New South Wales. Linnean Society of New South Wales. Australian Museum, Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. University of Sydney. Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney. Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane. Department of Mines, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Royal Geographical Society of Aus- tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane. Royal Society of Tasmania. Mines Department, Hobart. Mines Department, Perth Royal Society of Western Australia. North Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Cairns. Department of Fisheries, Sydney. Technological Museum, Sydney. McCoy Society, Melbourne. National Museum, Melbourne. Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Sydney. State Statistician, Queensland. Belgium — Academie Royale de Belgique. Societe Royale de Botanique de Bel- gique. Societe Royale Zoologique de Bel- gique. Brazil — Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janiere. Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y Commereio, Rio de Janiero. Instituto de Biologia Vegetal, Rio de Janeiro. Universidade de Sao Paulo. British Isles — Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. British Museum (Natural History), London. Cambridge Philosophical Society. Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester. Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. Royal Society, London. Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Manchester. Royal Empire Society, London. The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery. Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London. Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst- wyth. Royal Society of Edinburgh. Botancal Society of Edinburgh. Royal Dublin Society. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. Rothamsted Experimental Station. Canada — Department of Mines, Ottawa. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. Royal Society of Canada. Royal Canadian Institute. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Ceylon — Colombo Museum. Cuba — Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana. Universidad de Habana. Denmark — The University, Copenhagen. Finland — Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Helsinki. XVI. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. France — Station Zoologique de Cette. Societe des Sciences naturelles de l’Ouest. Museum d’Histoire naturelle, Paris. Societe botanique de France. Societe geologique et mineralogique de Bretagne. Faculte des Sciences, Marseille. Societe entomologique de France. Germany — Zoologisches Museum, Berlin. Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin. Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin. Naturhistorischer Verein der preus. Rheinland und Westfalens, Bonn. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna. Naturwissenschaftlicher Yerein zu Bremen. Senckenbergische Bibliothek, Frank- furt a. Main. Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Halle. Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg. N aturhistorisch-Medizinischer V erein s, Heidelberg. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig. Bayerische Akademie der Wissen- chaften, Munich. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie. Hawaii — Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Holland — Technische Ploogeschool, Delft. University of Amsterdam. Royal Netherlands Academy. Italy — Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa. Lab. di Entomologia Agraria, Portici. India — Geological Survey of India. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. Japan — Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki, Japan. Imperial University, Kyoto. Imperial University, Tokyo. National Research Council of Japan, Tokyo. Taihoku Imperial University. Tokyo Bunrika Daigaku. Agricultural Chemical Society of Japan. Java — Koninkligk Naturkundige Yereeniging, Weltevreden. Mexico — Instituto Geologico de Mexico. Sociedad Cientifiea “Antonio Alzate/7 Mexico. Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento, Mexico. Observatorio Meterorologieo Central, Tacaibaya. New Zealand — Dominion Museum, Wellington. Royal Society of New Zealand. Auckland Institute and Museum. Dominion Laboratory, Wellington. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. Geological Survey of New Zealand. Peru — Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima. Philippine Islands — Bureau of Science, Manila. Poland — Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow ira Kopernika, Lwow. Societes Savantes Polonaises. University of Lwow. Museum Zool., Warsaw. Geological Institute, Warsaw. Portugal — Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto. Sociedade Broterniana, Coimbra. Instituto Botanico, Coimbra. U.S.S.R. — Academy of Sciences, Leningrad. Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin- grad. Laboratory of Palaeontology, Moscow. Lenin Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Leningrad. Spain — Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de Barcelona. Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid. Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia. Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza. Sweden — Geological Institute of Upsala. Goteborgs Kungl, Vetenskaps. Kungl. Fysiografiska Sallskapets, Lund. Switzerland — Societe de Physique et d ’Histoire naturelle, Geneve. Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich The League of Nations, Geneva. South Africa — Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg. South African Museum, Capetown. Durban Museum, Natal. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. XVII. Gold Coast — Geological Survey. United States op America — United States Geological Survey, Washington. Natural History Survey, Illinois. Lloyd Library, Cincinnati. Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science, and Letters, Madison. California Academy of Sciences. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. University of Minnesota. University of California. Library of Congress, Washington. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Buffalo Society of Natural History. Boston Society of Natural History. American Philosophical Society, Phila- delphia. American Geographical Society, New York. Smithsonian Institute, Washington. Carnegie Institute, Washington. United States Department of Agricul- ture, Washington. Oberlin College, Ohio. National Academy of Science, Wash- ington. Rochester Academy of Sciences. Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- delphia. New York Academy of Science. Indiana Academy of Science. American Academy of Science and Arts, Boston. Institute of Biological Research, Baltimore. John Crerar Library, Chicago. Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus. Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains. Michigan Academy of Arts, Science and Letters. University of Michigan. Minnesota Geological Survey. New York Zoological Society. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. Portland Society of Natural History. San Diego Society of Natural History. Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle. Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis. University of Illinois, Urbana. State College of Washington, Pull- man. Bureau of Standards, Washington. National Research Council, Wash- ington. United States National Museum, Washington. Public Health Service, Washington. Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale. University of California, Los Angeles, California. Bingham Oceanographic Collection. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard. Western Society of Engineers, Chicago. Academy of Science of St. Louis. University of Kansas, Lawrence. Kansas Academy of Science, Law- rence. University of Iowa. Vanderbilt Marine Museum, Hunting- ton. XVIII. LIST OF MEMBERS. List of Members. Honorary Life Members. *Henderson, J. B., O.B.E., F.C.S., 11 Bangamba,” Palardo, via Miles. F.I.C. Simmonds, J. H., senr. . . . . Hillsdon Road, Taringa, Brisbane. *Tryon, H. . . . . . . . . Winifreds, Archer Street, Toowong. Walkom, A.B., D.Sc. . . . . . . Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. Life Members. Hulsen, R. *Jensen, H. I., D.Sc. . . Maitland, A. Gibb Riddell, R. M Tilling, H. W., M.R.S.C. (Eng.), L.R.C.T. (Lond.) Penney ’s, 3rd Floor, Queen Street, Brisbane. P.O. Box 24, South Brisbane. Melville Terrace, South Perth. Department of Public Instruction, Bris- bane. Nairobi, Kenya, Africa. Corresponding Members. *Domin, Dr. K. . . . . . . . . Czech University, Prague. Gregory, Professor W. K. . . . . Columbia University, New York. *Skeats, Prof.. E. W., D.Sc. . . . . The University, Melbourne, Victoria. Ordinary Members. Atherton, D. O., M.Agr.Sc. Bage, Miss A. F., M.Sc. . . *Ball, C. W., M.Sc Ball, L. C., B.E Bambrick, R. Barker, F. Barker, G. H . . ^Bennett, F., B.Sc. Bick, E. W. Bick, I. R., M.Sc. *Blake, S. T., M.Sc Bleakley, J. W Boissard, G. P. D., B.Sc. Booth, F. G., M.D Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Bosworth, F. O., B.A. Boys, R. S., L.D.S. . . *Briggs, Mrs. C. Brimblecombe, A. R., M.Sc. . . *Briton, N. W., B.Vet.Sc Broe, J. J., M.Sc. Brown, Graham, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.S. Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B. (Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge) *Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc *Bryan, W. W., M.Agr.Sc Department of Agriculture and Stock, Toowoomba. Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris- bane. Geological Survey Office, Charters Towers. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane Stock Inspector, Hughenden. Railway Audit Office, Brisbane. Adelaide Street, Brisbane. “Irby, ” 25th North Street, Mackay. Coronation Avenue, St. Lucia, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Department of Native Affairs, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. 113 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Agricultural College, Lawes. P.O. Box 135, Toowoomba, h irst Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Agricultural College, Lawes. Central Technical College, Brisbane. 371 Queen Street, Brisbane. “ Widmoorene, ’ ’ Margaret Street, Too- woomba The University, Brisbane. Agricultural High School and College, Lawes. Members who have contributed papers to the Society. LIST OF MEMBERS. XIX. Buzacott, J. H., M.Sc. Caldwell, N. E. H., M.Agr.Sc. Callaghan, J. P., M.Sc. Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. Carter, S. B.Sc. Chippendale, F., M.Agr.Sc. Christian, C. S., M.Sc. Cilento, Sir R. W., M.D., B.S. Clark, C., M.A Collins, Mrs. E., B.Sc. Coleman, F. B. Connah, T. II., M.Sc. Cottrell-Dormer, W., M.Agr.Sc. Cribb, H. G., B.Sc Croll, Gifford, M.B Cross, Miss M., M.Sc. Cummings, R. P., M.A. ♦Denmead, A. K., M.Sc. Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. . . ♦Dodd, Alan P., O.B.E Donaldson, R. J. *Duhig, J. V., Professor, M.B., F.R.A.C.P. Edmiston, E. S., M.Sc. Ellis, C . B.E. Evans, C. K., M.Sc. Everist, S. L., B.Sc., Ferguson, Miss G., B.Sc. Fisher, N., D.Sc. Fison, D. G., M.Sc., M.B., B.S. .. Ford, F. Campbell Fortescue, L. Fraser, C. S. Fraser, K., B.Sc., B.Sc.App., B.E. . . Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E. . . Gaffney, T Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D. Gipps, F. ♦Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. . . Gray, D. F., B.Vet.Sc Greenham, R., B.Sc. Grenning, Y. *Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S. ♦Gurney, E. H. . . Gutteridge, N. M., M.B., B.S. *Haenke, W. L., M.Sc., B.Sc.App. . . Hall, G., B.Sc Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via Gordonvale. Department of Agriculture and Stocky Nambour. Brisbane General Hospital, Brisbane. Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane. 187 Waterworks Road Ashgrove, W. SL Agricultural Experiment Station, Biloela. Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes. Department of Health, Brisbane. Bureau of Industry, Brisbane. 4 Pearl Avenue, Chatswood, Sydney. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Nukualofa, Tonga. Geological Survey Office, Charters Towers, Sherwood, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. University of Queensland, Brisbane. Geological Survey, Edward Street, Bris- bane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris- bane. care of Gibbs, BTight, and Co., Queen Street, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Forestry Department, Brisbane. Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich. Department of Agriculture, Blackall. Rode Road, Nundah. Government Geologist, Wau, New Guinea. O ’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point. “Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill, Brisbane. New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street, Brisbane. 246 Queen Street, Brisbane. Central Technical College, Brisbane. T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris- bane. Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station, Pinkenba. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. “ Blaina,” Simpson’s Road, Bardon. The University, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Australasian Petroleum Co., Port Moresby. Director of Forests, Lands Department, George Street, Brisbane. care of Chartered Bank of Australia, India, and China, Singapore, S'.S. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Inchcolme, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 45 Locksley Road, Ivanhoe, Melbourne. Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q. * Members who have contributed papers to the Society. XX. LIST OF MEMBERS. •Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Se. Hamon, W. P., B.Agr.Sc. Hanson-Lowe, J., B.Sc. Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S. * Hardy, G. H Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc •Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. •Herbert, D. A., D.Sc. Herdsman, L. P. •Hill, Miss D., M.Sc., Ph.D * Hines, H. J., B.Sc •Hitchcock, L. F., M.Sc. Hirschfield, E., M.D. Hirschfield, O. S., M.B., M.Se. Hoeben, J. G. H., B.Vet.Sc Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc. Jack, Thos. Jackson, K. James, F. W., M.Sc. Jones, B. Jones, Inigo, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.Soc., F.Am.Geog.Soc., F.R.S.A. •Jones, Owen, M.Sc. •Jones, T. G. H., D.Se., A.A.C.I. . . •Just, J. S Kemp, J. R. Kesteven, K. V. L., B.Vet.Sc. Knight, C. L., M.Sc. Kyle, W. M., M.A •Lahey, F. N., M.Sc •Langdon, R. F. N., B.Agr.Sc. •Lee, Professor D. H. K., M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., D.T.M. •Legg, J., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S. •Longman, H. A., F.L.S. Lumb, Professor S. F., D.D.S., L.D.S. Lynch, A. J., M.B., Ch.M. •Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B. . . MacMahon, P. G. Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . . •Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E. •Marks, Miss E. N., M.Sc Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B. . . McConnel, Miss U., M.A. McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P. . . The University, Brisbane. “ Clifton,’ * Ubobo, via Gladstone. Shell Oil Co., Ann Street, Brisbane. “ Blythsdale, ’ ’ Hamilton, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The Southport School, Southport. The University, Brisbane. Biology Department, University, Bris- bane. Government Printing Office, George Street, Brisbane. Geology Department, University, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. School of Veterinary Science, Yeerong- pilly. 33 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 231 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Veterinary Science School, Fairfield Road, Yeerongpilly. P.O. Box 24, South Brisbane. Cunningham Street, Dalby. QX 372, Private C. K., D. Company Head- quarters, 2/9 Battalion, 2nd A.I.F. Abroad. Department of Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane. Superior Oil Co. of New Zealand, Suite 4, National Bank Chambers, Palmer- ston North, New Zealand. Crohamhurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q. The University, Brisbane. Chemistry Department, The University, Brisbane. Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane. Main Roads Commission, Albert Street, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Rabaul, New Guinea. The University, Brisbane. Department of Chemistry, University of Queensland, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. 413 Brunswick S*-eet, Valley, Brisbane. Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T. Health Department, Brisbane. 109 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Cressbrook, via Toogoolawah. ‘ ‘ Fancourt, ’ ’ Wickham Terrace, Bris- bane. Members who have contributed papers to the Society. LIST OF MEMBERS. XXI. McDowall, Val., M.D. McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M. Macpherson, R. K., M.Sc. Meyers, E. S., M.B. Money, Miss B. J., B.Se. Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M. Murphy, Ellis, M.D. . . #Murray, Professor J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr. Newman, Miss A. W., B.Sc. O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc. Ogilvie, C., B.E. ‘Paltridge, T. B., B.Sc. Parker, W. R., L.D.S. ‘Parnell, Professor T., M.A. Payne, W. L. . . ‘Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc. Pennington, R., B.A. ‘Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr. Peters, R. Preston, G. Price, T. A., M.B., B.S ‘Reid, J. H., A.S.T.C Reimann, A. L., D.Sc., Ph.D. *Reye, A. J., M.B. ‘Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc. Riddle, A. R., M.Sc ‘Roberts, F. H. S., D.Sc ‘Robertson, W. T. Robinson, E. V. ‘Robinson, Miss K. W., M.Sc. Roe, A. Stanley, B.A., M.B., B.Ch., F.R.A.C.S. Roe, R., B.Sc. Schindler, C., M.A. Schofield, J. L., B.Sc Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc. Scott, Miss M. I. R., M.Sc Seddon, Professor H. R., D.V.Sc. . . Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E. Shaw, J. G., B.Agr.Sc ‘Shepherd, E. M., B.E ‘Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc. Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. Sims, G. W. Sloan, W. J. S., B.Agr.Sc. 131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Russell Street, Toowoomba. A.I.F., Abroad. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Charters Towers. 97 Wickham Street, Brisbane. Agricultural High School and College, Lawes. care of Dr. Gutteridge, Gympie Road, Kedron. The University, Brisbane. Lands Department, Brisbane. Agricultural College, Lawes. A.M.P. Building, Edward Street, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. Lands Department, Brisbane. Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South Wales. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Gregory Terrace, Brisbane. Toowoomba. Geological Survey Office, Rockhampton. Radiophysics Laboratory, The Univer- sity. Sydney. 97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris- bane. Geology Department, University, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. 47 Croydon Street, Toowong. Box 109, Canberra. The University, Brisbane. 404 Upper Cornwall Street, Greenslopes. Northumberland Hotel, Gympie. The University, Brisbane. Veterinary School, Fairfield Road, Yeerongpilly, S.4. Somerset Dam. Children’s Hospital, Brisbane. 131 Gladstone Road, Highgate Hill. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. 32 Gregory Street, Auchenflower. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Rockhampton. * Members who have contributed papers to the Society. R.S. — DD. XXII. LIST OF MEMBERS. Smith, D. J. W., B.Sc * Smith, F. B., D.Sc., F.I.C Smith, J. H., D.Sc. Smith, L. S., B.Sc. Sparks, H. J. . . Steel, W. H., M.B Stoney, A. J., B.E.E Strong, T. H., M.Agr.Sc. Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc. Tabrett, Miss D., B.Sc. Tarleton, A., M.B. Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M Thelander, C., M.B., Ch.B., F.R.A.C.S. Thomas, L., M.Sc. Thorn, St. G. . . *Tommerup, E. C., M.Sc. Trist, A., M.F., B.Sc. "Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S. . . *Veitch, R., B.Sc. Waddle, I., M.Sc *Wade, A., D.Sc., A.R.C.Sc Wadley, J. B. . . Watkins, S. B., M.Sc. Watson, Miss K., B.A. Webster, H. C., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.P., F.R.M.S. Weddell, J. A Wells, W. G. . * White, C. T White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D *Whitehouse, F. W., D.Sc., Ph.D. . . *Whitehouse, Miss M., M.Sc. Wilkinson, Professor H. J., M.D. . . *Yeates, N. T. M., B.Sc. Department of Health, Brisbane. Hutton ’s Factory, Zillmere. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Care of Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens. 350 Queen Street, Brisbane. Rosemount Hospital, Windsor. The University, Brisbane. Waite Institute, Adelaide, S.A. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Nambour. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. 69 Vulture Street, West End, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Post Office, Stanthorpe. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. P.O. Box 97, Atherton, North Queensland. Forestry Department, Brisbane. Dauphin Street, Highgate Hill. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Brisbane State High School, Musgrave Park, Brisbane. Shell Oil Co., Ann Street, Brisbane. Salt Street, Albion. Mount Cootha Road, S.W.l. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Radiophysics Laboratory, University, Sydney. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Glennie School, Toowoomba. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Archibald, Miss L., M.Sc. Beasley, A. Hardy, Miss M., B.Sc. Hyland, R. Love, V. N. Munro, I. S. R., B.Sc. Riek, E. F. Associate Members. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. . . . . The University, Brisbane. * Members who have contributed papers to the Society. A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. CONTENTS Volume LIII. Pages. No. 1. — Presidential Address: The Surface of Western Queensland. By F. W. Whitehouse, D.Sc., Ph D. . 1_22 No. 2. — Additions to the Mosses of North Queensland. By E. N. Dixon, M.A., F.L.S . . . . . . . . . . . 23-40 No. 3. — The Devonian Tabulata of Douglas and Drummond Creeks, ^ Clermont, Queensland. By 0. A. Jones, M.Sd. ( Cantab . and Qld.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-60 No. 4. — Fragmenta Lepidopterologica. By Jefferis Turner, M.D., F. R.E.S. .. 61-96 No. 5. — Variations in the Vulval Linguiform Process of Haemonchus Contortus. By F. E . S. Roberts, D.Sc 97-100 No. 6. — Note on a Grooved and Polished Granite Surface near Eulo, Western Queensland. By Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.8 . . . . 101-104 No. 7.-— Reactions of Domestic Fowls to Hot Atmospheres. By N. T. M. Yeates, B.Agr.Sc D. E. K. Lee, M.D., M.Sc., D. T.M., and E . J. G . Ernes, B.Se. .. .. .. .. 105-128 No. 8. — Reactions of the Rabbit to Hot Atmospheres. By Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc.. M.D., D.T.M., Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and E. J. G. Ernes, B.Se. . . . . . . . . . . 129-144 No. 9. — Reactions of the Pig to Hot Atmospheres. By Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M. . . . . . . . . 145-158 No. 10. — Reactions of the Cat to Hot Atmospheres. By Kathleen Robmson, M.Sc., and Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M. .. 159-170 No. 11. — Reactions of the Dog to Hot Atmospheres. By Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc., and Douglas E. K. Lee, M.Sc., M.D., D. T.M . . . . . . . . . . . 171-188 No. 12. — Reactions of the Sheep to Hot Atmospheres. By Douglas E. K. Lee , M.Sc., M.D., D.T.M. , and Kathleen Robinson, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . 189-200 No. 13. — Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 7.. By C. T. White, F.L.S . . . . , . . . 201-228 i4, — the Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, III. Burdekin Downs, Fanning R., and Reid Gap, North Queensland. By Dorothy Eill, M.Sc., Ph.D. . . . . 229-268 Report of Council . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . • v.-vi. Abstract of Proceedings . . • • vii.-xiv. List of Library Exchanges .• .. . . .. .. .. .. xv.-xvii. List of Members .. «. .. .. .. .. .. xviii.-xxii. ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1942 VOL. LIV. ISSUED 8th JUNE, 1943. PRICE : FIFTEEN SHILLINGS. Printed for the Society by A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. NOTICE TO AUTHORS. 1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author’s name, degrees and official address. 2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when com- municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible. 3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred words. 4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample margins. 5. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific names, foreign words and titles of periodicals. 6. The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author. 7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at approximately cost price. 8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged alphabetically under authors ’ names, e.g , Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Eoy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207. Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309. The corresponding references in the text should be: 1 1 Keilin (1929)”, “Lesage (1895)”. 9. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x 4$ in., and drawings may be to this size, or preferably to a convenient small multiple thereof. The effect of the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should be borne in mind. Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width not exceeding 4 in. 10. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as good India ink, on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. Excessively fine, scratchy or faint lines are to be avoided. Tints or washes cannot be reproduced in line drawings, in which the maximum degree of contrast is necessary. 11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible, be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or mounted on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most drawing papers becomes visible on reproduction. Single photographs should be sent flat and unmounted. All prints should be on glossy bromide or gas-light paper. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY QUEENSLAND FOR 1942 VOL. LIV. ISSUED 8th JUNE, 1943. PRICE : FIFTEEN SHILLINGS- Printed for the Society by A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. The Royal Society of Queensland. Patron : HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABLE SIE LESLIE OEME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O., LL.D. OFFICERS, 1942. President : Professor D. K. H. LEE, M.Sc., M.D., B.S., D.T.M. Vice-Presidents : Professor H. E, SEDDON, D.V.Sc. Professor J. BOSTOCK, M.B., B.S., M.E.C.S., L.E.C.P., D.P.M., F.E.A.C.P. Hon Treasurer: Hon Secretary: E. W. BICK. DOEOTHY HILL, succeeded by MAEGAEET I. E. SCOTT. Hon. Librarian : KATHLEEN WATSON, B.A. Hon. Editors: S. T. BLAKE, M.Sc. A. K. DENMEAD, M.Sc. Members of Council: Professor E. W. HAWKEN, B.A., M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.Aust., Wr. H. BEYAN, M.C., D.Sc., I. E. BICK, M.Sc., E. A. PEEKINS, B.Sc.Agr., H. J. HINES, B.Sc. Trustees : E. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDEESON, F.I.C., and A. J. TEENER, M.D., F.E.E.S. CONTENTS. .ns Volume LIV. Pages. No. 1. — Presidential Address: The Influence of Wild Animals in the Dissemination of Diseases of Livestock in Australia. By H. R. Seddon, D.V.Sc. (Issued separately, 7th July, 1942) 1-12 No. 2. — The Lower Devonian Rugose Corals from the Mount Etna Limestone, Queensland. By Dorothy Rill, M.Sc., Fh.D. (Issued separately, 7th July, 1942) . . . . . . . . 13-22 No. 3. — Ergot of Native Grasses in Queensland. By R. F. Langdon, B.Agr.Sc. (Issued separately, 26th August, 1942) . . . . 23-32 No. 4. — The Eggs and Early Larvae of the Australian Barred Spanish Mackerel, Scomheromorus commersoni (Lacepede), with preliminary notes on the Spawning of that Species. By Ian S. R. Munro, B.Sc. (Issued separately, 26th August, 1942) 33-48 No. 5. — Some New Leaf-Hoppers from Australia and Fiji. By J. W. Evans, D.Sc. (Issued separately, 23rd November, 1942) . . 49-51 No. 6. — A Re-Interpretation of the Australian Palaeozoic Record Based on a Study of the Rugose Corals. By Dorothy Hill, Ph.D., D.Sc. (Issued separately, 3rd February, 1943) . . 53-66 No. 7. — Psychological Mechanisms Illustrated by Cartoons and the Comic Strip. By J. Bostock, M.D., M.R.C.S. (Issued separately, 29th March, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . 67-68 No. 8. — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae, VI. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. (Issued separately, 29tli March, 1943) . . . . . . . . 69-74 No. 9. — Coleocarya, a New Genus of the Restionaceae from South- East Queensland. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. (Issued separately, 29th March, 1943) 75-77 Report of Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v.-vi. Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii.-xiv. List of Library Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv.-xvii. List of Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii.-xxii. SEP 28 943 Vol. LIV., No. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. Presidential Address: THE INFLUENCE OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE DISSEMINATION OF DISEASE OF LIVESTOCK IN AUSTRALIA. By H. R. Seddon, D.V.Sc., School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, (Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th March, 1942.) The selection of a suitable subject for a Presidential Address not uncommonly presents some difficulty. A president may, if a specialist, parade his particular line of study, embodying his own researches, or, if he feels he has a sufficient grip of the subject give the “ recent advances” type of address. Both are admirable, but — and my own selection may fail to escape the pitfall — this type of address is usually more suited for those interested in one’s own science. I feel great difficulty indeed in selecting a subject of sufficiently wide interest, and one which I can feel confident is suitable to place before a Society charged with the advancement of science. However, as science is organised thought or study, I feel that if I select as the subject a plea for a study of a certain phase of our Australian livestock environment, giving reasons, and can relate that to practical considerations, it may have the merit of being at least an attempt at scientific advancement, VETERINARY SCIENCE AND THE WAR. Unfortunately one cannot plead that this address is related to war effort. Veterinary Science is essentially a peace-time avocation. Certainly, some famous Roman generals were what we would now term veterinarians, but it is to be remembered that the Romans used large numbers of horses for chariot and pack purposes. The World War of 1914-18 saw cavalry used extensively by us on at least one front, but in the British forces cavalry has now been replaced by mechanised units. Knowing from personal experience the privations that our dumb servant, the horse, had to undergo in the last War, I cannot but be thankful that at least those innocent participants have been spared the effects of modern warfare. (Incidentally, it may be mentioned, however, that though it is generally believed that our enemies are entirely mechanised, such is far from the case. Official figures for example, show that very large numbers of horses were used by the Germans for their Polish and French campaigns, and the statement has been made that the former campaign would have been impossible without the use of horses.) r.s. — A. 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. In regard to other phases of our war activity, the contributions of veterinary science have been purely indirect. In Australia the aim of our agricultural and pastoral industries has been to keep up, and in certain cases to increase, production, always with the aim of ensuring the supply of sufficient foodstuffs for Britain, ourselves, and our allies. In so far as livestock is concerned, the veterinarian’s part has been to continue his normal peace-time aim, namely, the avoidance of loss from disease and the maintenance of health. Thus disease-control measures have been maintained, and we have not seen that slackening of control over epidemic diseases which is always liable to occur when man-power and financial effort are mobilised for war purposes. Research work of no small value has continued to be done, and remedies unknown in pre-war years are now being applied by the stockowner — to lessen economic loss. In one case at least, unfortunately, the application of this newer knowledge cannot be utilised to the full owing to wartime necessities making the importation of the remedy in question a difficult matter. Though veterinarians, as such, are being employed by the army to only a limited extent, many have entered other units where their specialised knowledge is being utilised. THE AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION. At the time of writing, this country, in common with other parts of the British Empire, is fighting for all that our national life has, or we thought had, given us — peace, security, freedom of thought, freedom to develop this land, not for the benefit of ourselves alone, but for that of mankind in general. In various fields of human endeavour Australians have made no small contribution. They have progressively developed an untamed country from the stage in which the natural resources were being exploited without thought of the future, to that where, by the improve- ment of soil fertility, conservation of soil, of forests, and of water, they were actually attempting to make it a better habitat for man. Our flocks and herds have become of importance not only because of their numbers but by reason of their quality, and from a recognition of what has been attained with the merino sheep, we were progressing toward the evolution, in other species of animals, of a comparable degree of suitability to Australian conditions. The developments in agriculture, pastoral husbandry, and dairying have long passed the empirical stage and scientific aids to further successful development of the livestock industries have rapidly been advanced. From small beginnings we have seen spring up a national organisation for animal research, co-ordinating and amplifying the work done by individual States of the Commonwealth. The body undertaking this, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, now possesses institutions and laboratories of a type, and staff of a calibre, of which any country might well be proud. Truly, a progressively planned system of development, in which scientific effort was being rapidly organised to meet all needs of the farming and stockowning community. INFLUENCE OF WILD ANIMALS IN DISSEMINATION OF DISEASE, ETC. 3 As might be expected, the more pressing and immediate problems received attention first and the study of many of the more fundamental problems has perforce had to wait. But all who are concerned with what may be termed “ pressing problems” or economic research, know full well that, from time to time, our progress is hampered by lack of fundamental studies. The livestock owner is concerned with problems of nutrition, breeding, and disease, and naturally he is chiefly interested to learn something immediately applicable. Nevertheless, whilst he has been supplied with answers to some of the more immediate problems, basal studies on nutrition and breeding have been not only inaugurated but carried on to the extent that fundamental study has provided a basis upon which has been erected a superstructure of other researches, with results capable of immediate application. In regard to nutrition we have gone deeper, and a study has been made of various phases of the Australian environment which produces ohr foodstuffs. I refer to soil, water, and climate. The native flora has been studied extensively so that we have a relatively complete knowledge of it, particularly for those parts where stock are grazed, and our knowledge of the inter-effect of native vegetation and animal production is being constantly explored. But when we turn to the native fauna, we find that while there has been a considerable amount of knowledge accumulated as to what animals we have here, and their habits, there is a serious lack in our knowledge of the relationship of our native fauna to animal health. It is not proposed to-night to deal with all our native animals — only with some — and also, as they have much in common, with those animals which, though introduced, have attained a wild state. THE ORIGIN OP DISEASE. There are many types of disease, but for our purpose we can divide diseases into those which originate within the animal body and those which come from without. The latter are in many cases communicable from animal to animal and therefore are liable to be spread, leading to sickness and death of many individuals. The very fact that these diseases are spread' or disseminated shows that some agent — some body or substance — passing from the diseased animal to a healthy one is necessary to bring about this type of disease. The study of these agents thus becomes important. Not only must the veterinarian find out the nature of the agent, or infection as we call it, he must study the sources of the infection, how the infection may be spread, if It passes direct from animal to animal, if it is carried by some insect vector, how long it can remain alive on pasture, or in the soil, and how such infection enters the body of another animal. From these studies, of course, is built up the practice of what is termed preventive medicine, that important field of activity the aim of which is to prevent the serious economic loss which otherwise would occur. One may well ask, seeing that animals commonly contract disease from one another, directly or indirectly — to what extent are our wild animals concerned in the dissemination of disease of livestock? 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. NEWER KNOWLEDGE OF SPECIES SUSCEPTIBILITY. We have been rather prone to accept things as they seem, or as we have been taught; but I suggest that within recent years there has been no more fruitful line of investigation than to question matters that for long have been accepted as “proven,” or regarding which it has been felt that our studies have fully probed the depths. I do not feel competent to say how far this is true of other sciences, but in biological sciences many things which had been accepted as true have been rudely shattered. In relation to animal disease this has been particularly striking when we look into the question of the susceptibility of various animal species to agents responsible for animal disease. Consider the following examples : There is a disease of horses known as African Horse Sickness. Peculiar to the southern part of that continent, it had been shown to be due to a virus, and from the fact that animals could be protected by keeping them in gauzed stables it was assumed that the infection was carried by some flying insect. The usual small laboratory animals, and other domestic animals except perhaps the dog, could not be infected, and it was tacitly assumed they were insusceptible. Research, therefore, involved using horses, with all the attendant difficulties of cost of animals, of feed and of accommodation, and progress was inevitably slow. Then a worker found, by adopting a special technique, that mice could be infected. Much of the difficulty of research disappeared and in a relatively short time much important new knowledge was amassed. Foot and Mouth Disease of Cattle is manifested by an eruption of vesicles ( i.e blisters) on the feet and the mucous membrane of the mouth. Difficulty in research has been chiefly from the fact that this disease was believed to be confined to ungulates (i.e., cloven-hoofed animals) and from the difficulty of preventing accidental spread of the disease by fodder or litter soiled by diseased animals. To guard against accidental spread of infection among or from experimental animals, Germany erected a special experimental station on an island in the Baltic. Great Britain conducted the first of her important investiga- tions on an obsolete battleship, later building a very large and expensive station for research purposes. Like African Horse Sickness the disease is due to a virus which cannot readily be cultivated, so that here again research was very costly. Patient workers, however, found that by injection of the virus into the plantar pad of the guinea-pig this animal could be infected. It could not be infected, however, in any other manner. Imagine the simplification in research work, for now investiga- tions involving hundreds of animals could go on1 simultaneously ! Although rigorous isolation of infected and non-inf ected had to be maintained, this could be done without difficulty and at relatively small cost. As the occurrence of outbreaks of Foot and Mouth Disease in Britain was studied, however, it became apparent that there was some unknown method of transmission from farm to farm As rigorous isolation methods had been practised it was thought that some other INFLUENCE OF WILD ANIMALS IN DISSEMINATION OF DISEASE, ETC. 5 animal over which it was not possible to exert control might be conveying infection, and birds and rats were suspected. Finally it was found that the hedgehog might become infected. This important observation suggested a possible explanation of a hitherto unexplainable method of spread of the disease. Another phase of animal disease that has been extensively studied of recent years, largely because it is only comparatively recently that it has been recognised to occur, is the presence of “inapparent cases” of disease. We now know that in the case of many diseases, of man as well as of the lower animals, the readily seen clinical” cases represent only a portion of the number of cases which actually occur. It was earlier assumed that most, if not all, of these animals either had passed through an attack and shown symptoms, or would later show symptoms. We now know of many cases where animals may contract a disease and, worse still, retain the infection, yet appear perfectly healthy and remain so. To say that a disease is accompanied by a certain train of symptoms is therefore only part of the truth. We have had some rude shocks in this connection when it has been discovered that the disease has been maintained, in this fashion, in some wild animal reservoir. Sometimes the animal, and a wild one at that, belongs to the same natural order in the animal kingdom as the animal commonly attacked. But at other times it does not. The hedgehog, for example, can be infected not only with the virus of Foot and Mouth Disease but with that of Fowl Plague, and this latter is particularly significant when we remember that, in general, diseases of birds affect only birds. Let me briefly review what happened in connection with Psittacosis or Parrot Fever — Psittacosis (or Parrot Fever) was first recognised as a disease of man and parrots about 1890, but it was not until 1930 that its true cause was discovered. Its seriousness was emphasized in 1929 and 1930 because of the large number of human infections recognised in Europe and North America, these being attributed to importation of infected parrots from South America. The importation of parrots into North America was therefore prohibited, and it was hoped that this would lead to a cessation of cases, as man contracts Psittacosis directly from parrots by inhaling dust from the birds or from their cages. However, cases still continued to occur, and on investigation the source was found to be American-bred budgerigars. The budgerigar is, or was, bred on a large scale in California owning to its popularity as a cage bird and to the many colour varieties that may be obtained by selective breeding. Investigations showed that over half of the aviaries examined were infested with Psittacosis, and to ensure having disease-free birds for his investigations Meyer imported 200 wild budgerigars from Australia. Shortly after arrival a number of these developed Psittacosis, notwith- standing the precautions that were taken. The scene now changes to 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Australia, for, when Burnet examined our wild parrots he found that Psittacosis was common amongst them, quite unknown to us. Though present in various wild parrots — cockatoos, parrakeets and lories — -these birds commonly carry only a latent infection, the disease manifesting itself only when the resistance of the bird is lowered by overcrowding, lack of exercise and insanitary surroundings. The important point about Psittacosis is that in Australia we have this very good example of a wild bird acting as a quite unsuspected reservoir of infection. Since then, and quite recently, it has been found that other wild birds than the Psittaciformes, and even domestic birds such as the canary and pigeon, may become infected with Psittacosis if brought into contact with infected parrots or budgerigars. May I recall some facts regarding Rabies, the dread Hydrophobia, against which the renowned Pasteur was able to produce a vaccine away back in 1885 ? This vaccine not only protects against the disease, but, if used sufficiently early after the patient has been bitten by a mad dog, prevents the development of symptoms and so wards off the disease. So common is this disease in parts of America and Europe, and parti- cularly in tropical countries, that special bacteriological institutes are maintained in many of these countries solely for the preparation of vaccine, the number of persons treated annually running into hundreds of thousands. Rabies in man follows a bite by a dog affected with the disease, the diseased dog commonly running amok and snapping persons and animals in its path. The causative virus is present in the saliva and thus the wound brought about by the bite is readily infected. Domesticated animals other than dogs may be infected, but usually play little part in the dissemination of the disease, which in most countries is carried on by transmission from one dog to another. Cattle, sheep, horses and pigs — in fact all animals — may contract the complaint if bitten by a rabid dog. As the disease commonly takes weeks, and may take months, to develop, it therefore does not require a large dog population to keep it going, though naturally rabies is commoner in those countries which have a large wild dog or wolf population. In two countries, however, the disease is carried on in quite a different manner, though this was not discovered until comparatively recently. In South Africa, Rabies has been known to occur for over a hundred years, mostly in dogs though sometimes in cattle, whilst from time to time natives and even Europeans contracted the disease— always from a dog bite. Certainly it had been recognised that the bite of a native cat (the genet cat) was likely to be fatal, but that such was due to Rabies was not recognised until 1928. It has since been found that the disease is kept going in other wild animals, these including, in the order of their importance: — The Yellow Mongoose ( Cynictis penicillata) The Spotted Genet {Oenetta felina) The Wild Cats (Felis ocreata & F . negripes) INFLUENCE OF WILD ANIMALS IN DISSEMINATION OF DISEASE, ETC. 7 The Suricate ( Suricata suricatta ) The Ground Squirrel ( Geosciurus capensis ) The Small Grey Mongoose ( Myonax canni ) The Pole Cat or Skunk {let onyx stnatus) The Jackal ( Cynalopex chama) . Truly a numerous and varied collection, particularly when one realises that to these must be added all of the numerous species of wild carnivora of the African continent ! The important thing from our point of view, however, is that in Africa it is the small wild carnivora which are important, and not the larger ones such as the Canidae. If Rabies did gain entrance here our population of dingoes and wild dogs, and possibly the fox, would make control of the disease difficult over a large part of the Continent. Turning to the South American continent we find that whilst Rabies is conveyed to human beings by the bite of a dog affected with the disease, cattle and sheep are infected in quite a different manner. Thus, in Trinidad alone during the years 1929, 1930 and 1931 a thousand cattle each year died of Rabies, the disease resulting from attack by the vampire bat Desmodus rufus. In other parts of South America, another species of bat ( Phyllostoma super ciliatum) is the vector. Thus we find that wffiat has for long indeed been looked upon as essentially a disease of dogs may be perpetuated in wild animals of a very different kind — and, and more important, the fact has not been recognised until comparatively recently. One could go on multiplying instances of infection of wild animals with diseases of domesticated livestock, but two further examples will suffice. Rinderpest, one of the most serious cattle plagues, is spread by wild game in Rhodesia, whilst a wild member of the Suidae (the Wart Hog) acts as a reservoir for Swine Fever in Kenya. Six years ago natural cases of Equine encephalomyelitis were thought to be confined to horses and man, though the guinea-pig, rabbit and mouse could be infected. Last year, however, Equine encephalo- myelitis was detected in dogs in America. We now know that many other species of mammals and even birds may be infected with this disease. In summary, we may say that a review of present knowledge regarding the infectivity for native fauna of communicable diseases of likestock shows — ( a ) that certain diseases which at one time were believed to affect only domestic stock are now known to be capable of infecting certain wild animals. (b) that recognition of the extent to which wild animal reservoirs (i.e. apparently healthy but infected animals) occur is a , comparatively recent discovery. 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. (c) that from time to time additional wild animals — previously unsuspected — have been found to be capable of being infected and to play a part in the dissemination of diseases in stock. (d) that many diseases are even less host-specific than we thought, often being capable of infecting animals of widely different orders, and that what appears to be essentially a mammalian disease may be capable of infecting birds, and vice versa. Thus the fact that there are no indigenous representatives of the Equidae, Bovidae or Suidae in Australia is not necessarily a safeguard for our farm stock. OUR WILD ANIMALS AND DISEASE OF LIVESTOCK. What justification is there, however, for assuming that Australian wild fauna may play a part in the dissemination of disease of domesti- cated livestock? Frankly, I do not know and that is what I feel we should know. Of the diseases I have mentioned, none except Psittacosis occurs in Australia, and insofar as the great animal plagues are concerned, this continent is remarkably free. Just to the north and north-west of us, however, in the Dutch East Indies, Malaya, Indo-China and even Japan, all of those diseases I have mentioned, and others nearly as serious, are well established. Though a considerable measure of control is exercised in some of these countries, and we take all precautions to keep these diseases out, there is no doubt that the possibility of the introduction and dissemination of such diseases here has been enormously increased by reason of the breakdown in disease control which inevitably accompanies extensive military activities. Actually, if such a disease as Foot and Mouth Disease or Rinderpest gained entrance to Northern Australia, it would spread right through our cattle population, and could not be controlled until it came south- ward to more settled parts where strict control over all movement of stock could be exercised. In the far north, the spread of these diseases would doubtless be facilitated by the buffalo, the descendants of the Swamp buffaloes imported from Timor in 1824 and now roaming wild. One wonders, however, if kangaroos and wallabys might not be able to spread Foot and Mouth Disease. No one knows, but the fact that these marsupials have a long tarsal pad, not unlike that of the guinea- pig, and that it is the occurrence of this pad in the guinea-pig (and the pressure exerted on it) that allows that animal to be infected, seems significant. Seeing that the hedgehog can be infected, one wonders if our native echidna can. It is not likely, however, that this latter would be important in spreading this disease. Some years ago Rinderpest did get into Australia, but in the vicinity of the port of Fremantle. This was probably the place from which it could most easily be eradicated, and this in fact was accom- plished. It might be mentioned that an attempt was made to infect kangaroos experimentally, but owing to the difficulty of isolation it was deemed wise to discontinue the test, and we do not yet know if marsupials may carry Rinderpest. The importance of the marsupial INFLUENCE OF WILD ANIMALS IN DISSEMINATION OF DISEASE, ETC. 9 lies in the fact that it occurs not only in the unsettled interior but also in the bush and scrub near some of the more closely settled areas, entering our stock paddocks from time to time. If Rabies got into Australia there are of course the dingo and other wild dogs, foxes, and probably native cats, which could convey it. One wonders, however, if there may not be other possible vectors (e.g. Nycteridae and some of our marsupials). There are however, other diseases which would be serious indeed to us if they got a footing here, and it is suggested that if one or other became established in our native fauna (animal or bird) we might well be in the unenviable position that they are in other countries, viz. that, unless the wild life in question is exterminated the disease cannot be controlled. The danger from our native fauna is largely a potential one and has been safeguarded up to the present by the fact that diseases of the type likely to be carried by them, or to be established in them, do not, occur in Australia. I can recall only two diseases in which our native fauna play a part. They are both diseases of man, not of domesticated stock. One (mentioned earlier) is Psittacosis or Parrot Fever, the other Q Fever in Queensland, which latter disease was shown by Derrick to have its reservoir in the Bandicoot. Our mammals are relatively so few, particularly as to numbers, and they occur so little in close relationship to stock ; whilst our marsupials and monotremes are so different from the higher orders that possibly the risk of our native fauna playing any important part in the dissemination of communicable disease of domesticated stock is negligible. Nevertheless, it is felt1 that the matter deserves investigation. In addition to what would ordinarily be termed communicable disease, however, there is the matter of parasites. Internal parasites are remarkably host-specific and the native fauna are not infested with the worms which trouble domesticated stock such as sheep and cattle. The external parasites are not always so host-specific and it is of interest to note that the common cattle tick ( Boophilus australis ) has been taken from a kangaroo. As deer in the United States have been found to carry cattle tick, it is important for us to know on just what animals our particular cattle tick can develop, and here I may say that Dr. F. IT. S. Roberts of this Society had commenced to investigate this problem when he was called up for military duty. We have another tick, however, Ixodes liolocyclus, the common host of which is the bandicoot and which is a grave menace inasmuch as when it gets on dogs or calves, sometimes even on grown cattle, it causes a fatal paralysis. This paralysis is brought about by a poison injected by the tick. Additionally it may be mentioned that there is another indigenous: tick, the Kangaroo Tick ( Argas Gurney i- Warburtoni) which is endowed with toxic properties. There are no records of its affecting livestock, but in man the bite is followed by quite serious symptoms. Perhaps the fact that the tick is apparently confined to the sparsely settled central part of Australia is responsible for no ill-effects on cattle or horses being seen. The opportunity for them getting on stock, however, is not great, as the kangaroo tick R.S. B. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. apparently occurs only in the soil under trees, bushes, etc., on kangaroo camps, in wallaby caves and such places. Mention might be made of still another tick — the Brown Dog Tick ( Rhipicepkalus sanguineus)— common in Brisbane but even more so in North Queensland. With us it does no more than worry the dogs that it infests, but in many tropical and sub-tropical countries it carries a piroplasm, this organism causing a very fatal disease of dogs (Maligant Jaundice). We sincerely hope it may be possible to prevent this piroplasm getting into Australia, for if it did the results would be indeed serious. More important perhaps than our native mammals is the possi- bility of our native birds becoming infected with some of those exotic mammalian diseases which have, more recently, been shown to be capable of infesting birds. (One thinks here of such diseases as Equine encephalomyelitis and Tularaemia ) . Additionally we have, of course, wild animals of another type — those which have been introduced but gone wild. Mention has been made of the swamp buffalo, but in addition there are the camel, rabbit, hare, fox, deer and pig; vermin such as rats and mice; and such birds as the sparrow, pheasant and quail. The Buffalo Fly probably came in with buffaloes imported from Timor in 1824. (The Cattle Tick and the Worm nodule parasite, however, introduced in 1872, apparently came in with cattle from the Netherland East Indies). Surra was brought in with a certain lot of camels, but as those infected were destroyed the disease did not become established here. Rabbits and hares have been found to be affected with liver-fluke of sheep and cattle, and if these rodents are prevalent on properties where fluke eradication is being practised, their presence militates against its success. The fox has been shown in Victoria to be a common host for that dog tapeworm from which the disease known as Sheep Measles results and recognition of this fact has shown the futility of any attempt to control this parasite by drug treatment of dogs alone. The fox also acts as a host for the heartworm of dogs, a disease of very common occurrence in Queensland. In most cases, however, the parasite is conveyed direct from dog to dog, being transmitted by mosquitoes. So far as I know, deer have not been found to be responsible for conveying diseases of domesticated stock in Australia. Wild pigs on the other hand contract Anthrax from eating the carcases of sheep or cattle which have died of it, and by tearing carrion about, assist in the dissemination of this disease. Fortunately, these pigs are localised to certain areas and show little tendency to migrate. Among introduced animals are certain rats, and at least one species ( Rattus norvegicus) is important as a reservoir and transmitter of the infection of Weil’s Disease (Leptospirosis), which affects dogs and man. The usual history with dogs is that the animal has been hunting rats. Infection occurs through rat bites or scratches contaminated with blood of the rat. It may even pass through the intact skin or mucous membrane. The fact that water of sewers or drains may be infected by rats increases the hazard, inasmuch as the leptospirae may pass through the skin of a dog (or for that matter of a man) which has been wetted by such water, instances of which have been found in Brisbane by Gray. INFLUENCE OF WILD ANIMALS IN DISSEMINATION OF DISEASE, ETC. 11 Thus, in the case of some of the diseases present in Australia our non-indigenous wild animals do play a part. They are capable, how- ever, of playing a much more serious part were certain exotic diseases to get a footing here. Deer, for example, incapable of being controlled, could easily be serious in the case of Foot and Mouth Disease, as they are in parts of Europe. Mention might be made of another introduced animal, a reptile, the Giant Toad ( Bufo marinus) which was introduced into the Canelands of the North from Hawaii to combat certain insects parasitising sugar- cane. Though it does not transmit any disease, it, like venomous snakes, is not without effect on animals which come in contact with its poison- glands. Thus in Fiji, dogs which tackle the giant toad are liable to be poisoned and serious symptoms, if not death, have resulted. Little trouble seems to have been caused to dogs in Queensland, but snakes swallowing the toads are said to be poisoned. Venomous snakes in Australia there are in plenty, but authenti- cated instances of death of domesticated animals, other than dogs, from snakebite are few, and snakes do not appear to be a serious factor in relation to the health of livestock. OTHER ASPECTS OF STUDIES OF DISEASE OF WILD ANIMALS. • We must not view too narrowly our search for knowledge and a study of disease as met with in wild animals is important, even if it is finally shown1 that a particular disease is not transmissible to domestic livestock but is peculiar to some wild species. If this phase were not studied we should have misconceptions, such as that which assumes that because a parasite forms what can properly 'be termed a hydatid cyst, it must necessarily be the hydatid cyst which is capable of infecting man. Thus, one has heard it suggested that there is a danger to man from the hydatids so commonly seen in wild rabbits — a fallacy, not only because of non-identity of the rabbit parasite with the human species but from a lack of understanding of the essentials of the life history of hydatid parasites. The resemblance of a species affecting some wild animal species to that of domestic stock may be close indeed — so close that expert examina- tion is necessary, and when both are capable of affecting some common species, it is no wonder confusion is liable to occur. (One thinks here of Echidnophaga gallinacea and E. myrmecobei, the Poultry and the Wild Life Stickfast fleas, both capable however of infesting dogs.) Comparison of disease in wild animals and domesticated livestock, moreover, brings to light, strange differences. For example, whilst the maggot of the bot-fly of the horse lives in the stomach of that animal and that of the sheep bot-fly infests its nasal chambers, the kanga'roo bot-fly maggot prefers to attach itself to the lining of the windpipe. Studies of this nature may go further, however, and from a study of these apparently unimportant facts there may be gleaned knowledge of immense importance in relation to some aspect of the harmful disease of animals brought about by an allied species. 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. In certain countries, notably North America and Europe, fur-bearing wild animals are now propagated extensively in captivity, the industry — “fur farming,” as it is called — having attained very extensive propor- tions indeed. Three necessary factors for success are the provision of suitable breeding conditions, proper feeding, and control of disease. Thus veterinary literature now contains results of numerous investiga- tions into these questions. These are cases, however, when the investiga- tion is dictated purely to ensure success of the industry and whilst some of these diseases may be communicable to domestic stock, the majority are not. ORGANISATION OF WILD LIFE INVESTIGATIONS. For these various reasons certain countries have set up what have become quite extensive facilities for the investigation of all aspects of wild animal life, but particularly the habits, nutrition and diseases of such animals. Thus the United States Department of Agriculture has its Bureau of Biological Survey, and South Africa and Germany similar organisations, whilst the influence of wild animals in certain diseases has been extensively studied in Equatorial Africa, parts of South America and Britain. Our efforts here have been few and spasmodic and one cannot help but feel that we should do more. It is realised that the present is not the time to press for investiga- tions in this direction, but it is hoped that the time is not far distant when an attempt will be made to organise an investigation into disease in wild animals, particularly our native fauna, if only to study their influence on the health of domesticated livestock. Vol. LIV., No. 2. 13 THE LOWER DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS FROM THE MT. ETNA LIMESTONE, QLD. By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D., Department of Geology, University of Queensland. (Plate I.) (. Received 9th January, 1942; read before the Royal Society of Queensland 21th April, 1942; issued separately.) Summary: In this paper the Rugose coral fauna of the Mt. Etna limestone near Rockhampton is described, and is considered to indicate a Coblenzian (top of the lower Devonian) age. Approximate identity of age for the Garra Beds of New South Wales is suggested. The Rugosa from the Mt Etna limestone are as follows : — Family Acanthophyllidae. A canthopfiy Hum sp. Acanthophyllum sp. or Lyrielasma sp. Acanthophyllum sp. or Dohmophyllum sp. Family Caleeolidae Calceola sp. Rhiz&phyllum cf. enorme Etheridge. Cystimorphs. ' ‘ C ystiphyUum ” sp . Family Disphyllidae. Phillip sastraea carinata sp. nov. Family Heliophyllidae. Radiophyllum arborescens (Hill and Jones). Family Mycophyllidae. Chlamydophyllum expansum sp. nov. Pseudamplexus princeps (Etheridge). Family Pilophyllidae. Sinospongophyllum abrogatum sp. nov. Family Rhabdocyclidae. Tryplasma sp. The specimens are all from the very massive Mt. Etna limestone, where it outcrops at the northern foot of Mt. Etna, in portions 119, 120 and 121, and Reserve R 444, Parish of Fitzroy, near Rockhampton, Queensland. They are now housed in the Department of Geology of the University, having been collected at various times by myself, Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, Mr. J. H. Reid or Mr. J. Ridgway. Age of the Fauna: The association of Rhizophyllum with Calceola, the former being not known in Europe above the lower Coblenzian Nehou limestone, and the latter not known below the lower Couvinian cultrijugatus beds, suggests an upper Coblenzian age. The occurrence of Radiophyllum arborescens, which is closely similar to Radiophyllum cailliaudi (Barrois) from the upper Coblenzian Erbray limestone of France, and of Chlamydophyllum, a genus known in Europe only from R.S. — C. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. the Lower Devonian Koneprus limestone of Bohemia, supports this determination. Try plasma is not known in Europe above the Coblenzian barrandei beds of Graz, in Austria. Sinospmigophyllum and Phillip - sastraea are both genera which belong to high horizons in the Devonian of Europe and Asia, but Phillipsastraea is known from the Lower Devonian of Victoria. The Acanthophyllids present are not specially indicative of age. Thus a Coblenzian age for the Mt. Etna limestone is very probable. The fauna is very similar to that of the Garra beds of New South Wales (Hill and Jones, 1940) ; both contain Radiophyllum arborescens, Uhizophyllum, P seudamplexus princeps, Tryplasma and Acanthophyllids, and it is thought that this similarity indicates an approximate identity of age. The occurrence of Chlamydophyllum expansum in the Mt. Etna limestone and in the Silverwood limestones indicates that there can be no great difference in age between the two. The Silverwood limestones have previously been deduced to be lower Couvinian (Hill, 1940). Family ACANTHOPHYLLIDAE ; Hill, 1939, p. 220; 1942, p. 234. Genus Acanthophyllum Dybowski; Hill, loc. cit. Acanthophyllum sp. (PL I, figs. 2a, b). Two small individuals, F5199, F5202, each engulfed in Stromat- oporoids, are referable to this genus. They are each about 8 mm. in diameter and appear to have been slenderly conical. There are 22 or 23 straight septa of each order, the major extending unequally to the axis without curvature, and the minor being a little over half as long. The septa of both orders are rather strongly dilated in the dissepimen- tarium; the dilatation is a little irregular, suggesting carination, but is not so complete as to close the interseptal loculi. The axial ends of the major septa are carinate, and in vertical section the carinae are seen to be parallel to the upper edge of the septum, descending some- what steeply from dissepimentarium to axis. The dissepiments are small, rather elongate, and steeply inclined. The tabularium is about one third the diameter of the corallum, and the tabellae are rather flattened and close, arranged in concave tabular floors with a median notch. These two specimens are conspecific ; they resemble a specimen (Hill and Jones, 1940, pi. ii, fig. 2) from the Garra beds of New South Wales very closely, the chief difference being that their dissepiments are more closely packed and less globose than those of the Garra specimen. Acanthophyllum sp. or Lyrielasma sp. One specimen, F 5203, shows a number of unequal small individuals engulfed in a Stromatoporoid, in such a manner as to suggest that they are parts of a fasciculate corallum, although sections failed to show connections. In internal structure the largest of the corallites is almost identical with the two specimens described above as Acanthophyllum sp., and it is possible that all three are members of the same species. Should the species prove to be fasciculate, it might be better transferred to Lyrielasma , whose genotype is a fasciculate Acanthophyllid. Acanthophyllum sp. or Dohmophyllum sp. (PI. I, figs, la, b.) One specimen, F5234, is very similar in external form to that figured by Edwards and Haime (1851, pi. x, figs. 1, la) as Cyatho- phyllum heterophyllum, the type species of Acanthophyllum . Thus it THE LOWER DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS, ETC. 15 is trochoid and slightly curved, with a very deep calicular pit and a broad, rather flat calicular margin, a little everted. Its diameter is about 35 mm. at a height of about 40 mm. A transverse section shows that there are 31 septa of each order at a diameter of 25 mm., and that both orders are dilated, dilatation being greatest in the inner parts of the dissepimentarium, and decreasing towards the periphery; just at the periphery, however, the septa may form dilated bases ; in the tabularium the axial ends of the major septa are dilated and curved vortically; iregular carinae parallel to the septal trabeculae are seen in those parts of the septa which are in the dissepimentarium; carinae are also seen on the axial ends of the septa in the tabularium, but their character cannot be proved. The tabularium is narrow, less than one third the diameter of the corallum, and the tabellae, which are numerous, appear in one part of the vertical section to be arranged on concave floors, but the material is too scanty to allow us to be sure of their arrange- ment. The dissepiments are numerous, small and globose, and are sometimes geniculate in transverse or tangential sections of the corallum. Lateral dissepiments sometimes occur along the sides of the septa. It has not been possible to ascertain the character of the tabular floors in the only specimen available; so that one is uncertain whether the specimen is better referred to Acanthophyllvm or to the Dohmo- phyllum ( Trematophyllum ) group (see Hill, 1942, p. 236). In the narrowness of its tabularium it resembles the latter, but the type of septal thickening and the shape of the corallum suggest the former. In Acanthophyllum septal dilatation as in our specimen is seen in specimens from the upper part of the lower Middle Devonian of the Eifel ; in the Dohmophyllum group a somewhat similar type of septal dilatation is seen at the same period, and also in the upper Middle Devonian of Moravia. Family CALCEOLIDAE ; Hill, 1940b, p. 393. Genus Calceola 'Lamarck; Hill, 1942, p. 240. Calceola sp. (PI. I, fig. 3). Two fragments of cor, alia (F 5212 and F 5577) are referable to Calceola , but as their external form and proportions cannot be described, they cannot be referred to any species. One of the weathered sections is triangular and the other semi-circular. The calice is deep, and the thickness of the dense white coral tissue is about 3 mm. The larger fragment is 13 mm. wide and 10 mm. from front to back, and suggests that the corallum is of medium width. The positions of the septa on the flat side can be traced by the transverse markings in the dense tissue. Calceola occurs in Europe in the cultrijugatus and Calcedla beds of the lower Middle Devonian, and in the upper Middle Devonian. It is also known from the Middle Devonian of Asia and Australia. Its occurrence in the Mt. Etna limestone, though rare, thus suggests a Middle Devonian age. Genus Rhizophyllum Lindstrom ; Hill and Jones, 1940, p. 182. Rhizophyllum cf. enorme Etheridge. (PI. I, fig. 4.) The great width of an1 oblique section through a specimen (F 5576) of Rhizophyllum, 38 mm. along the flat face, suggests that it is referable to R. enorme from the Garra beds of New South Wales, which has 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. recently been redescribed and figured (Hill and Jones, 1940, pi. ii). In Europe Rhizopbylliwi is not known above the lower Coblenzian Nehou limestone of France. Its occurrence in the Mt. Etna limestone in association with Calceoia, both being rare, suggests that this lime- stone occupies a position at or near the transition from Lower to Middle Devonian. CYSTIMORPHS; Hill, 1939b, p. 248; 1942, p. 241. “ Cystiphyllum ” sp. (PI. I, fig. 5.) The only specimen collected, F 5236, is a weathered fragment of a large, cornute solitary coral, 75 mm. long, with a diameter at the calice of 30 mm. The weathered surface shows that the septal bases unite laterally under the epitheca to form a very narrow peripheral stereozone, and that a single vertical series of short spines may arise from each base. A transverse section shows that only horizontal skeletal elements occupy the lumen, no septa or septal spines being found. The dissepimentarium and tabularium are about equal in radius, and the plates in the dissepimentarium are smaller, closer, more globose and more steeply inclined than those in the tabularium; many of them have almost spherical or elliptical sections. The plates are slightly and almost equally dilated. The specimen is of no value in determining the age of the limestone. Family DISPHYLLIDAE ; Hill, 1939b, p. 224. Genus Phillipsastraea d’Orbigny ; Hill, 1939b, p. 236. Phillipsastraea carinata sp. nov. (PI. I, figs. 6a, b.) Holotype: F 5206, University of Queensland Collection, Lower Devonian, Mt. Etna limestone, foot of Mt. Etna. Diagnosis: Phillipsastraea with septa bearing regularly spaced yard-arm carinae. Description: The holotype is a slightly domed discoid fragment about 10 x 8 x 3 cm., weathered so that calical and basal surfaces are destroyed. The corallum is partly astraeoid and partly thamnastraeoid, and the centres of the calices are about 10 mm. apart. There are from 13 to 15 septa of each order in the corallites; the major septa extend either unequally to the axis, without mterdigitation, or stop equally short of the axis, so that a small space is left there, when their axial ends may be slightly swollen; there are no discrete trabeculae distinguishable in the tabularium. The minor septa project but slightly into the tabularium. In the dissepimentarium both orders bear yard- arm carinae which are equally spaced, about 12 in 3 mm. ; these bars are so wide that those of neighbouring septa nearly meet; the bars of neighbouring septa are opposite, and form regular rings round the tabularium as seen in transverse section. In longitudinal section the carinae are seen to be at right angles to the inclination of the dissepi- ments. They have an area of divergence near the inner edge of the dissepimentarium ; there is a narrow part where they are directed upwards and inwards towards the axis, and a wider outer part where they are directed upwards and outwards. Those of neighbouring coral- lites therefore meet at an acute angle. The septa sometimes are continuous from one corallite to another, but usually they meet a an angle. There is no wall between neighbouring corallites. me THE LOWER DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS, ETC. 17 tabularia are about 3 mm. wide. The tabular floors are usually gently domed, and the rare complete tabulae are reinforced by numerous incomplete tabellae. The dissepiments are small and globose; the few innermost series are inclined from above inwards, but most are inclined from above outwards. Remarks: In the arrangement of its septa this species resembles the European upper Devonian genotype, P. hennahi (Lonsdale). But the regularly spaced large yard-arm carinae are only very rarely seen in that species, whereas they appear characteristic of our species. Regularly spaced yard-arm carinae of this type are very common in the Middle Devonian of N. America, particularly in the lower Middle Devonian, in the phaceloid and cerioid Disphyllidae, but no Phillipsas- traea is known to have them in this part of the American succession. Family HELIOPHYLLIDAE. Genus Radiophyllum nov. Genotype: Entelophyllum arborescens Hill and Jones, 1940, p. 188, pi. iii, fig. 5, from the Garra beds (Lower Devonian) of Nora Ck., Parish The Gap, near Molong, N.S.W. Diagnosis: Large, simple or compound Rugose corals with numerous long thin slightly flexuous septa of which the major reach or nearly reach the axis; the tabular floors are axially depressed domes, typically made up of numerous sub-equal tabellae, but sometimes of complete tabulae; the dissepiments are numerous, small and rather globose. Remarks : The large number of specimens of R. arborescens from the Mt. Etna limestone gives a clearer conception of the species and its systematic position, than that derived from the study of the type specimen from New South Wales. Some of the characters are common to both Entelophyllum and Heliophyllum ; thus all three have long, thin, flexuous septa, and both have domed tabular floors which are axially depressed. But in Radiophyllum the septa are rarely carinate, and when they are the carinae are of the xyloid type characteristic of Entelophyllum and C eriophyllum, and not of the yard-arm type characteristic of Heliophyllum. Again, in Radiophyllum the arrange- ment of the tabellae in the tabular floors resembles that in Heliophyllum very closely, for the tabellae tend to be equal in size throughout, and not regular in arrangement; in Entelophyllum articulatum on the other hand, the tabellae are unequal in size, but are almost regular in vertical arrangement. The internal characters of the genus thus appear intermediate between Entelophyllum and Heliophyllum, perhaps closer to Heliophyllum. But in Radiophyllum the habit of the corallum, where each corallite is a large cornute individual, is that of Heliophyllum ; in Entelophyllum the individual corallites are much smaller, and are either slenderly cylindrical or trochoid. Because of these resemblances and differences, it is thought better to place E. arborescens in a new genus in the Heliophyllidae. It is thought also that the genus indicates that the Entelophyllidae and Heliophyllidae are related. Zaphrentis cailliaudi Barrois (1889, p. 47, pi. ii, fig. 2) from the Lower Devonian (upper Coblenzian) limestone of Erbray, France, is a species of Radio- phyllum. Barrois describes it as solitary, so that in this character it differs from our species. Radiophyllum arborescens (Hill and Jones) (PI. I, figs. 7a, b.) Entelophyllum arborescens Hill and Jones, 1940, p. 188, pi. iii, fig. 5, 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. from the Lower Devonian Garra beds of Nora Ck., Parish The Gap, near Molong, N.S.W. Diagnosis: Radiophyllum with marginal increase. Description: The corallum is very large, consisting of large curved, trocho-cylindrical individuals arising from older corallites by peripheral increase, several individuals usually arising at the one time from the one parent. The corallum is thus spreading. The individual corallites frequently attain a diameter of 40 mm., and one corallite is 170 mm. long. The average size however is somewhat smaller. The calice has a flat calicular margin, and an axial pit. The epitheca is weathered off in all individuals collected. There are 39 septa of each order in a corallite 40 mm. in diameter ; the septa are long, thin and somewhat flexuous, usually smooth; but here and there with ragged sides and very short xyloid carinae ; towards the periphery there may be a small number of lateral dissepiments lining their sides. The major septa extend unequally towards the axis, one or two usually reaching it or almost reaching it ; rarely their axial edges may be slightly turned aside vortieally near the axis. The tabularium is nearly half the diameter of the corallite; the tabular floors are axially depressed domes and are usually made up of a number of sub-equal tabellae, which are not very regular in arrangement. Sometimes, however, a single tabula may extend com- pletely across the tabularium, as a flat dome. The dissepiments are small and globose, sometimes geniculate in transverse section; they are not steeply inclined near the periphery ; but the degree of inclination increases near the tabularium. Remarks: The numerous specimens from Mt. Etna show that the xyloid carinae seen in the holotype from near Molong are rare in the Queensland locality; and that the average size of the Queensland specimens is greater than that of the holotype ; also that the characters of the tabularium are closer to those of Heliophyllum than to those of Entelophyllum. The species is very close to Radiophyllum cailliaudi (Barrois) from the upper Coblenzian limestone of Erbray in France. Family MYCOPH YLLID AE ; Hill, 1940a, p. 156. Genus Chlamydophyllum Pocta; Hill, 1940a, p. 160. Chlamydophyllum expansum sp. nov. (PL I, figs. 8a, b). Rugose coral which possesses features in common with both Tryplasma and Mucophyllum, Richards and Bryan, 1924, pi. xv, fig. 1 ; lower Middle Devonian, Limestone Siding, 6 miles south of Warwick. Chlamydophyllum sp., Hill, 1940a, p. 161, pi. iii, figs. 2a-d, lower Middle Devonian, Silverwood, probably from Limestone Siding. Holotype: F 5220, University of Queensland Collection, Mt. Etna limestone, foot of Mt. Etna, near Rockhampton, Queensland. Diagnosis : Liliif orm Chlamydophyllum. Description of the holoiype. — The corallum is liliif orm, its diameter suddenly increasing at the calice, so that a very wide and somewhat everted calicular platform is formed. The floor of the calice is 35 mm. above the apex of the coral. Expansion is regular from the THE LOWER DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS, ETC. 19 apex for this distance, and the eorallum is almost erect, so that a diameter of about 50 mm. is attained ; the calicular margin then expands suddenly in a vertical distance of 20 mm. to give a diameter to the entire calice of 140 mm. This expanded rim is thickest in its middle parts, where it may be as thick as 15 mm., but tapers towards periphery and tabularium. Several rootlets go off from the conical part of the eorallum. The eorallum has been cut vertically down the axis, and one half has been cut transversely, once just below the calice, and a second time just above the apex. In the apical section, the septa extend unequally to the axis, and are so dilated that the whole of the lumen is filled. In the section just below the calice, extreme dilatation is confined to the zone of the minor septa, and a dense peripheral stereozone of somewhat irregular width, about 9 mm., is formed; the axial ends of some of the minor septa project from this. The major septa project irregularly towards the axis, with a curvature and arrangement suggest- ing that a long cardinal fossula is present, that the septa in the cardinal quadrants tend to lie parallel to it and are longer than those in the counter quadrants, and that alar fossulae are distinguishable. The axial tips of the septa may be irregularly turned aside or dilated into club shapes; that these axial edges are lobed is suggested by the occurrence of isolated sections at the inner ends of the septa. The structure of the septa is as already described (Hill, 1940a, p. 161). In the vertical section the peripheral stereozone is seen to be about 6 mm. wide, and the tabulae are flat with down-turned edges, usually complete and close and sometimes dilated, particularly near the calice. The septa tend to be amplexoid, that is, to be completely developed only along the upper surfaces of the tabulae, and not to cause discontinuity in the latter. Remarks: With the exception of the difference in size, the specimen from Mt. Etna is indistinguishable from that figured from Silverwood as IChlamydophyllum sp., and both are here referred to a new species of Chlamydopkyllum. The specimen figured by Richards and Bryan (loc. cit) also probably belongs to the same species. It is unfortunate that our knowledge of the genotype of Cklamydophyllnmi is rather indefinite, and until it is re-examined it is not possible to feel certain that the reference of our species to the genus is correct. It is not impossible that Briantia Barrois from the Lower Devonian of Erbray, in France, is closely related to Cklamydopkyllum. In this connection the genotype of AspasmopkyUuni from the Middle Devonian of the Eifel needs re-study; its septal arrangement as described by Romer closely resembles that deduced for our species. Cklamydopkyllum obscurum is from the Lower Devonian Koneprus limestone of Bohemia. Genus Pseudamplexus Weissermel; Hill, 1940a, p. 157. Pseudamplexus princeps (Etheridge). One specimen (F 5219) is a very large cylindrical P. princeps , like that figured by Etheridge (1907, pi. xv, fig. 1) from Boree Ck., near Molong, New South Wales (Garra beds). Family PILOPHYLLIDAE. Typical Genus: Pilopkyllum Wedekind. Simple or compound Rugose corals with frequent rejuvenescence or growth contraction, with long septa, with a lonsdaleoid dissepimen- tarium, and with domed tabular floors, sometimes with an axial depression, formed by complete tabulae or numerous tabellae. 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. j Remarks: Many genera with the above morphology have been described, the chief differences between them being in the degree of thickening of the septa, the length of the septa and their degree of rotation in the tabularium, the extent to which the tabulae are complete or incomplete, and the width of the dissepimentarium. The earliest genera with this morphology are from the Silurian of Scandinavia and the Baltic States; they are Strombodes Schweigger, Pilophyllum, and possibly Kyphophyllum Wedekind. In the upper Middle Devonian of China there is Sinospongophyllum Yoh and in the Upper Devonian, T abulophyllum Fenton and Fenton in North America and Apolitho- phyllum Walther in Germany. It may be that a study of rich material would prove some of these names superfluous, and until material is assembled for a comparative study, a new species found at Mt. Etna, which possesses the morphology of the group, is referred to Sinospongo- phyllum Yoh. In the amount of thickening of the skeletal elements and the incompleteness of the tabulae, our species appears intermediate between Pilophyllum, whose type has great thickening and very incomplete tabulae, and Sinospongophyllum, which has little thickening and almost complete tabulae. The family may be related to the Endophyllidae. Genus Smospongophyllum Yoh, 1937, p. 56. Genotype: Sinospongophyllum planotabulatum Yoh 1937, p. 56, pi. vi, figs. 2-5, middle Middle Devonian (lower Givetian) of Kwangsi. Diagnosis: Solitary, slightly cornute Rugose corals, with a ionsdaleoid dissepimentarium, fairly long septa, typically slightly curved vortically in the tabularium, and a wide tabularium of typically complete, flat tabulae with down-turned edges. Remarks: The genus appears to be closely allied to the upper Devonian Tabulophyllum and Apolithophyllum, and may indeed be identical. There are also resemblances to the Swedish lower Ludlow Pilophyllum, but the genotype lacks the great dilatation characteristic of Pilophyllum. Sinospongophyllum abrogatum sp. nov. (PI. I., figs. 9-11.) Holotype: F5211, University of Queensland Collection, Lower Devonian, Mt. Etna limestone, foot of Mt. Etna, Rockhampton district. Diagnosis: Sinospongophyllum with some skeletal dilatation, with marked rejuvenescence, and with tabulae frequently replaced by tabellae. Description: The corallum is trochoid and curved, with marked rejuvenescence. At a diameter of 18 mm., there are 38 septa of each order, but in another thin section, taken just at the position of a rejuvenescence, when the corallum reduced its diameter from 24 mm. to 19 mm., there are only 33 septa of each order. The septa of both orders are discon- tinuous in the dissepimentarium ; the minor septa are discontinuous from periphery to tabularium, but the major septa are usually discontinuous only in the outer parts; where discontinuity occurs the septal bases on dissepiments or epitheca are longer when they represent major septa than when they represent minor septa. The major septa are unequal, some few extending almost to the axis in some coralla, with or without a small degree of rotation; but in other coralla the major septa stop short of the axis leaving a space there. Dilatation may . affect the septa slightly, THE LOWER DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS, ETC. 21 particularly in the dissepimentarium, where it may be continuous over the upper surfaces of the dissepiments. The tabular floors are domes, rather flattened, with down-turned edges, and sometimes with an axial depression. The tabulae may be complete, but are usually reinforced at the margins and the outer tops of the domes by small tabellae. The dissepiments are in two or three series of large, rather steeply inclined plates, which cause lonsdaleoid discontinuity in the septa. Family RHABDOCYCLIDAE ; Hill, 1940b, p. 404. Genus Tryplasma Lonsdale ; Hill, 1940b, p. 405. Try plasma sp. (PL I. fig. 12.) One specimen, F 5205 from the yellow-weathering’ impure limestone at the foot of Mt. Etna, shows the acanthine septa characteristic of this genus. It is a solitary fragment of a corallum, 5 mm. in diameter, with 21 septa of each order; the septa are acanthine, and the major extend about half way to the axis, the minor being about half as long. There is a narrow peripheral stereozone of about 1 mm. Only the genus is determinable from the fragment; the diameter is smaller than that in T. columnare Etheridge from the Garra beds, which are at a similar horizon. A second specimen, F 5237, may represent a phaceloid member of the genus. Sections showing axial increase, whereby four eorallites have arisen simultaneously from the parent have been obtained. The average diameter of the eorallites is 5 mm. They show marked longitudinal striation, indicating the presence of 20 septa of each order. However, it could not be definitely established that these septa are acanthine, although patches of clear, re-crystallised matter in the lumina suggest by their arrangement in radial rows that they represent re-crystallised holacanths. Tryplasma does not occur in Europe in beds higher than the barrandei beds at the top of the Lower Devonian of Graz, and is mainly characteristic of the Silurian. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The work has been carried out by means of a Research Fellowship within the University of Queensland, financed by Commonwealth funds through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. The author is much indebted to Mr. J. H. Reid and to Mr. Pilkington for very kind hospitality. The photographs are the work of Mr. E. Y. Robinson. REFERENCES. Barrois, C., 1889. Faune du Calcaire d’Erbray. Mem . Soc. geol. Nord, III, 348 pp., xvii pis. Edwards, H. M., and Haime, J., 1851. Monographic des Polypiers fossiles des Terrains palaeozoiques. Archiv. Mus. Hist. nat. Paris V, pp. 1-502, pis. i-xx. Etheridge, R., Jr., 1907. A Monograph of the Silurian and Devonian Corals of New South Wales. Part II. The Genus Tryplasma. Mem. geol. Surv. N.S.W. Palaeont. No. 13,. pp. 41-102, pis. x-xxviii. Hill, D., 1939. The Devonian Rugose Corals of Lilydale and Loyola, Victoria. Proc. roy. Soc. Viet., LI, pp. 219-256, pis. xiii-xvi. 1940a. The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland. II. The Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. Proc. roy. Soc. Queensl. LI, pp. 150-168, pis, ii, iii. R.S. — D 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 1940b. Tlie Silurian Rugosa of the Yass-Bowning District, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. , LXV, pp. 388-420, pis. xi-xiii. — 1942. The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, III. Burdekin Downs, Fanning R., and Reid Gap, North Queensland. Proc. roy. Soc. Queensl., LIII, pp. 229-268; pis. v-xi. Hill, D., and Jones, O. A., 1940. The Corals of the Garra Beds, Molong District, New South Wales. J. Proc. roy. Soc. Nt.S.W., LXXIV, pp. 175-208, pis. ii-viii. Richards, H. C., and Bryan, W. H., 1924. The Geology of the Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. Proc. roy. Soc. Queensl. XXXVI, pp. 44-108, pis. vii-xx. Yoh, S. S., 1937. Die Korallenfauna des Mitteldevons aus der Provinz Kwangsi, Sud Qhina. Palaeontographica Stuttgart, LXXXVII (A), pp. 45-76, pis. iv-ix. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. All specimens are from the northern foot of Mt. Etna, Rockhampton District, in portions 119, 120, 121 or Reserve R444,, Parish of Fitzroy, and are now in the collection of the Department of Geology of the University of Queensland. Fig. 1. Acanthophyllum sp. or Dohmophyllum sp., F 5234; a, transverse, and b, vertical section, x 1.8 diameters. Fig. 2. Acanthophyllum sp., a, transverse section of F 5202, and b, vertical section of F 5199, x 1.8. Fig. 3. Calceola sp. F 5201, almost natural size. Fig. 4. Bhizophyllum cf. enorme Etheridge. F 5576, almost nat. size. Fig. 5. 1 1 Cystiphyllum” sp. F 5236, transverse section, x 1.8. Fig. 6. Phillipsastraea carinata sp. nov. Holotype, F 5206 ; a, transverse, and b, vertical section, x 1.8. Fig. 7. Badiophyllum arborescens (Hill and Jones). F 5221; a, transverse, and b, vertical section, x 1.8. Fig. 8. Chlamydophyllum expansum sp. nov. Holotype, F 5220 ; a, transverse, and b, vertical section, almost nat. size. Fig. 9. Sino spoil gophyllum abrogatum sp. nov. Holotype, F5211; a, transverse, and b, vertical section, x 1.8. Fig. 10. Sinospongophyllum abrogatum sp. nov. F5204; transverse section, x 1.8. Fig. 11. Sinospongophyllum abrogatum sp. nov. F5210; transverse section through young stage, x 1.8. Fig. 12. Tfyplasma sp. F 5205 ; transverse section, x 1.8. Prgc. Boy. Soc. Q’land., Vol. LIY., No. 2. Plate I. Coblenzian Corals — :Mt. Etna Limestone. Vol. LIV., No. 3. 23 ERGOT OF NATIVE GRASSES IN QUEENSLAND. By R. F. Langdon, B.Agr.Sc., Department of Biology, University of Queensland. (Received April 10th , 1942; read before the Royal Society of Queensland , May 25th, 1942; issued separately, 2 6th August, 1942.) In a recent paper the occurrence of ergot on fifteen native species of grass in Queensland was reported, and Claviceps pusilla Cesati was recorded as being responsible for the ergot of three of the host species (Langdon, 1941a). During 1941 several more grasses were found ergotised and the species of Claviceps have been determined for most of the known hosts. Four new species of Claviceps have been discovered, and they will be described in this paper. It is probable that there are still other new ergot species to be described from Queensland, since there have been observed two forms of which insufficient material is yet available, but which appear to be distinct from all the other known species. Sclerotia of Claviceps pusilla from six hosts have been germi- nated during 1941, and this fungus, together with the other species of Claviceps described here, has permitted an evaluation of the various characters on which species might be separated. Saccardo’s colour standards were used in describing the new species of Claviceps (Saccardo 1891). The type specimens of the new species are deposited at the Department of Biology, University of Queensland. SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS CLAVICEPS . For the purpose of determining with certainty species of Claviceps it is necessary that the stromata produced by germination of the sclerotia should be observed. It is very difficult to observe germinating sclerotia in the field on account of their small size and the fact that they are scattered through pastures amongst plant debris. Laboratory germina- tion of the sclerotia is necessary, and this has the advantage that the researcher can then watch all the stages in the development of the stromata, which data the author has found exceedingly useful when making specific determinations. The method of germination of scores of sclerotia from six hosts of Claviceps pusilla has been found very constant, the same series of changes always occurring. Sclerotia of other species have shown similar uniformity in this character which varies with the species of Claviceps, and may therefore be used in conjunction with characters of the stromata in the delineation of ergot species. It is suggested that the main points of the method of germination of sclerotia should always be included in descriptions of Claviceps species. The colour of the stipes and capitula, the presence or absence of loose hyphae, and the shape and size of the perithecia have been found the most constant characters of the stromata. The length of the asci has been found to vary within rather wide limits, and while relative size may be a guide, characters of the asci alone are unreliable as criteria in separating species. While there is no positive statement of the fact, it does appear that ascus size has been regarded by other workers as a character of little importance. In Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum there are no figures given for the length of asci in Claviceps purpurea , r.s. — e. 1 24 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. C. micro cephala, C. setulosa, C. nigricans and C. sesleriae, while Petch (1938) has made no mention of ascus length in a more recent description of C. purpurea. The sclerotia of some species of Claviceps germinate much less readily than do others under the same conditions. Claviceps pusilla is easy to germinate, but with C. platytricha poor results have been obtained. It is likely that the two species require germination conditions that differ considerably. This can be determined only by experiment, a time- consuming process which requires large numbers of sclerotia so that a sufficient number of different treatments may be provided. As characters on which one may identify an ergot before germinating the sclerotia, the conidia, considered in conjunction with the sclerotia, may be used, pro- viding of course that an already described species is being considered. The indigenous ergot species in Queensland may be separated on these characters, although such a method of identification should not be regarded as final. Sclerotia germination should follow. A determina- tion made on the basis of conidia and sclerotia provides a valuable guide when one is planning infection experiments where known ergot species are to be used as inoculum for a host with an ergot which is to be identified. If an inoculation with a particular ergot species gave a positive result, there would be little doubt as to the identity of the ergot of the new host plant. A series of infection experiments with Claviceps pusilla , followed by germination of sclerotia from a number of hosts has shown that this biological method of identification is very reliable. BLUE-GRASS ERGOT: CLAVICEPS PUSILLA CESATI: The host range of this ergot in Queensland has been found to include twelve native species, a number of which are important as pasture plants. The hosts and the methods used to identify the ergot are: — Dichanthium sericeum (R.Rr.) A. Camus. Germination of sclerotia. Bothriochloa intermedia (R.Br.) A. Camus. Germination of sclerotia. Bothriochloa decipiens (Hack.) C. E. Hubbard. Germination of sclerotia. Bothriochloa sp. Germination of sclerotia. Bothriochloa erianlhoides (F.Muell.) C. E. Hubbard. Conidial and sclerotial characters. Dichanlhium sp. aff. P>. tenue (R.Br.) A. Camus. Conidial characters; positive infection experiment. C apillipedium spicigerum (Benth.) S. T. Blake. Conidial characters; positive infection experiment. Themeda australis (R.Br.) Stapf. Germination of sclerotia. Themeda avenacea (F.Muell.) Dur. & Jacks. Conidial and sclerotial characters. Ecteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv. ex R. & S. Germination of sclerotia. Cymhopogon refractus (R.Br.) A. Camus. Conidial and sclerotial characters; positive infection experiment. Sorghum leiocladum (Hack.) C. E. Hubbard. Conidial and sclerotial characters. ERGOT OF NATIVE GRASSES IN QUEENSLAND. 25 In the case of the hosts, Bothriochloa erianthoides and Themeda avenacea, their close relationship with other species of the same genera which are definitely known to be infected by Claviceps pusilla, leaves little doubt as to the correctness of the identification of the ergot on characters of the conidia and sclerotia, With Sorghum leiocladum also, no infection experiments have been possible, but the conidia and sclerotia appear to be those of Claviceps pusilla. Claviceps pusilla is known to occur throughout the south-eastern corner of Queensland, east of a north-south line through Dal’by and south of an east-west line through Kingaroy, and it is found around Gladstone, Mackay, and Bowen also. It occurs in New South Wales too, ergotised specimens of Bothriochloa sp. from near Armidale having been received from Rev. E. N. McKie. A sphacelia on Bothriochloa intermedia was recorded from Bathurst by Birmingham (1921) this being the basis of the record by Noble et at. (1934) of Claviceps purpurea on that host. Undoubtedly this ergot was C. pusilla. Germination begins by a rupturing of the “epidermis” of the sclerotium, whence the mycelium grows out to form a globose tuft of loose, white, radiating hyphae. Very soon the stroma appears as a com- pact cone-shaped white mycelial mass in the middle of the hyphae tuft. After one or two days the stroma changes to a pale straw-colour, but the surrounding hyphae remain white during the subsequent development of the stroma. In the length of the asci, considerable divergence from Cesati ’s figure has been observed in Queensland material of Claviceps pusilla. Cesati (1861) gave 56 micra as the length of the asci, but a single figure such as this is very unsatisfactory. If it is an average length it has little practical value because it is the limits of variation and not the means that are of use when distinguishing between species. Teased perithecia of C. pusilla from several hosts have been examined, and a very considerable range in ascus-length has been found. Table I. shows the variation observed in asci taken from C. pusilla from several hosts. TABLE I. Host Plant. Degree of Maturity1 of Capitulum. Limits of Ascus length. Dichanthium sericeum Just before maturity, 55-70 micra ostioles becoming prominent Themeda australis Mature 80-130 micra Bothriochloa decipiens Mature 75-160 micra Bothriochloa sp. . . Old .. 75-150 micra Bothriochloa intermedia . . Very old 115-150 micra 1 A capitulum was regarded as mature when ascospore discharge began. The ascus length shows considerable variation, and at maturity is greatly in excess of the figure given by Cesati. This variation has been observed in asci developed side by side in the same perithecium. For example, trios of asci 73, 76 and 160 micra, and 100, 83 and 150 micra long respectively have been observed side by side, still united at their bases to tissue from the base of the perithecium. Table I. indicates that there may be asci at different stages of maturity in a perithecium, which would explain the large variation in length that has been observed. In the oldest capitulum examined (host, Bothriochloa intermedia) the 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. shortest asci are 115 micra, while the shortest asci from the younger, though mature, capitula (hosts, Bothriochloa decipiens and Themeda australis) reach only 75-80 micra. This suggests that some asci mature and discharge their ascospores while others are still developing. There is nothing to indicate the degree of ascus maturity and the limits of variation, which are fairly constant within a species, must be recorded. This variation in ascus length raises the question as to whether the Blue-grass ergot is really the same species of Claviceps as Cesati’s Claviceps pusilla. In all other characters, including host genus, type of sclerotium, colour, size and shape of stipe and capitulum, and shape and size of the perithecia, the two ergots agree with one another. In view of the variation observed in length of ascus in other species of Clamceps , there is no justification for giving any other name but Claviceps pusilla to the Queensland species. The figure of 56 micra for the length of the asci of Claviceps pusilla is inadequate, and the range in length, 55-160 micra, should replace Cesati’s figure. EULALIA ERGOT : Claviceps annulata B . F . Langdon ; species nova affinis C. pusillae Cesati, sed stronxatis colore et indumento differt. Selerotia castanea vel ± fuliginea, cylindrica, spiculis admodum longiora, germinatione cumulo juveni conico compacto griseo. Stromata in quoque sclerotio 1 vel 2 ; stipites cylindrici, 4-6 mm. longi, 0-3-0-5 mm. diam., umbrini nonnonquam fere castanei, pilis tenuibus sparsis praediti. Capitula immatura hemispherica ; tandem globosa, basi annulo hypliarum laxarum praedita, papillosa, castanea, 0-4-0 -9 mm. diam. Perithecia 150-165 x 130-150 /i, subglobosa. Asci cylindrici apice rotundati, basem versus attenuati, 70-125 x 4 ft. Ascospori lineares, hyalini, quam asci admodum breviores. Conidia hyalina, nonnunquam biguttulata, later ibus rectis, parallelis vel admodum eonvergentibus, finibus rotundatis, 8-5-12-5 x 3-5-6 /x. In ovariis Eulaliae fulvae (R.Br.) O.K. Queensland: prope Dalby, B. F. Langdon 27.5.41. A sphacelia on Eulalia ( Pollinia ) fulva at Glen Innes, New South Wales, was recorded by Birmingham (1921) and listed as Claviceps purpurea by Noble et al, (1934). In May, 1941, selerotia from Eulalia fulva were collected near Dalby, Queensland, and their subsequent germination has shown this ergot to be a new species. In the early stages of selerotia germination, Claviceps annulata closely resembles C. pusilla , but the stroma becomes grey instead of straw-coloured and differentiates into an amber-coloured stipe and chestnut capitulum. During its development the capitulum is hemi- spherical with a ring of loose hyphae at the base. When mature it becomes globose and prominently papillate. It is readily distinguished from Claviceps pusilla by the colour of the stroma and the size and shape of the perithecia, while the colour of the selerotia and the size and shape of the conidia are also quite distinct. The ring of hyphae round the base of the capitulum is a distinctive feature of this species, and this character has been used to name the species. In Queensland this ergot is known only from Eulalia fulva (R.Br.) O.K. and from only one district, around Dalby. Since it occurs also in New South Wales, further search will probably greatly extend its known distribution. ERGOT OF NATIVE GRASSES IN QUEENSLAND. 27 ISCHAEMUM ERGOT: Claviceps platytricha R. F. Langdon ; species nova affinis C. annualatae R. F. Langdon sed capitulis majoribus, germinatione diversa differt. Sclerotia atro-castanea, cylindrica recta vel curvula, spiculis admodnm longiora. Stromata papilliformia grisea, hyphis albis ad sclerotium appressis cincta. Stromata juventnte pilosa, maturitate glabra hyphis laxis paucis basi capituli excepta. Stromata 5-7. Stipites cylindrici umbrini 5-7 mm. longi; 0-2-04 mm. diam. glabri, ad basem incrassati atro-purpurei vel castanei. Capitula globosa maturitate papillosa, avellanea, 0-6-1-2 mm. diam. Perithecia pyriformia 180-215 x 110-150 fJL. Asci cylindrici, apice rotundati, basi attenuati, 65-105 x 4 ii. Ascospori lineares, hyalini, ascis aequilongi. Conidia finibus rotundata, lateribus plerumque parallelis raro curvulis, hyalina, biguttulata, 7-5-11-0 x 3-5-S-5 /r. In ovariis Ischaemi australis R.Br. Queensland, Archerfield, Brisbane, R. F. Langdon 12.5.40; Northgate, Brisbane, R. F. Langdon, 19.4.41 ; Southport, R. F. Langdon 16.4.41. The ergot of Ischaemum, australe R.Br. was first seen at Archer- field, near Brisbane, in May 1940, when a large number of sclerotia were collected. None of these germinated, but in 1941 two sclerotia out of fourteen collected at Northgate and Southport germinated, each producing several stromata. Germination begins by the protrusion of a papilla of dark grey tissue around which there soon develop white radiating hyphae which lie flat against the surface of the sclerotium. The papilla in the middle enlarges, becoming drab-coloured and soon is differentiated into an umber-coloured stipe with a drab capitulum. As the stroma enlarges, the loose hyphae at the base tend to disappear, and the thickened base of the stipe becomes dark purple to chestnut in colour. Loose white hyphae cover the stroma up to the time when the capitulum is differen- tiated from the stipe, but at maturity the stipe is smooth and only a few loose hyphae remain around the base of the capitulum. This ergot species has been found at Archerfield and Northgate, near Brisbane, and at Southport. CerebeUa inquinans (Berk. & Br.) Sacc., a honey-dew saprophyte, often inhibits sclerotia development, and Cladosporium sp. also is often found growing in the honey-dew. Bailey (1902), referring to Ischaemum australe, has said that “the glumes of this and other species of the genus are often infected with the fungus Cladosporium herbarum Link.” This may be taken as evidence of the occurrence of Claviceps platytricha in Queensland 40 years ago, and indicates that further search may increase its known host range. ERIOCHLOA ERGOT : Claviceps hirtella R. F. Langdon • species nova a congeneribus stromate juveni hyphis albis densis velatis differt. Sclerotia flavo-brunnea, subglobosa, apice saepe admodum applanata, in lemmatibus paleisque semper inclusa et lemmatibus subaequilonga. Stromata papilliformia straminea, cumulo globoso hypharum albarum laxarum mox circumdata. Capitula juventute hyphis albis obtecta, his tandem evanescentibus maturitate ad basem annulo hypharum albarum circumdata ; hyphae circum basem st ip it is plerumque persistentes. Stromata plerumque solitaria, stipites cylindrici griseo-rosei, glabri pilis paucis sparsis basalibus exceptis, 5-10 mm. longi, 0 -3-0 5 mm. 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. diam. Capitula globosa castanea vel fuliginea matnritate manifeste papillosa, 0-6-0-9 mm. diam. Perithecia ovalia, 185-215 x 130-165 /x. Asci cylindrici, apice rotundati, basi attennati, 85-120 x 4-4*5 /x. Ascospori hyalini filiformes, 70-85 g. longi. Conidia hyalina, cnrvata, nonnulli elliptici, 11*0-16*5 x 4*5-6. 5 /x. In ovariis Eriochloae pseudoacrotrichae (Stapf ex Thell.) C. E. Hubbard ex S. T. Blake, Queensland, Lawes, prope Gatton, R. P. Langdon 16.4.41. This ergot was first collected in 1937 at Lawes, Queensland, when the author found a sphacelia on Eriochloa pseudoacrotricha. During 1941 further collections of this ergot were made, and several more host species recorded. The ergot was very abundant in the Brisbane, Fassifern, Lockyer and Darling Downs areas during the 1940-41 summer, and specimens of the disease were received from St. George and Yuleba also. The hosts include Eriochloa pseudoacrotricha (Stapf ex Thell.) C. E. Hubbard ex S. T. Blake; Eriochloa procera (Retz) C. E. Hubbard; Eriochloa sp., Brachiaria foliosa (R.Br.) Hughes, and Brachiaria whit coma (Domin) C. E. Hubbard. Sclerotia from Eriochloa pseudoacrotricha have been germinated, and for the other hosts, conidia! characters and infection experiments have established the identity of the ergot. Germination of the sclerotium begins by the extrusion of a straw- coloured papilla of tissue which soon becomes surrounded by loose white radiating hyphae which form a globose mass. The developing stroma grows up through these hyphae, which envelop it until the stipe and capitulum are differentiated. As the stipe elongates the hyphae break, leaving a persistent ring of mycelium at the base of the stipe. The capitulum remains covered with loose hyphae until nearly mature, when a ring of white mycelium still remains at its base. The stipe at maturity is smooth and waxy in appearance. The ergot has been named from the shaggy appearance of the developing stroma. DIGITARIA ERGOT: Claviceps glabra R. F. Langdon ; species nova admodum affinis C. hirtellae R. F. Langdon sed stromate glabro differt. Sclerotia nigra, subglobosa, apice conica lateral iter admodum applanata, lemmatibus subaequilonga. Stromata plerumque solitaria papilliformia laevia semper glabra. Stipites cylindrici pallido straminei cremei, glabri, 3-6 mm. longi, (125-0*3 mm. diam. Capitula globosa, primo vinosa tandem castanea, papillosa, 0-5-0-6 mm. diam. Perithecia ovalia, 165-180 x 115-130 g. Asci cylindrici apice rotundati, basi minime angustiores, 70-110 x 3 /x. Ascospori lineares hyalini, asci aequilongi. Conidia hyalina, elliptica vel cnrvata, 12*5-20*5 x 4-0-7-0 g. In ovariis Digit ariae longi florae (Retz) Pers. Queensland: Sunny- bank, Brisbane, R. F. Langdon, 14.5.41. During 1941 a search for this ergot was made in the Sunnybank district, it being known from a collection of the sphacelia stage by a student of the University of Queensland in 1936 that an ergot of Digitaria longiflora (Retz) Pers. did occur in that area. A number of sclerotia were found and several of them germinated. Germination occurs by the extrusion of a smooth papilla of tissue which enlarges, and soon differentiates into a stipe and capitulum without there being any development of loose hyphae. This latter character ERGOT OF NATIVE GRASSES IN QUEENSLAND. 29 distinguishes Claviceps glabra from the other ergot species known in Queensland, which all have loose hyphae developed around the young stroma. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF QUEENSLAND ERGOT SPECIES. The five species of Claviceps may be readily separated into two groups — one with long cylindrical sclerotia, the other with subglobose sclerotia. Of the former, C. pusilla has conidia which are predominantly triangular in outline, while C. platytricha and C. annulata have the conidia predominately parallel-sided with rounded ends. In the latter group, both C. hirtella and C. glabra have curved conidia which, like the conidia of C. platytricha and C. annulata, are not readily distinguished from one another. The method of sclerotia germination is of great assistance in distinguishing the species, while the colour of the stipe and capitulum, and the degree of development of loose hyphae are important strom at ic characters. The following key, based on characters of the sclerotia and stromata, emphasises the differences between the species: — Sclerotia long, cylindrical: Stroma straw-coloured, glabrous Stroma dark-coloured: Hyphae at base of young stroma lying flat against the sclerotium Hyphae forming globose mass around young stroma Sclerotia sub-globose : Stroma glabrous Stroma hairy C. pusilla. C. platytricha . C. annulata. C. glabra. C. hirtella. OTHER ERGOTS IN QUEENSLAND. (a) Ergot of Paspalum orbicular e Forst. In a recent paper (Langdon, 1941b) the author suggested the existence of biologic races of Claviceps paspali in Queensland. This theory was based on observations of the relative susceptibility to ergot of a number of species of Paspalum in Queensland, and the long- standing of ergot of Paspalum orbiculare as evidenced by the old records of Cerebella on that grass (Cooke and Massee, 1887 ; Bailey, 1890). In June, 1941, sclerotia were collected from plants of Paspalum orbiculare which had remained free from ergot until May, 1941, although they were growing in close proximity to plants of Paspalum dilatatum which had been heavily ergotised throughout the summer and autumn. A few of these sclerotia from Paspalum orbiculare germinated in October, 1941, but most of the stromata were deformed, the capitula being sessile. This was probably due to the attacks of mites which invaded the petri dishes in which the sclerotia were sown. One stroma only developed normally, and it differed in several ^respects from Claviceps paspali. It is likely that the ergot of Paspalum orbiculare, known in Queensland since 1887, is due to an ergot species other than Claviceps paspali, but more material and infection experiments are desirable before a new species is described. In Ceylon and India there are records of Cerebella on Paspalum scrobiculatum (a species closely related to P. orbiculare), and it was from P. scrobiculatum in Ceylon that Thecaphom inquinans (= Cere- bella inquinans) was described in 1875 (Berkeley and Broome, 1875). This evidence of ergot of Paspalum in Ceylon and Queensland many years ago suggests that there is an ergot species affecting Paspalum 30 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. which is indigenous to those countries, this species being distinct from the other three species of ergot described from Paspalum spp. in North and South America. The sclerotia from Paspalum orbiculare germinated by extruding a papilla of cream-coloured mycelium which soon becomes covered with white hyphae. The stipe and capitulum are yellow. The stipe is covered for its whole length with loose yellow hyphae, giving it a woolly appearance. Dr. W. L. Waterhouse of the University of Sydney, who, in 1937, reported that sclerotia from Paspalum dilatatum in New South Wales, belonged to Claviceps paspali (Waterhouse, 1937), has stated that no woolly stipes were seen in his material from Paspalum dilatatum. The differences between the ergot of Paspalum, orbiculare and the other three Paspalum, ergot species are shown by Table II. Only one stroma of the former has been examined. TABLE II. Ergot species. Sclerotia. Stipe. Perithecia. Length of Asci. Claviceps lutea A. Moll. . . Bright yellow, slightly roughened, oblong, curved 4 cm. long, filiform 300 micra diam. 250 micra Claviceps rolfsii Stev. & Hall Globose, yellow to grey, roughened when mature, 3 mm. diam. 1-1-5 cm. long, thicker than that of C. paspali 816x225 micra 375 micra Claviceps paspali Stev. & Hall As in C. rolfsii . . Up to 1 cm. long 340 x 119 micra 174 micra Ergot from Paspalum Globose, cream- 2-3 mm. long ; 260-265 x 80-130 orbiculare Forst. coloured to grey, slightly roughened, 2 mm. diam. woolly appearance 135-165 micra micra This ergot of Paspalum orbiculare must be further investigated before any conclusions as to its identity are reached. The widespread occurrence of Claviceps paspali in eastern Australia complicates the position, since Paspalum orbiculare can be infected by the latter fungus. (b) Ergot of Hyparrhenia fiUpendida (Hochst.) Stapf: Sclerotia from ergotised plants of Hyparrhenia, filipendula were collected near Ipswich, Queensland, in May, 1941. One of these subse- quently germinated and was accidentally destroyed before the stroma reached maturity. Its germination wras similar to that of Claviceps pusilla and C. annulata, but the colour and size of the stroma were different. The conidia are very much larger than those of C. annulata, which is the species it most resembles. This ergot of Hyparrhenia may be a distinct species, but until more sclerotia are obtained, and infection experiments with this host — using the ergot of Eulalia as inoculum — can be carried out, nothing more can be said concerning the identity of this ergot. (c) Ergot of Paspalidium spp.: In April, 1941, heavily ergotised specimens of Paspalidium sp. from Thallon, Queensland, were received from Mr. C. S. Christian. In May, 1941, ergotised plants of Paspalidium distans (R.Br.) Hughes sens. lat. were collected near Nanango, Queensland. No sclerotia from either of the hosts could be induced to germinate. The sclerotia and ERGOT OF NATIVE GRASSES IN QUEENSLAND. 31 conidia on both hosts closely resemble those of Claviceps hirtelia, but since the sclerotia and conidia of C. glabra are not very different from those of C. hirtelia, it would not be safe to make any specific determina- tion of the PaspaUdium ergot until sclerotia are germinated or infection experiments on PaspaUdium using both of the above ergots are carried out. DISCUSSION. The ergots discussed in this paper are regarded as indigenous to Australia. There is evidence that certain of them occur in other countries, however, for there are records of sphacelia diseases and Cerebella, a honey-dew saprophyte, from India, Ceylon, Burma and Japan, on the same host species or on other species of the same genera. In India, Ajrekar (1926) has recorded a sphacelia on Dichanthium . aristatum ( = Andropogon caricosus var. moilicomus), the conidia of which were “ somewhat triangular in shape.” From Heteropogon contort us a species of Cerebella has been described by Subramaniam (1921) . From the conidial character and the close affinities of the Indian and Australian host plants it is very probable that Claviceps pusilla occurs in India. Furthermore, a number of smuts and rusts of the Gramineae in India are known to occur in Australia (Herbert and Langdon, 1941), indicating a general similarity of the grass diseases of the two countries. From Ceylon, Cerebella has been recorded on Anthistiria imberbis Retz1 and Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A. Camus (— Andropogon pertusus (L.) Willd.) (Bertus 1941), species which are closely related to the Queensland hosts of Claviceps pusilla to which the Ceylon ergot may be due. An ergot of various species of Ischaemum is known from Ceylon ( Cerebella record by Bertus, 1941), India (Ajrekar, 1926), and Japan (Cerebella record by Bubak and Sydow, 1915). Possibly this ergot is Claviceps platytricha. An ergot of Digitaria longi flora occurs in India ( Cerebella record by Butler and Bisby, 1931), and this may be due to Claviceps glabra. There is, however, another ergot of Digitaria which occurs in Uganda on Digitaria scalarum, and which will be described soon by C. J. Hansford as Claviceps digitariae. The latter ergot is not the same as Claviceps glabra, and there is a possibility that the Digitaria ergot of India is due to Claviceps digitariae. That several ergot species which are indigenous to Australia have now been discovered, is an effective reply to those who have opposed the cultivation of Claviceps purpurea for drug purposes, on the grounds that there is a danger of its spreading to pasture grasses. There is little likelihood of C. purpurea becoming more than a minor disease, for it is already naturalised in some areas of southern Australia, and is apparently held in check by climatic influences. The indigenous ergot species are already much more widespread than the introduced C. purpurea is ever likely to be. The ergots described in this paper should be taken into consideration in any programme of pasture plant improvement which involves species of native grasses. In plant-introduction work also the degree of ergot resistance in promising pasture grasses might be taken into account v/hen evaluating newly introduced species. 1 More than one species of Themeda, including the Queensland species Themeda australis has been included under Anthistiria imherbis Eetz. Themeda has four years ’ priority over Anthistiria. R.S. — F. 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I wish to thank Dr. D. A. Herbert of the University of Queensland,, whose interest and assistance in many ways during the progress of this work were invaluable. Financial assistance for this research was granted by the University of Queensland Commonwealth Research Projects Committee, to whom the author is grateful. The author tenders his thanks to Mr. S. T. Blake for cheeking the identity of the host species and for assisting with the Latin translation, and to Mr. C. T. White, who has made available Saccardo’s Colour Standards, and to those who have assisted this work by forwarding ergotised grasses which they collected. SUMMARY. The ergot species affecting native grasses in Queensland are dis- cussed, four new species being described and the range in the length of asci of Claviceps pusilla Cesati extended. These are Claviceps annulata R.F.L. on Eulalia fulva (R.Br.) O.K., C. platytricha R.F.L. on Ischaemum, australe, R.Br., C. hirtella R.F.L. on Eriochloa pseudoac- rotricha (Stapf.) C. E. Hubbard, and C. glabra R.F.L. on Digitaria longiflora ( Retz. ) Pers. Some notes on several imperfectly known ergots are given. It is suggested that the manner in which sclerotia germinate and stromata develop could be used to advantage in distinguishing between ergot species. The size of the asci for this purpose is shown to be of little value. The general distribution of the Queensland ergot species is discussed. The occurrence in Australia of several indigenous ergots discounts the alleged danger to pasture grasses from ergot of rye which is culti- vated for drug purposes. Plant breeding and plant-introduction programmes should take into consideration indigenous ergot species. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ajreker, S. L. (1926). Jour. Indian Bot. Soc., Y. 55-61. Bailey, F. M. (1890). Synopsis Qld. Flora, 3rd Supp., p. 123. Bailey, F. M. (1902). Qld. Flora YI, 1854. Berkeley, M. J., and Broome, C. E. (1875). Jour. Linn. Soc. XIV, 94. Bertus, L. S. (1941). Privately communicated. Birmingham, W. A. (1921). Agr. Gaz. N.S.W. XXXII, 410. Bubak, — , and Sydow, — (1915). Ann. Myc. XIII, 11. Butler, H, J., and Bisby,. R. (1931) . Imp. Counc. Agr. Res. India, Sci; Monogr. No. 1 Cesati, V. (1861). Comm. Soc. Critt. Ital. 1, 64. Cooke, M. C., and Massee, G. (1887). Grevillea XYI, 20. Herbert, D. A., and Langdon, R. F. (1941). Univ. Qld. Papers (Biology), II, 1,. pp. 1-6. Langdon, R. F. (1941a). Jour. Aust. Inst. Agr. Sci. VII, 85-7. Langdon, R. F. (1941b). Aust. Jour. Sci. Ill, 169. Noble, R. J., Hynes, H. J., McCleery, F. C., and Birmingham, W. A. (1934) . N.S.W. Dept. Agr. Sci. Bull. No. 46. Petch, T. (1938). Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. XXI, 243. Saccardo, P. A. (1891). Tabellae colorum. Subram ani am, L. S. (1921). Jour. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal. N.S. XVII, 205-8. Waterhouse, W. L. (1937). Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. LXII, 377. Vol. LIV., No. 4. 33 THE EGGS AND EARLY LARVAE OF THE AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL, SCOMBEROMORUS COMMER- SONI (LACEPEDE) WITH PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE SPAWNING OF THAT SPECIES. By Ian S. R. Munro, B.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland. (Plates II.-IV.) ( Received 24 th April, 1942 ; read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25 th May, 1942; issued separately, 26th August, 1942.) Although Australian ichthyologists in appreciation of the variety of their large and most interesting fish fauna have made voluminous and creditable contributions to the science of Systematic Zoology, it is only during recent years that workers have begun to direct their atten- tions towards gaining some sort of insight into their life-histories and habits. The identification and recognition of the pelagic eggs and larvae of commercially valuable marine fishes, though so important a phase in the understanding of life-histories, has been much neglected in the past by Australian investigators. In the study of spawning seasons and spawning grounds it is indeed important to be able to differentiate between the eggs and larvae of species of a genus of fish where several closely related forms have essentially the same geographical distribution. Such is the position with the genus Scomberomorus Lacepede ( = Cybium Cuvier & Valen- ciennes ) which is represented in Australian waters, as far as it is known, by at least five species of Spanish Mackerels in addition to a large assortment of other Scombroid fishes. To assist in the elucidation of some of the many problems encountered in the study of the economic biology of this extremely valuable group of food fishes, the following account is given of the larval characteristics of the best known Australian species, Scomberomorus commersoni (Lacepede). It is principally upon this species that the valuable Queensland Mackerel fishery is based, and in this state is known variously as Giant Mackerel, King Mackerel, Barred Spanish Mackerel, Snoek, and in North Queensland waters as Kingfish. The eggs and larvae of certain species of Scombroid fishes have received a reasonable amount of attention during the past sixty years but it is to European and American investigators (see Table III) that we owe our present knowledge of the developmental stages of such representatives as the true Mackerels ( Scomber and Pneumatophorus) and the several Mediterranean Thunnidae. Of historical interest is the fact that it was a member of the Seomberomoridae (the common American S. maculatus) that was the first Scombroid fish of which the developmental stages became known to science. Although Ryder described these eggs and larvae as early as 1882 (and 1887) his excellent R.S. — G. 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. papers still remain the indispensable foundation of our knowledge of the larval development of this genus. Such references to the eggs and larvae of Scomber omorus as Cunningham (1889), Meek (1916), Bigelow and Welsh (1925), and Walford (1937) concern only this S. maculatus and are in no way original, but Hildebrand and Cable (1938) have described older larvae captured in tow-nets and thought by the authors to belong to this American species also. Delsman (1931)1 has treated on a comparative basis the eggs and larvae collected in the Java Sea and rightly attributed by him to this genus. Delsman (1931) developed a method of identification of the eggs and larvae of the genus Scomberomorus ( Cybium ) based on the principle of selection of obvious differential larval characteristics such as myotome numbers, pigmentation, etc. A much surer and more generally applied method of establishing the characters of the eggs and larvae of any particular species concerns the artificial fertilisation of ova obtained from sexually mature adults of that known species. This latter method though undoubtedly the superior of the two has offered little success to investigators in tropical seas. Up to the present a greater degree of success has been obtained by following the growth of naturally spawned ova collected by tow-nettings, but in such cases there usually remains some uncertainty as regards the specific identity of the parent. The author experienced little trouble however in the fertilisation of ova and subsequent hatching of the larvae of S. commersoni even though the experiment was carried out on a small fishing craft2 at sea under tropical summer conditions, with no special hatching equipment or modern laboratory facilities. Despite unfavourable and practically uncontrolled working condi- tions a surprisingly large percentage of eggs hatched successfully and no trouble was experienced in keeping the hatched larvae for eighteen hours after emergence, even without change of wrnter. The bulk of the larvae hatched within twenty-five hours of fertilisation and the indica- tion is that with even ordinary facilities and suitably designed hatching equipment, no special trouble would be experienced in keeping larvae alive for much longer periods. Ryder (1882) was able to keep his larval S. maculatus alive for a period of approximately one week after hatching. In discussing the ease attending artificial fertilisation of Spanish Mackerel eggs some mention must be made of the work carried out by the United States Fish Commission in the latter part of the last century. Preliminary experiments concerning a scheme of artificial propagation of S. maculatus were successfully carried out as we glean from Barll (1883 and 1884), Kite (1885), McDonald (1884), Smiley (1881), Yerril (1880), and Wood (1885). The simplicity of the process has with some stimulated hopes for future artificial propagation on a large scale . in order to increase, or at least to maintain the natural stocks of Spanish Mackerel along our own coast, by annually utilising the otherwise 1 The results of Delsman ’$ studies on Scombroid larvae have been summarised in “De Indische Zeevisschen en Zeevisscherij, ’ 1 Delsman and Hardenberg (1934). 2 1 wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance rendered by Mr. J. Kiley of Brisbane, in taking me on more than one occasion to the fishing grounds off Townsville, North Queensland, where the experiment in artificial rearing was carried out on his launch during trolling operations. The observations presented in this paper were made near John Brewer (= Watt) Reef during the last few days of October, 1941, when the Mackerel season was at its peak level. AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL. 35 wasted roes and transplanting young fry in our natural nurseries. In Australian waters, although we have as yet no definite proof of over- fishing being the cause of the apparent decrease in catches of Mackerel during the last few years, it would certainly appear a great asset to our fishery if it were possible to supplement annually the natural stocks of S. commersoni by artificial propagation methods. As far as I am aware the American scheme wras never put into operation, and although further researches may reveal the feasibility of some such scheme in Australian waters, it is worth remembering that habits and fishing methods would tend to make the proposition even more difficult than in American waters. CONDITIONS RELATIVE TO HATCHING. Fertilisation was carried out in the usual manner after stripping the generative products prematurely from mature adults. The time of fertilisation was 4.30 p.m., 29/10/41, and the locality Watt Reef, near Townsville, North Queensland. The physical conditions of the water on the spawning grounds and that of the hatching vessel were as follows : — Temperature . . . . . . 25-7° Centigrade Specific Gravity . . . . 1-027 Salinity1 . . . . . . 36-5%o During the progress of development (45 hours) the temperature of the water in the tank remained fairly constant at 26° C. and at the hour of hatching had risen to 26-1° C. The first larva was hatched prematurely by freeing it from the egg-membrane at a period of 23^ hours after impregnation, but the first larvae were seen in the tank at 4.45 p.m., 30/10/41, so fixing the minimum hatching period as 24J hours. The bulk of the healthy eggs had hatched by 5.30 p.m. and only a few remained unhatched at 9.30 p.m. It will be noticed that the average hatching time for S. commersoni , which may be taken as 25 or 26 hours at 26° C., is almost identical with that of 8. maculatus at the same temperature. It is also similar to the hatching periods of the Cybium eggs from the tropical Java Sea (Delsman 1931) and of Thynnus thunnina (i.e. “Scomber Icanagurta ”) from the same locality (Delsman 1926) but considerably less than that of Scombridae of temperate seas, e.g. European Mackerel ( Scomber scomber) is 6 days and that of the American Mackerel 5 days at 13° C. The rate of development no doubt varies with temperature, since the hatching time of S. maculatus has been shown to decrease with increased temperature as indicated in Table I. HATCHING TEMPERATURES OF SCOMBEROMORTJS MACULATUS. TABLE I. Temperature. Hatching period. Authority. 77° F. 25 hours Bigelow & Welsh (1925), Walford (1937), etc. 78° F. 24 hours Earll (1883) 80° F. 17£ hours Kite (1885) 84° F. !5£-20 hours Earll (1883) (18 hours) 1 Approximate estimation only, see Harvey (1928), pp. 37-38. 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Apparently 25° C. (= 77° F.) is the normal spawning temperature for the American species. The similarity of the temperatures of the wmters of the spawning grounds for these two geographically remote species of Spanish Mackerel is striking enough. That hatching periods are identical and that there exists parallelism in procedure and rate of development in the egg, must surely indicate something more significant than mere coincidence. THE SPAWNING HABITS OF SCOMBEROMORUS COMMERSONI. While it is intended to leave the main consideration of spawning behaviour and fecundity to a later paper, a few preliminary remarks are added here for the completeness of the picture of the development of the eggs and larvae. Spawning of the Barred Spanish Mackerel (S. commersoni) has been found to occur in the vicinity of certain of the coral reefs off the coast of North Queensland. Although the naturally spawned eggs of this species have only been collected in tow-nettings near Watt Reef, one of the Cairns-Townsville fishing grounds, there is fairly good evidence to suggest that spawning may occur during the months of October to December at suitable localities along the east coast between Cooktown in the north and Gladstone in the south, but the main spawn- ing concentration is around the reefs off Townsville. It is in this district that an annual schooling of the species, presumably for the purpose of spawning, takes place during the early summer months of the year. During this period of schooling, the Spanish Mackerel fishing season is at its peak, as is evidenced by the fact that practically all the boatsj engaged in deep-sea fishing along the Queensland coast temporarily vacate their usual fishing grounds and come to these Townsville Reefs to troll for Mackerel. Only during these three months are large and regular freights of these so-called Kingfish assured. Kishinouye (1923) places the spawning season for S. commersoni as the spring months, when the Japanese form of this species schools at Taiwan, after having migrated from the north where the colder winter months were spent. This peculiar behaviour in the Northern Hemisphere is surely comparable to the habits of the Australian race, which schools in order to spawn during the early summer months in the warm waters of Northern Queensland, after having apparently migrated from more southerly parts of the east coast where they are to be found during the winter months. There is no specially noticeable or unusual behaviour which might indicate that spawning is actually taking place. The only indications of spawning are that most specimens are in good condition and with full roes when caught early in the season, whilst towards the end of November the bulk of the fish caught are very thin, in relatively poor condition and with roes partly spent. It is generally accepted by fisherman that during the schooling months the Barred Spanish Mackerel bites best at the trolled garfish baits during certain phases of the tides, especially during those periods of the month when the tides are on the make. The apparent inability of trolling mtethods to capture perfectly mature females may find its explanation in the existence of a periodicity associated with spawning and feeding periods, in which AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL. 37 case there would appear to be some correlation between spawning- periodicity and lunar influence — a common enough occurrence amongst marine animals. A point of interest concerns the time of day that spawning takes place. Ryder (1882) and Deism an (1931) both concluded from the evidence available to them that the bulk of spawning must take place either at dusk or during the early hours of darkness. The observation that fish with perfectly ripe eggs seem rare and that the only such female 8. commersoni known to me was captured in late afternoon seems significant, especially when considered in conjunction with the conclusions of the other workers. Some naturally spawned ova presumably belonging to 8. commersoni collected at dusk near Watt Reef, 29/10/41, apparently had not been fertilised. More ova perhaps belonging to this same species, collected at 8.30 p.m., three miles to the east of Low Isles on 22/10/28, mostly show signs that fertilisation has taken place, and the stage of development places fertilisation as occur- ring 3 or 4 hours prior to their being collected. It appears therefore that females dispose of their eggs before the early hours of darkness, and that males may or may not spawn till later in the evening, but in any case some interval might very well elapse between the time when the generative products are discharged and when fertilisation in the sea happens to take place. Ryder (1882) claims that the spermatozoa of 8. maculatus retain their motility for about one hour after ejection by the parent. STRUCTURE OF THE UNFERTILISED OR OVARIAN EGG. The egg of S. commersoni, conforming in almost every essential detail with the description of that given for 8. maculatus (Ryder, 1882), consists of the usual composite vitellus contained in a very delicate and easily ruptured outer homogeneous hyaline protective covering or egg- membrane (zona radiata), perforated by a single micropyle or fertilisa- tion pore. The micropyle, as observed in formalin-preserved eggs, is located in the centre of a shallow depression as in S. maculatus, and furthermore has the same type of faint radially disposed markings on the sloping walls of the crater, but the number of these markings is not great and difficult to count with accuracy. Like other Scombroid eggs there is a single perfectly spherical oil-globule which is most conspicuous by virtue of its relatively large size and its high refractive index. In the ovum of 8. commersoni the oil-globule is eccentrically placed in relation to the polar axis, being removed from the micropylar pit a distance across the surface of the egg-membrane subtended by an angle of 60° at the centre of the egg. The globule is embedded in the margin of the spherical mass of nutritive yolk and being of less density than the rest of the egg, naturally causes that part of the egg containing it to assume the apical position in the floating equilibrium. The larva throughout development maintains a position directly ventral to the oil-sphere, and its orientation remains constant in relation to the surface of the sea in which it is floating. Apart from any nutritive value possessed by the oil-globule, its function must not be just that of supplying buoyancy to the egg, but rather that of maintaining stability. 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. SIZE OF THE EGG. A noticeable feature about the maturing ovaries of 8. commersoni is the remarkable differentiation of the developing ova into three distinct size groups as noticed in some Japanese species by Kisliinouye (1923), and in East Indian species of Scomberomorus (Tenggiri) by de Jong (1940) who suggests its significance in relation to individual spawning periodicity. It is intended to discuss this at length in a later contribution on the spawning habits of the Australian species. It is the group of ovarian eggs of greatest diameter that have essen- tially the same macroscopical appearance and same range of size variation, both in total diameter and diameter of the characteristic oil-globule, as have pelagic eggs that are discharged naturally. The paravitelline space is very narrow in unfertilised eggs and difficult to distinguish until the egg becomes “ water swollen” following its fertilisation. It seems that the eggs of the Scombridae possess, as a group, sufficient individuality to distinguish them from most other pelagic teleostean ova. The eggs of the genus Scomberomorus have in common with other known Scombroid fishes a characteristically small diameter and contain a relatively large and highly refractive oil-drop. I give as the approximate ranges of size variation the following figures (Table II) for the ova of 8. commersoni obtained from different sources. Delsman (1931) and Ryder (1882) have given similar figures for other species of Spanish Mackerel. From Table III, where these values are given for comparison with S. commersoni, it is obvious that neither the size of the oil-globule nor the total ovum-diameter can be used as a diagnostic character for the differentiation of these three species from widely separated parts of the world. The similarity of these size- values to those given for other Scombroid fishes would indicate that size alone is not sufficiently diagnostic even for the characterisation of the eggs of the genus Scomberomorus as a whole, nor for the separation of the eggs of this genus from those of other Scombroids. Delsman ’s correlations (1931) of the diameters of egg and oil- globule with salinities of the localities in which the eggs were found, indicate that size variation beyond the limits of the natural variation hinted at by de Jong (1940) is profoundly affected by osmotic gradients, and that size alone is not sufficient on which to base specific determinations of ova. TABLE II. SIZE OF OVA OF SCOMBEROMORUS COMMERSONI. Origin of the ova. Total diameter. Diam. of oil-globule. Clear eggs from almost mature roes. Palm Is., 11/10/41 1.13-1.28 mm. 0.31 mm. Clear eggs from almost mature roes. Watt Reef, 26/10/41. 1.23-1.38 mm. Artificially fertilised ova. Watt Reef, 29/10/41. 1.23 mm. 0.31 mm. Naturally spawned ova, collected from the sea, near Watt Reef, 29/10/41. 1.05-1.12 mm. 0.31-0.39 mm. AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL, 39 TABLE III. OVUM SIZES OF THE GENUS SCOMBEROMORUS AND RELATED SCOMBROID FISHES. Species. Authority. Ova Diameter. Oil Globule Diameter. ' S. maculatus : Ryder 1882 1.02-1.27 mm. 0.25 mm. (1/20-1/25 in.) (1/100 in.) W North America. Bigelow & Welsh 0.91-1.14 mm. 0.23 mm. 1925, and Wal- Q ford 1937 P3 Q “ S. guttatus ” : § Java, Sumatra. Delsman 1931 1- 1-1-2 mm. 0-3-0-4 mm. o i Borneo. 113— 1-32 mm. 0*45-0*5 mm. « w Sumatra. 1.36 mm. 0*56 mm. PQ § S. niphonius : Kishinouye 1923 ca. 1*5 mm. O o Inland Sea, Japan. m S. commersoni : (Range of values 1*05-1*38 mm. 0*3-0*39 mm. North Queensland. L given in Table II) f Thynnus thunnina : Delsman 1931 0*85-0*95 mm. 0*21-0*24 mm. Java Sea. (“ Scomber kanagurta ” of < n Delsman 1926) pH S H Orcynus thunnus : Sanzo 1929 {fide 11-1*2 mm. 0*265 mm. & D tu Mediterranean Sea. Delsman 1931) H Orcynus germo : Sanzo |1925 {fide 0*9 mm. 0.24 mm. 1 Mediterranean Sea. Delsman 1931) 1 f Scomber scombrus : Mediterranean Sea. Holt 1898, etc. 0*86-1*04 mm. 0*20-0*22 mm. Ditto Sella & Ciacchi ± 1*0-1*12 mm. 0*32 mm. 1925 {fide Delsman 1931) North Sea. Cunningham 1889 1*22 mm. 0*32-0*33 mm. Ditto Delsman 1926, 1*0-1*38 mm. 0*25-0*35 mm. after Ehrenbaum (average = 1905 etc. 1*276-1*1 mm.) Atlantic Coast of Agassiz and 1*15 mm. 0*28 mm. Q Nth. America. Whitman 1885, s Unid. sp. No. 10. Ditto Sparks 1929 1*08-1*38 mm. (mode = 1*20 mm. ) O o U1 West Coast of Ireland. Holt 1893 1*21-1*33 mm. 0*30-0*32 mm. Pneumatophorus diego : Fry 1936 0-9-1-2 mm. 0*26 mm. Pacific Coast of (average = North America. 1*05-1*08 mm.) Scomber japonicus : Kamiya 1925 0*93-1*13 mm. ( fide Delsman, l 1931) DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE EGG. Although the following account deals principally with the gross changes in form and pigmentation between the fourteenth hour and the time of hatching, a few remarks of embryological interest are added for 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. comparative purposes. Begarding early segmentation of the blastodisc, it was noted that the four-cell stage derived from fission of the fertilisa- tion product appeared some 45 to 60 minutes after fertilisation. The subsequent divisions forming respectively the 8-, 16-, and 32-cell stages occurred at successive intervals of approximately ten minutes each. Five hours after fertilisation (9.30 p.m.) the mass of developing cells measured 0-66 mm. across its widest part. It is obvious that the procedure in division follows a rhythmic pattern of alternating long resting and short growing phases. The complete history of development from differentiation of the blastodisc until the completion of the yolk inclusion by the blastoderm, as worked out in detail for 8. maculatus (Byder, 1882), is not known in S. commersoni, as my observations begin at approximately fourteen hours after impregnation by the sperm. At such a stage organisation of the embryonic tissues has proceeded suffi- ciently far to present a wbll-defined form in the egg as seen at 6.0 a.m. the morning following fertilisation. (1) The Egg at 13J Hours after Fertilisation (8-9-Somite Stage) : The embryo of 8. commersoni at 13J hours is not greatly in advance of the development reached by 8. maculatus at 12 hours, and in addition has not attained that shown for 8. maculatus at 14 hours (see Byder, 1882), which would indicate that little difference in development is manifest by the embryos of the two species at this age. The 13| hour larval 8. commersoni shows at its caudal margin a small though well- defined area of vitellus uncovered by blastoderm. It is indeed less evident than in 12 hour 8. maculatus (Byder, 1882, PL II, fig. 9). Byder would indicate that the inclusion of the yolk is complete as early as 14 hours in 8. maculatus (1882, PI. II, fig. 10) but my material of 8. commersoni shows a vestige of uncovered yolk as late as 16J hours. The embryonic S. commersoni has already 8 or 9 body-somites or myotomes. (The number is best estimated in flattened specimens removed by dissection from the zona radiata and yolk material). The notochord is well defined and extends to much the same limits anteriorly as in hatched larvae, namely to the posterior margins of the eye-lobes, which like the auditory rudiments are as yet lateral outgrowths of the poorly differentiated anterior portion of the medullary tube, or brain rudiment. (2) The Egg at 16 Hours after Fertilisation (17-Somite Stage) : Observations made on living embryos at 9.0 a.m. and slightly younger material which was preserved in formalin at 8.0 a.m. indicate that the significant changes wrought during the additional 2 or 3 hours of growth concern mainly the increase in the number of somites. Stained material taken at 8.0 a.m. shows 17 clearly defined somites, a number that is double that of the preceding stage. Enumeration of the exact number of myotomes in living specimens examined one hour later was impossible as some were hidden by the oil-globule which invariably assumes the dorsal position in the floating egg. These 16J hour embryos show three somites in front of the oil-sphere and another ten to its rear when viewed from above with a monocular microscope. The number which is 17 in 15J hour embryos has in all probability increased to 19 or 20 by 16^ hours. The nervous system shows some further differentiation especially in relation to the increased size of the optic swellings and the appear- ance of nasal pits and auditory capsules as invaginations of the AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL. 41 epiblastic layer. As shown in Plate II, fig. 4 the auditory capsules are saucer-shaped thickenings apposed to, though a little anterior to, the bulb-like otic swellings of the hindbrain. The nasal pits are less definite and are located in the region bounded by the frontal projection of the forebrain and anterior margins of the eye lobes. Pigmentation which alone is a distinctive feature is not yet in evidence. (3) The Egg at 19 \ Hours after Fertilisation (28-29-Somite Stage) : Although growth has been slow until the 19th hour, mid-day heralds a sudden increase in growth rate. About the 20th hour the body of the embryo begins to give jerky pulsations at irregular and infrequent intervals. By active division of the mesoderm of the caudal region the myotome number has increased to 28 or 29 and this addition has consequently caused a noticeable increase in the axial length of the body. So far the embryonic fish has been able to overcome the effects of elongation in the restricted space between the egg-membrane and the yolk by stretching itself out around the surface of the yolk and at the same time keeping its longitudinal axis in the one plane. As the limits of uniplanar elongation have now been reached, further elongation will necessitate the adoption of either flexion or torsion to accommodate the growing tail-tip. Already the caudal extremity has thickened its blastodermic margins to form the rudiments of the dorsal and ventral unpaired fins or the natatory folds of the embryonic fish, and has begun to grow out from the general surface of the epiblast, over and above it as a short blunt projection. As in 18-hour-old 8. maculatus the brain is clearly marked off from the rest of the spinal cord and is in itself constricted off to form au unpaired forebrain or cerebrum, a conspicuous midbrain between the eyes, and a hindbrain consisting of rudimentary cerebellum, medulla oblongata and dilated fourth ventricle. The eyes, having received their mesoblastic choroid coat, are now hollowed structures cleft in their lower surfaces by the distinct choroid fissure. The auditory vesicles still in contact with the exterior have grown larger and settled deeper into the surrounding tissues. Pigmentation. — Special notice must be taken of the distribution of black pigment-cells in both egg-embryos and hatched larvae. Arrange- ment of pigment-bearing cells is the only character of larval Seombero- morids which shows any prospect of being specifically diagnostic, apart from myotome counts which in this particular group of fishes are only useful for generic distinctions. Delsman (1926, 1931) has noticed this but Ryder (1882) attached little significance to the arrangement of these chromatophores. Ryder (1882) noticed the first appearance of pigmentary cells in 8. maculatus at about 14 hours while my observations on 8. commersoni indicate that the dark-coloured cells make their appearance about 15 hours when they are noticed as small rounded pigment-bearing cells beneath the superficial layer of epiblast and scattered irregularly over the dorsal surface of the embryo. At 19 or 20 hours there is a definite rearrangement of these cells which are now branching, amoeboid-shaped, and jet black. This amoeboid migration results in the formation of several definite tracts. At 12.0 noon (19£ hours) the pigmentation is restricted to the dorsal surfaces of the head and trunk. The pigment- spots are distributed at more or less evenly spaced intervals along two main tracts, one on each side of the body. There are four evenly spaced 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. spots on each side of the head, placed directly over the groove between the optic vesicles and the forebrain. At the fifth spot the line forks giving place to a main tract which continues dorso-laterally along each side of the trunk extending into the caudal region, while a shorter branch extends up across the brain behind the eye. This general arrangement of pigment is retained in older larvae, but additional series are added from time to time. Another series appearing at this time originates as large yellow- brown amoeboid cells in the vicinity of the oil-sphere. On first appear- ance they are rounded yellow cells distributed over the surface of the yolk and are apparently formed in the periblastic layer. Mostly they migrate over the surface of the yolk and form an opaque thick layer or mantle which invests the oil-globule. It must be admitted that Cunningham’s views (1889, 1891a) regarding the presence of a peri- blastic envelope around the oil-globule and confluent with that of the yolk surface explains the mechanism of investment of the oil sphere by the dendritic pigment cells. That the method of fixation of the oil globule in a definite position in hatched larvae of 8. commersoni is by this thin periblastic membrane containing pigment cells, and not solely by a mantle of amoeboid cells acting as anchors, has been revealed by examination of special preparations of hatched larvae. In S. commersoni these yellow cells congregate on the inner surface of the oil globule and the anterior surface of the yolk mass and in developing pigment take on a dark colour. (4) The Egg between the 20th Hour and Hatching: At 20 hours the caudal extremity has begun to push its way back- wards over the surface of the epiblastic envelope of the yolk, the process of evagination being as indicated in Plate III, Figs. 8-10. Additional myotomes are being added caudally causing rapid elongation and the problem of adequate accommodation for the growing embryo within the limited confines between the egg-membrane and the yolk has arisen with the exhaustion of uniplanar extension. Torsion is resorted to after the 20th hour. There are slight changes in the orientation of the larva in relation to the yolk and oil-sphere following the irregular and infrequent jerking motions of the body. At 20J hours (1.0 p.m.) the pointed tail-tip is directed towards the left side of the egg, as it continues to do one hour later (2.0 p.m.) when further elongation has upset the floating equilibrium and caused the trunk in its central part to become a little displaced to the left of the original axis. In this condition the free caudal portion is about one third the total length of the embryo. Within the space of a few minutes the whole caudal portion flexes over from the left to the right side of the egg so that the embryo viewed from above is L-shaped. Further growth caudally causes the tail to assume a dorso-lateral position on the surface of the yolk, the axis of the recurved tail section being parallel to that of the trunk, the general appearance being a U-shape in the prehatching phase. Following the evagination of the tail, backward growth of the caudal segments is accompanied by a change in their dorso-ventral axis in relation to the surface of the yolk upon which they lie. While the trunk retains its ventral surface in apposition to the yolk, the free caudal part lies with its dorso-ventral axis parallel to, instead of at right angles to, the yolk surface. This twisting of the body in the vicinity of the vent is to allow accommodation for the widening natatory AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL. 43 folds. In 8. commersoni the wider ventral fold lies to the left and the narrower dorsal fold to the right of the caudal axis. The natatory folds are not conspicuous till about the 20th hour. New structures that have appeared are the hindgut and the heart. This latter structure appears as a tubular organ about 21 or 22 hours and by 23 hours is much enlarged and looped with the venous extremity directed backwards. The first pulsations occur at 22f hours. A pair of minute highly refractive otoliths are to be seen in the oval auditory vesicles, which, like the epidermal eye lenses, have been constricted off from the parent tissues about the 22nd or 23rd hour of development. Additional ventricles have opened out in the brain, that of the embryonic midbrain being the most conspicuous at the time of hatching. Pigmentation. — While the increase in the number of black pigment- spots is especially noticeable in the head region (cf. Plate III, Pigs. 5 and 6), the two rows of black cells previously seen along the dorso- lateral margins of the trunk, at 23^ hours lie along the lines separating the dorsal fin-fold from the trunk. These dorsal pigment spots are very numerous and are spaced at approximately equal intervals, but the lines are not quite regular and the number of spots probably variable. There does not seem to be any special relation between their distribution and the myotome number. Pigmentation of the ventral fold is less complete, there being but a single pair of black cells placed closed together on either side of the fold near its caudal end. Additional lateral cells are visible but prior to hatching the “rectal series” does not extend beyond the posterior end of the hind gut. (5) Hatching: Hatching is preceded by a non-growing phase of about one hour’s duration, through which the embryo remains quiescent except for the beating of the heart and the erratic body pulsations. Organisation is complete at 23 hours. Immediately prior to rupture of the egg membrane there is a stretching and subsequent elongation of the egg in the longi- tudinal axis of the body. The larva on emergence measures approxi- mately 2-5 mm. in total length and grows to 3-5 mm. during the 16 or 17 hours subsequent to hatching, an amount slightly in excess of that given for 8. maculatus , namely 3-2 mm. in 20 hours (Bigelow and Welsh, 1925; Walford, 1937). The behaviour of newly hatched 8. commersoni is similar to that of other Scombroids in that it remains quiescent at the surface, floating on its back with yolk-sac uppermost and kept in that position by the buoyant oil-globule which still has the comparatively large size of 0*26 mm. This condition is maintained during the hours of darkness, the larvae being able to right themselves by early morning and rest near the bottom of the hatching vessel, at all times darting away with considerable vigour when disturbed. Apparently hatching and stabilisation are timed to take place at dusk and early morning respectively when the light intensity is not great. THE LARVAE. Illustrations of newly hatched (25-hour) and 41-hour larvae are given on Plate IV. These show the main essentials and indicate the characteristic shapes of these two types of larvae. The close resemblance of these to the larvae of similar age but belonging to other species of the genus ( 8 . maculatus, vide Ryder 1882, PL II, fig. 13; PL III, fig. 14, and “S. guttatus,” vide Delsman 1931, figs. 2, 4, 5, 8) does not need 44 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. comment. The newly hatched larvae are very similar in appearance and size to those of Thynnns thunnina (Delsman, 1931; also 1926, fig. 3 as “Scomber kanagnrta” • Delsman and Hardenberg, 1934) and likewise not a great deal different in appearance but rather less in size than the newly hatched Scomber scomber (Cunningham 1891b, PI. IV, fig. 4; Ehrenbaum 1905, fig. 15b, etc.) or Pnenmatophorns diego (Fry 1936, fig. 12 E) but both types differ from Scomber omorus in their myotome counts. The larvae of S. commersoni therefore conform to the typical Scombroid form, and as yet have few characters which might be used in their specific or even generic diagnosis. The newly hatched larva shows little difference to the embryo prior to its leaving the egg, except for the straightening out of the tail. The 41 hour larvae (16 hours after hatching) of S. commersoni has all the structures described in detail for S. macnlatns at that stage (Ryder, 1882) namely branchial furrows, rudiments of breast-fin, excretory tubules, urinary bladder and Wolfian duct along with additional pigmentation and shrinkage of the yolk. The outgrowth of the liver diverticulum from the gut is earlier than in S. macnlatns but otherwise the mode and rate of development of the two species during the first sixteen hours of larval life can be considered parallel. SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF DIFFERENTIAL LARVAL CHARACTERS. It has been pointed out in an earlier section of this account that the unfertilised eggs of known species of Scomber omorns are closely similar in structure, texture and size, so much so that it is impossible to identify them specifically. Delsman (1926, 1931, etc.) has already discussed the value of myotome numbers of larvae as a possible distinguishing medium and has attempted to relate these values to the vertebral counts of adults of species known to occur in the vicinity of the collection of eggs and larvae. While accurate enumeration of the myotomes is not always easy and the last few caudal somites usually indistinct, further compli- cations concern the shifting of the anus backwards probably 6 or 7 somites during metamorphosis from larva to adult and a decrease in number of somites of both tail and trunk as the larvae grow older. As far as could be determined, the number of somites in larval S. commersoni sixteen hours after hatching is 14 -|- 33 or 34, making a total of 47 or 48, while the vertebral counts for this species are given as 20 -f- 25 = 45. The value of myotome counts for separating the larvae of the genera of the Scombriformes is evident from Delsman ’s valuable work, but efforts to separate closely allied species in this way seem rather optimistic. It would seem that the second method of diagnosis indicated by Delsman may prove to be the only reliable way to distinguish between the eggs and larvae of the species within this genus. Delsman distin- guishes three types amongst the eggs and larvae attributed by him to Cybinm {— Scomber omorns) and collected from various parts of the Java Sea. Arrangement of pigment spots is the character upon which he based the secondary classification of his eggs. For purposes of comparison with S. commersoni, Table IV provides a summary and analysis of the pigment distribution in these three types of larvae and also that of the American S. macnlatns as far as the latter can be determined from Ryder’s illustrations. AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL. 45 TABLE IV. PIGMENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE EGGS AND LARVAE OF THE GENUS SCOMBEROMOR US. Pigment Groups. (Black Chromatophores.) Delsman’s “ 0. guttatum.” S. maculatus (based on Ryder) N. America. S. commersoni North Queensland. I Borneo. II Sumatra. III Java. LATERAL SERIES (Dorso-lateral row on each side of the trunk) + + + + + POSTORBITAL GROUP (Scattered cells behind the eyes) + + + + INTERORBITAL GROUP (Scattered cells between the eyes) + + + + CAUDAL SERIES (Broken line or ring in region of the tail) + + + RECTAL SERIES (Broken line along inferior border of trunk myotonies + ) + + — + VITELLINE SERIES (Clustered cells on dorsal surface of the yolk) + + + OLEAGINOUS SERIES (Clustered cells on imier surface of oil-globule, i.e. surface apposed to the yolk mass.) + + + + As my studies of the larva of 8. commersoni were based on formalin- preserved material, no observations could be made on the yellow pigment, which if present had faded; this pigment is very noticeable in the larvae of Scomber and the Tunnies and also has been observed on some of the Scomberomorids. The dorso-lateral black cells of Delsman’s Thynnus seem to be the principal series in that larva and judging from his figures (1926, figs. 2-3) are diffusely and irregularly scattered over the back and upper parts of the sides instead of being in two distinct rows. The pattern apparently becomes more distinctive with age. It would appear that the black cells of Scomberomoms can be divided into region assemblages and groupings, some of which seem to be common to the egg-embryos and hatched larvae of all the species under consideration, while in some of the species one or more of the groups may be missing. 8. commersoni seems to possess pigmentary cells referable to all these groups. The classification suggested above though necessarily general in form is intended as a tentative scheme only but it suffices to show that vast differences in pigmentation do occur in the five known types. It is obvious that such a scheme admits of further subdivision of the groupings suggested, but such formulation must wait until material comes to hand for a comparative analysis of the patterns and numbers of pigmentary cells in each species. However it can be 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. pointed out that the pigmentation of 8. commersoni is greater in amount and more evenly distributed over the larval body than in any other of the known species of the genus, and that the pattern is in itself quite distinctive. REFERENCES. Agassiz, A., and Whitman, C. O. (1885). “The development of osseous fishes — I. The pelagic stages of young fishes.” Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, XIY, i, 1, pp. 36-37. Bigelow, H. B., and Welsh, W. W. (1925). “Fishes of the Gulf of Maine.” Bull. U.S. Bureau Fish., 1924, XL, i, pp. 217-219. Cunningham, J. T. (1889). “Studies in the reproduction and development of Teleostean fishes occurring in the neighbourhood of Plymouth.” Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., (ns), I, pp. 35-36. Cunningham, J. T. (1891a). “On some disputed points in Teleostean embryology.” Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., VII (ser. 6), pp. 204-213. Cunningham, J. T. (1891b). “On some larval stages of fishes.” Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. (ns), II, p. 68. Delsman, H. C. (1926). “Fish eggs and larvae of the Java Sea. — 9. Scomber kanagurta C. Y. ” Treubia, VIII, liv. 3-4, pp. 396-399. Delsman, H. C. (1931). “Fish eggs and larvae of the Java Sea. — 18. The genus Cybium. ” Treubia, XIII, pp. 401-410. Delsman, H. C., and Hardenberg, J. D. F. (1934). “De Indische Zeevisschen en Zeevisscherij. ” Bibliotheek van de Nederlandsch-Ind. Natuurhistorisehe Vereeniging, VI, pp. 340-342, Figs. 21 and 248. Earll, R. E. (1883). “The Spanish Mackerel, Cybwm maculatum (Mitch.) Ag. ; its natural history and artificial propagation with an account of the origin and development of the fishery.” Rept. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1880, VIII, pp. 395-426. Earll, R. E. (1884). “Hatching Blackfish and Spanish Mackerel.” Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1884, IV, pp. 415-416. Ehrenbaum, E. (1905). “Eier und Larven von Fischen des Nordischen Planktons.,” pp. I 31-34, figs. , Fry, D. H. (1936). “A description of the eggs and larvae of the Pacific Mackerel (Pneumatophorus diego).” Calif. Fish & Game, XXII, pp. 27-29, PI. 12. Harvey, H. W. (1928). “Biological Chemistry and Physics of Sea Water,” Cambridge. Hildebrand, S. F., and Cable, L. E. (1938). “Further notes on the development and life history of some Teleosts at Beaufort, N.C. ” Bull. U.S. Bureau Fish., XL VIII, pp. 505-642. Holt, E. W. L. (1893). “Survey of the fishing grounds, west coast of Ireland, 1890-1891. On the eggs and larval and post-larval stages of Teleosteans. ” Sc. Transact. Roy. Dublin Soc., V (ser. 2), p. 10. Holt, E. W. L. (1899). “Recherches sur la Reproduction des Poissons osseux principalement dans le Golfe de Marseille.” Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Marseille, Zool. Tome V, ii. de Jong, J. K. (1940). “A preliminary investigation of the spawning habits of some fishes of the Java Sea.” Treubia, XVII, iv, pp. 307-330. Kamiya (1925).1 Journal Imp. Fisheries Institute, Vol. 21. ( vide footnote, p. 403, Delsman, 1931.) Kishinouye, K. (1923). “Contributions to the comparative study of the so-called Scombroid Fishes.” Journ. Coll. Agric., Tokyo Imper. Univ., VIII, in. Kite, J. A. (1885). “Report upon apparatus and facilities needed for hatching Spanish Mackerel.” Rept. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1883, XI, pp. 1095-1100. Meek, A. (1916). “The migrations of fish.” London. McDonald, M. (1884). “Spanish Mackerel investigations at Cherrystone, Va., during the summer of 1881.” Rept. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1881, IX, pp. 1131- 1133. Ryder, J. A. (1882). “Development of the Spanish Mackerel (Cybium maculatum).” Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1881, I, pp. 135-172, 4 plates. AUSTRALIAN BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL. 47 Ryder, J. A. (1887). “On the development of osseous fishes, including marine and fresh water forms.” Kept. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1885, XIII, pp. 520-521, PI. X, figs. 46-56. Sanzo, L. (1925).1 “Uovo e larva di Alalonga (Orcynus germo Ltkn.). Nota preventiva. ’ 1 Rendi. Accademia Naz. Lincei, Roma, (ser. 6) I, pp. 131-134. Sanzo, L. (1929). 1 Uovo e larva di Tonno (Orcynus thynnus, Ltkn.).” Rendi. Accademia Naz. Lincei, Roma, IX, pp. 104-106. Sella, M., and Ciacchi, O. (1925). 1 “Uovo e larva dello scombro del Mediterraneo (Scomber scomber Linn.) ottenuti per fecondazione artificiale. ” R. eomitato Talassografico Italiano, Memoria CXIV, 51 pp., 1 PI. Smiley, C. W. (1881). “The Spanish Mackerel (Cybium maculatum) and its artificial propagation.” Chicago Field, 1880, XIV, pp. 67-68; Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 29th meet., 1880, (1881), pp. 575-583. Sparks, M. I. (1929). “The spawning and development of Mackerel on the outer coast of Nova Scotia.” Contr. Canadian Biol. & Fish, (ns.) IV, xxviii, pp. 443-452. Yerril, A. E. (1880). “Artificial propagation of the Spanish Mackerel (Cybium maculatum).” Amer. Journ. Sci. (ser. 3), XX, p. 251. Walford, L. A. (1937). “Marine game fishes of the Pacific Coast from Alaska to the Equator.” Contr. Santa Barbara Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Calif. Press. Wood, W. M. (1885). “Reports on operations in hatching eggs of Spanish Mackerel in Chesapeake Bay by Steamer ‘Fish Hawk’ during summer of 1883.” Rept. U.S. Fish. Comm. 1883, pp. 1089-1094. EXPLANATION OF PLATES II-IV. The eggs and larvae of the Australian Barred Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorm commersoni (Lacepede)). Figures 2, 4, 7, 13, 16, and 17 are drawn from formalin- preserved material. All other figures are from living specimens. AS, Auditory swelling of hind brain; AV, Auditory vesicle; BE, contracting rim of blastoderm; CE, Cerebellum; CS, Cardiac sinus or rudiment of pericardiac space; E, Eye; F.B., Forebrain; G. Gut; H, Heart; L. Crystalline lens; LI, Lens invagination of the epiblast; M, Zona radiata; MB, Midbrain; MC, Medullary canal; MO, Medulla oblongata; NA, Nasal pits; NF, Natatory folds; NO, Notochord; NS, Nostril; OG, Oil-globule; OE, Optic swelling; P, Periblastie attachment of oil- globule; PF, Pectoral fin rudiment; SC, Spinal cord; SG, Segmentation cavity; SO, Somites, Myotomes; SS, Supracephalic sinus; U, Uncovered yolk; TJB, Urinary bladder; V, Anus; V4, Fourth ventricle; Y, Yolk mass; YS, Yolk sac. Fig. 1. — Egg at 6.15 a.m. (13| hours) with 9-somite embryo. X 63. Fig. 2. — Cephalic region of 9-somite embryo showing poorly differentiated neural tube with optic and otic rudiments and also the notochord. X 95. Fig. 3. — Egg at 9.0 a.m. (161 hours) with 17-19-somite embryo. X 63. Fig. 4. — Cephalic region of 17-somite embryo (151 hours) showing first differen- tiation of the brain tube. The auditory vesicles and nasal pits have now appeared. X 95. Fig. 5. — Egg at 12.0 noon (191 hours) with 28-29-somite embryo showing early pigmentation. “Interorbital” chromatophores and the most posterior of the “Lateral” or trunk chromatophores are visible. The large migratory cells shown on the yolk surface are those which envelop the oil globule and form the chromatophores of the “Oleaginous” and “Vitelline” series. X 63. Fig. 6. — Appearance of the head with additional black chromatophores at a stage 40 minutes later than in figure 5. X 70. Fig. 7. — Cephalic region of 28-29-somite embryo (191 hours) showing prominent hindbrain and fourth ventricle. The eyes are receiving their epidermal invagination which will form the lens. X 56. 1 The references so indicated unfortunately were not available to the author. The information made use of is based on Delsman (1931). 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Figs. 8, 9, and 10. — Changing appearance of caudal rudiment during the 19th hour, when it begins to grow out as a projection over the surface of the yolk sac. X 70. Figs. 11, 12, and 14. — Changes in orientation of embryo due to elongation of the caudal portion. Fig. 11 represents the embryo at 1.0 p.m. (20£ hours) with tail tip directed to the left. Figs. 12 and 14 show the egg approximately one hour later (21| hours) with the tail pointing first to the left and then to the right to give the L-shaped appearance. X 42. Fig. 13. — Cephalic portion of 21£ hour embryo. The tubular heart, gut, and ventricle of the midbrain are the new features. X 80. Fig. 15. — Egg with U-shaped embryo just prior to hatching. The complete pigmentation is not shown. X 63. Fig. 16. — 2.5 mm. (newly hatched) larva (approximately 25 hours) showing complete pigmentation. X 35. Fig. 17. — 3.2 mm. larva as it appears 41 hours after fertilisation or 16 hours after hatching. The complete pigmentation is shown. X 35. Proc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land., Yol. LIY., No. 4. Plate II. 3 Munro: The Eggs and Early Larvae of the Australian Barred Spanish Mackerel. [Del. I. S. B. Munro. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land., Yol. LIV., No. 4. Plate III. Munro: The Eggs and Early Larvae of the Australian Barred Spanish Mackerel. [Del. I. S. R. Munro. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land., Vol. LIV., No. 4. Plate IV. Munro : The Eggs and Early Larvae of the Australian Barred Spanish Mackerel. [Del. I. S. E. Munro. Vol. LIV., No. 5. 49 SOME NEW LEAF-HOPPERS FROM AUSTRALIA AND FIJI. By J. W. Evans, B.Sc. (1 Text Figure.) ( Received 1 8th June, 1942 ; tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th July, 1942; issued separately, 23 rd November , 1942.) EUPTERY GIDAE. Empoasca quadripunctata sp. nov. (Fig. 1). Length, 2-8 mm. Head, ventral surface yellow, with three longitudinal white markings on the fronto-clypeus posteriorly. The central stripe continues on to the crown, the lateral stripes may or may not do so. Ocelli bordered with white. Pronotum with three small white markings lying against the fore border, one in the centre, the others directly behind the eyes. Scutellum with three white markings against the front margin and a pair of apical white markings. Tegmen hyaline, with two round brown spots, and a faint curved transverse brown stripe, close to the apex. Thorax and abdomen with white lateral markings. Male Genitalia as in Figure 1. Type $ from Sigatoka, Fiji, 3/6/40, on Cotton (R. Lever), in the Australian Museum Collection. Empoasca malvae sp nov. (Fig. 6). Length, 3 mm. Head, ventral surface green; fronto-clypeus yellowish with a broad median longitudinal white stripe; vertex and crown pale greenish white with four longitudinal brown stripes, two of which border the eyes ; eyes brown. Pronotum greenish-yellow with three greenish-white markings lying close to the anterior margin. Scutellum yellowish with a median longitudinal white stripe extending from the anterior margin as far as the centre. Tegmen hyaline, greenish-yellow with a white oval area in the clavus ; apical third brown, veins pale green. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface pale yellowish- green ; legs green. Male Genitalia almost identical with those of Empoasca pulcherrima. Type $ from Gayndah, Queensland, 12/4/42 on Malva parviflora (A. May) in the Queensland Museum Collection. (Ho./5232.) Empoasca pulcherrima sp. nov. (Figs. 2 and 3). Length 2 mm. Head , ventral surface very pale green; eyes dark brown. Crown with two U-shaped black markings. Pronotum , pale green laterally, behind the eyes; medially black. Scutellum, black. Tegmen pale hyaline-yellow, the apex and anal border marked with a dark brown pattern. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface pale yellow ; legs green. Male Genitalia as in Figure 2. Type $ from Gayndah, Queensland, 7/4/42 on Sida subspicata (A. May) in the Queensland Museum Collection. (LIo./5233.) LEDRIDAE, CEPHALELINAE . Paraccphaleus gen. nov. The head is concave ventrally and convex dorsally, ocelli are present on the crown, and the lateral margin of the head is notched on each side close to and in front of the eyes. The pronotum is declivous and R.S. H. 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. is wider posteriorly than anteriorly. The venation of the tegmina is distinct and hindwings are present. These have a reduced venation, both the radius and media being unbranched. Paracephaleus montanus sp. nov. (Genotype). Length 6-5 mm. General coloration pale brown. Head, thorax and legmen, punctate. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface dark brown ; ventral abdominal segments with a median, and a pair of lateral, pale brown longitudinal stripes. Legs pale brown. Type $ from Mt. Wellington, Tasmania, 3,600 ft., 2/42 (J.W.E.) in the Australian Museum Collection. P. montanus is of interest in serving as a definite link between the Cephalelinae and the Ledrinae. Whilst it resembles species in the several genera included in the Cephalelinae in size and general appear- ance, it differs in the lack of a collar-like pronotum with parallel sides and in the retention of hind wings. The shape of the pronotum of P. montanus is very similar to that of several representatives of the Ledrinae. A large number of specimens, all females, were collected on Restio australis growing in a swamp formation lying a little below the summit of Mt. Wellington, near Hobart. Anacephaleus simplex Ev., Taslopa montana Ev. and T. brachyptera have also been taken in the same environment. DESCRIPTION OF TEXT FIGURE 1. Fig. 1. Empoasca quadripunctata, male genitalia. Fig. 2. Empoasca pulcherrima, male genitalia. Fig. 3. Empoasca pulcherrima, head and pronotum, dorsal aspect. Fig. 4. Paracephaleus montanus. Fig. 5. Paracephaleus montanus, head and thorax, dorsal aspect. Fig. 6. Empoasca malvae, head and pronotum, dorsal aspect. Fig. 7. Paracephaleus montanus, wing. some NEW LEAF-HOPPERS FROM AUSTRALIA AND FIJI. 51 Text Figure 1. Vol. LIV., No. 6. 53 A RE-INTERPRETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD, BASED ON A STUDY OF THE RUGOSE CORALS. By Dorothy Hill, Ph.D., D.Sc., University of Queensland. (1 Table Inset.) { Received 31st August } 1942; rend before the Royal Society of Queens- land, 26th October, 1942; issued separately 3 rd February, 1943.) In papers published during the last eight years, the author has attempted to determine the ages of the strata containing various of the Australian Rugose coral faunas, and it is the object of this paper to bring together the results so obtained. The previous papers are: — 1. 1934. The Lower Carboniferous Corals of Australia. Proc. roy. Soc. Qld . XLV, pp. 63-115, pis. vii-xi. 2. 1936. Upper Devonian Corals from Western Australia, J. roy. Soc. W. Aust. XXII, pp. 25-39, 1 pi. 3. 1937a. Type Specimens of Palaeozoic Corals from New South Wales in W. B. Clarke’s First Collection, and in the Strzelecld Collection. Geol. Mag. Lond. LXXIV, pp. 145-153, text-figs. 1-9. 4. 1937b. The Permian Corals of Western Australia. J. roy. Soc. W. Aust. XXIII, pp. 43-63, 1 pi., and text-figs. 1-12. 5. 1938a. Euryphyllum: A new Genus of Permian Zaphrentoid Rugose Corals. Proc. roy. Soc. Qld. XLIX, pp. 23-28, pi. i. 6. 1938b. On the Identity of Monilopora Nicholson and Etheridge; 1879, with Cladochonus McCoy, 1847. Froc. roy. Irish Acad, XLV, (B), No. 6, pp. 125-138, pis. xxii-xxiii. With L. B. SMYTH. 7. 1939a. The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, I. Douglas Creek and Drummond Creek, Clermont District, Proc. roy. Soc. Qld. L, pp. 55-65, pis. iv, v. 8. 1939b. The Devonian Rugose Corals of Lilydale and Loyola, Victoria. Proc. roy Soc. Viet. (NS) LI, pp. 219-256, pis. xiii-xvi. 9. 1939c. Western Australian Devonian Corals in the Wade Col- lection. J. roy. Soc. W. Aust. XXV, pp. 141-151, 1 pi. 10. 1940a. The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, II. The Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. Proc. roy. Soc. Qld. LI pp. 150-168, pis. ii, iii. 11. 1940b. The Silurian Rugosa of the Yass-Bowning District, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. LXV, pp. 388-420, pis, xi-xiii. 12. 1940c. The Heliolitidae of Australia, with a Discussion of the Morphology and systematic Position of the Family. Proc. roy. Soc. Qld. LI, pp. 183-215, pis. vi-xi. With O. A. JONES. 13. 1940d. The Corals of the Garra Beds, Molong District, N.S.W. J. Proc. roy. Soc. N.S.W . LXXIV, pp. 175-208, pis. ii-viii. With O. A. JONES. R.S. — I. 54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 14 1940e. The Lower Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of the Mur- rumbidgee and Goodradigbee Rivers, N.S.W. J. Proc. roy. Soc. N.S.W . LXXIY, pp. 247-276, pis. ix-xi. 15. 1941. Note on a Collection of Fossils from Queenstown, Tasmania. Proc. roy. Soc. Viet., (NS) LIII, pp. 222-230, pi. vii. With A. B. EDWARDS. 16. 1942a. Further Permian Corals from Western Australia. J. roy. Soc. W. Aust. XXVII, pp. 57-75, pis. i, ii. 17. 1942b. The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, III. Burdekin Downs, Fanning R., and Reid Gap, North Queens- land. Proc. roy. Soc. Qld. LIII, pp. 229-268, pis. v-xi. 18. 1942c. Some Tasmanian Palaeozoic Corals. Pap. Proc. roy. Soc. Tasmania for 1941, pp. 3-12, pi. ii. 19. 1942d. The Lower Devonian Rugose Corals from the Mt. Etna Limestone, Qld. Proc. roy. Soc. Qld. LIV, pp. 13-22, pi. i. 20. 1942e. The Devonian Rugose Corals of the Tamworth District, N.S.W. J. Proc. roy. Soc. N.S.W. LXXVI, pp. 142-164, pis. ii-iv. 21. 1942f. Middle Palaeozoic Rugose Corals from the Wellington District. J. Proc. roy Soc. N.S.W. LXXVI, pp. 182-189, pis. v, iv. In what follows, references to these papers are made by citing their number in the list. Determinations of the age of faunas were made according to the following principles. (1) Only the evidence from the corals was accepted, and only those corals which have been described in detail by the author have been used. It was thought that all evidence would thus be of nearly equal value, and the results would be without those unevennesses which develop from the uncritical acceptance of the specific determinations of other workers on other groups, and of the deductions of age based on such determinations. The revisions of other groups and of the deductions on age drawn from them, will, it is hoped, come later. Every species has been illustrated, so that the deductions on age drawn by the author may be readily checked by other palaeontologists experienced in the use of corals in solving stratigraphical problems. (2) Each fauna was compared with faunas from the standard European succession first, and only secondarily with those other Aus- tralian coral faunas whose age had previously been determined by the author. It was hoped thus to avoid the cumulative error which would arise from comparisons with an Australian fauna whose age might by mischance have been wrongly determined. (3) Sources of error in correlation which were kept in mind during the work and guarded against as far as possible were the possible existence of barriers to migration, and the preference particular associations of corals show for particular habitats. Thus it is clear that if migration of faunas between Australia and Europe was prevented for any length of time, evolution would proceed independently, and the faunas would have a different aspect. In such circumstances correlations with Europe would be difficult. But it might be that there was free communication with some other area, where the A RE-INTERPRETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD, ETC. 55 succession was adequately known, for instance, the Pacific region of North America, so that comparisons giving an age determination could be made with this. A study of the ecology of living corals shows that they are very susceptible to environmental control. Similarly, a study of the sedimen- tary facies favoured by the Carboniferous corals of Great Britain, made by the author (1938, The Carboniferous Rugose Corals of Scotland, Monogr. Palaeontogr. Soc. Lond. Part I, pp. 1-78, pis. i, ii) following on the early phasal (facies) work of Vaughan, Carruthers and Dixon, showed that these long extinct corals could be grouped in three distinct faunas which characterised different sedimentary environments. These are (a) the Cyathaxonia fauna, or fauna of small, solitary corals without dissepiments, with an associated tabulate coral fauna of Cladochonids and Pavositids. The Cyathaxonia fauna is found in the dark “limestone- shales” or “black lias,” and the crinoidal limestones or “petit granit,” although some of its species occur also in olive or light-coloured calcareous shales, when any considerable thickness of these is formed, while others may occur in bryozoan reefs, or 1 ‘ reef knolls, ’ ’ when they grow to a very large size; ( b ), the Caninid-Clisiophyllid fauna, typical of the light- coloured bedded limestones, consisting of large, solitary, dissepimented corals; and (c), the reef-coral fauna, consisting of compound corals with copious dissepimentaria, associated with Chaetetids and Syringoporids, and so closely spaced as to form coral reefs, in very pure limestones. Sometimes, when facies were changing, or were mixed from some other cause, associations of partial faunas occurred, containing those species from each fauna which were capable of existing under the widest range of conditions. Thus fauna (a) may be associated with fauna (5), but it is very seldom found with fauna (c). On the other hand, representatives of faunas (b) and (c) may frequently be found in association, in con- ditions which were most favourable for only one of them. Of these three faunas, only the first was represented in the Ordovi- cian, and that by the Streptelasma fauna ; but all three can be observed from the Silurian to the end of the Palaeozoic. The first fauna appears to have existed under the greatest variety of conditions, its dominant facies varying with the period. It probably is analogous to the fauna of solitary corals which to-day can live in waters too deep or too cold or too muddy for reef corals. Thus it is important, when attempting to evaluate the age of a particular fauna, to compare it with coral faunas of the same sedi- mentary facies. Otherwise, no points of comparison may be found even though the age of the two faunas directly compared might be identical. Two considerations inherent in work on Australian fossil faunas might perhaps be mentioned. In determining the age of strata, it is well to know how great a thickness of beds the particular fauna characterises. Many of the Australian formations have been presumed to be of great thickness; fossiliferous horizons have been discovered in them, and deductions drawn as to the age of the formation. But it does not necessarily follow that because one horizon in a formation is, say, upper Middle Devonian, the whole of the formation will be of this age. The type of geosyncline, and the position in the geosyncline, in which the strata have been deposited, would, if known, all indicate the order of thickness 56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. of beds over which we might expect a fauna to range ; but our knowledge of the Australian geosynclines is yet too incomplete for such deductions. Consequently, in the interpretations of the strati- graphic record which I have drawn up, the entries refer only to the immediate limestones whose faunas I have examined. It must be left to further work to discover of what thickness of beds these faunas are characteristic. Over most of Australia, only reconnaissance maps of the geology are available, though there are some areas which have been mapped in considerable detail. The study of the fossil faunas of Australia, is also, with some exceptions, in its very preliminary stages. Workers are so few, that they tend to take up problems not studied by other workers, with the unfortunate result that we are often deprived of the excellent effects of critical revisions of earlier work. There is a consequent tendency in Australia to accept early findings without question, whereas elsewhere, where large numbers of workers take up the same problems, we find that it is very seldom indeed that the first worker was correct in all his conclusions. The advancing sum of knowledge gives better grounds for the drawing of conclusions. In Europe and elsewhere, many workers engage on the same or closely related problems, often publishing conflicting results, but the closely following claim and counter-claim narrows the limits of error, until eventually the conclusion which fits all the evidence from all sources emerges. It appears unlikely that this happy state of affairs will be generally reached in Australia while the science is served by so few. In putting forward a re-interpretation of the Australian strati- graphic record, the author does so, not with the conviction that it will be the permanently correct solution, but with the knowledge that it was made after careful study of the distribution of the Palaeozoic coral faunas in Europe, America and the rest of the world, from her determinations of the Australian species, and from her suggestions of their affinities with foreign species in standard successions. The following paragraphs summarise the findings on the ages of the various Australian faunas studied by the author, with occasional notes derived from evidence published since the particular descriptions appeared. The findings on age are then tabulated, giving a re-interpretation of the Australian Palaeozoic stratigraphic record. Finally it is pointed out how this re-interpretation confirms or differs from the conclusions of David, who has given the most recent Australian summary of our succession. UPPER ORDOVICIAN OR 7SILURIAN. “Chudleigh” Limestone, Siena (?Liena), Mersey R., Tasmania. (see paper 18). The only Rugose coral obtained from this dark grey limestone is F.avistella cerioides, a species whose morphology does not give any very precise indication of the age of the limestone. But it is associated with tabulate corals which suggest that the age is within the limits of Upper Ordovician (etage 5a of Norway), and Middle Silurian (Niagaran), an Upper Ordovician age appearing the most probable. Grey limestone at the head of the Nelson R., Tasmania (18). A RE-INTERPRETATION OP THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD, ETC. 57 Only one tabulate species was obtained herefrom, and it suggests that the age is between Upper Ordovician (etage 5a of Norway) and Middle Silurian (Niagaran). Old Queenstown flux quarry limestone, Tasmania (15). No Rugosa have been obtained from this quarry, but the Tabulata and Tetradium suggest that its age is Trenton or Richmond ; i.e. most probably Upper Ordovician ; but if the contention of some American geologists that the Richmond is the base of the Silurian be right, the Queenstown limestone may be basal Silurian. Limestone on Smelter’s road, Zeehan, Tasmania (15). There are no Rugosa recorded from this limestone but Teiradiuw i suggests that it is of the same age as the Queenstown flux quarry limestone. These last two determinations should alter the conceptions of the structure of both the Mt. Lyell and Zeehan mineral fields with important economic consequences. Other limestones in these fields could well be Silurian from the published lists of brachiopods and trilobites tentatively determined by early workers but a competent revision of their faunas with illustrations is necessary to establish their age. Poorly preserved corals, brachiopods, molluscs and trilobites have been obtained in small collections from a number of localities in north- western Tasmania, and there has been a general tendency towards simplification by correlating them with one another into a very few horizons. Kobayashi has, however, recently suggested, from studies on trilobites, that there are many more horizons present than this tendency would allow. From my own studies on Tasmanian material, I would suggest that in the Tasmanian Cambrian, Ordovician and possibly also Silurian, conditions were somewhat similar to those of the shelf seas of the English geosyncline in which shelly deposits were laid down in numerous horizons of no great thickness, often with considerable disconformities between them, while conditions varied laterally over quite short distances. I do not think that attempts at simplification of the Tasmanian lower Palaoezoic record will succeed in their purpose ; each fauna from each locality should for some time to come be considered on its own merits. SILURIAN. UPPER WENLOCK AND POSSIBLY ALSO LOWER LUDLOW. Yass-Bowning limestones and shales (11). The Rugosa are considered to indicate that the beds are upper Wenlock, but perhaps also include lower Ludlow deposits. Since my paper on this fauna appeared, I have received a description of a middle Gotlandian coral and stromatoporoid fauna from the Kiwauti limestone of the Kitakami mountains of Japan, by T. Sugiyama (1940, Sci. Rept., Tohoku Imp. Univ., Sendai (2, Geol.), XXI, No. 2). This fauna is very closely related to the Yass-Bowning fauna, containing the genera Nipponophyllum Sugiyama (identical with Baeophyllum Hill), Spongo- phyllum, Rhizophyllum, Tryplasma and Cystiphyllum, all of which are characteristic of the Yass fauna. The Yass-Bowning beds were probably laid down in shelf seas. 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Quedong, N.S.W. I have seen but not described the specimens in the Australian Museum from Quedong, near Bombala, N.S.W. The following list is drawn up from unsectioned corals: Hercophyllnm shearsbyi, Galostylis sp. (the first record of the family Calostylidae in Australia), Cystiphyllum sp., and Tryplasma sp. (solitary). This fauna is near to or possibly identical in age with that of Yass. Limestone of the Gordon R., Tasmania (18). The two species of Rugosa from this limestone, whose exact location on the Gordon R. is unfortunately not recorded, indicate that its age is probably that of the Yass-Bowning limestones. It appears to me from the general literature that limestones of more than one age are present along the Gordon R., and that a study of the faunas of each should be made so that the term “ Gordon R. limestone,” if it is to be used as a formation name, may have a precise meaning. Wellington District, N.S.W. (21). A small Halysites fauna from Por. 10, Par. Nanima is thought to be a representative of the Yass upper Wenlock or Ludlow fauna. SILURIAN AND/OR DEVONIAN. Chillagoe-Mungana Limestones, Qld. Species occur which are known elsewhere in Australia in limestones of Wenlock or Ludlow age, and others in the Lower or even Middle Devonian limestones. The faunal associations in the collections suggest that Ludlovian and Devonian horizons are present. Around Mungana, the collections made so far appear to have been mainly' from Ludlovian horizons. Point Hibbs, Tasmania (18). The identification of Heliophyllum fchillagoense (Etheridge) from Point Ilibbs raises the possibility that at least part of the Point Hibbs limestone, at present all regarded as Silurian, may be Devonian. For in Europe and America, species which H. chillagoense closely resembles, i.e. H. tabnlatum (Quenstedt) and H . confluens Hall are Middle Devonian. But H. chillagoense Etheridge occurs in a thick limestone at Chillagoe, North Queensland, in which Halysites occurs, and which has consequently up to the present been regarded as Silurian. How- ever, W^eissermel has recently figured Halysites from the Gedinnian (Low^er Devonian) near Constantinople, and the genus has long been known from the Lower Helderberg of U.S.A. I consider it probable that Lower Devonian and possibly also Middle Devonian, besides Ludlovian, are represented in the Chillagoe-Mungana limestone belt. At Point Hibbs, H. fchillagoense is associated with Favosites fbryani, which elsewhere in Australia is Lower or Middle Devonian. LUDLOVIAN OR PROBABLY LOWER DEVONIAN. Zeehan, Tasmania (18). Streptelasmids which are unidentifiable specifically occur in a blue-grey leached shale at Zeehan, but are of no value in determining the age of the shale. But Plenrodictyum sp., which is probably P. megastomum has been recorded herefrom. In Australia, P. megas- tomwm occurs in a shale in the Bowning district, which has been A RE-INTERPRETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD, ETC. 59 regarded as Ludlow, and in mudstones in Victoria which have previously been called Silurian; but in New Zealand, on the Baton R., Shirley has shown (1938, Quart. J. geol. Soc. Lond. XCIV, p. 463) that it occurs in Lower Devonian beds, and Gill (1942, Proc. roy. Soc. Viet. LIV, p. 35), following mp this work, has ascribed the Victorian occur- rences to the Lower Devonian. The age of the Zeehan shale is thus probably Lower Devonian, though a Ludiovian horizon is still possible. Bowning Pleurodictvum bed, N.S.W. This bed is possibly Lower Devonian (see last paragraph), though a Ludiovian horizon has not been disproved. DEVONIAN. COBLENZIAN. Mt. Etna Limestone, Qld. (19). The Rugose fauna of this limestone indicates a Coblenzian age — the Middle Devonian Calceola is associated with the Lower Devonian Rhizophyllum, and there are several species comparable with European Coblenzian forms. There are also some resemblances to Middle Devonian species. The fauna is very close to that of the Garra beds of N.S.W. It also contains one species, Chlamydophyllum expansum, in common with the Silverwood limestones of S.E. Queensland, which have been thought to be Couvinian, possibly Lower Couvinian, but may be older (see below) . Philllpsastraea carinata is common to the Mt. Etna limestone and to the Nearly Couvinian Sulcor limestone of the Tamworth district, N.S.W. Garra Beds, N.S.W7. (13). The study of the coral fauna of these beds indicated that they were probably Lower Devonian; since that conclusion was published, I have completed work on the Mt. Etna limestone fauna, which includes several of the Garra species ; and have found that fauna to be Coblenzian, so that the Garra beds also are probably Coblenzian. In this connection it may be of interest to note that Recept acuities australis, which occurs in the Garra beds, has recently been described by Shirley from the Lower Devonian Baton R. fauna of New Zealand ; it is also known from the Couvinian Murrumbidgee beds. The Garra beds contain no Rugose species in common with the Devonian Yeringian limestones of Victoria, but the Tabulata Favosites ovatiporm and Plasmopora gippslandioa occur in both. Wellington District, N.S.W. (21). An extension of this Coblenzian Garra fauna into the Wellington district has recently been noted. LOWER OR MIDDLE DEVONIAN. Silverwood-Lucky Valley, Qld. (10). These limestones were deduced from their coral fauna to be possibly Lower Couvinian. One species, described as ? Chlamydophyllum sp., has since been found in the Mt. Etna limestone, which is considered to be Coblenzian (19). The two species of Xystriphyllum found at Silverwood are found also in the Chillagoe limestones; in the latter Halysites occurs, and as this genus is not known in Eurasia or America 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. above the Gedinnian, the Chillagoe occurrence may indicate that perhaps the horizon of the Silverwood limestone is a little lower than the lower Couvinian, in the Lower Devonian. Tamworth District, N.S.W. (20). The Nemingha limestone and its assumed equivalents contain a fauna which is either late Lower Devonian or very early Couvinian. Loyola, Victoria (8). This fauna was deduced to be younger than the Silurian age accepted for it by Victorian opinion, and was referred to the Lower Devonian. Later work has shown that its massive Disphyllid genera, Trapezophyllum (unknown outside Australia), and Phillipsastraea, are represented by the same or very similar species in the Wellington and Tamworth districts of N.S.W., where they are associated with faunas with affinities to the Murrumbidgee Clear Hill Lower Couvinian faunas, and to the Coblenzian Mt. Etna fauna. Its phaceloid Disphyllid genus, Thamnophyllum, is known from the Couvinian Murrumbidgee Clear Hill bed. The Tabulata Favosites ovatiporus has been found common to the Loyola and the Coblenzian Garra beds of N.S.W. (13), and is unknown elsewhere. It is thus probable that the horizon of the Loyola fauna is near or at the boundary between Lower and Middle Devonian. Even in Europe, owing to the influence of facies on fauna, it is difficult to fix this boundary, and it will be some time before we in Australia can decide with certainty to which side of the boundary some of our faunas belong. Lilydale, Victoria (8). No new coral evidence on the age of the Lilydale limestone has accumulated since paper 8 was published. But the Devonian age suggested by myself from the corals, and by Miss Ripper from the stromatoporoids has since received support from work on the shelly facies. Shirley (loc. cit.) recently published a paper describing and ascribing a Lower Devonian age to the Baton R. fauna of New Zealand, and Gill (loc. cit.) has identified many of the species in the Yeringian mudstones below the Lilydale limestone with species from the Baton R. fauna. COUVINIAN. Clermont, Qld. (7). The Couvinian horizon suggested for the Clermont limestones has received support from 0. A. Jones’ study of the Tabulata (1941, Proc. roy. Soc. Qld. LIII). The Clermont limestones would appear to represent some part of the Murrumbidgee beds, and to be on a slightly higher horizon than the Silverwood limestones. Murrumbidgee Beds (14). The Murrumbidgee Beds have a considerable thickness, and it is probable that they represent roughly the whole Couvinian. One species, Eridophyllum bartruoni, occurs in the Reefton limestone of ftew Zealand, and is very like a species described from the Nevada limestone of U.S.A. as Dispkyllum occidens Stumm (1938, J. Paleont., p. 480). Stumm regarded this part of the limestone as upper Middle Devonian, but from Merriam’s later work (1940, Sp. Pap. geol. Soc. Amer. 25, p. 9) this coral would seem to have come from the lower A RE-INTERPRETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD, ETC. 61 part of the limestone which is probably Couvinian. This is the first known affinity of Australian coral faunas with the Pacific faunas of North America. Mickety Mulga, Wellington, N.S.W. (21). This fauna has been shown to be closely related to that of the Couvinian Bluff limestone of the Murrumbidgee beds, Attunga, near Tamworth, N.S.W. (20). The Sulcor limestone contains a Rugose fauna with relations to the Murrumbidgee, Loyola, and Mt. Etna faunas, and is considered to be early Couvinian. The Loomberah limestone of Benson may be one of its equivalents. Buchan and Bindi, Victoria. A collection loaned to me by E. S. Hills of Melbourne University contains several of the species characteristic of the Murrumbidgee Beds, thus indicating a Couvinian age for the Buchan and/ Bindi limestones. GIVE TI AN. Burdekin Downs, Fanning R. and Reid Gap, N. Qld. (17). A very rich Rugose fauna shows, by the identity of some species and the very close similarity of others, that this north Queensland group of limestones corresponds to the quadrigemmm (upper Honsel) and Biichel (Amphipora or Massenkalk) beds of the Paffrath Basin near Cologne in Germany, i.e. to the middle parts of the Givetian. Tamworth District, N.S.W. (20). The Moore Ck. and equivalent limestones have been deduced to be Givetian. GIVETIAN OR FRASNIAN. Western Australia. These Western Australian faunas, like those of Tasmania, I have been unable to study in the1 field. Devonian corals from several localities were described in papers 2 and 9. These were considered to be upper Givetian or lower Frasnian, with the higher horizon perhaps the more likely. The species are difficult to use for age determination, however, and I now think it would have been better to consider them broadly as Givetian or Frasnian. The following localities gave individuals. “ Opposite Mt. Krauss,” Bough Range, Kimberley . — Disphyllum virgatum and D. depresmm occur here. Le Maitre (1937, Bull. geol. Soc. France, p. 107) has recorded D. virgatum from the Givetian limestone of Ville-de-d’Ardin, and has placed in it Cyathophyllum ( Thamnophyllum ) sp. Reed from the Upper Devonian of India. The French form appears to be conspecific with D. virgatum, but not the Indian, so perhaps a, Givetian age is the more likely. Price’s Ch. ( north of borehole ), Rough Range. — Disphyllum depressum indicates an age similar to that of the locality “opposite Mt. Krauss. ’ ’ Price’s Ck., Rough Range. — Prismatophyllum brevilamdllatum appears to be close to, if not conspecific with P. simplex Yoh (1937, R.S. — J. 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Palaeontogr., p. 70) from part of the String ocephalus beds of Kwangsi, S. China, which is possibly equivalent to the upper Honsel beds of the German Sauerland, i.e., about the middle of the Givetian. Trigonometrical Station J. Rough Range. — D. depression has been recorded herefrom (9, p. 141). Dr. Teichert has since sent a specimen from this locality, very similar to if not identical with D. (Phacellophyl- lum ) minus' Roemer, from the upper Devonian (Frasnian) Ib'erg lime- stone. Trigonometrical Station K, Rough Range. — D. virgatum, herefrom indicates the same age as the limestone ‘ 4 opposite Mt. Krauss” i.e. possibly Givetian. S.E. Entrance of Mountain Home Spring Valley, Rough Range. — B arramdeophyllum rubrum (9) is very like B. symmetricum (Freeh) from the ?Lower Givetian crinoid bed of Blankenheim, Germany. Metriophyllum sp. which occurs with it is however not unlike the Fras- nian genotype. The age indicated is Givetian or Frasnian. Napier Range, Kimberley. — Barrandeophyllum rubrum suggests that the red limestone containing it is of the same age as that at the S.E. entrance of Mountain Home Spring Valley, i.e. Givetian or Frasnian. Barker Gorge, Napier Range. — Phillipsastraea delicatula is very like the Frasnian genotype and was consequently considered to indicate a Frasnian age (2). But my later work (8, 19) on Australian species of this genus shows that it ranges from the Coblenzian through the Middle Devonian, although in Europe it appears to be diagnostic of the Upper Devonian. No reliance is now placed on the genus as an indicator of an age more restricted than the Devonian. Thus these Western Australian Rugosa were found to be of little use as indicators of age, owing to the small number of species represented, and to the incompleteness of our knowledge of related species. More material has recently been sent. FAMENNIAN. Goniatite limestone, Mt. Pierre, Kimberley, W.A. (2). “ Cystiphyllum” kimberleyense occurs in beds whose age has been determined from the goniatites to be Famennian, by Delepine. CARBONIFEROUS. Riverleigh limestone, Lion Ck. limestone, Cania and Cannindah limestones, Qld. etc. (1). The rich coral fauna from Riverleigh and Lion Ck. was deduced to be upper Visean, and several other smaller coral faunas from various localities in the Rockhampton series of Queensland and the upper Burindi series of N.S.W. were discussed. A number of papers on the Carboni- ferous and Permian Rugose coral f aunas! of Eurasia, have appeared since paper 1 was published ; it is clear from them that the lower Carboniferous rugose coral fauna was of a remarkable uniformity throughout the northern continents, and it is equally clear that the Australian fauna does not share in this great uniformity, though it does show certain resem- blances, as the author has indicated (1, p. 105). It is of interest to discover what is the reason for this distinctness. The facies is similar, reef-coral and bedded limestones being represented, so that the difference must be due to age or province. A RE-INTERPRETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD, ETC. 63 A study of recent papers on the Middle and Upper Carboniferous faunas of Eurasia shows that there is none which is as close to the Australian fauna as the European Dinantian is to the Asiatic Dinantian. But we now know (Hill, 1938-41, The Carboniferous Rugose Corals of Scotland, Monogr. Palaeontogr. Soc., in 4 parts) that Lithostro'tion and forms like Amygdalophyllum, the two common genera of the Australian fauna, continue in Europe and Asia through the middle and upper Carboniferous; and also that our Symplectophyllum, though solitary, is very similar morphologically to the fasciculate Lonsdaleoides Heritsch from the lower Schwagerina limestone of the Carnic Alps. It is thought just possible that the Riverleigh fauna may represent a horizon higher in the Carboniferous than the upper Visean, but the evidence is as yet very inconclusive. It is hoped to settle the point by a study of the brachiopods found in the calcareous mudstone just above the Lion Ck. limestone near Rockhampton. Merlewood, N.S.W. Dr. Ida Brown (in Carey, 1937, Proe. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., p. 352), has recently recognised the Riverleigh fauna at Merlewood, Babbinboon near Tamworth, and I have confirmed this by collecting there. Borderlands of Queensland and New South Wales. Specimens from several limestones near this border are of genera and species’ characteristic of the Riverleigh limestone, although deter- minations are difficult because of metamorphism; a Carboniferous age is thus indicated for the belt containing them, which is to the west of the Permian and the east of the Devonian of the area. The species from the N..S.W. side of the border have been listed in Raggatt ’s; note (1941, Austral. J. Sci. Ill, p. 170). Those from the Queensland side, collected by L. C. Ball, are as follows: — Por. 15v, Par. Gunyan, Co. Clive, near Silverspur, Symplecto- phyllum nmtatum Hill, S. aff. mutatum, Lithostrotion farundineum Eth. The tissue of this last specimen is dilated, suggesting that it may be close to Ciomodendron columen Benson and Smith from the Visean of Slaughterhouse Ck., near Gravesend, N.S.W. Por. 14v, Par. Gunyan, L. arumdineum, L. fstanvellense. Por. 39, Par. Silverspur, Amygdalophyllum sp. cf. inopinatum Eth. Por. 108v, Par. Texas, Amygdalophyllum sp. PERMIAN. This period is taken to begin at the base of the Artinskian of Russia and its equivalents. Only corals of the Cyathaxonia- fauna have been recognised in the Permian of Australia. Western Australia (4) and (16). In the earlier paper (4), the corals were thought to indicate a lower Permian (Artinskian) or Middle Permian (Basleo) horizon. Papers by many authors published between the writing of the first and second papers have greatly increased our knowledge of the Cyathaxonia fauna in the Carboniferous and Permian (Hill, 1938-1941, loc. cit.), but have not enabled me to suggest any refinements on my original determinations of age. 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Queensland (5). EuryphyUxuftn, reidi, the only Rugose species recognised from the marine Bowen beds of Queensland, was thought to indicate an Artinskian age. SUMMARY. Finally it is of interest to compare the stratigraphic record given in the author’s table with that of David’s 4 ‘ Explanatory Notes to accompany a New Geological Map of the Commonwealth of Australia”' (1932, Edwin Arnold & Co., London). It may be noted that there is no official succession, in the sense of one set out by the Commonwealth Geological Survey. The records accepted by the Geological Surveys of the various States require integration, and no one of them is generally acceptable to all Australian geologists. David’s Explanatory Notes offers a tentative interpretation of the stratigraphic record which is the nearest approach we have to an official view. Discussion of the views held by others will not here be undertaken, as the historical and critical review this requires would be out of place and proportion herein. Such a comparison shows that (1) parts of the older interpretation are confirmed, and are given greater precision; (2) different positions are assigned to many of the strata, the evidence offered by the corals they contain being at variance with the earlier tentative view; (3) new entries appear; (4) the remainder of David’s interpretation, being unaffected by any evidence yet acquired from the corals, is omitted from the new table. Confirmation is given of the correlation of the Yass coral-bearing limestones and shales with the upper part of the Wenlock, though the re-interpretation suggests that these beds also include the equivalents of part of the Lower Ludlow. The placing of the coral-bearing lime- stones of the Burdekin Series is made more precisely with the middle parts of the Givetian. It is found that only the upper limestones of the Tamworth series are Givetian. Many of the oolitic coral-bearing limestones of the Burindi and Rockhampton Series, referred to the Visean in David’s tables, are shown to be Upper Visean at lowest, and they may possibly be somewhat younger. The Lower Permian (Artinskian) age for the Fossil Cliff beds of Western Australia is confirmed. Divergences from David’s interpretation are fairly numerous. The following changes are suggested for the Silurian. The 4 ‘ Gordon R. limestone” was placed by David as equivalent to the Wenlock shale; but the corals from one of these limestones indicate that for it at least the higher horizon of the Wenlock limestone or even the Lower Ludlow is morei likely. The Chillagoe limestone is regarded as at least in part younger than the Silurian; it may even be as young as the Middle Devonian in part, though a, lower Devonian age is suggested at present. David regarded the then undifferentiated limestones of the Orange- Molong- Wellington district as Upper Silurian, and though this is < A RE- INTERPRETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD. BASED ON A STUDY OF THE RUGOSE CORALS. Vol. LIV.f No. 6. Tasmania VICTORIA new South Wales Queensland Western Australia E 1 l' 0 1 $ c 1' ’ Upper Basleo Artinskian Mantuan Productus Beds. Coral Stage -? Cast/e Ck. Beds. Di/ly Beds - ? Vafton Limestone. J tVandagee Stage ; Nooncanbah Lst. \Ca/tytharra Stage * Fossil Cliff Beds. Uralian Moscovian t 4 |. Visean Toumaisian \ Mer/ewood Lst= -Various Burindi Limestones. L Texas; Rirer/eigh , Cania i\ Cannindah ; Lion Cr. J \Low. er Burindi Goniatite Beds . J [j Rockhampton Goniatite Bed. J Michelinia Limestone of tower Lion Ck. 1 i i Famennian Frasnian 1 Goniatite Limestone of Mt Pierre^ 1 Givetian Couvinian J Buchan & Bindi Limestones. .. , _ ^Tam worth Lst Murrumbidqee Beds _ tSu/cor Lst mMickety Mutga Bed (IFtonpJoombenah Lst Burdekin Downs ; Fanning R. 1 Reid Gap Lots, r C/ermont Lst. j fS/Nerwood Lst. dVapier Range and Rough Range Lsts. Coblenzian Siegenian Gedinnian -P. meaastomum Shale Zeehan. \ Point Hibbs Lst. L Lit yda/e Lst -Loyola .Waratah Bay, Sandy's Ck., Deep Ck. and Coopers Ck. Limestbnes Garra Beds ( Molong A Wellington) ~r7> meqostomum Sha/e, Bowning J J Ifft Etna Lst. ' — 2 Chillagoe - Mungana Lst. (part) Ludtovian / , ? | Melbournian with Monoqnaptus nilsson/ etc) '-Mungana Lst. (part). Wenlockian ^ - Nanima ^Lst. /. Entries are based on corals determined by D. Hill, grapto/ites determined by Hall, Hams, Keb/e or Jones and goniatites determined by DfM pine. 2. Entries based on grapto/ites and goniatites are enclosed in square brackets. 3. An arrow extending from an entry indicates that its true position may be in the direction of the arrow. Valentian (-Limestones at Liena and head of | Nelson R. [ Keitorian with graptotites. ] r Ashgillian Queenstown Limestone and 3 met ten's Rd, ( Zeehan) Limestone. [Riddell Grits d Cgts. with grap/ol/fes.'J Table showing Correlation of the Coral-bearing Rocks of the Palaeozoic of Australia. A RE-INTERPRETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PALAEOZOIC RECORD, ETC. 65 confirmed in part, many of them are found to be younger; that part of them now called the Garra Beds has a Coblenzian coral fauna, while another part, in the Parish of Micketv Mulga near Wellington, contains the Couvinian Murrumbidgee coral fauna. The Yeringian limestones of Victoria are removed from the Silurian to the Devonian. That of Lilydale is either Lower or Middle Devonian, that of Loyola is either late Lower Devonian or very early Middle Devonian ; those from Waratah Bay, Cooper’s Ck. and Sandy Ck. are herein regarded as Lower Devonian. Some of the divergences in the Devonian section of the tables are due to the elevation in my table of these erstwhile Silurian coral-bearing strata to the Devonian. Others are due to the recognition of some Devonian coral faunas as older than previously supposed. In David’s table most of the Devonian coral-bearing limestones are placed in the Givetian, but my work indicates that many of them are older; thus in the Queensland section, the Mt. Etna limestone is Coblenzian, while that of Clermont is Couvinian ; in New South Wales, the Murrumbidgee and Loomberah limestones are Couvinian; and in Victoria the Buchan and Bindi limestones are Couvinian. It is possible that the Nemingha limestone of N.S.W. and the Silverwood limestone of Queensland are even older than the Couvinian, in the upper parts of the Lower Devonian. Thus the Lower and lower Middle Devonian are represented in all the eastern states of the continent, although David tentatively assumed that this long period was one of widespread emergence and erosion. It is recognised that not only Famennian and Frasnian beds are present in Western Australia in the Kimberley District, but that Givetian beds also occur in the Rough and Napier Ranges. In the Carboniferous and Permian, a change is made in that the Cladochonus (—Monilopora) and Thamnopora marmionensis beds of the Kimberley are transferred from the Upper Carboniferous to the Lower or Middle Permian. Entries which appear on the author’s table but not on David’s tables are due to her recognition of a series of Upper Ordovician lime- stones in northwestern Tasmania ; to the probability of a Lower Devonian rather than a Silurian age for the Point Hibbs limestone of Tasmania ; to the occurrence of Couvinian limestones at Attunga, N.S.W. and Wellington, N.S.W. ; and to the recognition of Permian beds at YTandagee and Callytharra in Western Australia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The work has been made possible by Scholarships and Fellowships won by the author as follows : — Open Scholarship for Scientific Research of the University of Queensland, held at the University of Queensland, 1929-30; Foundation Travelling Scholarship of the University of Queens- land, 1930-32, Old Students’ Research Fellowship of Newnham College, 1932-35, and Senior Studentship of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, 1935-37, all held at the Sedgwick Museum and Newnham College, Cambridge; and a Research Fellowship within the University of Queensland, 1937-42, financed by Commonwealth funds R.S. — K. 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. The author wishes to record her gratitude for and appreciation of these awards. She desires especially to acknowledge the help received from Dr. Stanley Smith of Bristol University, Dr. W. D. Lang, F.R.S. late of the British Museum, Prof. 0. T. Jones, F.R.S. of the Sedgwick Museum, Dr. W. H. Bryan of the University of Queensland, Miss G. L. Elies, Sc.D., of Newnham College, Cambridge, and Dr. F. W. Whitehouse of the University of Queensland, and the patronage throughout of Prof. H. C. Richards of the University of Queensland. Vol. LIV., No. 7. 67 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS ILLUSTRATED BY THE CARTOON AND COMIC STRIP. A METHOD OF TEACHING. By John Bostock, M.B., B.S.Lond., D.P.M., F.R.A.C.P., Research Professor of Medical Psychology to the University of Queensland. ( Author’s Summary of an Address delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland on 31st August , 1942 ; received 8th September, 1942 ; issued separately, 29 th March, 1943.) Whilst logically it is not true to say that there is nothing new under the sun, in practice we find that many elementary facts are forgotten and rediscovered. In teaching, certain subjects such as chemistry, geology, anatomy, can be illustrated by actual specimens. The student is helped not merely by seeing the experiment or object but gains enor- mously through the opportunity of doing so in an individual manner. He learns to handle material not as part of a class but as an experi- menter. There are two phases of knowledge roughly comparable to that acquired at the lecture or in the laboratory, in the text book or at the bedside of sick folk, in the study or in the field. The one is an understanding of certain scientific principles, the other is an appercep- tion of the inner meaning, in other words it embraces an understanding of significance. Lack of appreciation of these facts is responsible for failures in many spheres. It lies at the heart of many difficulties in the complementary activities of teaching and learning. In every subject, our aim is to formulate principles and then encourage the student to weave them into his conception of the world around him. Of recent years there has been a general tendency to achieve this by placing less reliance on formal lectures and paying more attention to experimental or field work. With the above background in mind, it occurred to the author that the study of psychology could be made more easy by using the cartoon and the comic strip as the basis of field work in order to illustrate and amplify a course , of lectures on elementary medical psychology. This subject presents many difficulties in teaching, notably a specialised vocabulary and a subjective basis differing greatly from the usual objective studies such as anatomy and physiology. Whilst a lecture on psychology is to the expert a factual experience, to the tyro it appears as bizarre thoughts uttered in a strange jargon. In order to accustom the student to psychological terms and to pin down their meaning on an objective basis, the following experiment was conducted: — Procedure — The customary course of ten lectures was given in the third term of the third year and quoting from the University Calendar it ‘‘gives an outline of the principles of normal psychology with special reference to those found to be most important in medical practice. The course is R.S.—L. 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. intended to introduce to the students a dynamic viewpoint of psychology. Reference is made not merely to the purely medical angle but also to the wider implication of psychology in the life of the citizen and the State.” Typewritten notes on the lectures were handed to each student and these included simple definitions of psychological terms. The most important were stressed by the use of an asterisk. The student was asked to procure a note book, write one definition on each page and illustrate it by pasting in a cartoon, comic strip or other material from the daily or weekly papers. A small book prize was offered for the best effort. The exigencies of war and a revised curriculum interfered with the time allotted for the compilation. Finalisation was delayed and more than three months were allowed to elapse before the scrap books were collected. That 27 of the 35 students handed in material on a purely voluntary basis must be regarded as indicative of student interest. The illustrations given by the students were both varied and apt. Illustrations were taken from a wide range of papers, and whilst some duplication of material occurred this was noticed surprisingly seldom. Occasionally the same picture illustrated more than one psychological mechanism. All the books showed that considerable effort had been spent in their compilation, which is further proof of the interest which they had created. Personal questioning by the lecturer as to the effectiveness of the scrap book method is vitiated by the need for student courtesy in view of examinations ahead, but the unguarded remarks of friends and parents, distracted by searchers for gems of current litera- ture, make it clear that interest in the study of psychology has been gained by this incursion into the realms of commonplace pictorial material. This method is capable of extension into other fields. Vol. LIV., No. 69 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE, VI By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Queensland Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. (. Received 2 6th October , 1942; accepted for publication by the Royal Society of Queensland 30 th November, 1942; issued separately T 29 th March, 1943.) Schoenus pachylepis S. T. Blake ; species nova, affinis S. tenuissimo (Hook.f.) Bentb., sed liabitu robustiore, rhizomate brevissimo baud repente, spiculis majoribus semper glabris, glumis crassioribus et inferioribus carina sub apice incrassata callosa, nuce oblongo-cylindrica baud elliptica, squamis hypogynis muticis, differt. Herb a perennis, caespitosa, pallide viridis, 30-40 cm. alta, rhizo- mate brevissimo. Culmi dense caespitosi, striatuli et eanalieulati, punctulato-asperuli, circiter 0-5 mm. diam., enodes. Folia ad vaginas aretas purpureas vel sanguineas glabras plus minusve tetraquetras ore oblique secto mucronatas redacta, mucrone concavo plus minusve incurvo usque ad 4 mm. longo. Inflorescentia unispiculata quasi brac- teata ; bractea parva glumiformis mucronata. Spicula erecta vel admodum obliqua, brunnea fuscovariegata, lanceolata, acuta saepe acuminata, turgida, uniflora, 15-20 mm. longa, 2-3 mm. lata. Glumae 7-10, ovatae vel oblongo-ovatae, obtusae vel subobtusae, coriaceae (marginibus angustis hyalinis exceptis), baud nitidae, obtuse carinatae, inferiores gradatim breviores obtusiores carina sub apice incrassataer summae 1-2 steriles. Squamae hypogynae 6, carnosae, oblongae vel lanceolatae, muticae, toro subaequilongae. Stamina 3 ; antherae flavae, lineares, circiter 7 mm. longae ; connectivum longe (circiter 1-5 mm.) productum, subulatum, glabrum. Nux oblonga, obtusissima, fere exacte cylindrica, brunnea, transversim creberrime sed tenerrime undulato- striata cellulis extimis transversim oblongis prominulis, toro incluso 5 mm. longa, 2 mm. lata; torus elongatus, erassus, 3-lobus, 1-5 mm. longus. Queensland. — Moreton District : Foot of Buderim Mtn., on wallum flats, Jan. 9, 1935, Blake 7191 (TYPE) ; Bribie Island, on wallum flats, Sept. 16th, 1934, Blake 7070. New South Wales. — Central Coast: Centennial Park, Sydney, October, 1896, Forsyth (NSW, BRI) ; near Sydney, on sandstone hills, ca. 30-60 m., October, 1900, Forsyth in Kneucker, Cyp., Restion. & June. Exsicc. Lief, iv., Ill; Oatley, Nov., 1893, Betche (NSW, BRI) ; Deewhy Head, October 20, 1916, A. A. Hamilton (NSW), Central Tablelands: Wentworth Falls, King’s Tableland, Nov., 1915, A. A, Hamilton (NSW) : Leura, March, 1910, A. A. Hamilton (NSW). r.s. — M. 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The specimens from Deewhy Head and from Oatley have mostly two pedunculate spikelets on each culm, and one culm from the latter has three. The species has been confused with S. tenuissimus (Hook.f.) Bentli., from which it abundantly differs in the characters given above. The difference in the nut is well shown in Clarke’s Illustrations of the Cyperaceae, tab. LXXX, where figs. 3, 4, 5, and 7 represent 8. tenuis- simus, and figs. 6 and 8 represent 8. pachylepis ; in the latter however, the hypogynous scales are shown more acute and acuminate than in any specimen I have seen. The type-collection of S. tenuissimus ( Gunn 1416) is represented in herb. Sydney; the tips of the glumes of this species are usually pubescent, but in some South Australian specimens they are glabrous. Hitherto I have seen specimens only from Tasmania and South Australia. Caustis recurvata Spreng. is a common and characteristic plant of the wallum country of south-eastern Queensland, and is widely spread in eastern New South Wales. As with several other species of the genus it has commonly been described as dioecious, but from field and other studies it is evident that the so-called male plants (or stems) are merely flowering stems. At this stage the branches and branchlets are short and slightly curved so that the panicle is narrow and dense. As flowering advances, the branches and branchlets elongate and become recurved or coiled until at maturity the plant assumes the peculiar habit of the genus which is so unlike that of the majority of Cyperaceae. This appears to be true for the four species I have been able to study in the field, namely C. recurvata Spreng., C. flexuosa R.Br., C. pentandra R.Br. and C. Blakei Kuikenth. C. restiacea F. Muell. ex Benth. appears to be conspecific with C. flexuosa, although Bentham (FI. Austral, vii. 421: 1878) described the spikelets of the latter as bisexual and of the former as dioecious. Young plants of C. recurvata sometimes at least have well-developed lower leaves, as do also vigorous shoots of older plants following fire. A very handsome species of the genus is abundant in certain places in south-eastern Queensland, and has been collected and used for decorative purposes. It is one of the characteristic features of the vegetation of Fraser, Moreton, and Stradbroke Islands, and has been confused either with Caustis flexuosa or with Restio tetraphyllus Labill. both of which it resembles in the barren state. In 1938 specimens (from Blake 13845, 13814, 13202) were sent to Dr. Kiikenthal with the remark that it seemed to differ from C. flexuosa, but that I had not then had the opportunity of studying the latter intensively. Such an opportunity occurred shortly after, and it was evident that the Queensland plant was quite distinct, differing in the much denser only slightly flexuose to nearly straight, longer and more slender branches and branchlets, the large proportion of barren (not spikelet-bearing) branchlets in the fruiting stage, the rather longer spikelets with somewhat more attenuate glumes, and the slightly larger ellipsoid coarsely reticulately-wrinkled nut. Then Dr. Kiikenthal wrote that he was describing the species as NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE, VI. 71 new and enclosed a MS. description. The species may have been described in some periodical unavailable at the present time, but to be on the safe side Dr. Kiikenthal’s description is given here verbatim. “Caustis Blakei Kiikenth. spec. nov. '“Rhizoma breve crassum nodosum. Culmi metrales 5 cm. diam. teretes vaginis pluris distant] bus castaneis ore oblique secto eciliatis postice driangulari-cuspidatis obsiti. Panicula laxa ad 50 cm. longa e fasciculis 12 ramorum distantibus composita. Rami inferiores singuli, superiores 2-3-nim fascieulati suberecti inaequales pluries divisi semiteretes intus canaliculati e vaginis castaneis vel demum atro-brunneis postice breviter cuspidatis exsurgentes saepissime plerique steriles quasi in verticillos foliorum capillarium canaliculatorum pluries divisi. Spiculae lineares 7 mm. longae pedicellatae compresso-teretes 1-2-florae hermaphroditae. Squamae 4 lanceolatae membranaceae pallide ferrugineae demum atro- brunneae in acumen longum marginibus breviter ciliatum apice aristulatum attenuata, inferiores 2-3 vacuae, superiores 1-2 fertiles. Stamina 3, antherae lineares ferrugineae, connectivum longe productum subulato-conicum hispidulum. Stylus longus basi incrassata medio iumida quasi hastata persistente. Nux late ellipsoidea 4 mm. longa pallida trigona grosse reticulata. — Ut videtur, culmi omnes cum floribus juniores squamis et vaginis clarioribus, serotinis squamis et vaginis bractearum obscurioribus. ’ ? Queensland. — Wide Bay District: Fraser Island, June, 1919, Epps 141 ; near Lake Birrabeen on Fraser Island, in wallum scrub and in undergrowth of mixed Eucalyptus forest, on sand, August 20th, 1941, Blake 14360. Moreton District : Moreton Island, April, 1924, White ; on Moreton Island near the Big Sandhills, on hillside on sand, in mixed open forest, September 11th, 1938 , Blake 13845 (TYPE) ; Strad- broke Island, among undergrowth in mixed open forest on sand on hillsides, Dee. 6th, 1934, Blake 7132; near Myora, Stradbroke Island, among undergrowth in mixed open forest on sand, ca. 100 ft., Jan. 13th, 1938, Blake 13202; near Canaipa, Stradbroke Island, in open forest on sand, ca. 100 ft., July 17th, 1938, Blake 13814; Beerwah, chiefly on .shaded slopes in forestry plantation on loose deep sand, not common, Sept. 17th, 1939, Blake 14113. Hypolytrum latifolium L. C. Rich, in Pers. Syn. i. 70 (1805). For this species Domin has made the combination H. anomalum (Retz.) Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. heft 85, 484 (1915), based on Scirpus anomalies Retz. Observ. v. (1789), but because of the earlier II. o/nomalum Steud. Syn. PI. Cyp. 133 (1855) Domin ’s combination is untenable. H. anomalum var. refractum Domin, l.c., and fig. 107, seems not to differ materially from the usual form. The species in Australia is as yet known only from the wetter rain-forest areas of north-east Queensland where it is not uncommon. Lepironia articulata (Retz.) Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. heft 85, 486 (1915). Restio articulatus Retz. Observ. iv. 14 (1786). Scirpus