r

THE

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

§cotmn Institute of §cience,

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

VOLUME IX,
(BEING VOLUME II OF THE SECOND SERIES.)

WITH TWO PORTRAITS AND TEN PLATES.

HALIFAX :
PRINTED FOR TBE INSTITUTE BY THE NOVA SCOTIA PRINTING COMPANY.

c?/

PROCEEDINGS.

SESSION OF 1894-95 : — PAGE

Presidential Address by -Prof. G. Lawson, LL. D

Report of the Treasurer xi

" of the Librarian xii

Office-bearers for the year xiii

A. H. MacKay, LL. D., on the Geology of Nictaux, N. S xv

Miss Lucy C. Eaton, on the Butterflies of Truro, N. S xvii

Mr. Harry Piers, on the same subject xviii

SESSION OF 1095-96 : —

Obituary Notice of Prof. G. Lawson, LL. D., by Prof. J. G.

MacGreg-or ,. . . ,' xxiii

Report of the Recording- Secretary xxxi

" " Treasurer xxxiii

" " Librarian xxxiii

Office-bearers for the year xxxvi

Note on Newton's Third Law of Motion, by Prof. J. G.

MacGreg-or xxxvii

Mang-anese Dendrites, by A. H. MacKay, LL. D xxxviii

The Batrachia and Reptiles of Nova Scotia, by A. H. MacKay, LL. D. xli
Notes on the Dialect of the People of Newfoundland, by Rev. G.

Patterson, D. D., LL. D xliv

SESSION OF 1896-97 : —

Presidential Address, by E. Gilpin, Jr., LL. D.: —

Review of Work of Session of 1895-96 Ixxix

The System of Instruction and Examination of Mining- Officials

in Nova Scotia Ixxxi

Report of the Treasurer , Ixxxvi

" " Librarian , Ixxxvi

Office-bearers for the year Ixxxvi

Measurements of Two Beothuk Skulls, by W. H. Prest, Esq Ixxxviii

Resolution on Proposed Victoria Research Fund xci

Calcareous Alg-ae, by A. H. MacKay, LL. D xcii

IV CONTENTS.

SESSION OF 1897-98: — PAGE
Presidential Address, by E. Gilpin, Esq., Jr., LL. D.:—

Obituary Notice of the late Rev. G. Patterson, D. D., LL. D. xcv

Provncial Exhibitions xcviii

The Provincial Museum xcviii

Report of the Treasurer c

" " Librarian c

Office-bearers for the year .... . cii

TRANSACTIONS.

SESSION OF 1894-95 : —

I. Notes on Concretions found in Canadian Rocks, by T. C. Wes-

ton, F. G. S. A., late of the Geological Survey of Canada. . . i
II. The Iron Ores of Nictaux, N. S., and Notes on Steel Making in
Nova Scotia, by E. Gilpin, Jr., LL. D., F. R. S. C., Inspector
of Mines 10

III. True Surfaces and Accurate Measurements, by D. W. Robb,

A. S. M. E. .' 21

IV. Relics of the Stone Ag-e in Nova Scotia, by Harry Piers 26

V. Phrenological Observations made at several Stations in Eastern

Canada during the year 1894, compiled by A. H. MacKay,

LL- D 59

VI. A Foraminiferous Deposit from the bottom of the North Atlantic,

by A. H. MacKay, LL. D 64

VII. Notes on the Geology and Botany of Digby Neck, by Prof.

L. W. Bailey, Ph. D., F. R. S. C 68

VIII. The Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador, and St. Pierre et

Miquelon: Part II., by the Rev. A. C. Waghorne 83

SESSION OF 1895-96 : —

I. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Mixtures of Electro-
lytes, by Prof. J. G. MacGregor , 101

II. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Mixtures of Electro-
lytes having a common Ion, by Douglas Mclntosh, Physical
Laboratory, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S 120

III. The Undeveloped Coal Fields of Nova Scotia, by E. Gilpin, Jr.,

LL. D 134

IV. Notes on the Geology of Newfoundland, by T. C. Weston,

F. G. S. A 150

V. Glacial Succession in Central Lunenburg, N. S., by W. H.

Prest, Esq 158

VI. Notes on the Superficial Geology of Kings Co., N. S., by Prof.

A. E. Coldwell, M. A 171

VII. On an Arborescent Variety of Juniper us communis, of Linnaeus,
occurring in Nova Scotia, and not previously noticed in our
Flora, by J. Somers, M. D 1 75^

CONTENTS. V

.SESSION OF 1895-96 — Continued: — PAGE

VIII. Some Nova Scotian Illustrations of Dynamical Geology (with

three Plates), by Prof. L. W. Bailey, Ph. D., LL. D. . . . 180

IX. Phenological Observations made at several Stations in Canada

during- the year 1895, compiled by A. H. MacKay, LL. D. . . . 195
X. Preliminary Notes on the Orthoptera of Nova Scotia, by Harry

Piers 208

SESSION OF 1896-97 : —

I. On the Relation of the Physical Properties of Aqueous Solutions

to their State of lonization, by Prof. J. G. MacGregor 219

II. On some Analyses of Nova Scotia Coals and other Minerals, by

E. Gilpin, Esq., Jr., LL. D 246

III. Notes on Nova Scotian Zoology, No. 4, by Harry Piers, Esq . . 255

IV. Phenological Observations, Canada, 1896, compiled by A. H.

MacKay, LL. D 268

V. Supplementary Note on Venus, by A. Cameron, Esq 275

VI. The Rainfall in 1896, F. W. W. Doane, M. Can. Soc. C. E 279

SESSION OF 1897-98 : —

I. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutihns con-
taining Potassium and Sodium Sulphates, by E. H.

Archibald, B. Sc , 291

II. Remarks on some Features of the Kentucky Flora, by the late

Prof. George Lawson, LL. D 302

III. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions

containing the Double Sulphate of Copper and Potassium,
and of Mixtures of Equimolecular Solutions of Zinc and Cop-
per Sulphates, by E. H. Archibald, B. Sc 307

IV. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions

containing the Chlorides of Sodium and Barium, by T. C.

McKay, B. A 321

V. On the Relation of the Surface Tension and Specific Gravity of
certain Aqueous Solutions to their State of lonization, by

E. H. Archibald, B. Sc 335

VI. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions

of Potassium-Magnesium Sulphate, by T. C. McKay, B. A. . 348
VII. Triassic (?) Rocks of Digby Basin, by Prof. L. W. Bailey, LL. D. 356
VIII. The Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador, and St. Pierre et

Miquelon: Part III., by Rev. A. C. Waghorne 361

IX. Phenological Observations, Canada, 1897, compiled by A. H.

MacKay, LL. D 402

VI ERRATA.

APPENDICES : — PAGE

I. List of Members, 1894-95 . I

II. List of Members, 1895-96 V

III. List of Members, 1896-97 IX

IV. List of Members, 1897-98 ; XIII

NDEX TO VOLUME IX XVII

P. 130. — The numbers in the third column of the first table should be
multiplied by the ratio of the number of gramme-molecules of Sodium Chloride
to the number of gramme-molecules of Potassium Chloride, in the corres-
ponding- constituent solutions.

P. 132. — The numbers in the fourth column of the table should be multiplied
by the ratio of the number of gramme-molecules of Sodium Chloride to the
number of gramme-molecules of Hydrochloric Acid in the constituent solutions.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

cotian Institute of

SESSION OK 1894-5.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
Provincial Museum, Halifax, 12th November, 1894.

PROF. GEORGE LAWSON, LL. D., PRESIDENT, in the chair.
The minutes of the last annual meeting were read and approved.
The PRESIDENT addressed the Institute as follows : —
GENTLEMEN, — We have assembled this evening as Members of the

SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, for the performance of two distinct
duties, — first, to close the session of 1893-94, which we now speak of as
past ; and secondly, to enter upon the operations of another year and lay
plans for the future. We are thus required, Janus-like, to put on two
faces, one looking backward, the other forward. The annual address
must be to a large extent a looking backward, for it is expected we shall
give some account of our stewardship. It is my place as president to
deliver the address on this occasion, because a year ago you thought fit
to appoint me to fill your most honorable office. I was conscious that
you might well have made a better choice, for I felt that the president
of a scientific body like this should be prepared to give time and energy
for more arduous labor than that of sitting in a chair at the monthly
meetings. I was not ignorant of the fact that the most active workers
are apt to entertain an abnegative spirit in regard to such things, to
shirk prominence and seek gratification in the quiet pursuit of know-
ledge ralher than the attainment of personal distinction. While this

ii PROCEEDINGS.

spirit was to be respected, it did not afford a sufficient reason for my
acceding to your request ; but, on the other hand, I knew that the com-
pliment which you wished to pay me after thirty years' membership of
the Institute was sincere, and was actuated by the kindliest feelings.
When, moreover, I was assured of substantial help from the resident
vice-president and secretaries, it seemed that no other course was left me
but to accept the position, to thank you all for the honor conferred upon
me, and proceed to do what I could in discharge of the duties so
undertaken.

And now that my term of office is completed, I ask your attention
to a brief review of the operations of the year. This will enable us
the better to realize our position, in the present, and to forecast the work
that remains for the future. So fortified, we may make a fresh start.

It is pleasing to be able to record that this year our membership has
not been reduced either by death or resignation. Our list has been
increased by the admission of seven ordinary and two corresponding
members.

During the session, seven ordinary monthly meetings for the reading
of scientific papers were held. At these meetings twenty papers were
read ; their subjects presented considerable variety. The session com-
menced, in accordance with our laws, with the annual meeting of
members of 8th November, when Dr. Martin Murphy, the retiring
President, read an address, in which he reviewed the work of the bye-
gone year. On the same evening an ordinary public meeting was
constituted. The first paper read was by Prof. MacGregor, of Dalhousie
College, on the isothermal and adiabatic expansion of gases ; its object
was to show how certain important laws of the expansion of gases
extensively employed in the study of heat engines, and usually demon-
strated by the aid of the calculus, may be demonstrated by the use of
elementary mathematical methods. The demonstration of these laws
was thus brought within the comprehension of engineers who had not
had the advantage of an extensive mathematical training.

At the December meeting, Dr. Somers called attention to the native
forms of juniper, giving details of his observation of the variations
in habit of these plants, and exhibiting living specimens showing
more particularly the upright arborescent or tree-forms of Juniperus
communis, a species which, both in Europe and America, commonly
appears on bare hills and sand-dunes as a depressed bush without any

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. Ill

erect main stem. He also exhibited a stuffed specimen of Lanius
borealis, and read notes on its butcher-bird habits, distribution, and
local occurrence. Both of these subjects elicited information from
members of observations they had made. The discussion that ensued
in regard to the juniper- forms led to expression of the view that
depressed and bush forms of Coniferae are to be regarded in general, not
as incipient trees in process of development or evolution, but rather as
degenerate or dwarfed forms of species that now exist, or have formerly
existed, normally as trees. We do not now have the proper 4forest-tree-
form of Juniperus communis anywhere, but our native yew bush, Taxus
Canadensis, while it occurs nowhere on this continent as a tree, is
believed by many botanists to be conspecific with the English yew, the
trunk of which attains great size as well as antiquity ; it is the tree that
furnished wood for bows to the English bowmen. Mr. Guildford R.
Marshall, Principal of Richmond School, gave an account of the obser-
vation of earthworms on roofs, etc., as if they had fallen in a shower ;
the facts narrated suggested several possible explanations of the phe-
nomenon, in connection with which details of the habits of these
familiar but despised creatures were brought forward by members. At
the same meeting, the President offered remarks on some features of the
Kentucky Flora, pointing out the prominent differences in the vegeta-
tion of the Kentucky plains or low-lands from that of Nova Scotia,
while the hill or mountain plants were, in certain cases, identical with
our species, or presented equivalent forms. These remarks were founded
on, and illustrated by, specimens collected during the season by Mr.
Kearney, of the Botanical Department of Columbia College, New York
where much good botanical work is being done.

At the January meeting (1894), Dr. Gilpin, Deputy Commissioner of
Mines, gave a geological description of the Nictaux iron-ore-field, which
has of late years acquired increased economic importance. The reading
of this paper led :;o an interesting discussion on the general geological
features of the district, which was familiar to Dr. A. P. Reid and other
members present. Mr. Doane, our City Engineer, gave an account of the
operation of the " Kennedy Scraper," so-called, and an explanation of
the cause of a recent failure in its working when introduced into ,the
city water pipes. The interesting history of this invention for auto-
matically freeing water-pipes from rust-incrustation was detailed, the
apparatus shown, its mode of working described, and its use in our city
water works fully explained.

iv PROCEEDINGS.

The February meeting was occupied with botanical subjects. Notes
were given on the botanical and commercial history of Nova Scotian
foxberries, an export trade in which has been developed to a surprising
extent within the last few years, especially in Guysborough County.
Mr. G. H. Cox, B. A., communicated a list of plants collected in and
around the Town of Shelburne, on .the Atlantic Coast of our Province,
in the years from 1890 to 1893. The Institute had previously given
space in its Transactions (vol. vi. pp. 209-300, and pp. 283-285) to two
similar lists of native plants of Truro, in Colchester County, by Dr.
George G. Campbell, which are supplemented this year by a list of
additional species collected in that locality by Percy J. Smith. Such
lists as these, when prepared with care, form valuable material for the
preparation of local floras, as well as for Provincial or more general
works, and the opportunity should not be lost to call attention to the
substantial service that may be rendered to botanical science by the pre-
paration of such lists for localities throughout the Province by those
who have opportunities, by residence or otherwise, for local observation
and collection.

The March meeting was taken up with astronomical and chemical
subjects. Mr. Cameron, Principal of Yarmouth Academy, whose
papers on astronomical observation, published in the periodical press at
different times, have so greatly interested the general public, gave us his
notes of observations on Venus. These notes may be regarded as a
sequel to his previous papers on that planet, of which he has for some
years made a special study, with regard more particularly to her visibility
from the earth under the changing conditions of elongation from the
sun, brilliancy, position, and state of our atmosphere. It seems desir-
able, therefore, to advert briefly to the general results reached by the
author in each of his two previous papers.

In the first volume of the second series of our Transactions, Session
1892-93 (pp. 148-159), Mr. Cameron dealt with the enquiry : On how
many (astronomical) days in the year may Venus be seen with the naked
eye ? The answer to this question involved a discussion of the motion
and changes of the planet and of the geometrical conditions upon which
her brilliancy depends. By constant watchfulness he succeeded in
recording a valuable series of observations at Yarmouth, while notes of
others made at Marseilles were obtained from M. Bruguiere, who had
been engaged on the very same uork for several years before. During

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. V

1890, when Venus began her season as evening star with the superior
conjunction of February 13th, and ended with the inferior conjunction
of December 4th (a period of 290 days), Mr. Cameron saw her with
the naked eye as early as March 16th, and Mr. Bruguiere as late as
November 29th, so that she was visible to the naked eye that season on
259 days out of the total 290. In his second paper (Trans. Inst., ser.
2, vol. i, pp, 345-358), our author dealt with the visibility of the planet
in daylight to the naked eye and with aid of the opera-glass, and effec-
tually dispelled the common notion that Venus could be seen with the
naked eye in daylight on very rare occasions only. From the long course
of patient, I might say persistent, observations made, Mr. Cameron was
enabled to determine that on the average, out of every 100 days there
are 84 on which any star-gazer with a fairly good eye can see Venus in
daylight, if the weather permits and if he knows where to look for her.
The paper of the past session brings the bright planet before us in
another role, its object being to detail observations of her performance
of the two characters of evening and morning star " at the same time,"
and to explain the conditions which bring about this phenomenon. The
paper will be found in extenso in the forthcoming part of the Transactions
now passing through the press. One feature of these papers ought not
to be omitted ; they consist not of mere observations and results
(although it will be seen that these are of great interest), but give
details explaining clearly the facts necessary to be known by those who,
without having the advantage of previous training in systematic obser-
vation, may wish to observe for themselves the phenomena so well
described ; these papers will thus serve as a guide to young observers,
and may help to correct the fault which their author finds with the
general public, who, nowadays, he thinks, are not much given to looking
heavenward either by night or by day. We wait with expectancy for
the next secret which Mr. Cameron is going to wrest from the fair star
of his affection.

At the same meeting, Mr. F. J. A. McKittrick, B. So., communi-
cated a paper on the measurement of the resistance of electrolytes ; it
consisted chiefly of a report of research work done in the Physical
Laboratory of Dalhousie College under Prof. MacGregor, and may be
regarded as an earnest of still more important work that is expected
from Mr. McKittrick in the future, for he was this year nominated by
the University Senate, and accepted by Her Majesty's Commissioners of

vi PROCEEDINGS.

the London Exhibition of 1851 as recipient of one of their Science
Scholarships. This scholarship, of the annual value of one hundred
and fifty pounds sterling, is tenable for two years on the condition that,
during his tenure, the holder shall devote himself wholly to study and
research, more especially in some branch of science, such as physics
mechanics or chemistry, the extension of which is especially important
to our national industries. The Senate's nomination to the Royal Com-
missioners was accompanied by a copy of Mr. McKittrick's paper from
the Institute's Transactions to show the author's capacity for research
work.

Mr. D. M. Bliss, electrician, Amherst, in a paper titled, " The coming
development of artificial illumination," set forth a number of interesting
facts and problems that are now engaging the attention of electrical
engineers, and that are not only of scientific interest, but also prospec-
tively of economic importance to civilized communities.

Mr. John Forbes, whose mechanical inventions in connection with
iron manufactures have brought fame to our city, presented us with a
review of some modern methods in manufacturing, with suggested analo-
gies from a study of the evolution and nature of some of the processes
employed. The reading of this paper led to an interesting discussion on
the processes of manufacture of the different kinds and qualities of iron
and steel, the observations of the speakers being well illustrated by a
series of samples exhibited by Mr. Forbes, which showed the several
progressive steps in the processes of manufacture.

Our April meeting was held in the Church of England Institute
building ; the attendance was unusually large, both of ladies and gentle-
men, notwithstanding the disagreeable weather. The evening was
entirely devoted to a paper by Dr. D. A. Campbell, titled, " General
considerations concerning Bacteria, with notes on the bacteriological
analysis of water." Dr. Campbell had studied Bacteriology at Johns
Hopkins University, where unusually ample facilities are offered, and he
has continued the investigation since his return to Halifax. In this
paper he gave a clear exposition of the most important results of bacterio-
logical enquiry up to the present time. He described the principal
forms of bacteria, with respect to their characteristic features in form and
size, the changes which they undergo, the parts they play in the economy
of nature, as in putrefactive processes, in converting organic substances

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. Vll

into suitable compounds for plant food, and in their relation to such
diseases as anthrax in the lower animals, and diphtheria and cholera in
the human race. The author described the general methods of bacterio-
logical work, the modifying modes of culture by which vaccines are pro-
duced, and showed the several forms of apparatus and appliances used.
The whole subject was admirably illustrated by preparations and live
cultures shown under excellent microscopes. The water supplied to the
City of Halifax had been examined, and was found to be remarkably
free from deleterious bacteria ; the author, however, offered suggestions
as to keeping the lakes clear of decaying vegetable matter that might at
any time menace the health of the city. The animated discussion that
followed was a feature of the meeting. Dr. A. H. Mackay, who had also
studied the subject, showed by calculation the prodigious rate at which
bacteria multiply, and enforced upon the audience the object lesson of
necessity for scrupulous cleanliness in the kitchen which the fleeting
life-histories of the bacteria tanght us. Dr. Somers expressed his belief
that the investigation of bacterial phenomena was of scientific interest,
but he could not admit that the germ theory oft disease had been estab-
lished. Dr. A. P. Reid, on the other hand, regarded bacteriology as of
vital importance to the medical profession, and to the people, and con
gratulated the Institute, on being the means of presenting to the com-
munity an exposition and illustration of this subject that every one could
appreciate ; to-night, he said, for the first time in the history of medical
science in Halifax, -the living and moving bacillus of cholera had been
shown.

The May meeting, being the last of the session, was overcrowded
with papers ; eight were brought forward, several having lain over from
previous meetings. Some had to be read by title only. The first was
«t notice of a new test for Antipyrine, by the President. Antipyrine is
the therapeutical name and that commonly used, for the chemical com-
pound properly called oxy-phenyl-dimethyl-pyrazole, or phenyl-dimethyl-
pyrazolon ; it belongs to the great class of aromatic compounds, of which
Benzene CH6 is the type ; but it differs from the benzene derivatives in
containing a pentagonal in place of a hexagonal nucleus, The chemical
constitution of the compound was explained by means of diagrams of the
graphic formula of related compounds, and the several known tests were
shown. The special test referred to for detecting, or confirming the
detection, of this compound, is the re-action obtained by prolonged boil-

Vlll PROCEEDINGS.

ing with strong nitric acid, a brilliant solution somewhat like that of
roseine, but with a purplish tinge, being produced.

Dr. MacKay, the Superintendent of Education, presented a valuable
summary of observations for the season of 1893, of the dates of flowering
of plants, and of the appearing of migratory birds. Dr. Somers exhibited
and described a sponge obtained by Mr. Andrew Sullivan, one of our
fishermen, at the neighbouring fishing village of Herring Cove ; it has
not yet been identified with any described species. Mr. H. Piers gave
valuable notes on Nova Scotian Zoology. Dr. Henry Ami, of the
Dominion Geological Survey, contributed an account of a collection of
silurian fossils from Cape George, Antigonish County, with descriptions
of three new species. Dr. R. W. Ells gave notes on sedimentary for-
mations on the Bay of Fundy coast. Mr. W. H. Prest's Observations on
Deep Mining in Nova Scotia concludes our catalogue of papers read during
the Session of 1893-94.

At the thirteenth meeting of the Royal Society of Canada, held in
May, 1894, the Institute was represented by our Vice-P resident, Dr. A.
H. MacKay, who presented a report of our operations during the year •
this has been printed in the Royal Society's Minutes of Proceedings for
1894, pp. xxvii-xxvm.

Having thus briefly dealt with the work of the session just closed, I
may be permitted as an old member to extend my remarks to the circum-
stances under which the Institute originated more than thirty years ago,
although the time now available will not admit of more than a mere
glance at its early history and progress.

This Institute was originally organized in the winter of 1862-63, the
former being the year of the London International Exhibition. Long
before that time the Mechanics' Institute formed a centre of scientific
and literary life in the City of Halifax, but it had then ceased to exist,
leaving its museum as a memento in the old building of Dalhousie Col-
lege. About the time when the proposal to hold the London Exhibition
of 1862 was announced, it was felt here that it would be of substantial
advantage to the Province to make known its resources and products to
the world, and this International Exhibition seemed to offer a fitting
opportunity for doing so. It was accordingly determined to collect and
forward a suitable contribution of specimens to the exhibition. This was
a new kind of work in Nova Scotia ; the task proved an arduous one,

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. IX

although the government was liberal in providing the means for obtain-
ing what money could purchase, and those who were engaged in carrying
out the work felt especially the need of scientilic help in placing the
products of the country before the nations of Europe. Thus was sug-
gested the great want of some permanent organization to foster the
scientific spirit in Nova Scotia. A society had been recently formed for
the reading of literary papers. Home of the more active members were
now engrossed with the arrangements for the Nova Scotian exhibit in
London, and the literary society readily gave place to an organization of
a scientific kind under the name of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural
Science. The inaugural address was delivered by PHILIP CARTERET
HILL, D. C. L., President, who died rather suddenly at Tunbridge Wells
in September last, and to whose memory theie is an appreciative notice
in the last issued number of the King's College Record. As mayor of
the city, provincial secretary and premier of the Province, and in other
important positions, he took an active part in civic and Provincial affairs.
He afterwards removed to England, and during his residence there had
been engaged in religious and philanthropic work, occasionally also con-
tributing to the literary journals. He is pleasantly remembered by many
citizens of Halifax as a genial, benevolent, scholarly, Christian gentleman.
In his inaugural address, at the first meeting of the Institute, Dr.
Hill pointed out that however great the ardor or untiring the efforts of
individual laborers in science might be, their isolated labors would really
tend but little to enlarge the boundaries of human knowledge. Com-
munication with each other, every laborer in the field casting his contri-
bution into a common receptacle, whence all could freely draw, could
alone give those results of individual effort their highest value. " It is
then," he said, " to aid in this important work, and to afford a well
constructed and organized channel for the contributions to the general
stock of knowledge of those among ourselves who are interested in the
fascinating fields embraced in the term ' natural science,' that the Nova
Scotian Institute has been established. Should our hopes not be disap-
pointed, we look forward to the time when our ' Transactions ' shall be
exchanged with older and more important institutions, and any new and
well authenticated fact, having passed the ordeal of our own local organi-
zation, shall be transmitted to the great centres of science, and become
the property of the whole world. * * The object of the Institution
is to stimulate effort, and to aid and encourage the student by giving a
recognized position and permanency to the results of his labors. If we

X PROCEEDINGS.

succeed, in however limited a measure, in effecting this object, our
intention in founding the association will be fulfilled, and our humble
efforts for the promotion of science and the elevation of our native land
will be abundantly rewarded." The Hon. Dr. Hill could hardly have
expected then that these prophetic utterances would have been so fully
realized as they were in his own lifetime, for, owing to the strenuous
exertions of some of our members, chiefly I believe Dr. MacGregor and
Mr. Maynard Bowman, there is now no country under the sun whose
scientific societies (where such exist) do not have our Transactions on
their library shelves as exchanges for their own. The exchange list
presented this evening shows that our annual distribution of Transactions
to such libraries throughout the world amounts to upwards of seven hun-
dred copies.

While sentiments such as those expressed in Dr. Hill's address were
entertained by the organizing members who looked to the Institute they
were creating as an association for the promotion of pure science, it was
no doubt felt, on the other hand, by the business or more practical classes
of the community, that the want of home information in regard to our
industrial resources in general, and our mines and minerals particularly,
was a great evil, restraining the progress of our industries, — for coal
mining was going on apace, iron was being produced at Londonderry, gold
had been discovered at Tangier, and was being picked up in other places
along the Atlantic coast. Such memoirs on the new mineral industries
as had been prepared, either by native scientists or professional miners,
were then necessarily published beyond the Province. Thus, in a paper
by Prof. How of King's College, read to the Institute on the 4th April,
1864, on iron ores, he remarked : " Many facts have been given in
original papers by myself, and others, published almost exclusively out
of the Province, during the last few years, and are scattered through the
pages of various periodicals ; * * * and I propose, now that an
Institute of Science exists in the Province which has a prospect of per-
manence and an established system of publication of its Transactions, to
offer for the consideration of its members, from time to time, such notes
on the minerals of Nova Scotia as I hope will be acceptable and useful."

For thirty-two years the work of the Institute has gone steadily on.
The monthly meetings have been regularly held ; the channel for publi-
cation of scientific papers has been maintained ; the fasciculus of them
under title of Transactions has been annually issued, and of late yeara
we have been able to illustrate papers more freely.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XI

Many who took part in the work during the early period of the
Institute's history have passed away ; their names will not be forgotten.
The papers they have left behind in our Transactions will be consulted
and quoted by the generations to come of students working in the several
departments to which they relate. Others have come in from time to
time to take the places of those who dropped out of our ranks year by
year, and, while we cannot boast of any great increase in our band of
laborers, yet the Institute remains in an active state, annually turning
out a certain amount of substantial work, and exercising, we trust, a
healthy intellectual influence in the community. The proceedings at
our monthly meetings may be of limited interest to the general public,
but our door is always open to any who care to hear what progress is
being made in matters of science in which our Province is interested.
We are accumulating by exchange a reference library that will be of
great service for future work, and we are only waiting for the necessary
building accommodation to assist infilling up the collections of our Pro-
vincial Museum, so as to make them an adequate representation of the
natural wealth of the Province, and afford to our own people and to
visitors from abroad a view of our mineral, agricultural, forest, fisheries,
shipping and manufacturing industries commensurate in some measure
with their growing importance.

In conclusion, I would like to call attention in a prominent manner
to the fact that we are no longer limited to the domain of natural science.
With an abbreviation of name made some years ago to that of the Insti-
tute of Science, we extended our range so as to embrace all departments.
Our membership has not in consequence increased in the proportion that
might have been expected. Almost every kind of industrial work now-
adays, except mere manual labor, requires, on the part of the worker,
some acquaintance with scientific facts and principles, and, in certain
cases, regular scientific training. With our advanced civilization and
industrial development, surely there must be more persons in this Pro-
vince devoting some portion of their time to scientific work than those
whose names are inscribed on the membership roll of the Institute of
Science. To all such we extend a hearty invitation to come and join us !

On motion of DR. SOMERS, a vote of thanks was presented to the
President for his services during the past session.

The TREASURER'S report was read, and having been audited and
found correct, was received and adopted.

Xli PROCEEDINGS.

The report of the LIBRARIAN shewed that a considerable number
of Scientific Societies and other Institutions had been added to the
Exchange List during the past year. The following is a statement of
the number of scientific and other institutions, including societies,
universities, government scientific offices, libraries, etc., to which the
Transactions are sent, and from which exchanges have been received :

NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS
To which Trans- From which
actiohs are exchanges
sent : are rec'd :

Great Britain and Ireland .... 126 59

France 62 21

Germany 87 57

Russia 18 11

Austria-Hungary 23 10

Norway 12 11

Sweden 11 6

Belgium 14 4

Netherlands 9 4

Italy 84 18

Switzerland 15 8

Servia 1 0

Spain 2 0

Portugal , 1 0

Denmark 5 2

India 8 2

China J 0

Malta 1 0

Mauritius 1 0

Straits Settlements . . 0

Japan 2 1

South Africa 2 1

Australasia 34 20

Brazil 3 1

Chili 1 1

Argentina 4 4

British Guiana 1 1

Central America 2 2

Mexico 4 4

West Indies 4 1

United States 156 96

Newfoundland 1 0

Canada (exclusive of Nova Scotia) ... .41 \ ftq q7

Nova Scotia 22/

Totals 709 383

The large excess in the number of institutions to which we send,
over the number which send to us in return, is not due to reluctance on
the part of other societies to exchange with us, but to a small extent to
the fact that it has not yet been found possible to correspond with all
the societies which we wish to have on our exchange list, and to a lar^e

LIBRARIANS REPORT. Xlll

extent to the fact that we send our Transactions to a large number of
institutions, such as libraries, museums, etc , which issue no pub-
lications which they can send us in return. In Canada, for example,
all libraries of whose existence we are aware are placed upon our dis-
tribution list.

Seventy-five volumes, — all being publications in English, — have been
completed and bound during the year, Many others have been com-
pleted, but have had to be left unbound owing to lack of funds.

So far as utility to members is concerned, the library still suffers
from the inconvenience of its quarters, The greater part of it is in
cases in a corridor of the Post Office building, the rest is in a room
courteously furnished for the purpose by the Governors of Dalhousie
College. The library is well arranged, so that the librarian can without
difficulty obtain any book which may be desired. But the lack of a
catalogue, and the hesitation of members to trouble the librarian to meet
them either at the Post Office or at the College, prevents members from
putting the library to its full use. It is to be hoped that, before very
long, the Institute may be able to afford to possess rooms of its own, with
a paid secretary and librarian, or that the scheme for the consolidation
of the Legislative and other libraries in the city, and the provision of a
building to accommodate both them and the Provincial Museum, which
has been urged upon the local government for some time, may be carried
out at an early date.

The following were elected office-bearers for the ensuing year : —

President — PROFESSOR GEORGE LAWSON, LL. D.

V ice-Presidents — ALEX. McKAY, ESQ., and EDWIN GILPIN, JR.,

ESQ., LL. D.

Treasurer — W. C. SILVER, ESQ.

Corresponding Secretary— PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, D. Sc.
Recording Secretary— HARRY PIERS, ESQ.
Librarian— MAYNARD BOWMAN, ESQ.
Councillors without office — A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D. ;

MARTIN MURPHY, ESQ, D. Sc. ; A. P. REID, ESQ., M. D. ;

F. W. W.DOANE, ESQ., C. E. ; WILLIAM MCK.ERRON, ESQ. ;

JOHN SOMERS, ESQ., M. D. ; WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ.

xiv PROCEEDINGS.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Provincial Museum, Halifax, 12th November, 1894.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

Much time having been occupied by the annual business meeting
which had just adjourned, the reading of papers was deferred until the
next meeting.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax. 10th December, 1894.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that the following had been duly elected mem-
bers : — W. H. PREST, Esq., Chester Basin, N. S. ; REV. W. M. FRASER,
B. A., B. Sc., Halifax; W. H. MAGEE, Esq., Ph.D., High School,
New Glasgow ; E. E. FAVILLE, Esq., Director, N. S. School of Horti-
culture, Wolfville ; REV. JAMES ROSBOROUGH, Musquodoboit Harbour ;
ALEXANDER DICK, Esq., Halifax ; C. E. WILLIS, Esq., M. E., Hali-
fax ; L. H. WHEA.TON, Esq., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Company,
Yarmouth.

A paper by PROF. L. W. BAILEY, entitled, " Notes on the Geology
and Botany of Digby Neck," was read by the Corresponding Secretary,
(See Transactions, p. 68.)

DR. A. H. MACK AY read a paper on " A Foraminiferous Deposit
from the bottom of the North Atlantic." (See Transactions, p. 64.)

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th January, 1895.
ALEXANDER McKAY, Esq., VICE-PRESIDENT, in the chair.

It was announced that C. F. HALL, Esq , and H. W. JOHNSTON, Jr.,
Esq., C. E., of Halifax, had been elected ordinary members, and F. H.
MASON, Esq, F. C. S., an associate member.

DR. MACKAY presented "Additional Notes on Globigerina Ooze
and Stones obtained by the S. S. 'Minia' from the bottom of the
North Atlantic." (See Transactions, p. 64.)

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XV

A paper by T. C. WESTON, Esq., F. G. S. A., entitled, " Notes on
Concretions found in Canadian Rocks," was read by the CORRESPONDING
SECRETARY. (See Transactions, p. 1.)

On motion of DR. MACGREGOR and MR. FORBES, it was —
Resolved, That the Institute express its deep appreciation of the
great services which MR. ALEXANDER McKAY has rendered it in his dis-
charge of the duties of Recording Secretary for a period of fourteen
years ; and that as a mark of its appreciation of his services, the Insti-
tute elect Mr. McKAT to Life-membership, without payment of the
usual fee.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Church of England, Institute, Halifax,, llth February, 1895.
ALEXANDER McKAY, Esq., VICE-PRESIDENT, in the chair.
DR. GILPIN, Inspector of Mines, read a paper entitled, "The Iron
Ores of Nictaux, N. S., and Notes on Steel-making in Nova Scotia."
(See Transactions, p. 10.)

In the discussion which followed DR. A. H. MACKAY gave a popular
description of this region which he illustrated by means of a large out-
line map. Starting from the Railway Junction of Middleton and
following the railway across the Annapolis Valley for four miles in a
southerly diiection, over the sand and gravel which rest on Triassic beds,
one arrives at the foot of the South Mountain range, where the Nictaux
River in its course nearly magnetic north, debouches from its rocky
gorge channelled through the Highlands. From Nictaux Falls station
the railway enters into the gorge, creeping higher and higher along its
western side. Just at the foot of the hills upper silurian slates appear to
show themselves, and the railway cuts every now and then great dykes
of igneous rock which atvarious timesrent the slates in numerous fissures.
Two miles up from the falls, in what appear to be of lower Devonian
age, the river and railway line at Cleveland cut at an oblique angle,
approximately vertical strata of magnetic iron ores generally highly
siliceous. One mile further up, and the road passes through a great
intrusive granite belt about a mile in width. Then comes a great rock
excavation through a bluff of very hard slates, when the course is again
in the granite and tending south-westerly to Alpena Station, six miles
above the Falls. During the two weeks he was in this district, he

xvi PROCEEDINGS.

studied the country to the west of the Nictaux as far as Jones' Brook, and
to the east as far as Tor Brook. The iron strata at Cleveland appear to
show themselves to the south-west near Jones' Brook over two miles dis-
tant and beyond the mile belt of intrusive granite. To the north-east of
Cleveland, for a distance of four miles, there are several outcrops of
probably the same strata, th,e iron of which is hsematitic instead of mag-
netic. At the north -eastern end of this line which runs parallel with the
course of the Tor Brook for over two miles, are the Tor Brook Mines,
where a large quantity of valuable hematite was being mined. This iron
belt then appears to be at least six miles long, cutting the general mag-
netic north and south course of the Nictaux at Cleveland, as a line
running from the south-west (declining to the west) two miles across
the granite ridge referred to, to Tor brook, four miles to the north-east.

Allusion was made to the interesting character of the geological
problem, to which our two greatest geologists have been giving different
solutions. Sir Win. Dawson thought the palaeontology of the iron beds
would place them as high as the Oriskany, the base of the Devonian, and
therefore higher than the rocks near the Nictaux Falls which might be
Lower Helderberg and Niagara (Upper Silurian). Dr. Honeyman would
put the iron beds lower even than the Niagara — as low as the Clinton if
not the Medina. Collections of fossils were made at various points which
had not then been examined, so that he would not venture to say whether
later observations would justify any radical modification of the earlier
hypothesis or not. The railway cuttings as well as mining explorations
made in late years give geologists much better facilities for the complete
study of the problem. But with all the new facilities the original hypo-
thesis does not appear to be substantially disproved.

Observations were also made on surface geology. Glacial erosion
was widely exhibited, and in at least one section of a drift bank cut by
the railway there was evidence of an older drift from north to south, as
well as a later from south to north, down the slope of the land to the
Annapolis Valley.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.
Church of England Institute, Halifax, llth March, 1895.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was reported that Miss BERTHA ELLIOT, Superintendent of Nurses,
Victoria General Hospital, had been elected an ordinary member, and S.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. xvii

5. DICKENSON, Esq., Superintendent of the Commercial Cable, Hazelhill,
Guysborongh County, N. S., had been elected an associate member.

PROF. FAVILLE, Director of the N. S. School of Horticulture, delivered
.a lecture on "Some Important Scientific Problems in Horticulture,"
illustrated bv a number of charts.

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 15th April, 1895.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was reported that the HON. MR. JUSTICE WEATHERBE had been
/elected a member.

The following paper b*y Miss LUCY C. EATON, entitled, "The Butter-
flies of Truro, N. S.," was read by Mr. Piers :

1. Vanessa antiopa, L. — Very beautiful specimens of this butter-
fly are on the wing during the last of July. A full grown larva captured
on the llth of July, 1894, went into cocoon on the 12th and appeared
as a perfect insect on the 26th of the same month. This species hiber-
nates during the winter and appears in spring with its wings much worn
and faded.

2. Vanessa milberti, Godt. — Also a hibernating species, and like
the antiopa, common here.

3. Argynnis atlantis, Edw. — Very common. Is with us the
greater part of the summer.

4. Argynnis mijrina. Cram. — Not very common.

5. Argynnis cybele, F. — Not common.

6. Papilio turnus, L. — Our largest butterfly. Rare because of
natural enemies.

7. Pieris oZeracea,. Har.— Native cabbage butterfly. Not very
common.

xviii PROCEEDINGS.

8. Pieris rapce, L. — Imported cabbage butterfly. Very common.

9. Colias philodice, Godt. — Clover butterfly. Quite common ;
may be seen during the greater part of the summer.

10. Melitcea phceton, Drury. — Very rare.

11. Phyciodes tharos, Drtiry. — Not very common.

12. Phyciodes nycteis, Doub. — Not common.

13. Grapta progne, Cram. — Not common.

14. Grapta faunus, Edw. — Not common.

15. Grapta J-album, Bd.-Lec. — Very rare.

16. Limenitis arfhemis, Drury, (form lamina, F.) — Not common.

17. Limenitis disippus, Godt. — Not common.

18. Neonympha canthus, L. — Not common.

19. Satyrus alope, F. — This is a forest species and somewhat rare,

20. Satyrus nephele, Kirby. — Quite rare.

21. Intergrades between alope and nephele.

22. Chrysophanus americana, D'Urban. — This pretty little butter-
fly is very common, and is with us during the greater part of the
summer.

23. Pamphila mystic, Edw. — Not common.

24. Pamphila cernes, Bd.-Lec. — Not very common.

25. Lyccena lucia, Bd.-Lec. — This beautiful little butterfly is
very rare here. I have only captured one. It was taken in Victoria
Park.

26. Lyccena violacea.- — This species is also rare.

In reading the above paper, Mr. Piers made a number of observa-
tions upon the subject :

If the species named in the list had been correctly determined, he
thought it would prove an interesting addition to our knowledge of the
Lepidoptera of the province. All previous catalogues have emanated from
Halifax, and carefully prepared local lists from other parts of the pro-
vince, especially from the western section, are necessary before a full
account of our butterflies can be presented.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XIX

An examination of Miss Eaton's paper suggests that more thorough
search will doubtless show that many of the species mentioned therein
as uncommon, are really generally less rare than stated in her notes.
The many species spoken of as not common, and a comparison with the
the relative abundance of the same species about Halifax and elsewhere
in the eastern part of the Dominion, prompts such a surmise. In some
cases the difference between the abundance of various species in this
locality and in the Truro district, is doubtless a local difference, and
therefore of great interest. There is no doubt that many species fre-
quently met with in the western pare of the province, are rare or even
unknown on the Atlantic coast, and vice versa. For this reason, reliable
annotated lists of species occurring at various stations throughout Nova
Scotia are absolutely necessary before we can present a correct statement
of the general abundance of the various species throughout the whole
province.

Comparison with the catalogues of Belt, Jones, and Silver, makes it
probable that a number of other species will yet be reported from Truro.
The Lyccenidoe and Hesperidca will doubtless furnish many representa-
tives. The speaker was surprised at not finding in the list a few species
which are common about Halifax, and whose occurrence at Truro might
be expected. For example, Pyrameis cardui is common near this city, as
well as generally throughout the eastern provinces of Canada, while P.
huntera is abundant some years whilst rare in others. P. atalanta,
which Belt and Jones considered rare or not common, Mr. Piers has
found plentiful about Halifax where it has doubtless become more com-
mon during recent years owing to the increase of food. Danais archippus,
although rare near Halifax, was said by the late Mr. Downs, on the
authority of Mr. John Winton, to be not so rare along the valley of the
Shubenacadie. Search should be made for all of these species in the
vicinity of Truro.

Mr. Piers also made the following remarks upon a few of the species
mentioned in Miss Eaton's paper :

Vanessa milberti. Both Belt and Jones reported that this species
had been taken at Truro and Windsor, but had not been observed near
Halifax. It is included in Mr. Silver's recent list (Trans. N. S. I. N. S.,
vol. vii.)

Argynnis atlantis. This species, which resembles aphrodite, does not
appear in the lists of Belt, Jone*, or Silver, but Rev. C. J. S. Bethune

XX PROCEEDINGS.

(" Butterflies of Eastern Provinces of Canada," 1894) says that it occurs
in Nova Scotia, as well as in Cape Breton, Prince Edward Island, and
New Brunswick. It is common throughout northern Ontario and
Eastern Quebec.

Argynnis myrina. Reported as not very common at Truro. It is a
very common species about Halifax.

Argynnis cybele. This species does not seem to have been definitely
reported from Nova Scotia proper,* but in Rev. C. J. S. Bethune's list
of the butterflies of eastern Canada, (Rept. Ent. Soc. of Ont., 1894) we
find it mentioned as having been taken in Cape Breton and Prince
Edward Island. Its occurrence at Truro, if it has not been confounded
with A. aphrodite, is interesting. A. cybele is very similar to this last-
mentioned species. A. aphrodite is abundant near Halifax, and has been
reported by Belt (1), Jones, and Silver, but it is not mentioned in the
Truro list. This gives rise to a suspicion that some of the Truro speci-
mens, upon re-examination, may prove to be aphrodite. It is very
probable, however, that we have both species in Nova Scotia, and the
attention of our entomologists is drawn to the subject. Specimens in
Mr. Piers's own collection, taken in the vicinity of Halifax, are undoubt-
edly aphrodite.

Papilio turnus. Common at Halifax, but reported rare by Miss
Eaton.

MiUtcea phaeton. As far as known, this species has hitherto been
reported from but one spot in the Province, namely a meadow not far
from Bedford Rifle Range, near Halifax. Its appearance in the Truro
list is of great interest.

Phyciodes tharos. Very common near Halifax and elsewhere
throughout the eastern provinces of Canada.

Phyciodes nycteis. In Canada this species has only been collected in
Ontario and Quebec, where it is not common. Have the specimens
mentioned in the previous list, been correctly referred to this species?
Its occurrence in Nova Scotia is somewhat unexpected.

Grapta faunus. Rev. C. J. S. Bethune notes its occurrence in Nova
Scotia (" Butterflies of EasternProvinces of Canada," Rept. Ent. Soc. of

* Consult, however, Mr. Belt's remarks in Trans. N. S. I. N. S., vol. i, pt. 2, p. 89,
from the wording of which it is possible that he had found both aphrodite and cybele
in the province.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXI

Ont., 1894)- Consult also Mr. Belt's notes on pages 90-91 of his paper
(Trans. I. N. S., vol. i, pt. 2).

Neonympha canthus. Not mentioned by Mr. Belt or Mr. Silver, but
Mr. Jones reports it, under its synonym Neonympha boisduvallii, as
having been taken by Mr. John Winton at Lower Stewiacke, Colches-
ter County. A specimen from that locality was in Mr. Jones's collec-
tion.

Lyccena lucia and violacea (winter forms of L. pseudargiolus) .
Miss Eaton speaks of these forms as rare at Truro. The species is very
abundant about Halifax in the spring, and is familiar to trout fishermen
under the common name "Jenny Lind."

DR. MARTIN MURPHY, Provincial Engineer, read a paper entitled,
" A Cheap and Effective Bicycle Track for Eough Country Roads,"
which was followed by an interesting discussion.

SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th May, 1895.
ALEXANDER McKAY, Esq., VICE-PRESIDENT, in the chair.

It was announced that MELVILLE G. DE WOLFE, Esq., of Kentville,
N. S., had been elected an associate member.

The report of the Institute, to be presented by DR. SANDFORD FLEMING
at the forthcoming meeting of the Royal Society of Canada, was read by

the Secretary.

^

HARRY PIERS, Esq., read a paper entitled, " Relics of the Stone Age
in Nova Scotia." The paper was illustrated by a collection of stone
implements and drawings. (See Transactions, p. 26.)

A paper by REV. ARTHUR WAGHORNE of St. John's, Newfoudland, on
the " Flora of Newfoundland, and S. Pierre et Miquelon," was read by
title. (See Transactions, p. 83.)

DR. A. H. MACKAY, Superintendent of Education, presented a paper
entitled," Phenological Observations made during 1894." (See Trans-
actions, p. 59.)

XX 11 ORDINARY MEETINGS.

WATSON L. BISHOP, Esq., exhibited a specimen of quartz, one side
of which was flat and striated. It had been found by Mr. J. R. Glen-
dinning about six feet below the surface in an earth cutting by the road-
side at the foot of the First Lake, Dartmouth, K. S.

The following papers were read by title : —

" Note on Coal Gas as a Probuble Source of Argon." By PROF. G.

LAWSON.

" On the Visibility of Mercury to the Naked Eye." By A. CAMERON,
Esq., Principal of Yarmouth Academy.

," Tidal Erosion and Deposition in Minas Basin/' By PROP. A. E.
COLDWELL, Acadia College, Wolfville, X. S.

" True Surfaces and Accurate Measurements." By D. W. ROBB,
Esq., A. S. M. E, Amherst, N. S. (See Transactions, p. 21.)

A bound copy of CAPT. TROTT'S paper on Submarine Cables was pre-
sented by the author to the library of the Institute.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

Nicotian Institute of (Science.

SESSION OK 1895-6.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax f llth November, 1895.

The first VICE-PRESIDENT, ALEXANDER McKAY, Esq., in the chair.

On opening the meeting the chairman announced to the Institute
the sudden death of its late President, PROF. GEORGE LAWSON,
Ph. D., LL. D., which had occurred on the previous evening at his
residence in Halifax.

After reference had been made by the chairman and other members
of the Institute to the great loss which the Institute had sustained, it
was unanimously resolved that the Institute, as a body, should attend the
funeral of its late President.

It was further unanimously resolved that, as a mark of respect to
the late President, the Annual Meeting should be adjourned until the
18th of November.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th November, 1895.
ALEXANDER McKAY, Esq., VICE-PRESIDENT, in the chair.

PROP. J. G. MACGREGOR, CORRESPONDING SECRETARY, addressed the
Institute as follows :

Mr. Vice-President, — It is my duty, on this occasion, to bring before
the Institute some account of the life and work of members deceased

(xxiii)

PROCEEDINGS.

during the past year. Until the last evening prior to the date fixed for
the annual meeting, we could say that death had made no diminution
in our list of members. But, on that evening, we lost one who was
facile princeps among us — our late President, Prof. George Lawson.

Prof. Lawson was born on the 12th October, 1827, at Newport, Fife-
shire, in Scotland. He was the son of Alexander Lawson and belonged
to a family which had long resided in Fifeshire. After completing his
school education, he entered upon the study of law ; but his strong
natural taste for scientific work led him to abandon a legal career, and
to enter the University of Edinburgh with the object of studying the
natural and physical sciences. His studies in Edinburgh extended over
a period of ten years, during which time he was also occupied with
scientific and literary work in connection with the University and with
several of the scientific institutions of that city. He was for a time
Curator of the University Herbarium, and was thus brought into either
personal contact or correspondence with the leading botanists of the
time. He was also for some time Demonstrator of Botany under Pro-
fessor J . H. Balfour ; and, in that capacity, he conducted a select class
for advanced students, teaching the practical use of the microscope and
methods of research in regard to the minute structure and development
of plants. The class was one of the first of the kind conducted in
Great Britain. The preparation of the Catalogue of the Library of the
Eoyal Society of Edinburgh was entrusted to him at this time, and was
carried out to the great satisfaction of the Society. He acted also as
secretary of several societies, in particular of the Royal Physical Society,
in which office he had as colleague the late Sir Wyville Thomson, after-
wards Chief of the Scientific Staff of the Challenger expedition.

In the year 1858 he was appointed to the Professorship of Chemistry
and Natural History in Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, and, to
the great regret of the leading scientific men in Edinburgh, evidenced
by their presenting him \vith an address, a silver salver and a purse of
sovereigns, he accepted the appointment.

In 1863, on the reorganization of Dalhousie College in this city,
Dr. Lawson resigned his chair at Queen's College and accepted the
Professorship of Chemistry and Mineralogy here. From that date
until the present — for a period of thirty-two years — he has conducted
the chemical department in this college. In addition to the work of his
chair, he also for many years conducted a class in Botany.

OBITUARY NOTICE OF PKOF. LAWSON. XXV

During his residence in Halifax he was always ready to give assist-
ance to struggling educational institutions. For years he delivered
courses of lectures in Chemistry and Botany to the students of the
Halifax Medical College. He was one of the organizers of the Tech-
nological Institute ; and when that useful evening school ceased to exist
through lack of funds, he conducted for some years, and intended to
conduct periodically, an evening class in theoretical and practical
chemistry, especially for men engaged in chemical industries.

Soon after his coming to Xova Scotia, a Board of Agriculture was
established by the government, and his previous profound study of
British agriculture led to his appointment to the secretaryship of the
Board. He discharged the duties of this .office from 1864 to 1885,
when the functions of the Board were assumed directly by the govern-
ment, and he was appointed Secretary for Agriculture. His connection
with agriculture was rendered still more intimate from the fact that he
for many years himself conducted a farm, largely, I believe, a stock
farm, at vSackville, N. S. Whether intended to be so or not, it was
generally regarded as a model of what such a farm ought to be.

Shortly after his appointment to the Professorship in Dalhousie
College, Prof. Lawson became a member of this Institute, and he soon
became one of our most active members. He attended our meetings
with the greatest regularity, and was always ready to give freely of his
time and energy with the object of promoting the interests of the
Society. His executive ability was early recognized, and he was elected
a member of the Council in 1864. Since that date there have been but
five years in which he was not so selected. He was Vice-President on
nine occasions, and has held the office of President during the last two
years.

During his membership he communicated in all fifteen papers to the
Institute, including five which are as yet unpublished, and which, I
fear, have not been finally prepared for publication. These papers are,
for the most part, in the department of Botany, which, as our members
.now well, was his favorite subject. I may mention his " Monograph
)f the Ranunculacea3 of the Dominion of Canada," the paper " On the
iminariacea? of the Dominion," the " Monograph of the Ericaceas of the
miinion," and the papers " On Canadian Species of Rubi," " On the
Northern Limit of Wild Grape Vines," and " On the Canadian Species
of the Genus Melilotus," as being especially important contributions to

XXVI PROCEEDINGS.

our knowledge of the geographical distribution of plants. The Insti-
tute was the more indebted to Prof. Lawsoli for publishing these papers
in its Transactions, because, long before coining among us, he had
gained the ear of the scientific world, and the Transactions of several
of the Societies of the mother-country, which formed much better
means of publication than ours, were open to him. I know that pre-
viously to the last few years, he ielt very keenly the i-erious drawbacks
connected with publishing in the Transactions of the Institute. Ac that
time the Council rigorously demanded that no paper should be published'
in our Transactions which had previously appeared elsewhere, while, at
the same time, little effort was made to distribute our Transactions among
Scientific Societies throughout the world. Of course, also, none of the
larger scientific societies or magazines would publish a paper which had
previously appeared here. Papers published in our Transactions were
thus, to a certain extent, buried, and authors could bring them to the
notice of scientific men elsewhere only by distributing separate
copies. During the last few years the policy of the Council
has been changed. Our Transactions are now sent to all important
Scientific Societies throughout the world, and, in addition, to a very
large number of Universities, Public Libraries and Museums. A
paper which is published in our Transactions, therefore, has some
chance of being seen. But, besides that, in several cases recently, the
Council has wisely permitted the publication of papers which had been
communicated to it, previously to their appearance in our Transactions,
on the simple condition of their being credited to the Institute. To a
man like Dr. Lawson, who had the best avenues of publication open to
him, these modifications of our policy were a great relief ; for they
permitted him to communicate researches to the Institute and yet to
feel confident that he was not thereby hiding them away. Conse-
quently, during the last few years, he had been able to bring a larger
number of papers before the Institute than formerly, and he had pro-
jected a series of valuable papers on the Flora of Nova Scotia, which
were to have been communicated to us. The first of this series was
read on February 9th, 1891, and appears in our Transactions at p. 84
of the eighth volume. The second was read on the 14th December,
1891 ; but the manuscript required revision when our issue of that year
went to press, and the burden of other duties, together with failing
health, had, 1 fear, prevented its revision altogether.

OBITUARY NOTICE OF PROF. LA.WSOX. XXV11

Prof. Lawson's scientific work began in 1846, when, at the early age
of 19 years, he communicated a series of papers to the Phytologist,
embodying the results of botanical observations. From that time until
the present, but few years passed in which he did not make some con-
tribution, smaller or larger, to the advancement either of his favorite
subject of Botany or some allied subject. Before coming to Canada,
as already stated, he had made a distinct reputation as a botanist, having
published in this department of science forty-four papers and one book,
and having prepared the manuscript of a second book, which,
however, through the death of one of the members of the firm
which had undertaken to issue it, was never published. In addition, he
had published a few papers in other departments of natural science, a
work on British agriculture, and the Catalogue of the Eoyal Society's
Library, and he had for two years issued a monthly serial containing
treatises on the field crops of Britain.

During his five years residence at Kingston his scientific activity
was unabated, notwithstanding the large amount of work which fell to
his hands in organizing the science teaching of Queen's College. To
this period belong thirteen botanical papers, one chemical paper, and
one agricultural pamphlet. In this period also falls the organization of
the Botanical Society of Canada, which he was largely instrumental in
founding, and which, in the few years of its active existence, did good
work in promoting the study of botany in Canada.

During his residence in Halifax, Prof. Lawson published thirty-one
botanical papers, four on chemical subjects and one in zoology. In
addition he issued the Journal of Agriculture for twelve years, the
annual reports of the Secretary of Agriculture for thirty years, the
crop reports of Nova Scotia for six years, a special report on cattle pas-
tures, and the Nova Scotia register of thoroughbred cattle. It will be
noticed that the amount of his scientific work, so far as it can be judged
by mere number of papers, was smaller during the last period than in
either of the others. This was of course due to .the heavy demands
which his duties as Secretary of Agriculture made upon his time. In
the interest of pure science, therefore, his appointment to this office is
to be regretted. But if we take a wider view, and consider the great
services which, as Secretary, he rendered to the farming industry, it
may be that the loss to pure science was balanced, and perhaps over-
balanced, by the improvements in the applications of science which he
was able to effect in Xova Scotia.

xxviii PROCEEDINGS.

The total number of his communications to scientific societies, each
of which represents some addition to knowledge, is as follows : — In
Botany, 93 ; in Zoology, 4 ; in Chemistry, 5 ; and in subjects difficult
to classify, 5. These, in themselves, form a far larger body of work
than it is the privilege of most scientific men to have been able to exe-
cute ; and when one thinks in addition of the work involved in the
long series of reports, treatises, etc., of a practical kind which his pen
produced, and of the articles in reviews and other periodicals and in
cyclopedias, of which no mention has been made above, one begins to
form some estimate of the enormous industry, patience, perseverance,
and minute attention to detail, of which our late professor was capable.

A complete list of his published papers, as well as of his books,
reports, etc., up to the end of 1894, will be found in the " Bibliography
of the members of the Royal Society of Canada," compiled by Dr. J. G.
Bourinot, and issued as part of Vol. XII of the Transactions of that
Society. A list of the papers communicated to the. Institute during the
last four years, including six which do not appear in the Royal Society's
list, will be found in the Index to Vol. VIII of our Transactions.

As to the value of his scientific work, it would be presumptuous in
me to offer an opinion. He, doubtless, reached no wide generalizations.
It is given to few men to do so. But he added greatly to our knowledge
of plant life, and made especially large contributions to our knowledge
of the geographical distribution of plants. Whether or not he pos-
sessed the ability to do what is called, in German phrase, epoch-making
work, it is impossible to say ; for his lot was cast in circumstances in
which such work was practically impossible. But, although he was
unable to pursue his investigations with the appliances and by the
methods which he would have selected, had the colleges with which he
was connected possessed adequate equipment, he nevertheless resolutely
did what he could ; and he has, consequently, left behind him a mass of
useful work accomplished, which forms a monumentum cere perennius.

Of the value of his work as Secretary of Agriculture, it is difficult
to form any estimate. It consisted not so much in the excellence of the
Reports which it was his duty to issue from time to time, — though they
were models of conscientious skill, — or in the judiciousness of his official
communications with the Agricultural Societies of the Province, — though
there is no doubt as to the ability with which these communications
were conducted, — as in the quiet influence which- he exerted over the

OBITUARY NOTICE OF PROF. LAWSON. XXIX

farmers of Nova Scotia, an influence which was due to a firm convic-
tion on their part that he had their interests at heart and that he
possessed a profound knowledge on which his advice to them was based,
He had given great attention to agriculture, as we have seen, before
coming to Canada ; and, though farming is carried on under very differ-
ent conditions in Great Britain and Canada, he had the rare faculty of
allowing for the difference of conditions, and applying his general know-
ledge accurately in new circumstances, and rapidly gaining an insight
into the modifications which our climate, the undeveloped state of our
country, and our mode of life, made necessary. It is certain, at any
rate, whether this view of its source is correct or not, that he exerted
a great influence over our farming population, and that his exercise o f
that influence was in the highest degree beneficent.

The outward marks which show the esteem in which scientific work
is held by scientific men, are received only in small measure by the
retiring -worker who lives far from the centres of research. Neverthe-
less, Dr. Lawson was not without such cheering evidence of appreciation.
The degree of Ph. D. was conferred upon him by the University of
Giessen, and that of LL. D. by McGill University, Montreal. He was
a Fellow of the Botanical Society and of the Royal Physical Society of
Edinburgh, and of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain, an.
Honorary Member of the Edinburgh Geological and of the Scottish
Arboricultural Societies, a Corresponding Member of the Royal Horti-
cultural Society of London, and of the Society of Natural Science of
Cherbourg, one of the original Fellows and an ex-President of the
Eoyal Society of Canada, and a member of various other learned
societies.

The indirect influence which Dr. Lawson exerted on the progress
of science in Canada was also very great. Many of the members of
this Institute are old pupils of his, and can testify to the stimulating
power which he could exert and did exert in the presentation of his
subject. I was assured some few years ago by one of the leading
botanists of Canada, that all the leading Canadian botanists of that
date, who had been trained in Canada, were Dr. Lawson's pupils ; and
such a fact speaks volumes for the ability of their teacher. His -power
of rousing enthusiasm in his pupils was more marked in his teaching of
Botany than in his teaching of Chemistry ; for, though the latter was
the principal subject of the Professorships which he held, the former

XXX PROCEEDINGS.

was the subject in which he delighted. It was, perhaps, also more
marked in former than in later years, the burden of the many duties
which, owing to his thorough knowledge of Agriculture, had been forced
upon him, having been too great, apparently, for his intellectual elas-
ticity. But that the power was there in great measure, there can be no
doubt, and that it was exercised even in later years is shown by the fact
that we have had botanical communications recently from pupils of his
who have only lately left the class-room.

The indirect influence which is shown in kindly interest and con-
siderate criticism, is familiar to all our younger members, who have
been endeavoring themselves to engage in research, or who have brought
the results of their research before the Institute. We well know that
he was always interested even in the smallest of our contributions ;
that when he directed our attention to faults which might be removed,
it was always in the gentlest manner and with the utmost courtesy and
consideration for the feelings of others ; and we know also, that in any
of the many subjects with which he was familiar, he was always ready
to draw from his store of information, for our benefit, things either
new or old. His readiness at all times to work for this Institute, his
labours in connection with the Botanical Society of Canada, the inter-
est he took in the recently founded Botanical Club, his willingness to
contribute to the maintenance even of local scientific societies in
distant parts of the Dominion, were simply instances of the very large
indirect influence which he exerted on the progress of science in
Canada.

This short statement can give but a feeble account of the great
work which our late President was able to accomplish in the advancment
of Science, the upbuilding of this Institute, and the development of
of his adopted country. It may serve, however, to show that through
Dr. Lawson's death, the Province of Nova Scotia loses a man who,
owing to his profound knowledge and his public spirit, was able to exert
a large influence on the development of its most important industry ;
the Institute loses a member who, through his activity and success in
research, has been largely instrumental in making the reputation which
it now possesses in the estimation of similar societies in other parts of
the world, and we all, personally, lo?e a friend Avho, through his kindly
courtesy and readiness to help, had won our deep affection and profound
esteem.

RECORDING SECRETARY'S REPORT. XXxi

On motion of DR. SOMERS, seconded by DR. MURPHY, it was
unanimously resolved that the Secretary be directed to transmit to the
family of its late President, PROF. G. LAWSON, an expression of the
Institute's deep sense of the great value of his scientific labours and of
the eminent service which he had rendered to the Province of Nova
Scotia, together with an assurance of the very warm sympathy felt by
the Institure with his family in their sad bereavement.

It was further resolved that the Corresponding Secretary's account
of the Life and Work of the late President should be published in the
Proceeding?, and that it should be accompanied by a portrait.

MR. HARRY PIERS, RECORDING SECRETARY, read the following
report : —

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen, — In the absence of the usual Presi-
dential address, I have been requested to prepare a short review of the
work of the Institute during the past ' session. I fear, however, that
my scanty observations will be but a very sorry substitute for the remarks
of him who, under other circumstances, would have this evening filled
the chair.

It is with much sorrow I refer to the lecent death of one with
whom we all were familiar and whom we all respected. In the sudden
death of its President, the Institute has lost one of its most active
workers and one whose name lent a lustre to its ranks. The name of
Dr. Lawson will be unforgotten, not only by his fellow-workers in the
science which he held so close to his heart, but also by every man of
the Province in which he was so well known.

The few words in which I have referred to the Society's loss, are
few because of my inability to properly deal with the deceased gentle-
man's life and work. In this relation, however, we have just heard the
opinions of one better qualified than myself to do justice to his standing
as a scientist and a man.

With this notable exception, I am pleased to be able to say that
since the opening of the last session the Institute has lost no members,
either by death or withdrawal. During the past twelve months, fifteen
members have been added to our number, — with one exception the
largest annual addition for many years. Of these, ten are ordinary
members residing in the city, while five are associates, one of whom

xxxii PROCEEDINGS.

has paid a life composition fee. Five gentlemen out of the fifteen
have not yet paid their first fee, and therefore are not entitled to the
full privileges of membership. The roll-book at present bears the names
of 126 members. This list, however, much needs revision. Several of
he gentlemen named therein have neither cancelled their arrears nor
even shown interest in the work of the Society by attending its monthly
meetings. Owing to this lack of revision, our Proceedings and Trans-
actions are furnished gratis to some who in no way advance the objects
for which the Institute was formed.

During the session of 1894-5, the full number of eight meetings
was held, the annual business meeting taking place, for the sake of con-
venience, on the same date as that of the first monthly one. Eighteen
papers were presented at these meetings. They may roughly be classed
under the following heads : presidential address, 1 ; archaeology, 1 ;
phenology, 1 ; zoology, 2 ; geology, 6 ; botany and horticulture, 2 ;
chemistry, 1 ; astronomy, 1 ; mechanics, 2. These papers were con-
tributed by fourteen persons, — that is to say only about eleven per cent,
of the members laid work before the Society. This is a decrease from
the previous session of 1893-94, when twenty-two papers were pre-
sented by eighteen persons, or sixteen and a half per cent, of the list
of members as it then stood (about 109). Of the one hundred and
twenty-six living members, I find that thirty -two (or nearly twenty-six
per cent.) have at some time contributed one or more papers. Several
of these, however, have furnished nothing for many years. At the
present time, only about eighteen members can be spoken of as
representing the working force of the Institute. There are many,
however, who could easily prepare papers, but they have not yet
done so.

Several branches of our natural history have, so far, been entirely
neglected ; but it is to be hoped that these will be worked up before
many years. Several entomological orders offer a tempting field in this
respect.

The attendance at the monthly meetings of the society probably
averages about twenty-two. Large meetings cannot, of course, be
expected when the results of special research are being presented. Popu-
lar papers are more attractive to the public; but, on the other hand,
are less acceptable for publication. A larger attendance of teachers

TREASURERS REPORT. XXX111

might well be expected. Although invitations are regularly sent to the
Principals and other teachers of nearly every school in Halifax and also
to the staff of the Dartmouth schools, and although all are thus wel-
comed to our meetings, yet only about five teachers are at all regular
attenders and only two of these have taken advantage of the Institute's
general invitation. When we consider the number of teachers who are
employed in the city and in Dartmouth, and the prominence which is
given to science in the public schools, this lack of interest is a mani-
festation which we would hardly expect. Of course, more elementary
lectures would no doubt attract a larger number.

Invitations are also sent to the various military departments ;
but a lack of interest is there also shown — a very different condition
from the time when the Institute numbered among its most active mem-
bers many officers of the army whose names are well known to us all.
Nevertheless the Institute is in a most healthy state, the most urgent
need being a proper room to contain the library, which at present is
only semi-accessible.

I am glad to say that the finances of the Society are in an excellent
standing. This is largely due to the liberality of the provincial govern-
ment.

The Transactions for the session of 1893-4 have been distributed,
and the Part for last session is going to press.

I regret that the foregoing report is not less meagre, and, with
yourselves, am sorry that an address had not been prepared by one fully
qualified to analyse the work of the Institute and to offer valuable sug-
gestions for its better management. I hope, however, that my few
remarks have not been wholly without interest.

It was resolved that the Report of the RECORDING SECRETARY should
be published in the Proceedings.

The Report of the TREASURER, which had been audited by Messrs.
R. McColl, C. E., and S. A. Morton, M. A., was read and adopted, and, on
motion, it was resolved that a statement of the receipts and expenditure
for the year should be printed and sent to members.

The Report of the LIBRARIAN shewed that during the past year
copies of the Proceedings and Transactions had been sent for the first

XXxiv PROCEEDINGS.

time to twenty-six scientific institutions, and that publications had been
received for the first time from thirty-one such institutions, viz.,
from : —

The Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, U. S. A.

The Dundee Naturalists Society, Dundee, Scotland

The University of Illinois, Urbana, U. S. A.

The Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.

The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engi-
neers, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

The Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.

The Natural Science Association of Staten Island, N. Y.,
U. S. A.

The Montana Society of Oivil Engineers, Montana, U. S. A.

The Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, U. S. A.

The Dulwich College Science Society, Dulwich, England.

The Public Library of the City of Boston, U. S. A.

Departmento Nacional de Estadistica de Costa Rica, San Jose.

Naturwissenchaftlicher Verein an der Universitat, Vienna.

The Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, Cambridge,
U. S. A.

K. Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, U. S. A.

Musee D'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

The Government Observatory, Madras, India.

Observatorio Astronomico y Meteorologico, San Salvador.

The Berwickshire Naturalists Club, Alnwick.

The University, Leipzig.

Comision Geologica de Mexico, Mexico.

Societe Linneenne du Nord de la France, Amiens.

The South African Museum, Cape Town.

The Iowa Academy of Science, Desmoines, Iowa, U. S. A.

Sociedad Meteorologica Uruguaya, Montevideo.

The Edinburgh Mathematical Society, Edinburgh.

The Gordon College Museum, Geelong, Australia.

K. Museum fur Vulkerkunde, Berlin.

The Natural History and Philosophical Society, Birmingham.

Deutscher wissenschaftlicher Verein, Santiago, Chili.

The following list gives the number of institutions, including socie-
ties, universities, government departments, libraries, museums, etc., to
which, at the present date, our Transactions are sent, and from which
publications are received in exchange : —

LIBRARIAN S REPORT. XXXV

NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS
To which Trans- From which
actions are exchanges
sent : are rec'd :

Great Britain and Ireland , 128 66

France 62 23

Germany 88 60

Russia 19 11

Austria-Hungary 23 11

Norway 13 11

Sweden 12 6

Belgium 14 4

Netherlands 9 4

Italy 34 18

Switzerland 15 8

Servia 1 0

Spain 2 0

Portugal 1 0

Denmark 5 2

India 9 3

China 3 0

Malta 1 0

Mauritius 1 Q

Straits Settlements 0 1

Japan 2 1

South Africa 2" 2

Australasia ... 36 22

Brazil 3 1

Chili 2 2

Argentina .'. 4 4

Uruguay . 1 1

British Guiana 1 1

Central America 2 4

Mexico 4 5

West Indies 4 1

United States 166 106

Newfoundland 1 0

Canada (exclusive of Nova Scotia . ...441 Orr

Nova Scotia 22 /

Totals 734 415

As pointed out in former reports, the Council distributes the publica-
tions of the Institute very liberally, sending them to many libraries,
museums, etc., which issue no publications which they can send in
return, and even to a considerable number of societies which do issue
publications but have neglected hitherto to put the Institute on their
exchange lists. Owing to the great courtesy of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in granting to the Institute the privileges of its International
Bureau, of Exchanges, it costs very little more to be -liberal than to be
niggardly in distribution, and the Council regards liberality as the better
policy both from the point of view of making the work of its members

XXXVI PROCEEDINGS.

known and from the point of view of spreading abroad a knowledge of
the natural resources of the Province.

During the past year it has been found possible to bind about 120
volumes, all in the English tongue except a few foreign publications
which were in considerable demand.

The library has increased so rapidly that it has been found necessary
to remove from the Post Office building all except publications from
Great Britain and Ireland and the United States. The balance of the
Library can still be accommodated in the room at Dalhousie College,
placed at the disposal of the Institute by the courtesy of the Board of
Governors. But the day is not far distant when both the cases at the
post office and the room at the College will hold no more, and it will be
necessary, therefore, at an early date, to find some adequate local habita-
tion for our books.

The library has been used more frequently during the past year than
usual both by town and country members ; but the lack of a catalogue,
difficulty of access to the books owing to the lack of a paid librarian,
and the inconvenience of the present location of the library, render it
largely inaccessible to members.

On motion, the thanks of the Institute were conveyed to MR. M.
BOWMAN, the Librarian, and to the Corresponding Secretary, PROF. J. G.
MACGREGOR, for their efforts to build up the library.

The following were duly elected officers for the ensuing year
(1895-6) :-

President— E. GILPIN, JR., ESQ., LL. D., F. G. S., F. R. S. C.
V "ice-Presidents — ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ., and A. H.

MACK AY, ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C.
Treasurer— W. C. SILVER, ESQ.
Corresponding Secretary — PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, D. Sc.,

F. R. SS. C. & E.

Recording Secretary — HARRY PIERS, ESQ.
Librarian— MAYNARD BOWMAN, ESQ., B. A.
Councillors without office — MARTIN MURPHY, ESQ., D. Sc. ;

WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ. ; WILLIAM MCKERRON, ESQ. ;

JOHN SOMERS, ESQ., M. D. ; F. W. W. DOANE, ESQ., C. E. ;

RODERICK McCoLL, ESQ., C. E. ; S. A. MORTON, ESQ., M. A.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXXvii

On motion, it was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be con-
veyed to the HON. R. BOAK, President of the Legislative Council, for
his courtesy in permitting the use of the Council Chamber for the
meetings of the Institute.

A vote of thanks was also presented to MR. A. MoKAY for the
able manner in which he had performed the duties of chairman.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th November, 1895.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

Communications were read from the Physical-economic Society of
Konigsberg and from the Imperial German Academy of Halle,
announcing the death of their Presidents; and likewise from the
Geological Institute of Mexico, intimating the decease of its late
Director.

T)R. SOMERS then read a paper on " A Variation in the Plumage of
the Canadian Ruffed Grouse or Birch Partridge (Bonasa umbellus
togata)" describing a specimen which had been purchased in Halifax.

The subject was discussed by MESSRS. PIERS and BISHOP, who men-
tioned similar cases which had come under their observation,

MR. \V. L. BISHOP exhibited an Albino Junco (J. liyemalis) which
had been shot in May, 1887.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th December, 1895.
The PRESIDENT in the chair,

PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR presented a paper " On the Conductivity
of Mixtures of Electrolytes." (See Transactions, p. 101).

XXviii PROCEEDINGS.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

City Coimcil Chamber, City Hall, Halifax, 13th January, 1896.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

A paper by PROF. A. E. COLDWELL, entitled : " Notes on. the Super-
ficial Geology of Kings County, N. S.," was read by the Corresponding
Secretary. (See Transactions, p. 171).

The paper was discussed by DRS. MURPHY and GILPIN, and MESSRS,
BLACK, HEMEON, Me KAY and BISHOP.

PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR read a " Note on Newton's Third Law of
Motion." — In former papers (Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., vol. x, sec in, p. 3,
(1892) and Phil. Mag. ser. 5, vol. xxxvi, (1893), p. 241) he had
endeavoured to show that the attempt supposed by some writers to
have been made by Newton and actuall}7" made by Maxwell and Lodge,
to deduce the third of Newton's Laws of Motion from the first, was
unsuccessful, the reasoning by which the deduction was made being
fallacious. In the present paper attention was directed to the attempt
made by Mr. R. T. Glazebrook. F. R. S., in his Elementary Text Book
of Dynamics (Cambridge University Press, 1895, p. 151) to re-state
the deduction in a new form, the object of the paper being to show that
Glazebrook's deduction involved the same fallacy as those of Maxwell
and Lodge.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.

City Council Chamber, Halifax, 10th February, 1896.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

DR. A. H. MACKAY presented for examination by the members of
the Institute, a flag of reddish freestone five times the linear dimensions
of the reduced photographic representation given below, and bearing on
one face a number of very distinct and beautiful dendritic markings
representing very closely in general outline the figures and color of some-
of the finely sprayed, red seaweeds for which they were popularly
taken. But, by the ordinary blowpipe tests, the simulated fronds of the
red alga turned out to be an oxide of manganese instead of a fossil, and

MACKAY ON MANGANESE DENDRITES.

XXXIX

the microscope demonstrated the entire absence of organic structure.
The specimen came from the neighborhood of St. Mary's Bay, Digby

MANGANESE DKNDRITES ON RED SANDSTONE.
(Reduced to one-fifth of linear dimensions.)

county. The st ructure of the flag showed that these Manganese den-
drites were originally formed between two close layers of the original
flaggy sandstone. He suggested as an explanation of the dendritic form
of the manganese deposit, the observed fact that when a thin sheet of
liquid holds in solution certain substances, and from any cause the
solution is becoming supersaturated, these substances, if they have a
tendency to crystalize, are not precipitated uniformly like ordinary
sediment. The precipitation commences at a point where the super-
saturation begins to develope, which, let it be supposed, in the thin
plane of cleavage in the flag, was near the outer margin where the
deposit salt first made its appearance. Assuming the crystaline attrac-
tive force to operate effectively at a distance of, say, the eighth of an
inch, the precipitating material would congregate from that distance to
the first point of deposition, leaving a clear space of that extent on each
side. And as the supersaturation extended inwards, the point would be
extended into a line. But, assuming that the wave of supersaturation
2

xl PROCEEDINGS.

proceeds inward with a semi-circular, elliptical or other proximate form
of a curve, a radiating system of lines would be required to spring up
whenever the divergence between two lines of precipitation exceeded
twice the effective attractive distance of the aggregations of deposits.
Thus there would result a radiating, spray- like deposit, the branches
budding forth at points necessary to allow of the precipitation of all
material within the range of the specific attracting force. It will
be seen that the branching of each of these figures practically fills
up its particular basin so as to accommodate the precipitating molecules
within a proximately constant distance.

He illustrated the same, or a similar principle, by enclosing between
sets of two microscope glass slides, solutions of a variety of chemical
salts, clipping the sides firmly together, and allowing the water to evapo-
rate from the open margins all around. In many of these the salts
were precipitated in more or less aborescent and vine-like forms starting
from the open margin. Under the polariscope these forms were exhibited
to those present, the various plays of color making the exhibition of
popular interest.

The President, DR. GILPIN, then read a paper on the "Undeveloped
Coal Fields of Nova Scotia." (See Transactions, p. 134).

Remarks upon the subject were made by MR. DICK, M. E.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th March, 1896.
The PRESIDENT in the chair

The SECRETARY was instructed to convey to His WORSHIP THE
MAYOR, the thanks of the Institute for the use of the City Council
Chamber for recent meetings of the Society.

A paper by PROF. L. W. BAILEY, Ph. D., entitled, " Some Illus-
trations of Dynamical Geology in South-Western Nova Scotia," was
read by the Corresponding Secretary. It was illustrated by a number
of photographs. (See Transactions, p. 180).

The paper was discussed by DRS. MURPHY, MACKAY, and GILPIN,
PRINCIPAL TREFRY, and others.

MACKAY ON KING AND GARTER SNAKES. xli

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th April, 1896.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

HARRY PIERS, ESQ., read a paper entitled, " Preliminary Notes on
the Orthoptera of Nova Scotia," illustrated by a collection of the
insects described. (See Transactions).

The paper was discussed by DRS. SOMERS and MACKAY, and MR.
MILLER.

DR. A. H. MACKAY presented a desiccated specimen of Diadophis
punctatus (L.), the Ring-necked or King Snake of Nova Scotia, for
examination by the members present. The specimen was captured
alive during the previous fall, at Pine Hill, near the Park, and was pre-
sented to him by the Rev. Dr. Gordon. Its habits in captivity were
described, the principal one (not referred to in the other papers read
before the Institute) being its ability, after moistening its ventral plates
by passing through water, of climbing up the-more than vertical walls
of a tall glass beaker in which it was kept. As the mouth of this large
beaker was covered with a sheet of thin cotton cloth clamped around
its mouth by a rubber band, the snake used to climb up to the top and
take a circular position around the mouth and as close to the band as
possible. For a couple of months it was presented with quite a variety
of things to eat and drink, but was never observed to take advantage
of what was offered, except to go gliding through the water or other
liquid supplied. Being neglected for a week or more towards the
beginning of winter, it was found dead and desiccated one day, when
the experiments came to a close. It agreed closely with the specimen
described in detail by Mr. Harry Piers on the 14th March, 1892. (See
Vol. VIIL, page 181, Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci.).

He then described an exciting frog hunt by one of three large
Garter Snakes, (Eutainia sirtalis) — two of them having been killed to-
give the frog a better chance — which he had the good fortune to see on,
the partially dry bed of a rivulet near the Nictaux river in Annapolis
county. The cunning and persistent determination shown by the snake-
in this case was most remarkable, whether in swimming and diving in
the clear gravel-bottomed pool, or in climbing the rock and the bank.

xlii PROCEEDINGS.

The infatuation of the frog — a fine large Green Frog, ( Rana damata)
it appeared to be — was shown by its always retreating to the water
where it remained until closely pursued, when it sprang out in a leap or
two to one side where it remained unconscious of any other presence,
but very sensitive to the insidious approach of the snake who was so
interested in its game that the presence of the slaughterer of its two
colleagues was, apparently, a matter of no consequence. Owing to a
mistaken observation that the frog had finally escaped and that the hunt
was over, the snake was killed, when it was discovered that it was still
stalking the frog and would have caught him or have forced him again
into the pool. As the hunt continued for several minutes, a great many
manoeuvres by land and water were observed. He referred to notes made
on the habits of the same species as described in the Transactions of the
Institute, Vol. i, part 2, page 120, by J. M. Jones, May 2nd, 1865 ;
Vol. iv, page 81, by J. Bernard Gilpin, April, 1875 ; and Vol. iv, page
163, by John T. Hellish, May, 1876.

After discussing the distribution of the Reptillia in the Atlantic
Provinces, he gave the appended list which briefly shows all the species
known on good authority to be found within the Province of JSTova
Scotia.

He next presented a living specimen of the Newt, ( ' Diemyctylus
viridescens), which was examined by the members, swimming in water
and moving on the table. It was one of a pair which had come the
spring before from a lake in the county of Lunenburg, and the habits
of which he had been studying for a year. The other, having been
taken for some time with an apparent longing for the wide world
beyond the horizon of its tank, which for some days before it was pen-
sively gazing at from an island rock, must have made a leap or unusual
reach, and escaped never to be seen again. He gave an outline of its
history from the minute eggs deposited in spring on small leaves of
water plants ; of its growth in the water, until in August or September
it gradually changed into a red land salamander, left the water and
hunted like a terrestrial animal, with air breathing apparatus and even
a ciliated epithelial lining to its air passages. Until lately this stage
used to be considered to be a species of salamander. Then, when
mature, the " crimson eft " betakes itself to the water, changes its
color to an olive green with a row of minute black-bordered vermilion
spots on each side of its back. Its breathing apparatus again becomes
adapted to the water, even the ciliated epithelia disappearing. The

MACKAY ON THE NEWT. xliii

specimen was for a year in this speckled olive-green stage, when it is
essentially a water animal, although it is capable of living out of the
water, and sometimes appears to take pleasure in basking high and dry.
Its peculiar and very decided amphibious nature made it even more
interesting from a biological point of view than any of its congeners
among our batrachians. He described its manner of catching a strug-
gling fly when thrown on the surface of the water, while a dead or
motionless fly would not be touched ; its swallowing of small fibres of
fresh meat when hungry, when it might be fed from a splinter of wood
to which the fibres were made to adhere. He referred to the descrip-
tion of a specimen by Harry Piers, before the Institute, 14th March,
1892, as given in the Transactions of the Institute, Vol. vm, page 183.
He then discussed the distribution of the other batrachian relatives
of the Newt in the Atlantic Provinces, and gave the following list as
the species known to belong to the Province, on good authority. In
the museum of the Pictou Academy there were specimens of all the
reptilia and batrachia of the list except the Wood Tortoise, which was
given on the authority of Mr. Jones, in a paper already referred to.

BATRACHIA AND REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

[Nomenclature of Jordan's Manual of the Invertebrates, 1888.]

Class— BATRACHIANS. Class— REPTILES.

Order — Salamanders. Order — Serpents.

1. Amblystoma purrtatum (L). 1. Storeria occipitomaculata (Stor).
(Yellow-spotted Salamander). (Red-Bellied Snake).

2. Plethodon erythronotus (Green). 2. Eutainia sirtalis (L).
(Red-backed Salamander). (Common Garter Snake)

3. ? (Blackish sp.) 3. Liopeltis vernalis (DeKay).
Order— Newts. (Grass Snake).

3. Diemyctylusviridescens (Raf). 4- Bascamon constrictor (L).
(Red Eft, or Vermillion-spotted (Black Snake).

Olive-Back Newt). 5- Diadophis punctatus (L).
n i m j j ET (Ring-necked Snake).

Order — Toads and Frogs.

4. Bufo lentiginosus (Shaw). Order — Turtles.

(American Toad). 6. Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli).

5. Hyla versicolor (Le Conte). (Leather Turtle).
(Common Tree Toad). 7. Chelydra serpentina (L).

6. Hyla Pickeringii (Holbrook). (Snapping Turtle).
(Pickering's Tree Toad). 8. Chrysemya picta (Hermann).

7. Rana virescens (Kalm). (Painted Turtle).

(Leopard Frog). 9. Chelopus insculptus (Le Conte).

8. Rana sylvatica (Le Conte). (Wood Tortoise).
(Wood Frog).

9. Rana clamata (Daudin).
(Green Frog).

10. Rana Catesbiana (Shaw).
(Bull-Frog).

xliv PROCEEDINGS.

DR. MALAY'S communication was discussed by MR. PIERS, DR.
SOMERS, and MR. MILLER.

A paper, " On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Mixtures of
Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes having a common Ion," by D.
MclNTOSH, ESQ., Dalhousie College, was read by title.

Notice of the May meeting of the Eoyal Society of Canada was
read. The PRESIDENT of the Institute was appointed delegate to the
meeting, with power to appoint a substitute if necessary.

SPECIAL MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 27th April, 1896.
The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

REV. G. PATTERSON, D. D., LL. D., of New Glasgow, N. S., having
been invited by the Council to address the Institute on his investigations
in relation to the Folk-speech of Newfoundland, in order that the atten-
tion of members of the Institute might be directed to this kind of
research, read the following paper : —

NOTES ON THE DIALECT OF THE PEOPLE OF
NEWFOUNDLAND.

Of late years Folk-lore, by which is meant popular superstitions,
tales, traditions and legends, has engaged a large amount of attention,
and is now universally recognized as of great value in the study of
anthropology and comparative religion. Closely connected with this is
the study of folk-speech, or the words and linguistic forms of the common
people, as distinguished from the literary language of the cultured
classes. These, though the consideration of them may be regarded as
more properly belonging to the science of philology, are yet also of
interest as connected with the history and migrations, the beliefs and
modes of life of the peoples among whom they are found.

Hitherto, in Nova Scotia, attention has scarcely been directed to
either of these subjects. I know of no systematic attempt either to
gather up the folk-lore or to discuss the linguistic peculiarities of our
people. And yet we have an ample field. Our original settlers were
principally French, German, English, Irish, Lowland Scotch, an

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. xlv

with some intermixture of North American Indians and Africans, and
other elements in less proportion. These all brought with them various
folk-tales, legends and superstitions, and as these different races remain
in a large measure distinct, they retain them to a good degree still. As
they mix with other races and become more educated, they may lose
them, but often the intermixture tends to their wider extension. In the
same way there arises an interchange of \vords and phrases, which form
dialectic peculiarities more or less widely spread according to circum-
stances.

Recently my attention was directed to the folk-lore and folk-speech
of Newfoundland. I had not more than begun to mingle with her
people till I observed them using words in a sense different from what
I had ever heard elsewhere. This was the case to some extent in the
speech of the educated, in their law proceedings and in the public press,
but was of course more marked among the uneducated. Among the
latter particularly I found, in addition, words in use which were entirely
new to me. Further intercourse convinced me that these peculiarities
presented an interesting subject of study, and after some enquiry I pre-
pared two papers, the first of which was read before the Montreal branch
of the American Folk-lore Society, and published in the American
Folk-lore Journal for January- March, 1895, and the other was read
before that society at their late meeting and published in the same
journal. It has been thought desirable that the results of my enquiries
should be brought under the notice of Nova Scotian students, and I
have therefore consented to condense my two papers into one adding
such additional information as I have since received and to present it
before the Institute of Science.

It may seem strange that I should have directed such particular
attention to the dialectic forms of Newfoundland, where I was quite a
stranger, while there remains a similar field in Nova Scotia quite unculti-
vated. But it was just because I was a stranger that my ear at once
caught the sound of unusual words, or of words used in unusual senses,
and I was led to these investigations. Equally interesting forms of
speech are perhaps to be found in Nova Scotia, but they await the
investigations perhaps of some stranger who may come to sojourn
among us.

In explanation of the origin of these peculiarities it is to be kept in
view that the most of the original settlers of Newfoundland came either

PROCEEDINGS.

from Ireland or the west of England. In consequence the present
generation very generally speak with an Irish accent, and some words or
phrases will be found in use of Irish origin. Their coasts too, having
been from a very early period frequented by fishermen of all nations, and
their trade bringing them in contact with people of other tongues, we
might expect foreign words to be introduced into their speech. The
accessions to their vocabulary from these sources, however, are few, and
their language remains almost entirely English. Even the peculiarities
which strike a stranger, are often survivals of old forms which are
wholly or partially obsolete elsewhere.*

I. I notice words which are genuinely English, but are now obsolete
elsewhere or are only locally used : —

An atomy or a natomy. a skeleton, applied to a person or creature
extremely emaciated. " Poor John is reduced to an atomy" This is
a contraction of the word anatomy, probably from a mistake of persons
supposing the a or an to be the article. This use agrees with the
original meaning of the word, which was not the act of dissecting, but
the object or body to be dissected, and hence as the flesh was removed,
the skeleton, a word which then denoted a dried body or mummy.

(Greek, skeUo, to dry.)

Oh tell me, friar, tell me
In what part of this vile anatomy
Doth my name lodge ? Tell me that I may sack
The hateful mansion.

— Shakspeare, Romeo and Juliet, III, 3.

Hence it came to denote a person extremely emaciated.

They brought one Pinch, a hungry lean-faced villain,

A mere anatomy,

A living dead man. —Comedy of Errors, V, 1.

Shakspeare also used the abridged form atomy in the same sense,
which is exactly the Newfoundland meaning of the word.

" Thou starved bloodhound . . . thou atomy, thou."

—2 Henry IV, V, 4.

The same is given by Jamiesonf as in use in Lowland Scotch.

* In these investigations I must especially acknowledge the assistance received,
from Judge Bennett of Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, who has not only furnished me
with a number of words, but has carefully examined the whole list. I have .also to
acknowledge my obligations to an article by the Rev. Dr. Pilot of St. Johns, published
in Christmas Bells, a paper issued in that city at Christmas. A few additional facts
have been received from Mr. W. C. Earl, of the Western Union Telegraph Company,
and others. For most of the quotations I am indebted to the Encyclopedic Dictionary.

t Scottish Dictionary.

PATTERSON OX NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. xlvii

Barvel, sometimes pronounced barbel, a tanned sheepskin used by
fishermen, and also by splitters, as an apron to keep the legs dry, but
since oilskin clothes have come into use, not now generally employed.
"Wright in his " Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English," marks
it as Kentish, denoting " a short leather apron worn by washerwomen or
a slabbering bib." Eecently I heard of its being used by a fisherman
on our Nova Scotia coast, to describe the boot or apron of a sleigh or
carriage.

Barm is still commonly, if not exclusively used in Newfoundland for
yeasty as it is in some parts of England. So billets, for small sticks of
wood has now, with most English-speaking people, gone out of use.
But it is quite usual in Newfoundland to hear of buying or selling billets,
putting in billets, &c. The word, however, seems to have been intro-
duced from the Norman French.

Brews. — This is a dish, which occupies almost the same place at a
Newfoundlander's breakfast table, that baked beans are supposed to do
on that of a Bostonian. It consists of pieces of hard biscuit, soaked
over night, warmed in the morning, and then eaten with boiled codfish
and butter. This is plainly the old English word usually written breivis.
and variously explained. Johnson defines it as " a piece of bread soaked
in boiling fat pottage made of salted meat." This is about the New-
foundland sense, substituting, as was natural, fish for meat. Webster
gives it as from the Anglo-Saxon, and represents it as obsolete in the
sense of broth or pottage, " What an ocean of breivis shall I swim in,"
(Beaumont & Fletcher), but as still used to denote " bread soaked in
gravy or prepared in water and butter." This is the relative New
England dish. Wright gives it in various forms brewet, breivis, &c., as
denoting pottage, but says that in the North of England they still have
" a brewis, made of slices of bread with fat broth poured over them."

Child is used to denote a female child. This is probably going out
of use, as gentlemen, who have resided for some time on the island, say
they have never heard it, but I am assured by others, that on the occasion
of a birth they have heard at once the enquiry, " Is it a boy or a child f
Wright gives it as Devonshire, and it was in use in Shakspeare's time,
" Winter's Tale," III, 3, " A boy or a childe, I wonder." In two
instances I have heard of its being used in this sense some years ago in
Nova Scotia. The one was by an old man originally from the United
States, who used Shakspeare's enquiry " A boy or a child." Again in a

xlviii PROCEEDINGS.

town settled by New Englanders I am informed by one brought up in it,
that when he was a boy some forty years ago, it was a favorite piece of
badinage with young people to address a young husband on the birth of
his first-born, " Is it a boy or a child ?" They did not know the mean-
ing of the phrase, but used it in the way of jeering at his simplicity, as
if he had not yet been able to decide the question. This is an example
of the manner in which words or phrases, after losing their original
meaning, still continue to be used and receive a different sense.

Glavy is used to denote a shelf over the mantelpice. Wright,
(Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English,) gives it as denoting the
mantelpiece itself, and thus it is still used in architecture. Halliwell,
(Dictionary of Archaisms,) gives davel, davy, and davel piece with the
same meaning, and davel tack, which he supposes means the shelf over
the mantelpiece, the same as the clai'y of the Newfoundlanders. In
French we have daveau, the centrepiece of an arch.

Clean is universally used in the sense of completely, as frequently in
the Authorized Version of the Scriptures (Ps. Ixxvii. 8 ; 2 Pet. ii. 18,
etc.), arid as still in Scotch. " He is dean gone off his head." " I am
dean used up." The word dear is sometimes used in the same sense.

Conkerbills, icicles formed on the eaves of houses, and the noses of
animals. Halliwell gives it in the form of conkabell, as Devonshire for
an icicle.

Costive, costly. " That bridge is a costive affair." I had at first sup-
posed this simply the mistake of an ignorant person, but in a tale
written in the Norfolk dialect I have seen costyve given in this sense, and
I am informed that it is used in the same way in other counties of England,
and sometimes if not generally pronounced costeev.

Dodtrel, an old fool in his dotage, or indeed a silly person of any
age. It is usually spelled dotterel, and primarily denoted a bird, a
species of plover. From its assumed stupidity, it being alleged to be so
fond of imitation that it suffers itself to be caught while intent on
mimicking the actions of the fowler, the term came to denote a silly
fellow or a dupe.

Our dotterel then is caught,

He is, and just

As dotterels used to be ; the lady first
Advanced toward him, stretched forth her wing, and he
Met her with all expressions — Old Couplet, iii.

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. xlix

Dout, a contraction of " do out," to extinguish, and douter, an
extinguisher, marked in the dictionaries as obsolete, but noted by
Halliwell as still used in various provincial dialects of England.

First, in the intellect it douts the light. — Sylvester.

The dram of base
Doth all the noblest substance dout.

Shakespeare, Hamlet i. 4.

Newfoundlanders also express the same idea by the phrase, " make out
the light."

Droke, a sloping valley between two hills. When wood extends
across it, it is called a droke of wood. In Old Norse there is a noun
drog, a streak, also a noun drag, a soft slope or valley, which in another
form drog, is applied to the watercourse down a valley. Similar is the
word drock, in Provincial English given in Halliwell as in Wiltshire a
noun meaning a watercourse, and in Gloucester a verb, to drain with
underground stone trenches.

Drung, a narrow lane. Wright and Halliwell give it under the
form of drun, as Wiltshire, with the same signification.

Dunch cake or bread, unleavened bread, composed of flour mixed
with water and baked at once. So Wright and Halliwell give duncli
dumpling as in Westmoreland denoting " a plain pudding made of flour
and water."

Dwoll, a state between sleeping and waking, a dozing. A man will
say, " I got no sleep last night, I had only a dwoll." This seems kindred
to the Scotch word dwam, which means swoon. " He is no deid, he is
only in a dwam." Wright and Halliwell give a similar if not the same
word as divale, originally meaning the plant nightshade, then a lethar-
gic disease or a sleeping potion.

Flankers, sparks coming from a chimney, so Halliwell gives it as
meaning sparks of fire. In old English, when used as a verb, it denotes

to sparkle.

"Who can bide the flanckeriny flame
That still itself betrays ?"

— Turbevile's Ovid, p. 83.

The noun is generally flanke ov flaunke (Dan. flunke) a spark.

" Felle/(um£es of fyr and flashes of soufre."

— Early Eng. Allit. Poems, " Cleanness," 953.

1 PROCEEDINGS.

Flaw, a strong and sudden gust of wind, Norwegian flage or flaag*
The word is used by Shakspeare and Milton :

Should patch a wall to expel the winter's flaw. — Hamlet.
And snow and hail and stormy gust and flaw. — Paradise Lost.

And also by Tennyson :

" Like flaws in summer laying lusty corn."
It is still in use among English seamen.

Foreright, an old English word used both as an adjective or an
adverb to denote right onward.

" Their sails spread forth and with aforeright gale."

— Massinger, Renegade, V.
" Though he foreright
Both by their houses and their persons passed."

— Chapman, Homer's Odyssey, VII.

Hence it came to mean obstinate or headstrong. In Newfoundland it
means foolhardy.

Frore, for froze or frozen. This is used by Milton :

" The parching air
Burns frore and cold performs the effect of fire."

Glutcli, to swallow. " My throat is so sore that I cannot glutcJi
any thing." Wright and Halliwell give it as old English, in the same
sense.

Gossip, originally Godsib, from God and sib, meaning kin or rela-
tionship by religious obligation, is still quite commonly used in
Newfoundland to denote a god-parent. Sib, which in old English and
Scotch denotes a relative by consanguinity, is used there exclusively to
denote relationship formed by sponsorship.

Groaning cake. When a birth is expected, a cake is prepared
called the groaning cake. Very soon after it occurs, with little regard
to the feelings or nerves of the mother, a feast is made, particularly for
the elderly women, of whom all in the neighbourhood are present.
This is called the " bide-in feast," and at it the " groaning cake " is dis-
tributed,— bearing the same relation to the occasion that " bride-cake "
does to a marriage feast. This is in accordance with the old English
practice and language, in which, according to Halliwell, groaning
denotes lying-in. Heuce we have in Scotch groaning malt — drink
provided for the occasion, and in old English groaning cheese, groaning
chair and groaning cake. Judge Bennett supposes that the name of

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. li

the feast is only the present participle of lide, and means staying or
waiting.

Gulch. The dictionaries give this word as an obsolete word, which
means to swallow ravenously, and Wright gives it as Westmoreland
for to swallow. In this sense it is used at Spaniard's Bay, and
probably at other places on the coast of Newfoundland. As a noun it
is used in other parts of America as denoting a ravine or small hollow.
It is also applied to those hollows made by vehicles in snow roads
known in Canada as pitches. But as a verb, it has come on the
Labrador coast, to have a meaning peculiar to that region and to those
who frequent it. In summer men, women and children from New-
foundland spend some weeks at the fishing there, living in a very
promiscuous way. As there is no tree for shelter for hundreds of miles
of islands and shores, parties resort to the hollows for secret indulgence.
Hence gulching has, among them, become a synonym for living a
wanton life.

Gurry, the offal of codfish, now obsolete, but by a euphuism repre-
sented in dictionaries as meaning " an alvine evacuation."

Hackle is used in two senses, and for two „ English words. The one
is to cut in small notches, as to " hackle " the edge of the door. This
is the same as the word to hack, defined " to cut irregularly, to notch
with an imperfect instrument or in an unskilful manner." The other
denotes the separating the course part of the flax from the fine, by
passing it through the teeth of an instrument called in Northumberland
and Yorkshire, a hackle, in Scotch, a heckle. Hence the word came to
mean to handle roughly or to worry, particularly by annoying questions.
In Newfoundland hackle and cross-hackle are specially applied to the
questioning of a witness by a lawyer, when carried to a worrying degree.

Haps, to hasp or fasten a door. This was the original Anglo-Saxon
form hapse or haps. It is defined by Johnson as a noun, a clasp folded
over a staple and fastened on with a padlock, and as a verb, to fasten in
this manner. Wright gives it as Berkshire for to fasten, and Devonshire
for the lower part of a half door. In Newfoundland it denotes to fasten
in general.

Hat, a quantity, a bunch or a heap. A hat of trees means a clump
of trees. According to Jamieson, in some parts of Scotland the word
means a small heap of any kind carelessly thrown together.

Hi PROCEEDINGS.

Helve is the term universally used for an axe handle, and as a verb
it denotes putting a handle to that implement.

Heft as a verb, to raise up, but especially to prove or try the weight
of a thing by raising it, is marked in dictionaries as Provincial English
and Colloquial United States, 'but it is still used in the same sense in
Newfoundland. Thus one returning home with a good basket of fish
may say to a friend " heft that," — feel the weight of it. And so as a
noun it is used with the relative meaning of weight.

Houseplace, the kitchen. In old English, according to Wright, it
meant the hall, the first laige room after entering the house. Halliwell
explains it as denoting in a farm house, the kitchen or ordinary sitting
room. It is still in ordinary use in Scotland.

Jonnick, in Newfoundland, means honest, but according to Wright,
in the Northamptonshire dialect it means kind or hospitable.

Killock, an old English word used to denote a small anchor, partly
of stone and partly of wood, still used by fishermen, but going out of
use in favor of iron grapnels.

Kilter, regular order or condition, " out of kilter," disordered or dis-
arranged. It is common in old English, but generally spelled 'kelter,
Thus Barrow says, " If the organs of prayer be out of helter, or out of
tune, how can we pray T Under the spelling " kilter," it is common in
New England.

Knap, a knoll or protuberance above surrounding land. It appears
in Anglo-Saxo n as knappe, and in kindred languages as denoting a knob
or button, but in old English it denotes " the top of a hill or a rising
ground " (Wright).

Leary, hungry, faint. This is the old English word lear or leer, in
German leer, signifying empty or hollow, having its kindred noun
lerenvss.

'* "But at the first encounter downe he lay,
The horse runs leere without the man."

— Harrington's Ariosto, XXXV. 64.

Linney, a small building erected against a bank or another building.
In New England it is generally pronounced linter, or lenter. This is
commonly regerded as a corruption of lean to. But Wright gives linliay
as in the Westmoreland dialect denoting an open shed. In this form,
also it appears in " Lorna Doone," a novel written in the Devonshire
dialect.

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. liii

Liveyer. This woid is used particularly on the coast of Labrador,
but also in Newfoundland, to denote a res-dent, in contrast with one
visiting for fishing or other purposes. It simply seems the word liver,
altered in the pronunciation. They treat the word lover in a similar
way, calling it loveyer, as is done in some English provincial dialects.
This, however, being from the Anglo-Saxon lufian, is nearer the original
than the common form.

Logy, heavy and dull in respect of motion. Anglo-Saxon liggan,
Dutch logge, a sluggard. In the United States the word is applied to
men or animals, as a logy preacher or a logy horse. In Newfoundland,
in like manner, they will speak of a logy vessel, a slow sailer, and in
addition, when from \vant of wind a boat or vessel cannot get ahead or
can only proceed slowly, they will speak of having a logy time.

Lun, a calm. This word exists in Scotch and northern English as
loun. It also appears in Swedish as lugn, pronounced lungn, and in old
Icelandic as logn, pronounced loan.

Marebrowed. The word mare in Anglo-Saxon means a demon or
goblin, of which we have a survival in the word nightmare. But there
is in Newfoundland another survival of it in the word mare broived,
applied to a man whose eyebrows extend across his forehead, and who is
dreaded as possessed of supernatural powers.

Midered or moidered, worried. In the latter form Halliwell gives it
as provincial English for distracted.

Mouch, to play truant, and also applied to shirking work or duty.
This is the same with the old English word, variously spelled meeck,
meach and miche, to lie hid or skulk, hence to cower or to be servilely
humble or mean. The form mouch is still retained in the north of
Ireland and is common in Scotland. I lately observed it as used by
the tramps in New York to denote concealing or disguising one's self.
I find it also used by school boys in some parts of Nova Scotia.

Mundel, a stick with a flat end for stirring meal when boiling for
porridge. Wright gives it as used in Leicestershire as an instrument
for washing potatoes, and he and Halliwell both give it as Northumber-
land, denoting a slice or stick used in making puddings. In Old Norse
there is a word mondull, pronounced mundull, which means a handle,
especially of a handmill, and the word is frequent in modern Ice-
landic.

liv PROCEEDINGS.

Nesh, tender and delicate, used to describe one who cannot stand
much cold or hard work. This is old English, but marked in the
dictionaries as obsolete except in the midland counties of England ;
Halliwell adds Northumberland.

He was too nesshe and she too harde. — Gower C. A. V.

It may be noted here that the people of Newfoundland use the word
twirily with almost the same meaning. It is undoubtedly formed from
twin like twiriling, a diminutive, meaning a little twin, given by Wright
as twindling,

Nunch, the refreshment men take with them on going to the woods.
It is an old form of the word u lunch " as " nuncheon " for " luncheon"
(Wright). But by others it is regarded, we think not so probably, as
referring to noon, and meaning the refreshments that laborers partake of
at that hour. Connected with this is the word nunny bag originally
meaning a lunch bag, but now used in the general sense of a bag to
carry all the articles necessary in travelling. They have also a very
expressive word, though I am not sure that it is general, nunny fudger,
denoting primarily a man who is thinking more of his dinner
than of his work, hence generally a man who looks out for his own
interest.

Patienate, long suffering. Wright gives it as used in Westmoreland
in the same sense.

Peek, to peep, common in New England.

Perney, an adverb meaning presently or directly, as when a servant
told to go and do a thing might reply " I will perney." The word I do
not find in any dictionary to which I have access, but from cognate
words I believe that it has come down from the old English. Related
to it is the Latin adjective pernix, quick, nimble, active, and the old
English word pernicious, signifying quick. Thus Milton : —

Part incentive reed
Provide pernicious with one touch of fire.

Paradise Lost, vi. 520.

Hence the noun pernicity, swiftness of motion which lingered longer.
"Endued with great swiftness or pernicity" Ray on the Creation, 1691.

Piddle or peddle, is used to describe dealing in a small way, without
any reference to hawking or carrying goods round from house to house
for sale. This was the old meaning of the word.

PATTERSON OX NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. v

Pook, a hay cock. Wright gives it as in Westmoreland and Halliwell
as in Somerset used in the same sense.

Prong, a hay or fish fork. This is the meaning given by Johnson,
who does not mention it as denoting one tine of a fork. So Wright-
gives it as an old English word denoting a hay fork.

Putter along, an old English form still in use in New England for
lt potter," to walk languidly or to labor inefficiently.

Quisui, a quaint saying or conundrum. In Anglo-Saxon from
cwethan to say comes cwiss a saying.

The Newfoundlanders have also the word quisitize, to ask questions
of one, but it seems to be of different origin.

Rampike, a dead spruce or pine tree still standing. It is used in the
same sense by the woodsmen of the Maritime Provinces, and probably
of New England. It is probably the same as the old English word
rampick, an adjective, " applied to the bough of a tree, which has lesser
branches standing out at its extremity," (Wright).

Ramshorn, a wooden pound for washing fish in. But Wright gives
it as a Somerset word denoting a sort of net to enclose fish that come in
with the tide. So Halliwell.

Randy is used both as a noun and a verb, of the amusement of
coasting. " Give us a randy " or " the boys are randy ing." In Anglo-
Saxon it means boisterous, and " on the randy " meant living in
debauchery. The word is retained in Scotland, where it means a romp
or frolic, but generally in an unfavorable sense.

RoJie or roak, smoke or vapor (Anglo-Saxon, reocan, to smoke), the
same as reek in old English and Scotch. Thus Shakespeare :
" Her face doth reek and smoke." — Venus and Adonis, 555.

Still used poetically

" Culloden shall reek with the blood of the brave." — Campbell.

Robustious, is an old English word used by Milton, the same irr
meaning as robust, originally used in a favorable sense, but coming to-
mean violent and unruly. Hence it became a term of reproach, and
finally fell out of use. But the Newfoundlanders still use it, or th&
similar word robustic, in its original favorable signification.

Ructions. This word is used in Newfoundland to denote noisy quar-
rellings. I h ad supposed that it was Irish and a corruption of insur-
3

Ivi PROCEEDINGS.

rections. But Halliwell gives it as Westmoreland for an uproar, so that
it is probably old English.

Scred, a piece or fragment. It seems the same as " shred," the
Anglo-Saxon screade. Webster gives Provincial English screed,

Seeming, judgment or opinion. Given in dictionaries as obsolete, but
used by the best writers of the past. Thus Milton has
The persuasive words impregnd
With reason to her seeming. — Paradixe Lost, ix. 738.

And Hooker says, " Nothing more clear to their seeming."

In Newfoundland, the sled or sleigh of the continent, the sledge of
the English, is called a slide, but according to Wright this is the original
form in old English. So shard is used as in Shakspeare's time and as
still in some Provincial dialects of England to denote broken pieces of
pottery.

Spaneel, as a noun, denoting " a rope to tie a cows hind legs " and as
a verb to " tie with a rope." In the dictionaries it is given as Provincial
English and an English gentleman informs me that the word is still in
common use in Yorkshire.

8pell from Anglo-Saxon spelian means in old English, as a verb, to
supply the place of another, or to take a turn of work with him, and as a
noun, the relief afforded by one taking the place of another at work for
a time. In a similar sense it is used in Newfoundland. A Newfound-
lander speaking of seals as swiles was asked how they spelled the word,
replied, " We don't spell them, we generally haul them." It is however
specially used to denote carrying on the back or shoulders. " He has
just spelled a load of wood out," meaning he has carried it on his back.
It is also applied to distance, as " How far did you carry that load,"
Answer, " Three shoulders spells" meaning as far as one could carry
without resting more than three times. In connection with this I may
note that the word turn is used to denote what a man can carry. " He
went into the country for a turn of good," that is as much as he can
carry on his back. The Standard Dictionary mentions it as having the
same meaning locally in the United States.

Starve, viz., with cold or frost. I have heard the same in Nova
Scotia. Johnson gives it as a verb neuter, with one of its meanings
" to be killed with cold," and as active with the meaning to " kill with
cold " and quotes Milton's line,

From beds of raging fire to starve in ice.

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ivii

Webster gives this meaning as common in England, but not in the
United States, though he quotes W. Irving as writing " starving \vith
cold as well as hunger."

Strouters, the outside piles of a wharf, whicli are larger and stronger
than the inner ones which are called shores. According to Wright in
the Somerset dialect it denotes anything that projects.

Swinge, a form of singe, pronounced obsolete, but preserved in
various English Provincial dialects, is the only one heard here. It is
an ancient if not the original form of the word. Thus Spencer says,
" The scorching flame sore twinged a 1 his face."

Till Tib's eve, an old English expression equivalent to the " Greek
Kalends," meaning never, is found here. The origin of the phrase is
disputed. The word Tib is said to have been a corruption of the proper
name Tabitha. If so the name of that good woman has been sadly
profaned, for it came to signify a prostitute

" Every coistrel
That comes inquiring for his tib." — Shakespeare, Pericles.

But St. Tib is supposed by some to be a corruption of St. Ubes,
which again is said to be a corruption of Setubal. This, however, gives
no explanation of the meaning of the phrase, and there is really no saint
of the name. To me the natural explanation seems to be, that from
the utter unlikelihood of such a woman being canonized, persons would
naturally refer to her festival, as a time that would never come.

Tilt, a log house such as lumbermen use ; a rough temporary shelter,
like a shanty in Canada, only instead of being built of logs laid hori-
zorially one on the other, it is usually composed of spruce or fir wood
placed vertically, and covered with bark. In Anglo-Saxon it appears as
telt and telde, from telden, to cover. According to the dictionaries from
Johnson, it is used to denote a tent, an awning or canopy, as over a
boat.

Troth plight, one espoused or affianced. So Shakespeare

This your son-in-law
Is troth plight to your daughter. — Winters Tale.

Tussock, a bunch or tuft of grass. It is marked in the dictionaries
as obsolete, but it is still in use in Newfoundland to denote the matted
tufts of grass found on the bogs.

Yaffle, an armful, applied especially to gathering up the fish which
have been spread out to dry, a small yaffle denoting as many as can be

Iviii PROCEEDINGS.

held in the two hands, and a large yaffle, expressing what a man would
encircle with his arms. The word is also used as a verb, meaning to
gather them up in this manner. The Standard Dictionary gives it as
used locally In the United States in this last sense. But the New-
foundlanders do not limit it to this. They will speak of a yaffle, e. #.,
of crannocks. Wright and H alii well give it as used in Cornwall as a
noun denoting an armful.

Fam/, early, wide awake, as a yarry man or a yarry woman. Wright
and Halliwell give this word spelled yary as Kentish, meaning sharp,
quick, ready. They, however, give yare as another word, though almost
if not quite identical in meaning. They are closely related, appearing
in Anglo-Saxon as yearn or yearo, and in kindred languages in various
iorms. In old English yare is used as an adjective meaning ready.
This Tereus let make his ships yare. — Chaucer. Legend of Philomene.

It is applied to persons meaning ready, quick.

Be yare in thy preparation. — Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, iii. 4.
And as an adverb, meaning quickly.

Yare, yare, good Iris, quick. — Ibid., Anthony and Cleopatra., v. 9.

It is well known that the word girl is not found in the Anglo-Saxon
or other languages of the North of Europe, and that it only occurs in
two places in the authorized English version of the bible, showing that
at the time that version was made, it was only beginning to be intro-
duced into England. In Newfoundland it is only where the people
have been intermixed with persons from ether quarters that it has come
into use, and in more remote places it is perhaps not used yet, the word
" maid " pronounced'm'?/^ being generally employed instead.

The use of to as meaning this, as in to-day, to-night and to-morrow
is continued in to year, this year and to once at once.

I may also notice that they use the old form un or on in the composi-
tion of words denoting the negative, where present usage has in or im.
Thus they say improper or onproper, undecent, unlegal, &c.

There are also the remains of old English usage in their use of the
pronouns. Thus every object is regarded as either masculine or femi-
nine, and is spoken of as either "he " or " she." " It" seems only to
be used where it has been acquired by intercourse with others. A man
speaking of his head will say " he aches." Entering the court house I
heard a witness asked to describe a codtrap. He immediately replied,

PATTEKSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. lix

" He was about seventy five fathoms long," &c. Other objects are
spoken of as " she," not only boats and vessels, but a locomotive. Of
this old usage we have a remnant in the universal use of the feminine
for ships.

Another old form still common is the use of the singular thee and
thou, where now the plural you is commonly employed. With this is
joined what is still common in parts of England, the use of the nomina-
tive for the objective, and to some extent the reverse.

Some peculiarities may be noticed also in the formation of the past
tense of verbs. Thus the present save becomes in the past sove, and
dive in like manner dove. But the very general usage is to follow the
old English practice of adding " ed." Thus they say runned for ran, sid
for saw, hurted for hurt, failed for fell, coined for came, even sen'd for
sent, and goed for went. This last however is true English, retained in
Scotland in gaed, while went does not belong to the verb at all, but is
the past of another verb to wend. More curious still is the use of doned
for did or done. Perhaps however this is not common.

The use of the letter " a " as a prefix to participles or participial nouns
to express on action still going on, is still retained, as a-walking, a-hunt-
ing, etc.

Again in some places there is retained in some words the sound of
•e at the end where it is now omitted in English. Thus "hand" and
'• hands" are pronounced as if written " hande" and " handes." This
is old English. We find it in Coverdale's. version of the Bible,
Tyndale's New Testament, which however sometimes has " honde " and
" hondes," and Cranmers.

A number of words written with ay and with most English speaking
having the long sound of a, are in Newfoundland sounded as if written
with a g. Thus they say w'y, aw'y, pr'y, pr'yer, b'y, for away, pray,
prayer, bay. So n'yebors for neighbors. This pronunciation is still
retained in Scotland, and R. Lowell refers to it as in Chaucer, and
quotes it as an example of the lastingness of linguistic peculiarities.

In their names of objects of natural history we find the retention of
a number of old English words. Thus whortleberries or blueberries are
called hurts, nearly the same as the old English whurts or whorts.
marked in the dictionaries as obsolete. Then they call a flea a lop, the
Anglo-Saxon loppe from lope to leap, and wasps they call waps, which is
the same with the Anglo-Saxon waps and the low German wepsk. A

]x PROCEEDINGS.

large vicious fly is called a stout, but according to Wright and Halliwell
this is the Westmoreland name for the gadfly. Then the snipe is called
a snite, which is the old English form, " The witless woodcock and his
neighbor snite." (Drayton's " Owl.") Earthworms are termed yesses,
which Wright gives as Dorset-shire and Halliwell as Somerset.

II. I have next to notice words still in general use, but employed by
Newfoundlanders in a peculiar sense, this being sometimes the original
or primary signification.

Perhaps in this respect the stranger is most frequently struck by the
use of the woids plant and planter. Neither has any reference to culti
vating the soil. A planter is a man who undertakes fishing on his own
account, a sort of middleman between the merchants and the fishermen.
He owns or charters a vessel, receive all the supplies irom the merchants,
hires the men, deals with them, superintends the fishing, and on his
return deals wfth the merchants for the fruits of the adventure, and
settles with the men for their respective shares.

To many the most singular instance of this kind will be the use of
the term bachelor women. Yet, as in Newfoundland, it originally
denoted an unmarried person of either sex.

He would keep you
A bachelor still

And keep you not alone without a husband
But in a sickness. — Ben Jonson.

Scarcely less strange may appear the application of the term barren
both to males and females. In the distribution of poor relief a com-
plaint may be heard, "He is a barren man, and I have three children."
So the word seems to have been understood by the translators of King
James's version of the Bible. Deut. vii. 14 : "There shall not be male
or iemale barren among you."

Bougliten, applied to an article, is used to signify that it has not been
manufactured at home. The same use of the word was common in New
England.

Bread with a Newfoundlander means hard biscuit, and soft baked
bread is called loaf. The origin of this is easily understood. For a
length of time the coast was frequented by fishermen, who made no
permanent settlement on shore, and whose only bread was hard biscuit.
In a similar way fish came to mean codfish.

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixi

Bridge, pronounced bi'udge, is the word commonly used to denote a
platform, though the latter word is known or coining into use, but they
generally pronounce li flat form.

Brief. A curious use of the word brief is to describe a disease
which quickly proves fatal. " The diphtheria was very brief there,"
that is, it quickly ran its course ; the person died of it.

In seveial dictionaries (Standard, Halliwell, Webster, etc.,) this word
is given as meaning " rife, common, prevalent," and is represented as
specially applied to epidemic diseases. They also refer to Shakespeare
as authority without giving quotations. Bartlett represents it as much
used in this sense by the uneducated in the interior of New England
and Virginia. Murray, in the New English Dictionary, gives the same
meaning, but doubtingly, for he adds, "The origin of this sense is not
clear. The Shakespearean quotation is generally cited as an example,
but is by no means certain." I presume to think that the assigning this
meaning is altogether a mistake. By no rule of language can brief be
made to mean rife. We see at once, however, the expressiveness of the word
as applied in the Newfoundland sense to an epidemic as making short
work of its victims. I must regard this, therefore, as the original mean-
ing of the word in this application. At the same time we can see how
the mistake may have arisen. An epidemic disease so malignant as to
prove fatal quickly could scarcely but become prevalent where intro-
duced, and its prevalence being on the minds of men, they would be apt
to attach such a meaning to the description of its working, as brief, and
then use the word in that sense.

Similar to this is the use of the word late, applied to a woman lately
married. " The late Mrs. Prince visited us," meaning the lady who had
recently become Mrs. Prince.

Chastise is used not as particularly meaning to punish either corpo-
rally or otherwise, but to train for good. A father will ask the person
to whom he is intrusting his son to chastise him well, meaning merely
bring him up in a good way. But the more limited signification is
coming into use.

The word clever it is well known is used in different senses in
England and New England. In the former it expresses mental power,
and means talented or skillful ; in the latter it describes the disposition
and means generous or good-natured. In Newfoundland it is used in
quite a distinct sense. It there means large and handsome. It is

Ixii PEOCEEDIXGS.

applied not only to men, but to animals and inanimate things. A fish-
erman will speak of a " clever built boat," meaning that it is large arid
shapely. The dictionaries from Johnson onward give as one meaning of
the word " well shaped or handsome." But he describes it as " a low
word scarcely ever used but in burlesque or in conversation and applied
to anything a man likes, without a settled meaning." Wright gives it
as in the east of England meaning good looking and in Lancashire as
denoting lusty, which when applied to men is nearly the Newfoundland
idea, and probably the nearest to the old English.

Crop, commonly pronounced crap, the personal equipment of a man
.going on a sealing voyage supplied by the merchants but distinct from
the provisions, etc.

Draft or draught in old English and still in the provinces means a
team of horses or oxen, and also that drawn by them, a load. As the
Newfoundlanders generally had no teams, they have come to use it to
denote a load for two men to carry, hence two quentals of fish.

Dredge pronounced in Newfoundland drudge, is used to denote the
sprinkjing of salt over herring when caught, and mixing them together,
to preserve them in the meantime. It is the same word that is used in
cooking to denote sprinkling flour on meat for which we still have the
dredging box. Skeat (Etym. Dictionary) gives a general meaning to
sprinkle as in sowing dreg, dredge, mixed corn, oats and barley.

In connection with this they have the dredge barrow pronounced
drudge barroiv, a barrow with handles and a trough to hold salt, for
carrying the fish from the boat to tlie splitting table.

Driver is the old English word for a four cornered fore and aft sail
attached to the mizenmast of a vessel, now usually known as the spanker.
It is now used in Newfoundland to denote a small sail at the stern of
their fishing punts or boats. The rig I am imformed was common among
the fishermen of England and Jersey.

Drung'd or drunge'd equivalent to thronged of which it is probably a
corruption.

Duckies. Twilight is expressed as " between the duckies," an
expression which seems to resemble the Hebrew phrase " between the
two evenings." So duckish meaning dark or gloomy, which Wright and
Halliwell give as Dorsetshire for twilight. We may add here that the
break of day is expressed as the crack of the daanin.

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT.

The word fodder is not used to denote cattle feed in general, but is
limited to oats cut green to be used for that purpose. This use of the
word I am informed is found in New England. So the words funnel
and funnelling are used in Newfoundland and also in some parts of
the United States for stove pipe. It is common in both to hear such
•expressions as that " the funnels are wrong " or " he bought so many
feet of funnelling." This sense of the wor,d has gone out of use else-
where, except as regards a steamer's funnel.

Hatchet is used for an axe. This is a little singular as the word was
not originally English, but is the French hachette, the diminutive of
hache, and really meaning a small axe or hatchet.

Idle is used to mean wicked, expressing the full force of Watts' lines
that " Satan find some mischief still, for idle hands to do."

A Newfoundlander cannot pass you a higher compliment than to say
you are a knowledgable man. The word, however, I understand is
common in Ireland, and I suppose was brought here by the Irish settlers.

Lodge is used in an active transitive sense, as equivalent to place or
put, as " I lodged the book on the shelf," " She lodged the dish in the
closet."

Lolly. This word is used by Newfoundlanders, as by the people on
the northern coast of America, and by Arctic explorers, to denote ice
broken up into small pieces. They have, however, another use of
the word, so far as I know, peculiar to themselves, that is, to express
a calm. In this respect it seems related to the word lull. Indeed,
Judge Bennett thinks that it should be written lully.

Lot, the same as allot, to forecast some future event. Wright and
Halliwell give it as Westmoreland for imagine, and the Standard
Dictionary represents it as used in the United States as meaning to
count upon, to pleasantly anticipate. The word low, which I deem a
contraction of allow, is used in virtually the same sense. " I low the
wind will be to the eastward before morning." The word allow is used
in some parts of Nova Scotia as meaning intention or opinion. " I allow
to go to town to-morrowr." The Standard Dictionary represents it as
colloquially used in this sense in the United States, particularly in the
Southern States.

Main is used as an adverb, meaning very, exceedingly. A New-
foundlander will say, "lam main sorry," that is, exceedingly sorry.

Ixiv PROCEEDINGS.

This use of the word still appears in various provincial dialects of
England. The word fair is also used in much the same way.

Marsh often pronounced mesh or mish is the usual name for a bog,
of which there are many, and some of them very extensive through the
island. So pond is the name for a lake. Even the largest on the
island (fifty-six miles long) is known as Grand Pond. This usage
prevails to some extent in New England, where however both terms are
used without any clear distinction between them, but in Newfoundland
" pond " alone is used. In this connexion, it may be also noted that a
rapid in a river is usually known as a rattle, a term which I have not
found elsewhere, but which I regard as very expressive.

Model, sometimes pronounced morel, is used in general for a pattern.
Thus a person entering a shop asked for " cloth of that model," exhibit-
ing a small piece.

Nippers, half mitts or half gloves used to protect the fingers. in
hauling the cod-lines. ,

The word ordain is in common use, and is applied to matters in
ordinary business of life. Thus a man will say, " I ordained that piece
of wood for an axe helve." This seems to be the retention of its
original use, before it came to be set apart for the more solemn objects
to which it is now applied. Similar to this is its use in Devonshire,
according to Wright and Halliwell, as meaning to order or to intend.

The word proper is in very common use to describe a handsome
well-built man. This is old English usage, as in Heb. xi. 23 : " He was
a proper child." So in Scotch —

Still my delight is with proper young men. — Burns, Jolly Beyyars.

Resolute is used in the sense of resolved. " I am resolute to go up
the bay next week," meaning simply that I have made up my rnind to
that step. This was the original meaning of the word, but the transition
was easy to its expressing a spirit of determination, boldness, or firmness,
But it has come to have another meaning at least in some places, that of
determined wickedness.

The word ridiculous is used to describe unfair or shameful treatment
without any idea of the ludicrous. " I have been served most ridiculous
by the poor commissioner," was the statement of a man who wished to
express in strong terms his sense of the usage he had received. Halli-
well says that in some counties in England it is used to denote some-

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixv

thing very indecent and improper. Thus, a violent attack on a woman's
chastity is called very ridiculous behavior, and an ill-conducted house
may be described as a very ridiculous one.

Hind as a noun is invariably used to denote the bark of a tree and
as a verb to strip it off. The word bark on the other hand is only used
as a noun to denote the tan which the fisherman applies to his net and
sails, and as a verb to denote such an application of it. Thus he will
say, " I have been getting some juniper or black spruce rind to make
tan bark," or " I have been barking my net or sails," meaning that he
has been applying the tannin extract to them.

One of the most singular peculiarities however of the dialect of New-
foundland, is the use of the word room to denote the whole premises of
a merchant, planter, or fisherman. On the principal harbors, the land
on the shore was granted in small plots measuring so many yards in
front, and running back two or three hundred yards with a lane between
Each of these allotments was called a room, and according to the way in
which it was employed, was known as a merchant's room, a planter's
room, or a fisherman's room. Thus we will hear of Mr. M's. upper room,
his lower room or his beach room, or we have Mr. H.'s room, the place
where he does business, at Labrador. One of these places descending
from father to son will be called a family room.

Shall, probably the same as shell, but we find it as shale used by
oUer writers. Johnson defines it as " a husk, the case of seeds in
siliquous plants," quoting Shakspeare's line " leaving them but the
shales and husks of men," and Halliwell gives it as a noun meaning " a
husk " and as a verb " to husk or shell as peas."

The word skipper is in universal use and so commonly applied, as
almost to have lost its original meaning of master of a small vessel. It
is used toward every person whom one wishes to address with respect,
and is almost as common as " Mr." is elsewhere. Generally the
Christian name is used after it, as skipper Jan, skipper Kish. In like
manner the word uncle is used without regard to relationship. In a
community every respectable man of say sixty years of age will be so
called by all the other people in it.

Smoochin, hair-oil, or pomade. A young man from abroad, com-
mencing as clerk in an establishment at one of the outposts, was puzzled
by an order for a " pen'orth of smoochiri." The verb smooch is also
used as equivalent to smutch, to blacken or defile. We may hear such

Ixvi PROCEEDINGS.

expressions as, " His clothes are smooched with soot," or " The paper is
smooched with ink." But it is also used to express the application of
any substance as by smearing, without any reference to blackening.
Thus one might say, " Her hair was all smooched with oil."

Spurt, a short time. " Excuse me for a spurt." " How long did you
stay1? Only a short spurt."

The term trader is limited to a person visiting a place to trade, in
contrast with the resident merchants.

The mistress of a household disturbed in the midst of her house-
cleaning will describe herself as all in an uproar. The word now
denotes noisy tumult. But it originally meant simply confusion or

excitement.

His eye
Unto a greater uproar tempts his veins."

— Shakspeare, Rape, of Lucrece, 4, 27.

Halliwell gives it as in Westmoreland meaning confusion or disorder,
and so a Newfoundland lady uses it. But she has quite a vocabulary to
express the same thing. She has her choice among such phrases as all
in a reeraiv, all in a floption, or all of a rookery. The last word, how-
ever, is given by Wright arid Halliwell, as in the south of England,
denoting a disturbance or scolding.

The word weather, besides the usual nautical uses to signify to sail
to windward of, or to bear up under and come through, as a storm, is
used to signify foul weather, or storm and tempest, according to an old
meaning, now marked as obsolete, or only used in poetry. Thus
Dryden

" What gusts of iveather from that darkening cloud
My thoughts portend."

I have observed also that some words are used in the same sense as
in Scotch. This is seen in the use of the preposition into for in.
" There is nothing into the man," or as the Scotch would say " intill
him." So aneist, meaning near or nearest. Then the word vex is used
to denote sorrow or grief rather than worry. " I am vexed for that poor
man," a Newfoundlander or a Scotchman would say, though I judge
that it expresses grief arising to such a degree as deeply to disturb the
mind. It is used in the same sense by Shakspeare.

"A sight to vex the fathers soul withal."— Titus Andronicus, V. 1.
In one passage of the authorized version of the Bible (Isa. Ixiii. 10) it
is used to translate a Hebrew word everywhere else rendered grieve. So

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixvii

the words fine and finely to mean very much or very good. " We
enjoyed ourselves fine" " How are you to-day ? 0 I'm fine." " He
is doing finely." This usage could not have been acquired by intercourse
with Scotch, as there are very few such on the island out of St. Johns.
The last two words are from the Latin and come into Old English
through the French, from which the use must have been separately
derived.

III. 1 would now notice a number of words and phrases of a mis-
cellaneous character, that have been introduced in various ways, or have
arisen among the people through the circumstances of their lives.

I have already mentioned that though a large proportion of the
population are of Irish descent, so as to affect the accent of the present
generation, yet their dialect draws few words from this source. There
are, however, some such. Thus we can scarcely mistake the origin of
the use of the term entirely at the end of a sentence to give force to it.
Then path, pronounced with the hard Irish th, was applied to a road or
even the streets of a town. Not long ago one might hear in St. Johns
of the "lower pat-h" or the " upper ^>a£-/i." So the use of the term
gaffer, a contraction of yranfer, itself a corruption of grandfather, as
applied to children only, must have been derived from Ireland, in some
parts of which it is common. From that quarter also came, if I mistake
not, the use of the term boys in addressing men. It is used indeed to
some extent elsewhere. English commanders, either of vessels or
soldiers, use it when addressing their men in affectionate familiarity.
Shakespeare also has it : " Then to sea, boys," " Tempest," II. 2. But
the usage is specially characteristic of the Irish, and in Newfoundland
it is universal, in whatever men are employed, whether on board a vessel
or working on land. I believe that the use of the word rock, to denote a
stone of any size, even a pebble thrown by a boy, which is universal in
this island, is from the same quarter.

From the long time that the French have been fishing on this coast^
we might have expected that the language of the residents would have
received accessions from them. We find, however, only one or two
words that we can trace to this source. Thus the word pew, an instru-
ment consisting of a shaft with a sharp piece of iron like one prong of a
fork at the end of it, used for throwing fish from the boats on to the
stages, whence the verb to pew, to cast them up in this manner, seems to
be the French word pieu, which is defined as meaning a stake or pale,

Ixviii PROCEEDINGS.

but which I am informed, is used by the French Canadians to denote a
fork. On the west coast they have the word Jackatai\ a corruption of
Jacque a terre, Jack ashore, a name given to a Frenchman who has
deserted his vessel and is living an unsettled life ashore, arid indeed to
any French Canadian from the St. Lawrence visiting that part of the
island. The word please is used as an Englishman would say : " I beg
your pardon, what did you sayl" But this is simply the translation of
the French plait-il.

We would scarcely have expected to find their speech set off by
importations from the classics. But some words seem to be of Latin
origin. In the prices current in the newspapers one may see fish
distinguished as tol xquolls or tal squals and quoted at certain figures.
This denotes fish bought and sold without assorting or culling, just as
they come. Dr Pilot suggests that the word is a corruption of the
Latin talis quails, such as it is, and it is likely that he is correct.

Another word which he regards as of classic origin is longer. This
he supposes a contraction of the Latin longurius. I do not think it
necessary to go beyond the English language to account for the forma-
tion of the word. At all events, it is used in Newfoundland to denote a
pole, of length according to circumstances, stretched across an open
space. Thus they have flake longers, the horizontal pieces in flakes, on
which boughs are laid to form the bed on which fish are placed to dry ;
fence lonyers, small sized fence rails ; and staye longers, of larger size,
from five to seven inches in diameter, forming the floor or platform of
the fishing stage.

There is another word in common use, which seems to me to have a
Latin origin, that is quid/laments, which means the things necessary in
travelling. To me it seems simply a corruption of impedimenta, which
meant exactly the same thing, though others prefer deducing it from the
word accoutrements.

It will be seen that several of the old English words in use in New-
foundland are also found in New England. The question has been
raised whether each derived them from their common English parentage,
or whether the Newfoundlanders received them by intercourse with
New England fishermen visiting their coast I am decidedly of opinion
that most if not all the words of this stamp used in Newfoundland were
an original importation from the mother country. The intercourse of
New England fishermen was too limited and too transient to have so

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixix

generally affected their language. Still there are a few words in use
which seem to have come in that way, for example, callibogus, a
mixture of spruce beer and rum ; a scalawag, a scamp ; tomahawk, the
name by which the American shingling hatchet is known ; catamaran,
a word originally denoting a raft of three logs lashed together, used
first in the East and afterwards in the West Indies ; but in Newfound-
land used to denote a woodshed, and when side sleighs were first intro-
duced, applied to them ; and xcrod, in New England escrod, a fresh
young codfish boiled.

There is a word common in names on the coasts of Newfoundland
and Labrador to which I must advert It is the word tickle, used to
denote a narrow passage of some length, usually between an island and
the mainland, sometimes large enough to afford shelter for vessels, and
sometimes so small as to be navigable only by boats. On the east
coast of Newfoundland there are six or eight such places, known by
particular appellations, as North Tickle, Main Tickle, &c., and the Coast
Pilot notes over a dozen such places on the Labrador coast. We have
other names formed from them as Tickle Point or Tickle Bay. In two
or three instances in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick we have such a
place known sometimes as a tickle, but commonly as a tittle, which I
deem L\ corruption of it. I have never seen a conjecture as to the
meaning or origin of the word, but myself proposed the following
explanation.* The first explorers of the coast referred to were the
Portuguese, who gave names to the leading places on these shores, a
number of which remain to the present day. A large proportion of
these were the names of places in Portugal or the Western Islands, from
which they carried on much of their trade. Now on the coast of
Portugal may be seen a point called Santa Tekla. It is a narrow
projection some miles in length, inside of which is a lengthy basin,
narrowed by an island. As there were few good harbors on the coast
of that country, this formed a favorite resort for shelter, particularly
to her fishermen. What more natural than that they should give the
name to places here of similar appearance and serving the same purpose.
The slight change from Tekla to Tickle will not appear strange to any
person who knows into what different forms foreign words have -been
changed when adopted by Englishmen.

* Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, vni. (2). 144.

Ixx PROCEEDINGS.

IV. From the population of Newfoundland being so generally a
seafaring people, they have in use many technical terms connected with
nautical life. Some of these are common with English sailors. Thus
they have the word lobscouse, originally lolscourse, as in Peregrine Pickle,
still farther contracted into scouse, a sailor's dish, consisting of salt
meat, stewed with vegetables and ship's biscuits. To this they give the
name scoff, which seems to be related to the verb scoff, given as a slang
nautical term, meaning to eat voraciously (see Standard Dictionary).

An odd phrase among them is Solomon Goss's birthday. It is
applied to Tuesdays and Fridays as pudding days, when at the seal
or cod fishing. What is the origin of it, or whether it is peculiar to the
people of Newfoundland, I cannot ascertain.

But I would specially note the technical terms connected with their
fishing. From the intercourse which has taken place for over two
centuries between fishermen in Newfoundland and those of the adjoin-
ing coasts of America, and even between them and those of European
nations, it was natural that the same terms should be used among them,
though some seem to be peculiar to Newfoundland or are there used in
a peculiar way.

Tliusflaik or flake is an old English word for a paling or hurdle.
In old Icelandic it appears as flald or fatlci especially a hurdle or
shield of wicker work, used for defence in battle (Vigfussen Icel.
Dictionary). Webster gives it as " Massachusetts for a platform of slats
of wands or hurdles, supported by stanchions, for drying fish." But it
has long been used in this sense in Newfoundland, and the adjoining
coasts of British America, and it is now admitted into the dictionaries
as a good English word.

A curious custom is described in the phrase a press pile compass. A
press pile is fish piled up to make, and a press pile compass is a trick
played on a green hand of sending him to the next neighbor to borrow
the press pile compass. The party applied to has not one to spare and
sends him to the next, and so on as on April fool's day.

The fishermen of Newfoundland have a fishing-boat known as a
jack, said to be peculiar to that island. It is from seven to fifteen tons'
burden. The deck has open standing spaces forward and aft for the
fishermen to stand in while they fish. The deck is formed of movable
boards. It is schooner-rigged, but without either fore or main boom.
The foresail is trimmed aft by a sheet, and the mainsail trimmed aft to

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixxi

horns or pieces of wood projecting from the quarters. It thus avoids
the danger of either of the booms knocking the fishermen overboard. I
cannot ascertain the origin of the name, but it is believed that it was
brought from either England or Ireland.

Among the curious words connected with their fishing I would
farther note the following : doivner, a heavy squall of wind ; sunker, a
breaker ; rougJiery, a heavy sea on ; collar, a mooring laid down for the
purpose of fastening the fishing punt or craft to it, the rope has a
loop at the end for pulling over the stern of the boat, and this gives its
name to the mooring ; faggots, small piles of fish on the flakes ; high rat,
a boat with a board along the edge to prevent the water coming over,
called a ivashboard, a term applied to objects which have a similar
arrangement ; thus a man boarding in town complained that he had to
sleep in a bed without any washboard ; rode, the hemp cable by which
the vessel, boat or punt rides on the fishing ground and waterliorse, a
pile of fish after having been washed, usually three or four feet wide,
about the same height, and as long as may be.

Voyage, is used to express not their passago from one place to
another, but the result of their trip. A good voyage is one in which
they have been successful in their object whether fishing or trading and
a bad voyage the reverse.

From their fishing seems also to have come the use of the word sign
in the phrase, " a sign of " to express a small quantity. One at table
being asked if he would have any more of a certain dish replied, "just a
sign." When after reaching the fishing grounds and seeking spots where
fish were to be found, they first caught some, it afforded a sign of their
presence, just as a gold miner speaks of a "show" of gold. When they
caught them in greater abundance they spoke of having " a good sign of
fish." Hence the term I believe came to be applied generally to denote a
small quantity.

Being so much dependent on the weather, as might be expected they
have peculiar words and expressions regarding it. Thus a calm day is
civil and a stormy one is coarse. This last is given by Halliwell as in
various dialects of England, and it is also common in Scotland. A very
sharp cutting wind driving small particles of congealed moisture, which
cut the face in a painful manner, is expressively called a barber. On
some of the coasts of the provinces, the term is applied to a vapor arising
from the water in certain states of the atmosphere, and this sense is

Ixxii PROCEEDINGS.

given in the Standard Dictionary. In Newfoundland, however, I am
assured it has always the idea connected with it of a cold wind driving
the particles of ice in a way as it were to shave ones face.

They have also some peculiar names for the creatures coming under
their notice. Thus the medusae or sea nettles are called squid squads,
sometimes squid squalls, the echinus or sea urchin oxeggs, fresh water
clams, cocks and liens, and to the westward smelts are known as ministers.
The black fly is known as the mosquito and the musquito as the nipper.
The sea eagle they call the grepe. This seems unquestiunably the same
as grebe, but originally it represented certain kinds of water fowl. Then
stoat is used for shoat, a young pig, and the American brown thrush or
robin is called the black bird. We may add here that raisins are always
known asfiys, while figs are distinguished as broad Jigs.

But seal hunting is the industry peculiar to the island and in it has
arisen a large number of terms, either specially applied or sometimes
seemingly produced among themselves, to denote every object and act
connected with it. We should observe however that with them a seal
is always a swile, a sealing vessel or sealer, a siuiler and seal hunting is
swile hunting. This is an example, of which there are many others, of
words being pronounced so differently as really to seem to be different
words. Thus a hoe is a how, the fir is var, snuffing is snqfflng, forked is
varket and never is naar, which is equivalent to " not," "naar a bit"
being a favorite expression to denote a strong negative.

Then they have a number of words only to distinguish the
species of seals, as harps, hoods and dogheads, but to mark the difference
of age and condition. Thus the young or baby-seals till they leave the
ice are known as whitecoats. When the pelt, that is the skin and fat
together, does not weigh more than twenty-five pounds, it is called a cat,
and a dwarf-seal, a fat little fellow, is called ajar.

The most curious use, however, of a word in this connection is that
of bedlainer. The word originated with a class of vagabonds in the
Middle Ages, known at first as " bedlam beggars," so called because when
released from Bedlam hospital they were licensed to beg. They are
referred to by Shakespeare as pilgrim beggars, but were commonly
known as Toms o' Bedlam. They were also called bedlamites and
bedlamers, which came to be generic terms for fools of all classes. The
last is used in Newfoundland with two applications : (1) It denotes a
seal one year old and half grown, which being immature is of little

PATTERSON OX NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixxiii

value, and (2), it is applied rather contemptuously to young fellows
between 16 and 20. Where we would apply to them such a term as
hobbledehoys, a Newfoundlander would always call them bedlamers.
Judge Bennett says, " I have often had them so described in court. A
policeman will say there were a lot of bedlamers standing at the corner,
and accused was one of them," etc. There is sufficient resemblance
between the two classes to account for the use of the same name, but
how this came first to be applied to either does not appear.

Again for their work on the ice they have their own terms. Thus
a cake of ice is uniformly known as a pan of ice, and to pan is to gather
to one place a quantity say of seals. This last, however, seems a
survival of an obsolete English word meaning, to join or close together.
Ice ground fine is known as sivish or sish ice, but broken into larger
pieces is called slob ice, to either of which also might be applied the term
lolly, in common use on the North American coasts. When by the
pressure of sea and storm the ice is piled in layers one upon the other, it
is said to be rafted. Large cakes of ice floating about like small ice.
bergs are called groicl.ers. Through the melting of the part under water
they lose their equilibrium, so that sometime even a little noise will
cause them to turn over with a sound like a growl. Hence their name.
Driven by high winds they acquire such momentum that they carry
destruction to any vessel crossing their course. One year so many
accidents occurred from them, that it was known as the year of the
growlers. The process of separating the skin of the young seal with the
fat attached is called sculping, and the part thus separated is known by
the sculp. This is also known as the pelt, in seal hunting that term
always including the fat attached, though in hunting on land it is used
to denote the skin alone. To these we may add swatcliing, watching
open holes in the ice for seals to come up to shoot them, simply a
corruption of seal watching.

Being so much engaged with the sea, all their expressions are apt to
be colored by life on that element. Thus a person going visiting will
speak of going cruising, and girls coming to the mainland to hire as
servants will talk of shaping for three months, or whatever time they
propose to engage.

Independent of the sea, however, they have a number of words which
seem to have been formed among themselves, some of which may be
regarded as slang, but which are in common use. I notice the following

1XX1V PROCEEDINGS.

banybelly, a low and coarse word denoting a boiled pudding consisting
of flour, molasses, soda, etc., and not uncommonly seal-fat instead of suet.
I think we need hardly go searching for the origin of the name chin or
cheek music, singing at dances, where they have no fiddle or accordeon,
as often happens among the fishermen ; elevener, given by Halliwell as in
Sussex denoting a luncheon, but in Newfoundland meaning a glass of
grog taken at eleven o'clock, when the sun is over the fore yard ; gum
bean, a chew of tebacco ; ear winkers, flannel coverings for the ears in.
winter ; ramporious, a sort of slang term, describing parties as very
angry and excited, yet it seems well formed English, having its root-
word ramp, and being kindred with rampage, rampant, rampacious or
rampageous, with the last of which it is nearly synonymous ; and locksy,
regarded as a coriuption of look see, but probably the first part is a form
of the Anglo-Saxon loke, according to Halliwell, meaning to look upon,
to guard, to take care of.

Y. Lastly. There are a number of words, of which I am unable to
trace the origin or relations. Thus a species of white bean is advertised
commonly and sold under the name of callivances. Eggleston, in an
article in the "Century Magazine" for 1894, mentions " gallivances
and potatoes " as given in 1782 among the products of Pennsylvania,
and in the same year, in "a complete discovery of the State of Carolina,"
a list is given of several sorts of pulse grown in the colony, " to wit,
beans, pease, callavances," &c. He is puzzled about the woid and sup-
poses it to mean pumpkins, and to be from the Spanish calabaza (gourd).
But they would not be pulse. Probably it meant there as it now does
in Newfoundland, the small white bean, in contrast with the broad
English bean. But what is the origin of the word, and how did it
come to be found in places so distant and in circumstances so different
as in Carolina and Newfoundland ? And is it not singular to find it
surviving in the latter when it has elsewhere disappeared so entirely,
that the learned are unable to ascertain its meaning 1

Of other words to me of unknown origin I note the following : —
babbage, used to the northward to denoie the plaiting of a snowshoe ;
baiser, applied by boys fishing, to a large trout; when such is caught,
a common exclamation is, " Oh, that's a baiser ;" ballacarda, or
ballaca-dar, ice about the face, also ice along the foot of the cliff, touch-
ing the water; chronic, an old stump; cockying ,in Harbor Grace,
copying in St. Johns, describing an amusement of boys in spring,

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixxv

when the ice is breaking up, springing from cake to cake in
supposed imitation of the seal hunters; covel, a tub made to hold
blubber or oil ; cracky, a little dog ; crannocks on the west coast,
crunnocks to the north, small pieces of wood for kindling fires ;
the diddies, the nightmare ; dido, a bitch ; gandy, the fisher-
man's name for a pancake ; dwy, a mist or slight shower. " Is it
going to rain to-day V "No, its only a dwy," a Newfoundlander may
reply. So a snow dwy denotes a slight fall of snow, which is not
expected to come to much ; farl or varl, the cover of a book ; gly, a
sort of trap made with a barrel hoop, with net interwoven, and hook
and bait attached, set afloat to catch gulls and other marine birds known
as ticklaces and steerins, but what species is meant by the last two names
I have not ascertained ; jinker, there is such a word in modern English,
connected with jink, denoting a lively, sprightly girl, or a wag, but
among the Newfoundlanders the word must have had a different origin,
as with them it means an unlucky fellow, one who cannot or does not
succeed in fishing ; old teaks and jan?iies, boys and men who turn out
in various disguises and carry on various pranks during the Christmas
holidays, which last from 25th December to old Old Christmas day, 6th
January ; matchy, tainted, applied to salt beef or pork supplied to the
fishermen ; pelm, any light ashes, such as those from burnt cotton, card-
board, &c., also the light dust that arises from the ashes of wood and
some kinds of coal ; scrape, a rough road down the face of a bank or
steep hill, used specially in regard to such as are formed by sliding or
hauling logs down ; shimmt'ck, used on the west coast as a term of
contempt for one who born of English parents, attempts to conceal
or deny his birth in Newfoundland ; sprawls, scil. of snow, heavy drifts ;
sprayed, describing chapped hands or arms ; starrigan, a young tree,
which is neither good for firewood, or large enough to be used as timber,
hence applied with contempt to anything constructed of unsuitable
materials ; tolt, a solitary hill, usually somewhat conical, rising by itself
above the surrounding country ; truckly muck, a small two-handed car
for dogs, with a handle for a man to keep it straight ; toivtents, pork
cakes, made of pork chopped fine and mixed with flour; tuckamore, in
some places tuckamil, a clump of spruce, growing almost flat on the
ground, and matted together, found on the barrens and bleak exposed
places ; and willigiggw, half between a whisper and a giggle.

A large proportion of the people of Newfoundland being uneducated,
pers ons trying to use fine English words often substitute one for another

Ixxvi PROCEEDINGS.

somewhat alike in sound but totally different in meaning. Sometimes
these are as ludicrous as any that have appeared under the name of Mrs.
Partington. Dr. Pilot has given a number of instances of this kind, as
bigamous for bigoted, meaning obstinate in his opinions, circus court for
circuit court, commodation for recommendation, as for example, a
servant's character. And we have heard a good janitor of a church
having his feelings hurt by being obliged to use antichrist (anthracite)
coal. Then there are words variously mangled in the pronunciation by
the ignorant, as dismolish for demolish, and nonsical for nonsensical.
Such a use of words is generally very limited, perhaps not extending
beyond a single individual. In any case they are simply the blunders
of the ignorant, and unless commonly adopted are of little interest to the
student. Sometimes a word does thus come into use, as may be seen in
the word extensible for expensive.

Like all uneducated people they have idomatic phrases or a sort of
proverbial expressions, often based on the circumstances of their daily
life, which are frequently expressive. Thus they will describe a simple-
ton or greenhorn as not ivell baked or only half baked. They will also
describe a similar character as having a slate off, indicating the same
that is meant by a man having something wrong in his upper story.
This saying was doubtless brought with them from the old country ; but
as slates are not used among them for the covering of houses, they have
adapted the saying to the country by speaking of such a man as having
a shingle loose. An increase of cold may be described as the weather
being a jacket colder and when feeling its severity they speak of being
nipped with cold. Again, a man describing his poverty said he had
nothing to eat but a bare-legged herring, meaning a herring without
anything to eat with it. So stark naked tea is tea without milk or sweet-
ening, or sweetness, as the fishermen call it, molasses being known as
long sweetness and sugar as short sweetness. To put away a tiling'
too choice is to lay it aside so carefully as not to be able to find
it. To pay ones practice is to pay the accustomed dues to the
minister or doctor. Over right is for opposite or against. To put
your handsignment is to sign your name. When a fisherman has
a good catch of fish he has taken a smart feiv, but if he has met
with only partial success he has only caught a scattered few, and if
fish have been very scarce he will describe himself as getting
only a scattered one. Quite an expressive phrase is getting into

PATTERSON ON NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. Ixxvii

collar to denote working on a ship preparatory to sailing either
for seal or cod fishing. A curious one of which I can get no explana-
tion is she'd lick her cuff, that is, submit to any humiliation, to be
let go to a dance or secure what object she has in view. But one
of the most amusing uses of a word is that of miserable simply as
intensive. Thus a person will speak of a miserable fine day. Occasion-
ally there is something poetic in their expressions, as when the land is
described as just mourning for manure.

In these two papers I am far from having exhausted the subject, but
I believe that they will be sufficient to show that in the peculiarities of
Newfoundland speech we have an interesting field of inquiry. Here is
a people living in a secluded position , but retaining words and forms
of speech brought by their fathers from England, which elsewhere
have passed away entirely, or are preserved only as provincialisms in
some limited districts. In this quarter the study of these has been
neglected hitherto. Persons Joying claim to education have regarded
them simply as vulgarisms, and have expressed some surprise that I
should have deemed them worthy of thoughtful investigation. They
could scarcely conceive that the rude speech of unlettered fishermen
was really part of the language of Shakespeare, Milton and Chaucer.
What I have done will, I trust, stimulate further enquiry, and that
without delay. Education and intercourse with people of other lands
will soon modify if not entirely wear away these peculiarities. It is to
be hoped, therefore, that while the opportunity lasts there will be found
among those having intercourse with them, persons to prosecute the
inquiry farther, and to seek to gather the fullest information on a
subject interesting in itself, but especially so as bearing on the past of
our English mother-tongue.

Remarks on the subject of Dr. Patterson's paper were made by W.
H. HARRINGTON, ESQ., and DR. REID.

SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, llth May, 1896.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that W. HAGUE HARRINGTON, ESQ., F. R. S. C.
of Ottawa, Canada, had been elected a Corresponding Member at the
last meeting of the council.

Ixxviii PROCEEDINGS.

In the absence of the author, DR. MACKAT read a paper entitled,
" Notes on the Geology of Newfoundland," by T. C. WESTON, ESQ.,
F. G. S. A., of Ottawa. (See Transactions, p. 150).

The paper was discussed by the PRESIDENT and DR. MACKAY.

DR. MACKAY then presented a paper entitled, " Phenological Obser-
vations for 1895." (See Transactions, p. 195).

A paper by W. H. PBBST, ESQ., of Chester Basin, on " Glacial
Succession in Central Lunenburg," was read by MR. PIERS. (See
Transactions, p. 158).

Remarks on the subject were made by DRS. MACKA.Y and MURPHY.
The following papers were then read by title : —

"•On the Flora of Newfoundland ; No. 3." By REV. ARTHUR C.

WAGHORNE, New Harbour, Newfoundland.

" Notes on Nova Scotian Zoology ; No. 4." By HARRY PIERS, ESQ.
" Water Supply of the Towns of Nova Scotia." By PROF. W. R.

BUTLER, M. E., King's College, Windsor.
" On the Broad .Cove Coal Field." By W. H. Ross, ESQ.

On motion, it was resolved to authorize the Council to regard as
having been read by title certain papers which were to have been
communicated at the present meeting, but had not yet been received.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Joba ,Scotian Institute of .Science,

SESSION OK 1896-7.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th November, 1896.
The PRESIDENT, DR. GILPIN, in the chair.
The PRESIDENT addressed the Institute as follows : —

GENTLEMEN, — I have much pleasure in meeting you to-night. I
present myself your representative to mark the close of another year of
the existence of the Institute, and to inaugurate a new session.

In one sense, I may claim to be numbered among the oldest of those
who have been interested in this Society. Although it is nearly a
quarter of a century since I was allowed to read my first paper before
you, there are a number of you who have been for a much longer period
members.

I remember, however, being present and watching as a boy the
initiatory meeting of the Institute, being the more interested as the
late Dr. Gilpin, who read the first paper in our proceedings, took an
active part. Almost all the original members have now ceased from
work, but their record remains.

From its commencement, the Institute members have ranged over
all the fields of science open to observers in this Province, and have
recorded their opinions and deductions according to the lights of their
days. Their arguments may now be displaced or amended in the focus
of the science of to-day or to-morrow ; the facts they have accumulated

(Ixxix)

Ixxx PROCEEDINGS.

remain, and we may feel satisfied if we have contributed our quota of
bricks to the daily increasing foundation of the sciences.

In every division of nature our deductions and laws remain good
until rendered untenable by the unanswerable chill of fresh facts. The
true student rejoices at the demolition of his fabric when he knows that
the opportunity is offered of modelling it on a broader and surer
foundation.

It is largely in the accumulation of facts that a useful future lies
before us, and I would impress upon you the desirability of enrolling
every person who can give careful and accurate observations upon the
natural world surrounding us.

One discovery by one of our members of an important fact bearing
on the protection of our agricultural products from the attacks of
noxious insects, the introduction of a form of animal or vegetable life
capable of anchorage here, and serving to our needs, or any similar
discover}*, would many times repay the money we have spent. We
should have on our list every person willing to study in these or kindred
branches, and to such substantial assistance should, I think, not be denied
by you.

The transactions of the past session of the Institute will, I think,
be considered, to say the least, quite up to the mark. Of most general
interest will be found the portrait of our late friend, Dr. Lawson, and
Prof. MacGregor's sketch of his busy and useful life. In addition to the
regular papers, matters of interest were submitted at various meetings
by Prof. MacGregor, Drs. 'MacKay and Somers. At a special meeting the
Kev. G. Patterson read a valuable paper on " Newfoundland Folk
Speech."

In the Transactions are two linked papers by Prof. MacGregor and D.
Mclntosh on the calculation of the conductivity of mixtures of
electrolytes. The former showed by a graphical process, based on
observations, the calculability of the conductivity of a series of mixtures
of solutions of chloride of sodium and potassium. He found that
the calculations agreed with the observations in dilute solutions, but not
in stronger ones. The latter extended the observations in order to
determine the differences between the observed and calculated values in
the case of the stronger solutions, and the extent of agreement in the
case of solutions of sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid which have
ionic velocities differing more, widely.

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Ixxxi

Among the geological papers is one on the unexplored coal fields of
Nova Scotia by me, and an interesting note by Mr. T. C. Weston on a
few new paleontological facts, and on the general similarity of the fossil
faunas of the silurian of Canada and JSTewfoundland. Mr. Prest, in a
paper on Glacial Succession in Lunenburg County, differs somewhat
from the conclusions arrived at by the Geological Survey. Professors
Bailey and Coldwell have referred in two papers to the Superficial
Geology of Kings and Queens Counties, the former referring also to
interesting exhibits of faulting, metamorphism, vein rilling, contacts,
etc. Dr. Somers has contributed a note on Juniperus Com munis, from
which it appears that instead of one variety, the most common, decum-
bent, being only found here, there is another less common having a
shrubby form. I am pleased to be able to inform you that the Doctor
has promised further contributions on botanical subjects.

Dr. MacKay has continued his important summaries of the reports
of phenological observations made under the auspices of the Botanical
Club of Canada.

The Transactions close with an interesting paper by Mr. Piers, our
Recording Secretary, on the Orthoptera of Nova Scotia. I understand
that he proposes to extend this paper, which- embraces a study of much
value to our agriculturists.

I think that it is now in order for me to thank you for your kindly
consideration of the office of President during the past year. I feel
that a good Council and a faithful staff of officers have combined not
only to make his path easy, but to maintain and promote the progress
of the Institute. To the Treasurer, the Librarian, and to the Secretaries,
the thanks of the Institute are justly due. Having done so little
myself, I can the more fairly estimate the value of their labors, and can
honestly say, I believe, that if the members would treble their numbers
they would so much the more willingly discharge their increased tasks.

It has occurred to me that a few remarks on the system of instruction
and examination of mining officials instituted by the Government of this
Province, may be of interest.

The Institute proceedings contain many papers upon geological and
allied subjects, and any efforts tending to increase the observing and
recording powers of those directing our mining operations cannot fail to
be appreciated by you.

Ixxxii PROCEEDINGS.

Wherever communities are engaged in a particular occupation, a
certain average level of intelligence prevails. This standard never sinks
below that essential to the earning of the wage paid, l»ut it is with
difficulty raised. The prominence of individuals due to their greater
physical strength, or to the more practical application of their mental
power to the subject of their work, excites envy rather than emulation.
In such communities the first step upward is resistance against encroach-
ments by the employer. Unions follow. In many cases this coalition
of labor has no aims beyond the preservation of wages against reduction,
and their increase at every opportunity. In some instances attempts
have been made at boards of conciliation and arbitration, and sliding
scales. These aspirations, however, are but the outcome of that experi-
ence of unionism which has shown that facts and natural laws must be
considered, and may be called a selfish extension of the original scheme.

In Nova Scotia, the most powerful labor union is perhaps that of the
coal miners. Its organization has given occasion for a conciliation and
arbitration act, which promises well, altho' it has not yet undergone the
ordeal of practical application. The outcome, however, of this organi-
zation, more interesting and ultimately useful, is that relating to
education.

It was recognized by those who were mainly interested in the
objects of the Provincial Workman's Association, and especially by the
Hon. K. Drummond, the Grand Secretary, that the proper conduct of
the business of the various lodges, the proper estimation of the social
problems of politics, supply and demand, etc., thus suddenly presented,
and the intelligent discussion of the labor and mining problems most
directly affecting them, required that the intelligence and education of
the members should be materially assisted. It soon became apparent
that the better the members understood the problems of the miners'
occupation the less liable were the different unions to be hurried passion-
ately into ill-advised and half-considered conflicts with capital. It was
also evident that the better the status of the subordinate officials about
the mines the more the safety of the miners was secured. After some
discussion it was agreed that the experiment should be tried of fixing a
standard for underground managers and overmen. The necessary
statutory power having been granted by the government, an order-in-
council appointed a Board of Examiners tentatively. As experience was
gained, changes were made until the present system, which has worked
satisfactorily for some time, was established.

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Ixxxiii

The Province, for the purpose of the Board, has been divided into
three districts —Cumberland, Pictou, and Cape Breton. From each of
these districts are appointed two men representing respectively the
companies and the workmen, and a third, as far as possible, a mining
engineer not interested in the operations of any company. The Inspector
of Mines acts as Secretary and the representative of the Government on
the Board. The questions are prepared by the Board at a full meeting ;
the examinations held simultaneously by the local divisions of the Board ;
and the answers considered at a full meeting of the Board.

It was soon found that many candidates were deficient in surveying
arid the knowledge of arithmetic, logarithms, geometry, etc., necessary
for the solution of the problems of ventilation, etc. The most intelli-
gent of the successful candidates, in many cases men who had unaided
made themselves masters of these subjects, were appointed instructors
for the candidates. In this way an annual course, some months in
length, has been established at the principal collieries, about ten instruc
tors being employed. The expenses of these schools are met by the
Mines Department, and each teacher receives a fixed fee, contingent
upon his presenting at least two candidates, in addition to a fee for each
candidate that passes a successful examination.

The first certificate of competency was issued March 15th, 1883, and
since that date 121 certificates have been issued to underground
managers, 146 certificates to overmen, in addition to 32 certificates of
service to those holding these positions at the time the law came into
force. This system has established an ample supply of men for our
own collieries, and those leaving our shores find their certificates a good
passport to respectable positions abroad. The conditions of admission
for a candidate are that he be at least twenty-one years of age, of good
reputation, and have been employed at least five years underground.
The readiness and precision of the answers of many of the candidates
vrouid do credit to examinations of a much more pretentious character.

It was finally decided that the provisions of the act should be
extended to mine managers, and the powers of the Board were amplified.
In all 41 certificates have been issued to managers. Quite a number of
those holding manager's certificates are working miners who have
successively passed the different examinations, one after the other, with
intervals required to attain the additional knowledge. In one instance
a foreigner, unable to speak or write in the English language when he

Ixxxiv PROCEEDINGS.

arrived a few years ago, has passed, not without failures, until he has
been appointed a manager of a coal mine. This instance, perhaps the
most extreme, illustrates the fact that the advantages offered by this
scanty system of education are well received by the more ambitious and
intelligent of our miners. In the end the lodges at the different
collieries have profited as well as the mines, for I am informed no small
percentage of their officials and leading men are holders of certificates.
The fact that the miners recognize the fitness of such men to be their
guides and advisors is a strong argument that moderation and wisdom
will mark their deliberations.

As you know, at nearly all of our coal mines the men are raised
from and lowered to the scene of their work by machinery. The drivers
of these engines are always selected with much care, as they require to
be reliable and steady men. It was decided that, in order to increase
the margin of safety, these men should undergo examination as to their
knowledge of boilers, machinery, etc. A Board of three mechanical
engineers was appointed representing, as in the case of the Board I have
already referred to, the three principal coal districts. The examinations
are conducted in a similar manner, and already 74 certificates have been
issued, including those certificates of service granted those engineers
found worthily filling their positions at the time the law was parsed.
Whenever a class of candidates offers, mechanical instructors are
appointed on the principle described already.

I may mention that the work of the instructors and boards has
been facilitated by the provision made by law for the establishment of
night schools in mining and other districts. Many candidates, as might
be expected, however good their practical knowledge and experience may
be, are deficient in the exact grounding required for examination. They
can remedy this by attending the night schools, and the mining instruc-
tors are thus relieved of much drudgery and able to teach the essentially
mining subjects with greater detail.

As is well known, the strength of a chain is precisely that of the
weakest of the links composing it. In mining, however careful the
overmen and watchmen may be, one ignorant or careless workman may
nullify all their efforts and precautions, and in a moment lose his own
or another's life, cause an explosion, or a fire. In order, therefore, that
there might as far as possible be no lack of endeavor to make all safe, it

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Ixxxv

was determined that the miners themselves should be examined as to
their practical experience and knowledge. This has been carried out,
and I believe there is not a coal miner working to-day, except perhaps
in a few mines open only a few months in the winter, who is not the
holder of a certificate. After a certain period of employment under
ground as loader, driver, etc., he is permitted to assist in cutting coal.
The miner, however, in charge of the place in which he works and
assists, is the holder of a superior certificate secured by examination.
These examinations and the issue of certificates is effected through local
boards appointed at each colliery and paid by a small fee.

These boards also examine applicants for the position of shot h'rers.
These are men who are, under certain conditions of the mines, appointed
to supervise the firing of the charges of gunpowder or other explosive
used in blasting the coal. I may say these examinations of miners and
shot firers are viva voce, all the others being by written answers.

While the business connected with these examinations has added
materially to the worK of the Inspector of Mines, it is a satisfaction to
know that the results so far have been encouraging. The standard
exacted from the candidates compares well with that required in other
countries. The Government and people of Nova Scotia may feel pleased
that in this respect we have gone ahead of other countries, and have
made a successful attempt to place within the reach of every coal miner
in the Province the means of his advance to a state of education, and
an opportunity of fitting himself for responsible and respectable
positions.

While explosives are permitted in coal mines, and while work is
necessary in dangerous atmospheres with lamps liable to accident, even
with the greatest care in manufacture and use, so long must the recur-
rence of disasters be expected. I will not dwell upon this subject, but
wish to point out that the mining authority of the Province has taken
every >tep possible to minimise these dangers by its examinations of men
and officials

The thanks of the Institute were presented to the PRESIDENT for his
interesting address.

The report of the TREASURER was read and approved. The accounts
had been audited by Messrs. Morton and O'Hearn and found correct.

Ixxxvi PROCEEDINGS.

The Report of the LIBRARIAN was presented by PROP. J. G.
MACGREGOR. During the past year copies of the Transactions had been
sent for the first time to 6 institutions in the United States, 3 in Canada,
2 in Germany, and 1 in England, and exchanges had been received for
the first time from, the following : —

Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography, Stockholm.

Central Observatory, Xalapa, Mexico.

Natural Science Society, Carlsruhe.

Natural Science Society, Elberfelcl.

Geographical Union of the North of France, Douai.

University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.

Museum and Library of Filopenas, Filopenas.

Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool, G. B.

Royal Society of the Natural Sciences, Buda-Pest.

But few books had been bound owing to a lack of funds, consequent upon
our having published in one year two annual Parts of the Transactions.
Owing to lack of accommodation at the Post Office building it had been
found necessary to remove the Canadian and Australian publications to
the room courteously furnished at Dalhousie College by the Board of
Governors. The only sections of the Library now at the Post Office
building are the British and United States publications. The members
had not made so much use of the Library as in other recent years,
doubtless because of the increasing difficulty in gaining access to the
books.

A vote of thanks was presented to MR. BOWMAN and PROF.
MACGREGOR for their work in connection with the Library.

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year (1896-7) : —

President— E. GILPIN, JR., ESQ., LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Vice-Presidents— ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ., and A. H. MACKAY

ESQ., LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Treasurer— W. C. SILVER, ESQ.

Corresponding Secretary — PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR.
Recording Secretary — HARRY PIERS, ESQ.
Librarian— MAYNARD BOWMAN, ESQ., B.A.
Councillors without office— MARTIN MURPHY, ESQ., D. Sc. ; F.,

W. W. DOANE, ESQ., C.E. ; WILLIAM MCKERRON, ESQ. ;

WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ. ; S. A. MORTON, ESQ., M.A. ;

P. O'HEARN, ESQ. ; RODERICK McCoLL, ESQ., C.E.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. Ixxxvii

It was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to the
HON. R. BOAK for his courtesy in permitting the use of the Legislative
Council Chamber for the meetings of the Society. Also resolved that
the thanks of the Institute be presented to the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for his courtesy in granting the
Institute the privileges of the Department of International Exchanges
of the Institution.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9t7i November, 1896.
•The PRESIDENT in the chair.

PROFESSOR J. G. MACGREGOR, D. So., read a paper " On the Relation
of the Physical Properties of Aqueous Solutions to their State of
lonization." (See Transactions, p. 219).

The paper was discussed by MR. A. McKAY, DR. A. H.
and others.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th December, 1896.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that the following gentlemen had been elected
members of the Society : — LEE RUSSELL, ESQ., B. Sc., Normal School,
Truro ; T. C. McKAY, ESQ., B. A., Dartmouth ; REV. BROTHER PETER,
La Salle Academy, Halifax ; CHARLES TWINING, ESQ., Halifax ; and
C. C. JAMES, ESQ., Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Toronto.

PROFESSOR E. E. PRINCE, Commissioner and General Inspector of
Fisheries for Canada, .delivered a lecture on "Recent Discoveries regard-
ing the Eggs and Young of Fishes." The lecture was illustrated by a
number of lantern views.

Remarks upon the subject were made by DRS. REID, MAC!VAY,
SOMERS, and MURPHY, and also by the Chief Game Commissioner, C. S.
HARRINGTON, ESQ., Q. C.

Ixxxviii PROCEEDINGS.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, llth January, 1897.
The First Vice-President, MR. McKAY, in the chair.

The Secretary announced that PROFESSOR E. E. PRINCE, Commis-
sioner and General Inspector of Fisheries for Canada, Ottawa, had been
elected a Corresponding Member.

PROFESSOR J. G. MACGREGOR, D. So., presented a paper " On the
Relations of the Physical Properties of Solutions to their State of
lonization," second part. (See Transactions, p. 219).

The subject was discussed by PROFESSOR E. MACKAT and MR. J.
FORBES.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Provincial Museum, Halifax, 8th February, 1897.
The Second Yice-President, DR. MACKAT, in the chair.

REV. BROTHER PETER, of La Salle Academy, exhibited a number of
Dried Plants, which he had collected in the vicinity of Halifax, and
made remarks thereon.

In the absence of the author, a paper entitled, " Measurements of
two Beothuk Skulls," by \V. H. PREST, ESQ., was read by the
Secretary : —

" Having been asked to give the measurements of two Beothuk
skulls taken while at the Museum at St. John's, Newfoundland, I
submit the following :

In order to more fully explain these measurements. I may say that
the term brachy-cephalic, or round-headed, is used to denote skull forms
where the proportion of the breadth to the length is as 80 and upwards
to 100. The term dolicho-cephalic, or long-headed, denotes proportions of
from 75 and downward to 100. All intermediate proportions are
termed meso-cephahc.

BEOTHUK SKULLS — PREST. Ixxxix

No. 1. Adult skull marked No. 6 in the St. John's Museum Collection :

INCHES.

Glabella to occipital point 7.425

Greatest width of skull 5.825

Bregma to occipital condyle 6.075

Resulting index, meso-cephalic 78.45

No. 2. Adult Female (?) :

INCHES.

Glabella to occipital point 6.825

Greatest width of skull 5.600

Bregma to occipital condyle 5.700

Resulting index, brachy-cephalic verging on meso-cephalic..80.20

The measurements in the above instances, although taken without
any very elaborate instruments, can not be in error more than -fa of an
inch. Another skull and skeleton, almost perfect, want of time
prevented me from measuring. It, however, showed features of a
decidedly lower type than the others, particularly in the enormous
supercilliary ridges and narrow retreating forehead. The nose was
extremely aquiline, as were those of the other skulls. It appears to
approach the long-headed type more nearly than the others, but measure-
ments of such a limited number of skulls cannot be considered as
settling or even approximating the question of tribal index. Our chief
hope, therefore, lies in the expectation of future explorations of Beothuk
burying grounds. That the above skulls are genuine Beothuk remains,
I give as authority Mr. Howley, Director of the Geological Survey of
Newfoundland, through whose care all the relics of this interesting race
are preserved. For further evidence as to their authenticity, I would
give the name of Rev. M. Harvey, who discovered skull No. 1 at
Pilley's Island, Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland, under circumstances
which leave no doubt that it was Beothuk.

Another Beothuk skull, which I do not think has been measured^
is to be seen at McGill University, Montreal. It was found in 1847 by
Rev. Mr. Blackmore, Rural Dean of Conception Bay, on a small island
called Rencontre, one of the Lower Burgeo group, on the southern coast
of Newfoundland.

In order to show more fully the position the Beothuks occupied in
North America, I may say that the Indians are brachy-cephalic while
the Esquimaux are dolicho-cephalic. These are the nearest races the

XC PROCEEDINGS.

boundaries between which lie in the neighbourhood of that part of
Labrador nearest Newfoundland. The long-headed races seem to have
belonged to an ancient type inferior as a rule to their round-headed
brethren. And since paleolithic times they have been gradually pushed
to the outlying parts of the earth. Therefore, the occurrence of an
apparently intermediate form in Newfoundland is what we might
expect from its position near the junction of two such different types."

The preceding notes are given in the hope that they may lead to
systematic investigation of this now extinct race by some one more
competent than myself. I am more desirous of this, as I have made a
mistake in taking measurements for the vertical index from the bregma
to the occipital condyle instead of to the basion. Scarcely within
modern times has it been that a tribe has been so completely annihilated
that even of its language hardly a remnant remains. The story of the
persecution and slaughter of the Beothuks by the white man is a sad
one. The history of Newfoundland contains a page — marked with
blood and darkened with disgrace — a page that tells of inhuman slaughter
and cruelty that makes the blood of every true man boil — the ruthless
extermination of a harmless and despairing race."

A number of interesting remarks upon the subject were made by
REV. DR. PATTERSON, of New Glasgow.

CHARLES TWINING, ESQ., then gave an account of some " New
Arrangements in Sailing Gear." The subject was discussed by a number
of those present.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 8th March, 1897.
The Second Vice- President, DR. MAO&AY, in the chair.

It was announced that JAMES FLETCHER, ESQ., LL.D., F. R. S. C.'
F. L. S., Entomologist and Botanist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa,
had been elected a Corresponding Member.

MR. PIERS was appointed delegate to represent the Institute at the
June meeting of the Royal Society of Canada.

A paper by DR. GILPIN, on " Some Anuly.-es of Nova Scotia Coals
and other Minerals," was read by DR. MACKAT in the absence of the
author. (See Transactions, p. 246).

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XC1

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th April, 1897.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

A communication was read from the Royal Society of London
announcing that at a recent meeting of that body it had been unani-
mously resolved that a fun;l, to he called the Victoria Research Fund,
be established, to be administered by representatives of the various
scientific societies, for the encouragement of research in all branches of
science. The Society wished to know if the scheme met with the
approval of the Institute.

Resolved, That this Institute, having heard the communication of the
22nd February, addressed to its President by the President of the Royal
Society of London, in reference to the proposal to establish a Research
Fund in commemoration of the present sixtieth year of the reign of
Her Gracious Majesty the Queen, express its cordial approval of the
proposal.

Resolved, further, That while the Institute is of opinion that no
large contribution to the proposed fund can be expected from the
Province of Nova Scotia, whose men of science are few, and whose
industries have not yet reached the stage in which the advantages of
scientific research become manifest, the Institute will he glad to co-operate
with other scientific societies in Canada in bringing the claims of the
proposed fund to the notice both of their members and of other citizens
who may be expected to become contributors.

xcn

PROCEEDINGS.

CALCAREOUS ALG.E.

(Reduced to nearly one-jifth of actual diameter).

DR. A. H. MACKAY presented specimens of calcareous algae for
general examination, such as the incrustations shown on the stones at 1,
2, 3, 4, and 6 (above), which came from low water at Cranberry Head,
near Yarmouth. Tufts of Corallina officinalis, L. were growing con-
spicuously from some parts of these ; 5, 7, 8, 9 and 11 were more or
less tuberculose or branching incrustations of Lithothamnion on stones
as a base, while 10 and 12 were incrusting mussel shells. His discussion
of the group was preliminary to further work, and the exhibition of the
specimens was to enlist the fellowship of additional collectors of these
species. The Corallinece, or calcareous algae, which he was showing,
came principally from Point Pleasant, within and opposite the mouth
of Halifax harbor, although he had specimens all the way from Brier
Island to Cape Breton. The Corallinece belonged to the Floridece, or
red sea-weeds.

The genus Corallina grows in feather-like tufts composed of short
articulations when examined closely. When growing, these fronds are
of a darkish or light red color like that of the dulse and other red algae.

CALCAREOUS ALG.E— MACKAY. XC111

They are soon bleached white by exposure to light, and after being
dried become very brittle, the articulations falling apart. In addition
to the red coloring matter there is a large amount of lime laid up with
the tissue of each articulation, so that we have here plants which secrete
lime from the sea water as the coral does among animals. Dilute
hydrochloric acid applied to a portion of one of these fronds well
covered with glass to protect the microscope, will show under a low
power a rapid evolution of carbonic acid gas until the articulations of
the frond become translucent, when all the lime is dissolved out of the
vegetable tissue.

The genus Melobesia appears as small, thin, more or less circular
incrustations of lime filled tissue on other algae, generally. Thin
incrustations on stones taken for Melobesia Lenormandii of Farlow are,
probably, forms of Lithothamnion compactum.

The genus Lithothamnion forms larger incrustations, of a red or
purple color before they are bleached, some of the species rising into
minute nodules or tubercles, and others rising even into rudely branch-
ing coral-like masses. The name, from lithos a stone and thamnion a
little bush, was suggested by the latter habit. The reproductive organs
of all these are in conceptacles, small spherical cavities, either immersed
in the general frond or rising out of it. They are difficult to section
for microscopic examination, for if the calcium carbonate is dissolved
out of the tissue by, say, dilute hydrochloric acid, no matter how gently
it is done, the tissue is more or less disorganized so as not to show the
minute parts distinctly. And the sectioning of the undecalcified plants
is very severe on the razor or other cutting apparatus.

The two species of Farlow's Marine Algse of New England, L. poly-
morphum and L. fasiculatum, the tubercular or lobular, and the
branching species respectively, 5 above being the most distinctive of the
latter, are found all along the coast. But from the studies of M. Foslie,
of Trondhjem, Norway, these two general forms may be found to cover
several distinct species. Probably the following more exact species are
represented under these forms : —

Lithothamnion fruticulosum, (Kutz.) Foslie, f. typica, Foslie, the
most conspicuous branching form. Next to it comes

L. colliculosum, Foslie. Then comes

L. glaciate, Kellrn.

L. compactum, Kellm. And possibly,

L. conscriptum.

XC1V PKOCEEDINGS.

As these algae have been very little studied hitherto, he hoped those
having an opportunity to collect specimens, or who could get specimens
which might be brought up in fishermen's nets, would bring them to the
Museum of the Institute.

DR. SOMERS made some remarks on the subject.

HARRY PIERS, ESQ., then read a paper entitled, " Notes on Nova
Scotian Zoology : No. 4." (See Transactions, p. 255).

The paper was discussed by DR. SOMERS, MR. BISHOP, and DR. REID.

SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 10th May, 1897.
The First Vice-President, MR. Me KAY, in the chair.

A paper entitled, " A Supplementary Note on Venus," by PRINCIPAL
CAMERON, of Yarmouth Academy, was read by DR. MAGKAY. (See
Transactions, p. 275).

The paper was discussed by DR. REID and the CHAIRMAN.

A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D., F. R S. C , read a paper entitled,
" Phenological Observations for 1896." (See Transactions, p. 268).

The subject was discussed by PROFESSOR MACGREGOR and the
CHAIRMAN.

A paper on the "Rainfall of 1896," was then read by MR. DOANE.
(See Transactions, p. 279).

DR. MURPHY, DR. MACKAY, and others, took part in the discussion
which followed.

The following papers were then read by title : —
" On the Tides of the Bay of Fundy " (second paper). By MARTIN
MURPHY, ESQ., D. So., Provincial Engineer.

"On the Water Supply of the Towns of Nova Scotia." By
PROEESSOR W. R. BUTLER, M. E., King's College, Windsor.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

or THE

rScotian Institute of

SESSION OF 1897-98.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 8th November, 1897.
The PRESIDENT, DR. GILPIN, in the chair: —
The PRESIDENT addressed the Institute, as follows : —

"GENTLEMEN, — I have much pleasure in opening another session of
the Institute, and trust that our meetings will be successful and our
papers more numerous. We have held our own in numbers, and have
maintained our position among our sister societies.

The Institute had recently to mourn the removal, by death, of our
friend and President, Dr. Lawson, and we have now to deplore the loss
from our ranks of Rev. Dr. Patterson. It is true that he was not as
intimately and directly connected with our work as Dr. Lawson. This,
however, was our loss, for he had eminently the Academician mind, and,
had his other pursuits permitted, his services to the Institute would have
been both great and distinguished. His thirst after knowledge, his
assiduity in collecting facts, his faculty of assimilation, would, if directed
specially to any of the objects of the Institute, have given him a most
cherished position among us.

George Patterson was born in Pictou, April 30th, 1824, and, on .his
mother's side, was a grandson of the Reverend Doctor McGregor, a name
famous in the annals of Presbyterianism in Pictou • County. What
Pictou County in particular, and generally the Province, owe him has

(xcv)

xcvi PROCEEDINGS.

been well told by his grandson, the subject of these remarks. His boyish
education was received at Pictou in a school noted for inculcating
thoroughness and perseverance as the foundation stones of scholarship.
He completed his academic studies at Dalhousie College, and removing
to Edinburgh, studied theology at the United Presbyterian Theological
Hall.

Returning to his native land, he entered upon his clerical duties at
Greenhill, in the County of Pictou, and ministered to his congregation
until 1879, when he resigned his charge and removed to New Glasgow.
Assiduous and gentle, while upholding firmly the doctrines of his Church,
his consistent discharge of his parochial duties endeared him to all who
looked up to him as a spiritual guide.

To the general public, however, he was best known as a biographer
and historian. At the age of nineteen, in the year 1843, he established
and edited the Eastern Chronicle. This paper is still published, and is
one of the most influential of our Provincial weeklies.

In 1850, he became editor of the Missionary Record of the Presby.
terian Church in Nova Scotia, a periodical which, after passing through
several changes, is now known to us as the Presbyterian Record.
During his association with the organ of his church, he was outspoken
in support of the better moral life of the people, and especially urged the
duty of missionary work.

It is impossible for me to give here details of his writings. I may
mention the " Life and Labors of Dr. Keir," " Memoir of Rev. Dr.
McGregor," two histories of Pictou County. Princeton University con-
ferred on him the degree of Doctor of Divinity, in recognition of the
ability he displayed in his only theological work on the " Doctrine of the
Trinity underlying the Revelation of Redemption," published in 1870.

As a contributor to the literature of missions, in addition to numerous
newspaper and magazine articles, he published, in 1864, the "Memoirs
of Johnstone and Matheson ;" in 1882, the " Life of the Reverend John
Geddie," and in 1884, an essay on missions called " The Heathen World."

In 1889 Dr. Patterson was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of
Canada, and in 1896 Dalhousie University conferred on him the degree
of Doctor of Laws. This degree was fittingly conferred on one of her
oldest students who gave the good fruit of a mind which retained and
adorned the education of its Alma Mater.

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. xcvii

I am informed that ever active and industrious, he had recently
completed a History of the Fathers of the Presbyterian Church in
Nova Scotia.

Dr. Patterson's work in science was subsidiary to his historical labors,
and necessarily lessened in amount. He was naturally interested in
Archaeology, and in this respect conferred a favor on the Province by
making a large collection of articles illustrating the life of our Indians
in pre historic days. He presented this valuable collection to Dalhousie
College, where it is available to all students of the subject, and described
it in a paper read before the Institute.

As a historian his attention was naturally drawn to the alterations
which languages have undergone in consequence of changes of environ-
ment. On this subject he published papers in the Transactions of the
American Folk Lore Society, of the Royal Society of Canada, and in our
Proceedings. We owe to his historical interest not only the valuable
historical papers published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada, and the Nova Scotia Historical Society, but also such ethnologi-
cal papers as " The Beothiks," published by the Royal Society, and
geographical papers such as "The Magdalen Islands," in our Transactions,
and " Sable Island," in those of the Royal Society.

A full list of his publications down to 1894 may be found in the
Transactions of the Royal Society for that year, and a list of his subse-
quent papers will probably be published by the same Society.

Dr. Patterson was noted for his diligence in collecting facts, and for
the amount of research he expended on every subject he took up.

Few for instance, who read a history of one of our counties, realize
that these annals of recent times require an enormous amount of work in
collection of data, and nearly as much more in the separation and accre-
tion of the essential. Similarly his Folk Lore papers gave evidence of
most minute and painstaking enquiry.

Scholarly in his sermons, keen and tenacious in his editorial work,
painstaking in his researches and polished in his writings, he has shown
what can be done by the student, even when confined by fate to an out-
lying district of the literary and scholastic world. His example. is a
good one for all to follow, if not to surpass ; and his work in its way was
performed precisely as our work as members of the Institute of Science
should be performed, that is by patient enquiry and research, followed

XCviii PROCEEDINGS.

by prompt publication, for facts known to the individual are buried
unless made public.

As Dr. Patterson died during the recess of the Institute, I took upon
myself as expressing the feelings of the members to request the Corres-
ponding Secretary to convey to the family of the deceased our sympathy
with them in their loss, and asked him to represent the Institute at
the funeral.

Among the events of interest to the Institute last year may be
mentioned the visit of the Koyal Society. They left, as a memento, the
handsome tablet on the walls of this Chamber, commemorating the land-
fall of Cabot. The result of impartial investigations leads to an apparently
well founded belief that the history of English domain on this continent
had its opening page on the romantic shores of Cape Breton.

The Provincial Exhibition, from the standpoint of this Institute, was
remarkable for what it did not exhibit. Advantage should be taken of
such occasions by the Provincial Government to teach people something
new and practically valuable. Each year some subject should be taken
up and illustrated. A display of insects injurious to the farmer or fruit-
grower, giving their life history, changes, food, etc., and the remedies
would serve for a number of teaching exhibits. In a similar manner the
subject of soils, fertilizers, etc. The more advanced systems of fishing,
curing fish, etc., in other countries. Every one can add to this list. I
believe that the Provincial Government would find their efforts in these
directions well appreciated, and the material in many instances would be
permanently available for their agricultural schools and for museums-
This matter may be worth your consideration, and you may see an oppor-
tunity to offer assistance to the Government in preparing and advancing
such exhibits.

These remarks on the Provincial Exhibition of a few days lead our
thoughts to our permanent Provincial Exhibition, the Museum. It may
be the case that Nova Scotians as a body retain the old fashioned idea
that a museum should be a collection of curiosities. If so, it is the duty
of the Institute to educate them, to a better understanding. As you are
aware, several representations have been made to the Government as to
the importance of a modern museum, and its value from an educational
as well as an economic standpoint. I think that the necessity of action
has been conceded by the Government, but the provision from a fixed
revenue for ever increasing public wants renders it difficult to provide
funds for a new building.

XC1X

As a preparation for the new state of affairs, which must come, and
as a means of partly meeting the present want, it has been suggested
that the collections should be reorganised.

The establishment of a museum, taking the word in its wide and
proper sense, is an expensive undertaking beyond the means of a Pro-
vincial Government. In our position a much more limited definition of
the word would be most useful and cost but little. If the Museum were
restricted to the collection and exhibition of material purely Provincial, it
would be valuable and practically without cost. A museum, illustrating
the natural resources of the Province, of the ocean, the woods, the soil,
the minerals, and the manufactures depending on them, would be a credit
ta the country and city, and of untold interest and value to visitors and
capitalists who could see at a glance what we had to offer. A scheme
such as this should meet general approval, and still better could be made
at a very small cost.

There is in the Museum much material which, interesting in itself,
is of little scientific or teaching value, as it is incomplete This could
be given or traded with other institutions for material needed for com-
pleting or supplementing local collections. I know, as a matter of fact)
that there are numbers of people in the Province who would be ready to
contribute to a practical exposition of our resources as outlined above.

Some slight work has been done in the way of re-arranging and
labeling the more important collections, but they have been seriously
drawn upon for various foreign exhibitions, and require renewal. The
Mining Society of Nova Scotia has already taken an interest in this
matter conjointly with the Institute, and these two bodies may see their
way to effect improvements in addition to those already made.

The following papers have been communicated to the Institute during
the past year : —

Two papers by Professor McGregor on the Eelation of the Physical
Properties of Solutions to their State of lonization.

Recent discoveries regarding the young and eggs of fishes, by
Dominion Fishery Commissioner Prince.

The botany of the vicinity of Halifax, by Rev. Brother Peter.

Measurements of two Beothuk skulls by Mr. W. H. Prest.

New arrangements in sailing gear, by Charles Twining.

Some analyses of Nova Scotia coals and minerals, by the President.

C f>ROCEEDIJsfGfS.

Notes on Calcareous Algae, by Dr. MacKay, and by Mr. Harry Piers
on Nova Scotia Zoology.

Supplementary note on Yenus, by Principal Cameron.
Phenological observations by Dr. MacKay, and Eainfall of 1896 by
City Engineer Doane.

At the last meeting two papers were read by title, one by Dr. Murphy
on the tides of the Bay of Fundy, and one by Professor Butler on the
water supply of Nova Scotia towns. Dr. Murphy has promised to com-
plete his paper during the present session, and, no doubt, Professor
Butler will have his paper completed shortly. I may remark that he
has left King's College, Windsor, to till the chair of mathematics at the
Military College, Kingston.

During the past year we have continued to add to our valuable
library, fuller details of which can be given by the Librarian. A large
number of the exchanges have been arranged and placed in bindings,
plain, but strong and serviceable. Through the kindness of the authori-
ties of Dalhousie College we have been allowed the use of a room fitted
with shelving, etc., so that the more important of our exchanges are
readily accessible for reference and study."

The Treasurer's report was presented, together with his accounts for
the year, which had been audited and certified as correct, and an abstract
of the accounts shewing the amounts expended on Library, publication
of Transactions, distribution of Transactions, etc. The report was adopted
and the thanks of the Institute tendered to Mr. Silver for his services
as Treasurer.

The report on the Library was presented by Dr. McGregor. It
showed that exchanges had been received for the first time during the
past year from the following : —

The Museum, Albion, N. Y.

X. E. Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Sydney, N. S. W.

Academia Mexicana de Ciencia^ exactas Fisicas y Naturales, Mexico.

Appalachian Mountain Club, Boston.

Die Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-u. Heil-kunde, Bonn.

Nuttall Ornithological Club, Cambridge, Mass.

Societe Hongroise de Geographic, Buda-Pest.

Accademia di Scienze Lettere e Arti, Acireale, Italy.

LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. ci

Direccion General de Correos y Telegrafos, Buenos Aires.
Premiere Exposicion Centro-americana de Guatemala, San Jose.
Societe Neuchateloise de Geographic, Neuchatel.
Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Physikalische Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Geological Society of Washington.
Kansas University, Lawrence, Kan.
Australasian Anthropological Society, Sydney, N. S. W.
Pennsylvania State College (Agricultural Experiment Station).
Geological Survey of Java and Madoura.
Sydney Observatory, Sydney, N. S. W.
Societe Entomologique, Bruxelles.
B,. Orto Botanico di Palermo.
Bureau General de Statistique, La Plata,
Institute Geologico de Mexico, Mexico.

Historischer Verein fur Oberpfalz und Regensburg, Regensbnrg.
Copies of the Transactions had been sent for the first time to the
following : —

Nuttall Ornithological Club, Cambridge, Mass.

Eaculte des Sciences, Marseille.

New York Electrical Society, New York.

New York Public Library.

Physikalisches Central Observatoriurn, St. Petersburg.

Exchange relations which had been previously established with other
Societies had, in no case, been terminated, and in consequence, the
Library was growing rapidly.

Partly through lack of time on the part of the Library Committee,
and partly through the difficulty of getting at the books owing to the
crowded state of the cases, no books had been bound during the year.
The money which was available for that purpose had therefore been
carried forward to next year's account, and would be expended as soon
as possible.

The English, Scottish, Irish and American publications were in the
Institute's cases on the third floor of the Post Office building ; all other
publications at Dalhousie College. The cases at the Post Office were
excessively crowded, insomuch that it was practically impossible to
obtain access to books that were wanted. In these circumstances the

Cii PROCEEDINGS.

council had gladly availed themselves of an offer courteously made by
the Governors of Dalhousie College to provide temporary accommodation
for the whole Library at the College in a room already fitted with shelving.
At the present rate of growth of the Library, the accommodation thus
offered would probably be sufficient for the needs of the Institute for from
eight to ten years, and the necessity of acquiring rooms of our own would
thus be postponed for that period of time. The work of removing and
re-arranging the books would be proceeded with as soon as possible^
When completed, the Library would be much more readily accessible to
members than it had ever been in the past.

The report was adopted, and the thanks of the Institute tendered to
Mr. Bowman and Prof. MacG regor for their work in connection with
the Library.

It was resolved that the council be instructed to a make minute of
the loss sustained by the Society in the death of KBV. DR. PATTERSON.
Also resolved, that a portrait of the deceased be published in the Pro-
ceedings and Transactions.

The thanks of the Institute were presented to the retiring PRESIDENT,
DR. GILPIN ; to the GOVERNORS OF DALHOUSIE COLLEGE for their courtesy
in providing accommodation for the Institute's Library; to the HON.
ROBERT BOAK, President of the Legislative Council, for granting the use
of the Council Chamber ; and to the Secretary of the SMITHSONIAN INSTI-
TUTION, Washington, for continuing to extend to the Institute the
privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges.

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year (1897-98) : —

Presided— ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ.

Vice-PTesideuts -A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL.D., F.R.S.C., and

F. W. W. DOANE, ESQ., C. E.
Treasurer— W. C. SILVER, ESQ.

Corresponding Secretary— PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, D. Sc.
Recording Secretary— HARRY PIERS, ESQ.
Librarian— MAYNARD BOWMAN, ESQ.
Councillors without office— HZ. GILPIN, ESQ., LL.D., F.R.S.C. ;

MARTIN MURPHY, ESQ., D. Sc. ; WILLIAM MCKERRON, ESQ.;

RODERICK McCoLL, ESQ., C. E. ; REV. BROTHER PETER ;

S. A. MORTON, ESQ., M. A. ; WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ.
Auditors— P. CTHEARN, ESQ. ; G. W. T. IRVING, ESQ.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. Clll

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 8th November, 1897.
The PRESIDENT, MR. McKAY, in the chair.

The SECRETARY announced that DR. W. HENRY DOBIE, of Chester,
England, had been elected a Corresponding Member of the Institute.

A paper "On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous
Solutions containing Potassium and Sodium Sulphates," by E. H
ARCHIBALD, ESQ., Physical Laboratory, Dalhousie College, was read by
DR. MACGREGOR. (See Transactions, p. 291).

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, 13th December, 1897.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that R. R. McLEOD, ESQ., of Brookfield, N. S., had
been elected an Associate Member.

DR. MACGREGOR, Corresponding Secretary, laid before the Institute
•an invitation to attend the Centenary of the Hanover Geological Society.

DR. MACGREGOR also reported progress in removing the Library to
Dalhousie College.

E. H. ARCHIBALD, ESQ., Physical Laboratory, Dalhousie College, read
a paper "On the Relation of the Physical Properties of Certain Complex
Solutions to their state of lonization." (See Transactions, p. 335).

The paper was discussed by DR. MACGREGOR and PROF. E. MACKAY.
The thanks of the meeting were conveyed to MR. ARCHIBALD.

A paper on " Glacial Clays in New Jersey, with correlation of them
elsewhere," by ARTHUR M. EDWARDS, ESQ., M. D., of Newark, N. J.,
was read by De. GILPIN.

Civ PROCEEDINGS.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

Council Chamber, City Hall, Halifax, 21st February, 1898.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

E. H. ARCHIBALD, ESQ., B. So., read a paper " On the Calculation of
the Conductivity of Solutions containing Potassium-Copper Sulphate."
(See Transactiont, p. 307).

The paper was discussed by DRS. MACGREGOR and MACKAY.

DR. MACGREGOR then delivered an address on " Physical Laboratory
Work of an Elementary Grade."

The address was discussed by PROF. E. MACKAY, DR. A. H. MACKAY,
and MESSRS. MORTON, O'HEARN, TREFRY and MARSHALL.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th March, 1898.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

The PRESIDENT referred to the loss the Society had sustained in the
death of DR. SOMERS, who had for several years been President of the
Institute, and who had contributed a number of papers to its Transactions.

On motion, the PRESIDENT, the RECORDING SECRETARY, and DR.
MACKAY, were appointed a committee to draw up a resolution of condo-
lence and to forward the same to MRS. SOMERS.

CHARLES TWINING, ESQ., exhibited a working model of a " Pivot-
Boat," and explained the principles upon which it was constructed.

The subject was discussed by DRS. MACKAY, MURPHY and
MACGREGOR, and MR. STAYNER.

T. C. McKAY, ESQ., B. A., of Dalhousie College, read a paper " On
the Electrical Conductivity and other Properties of Solutions containing
Barium and Sodium Chlorides." (See Transactions, p. 321.)

ORDINARY MEETINGS. CV

Ihe paper was discussed by DR. MACGREGOR; and the thanks of the
Society were presented to the author.

The following paper was read by title : — " On the Calculation of the
Conductivity of Solutions containing Potassium-Magnesium Sulphate."
By T. C. McKAY, ESQ., B. A., Dalhousie College. (See Transactions,
p. 348).

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING,

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th May, 1898.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

A paper on " The Triassic (?) Eocks of Digby Basin," by PROFESSOR
L. W. BAILEY, LL. D., Ph. D., F.E.C.S., of the University of New
Brunswick, was read. (See Transactions, p. 356).

A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D., F.K.S.C., presented a "Plan of a
Proposed Ethnological Survey of Canada."

DR. MACKAY also read a paper entitled : " Phenological Observations
for 1897." (See Transactions, p. 402).

The following papers were read by title : —

Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador, St. Pierre et Miquelon : Part III'
—By REV. ARTHUR C. WAGHORNE, Newfoundland. (See Transactions,
p. 361).

On the State of lonization of Simple and Complex Solutions, at 0°C.,
as determined by Freezing-point and Conductivity Methods. — By E. H.
ARCHIBALD, ESQ., M. Sc.

The PRESIDENT, and MESSRS. SILVER and PIERS, were appointed a
committee to wait upon the Government of Nova Scotia for the purpose
of recommending the purchase, for the Provincial Museum, of the Indian
stone implements in the collection of JUDGE DESBRISAY.

On motion, the council was authorized to receive as read by title, any
papers that may be presented too late for this meeting.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Jloba §c0tian Institute of

SESSION OF 1894-95.

I. — NOTES ON CONCRETIONS FOUND IN CANADIAN ROCKS. — BY
T. C. WESTON, F. G. S. A., LATE OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY OF CANADA.

(Read 14th January, 1895).

Every student of geology is familiar with concretionary
matter. I purpose in this short paper giving descriptions and
illustrations of a few of the more interesting forms.

The resemblance of many concretions found at various
horizons of our Canadian rocks, to some of the Monticuliporidse
and Stromatopora of the Trenton, Chazy and other formations
has often caused them to be mistaken for these fossils. Notes
by the writer in Trans, of the Nova Scotian Inst. of Science.
Ser. 2, Vol. 1, Fig. 1, reproduced supposed Oldhamia of the
Huronian Rocks of Newfoundland.

FIG. i.

(1)

2 NOTES ON CONCRETIONS

Concretions are most commonly spheroidal, or nearly so in>
shape, and range in size from that of a grain of sand to twenty
and thirty feet in diameter.

1. On the coast of Arisaig, N. S , in the argillaceous slates,
and shales of the Clinton formation, slightly flattened spher-
oidal forms are abundant. Two of these, about two feet in
diameter when broken through the centre, showed no concentric
layers or nuclei, while many others, varying in size from the
eighth of an inch to two inches in diameter, contained invariably
a nucleus ; sometimes a grain of sand, but generally the brachio-
pod, Lingula oblonga, Hall.

2. The largest concretions seen by the writer were found in
the Fox Hill and Pierre shales and clays of the North-West,,
and a very interesting exhibition of giant forms may be seen
three miles north of Irving station-house on the Canadian
Pacific Railway. Here, huge boulder-like spheroidal and ovoid
concretions once held in the rocks but removed by great
denudation (probably in the glacial epoch, for glacial striae are-
seen on some of the flat beds), stand out in bold relief, resting
on the flat and upturned edges of shales and sandstones ; and
on the top of one of them, about twenty feet high, an eagle had
built its nest of buffalo-bones and the roots of the wild sage, for
want of a more elevated situation, which does not occur in this-
locality.

In composition they appear to be chiefly argillaceous -and
calcareous sandstones. Many of them have fallen to pieces, and
the debris shows that they have been formed in layers which
increased in thickness from the centre outward. Portions of the-
beds from which they were derived were found enclosed in
several of them, and the stratified pieces of the bed-rock were
found to be prolific in fossils. Among the genera and species
found in these were : Lingula nitida ; Protocardia subquadrata ;.
Liopistha undata, etc.

3. Mr. R. G. McConnell, of the Geological Survey, describes-

FOUND IN CANADIAN ROCKS — WESTON. 3

similar concretions in a Cretaceous rock of Grand Rapids, Atha-
basca River*, as follows : —

" It is remarkable for the large number of spheroidal siliceous
concretions which it contains, and which range in size up to ten
feet or more in diameter. No fossils were found in the concre-
tions or in the rocks which hold them."

The same agency which produced these great concretions no
doubt formed the smaller pipe-stem concretions, so numerous
in the Miocene rocks at the head waters of Swift Current, N.
W. T., and which are now being formed on the shores of Lake
Cham plain.

4. Another interesting concretion locality lies half a mile west
of White Mud River, near the Fort Walsh trail, in the Assini-
boine district, N. W. T., the rocks belonging to the Laramie
formation. Here a small butte was pointed out to me by my
half-breed Indian guide, who called the place gun-shot butte,
and said a few years ago when he, with others, hunted buffalo
in that locality, they sometimes, when ammunition was scarce,
used these " balls " in their guns and rifles. I found the hill, or
butte, to consist largely of calcareous sand, which contained
enormous quantities of spheroidal concretions, varying in size
from that of buck-shot to an inch in diameter ; the ordinary
size being that of rifle balls. A great number of these are
compound forms representing two halves of a sphere coalescing
together, sometimes a number of these marbles (as the Indians
call them), are clustered together into pieces as large as one's
head. They are all more or less covered with nodes. About
one-third of each is carbonate of lime, which dissolves out with
muriatic acid, leaving a residue (as seen under the microscope),
of grains of pure silex, with a few of feldspar, magnetite, and
mica. There are no concentric layers and no nuclei.

5. The Animikie argentiferous rocks of the Thunder Bay dis-
trict are remarkable for " bombs," so called by the miners. At the
Beaver silver mine, a few miles from Port Arthur, many concre-
tions resembling cannon balls may be seen in the black
carbonaceous. slates which are largely developed at this locality.

* Geological Survey Report for 1889-90-91.

4 NOTES ON CONCRETIONS

They appear to be composed of cherty argillite, and are slightly
calcareous, and some when broken through the centre show
concentric layers, chiefly of pyrites. No distinct radiating
structure, and no nuclei were seen in any of the specimens broken.

6. In the Devonian rocks of Kettle Point, in Bosanquet, on
Lake Huron, forms similar to the foregoing in outward appear-
ance exhibit different internal structure. They are described in
the Geology of Canada, 1863, p. p. 387-88, as : " Peculiar spher-
oidal concretions whose fancied resemblance to inverted kettles
has probably given its name to the point. They vary in size
from three inches to as many feet, and are sometimes nearly
spherical, and others sometimes flattened, generally on the under
side. Occasionally a smaller spheroidal mass is implanted on
the top of a larger one. These concretions are readily broken,
and are then seen to be composed of brown crystalline carbonate
of lime, which is confusedly aggregated in the centre, and some-
times contains blende. Around this are arranged slender
prismatic crystals which extend from the nucleus to the circum-
ference ; the whole having a radiating columnar structure, which,
not less than the terminations of the prisms, at the surface of
the spheroidal masses, gives them very much the aspect of
fossil corals "

7. The Upper Devonian fish and plant bearing beds of
Scaumenac Bay, New Brunswick, are prolific in fossiliferous con-
cretions, which are composed of calcareo-arenaceous rock, and
take various forms according to the shape of the nucleus, which
is often so well preserved that every bone can be seen. One of
these concretions obtained by A. H. Foord measures over twenty-
one inches in length, and contains the skeleton of a fish almost
as long. It is Chirolepis Canadensis (Whiteaves). In other
concretions from this locality the writer and Mr. A. H. Foord
found : Glyptolepis microlepidotus (Agassiz), Phaneropleuron
curium, Pterichthys Canadensis (Whiteaves), Eusthenopteron
Foordi, etc.

In the coal bearing rocks sof Skidegate Inlet of the Queen
Charlotte Islands, concretionary nodules are found, in which

FOUND IN CANADIAN ROCKS — WESTON. 5

Ammonites and crustaceans occur. Among these are Ammonites
(Desmoceras), Sacya (Forbes), and Ammonites (Haploceras),
Beudanti, Brongniart.

8. The Huronian rocks, which I have described above, Fig. 1,
contain many curious concretions. Some of the small islands
in Georgian Bay are composed of a calcareous greenstone, in
which an aggregate of quartz, feldspar, chlorite, epidote, etc., are
found. In this rock concretionary balls an inch in diameter
occur, microscopic sections of which show them to be composed
of the same material as the matrix in which they are imbedded,
both being highly c^stalline, and the concretions having a
scoriated appearance.

9. A soft, whitish limestone from the Cambrian deposits of
Cow Head, Newfoundland, is composed chiefly of rounded grains
of irregular shape and size, many of which might readily be taken
for Ostracod crustaceans, or have a close resemblance to the
species Conodona Tateana. The microscope, however, shows
them to be concretious,. generally partly hollow and filled with
crystalline limestone. In the beds from which the specimens
examined came, ten species of trilobites have been found by
Dr. Ami of the Geological Survey of Canada.

10. An oolitic limestone from the Cambrian rocks of the
Selkirks, B. C., two miles west of Donald, shows under the micro-
scope concentric layers, slight radiating lines and crystalline fibres
arranged at various angles transverse to the concentric structure.
Fig. 2 is from a micro-drawing of one of these forms, enlarged
about 20 diameters.

FIG. 2.

6

NOTES OX CONCRETIONS

11. In Cape Breton, and at Arisaig, N. S., there are bands of
limestone composed entirely of concretions no larger than
mustard seeds, and sometimes much smaller. They represent
our oolitic rocks. Those of Cape Breton belong to the carbon-
iferous formation, and those of Arisaig are associated with the
lower carboniferous conglomerates and sandstones of the coast
rocks. In my notes of 1873 of a portion of the Arisaig rocks, I
wrote : " At Grant and McDonald's Cove the sandstones are in
contact with a band of light gray limestone (Photo. No. 18),
resting on six feet of bluish gray calcareous shale, holding a
Lingula and two small bivalves resembling Modiolopsis, but
not determinable with certainty. In the limestones of which
there is a thickness of about twenty feet, I found two species of
Hhynchonella and one Athyrix. A great part of this limestone
is oolitic, or made up of minute concretions." Fig. 3 is a micro-
drawing from a thin slice of the Cape Breton limestone magnified
about twenty times.

FIG. 3.

FOUND IX CANADIAN HOCKS — WESTOX. 7

It will be seen that each concretion has a radiating structure,
most of them show concentric layers.

12. Pisolitic limestone (so-called from pisum a pea), has, so
far as I know, only been found in Canada in rounded pieces in the
conglomerates of the " Quebec Group." These contain many
fossils, which are supposed to belong to the Upper Cambrian
zone ; the pebbles belong to the same geological horizon. I
have found no radiating structure in any of these pisolite
forms ; but this peculiarity is seen in all sections of oolitic
limestone. Sections of pisolite limestone from St. Anne, Bic,
Point Levis, and other localities in the province of Quebec, show
-each concretion to be formed of concentric layers, in some cases
little or no nucleus is found, while in others the nuclei forms
•three parts of the whole.

FIG. 4.

Fig. 4 shows several of the pisolitic forms cut through the
-centre. In the rock these little round balls are cemented
together with so little calcareous matter that a slight tap with
the hammer will detach them.

13. In 1892 a piece of oolitic limestone, collected from the
'Trenton rocks of Ottawa by W. R. Billings, was sent me for
microscopic examination. Sections showed these minute con-
cretions to be precisely like those of the limestones of Cape
Breton and Arisaig. Fig. 3.

14. A limestone from the lower carboniferous of New
Brunswick is partly made up of concretionary forms which,
when weathered, might readily be taken for small stromato-
porids, but which in thin slices under the microscope show a
nucleus of crystallized calcite and concentric rings, between

8

NOTES ON CONCRETIONS

which is a series of prismatic or vacerous lines
enlarged about ten diameters.

See fig. 5,.

FIG. 5.

15. On the flat surface of the Potsdam sandstones, Upper
Cambrian, of the coast of Labrador, fine examples of concretion-
ary structure may be seen, some of them a yard or more in
diameter, showing fine concentric lines of various shades of
color which, when weathered, look like the lines of growth in a
section of a tree, but no radial lines are seen. The sandstone is
pierced by Scolithus Canadensis, (Billings). Fig. 6 is frornja.
sketch of a detached piece lying on the shore.

FIG. 6.

FOUND IN CANADIAN ROCKS — WESTON. 9

16. Besides the large trunk-like cylindrical concretions found
in the Potsdam sandstones on the banks of the Rideau Canal, near
Kingston, Ont., (Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. of Sci., Ser. 2, Vol. I.),
there are many " stone potatoes," so-called by the quarry men.
These are spheroidal forms generally distorted, varying from
the size of a rifle bullet to three inches in diameter, and com-
posed of fine grains of translucent quartz. Many of them are
stained with oxide of iron, while others are of a dirty white, the
colour varying according to the tint of the rock in which they
are enclosed. In some of these, concentric layers are faintly
seen, but no radiating lines.

17. Hard calcareous concretions (nodules, as they are gener-
ally called), are among the most interesting objects of the Post-
Tertiary (Leda Clay) deposits of Canada. The clay banks of
Green's Creek, and the south shore of the Ottawa River, a little
below Ottawa city,havebeen known for many years, and thefossils
contained in the concretions of these localities recorded by many
writers ; but a few words here may not be out of place. The
kidney form is the most common shape taken by these concre-
tions, which generally enclose the skeleton of the well-known
Green's Creek fossil fish, hundreds of which may be collected in
a few days. It is a capelin, Mallotus villosus (Cuvier), in some
cases so well preserved that every bone can be seen. Other
forms are spheroidal, and contain for a nucleus a fragment of
bone, a shell or grain of sand, or an insect. A large collection
of these fossil bearing nodules or concretions was made by Dr.
Ells of the Canadian Geological Survey during the summer of
1893, from Besserer's wharf, on the Ottawa River, near the mouth
of Green's Creek. In one of these a fine leaf of Populus
balsamifera was found.

In Sir J. W. Dawson's " Canadian Ice Age," a detailed account
is given of our Post-Tertiary rocks, with illustrations of some
of the principal fossils. Besides the common capelin before
mentioned, we find the well-known mussel shell, Mytilus edulis,
Linn., and two or three beetles, among which is Byrrhus Otta-
waensis, the latter collected by Dr. Ami of the Geological
Survey.
OTTAWA, March, 1894.

II. — THE IRON ORES OF NICTAUX, N. S., AND NOTES ON STEEL
MAKENG IN NOVA SCOTIA. BY E. GILPIN, JR, LL.D.,
F. R. S. C., INSPECTOR OF MINES.

(Read llth February, 1895).

It is commonly known that in the earlier days of the iron
industry, pig iron was made by smelting iron ores in blast
furnaces. The product was either melted again in foundries and
run into moulds, or, as it is generally termed, used as cast iron.
This every one is familiar with as the ordinary form of iron, of
which a stove may be taken as a sample. Another application
of the pig iron was for making wrought iron. This was effected
by driving out the impurities of the pig iron by heating and
oxidation, until it was practically pure and malleable. Horse
shoe iron may be taken as an example of this variety. Still,
another application of the pig iron was to turn it first into
wrought iron, and then by restoring part of the carbon elimin-
ated by the puddling process, to produce an iron intermediate
between malleable iron and cast iron, and known as steel.

It was found at an early date that this latter product could
be so manufactured as to fill as desired any grade between cast
iron and malleable iron. It could be made to combine hardness,
stiffness and tenacity, or on the other hand, to approximate in
qualities to the very best malleable iron with certain additions
of tenacity and strength. The discovery that it was possible
to produce so useful a variety of iron, encouraged the best
exertions of leading chemists and metallurgists. The problem
was the cheap and regular production of steel in any grade
required, soft or hard, for steel rails, or for those purposes
requiring flexure and strength combined. With the certainty
that fortunes awaited the happy discoverer of a commercially
successful method of making steel, many experimenters labored
for years, and under difficulties, which do not confront the
metallurgists of the present day, succeeded partially in making

(10)

THE IRON ORES OF NICTAUX, X. S — GILPIN. 11

steel, but managed with more success in designing methods for
producing malleable iron by direct processes which, however,
could not compete in cheapness with malleable iron made from
pig iron puddled by hand.

At this stage the Bessemer process appeared, and the diffi-
culty was solved. Steel could be made with regularity of
output and uniformity of composition, and it came at once into
commercial competition with wrought iron. At first many
difficulties were encountered, not the least of which was the
disposition to doubt that a desired standard of uniformity in
tensile and other tests could be maintained, Step by step the
chemist and the steel maker advanced, this difficulty was solved
by an enquiry into the composition of the ores, the fuels, the
re-actions in the furnace, while the practical steel maker invented
the improvements required in the shape of the converters, the
machinery needed to handle it, the linings, etc. Finally, the
test requirements for steel rails, girders, etc., imposed by
architects and engineers, were easily and regularly met, and it
was acknowledged that steel was the king of all metals. Borrow-
ing from other elements their properties, it became hard almost
as a diamond, or flexible and soft so that it could be pressed
without breaking into a dish or kettle. Few people taking up
a piece of steel imagine what a long history of investigation,
experiment, and down-right hard inventive work it represents,
probably the greatest and most important of our generation

It was found to be a sine qua non that good steel required
as its foundation good pig iron. Pig iron that did very well
for common foundry purposes, or that could be puddled into
fair bar iron, would not answer for the Bessemer process. This
discovery called for the best of materials. Some ores were
useless, some fuels carried too much sulphur or phosphorus, etc.
The limits within which fuels and ores and fluxes were suitable
for the Bessemer process were soon defined exactly, and of course
the composition of the pig iron to be produced for conversion
into steel was defined with equal exactness. The amounts of
phosphorus, sulphur, silicon, etc., allowed in the pig iron were

12 THE IRON ORES OF NICTAUX, AND

inexorable, and iron fulfilling the conditions of purity became
known as Bessemer pig. This always commands a higher price
than ordinary pig iron, and at the present moment ranks next
in price to pig iron made with charcoal, a very pure fuel, and
the most expensive form of pig iron.

This necessitjr for a very pure variety of iron ore at first
limited the production of Bessemer steel and kept up its price.
Gradually, however, prospectors searched all parts of the earth
within easy reach by water of England and Germany the early
homes of this new process. It was soon found that Spain, Elba,
and Algiers could be drawn upon for enormous supplies of ore of
the requisite purity and cheapness. Rich ores were found on
the north-west coast of England, and large steel works were
started in Cumberland. Now iron ore is carried to England
from Norway within the Arctic circle. Similar necessities led
to the discovery of rich ores in Pennsylvania and on Lake
Superior, and to the establishment of steel works at Chicago
and other points in the United States.

The result of the ready supply of these cheap and pure
ores, and the reduction of the Bessemer process to an exact
science, was a steady course of declension in the malleable iron
production, and in the production of pig iron, so far as its
derivatives came into competition with steel. So noted is this
in England that the output of iron ore in the Cleveland district
has fallen from 8,000,000 tons to 4,000,000 tons a year.
The ore of this district being of inferior quality, and capable of
yielding only a pig iron, the conversion of which produced an
iron incapable of competing with steel.

The effect of this cheapening of steel is most clearly shown
in the case of steel rails which have replaced iron rails, and
have themselves fallen in price per ton from $50 to $22.

The great advantage given by cheap water carriage and pure
ores to the steel makers situated on tide water, produced a feel-
ing almost of despair in the continental blast furnace districts,
which were some distance from water carriage. They saw that
their iron was being replaced by steel, and that the expense of

STEEL MAKING IN NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 13

carriage acted as a measure of protection to their more
fortunately situated competitors. It looked as if the steel
production of the world was to be practically limited to those
countries which had the opportunity of assembling at the water
edge a good and cheap local fuel and a pure water borne ore ; or,
to a country like the United States of America, which, possess-
ing both these requisites, had also a cheap land and water
carriage, and an almost unlimited home market.

At this point in the history of steel an unexpected and
important discovery was made. It was found that under certain
conditions of manipulation, including a basic lining for the
converters, i. e., the use of substances such as magnesia, it was
possible to convert phosphorus, the great enemy of the Bessemer
process, into an important adjunct in steel making. As hitherto
the limit for phosphorus in Bessemer ore (.07) was measured by
hundreds of one per cent., and the great difficulty was to find iron
ores free from it in large enough quantities to ensure a regular
and cheap supply, it is plain that when as much as three per
cent, of phosphorus was permissible in the new process, a fresh
field was opened up. Briefly speaking, the process consisted in
the burning out of the carbon, silicon, and sulphur, by manganese
and the phosphorus, the latter after discharging its kind offices
practically eliminating itself.

As was to be expected, this process, known as the Thomas
Gilchrist, specially recommended itself to the German steel
makers who had at hand large supplies of low grade ores. Large
establishments were started there and at other points on the
continent, and now the Bessemer steel makers of England find
their markets successfully invaded by the makers of basic steel.
In spite of the experience thus gained during the past few years
in England, the steel makers there, bound by prejudice, are only
now awaking to the fact that they must be distanced by the
continental steel makers, unless they adopt the process based on
the poorer and cheaper ores. Thus the inventive faculties of
two men threaten to divert a great trade, and to starve an
industry in which millions are invested in England.

14 THE IRON ORES OF NICTAUX, AND

The extent to which the manufacture of basic steel has been
carried in Germany may be gathered from the fact that in 1 894
the production of pig iron there was in round numbers
5,000,000 tons, of which nearly 50 per cent, was Thomas iron.
In England in 1894 the percentage was about 15. In the
United States matters are much as in England, indeed the
percentage of basic pig is less. Here, however, the conditions
are different. The cheap supplies of pure ore available at
Chicago, Cleveland, etc , from the iron mines of the Lake
Superior district, and a protective tariff, have permitted an
adherence to the firmly established Bessemer process But the
fact remains that in the markets open to the competition of the
world the cheap steel, low wages, and reasonable freights of the
German steamers, combine to enable them to undersell American
and English competitors.

No metallurgical process during the past thirty years has
received more attention from the chemist and capitalist than
the relation of phosphorus to iron and steel. Interminable
researches on the part of chemists and analysts, costly experi-
ments, in which capital has lavishly poured out its money, have
combined to force from nature the secret of pure steel. As we
have seen, the iron ores of the world are divided, as regards
steel, into Bessemer and non-Bessemer, according to the propor-
tions of phosphorus present.

Speaking in round numbers of the 12,000,000 tons of steel
made in 1893, about 75 per cent, are made of ores that contain
not more than .07 of phosphorus to the 100 parts of iron. The
remaining 25 per cent, are made from ores containing from .10
to 2.50 per cent, of phosphorus.

The principle governing both processes of steel making are
based on the fact, practically correct, that all the phosphorus in
the ore smelted in the blast furnace goes into the pig iron. It
thus happens that in the case of a Bessemer pig iron the phos-
phorus is a trace, while in the case of a basic pig iron it may
run as high as 2.5 per cent.

Bearing these distinctions in mind, the question of the adap-
tability of the iron ores of any district in the Province of Nova

STEEL MAKING IN NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 15

Scotia to steel making, by either of the above processes, may be
intelligently considered.

In the Province of Nova Scotia we have entered upon the
steel making era. In one sense this was the case twenty- five
years ago, when cement steel was made at Londonderry from
the product of a small charcoal furnace. From a practical
standpoint, however, steel making may be said to have com-
menced when the New Glasgow Iron, Coal and Railway Company
made Bessemer pig at Ferrona, in Pictou County, for conversion
into steel at Trenton. The ores belonging to this company, on
the East River of Pictou, produce a pig admirably suited for the
Bessemer process. For more common grades the company has
drawn upon Torbrook, and are preparing to import from New-
found laud ores which exert a softening effect on the pig iron and
fit it for foundry use. Favorably situated as this company is
for very pure ores, cheap and close at hand, the basic process
presents few attractions. It may be predicted that when the
other iron ore properties of the Pictou district become developed
it will be a great steel producer, and also be in a position to
supply the demand of the foundryman.

In the Nictaux district, in Annapolis County, on the contrary
the conditions, so far as they are worked out, resemble rather
those of Germany, and a vast series of ores are presented suitable
for the basic process, in addition to some which can be graded
as Bessemer.

Nictaux is the name given to a district on the south side of
the Annapolis Valley, about thirty miles from Annapolis. It is.
traversed by the Nova Scotia Central Railway from Middleton
on the Windsor Railway to Lunenburg on the Atlantic ; and by
the Nictaux River, which has cut deeply into the south moun-
tain. The geological age of this iron-bearing district has been
partially worked out by Sir William Dawson, who refers the
iron ore rocks to the Devonian. I shall however not enlarge on
this point, as Dr. A. H. MacKay has spent some time in the
district, and has kindly consented to describe the geological
features in detail.

10 THE IRON ORES OF NICTAUX, AND

The district extends from a point several miles west of the
Nictaux River to -the county line between Annapolis and Kings,
and probably some distance further. It varies in width up to
about five miles. In this section there are a number of beds of
iron ore having a general north-east and south-west course.
While exposures are frequent, there are undulations and fractures
in the measures which render any positive correlation of the
ore beds a matter of uncertainty, owing to the limited explora-
tory work yet effected.

The most northerly range of iron-bearing strata is represented
by the bed worked at the Torbrook mine. This has been traced
about 2 miles eastwardly to the county line, and for some dis-
tance to the westward. Exposures of red hematite, near
Nictaux Falls, are believed to show its further passage in that
direction.

South of this comes the deposit known as the " Shell Ore "
bed, which was worked for several years by long trenches
running on its outcrop. Its principal exposure is on the Banks
farms, where it is from five to eight feet thick. This ore is
highly fossiliferous, and has furnished many interesting fossils
to visiting geologists

Still further south on the Canaan Mountain road, about 2
miles south-west of the Torbrook mine, are two beds of red
hematite 4 to 6 feet thick. These beds, assuming a westerly
course, apparently coincide with an exposure of red hematite ore
reported on the southern end of the Banks farm. The further
westward extension of these beds is unknown, they may in a
magnetised condition be represented in the Page and Stearns
beds on the west side of the Nictaux River. Here mining
operations have exposed eleven beds from 2 to 10 feet in width.
These beds, with others lying on the same horizon a little to the
south, one of which on the river bank is about 12 feet wide,
extend to the westward nearly 2 miles to the Willett property
in the rear lines, where two beds, each about 5 feet thick, have
been uncovered.

South of this range, on the Torbrook, other beds of magnetite
and shell ore are exposed on the Armstrong and other farms

STEEL MAKING IX NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 17

some of which reach a thickness of 20 feet. Some of these
beds are stated to have been traced for a distance of six miles.
Still further to the south, beyond the township line, specular ore
is said to occur in a vein 6 feet wide.

While the work done in this district has shown the presence
of numerous beds of iron ore, much is still needed to trace their
relative positions, their continuity and their economic value. The
continuous extension of all the beds in an unbroken line from
end to end of the district can hardly be hoped for, as there are
evident dislocations at several points, and flexures of the strata.
As to the quantity of ore there can be no question. The
amounts available above the water levels of the Torbrook and
Nictaux Rivers must be enormous.

The question of the economic values of the ores must be the
subject of extended investigation. Practical working has
shown that the red hematites can furnish a foundry and forge
pig The magnetites are with some exceptions too phosphoric
for this purpose. The percentages of this element vary between
°5 and 2.00 in the different beds. The ores are as a rule silicious,
and in some cases manganiferous, but low in sulphur. They are
not to be compared in purity with the magnetites of the North
Mountain on the opposite side of the Annapolis Valley. Here
the ores are as a rule of unusual purity, but they have not as
yet been found to occur in amounts of economic value. They
are presented as veins in the trappean rocks, highly crystallised
and often showing banded structure, with layers or crystals of
amethyst, quartz, etc.

The ores of the district run high enough in iron and phos-
phorus and low enough in sulphur to answer for the basic
process, and their large silica contents would prove the principal
obstacle to their use for this process. I believe, however, that
on the continent furnace managers have been able to successfully
meet this trouble when smelting for the basic process. No
doubt further search will show ores running lower in silicious
matter, and the large deposits of bog ore in this district can be
also utilized in this connection.
2

18 THE IRON ORES OF NICTAUX, AND

To upset these drawbacks it must be remembered that
mining of these ores and their transportation would be cheaper
than from almost any other iron ore district in Nova Scotia, and
the preliminary outlays for machinery, drills, wire, tramways,,
etc., be reduced to a minimum by the facilities available for
utilizing water power for generating electrical power.

The following tables of analysis of samples from the out-
crops of a number of these beds, as well as from the underground
workings of the Torbrook mine, will serve to give an idea of
the values of these ores : —

The following analyses show the quality of the ore mined at.
Torbrook :

Metallic Iron 52'44, 60'72, 59'00, 61/3S, 47'00, 5574, 74-59,,

11-57, 57-93, 59-86.
Silica 1100, 10'28, 12'S6, 26*50, 10'12, 1497, 17-21,.

5-93, trace.
Phosphorus T66, .17, trace, 1'08, trace, '18, "17,

"16, none.
Sulphur ........ None, trace, trace, trace, trace, '23, '08,.

•09, 0-36, -11,

Lime 2-70, trace, 216.

Magnesia '41, trace, trace.

Alumina 5'53, trace, 314.

Analyses of crop sample from beds on Armstrong's and other

Titanic Acid..

•144

farms :

Iron.

Silica.

Phosphorus.

Sulphur.

Manganese.

1.—

54-71

1156

•669

•007

. • . .

2.—

42-80

10-39

•396

•015

•52

3.—

54-84

10-87

1-452

•015

•41

4 —

5310

14-16

•704

•025

•24

5.—

55-40

20-35

1-037

•114

•26

6.—

54-28

7-97

•53

•028

•28

7.—

52-40

9.41

1-861

•030

•23

STEEL MAKING IN NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN.

19

Miscellaneous analyses of ores in the Cleveland and Torbrook

districts :

Magnetites.

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.

Metallic Iron 54'22 5911 5314 54'96

Silica 14-97 11-64 1112

Sulphur -069 '09 .... trace.

Phosphorus '36 17 172 192

Alumina 5'53 .... .... 314

Lime , 270 .... 5'88

Magnesia '41 .... 2'01

Manganese '86 .... .... ....

Red Hematite.

Metallic Iron 58'05 57 '93 1847

Silica 17-21 33'50

Sulphur -03

Phosphorus 193 16 ....

Alumina .... ....

Lime .... 3'00

Magnesia .... ....

Manganese .... 9'80

Mining development of the Nictaux district
The existence of iron ore was known here at an early date
in the history of Annapolis County. Haliburton, writing in
1829, speaks of the first attempt as " an ill directed effort made
many years ago." I am unable to give any particulars of this
operation, but presume it was directed to the manufacture of
wrought iron by a forge process. The hard compact ores of the
district were not suited to this primitive method.

Gesner gives an interesting account of the iron ore deposits
of Annapolis County, and refers to the bed of shell ore on the
Banks farm as 6 feet 6 inches wide. In 1856 another attempt
was made and a furnace built at the falls. The iron produced
was largely from the shell bed, and is stated to have been of
inferior quality. Harrington gives some details of these furnaces

20 THE IRON ORES OF NICTAUX, N. S. — GILPIN.

in his report on Canadian Iron Ores, 1874. The fuel used was
charcoal, readily furnished by the great forests to the south-
Some years later the ores of the district again received attention
during the construction of the Nictaux and Atlantic Railway.
The Messrs. Page and Stearns opened a number of beds on the
west bank of the Nictaux River. A few experimental cargoes
were shipped, and some was found to be of very good quality.
Delays in the building of the railway led to the closing of the
mines. These beds were magnetite, massive and fine grained.

A few years ago Mr. R. G. Leckie secured the outcrop of a
bed of excellent red hematite at Torbrook, about three miles
east of Nictaux, which has been worked since by the Torbrook
Iron Co. The bed runs about north-east and south-west, with a
steep dip to the north, and is enclosed in soft slates. The ore is
massive and fine grained, and as shown by analysis, an excellent
foundry material, The mine is well equipped and opened for
a length of about 1,500 feet, and to a depth of about 200 feet,
the bed being from five to seven feet thick. Up to date about
80,000 tons have been mined here, which has been used by the
Ferrona and Londonderry furnaces as a mixture with their
harder ores.

Captain Hall, of Middleton, has for several years paid much
attention to the ore beds, and owns a number of properties
covering large and valuable deposits.

III. — TRUE SURFACES AND ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS. BY D.
W. ROBB, A. S. M. K, Amherst, N. S.

(Received 24th November, 1895).

That absolute truth is almost unattainable, becomes apparent
to the skillful mechanic as well as to the thoughtful scientist,
and the degree of success of each may be measured by the
nearness of approach to absolute accuracy, whether it be in the
result of the scientist's reasoning, or the more material product
of the mechanic's hands.

For the production of flat surfaces of metal, the mechanic
uses an instrument called the " surface plate," which is simply a
plate of cast iron well stiffened by ribs and resting upon three
points of support to prevent springing, the upper side of which
is carefully scraped by hand until its surface is approximately
true. When one of a pair of such " surface plates " is placed
with its trued surface above the other it will not immediately
come in contact with the lower plate, but will for a time float
upon the air confined between the surfaces, because the air can
only escape at the edges, and, as the plates come closer together,
it will do so more slowly so that a noticeable time, depending
upon the truth of the surfaces, weight and size of plates, will
elapse before the plates will really touch each other. When the
air is fully excluded, or as fully as the truth of the surfaces will
allow, the plates will adhere, or rather the atmospheric pressure
on the outside will press them together.

It is evident that, if we interpose between the surface plates
a fluid, more viscid than air, such as oil, it will require a longer
time and greater weight to expel it, and we may move the
upper plate back and forth for a long time before the plates
come into direct contact, the particles of fluid forming a perfect
system of rollers, upon which the metal will roll with very
slight friction. If we provide means whereby the oil will be
renewed, the iron will never come into contact, provided the

(21)

22 TRUE SURFACES AND ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS — ROBE.

pressure of the upper plate is not sufficient to overcome the
capillary attraction, and force the oil out. It will at once be
recognized that this is the principle upon which all lubricated
bearings or journals of machinery, whether flat or round, are
constructed. This somewhat minute and elementary explanation
is given in order to show the importance of truth in the surfaces
of the bearings of machinery, to have flat bearings truly flat
and round bearings truly round. If such surfaces are uneven,
as they will be when made by the ordinary method of turning
or planing, owing to the springing of the cutting tools and
uneven texture of the metal, lumps will be produced which will
project through the oil, and the metals will touch each other
producing, when moving past each other at a high rate of speed,
friction and wear so common in machinery. But it has been
proved by experiment that, if the surfaces be made nearly true,
so that the lubricant will completely separate the metals, and
the bearing sufficient in area to withstand the weight imposed
without forcing the oil out, such journals may be run without
wear, and that the rate of speed, within practicable limits, makes
no difference. The question will at once suggest itself : Why
not make all the bearings of machinery perfectly true, suffi-
ciently large in surface, provide continuous lubrication, and
prevent wear entirely ? I may say that a very great advance
has been made in this direction. In the higher grades of
machinery, manufacturers use delicate grinding and scraping
processes to produce smooth and true surfaces, with the result
that many machines, such as electric dynamos and steam engines,
which run at a high rate of speed, have practically no wear in
their journals, but it is just here the mechanic learns how hard
it is to obtain absolute perfection. He may be able to produce
a sufficiently true surface, but he finds he cannot overcome the
distortion of metals, due to unequal pressure, or heat. As he
approaches greater refinement in producing true surfaces, he
will learn that it is impossible to get them to remain true when
subjected to the strains incident to the conditions under which
they work. He finds that, if he lifts his surface plate by one
corner it is less true, if I may be allowed the expression, than

TRUE SURFACES AND ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS — ROBB. 23

^when resting upon its three supports, or that his straight edge,
which was about straight when resting upon the surface plate,
bends slightly when he lifts it by the ends. A machine designed
-and constructed with the greatest care and skill, when subjected
to the necessary strain of belts, or the inertia of its own rapidly
moving parts, will spring so that the bearings, which have been
made nearly perfect in surface and alignment, are thrown slightly
awry, causing the strain to be borne by a decreased area, and
forcing the lubricant out. The skill of machine designers is
shown in designing a machine so that the journal and its seat
will spring together, thus preserving the adjustment of bearing
surfaces. We hear and see much in these days of ball bearings.
The success of the modern bicycle depends upon this ingenious
device, and has induced almost a mania for using hardened steel
balls for bearings of all kinds. Those engaged in mechanical
work often forget that the old and tried oil lubrication is really
a ball bearing composed of such perfectly formed balls as only
nature can produce, and with the advantage that they may be
replaced or renewed as often as desired with very slight trouble.
Steel balls are undoubtedly better suited to a bicycle than ordi-
nary bearings lubricated by oil, because it is impossible to get a
machine light enough for the purpose and have the bearing
surfaces large and parts sufficiently rigid- to keep the surfaces in
correct alignment ; but in heavy machinery where the strain on
bearings is so much greater, steel balls, with their small surface
of contact and tendency to crush, are not as suitable as the
minute spheres of a fluid such as oil. In this connection may
be mentioned a point which is also closely connected with the
second part of this subject, accurate measurements, viz., that it
is necessary in the construction of bearings of machinery to allow
sufficient space for the oil between the metals. If a shaft be
made as perfectly round and smooth as possible, and of the
exact size of the bushing or box in which it is to work, which
is also true, there will be no room for the lubricant. The writer
has seen this fact well illustrated by a bar which was intended
to carry revolving cutters in a machine for boring cylinders,
the bar and the bush were made as carefully as possible

24 THUE SURFACES AND ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS — ROBB.

and to fit closely. The bar fitted the bush so well that while it
could be shoved into its place when free and clean from oil, when
oil was applied it refused to move except by using considerable
force, showing" that there was not room for the oil. The shaft

o

required to be reduced 2/1000" in size to make room for the
lubricant. Heating of journals is frequently caused by neglect
of this point. In many kinds of machinery no attempt is made
to true the surfaces carefully, or indeed to do more than get them
approximately round or flat, as the case may be, or to make
them to any exact size nearer than can be measured by the eye
or an ordinary box wood rule. The result is that journals and
seats have to work out their own salvation or destruction, by
wearing the high parts down until the low parts approach near
enough for the oil to support the whole journal, consequently,
much care and patience must be exercised in working new
machinery until it is worn to a bearing, otherwise the metals will
abrade and heat by friction until the surfaces are completely
destroyed.

The foregoing will emphasize the importance of being able
to make minute and accurate measurements, as much depends
upon the certainty with which the mechanic can measure the
inaccuracies of his work in order to bring it to the necessary
state of perfection. The ordinary system of measuring by a
rule graduated to 16ths, 32nds or perhaps the 64ths of an inch,
the use of which leaves room for an error which is too great for
the production of good machinery, has been superseded in
machine shops, where accuracy is aimed at, by the " Micrometer
Caliper" and hardened steel gauges of various kinds, by means
of which measurements of 1/4000 of an inch can be made as
easily as 1/16 inch can be measured by the ordinary rule."

" The Interchangeable System," first used by American work-
men in the production of watches, fire arms, and other machines,
having a number of small parts, any one of which should fit any
other, has done much to introduce refined and rapid methods of
measurements. Steel gauges, which are hardened and then
ground, are now produced by manufacturers of tools which are

TRUE SURFACES AND ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS — ROBB. 25

guaranteed to be accurate within 1/10000 of an inch, and when
such gauges are applied to a piece of machinery there is no
difficulty in producing work rapidly and uniformly correct
within 1/4000 or 1/5000 of an inch.

In addition to the evident advantage this system has over
the old " Cut and Try System," by which each part of a machine
was fitted especially to the other part, it eliminates the indivi-
dual factor to a considerable extent, so that perfection of product
is not so much dependent upon the individual whose skill has
been acquired by long years of experience, and who must have
produced much inferior work before he attained his present
deftness. The manufacturer is enabled to furnish plans of each
machine giving the exact sizes, marked in thousandths of an inch,
and each mechanic is able, by the aid of his gauges, to produce
any number of parts which are exactly alike, and will fit any
other part of similar machines. By preserving this uniformity
in all the machines he produces, the manufacturer is able to
determine accurately from the machines in use where imperfec-
tions exist, and can record and store up his accumulated experi-
ence and make corrections and improvements as required.

IV. — RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA. BY
HARRY PIERS.

(Read 13th May, 1895.)

Not long ago I had the honour of reading before the Institute
of Science a paper describing a number of aboriginal relics found
in this province. It was based on a study of the many excellent
specimens preserved in the cases of the Provincial Museum,
Halifax. Since that time, a quantity of undescribed and very
interesting material has been placed in my hands, which I shall
herein describe.

A number of years ago the late Charles W. Fairbanks, Esq.,
C. E., formed a collection of stone implements which had been
discovered in Nova Scotia. Most of these relics were given to
him by William M. King who found them while clearing and
plowing the land on his farm at the head of Grand Lake,
Halifax County. The place was doubtless a prehistoric camping
ground, but I do not know whether the Micmacs continued to
resort there within the memory of man.

Mr. Fairbanks's collection is now the property of his son,
Charles R. Fairbanks, Esq., of Halifax, to whom I am indebted
for permission to examine and describe the specimens. Very
unfortunately none of them bear labels, and therefore the exact
localities where they were found are unknown ; but there is no
doubt that they are Nova Scotian, and probably nearly all were
found on Mr. King's farm.

I have also to thank several other gentlemen whose names
are subsequently mentioned, for permission to study implements
in their possession. ,

These specimens, together with some in the McCulloch collec-
tion of Dalhousie College Museum, and others of my own,
constitute the material upon which the present paper is founded.*

* Judge DesBrisay of Bridge water, N. S., most courteously offered me the privilege
of examining and describing his excellent collection of aboriginal remains ; but I have
so far been unable to take advantage of his kindness.

(26)

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vol. IX.

PLATE I.

I

.A*

i#

6 ff 7 8 $ iO // IZ 13

V

18 10

Illustrating Mr. Piers' Paper: " On Relics of the Stone Are in Nova Scotia.'

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vol. IX.

PLATE II.

Aft A

ull

Illustrating Mr. Piers' Paper: " On Relics of the Stone Age in Nova Scotia:

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vol. IX.

PLATE III.

Illustrating Mr. Piers' Paper: " On Relics of the Stone Age in Nova Scotia."1

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 27

LESCARBOT'S ACCOUNT OF THE MICMACS.

Before entering upon a description of these implements, it
be well to consider the habits of our Indians as described
in the writings of one of the early voyagers. This will help us
much to understand the subject with which we deal. The first
exact and extensive account of the Micmacs, and by far the most
interesting, is to be obtained from the description of New France
written by the old French advocate, Mark Lescarbot, who in
1606 accompanied Poutrincourt to Acadie. He dwelt for some
time at Port Royal, now known as Annapolis, which had been
founded in the previous, year by Pierre du Guast, Comte de
Monts From an English version* of Lescarbot's rare book, in
the library of the late Dr. Akins, I have made some transcripts
which follow in ' the quaint language and spelling of the
translator. These extracts will be of great interest to any who
are studying the archaeology of Nova Scotia, for Lescarbot wrote
at the period when iron implements were only beginning to
supplant those of stone. Dr. J. B. Gilpin has already given us
much information gathered from this writer, but seldom in the
latter's language.

Speaking of the dress of the Indians, Lescarbot says they wore
" a skin tied to a latch or girdle of leather, which passing
between their buttocks joineth the other end of the said latch
behind ; and for the rest of their garments, they have a cloak on
their backs made of many skins, whether they be of otters or of
beavers, and one only skin, whether it be of ellan, or stag's skin,
bear, or lucerne, which cloak is tied upward with a leather
ribband, and they thrust commonly one arm out ; but being in
their cabins they put it off, unless -it be cold.... As for the
women, they differ only in one thing, that is, they have a girdle
over the skin they have on ; and do resemble (without compari-

* " Nova Francia : or, the Description Of that Part of New France, Which is one

Continent with Virginia [by Mark Lescarbot, advocate]. Translated out of the

French into English, by P. E [rondelle]." The Akins copy is bound separately, but it
originally formed pp. 795-917 of the second volume of Osborne's Collection of Voyages
and Travels, compiled from the Curious and Valuable Library of the Earl of Oxford,
London, 174547, 2 Is., folio, generally called the Harleian Collection of Voyages.

28 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IX NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

son) the pictures that be made of St. John Baptist. But in
winter, they make good beaver sleeve?, tied behind, which keep
them very warm .... Our savages in the winter, going to sea,
or a hunting, do use great and high stockings, like to our boot-
hosen ; which they tie to their girdles, and at the sides outward,
there is a great number of points without taggs ...Besides
these long stockings, our savages do use shoes, which they call
mekezin, which they fashion very properly, but they cannot
dure long, especially when they go into watry places, because
they be not curried nor hardened, but only made after the
manner of buff, which is the hide of an ellan .... As for the
head attire, none of the savages have any, unless it be that some
of the hither lands truck their skins with Frenchmen for hats
and caps ; but rather both men and women wear their hairs
flittering over their shoulders, neither bound nor tied, except
that the men do truss them upon the crown of the head, some
four fingers length, with a leather lace, which they let hang
down behind." [Book II, chap, ix.]

Describing the complexion of the savages, Lescarbot says:
" They are all of an olive colour, or rather tawny colour, like to
the Spaniards, not that they be so born, but being the most part
of the time naked, they grease their bodies, and do anoint them
sometimes with oil, for to defend them from the flies, which are
very troublesome. .. .,. All they which I have seen have black
hairs, some excepted which have Abraham colour hairs ; but of
flaxen colour I have seen none, and less of red." [Book II,
chap, x.]

The Indians " have matachias, hanging at their ears, and
about their necks, bodies, arms, and legs. The Brasilians,
Floridians, and Armouchiquois, do make carkenets and bracelets
(called bow-re in Brasil, and by ours matachias) of the shells of
those great sea cockles, which be called vignols, like unto snails
which they break and gather up in a thousand pieces, then do
smooth them upon a hot stone, until they do make them very
small, and having pierced them, they make them beads with
them, like unto that which we call porcelain. Among those

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 29

beads they intermingle between spaces other beads, as black as
those which I have spoken of to be white, made with jet, or cer-
tain hard and black wood which is like unto it, which they smooth
and make small as they list, and this hath a very good grace. . . .
They esteem them more than pearls, gold or silver. .. .But
in Port Royal, and in the confines thereof, and towards New-
foundland, and at Tadoussac, where they have neither pearls nor
vignols, the maids and women do make matachias, with the
quills or bristles of the porcupine, which they dye with black,
white, and red colours, as lively as possibly may be, for our
scarlets have no better lustre than their red dye ; but they more
esteem the matachias which come unto them from the Armouchi-
quois country, and they buy them very dear ; and that because
they can get no great quanity of them, by reason of the wars
that those nations have continually one against another. There
are brought unto them from France matachias made with small
quills of glass mingled with tin or lead, which are trucked with
them, and measured by the fathom, for want of an ell." [Book
II, chap, xii.]

" Our savages have no base exercise, all their sport being
either the wars or hunting ... or in making implements fit for
the same, as Caesar witnesseth of the ancient Germans, or in
dancing ... or in passing the time in play." Lescarbot then
describes their bows and arrows, but as I have elsewhere
referred to this account, it may be here omitted. " They also,"
he says, " made wooden mases, or clubs, in the fashion of an
abbot's staff', for the war, and shields which cover all their
bodies. .... As for the quivers that is the women's trade.
For fishing: the Armouchiquois which have hemp do make fish-
ing lines with it, but ours that have not any manuring of the
ground, do truck for them with Frenchmen, as also for fishing-
hooks to bait for fish ; only they make with guts bow-strings,
and rackets, which they tieat their feet to go upon the snow a
hunting.

" And for as much as the necessity of life doth constrain
them to change place often, whether it be for fishing (for every

30 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

place hath its particular fish, which come thither in certain
season) they have need of horses in their remove for to carry
their stuff. Those horses be canoes and small boats made of
barks of trees, which go as swiftly as may be without sails :
when they remove they put all that they have into them, wives,
children, dogs, kettles, hatches, matachias, bows, arrows, quivers,
skins, and the coverings of their houses. . . . They also make
some of willows very properly, which they cover with the . . .
gum of firr-trees ; a thing which witnesseth that they lack no
wit, where necessity presseth them." [Book II, chap, xvii.]

Lescarbot says that anciently the Souriquois or Micrnacs
made earthen pots and also did till the ground ; " but since that
Frenchmen do bring unto them kettles, beans, pease, bisket and
other food, they are become slothful, and make no more account
of those exercises." [Book II, chap, xvii.]

Elsewhere in the volume the writer also tells us that the
labour of grinding corn to make bread " is so great, that the
savages (although they be very poor) cannot bear it ; and had
rather to be without bread, than to take so much pains, as it hath
been tried, offering them half of the grinding they should do,
but they chused rather to have no corn." [Book I, chap, viii.]

Writing of the women, he says, that " when the barks of
trees must be taken off in the spring-time, or in summer, there-
with to cover their houses, it is they which do that work; -as
likewise they labour in the making of canoes and small boats,
when they are to be made ; and as for the tilling of the ground
(in the countries where they use it) they take therein more pains
than the men, who do play the gentlemen, and have no care but
in hunting, or of wars. And notwithstanding all their labours,
yet commonly they love their husbands more than the women
of these our parts." [Book II, chap, xviii.]

Once Lescarbot saw meat cooked by an Indian in the follow-
ing manner. The savage " did frame with his hatchet, a tubb or
trough of the body of a tree," in which he boiled the flesh by
putting " stones made red hot in the fire in the said trough," and
replacing them by others until the meat was cooked. [Book II,
chap, xxi.]

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 31

Speaking of some Indians who followed the French vessel
along the sands, " with their bows in hand, and their quivers,
upon their backs, always singing and dancing, not taking care
with what they should live by the way," the worthy advocate
exclaims with enthusiasm, " Happy people ! yea, a thousand
times more happy than they which in these parts made them-
selves to be worshipped ; if they had the knowledge of God and
of their salvation." [Book I, chap, xiv.]

We shall now leave the old French narrator and proceed to
discuss the examples of aboriginal skill with which this paper
is chiefly concerned. In classifying the specimens, I have princi-
pally adopted the arrangement given by Dr. Charles Rau in his.
account of the archaeological collection of the United States
National Museum (Washington, 1876.) In a few cases, how-
ever, I have found it necessary to depart slightly from .his
nomenclature.

A. — FLAKED AND CHIPPED STONE.

Arrow-heads. — The collection before me contains eleven speci-
mens which IJiave so denominated (Plate I, Figs. 1 to 11). This is
rather a small number, but it is very likely that several have been
lost or given away since the formation of the collection. Some of
the implements are flaked with great skill. With one exception,
to be hereafter noted, all are formed of silicious stones, mostly
jaspideous, such as are found in the western parts of the pro-
vince. None have been polished in any degree. All are the
result of the ordinary process of flaking by pressure. The
points are mostly unfractured. In length the specimens vary
from 1'25 in. (Fig. 8) to nearly 275 ins. (Fig. 4). Larger imple-
ments of this kind are denominated " spear-heads." The dis-
tinction, however, is an arbitrary one ; for without the handle,
which almost invariably has utterly decayed, there is no means,
by which an archaeologist, in the present state of our knowledge>
can form a fixed rule by which he may assert positively whether
a given head was used as a spear, an arrow, or a knife. It is
very likely that some of the larger so-called arrow-heads, as well
as many of the " spear-heads," were hafted and employed as

32 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IX NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

cutting tools. Owing to this uncertainty as to the method of use,
Dr. Wilson of the U. S. National Museum, in his Study of Pre-
historic Archaeology (1890), treats of all these implements under
the general head of " arrow- or spear-heads, or knives."

Two specimens (Figs. 1 — 2) are leaf-shaped with rounded
(convex) bases. The proportions and finish of one of these
(Fig. 2) makes it possible that it may have been a leaf-shaped
implement either intended to be hafted as a knife, or else inserted
in the head of a club. In appearance it resembles some of the
palaeolithic implements of Europe, and it probably belongs to
that hitherto much neglected class of aboriginal remains which
Dr. Wilson considers to be indicative of a palaeolithic period in
American archaeology. Professor Wilson's researches in this
direction are most interesting and important, and open a new
and wide field for investigation.*

Another specimen (length 1*8 in.) is straight-sided with a
slightly concave base (Fig. 3). Five well-formed specimens (Figs.
4-8) are notched at the sides near the base. This class includes both
the largest and the smallest example (2'75 — 1'2 ins.). The former
(Fig. 4) would have been grouped with the spear-heads but for
its slight proportions. A sixth specimen (Fig. 9) is broken, but
possibly belongs to this class. Only one (Fig. 10) is stemmed and
has a slightly concave base. The stem, like the notched sides
before mentioned, was to facilitate the attachment of the head
to a shaft. The last specimen to be considered, is barbed and
stemmed (Fig. 11). It is T50 inch in length, and is neatly
chipped from an olive-green or slightly smoky-coloured mate-
rial, which from the smooth, curved surface of one side, and
other appearances, seems to be nothing but bottle-glass.

An interesting account of the bows and arrows of our Indians
is found in the quaint account of the old French advocate before
quoted. The bows, saith Lescarbot, " be strong and without
fineness." " As for arrows," continueth he, " it is an admirable

* Vide Thomas Wilson's " Results of an Inquiry as to the existence of Man in North
America during the Paleolithic Period of the Stone Age." (Report of U. S. Nat.
Museum, 1887-88).

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 33

thing how they can make them so long and so strait [sic] with
a knife, yea with a stone only, where they have no knives.
They feather them with the feathers of an eagle's tail, because
they are firm and carry themselves well in the air : and when
they want them they will give a beaver's skin, yea, twain for
one of those tails. For the head, the savages that have traffic
with Frenchmen do head them with iron heads which are brought
to them ; but the Armouchiquois,* and others more remote, have
nothing but bones made like serpents' tongues, or with [sic] the
tail of a certain fish called sicnau. ... As for the quivers, that
is the women's trade." Bow-strings, according to the same
authority, were made of intestines, and snow-shoes or rackets
were strung with the same material.

Spear-heads (or Cutting Implements?). — Two stemmed
specimens (Figs. 12-13), one perfect, the other without the point,
are in the Fairbanks collection. The uninjured one is three
inches long, and the other, without doubt, was the same length.
Two fragments (Figs. 14-15), one of which (Fig. 14) had been a
very beautiful and delicate weapon, may also be placed in the
present class. A fifth specimen (Fig. 16), 3'50 inches long and
somewhat thick, formed of an argillaceous stone, roughly flaked,
may be a spear-head or else a leaf-shaped implement for use as a
cutting tool or for insertion in the head of a club.

The McCulloch collection, Dalhousie College, Halifax, contains
a few stone implements, among which is a stemmed and slightly
barbed spear -head (Fiof. 82), 4 inches in length and 2*25 inches
in greatest breadth. The same collection also contains a leaf-
shaped implemement (Fig, 81) of white quartz, 4 75 inches long
and 2 inches in greatest breadth.

There remain to be described a couple of implements which
may best be considered here, although, strictly speaking, they
are of polished stone. The inconsistency of placing them under
the general head of flaked implements, is immaterial and may
be pardoned.

* The Indians who lived in what is now New Hampshire and Massachusetts.

3

34 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

Mr. Henry Sorette, of Bridgewater, N. S., has sent me a,
drawing of a very remarkable implement of unusual length
which was found with other relics while excavations were being
made for a canal at Milton, Queen's County, N. S. The imple-
ment may be likened to a poniard blade. Apparently it had
been ground into shape. It is 18 inches long and tapers
regularly from 175 inch in width at the base, to about 75 of an
inch (according to the drawing) in width at a distance of about
three-quarters of an inch from the end, where it suddenly
diminishes to a point. Mr. Sorette's drawing seems to indicate
a central line or elevation from base to point. My informer
thinks it is made of hard slate. While being taken from the
ground, it was broken into four pieces. Doubtless this relic was
a ceremonial implement, such as some of the exquisitely flaked
blades, long and delicate, which have been found in California.*
Its fragile character would forbid any rough usage such as that
of war or sport. Strange to say, one or more other implements
of this type were discovered with it at Milton. Mr. John S.
Hughes of the Milton Pulp Company, in a letter to me relative
to this discovery, says, " quite a number of relics were found
when we were excavating for the canal ; they consisted of stone
chisels, gouges, and ' swords or fish-spears ' about 20 to 2*4 inches,
long [i. e., poniard-shaped stone blades, one of which has just
been described]. The articles were generally kept by the finders.
Out of the lot 1 got one gouge, and Mr. Sorette has one of the
swords."

In the McCulloch collection already referred to, there is a
polished slate " spear-head " with a stem notched on the sides to
facilitate the attachment of a handle or shaft (Fig. 83). A
portion of the point, probably about three-quarters of an inch, is
missing. It measures nearly 6 50 inches in length, by T35 inch
in width at the base of the blade, from which place it tapers.
very gradually to the broken point. The central portion of the
blade is flat. This flat part is bordered on both sides by con-

•* See Report of U. S. Geographical Surveys west of 100th Meridian, vol. vii,.
(Archeeology), page 49 et seq.

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 35

spicious bevels, thus forming the edges. The specimen is
unlabelled, but all of the implements in the collection of which
it forms part are understood to have been found in Nova Scotia.
Ground stone implements of this kind are extremely rare in the
province. Dr. J. B. Gilpin in his account of the stone age of
Nova Scotia (Transactions N. 8. I. Ar. S., vol. iii.) mentions an
arrow-head which was polished like a celt and made of hardened
slate ; and a spear-head also of slate, similarly fashioned, is
referred to in my account of the aboriginal remains in the
Provincial Museum. These are all which have come to my
notice.

Before passing to the next class, I may repeat that I consider
it extremely unlikely that the implements now under notice
were actually used as spear-points. Arrow-shaped implements
more than 275 inches in length, have been denominated
spear-heads in this paper more from the general custom of
archaeologists than my own inclinations. Lescarbot makes no
mention of spears as one of the weapons of the Micmacs or
Souriquois of his day, although he enumerates with a good deal
of detail their other implements of war, such as bows and arrows,
and clubs.* This negative evidence has not been sufficiently
noted. It is far more probable that most of the so-called
spear-heads and leaf-shaped implements found in Nova Scotia,
are knives. Our Micmacs had stone tools for fashioning bows
and arrow-shafts and for skinning animals, and yet they are
seldom recognized by collectors. This indicates that the Indian
knife has been confounded with some other implement which it
resembles. " Collectors are very ready," says Dr. Rau, " to class
chipped stone articles of certain forms occurring throughout the
United States as arrow- and lance-heads." Such has been much
the habit of our local writers. The spear-shaped implements must
be considered as being fairly adapted for cutting. The Pai-Utes of
Southern Utah, up to the present time employ as knives, blades

* Rev. John Mecklenburg, or as he classically wrote his name, Johannes Megapol-
ensis, in his Short Account of the Maquas Indians in Neiv Netherlands written in 1644,
also makes no mention of spears as weapons of war among the Indians of that locality*
He speaks of bows and arrows, stone axes and mallets.

36 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

made of chipped stone and identical in form with, what are too
frequently termed spear or arrow-heads. These are inserted into
short wooden handles. According to Major J. W. Powell, these
knives are very effective, especially in cutting leather. The natives
of Alaska still occasionally use knives formed in a similar manner,
which they carry in a rough wooden scabbard. A most signifi-
cant fact is mentioned by the late Dr. Gilpin*. An admirable
Indian hunter named Joe Glode, once shot a moose in Annapolis
County. Not having a knife, he. immediately took the flint from
his gun, and without more ado, bled and dressed the carcass
therewith. Lescarbot, in a sentence before quoted, mentions the
occasional use of a stone in fashioning arrow-shafts.

B. — PECKED, GROUND, AND POLISHED STONE.

Polished Stone Hatchets or Celts, and Adzes. — These two
groups I have classed together, for although the tools I shall
here describe are usually termed celts or, more correctly, stone
hatchets, in most archaeological books, yet after a careful exami-
nation of a great many specimens found in this province, I have
come to the conclusion that nearly all of those specimens, in
form or otherwise, bear evidence of having been used as adzes,
mostly hafted to wooden handles in the manner still or until
recently exemplified in the stone implements of the South Sea
Islands and elsewhere. This was accomplished in the following
manner. A branch of sufficient stoutness was obtained, together
with part of the stem from which.it sprang. The stem portion
was then split, forming a flat surface, and the superfluous wood
having been trimmed therefrom, the flat portion was applied
to the face of the stone tool which was then lashed to it by
means of raw-hide thongs or possibly withes. Owing to the
tapering form of the stone head, every blow would tend to
tighten the hold of the binding. A piece of skin was perhaps
interposed between the handle and the stone, as the Indians
of Dakota have been known to do in fashioning their bone
hoes or adzes.-)- There cannot be a doubt that most of the

* '• Stone Age of Nova Scotia." Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat Sc.< vol. iii.

t See Rau, Archaeological Collection of U. S. National Museum, p. 95, fig. 334, etc.

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IX NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 37

specimens, hereafter to be described, were so hafted and used as
adzes, their form making it very manifest. Some may have been
encircled a couple of times with the central portion of a withe,
the ends of which when bound together would form an adze-
handle, but one not so convenient as that just described. Occa-
sionally they may have been held directly in the hand, and used
as an adze, but I do not think it is at all probable.

The evident adze-like form of so-called celts or polished
stone hatchets found in Nova Scotia, has been largely or entirely
overlooked by writers upon the subject ; neither Dr. Gilpin nor
Dr. Patterson having paid sufficient attention to this most
interesting fact. To me it seems of much importance. Scarcely
a " celt " can be found which does not give rise to a suspicion
that it had been used as an adze. Further attention will be
drawn to this in the pages which follow. Our Indians, like some
oriental peoples, seem to have preferred a drawing cut or one
made toward the body. This is very evident and remarkable
in the present drawing-method in which the Midmacs use their
home-made steel knives, a method which is entirely at variance
with the practice of those about them.* This of course is the
survival of a very ancient habit, and must not be lost sight of by
investigators.

In answer to an inquiry upon the subject, Dr. Bailey tells me
that in all New Brunswick celts there is a difference of curva-
ture on the two sides — one being flatter than the other ; but the
amount of difference varies a good deal, and in some cases is
hardly perceptible.

Mr. David Boyle, whose name is prominent in Canadian
archaeology, also writes me that about nine-tenths of the " celts "
found in Ontario are flat, or comparatively flat, on one side, which
is more or less indicative of their having been adzes. One thou-
sand stone axes or adzes, at least, are in the museum of the
Canadian Institute, of which Mr. Boyle is curator.

He furthermore mentions a significant fact which shows how
prevalent among the Eskimo is the adze method of hafting. " It

* It resembles a good deal the manner in which a blacksmith uses his knife for
paring hoofs.

38 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

has been recently observed," he writes, " that when European
hatchets have been given to these people, they invariably take
out the handle and attach another sidewise, by binding it with
thongs or sinews through and around the eye."

Murdoch also says that the Indians of the north-west coast
of America always re-haft as adzes any steel hatchets which
they obtain by trade. In some cases they even go to the great
trouble of cutting away parts of the implement in order to
better adapt it to the new method of use.*

Lieut. T. Dix Bolles in his catalogue of Eskimo articles
collected along the north and north-west coast of America, men-
tions no axes among the many thousands of objects noted.
There were, however, twenty adzes, eighty-seven adze-blades,
and eleven adze-heads. Dr. Wilson, of the IT. S. National
Museum, says that the same condition exists all down the
coast to Lower California, no stone tools — save in one instance —
having been found which undoubtedly had been used axe-wise.'f

Among certain tribes, I understand a grooved implement is
found which is used as an axe, but among the Eskimo it is
replaced by the grooved adze. The line between these two
implements is now being investigated, Does the prevalence of
the adze-form in Nova Scotia indicate in any way ike, influence
or presence of the more northern race ?+ There is evidence to
show that the latter people once inhabited the country much to
the south of the region in which they now dwell, and the Micmacs
at one time waged war upon them, as described by Charlevoix.
.To return once more to the form and use of the so-called
celts found in Nova Scotia, it may be said that the few speci-

*See John Murdoch in Ninth Annual Report U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 165-
166, and figs. 128-129.

t See Lieut. T. Dix Bolles, " Preliminary Catalogue of Eskimo Collection in U. S.
Nat. Museum," in Report of Nat, Miis. for 1887; also Dr. Thomas Wilson, ''Stone
Cutting Implements," 4th paper, in The Archaeologist for June, 1895, (vol. iii, p. 179.)

J I would like to draw particular attention to the possibility of many of our pre-
historic remains being relics of the occupation of the country by Eskimo, previous to
their having been driven northward by the Micmacs. The latter belong to the Algon-
quin family, and doubtless pressed to the north in accordance with the general direc-
tion of migration in the east. The significance of the form of Nova Scotian stone
implements as bearing upon the question of the occupation of the land by a northern
race, has not, I think, before been noted by writers.

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 39

rnens which are not distinctly more convex on one side than on
the other, possibly were inserted in clubs or used as hatchets.
With a wooden mallet they could be used without a haft as
wedges to split wood, which might sometimes be necessary ; but
they could never be struck with a stone hammer as some sug-
gest. The more common adze-like form, however, was well
adapted for very many uses to which it might be put by savage
man, such, for instance, as clearing away the charred wood in
the process of forming various hollow vessels by the action of fire,
cleaning fresh skins of adhering particles of flesh, and numerous
other operations. Lescarbot mentions that the Armouchiquois
(Indians inhabiting what is now called New Hampshire and
Massachusetts), Virginians, and other tribes to the south, made
wooden canoes by the aid of fire, the burnt part being scraped
away " with stones."

Thirty-eight of these so-called celts or adzes, either complete
or fragmentary, are in the Fairbanks collection (Figs. 17-54), and
nearly all show some indications of the adze-form to which I
have drawn attention. This will be seen by reference to the
side views of the implements shown in the accompanying plates.
In size they vary from 4'5() to about 1175 inches in length. All
taper more or less toward the butt or end farthest from the
edge. The latter is nearly always much rounded, producing a
gouge-like cut, well suited to such uses as forming hollows in
wood, dressing skins, etc.

Two typical specimens may be selected in order to exemplify
•differences in form. The first (Fig. 17) which illustrates the
broader form, measures nearly 7'50 inches in length and 3'25 in
width near the cutting edge, thence tapering to 2*10 in width
<;lose to the butt, where it rounds off. The greatest thickness is
1*60 inch. The implement has been intentionally formed some-
what flatter on one side than on the other. This is quite notice-
able. The flattened side is more polished than the other,
probably from the friction of a haft.

About eight or nine specimens resemble this form pretty
•closely, a few others less so (Figs. 17 to 30). One (Fig. 25) is

40 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

nearly 11 inches long by 3 25 in greatest breadth, and weighs 57
ounces. Another specimen (4*50 x 2 25 x '75 ins.) is formed of a.
greenish-tinted stone, fine in texture, and capable of bearing an
excellent polish and a fine edge (Fig. 19). It differs in material
from all other specimens in the collection, but resembles in this,
respect, as well as in shape, a small felsite implement from
Summerside, P. E. I., which is described in my paper on the
aboriginal remains in the Provincial Museum.

To illustrate the second or more elongated form, I shall take
a fine, well- formed specimen (Fig. 31), the production of which
must have cost its maker much skilful labour. It was originally
about 11*75 inches long, but an inch of the end bearing the edge
has been broken oft*. At the broader extremity, it measures
2 inches in width, from which it tapers gradually and gracefully
until it measures 1'20 in breadth at the butt. The thickest
portion — about 4 inches from the cutting edge previous to being
fractured — measures T25, from which it becomes rapidly thin
in order to form a sharp edge, and very gradually thinner
toward the opposite end or butt. Its weight is about 26
ounces. One side of the tool is almost perfectly flat, contrasting
greatly with the rounded form of the other side. In the
present specimen and some others which resemble it in this
respect, the central line of elevation from end to end, on the
convex side, is very noticeable and adds not a little to the beauty
of the implement ; others are more regularly rounded and do
not exhibit this ridge. A section at right angles to the length
would be plano-convex in outline. The specimens which most
nearly resemble this typical one. have the edge very much
rounded or nearly semicircular, and so produce a deep cut lik&
that made by a gouge.

Some twenty specimens (Figs. 31-50) — eleven of them being
parts of broken implements — may be described as evidently of
this form, and a few others resemble it more or less. They are
without the slightest doubt adzes, and are more plainly adze-like
in shape than those of the first type. Both forms grade into
each other.

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS, 41

One incomplete specimen of the second type bears a longi-
tudinal groove on the flat side, extending to within nearly 2'50
inches of the cutting edge (Fig. 46). I have never before seen a
groove thus cut on a Nova Scotian implement of this kind.
It may have been intended to lodge the crooked portion of a
handle, thus gaining greater firmness, or possibly it once extended
so as to form a gouge at the missing end, as remarkably
instanced in two gouges, referred to hereafter. The latter
explanation, however, does not seem probable. It may be that
the tapered end or butt having been broken off, the groove was
formed in order to again haft the remaining part in the manner
just suggested ; otherwise the re-hafted fragment would doubtless
have slipped in its lashings. A short transverse groove, however,
would have answered the purpose, and probably could have been
more easily made.

A well-formed specimen (Fig. 47) of the second type, propor-
tionately broader than other implements of the kind, has a boss
near the middle of the convex side, which would help to retain
the lashing in place. At the point of the butt there is a slight
prominence for the same purpose. This is additional evidence
of the adze method of hafting. An implement of the first or
broader type, exhibits a similar knob on the same side, near the
butt (Fig. 22). A gouge (Fig 63) in the collection also has two
well-defined bosses, one near the butt and the other near the
middle. One or two other gouges have slightly raised .trans verse
ridges for the same purpose. This indicates that some form of
gouges, at least, were hafted like adzes.

A couple of implements resembling the second type, are
somewhat rectangular in transverse section (Figs. 49 and 50).
A thin celt, 6 inches long and '65 of an inch thick, shown in
Fig. 51, was possibly used as a chisel. Two other specimens
(Figs. 53 and 54), measuring respectively 11 '25 and 12 inches,
are very rough. One, palaeolithic in appearance, is merely chipped
into form. The other (Fig. 53) is doubtless a natural form, and
would have been rejected from the present account were it not
for indications that the larger end had been artificially brought

42 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

to an edge. These two implements may belong to an older
period than those of finer workmanship.* Attention has recently
been drawn to supposed evidences of a palaeolithic age in
America, and Prof. Thomas Wilson of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion has dealt with the subject in a paper entitled " Results of an
Enquiry as to the existence of Man in North America during the
Paleolithic Period of the Stone Age " (Report U. S. National
Museum, 1887-88) which has been referred to on a previous page.
Collectors in Nova Scotia should search closely for the ruder
forms of implements, which from their apparently unwrought
appearance may have hitherto escaped notice.

The collection contains an interesting implement which
possibly is an adze (Fig. 55). It measures 10'50 inches in length,
2'50 inches in breadth near the cutting edge, and 2'15 at the
butt, and its greatest thickness is about 1*70. It is elliptical in
section ; and does not appear to be noticeably more flat on one
side than on the other. The cutting edge is battered and very
dull, and the butt is somewhat shattered from a blow. What
makes it particularly remarkable, is a slight groove which encircles
it entirely, a little more than six inches from the cutting edge.
Just above the groove are two prominences or shoulders, one on
each lateral edge of the tool, and from thence to the butt the edge
is slightly hollowed ; all of which would assist in the attachment
of a handle. I do not remember ever to have seen a similar
example from Nova Scotia. It forms a link between the celt or
adze and the ordinary grooved axe.

Besides the celts or adzes in the collection just referred to,
some other undescribed examples which have come to my notice
may be here described.

The McCulloch collection contains eight specimens(Figs.84,85,
87-92), all presumably from this province. Two (Figs. 89 and 90)
are fragmentary, the rest entire. About five of them (respec-
tively 10'50; 9 50, 7, 6, and 475 inches in length) may be likened
to the first or broader type (Figs. 84-85, 87-88, 92). One of these
(475 X 2'25 inches), showing the transition to the grooved axe,

* A few rude celts in the Provincial Museum resemble the two described above.

RELICS OF THE STOXE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 43

is slightly indented on the two lateral edges midway in the
length (Fig. 92). This was for the purpose of holding the lashing
which bound the haft adzewise. It agrees in size and shape with
a syenite implement in the Provincial Museum, a description of
which will be found in a previous paper.* The adze-like form
is more or less noticeable in the specimens in the McCulloch
collection. It is difficult to decide to which type the two frag-
ments belong. The collection also contains an extremely small
and frail "celt" (Fig. 91) — the most slightly proportioned one
which I have seen. It is not quite 4'25 inches long, an inch in
greatest breadth, and '50 of an inch in greatest thickness.^ Its
form is very symmetrical. Possibly it was intended for the use
of a child, or else for some finer work than that for which the
larger tools were adapted. In the Fairbanks collection, the
shortest complete specimen, which is distinctly of the second
type, measures a little more than 5*25 inches in length (Fig. 35).
An implement (Fig. 86), eight inches in length, found near
Margarie, Cape Breton, has been shown to me by E. C. Fairbanks,
Esq., of Halifax. It is evidently an adze, and belongs to the
broader form.

From rny examinations of Dr. Patterson's large collection in
the museum of Dalhousie College, J I find that nearly every
so-called celt or axe therein, exhibits, more or less distinctly, one
side which is intentionally more convex or rounded than the
other ; which, with other occasional indications, tends to raise
a suspicion that they had been used as adzes. An adze (No.
40) in that collection, labelled a " stone axe, Middle River Pt.,
Pictou Co." (length 9*50 inches, greatest breadth 2*65), still retains
the worn places, on the flatter side, made by contact with the
adze-handle. Indications of this are also to be found in other
instances. No. 53 in the same collection, labelled a " celt or

* Aboriginal Remains of N. S., Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., 1st series, vol. vii, p. 282.

t In my paper mentioned in the above note, the measurements of three " celts " were
misprinted as much shorter than this. The figures in lines 17, 18. and 22, page 280, of
that paper, should respectively read 4'90, 4, and 4 '90 inches.

t A full description of this excellent collection will be found in Dr. Patterson's
paper on " The Stone Age of Nova Scotia," Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., series I, vol. vii.

44 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

chisel," is nearly flat on one side, while around the other side is
a depression or shallow groove wherein where lodged the thongs
which bound it to an adze-haft. In nearly every case the cutting
edge is more or less rounded ; very rarely is it nearly straight.
Indications of the prevalence of the adze-form of tool, are very
frequent, and in many cases they leave not a doubt as to how
the implement was used. In an axe or hatchet the flat side
would have little or no advantage, except that it would allow the
tool to lie closer to the wood in making cuts in one direction.

Chisels. — There is no implement before me which I care so
to designate, although one thin celt, before mentioned, might be
so considered by some (Fig. 51). It seems doubtful whether our
Indians ever used an implement in the manner in which we
handle a chisel. A hafted implement for striking blows would
be far more useful to a savage people.

Gouges. — Dr. Rau, in his description of the archseological
collection of the IT. S. National Museum, says that these imple-
ments occur in the United States far less frequently than the
celts, and that they appear to be chiefly confined to the Atlantic
States. The latter circumstance suggests that the work in
which they were employed, was principally necessary or pos-
sible in the country bordering the eastern coast. They may
have been used in making canoes, but we would then expect to
find them abundant on the Pacific Coast, unless another imple-
ment was there applied to the purpose, which is quite likely.
Their employment by certain tribes may account for their more
frequent occurrence in particular parts of the continent. Of
course it is not probable that all gouges were put to the same
use. Doubtless many of them, perhaps even all, were hafted
adzewise, and employed in forming hollows in wood which had
previously been charred by fire and so rendered capable of being
worked by such fragile tools. They would thus be useful in
making wooden canoes, or in fashioning various utensils from
the same material. I cannot agree with those who consider that
some of these easily-destructible implements (those with the
groove from end to end) were employed in tapping and gathering

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 45

the sap of the rock maple. Surely the axes or adzes were well
adapted to making the requisite incision in the bark, and this
having been done, a piece of birch-bark, always available, was
without doubt employed to conduct the fluid so it should fall
into a receptacle beneath. Dr. Gilpin also was mistaken in
supposing that gouges, etc., were used in making arrow-heads.
We must never lose sight of the fact that the Indian had a fragile
material from which to form his tools, and he had therefore to
handle them with much care. The fair, and frequently very
excellent state of preservation in which we find the edge of most
cutting implements, shows that they were not often taxed
beyond their strength.

Seventeen gouges are in the Fairbanks collection (Figs. 56_
72). In length the perfect specimens vary from 5.50 to 10.50
inches. With perhaps one or two exceptions, all taper more or
Jess toward the extremity furthest from the crescent-shaped
edge. The one which most plainly exhibits this tapered form,
measures 2 inches in width near the latter edge, and thence
tapers regularly to a small rounded end at the other extremity •
its total length being 6'50 inches (Fig. 63). These implements
are often of noticeable symmetry, and probably were once well-
polished. They are formed of stones of only moderete hardness.

The extent of the groove which gives them their characteristic
form, varies much. Such variations, doubtless indicate different
uses to which the tool was to be put.

In some, the groove is almost entirely indistinguishable and
confined to the vicinity of the cutting edge. They thus pass
gradually into the adze-form, which this tool otherwise greatly
resembles. Three or four of the gouges before me, are of this
unpronounced shape (Figs. 56-58, 60). They vary from 8'50 to a
little more than 6 inches in length.

Six specimens have the groove extending about half the
length (Figs. 59, 61-65)*. They vary from 6 to 1050 inches in

* A specimen (Fig. 93) in the McCulloch collection, Dalhousie College, differs a little
from typical examples of this form, and slightly exhibits the transition to that in which
the groove extends throughout.

46 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

length. Another specimen of this kind is in my own collection,
and was found at Waverley, near Dartmouth, by Mr. Skerry
(Fig. 94). It, together with three of the six just mentioned, are
wide and exhibit a very deep, broad groove. Another, narrow
and 9 inches long, is very interesting (Fig. 64). Although the
groove is quite evident and extends for half the length, yet the
end of the tool bears no cutting edge, that portion being blunt.
The other extremity, however, has been rubbed into a narrow
adze-like edge. The implement may be a disabled gouge which
had been altered into an adze ; the gouge groove, having been
utilized as a convenient resting place for the T-shaped portion of
a handle, which was then whipped round with thongs. Or
possibly the groove may have been intentionally made in order
to assist in maintaining the position of the haft. Another
specimen (Fig. 65) much resembles the one just described, but
the gouge-edge is less blunt. Both may have been hafted in the
middle like a modern pick-axe, and so used both as a gouge and
and as an adze ; but this is not probable. As a slick-stone for
dressing skins, the combination of two forms would not be with-
out advantage. The fragment of an adze-like implement (Fig.
46) which has been referred to in my description of polished
stone hatchets and adzes, resembles the two tools I have just
noticed, inasmuch as although the edge is undoubtedly adze-like
in shape, yet the upper portion of the fragment bears a shallow
but distinct groove. Among the specimens in the cabinet of the
Canadian Institute, Toronto, is an implement having a gouge at
one extremity and a chisel at the other. It was found in Simcoe
County, Ontario, and will be found figured in the report of the
Institute for 1891, page 38.

An examination of at least three gouges (Figs. 61, 63, 94,) of
the second or half-grooved form, puts it beyond doubt that these
three were hafted like adzes, with the concavity facing the user.
My own specimen (Fig. 94) from Waverley shows plainly on the
convex side two ridges for retaining the lashing, and another
(Fig. 63), well proportioned, exhibits two prominent nodules for
the same purpose. One or two adze-like " celts " bear similar

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 47

nodules (Figs. 47 and 22). Probably many other gouges were
thus hafted. Without doubt it was the most reasonable method
of handling these tools when delivering excavating blows.

We shall now pass to those gouges in which the groove extends
throughout the entire length. Five well-defined examples (Figs,
66-70) are in the Fairbanks collection, together with two (Figs.
71, 72) which are rough and very poorly formed. The groove
varies in depth from about '09 of an inch (Fig. 72) to more than
*50 of an inch (Fig. 66), and in width from a little over "75 to-
nearly T50, Three of the five well-formed examples are frag-
mentary, having been transversely broken near the middle.
The adze-like manner of hafting would not be quite so well
adapted to this particular form.

Grooved Axes. — These implements are rarely found in Nova
Scotia. Dr. Patterson has succeeded in obtaining but one speci-
men (7'25 inches long by 325 wide) which was discovered at St.
Mary's, Guysborough County. Two examples are in the Provincial
Museum, Halifax, and have been previously described.* One of
them is double grooved. In this respect it is probably unique in
Nova Scotia. The second groove was very likely formed in
order to shift the haft and so improve the balance of a faulty
implement. These, together with the examples which I am
about to describe, are a 11 which have come to my notice in Nova
Scotia. It is quite possible that they were only introduced
through trade with other tribes or as trophies of war. They are
also rare in Ontario as compared with Ohio, Kentucky, and some
neighbouring states. Dr. Bailey informs me that of six axes in
the museum of the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
four are grooved, and he has seen others of the same kind in the
St. John collection and elsewhere in that province.

Two well-formed, perfect specimens (Figs. 73-74) each with
a single groove, are in the Fairbanks collection. They agree in
outline and general proportions, and their form may be consider-
ed typical. The larger one (Fig. 73) is 7'50 inches long and '4
inches in greatest width, and weighs 49J ounces. The smaller

* Trans. N. 8. Inst. Nat. Sc., vol. vii., p. 282.

48 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

one is 6*75 inches in length and 3*75 in greatest breadth, and
weighs 40 ounces. Both appear to have been formed from
oval quartzite boulders such as are found on beaches. From
near the groove, to the edge, they are neatly " pecked " into shape,
while the whole of the butt, above the groove, is smooth, being
evidently the original surface of the boulder. The aboriginal
worker in stone, was doubtless always ready to take advantage
of such material as nature had already partially shaped, thus
lessening his labour. The edges do not show signs of rough
usage. The butt of the smaller one is intact, but that of the
larger bears the marks of many light blows which probably were
the result of its use in cracking bones in order to extract
the marrow.

These axes could have been employed in detaching birch bark
and in girdling trees and so killing them preparatory to felling
them by the aid of fire, the axe being again used in order to
remove the charcoal as it formed. The tool would also constitute
a formidable weapon. Prehistoric man made his few implements
answer as many purposes as possible.

An axe very similar to those I have described, is figured by
Dr. Rau (Archcetogical Collection of U. S. National Museum,
figure 72). It was found in Massachusetts. I have never seen
a Nova Scotian axe with the groove only on three sides,
as shown by that writer in figure 73 of his work.

Hammers. — A. beautiful hammer-head (Fig. 95) is in my own
collection. It is formed from an egg-shaped boulder, very
slightly compressed on opposite sides. Its length is 3'50 inches,
greatest breadth 2'50 inches, and its weight a little more than 19
ounces. Midwa}'- from either end, it is entirely encircled by a
" pecked " groove, which has not been smoothed by friction.
This groove was formed in order to attach a handle. Its
roughened surface would tend to increase the hold of the haft and
its lashings, and the interposition of a piece of hide, which was
quite probable, might account for the absence of any smooth
surfaces in the groove. Each end shows distinctly the denting
marks of numerous blows, but there are no large fractures. This

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 49

condition of the ends and the formation of the groove, are
evidences of the hand of man, but the oval shape of the stone is
the work of natural agencies, perhaps slightly improved by the
skill of the aboriginal craftsman. The implement was pro-
bably used as a weapon in time of war, while in the peaceful
occupations of savage life, it was put to any uses to which it was
adapted.

Grooved stone hammers are very rare in Nova Scotia, in
truth I do not remember to have met with another. They are
also, I believe, rare in the neighbouring province of New
Brunswick. My specimen was found in July, 1894, while the
foundation was being dug for a manse, two or three rods to the
northward of St. James's Presbyterian Church at Dartmouth.
A great number of human skeletons have been unearthed at that
spot, but after careful inquiry and personal search for anything
which might serve to identify those who are there buried, I have
only succeeded in obtaining this hammer and a linear-shaped
piece of iron, 9'50 inches long, which 1 think must have been a
dagger-shaped implement, or possibly a spear-point. A second
iron relic of the same kind was discovered, but I did not see if.
The bones were from one foot to two and a half or three feet
below the surface of the ground. In one instance I succeeded
in finding the remains of a nailed wooden box or rough coffin.
It was almost entirely disintegrated and chiefly appeared as a
dark-coloured line in the soil. The grooved-hammer was found
close to one of the skulls. After a good deal of investigation, I
have come to the opinion that there is no evidence whatever to
to show that this was an Indian cemetery, except the presence of
the above-mentioned relics. Those who are buried there, are
doubtless white men. The theory that they were the victims of
the massacre at Dartmouth in 1751, cannot be maintained.
Various reasons make me strongly of the belief that this spot
bears the bones of many of the Due d'Anville's plague -stricken
followers, others of whom were interred near the shores of Bedford
Basin. For further information on this point, the reader may
refer to a footnote on page 6 of Mrs. Lawson's History of
4

50 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

Dartmouth. It is known that the Micmacs assembled about the
French camp, and the presence of an Indian implement in the
burial-ground of their allies is not to be wondered at. The
weapon may even have been placed in one of the coffins as a,
savage mark of respect for the alien dead.

Pendants and Sinkers. — Two well-formed specimens of this
class — one perfect, the other nearly so — are in the Fairbanks
collection (Figs. 75-76). They are both somewhat pear-shaped
and much resemble plummets. The lower extremity is pointed,
and the upper end expands into a knob to facilitate suspen-
sion. They thus resemble figure 106 in Dr. Rau's description
of the archaeological collection of the U. S. National Museum
The larger one (Fig. 76) is formed of dark red sandstone, and
measures four inches in length. The greatest diameter is toward
the lower end. The other is made of a dark hard stone. Its
length is three inches, and the largest part is situated about
midway between the ends. It is not so elongated as the other
example. The two sides, including the knob, are somewhat com-
pressed, thus making the diameter T40 inch in one direction
and 170 in the other.

A third " sinker " (Fig. 80) has been kindly lent me by W. C.
Silver, Esq., of Halifax. It was found in the bed of the Salmon
River, adjoining that gentleman's property at Preston, about
seven miles to the east of Halifax. He informs me that the place
where it was discovered was an old spawning ground. The
specimen is a very beautiful and perfect one, fashioned with
great pains from a reddish stone, like sandstone, containing small
particles of mica. Its length is 3'25 inches, and its greatest
diameter (1*20 inch) is near the upper end or point of suspension.
The groove just below the knob at the top, is distinctly
smoothened by a thong bv means of which it must have once
been suspended. The discovery of the stone in a river, tends to
strengthen the view that it had in some way* been employed in
connection with fishing. Whatever may have been its use, it
shows what skilful work our Indians bestowed upon the manu-
facture of some of their implements.

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 51

These so-called " plummets " or " sinkers " are very rare
in Nova Scotia, Dr. Gilpin figures one in his paper on the
stone age. There are but two in the Patterson collection : one,
3*75 inches long, well-shaped, with a pointed lower end, being
from Annapolis County ; the other, two inches long, quite light
in weight, with a rounded end, from Lunenburg County. There
are none in the collection in the Provincial Museum. Dr. Bailey
in his " Relics of the Stone Age in New Brunswick," figures
four or five which had been found in that province.

It is worthy of remark that the sides of such specimens as I
have examined, exhibit more or less a tendency toward com-
pression, as has been already noted of one example. This slightly
flattened form was probably intentional. Dr. Patterson's
Annapolis " sinker " has been ground down in one or two places
on the side, but I have not found any others in this condition.
I may say that although all specimens are carefully fashioned,
and of the same general appearance, yet they differ much among
themselves in detail of form. In no case have I noted any with
a hole for suspension, although such would have been a more
secure method of hanging them had they been used as weights
for fishing-lines.

These pear-shaped objects have long perplexed archseologists
who have attempted to define their use. We find them variously
denominated sling-shots, sinkers for fishing-tackle, stones used in
playing some game, personal ornaments, sacred implements for
performing some religious ceremonies, plummets, spinning-
weights, etc.

In a paper entitled " Charm Stones ; Notes on the so-called
'Plummets' or 'Sinkers,'" Dr. Lorenzo G. Yates has presented
the very interesting results of his investigation into the uses of
such implements. For reasons given in the paper, he discards
all the stated theories on the subject, except that relating to
their employment in sorcery.

A Santa Barbara Indian, California, when asked by Mr.
H. W. Henshaw why one of these stones could not have been
used as a line sinker, replied with much common sense, " Why

52 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

should we make stones like that when the beach supplies sinkers
in abundance ? Our sinkers were beach stones, and when we
lost one we picked up another."

A very old Indian chief, of the Napa tribe of California, told
Dr. Yates that the plummet-shaped objects were charm-stones,
which were suspended over the water where the Indians
intended to fish. A stick fixed in the bank, he said, bore a cord
which sustained the bewitched stone. In a similar manner they
were employed in order to obtain good luck while hunting.
Napa Indians also state that they were sometimes laid upon
rocks or peaks, from whence it was supposed they travelled
through the water during the night and drove the fish to favourite
spots for catching them, or in other cases, drove the game of the
woods to the most advantageous hunting grounds.

Other Indians of California say they were medicinal stones,
and describe the method in which they were used by sorcerers
for curing the sick, bringing rain, extinguishing fires, calling fish
up the streams, and for performing ceremonies preparatory to
war. A perforated stone was said to make its wearer impervious
to arrows.

The above statements may help us to form our own opinion
as to the use of these very curious stones in Nova Scotia. Many
still hold to the belief that they were sinkers, but most of the
evidence seems to be against that theory.

Pipes. — Smoking utensils are somewhat rare in Nova Scotian
archaeological collections. Only three complete examples, and
one in course of construction, are among Dr. Patterson's specimens
in the museum of Dalhousie College. Four are in the cases of
the Provincial Museum, Halifax, and will be found described in
a previous paper by the writer. One of these is probably of
European manufacture. Dr. Bailey mentions but a single
specimen in his article on the stone-age in New Brunswick.
The Fairbanks collection, as now before me, contains no example.

Hon. W. J. Almon, M. D., of Halifax, possesses a large, well-
formed pipe (Fig. 96), which is without doubt the most

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IX NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 53

remarkable one yefc found in the Maritime Provinces. The
circumstances of its discovery are as follows. In 1870, an
upturned copper kettle was unearthed by Mr. John J. Withrow*
in a piece of woodland to the westward of Upper Rawdon and
within ten rods of the line of an old French trail or road from
Shubenacadie to Newport, Hants County. The kettle was about
eighteen inches or two feet under the surface. Beneath it, when

O

lifted, were found the stone pipe just mentioned, two iron
tomahawks, five or six iron implements about eight or nine
inches long, very much rusted, and having a slight prominence
near the middle of their length, also about seven dozen oval blue
beads ornamented with lines, etc.. each bead nearly the size of
a sparrow's egg, and lastly a tooth which seems to have been
the curved incisor of a beaver. There were no human bones or
other indications of a burial. The five or six iron implements
Mr. Withrow thinks were knives, but they were so corroded as
to make identification very difficult or impossible. The kettle
was fifteen inches or so in diameter and about nine inches in
depth, and it had a handle for suspension. Close to where the
kettle was found, was a hemlock, two feet in diameter. With
the exception of a few of the beads, which Mr. Withrow retained,
the relics subsequently belonged to J. W. Ouseley, Esq., barrister
of Windsor. Half of the beads were given by this gentleman to
the late Judge Wilkins, the remainder are still in his possession.
Dr. Almon obtained the pipe from Mr. Ouseley.

The bowl and stem 'of this splendid example of aboriginal
skill, are formed of one piece , thus somewhat resembling a
clumsy modern clay pipe. The intervening portion forms a
curve. The most noticeable feature of the article is a bold repre-
sentation of what is undoubtedly a lizard, placed with its
ventral surface on that side of the bowl which is farthest from
the smoker. The fore and hind legs clasp the bowl, while the
long tail lies upon the lower surface of the stem. The broad
head extends upward beyond the rim of the bowl. Two dots at
the extremity of the somewhat pointed snout, represent the

* Now of South Uniacke Mines, Hants County, N. S.

54 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

nostrils of the animal. The mouth is closed, and reaches around
to the side of the head, beneath the eyes. The latter are repre-
sented by large, well-defined, circular cavities. Across the back
of the neck appear a row of five elliptical cavities, their greatest
length being in the direction of the length of the body. The
long fore-legs are bent upwards at right angles, and the toes
rest on the sides of the bowl's rim. Incised lines divide the fore-
feet into rather long toes, seven of which are on the right fcot.
The hind legs are shorter, slightly broader, and are gradually
lost in the contour of the bowl, without any indication of toes.
A longitudinal line extends from the thigh to the vicinity of
the hind foot. A round hole, about *25 of an inch in diameter,
is drilled from side to side of the bowl, at the ventral surface of
the lizard and just anterior to the hind-legs. This hole was
doubtless for fastening the pipe, by a thong, to the smoker's
dress, in order to prevent its being lost or broken ; or else for
the attachment of an ornament. The rim of the bowl is
decorated on top by groups of from four to seven incised radiat-
ing lines. The cavity for the reception of the narcotic is nearly
circular, and is an inch in diameter. It gradually tapers down-
ward for about an inch and a half, where it is somewhat suddenly
constricted to nearly the size of a lead pencil, after which it
extends nearly an inch further downward until it meets the
perforation of the stem at a little more than a right angle. The
total depth of the cavity, therefore, would be nearly two and a
half inches. One side of the cavity is continuous with the
throat of the lizard.

The length of the stem from the extremity to the edge of the
bowl nearest the smoker, is about five inches. Its diameter at
the mouth piece is *40 of an inch ; and at the further portion,
near the bowl, a trifle more than an inch. The diameter of the per-
foration at the mouth-end is "28 of an inch. The bowl rises 1-80
inch above the stem. The thickness of the bowl at the thinnest
part, is about "17 of an inch. Taken generally, the whole pipe
may be said to be about seven inches long, but from the mouth-
piece to the tips of the figure's snout, it measures 7'60 inches.

RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 55

The entire specimen is in a very excellent state of preserva-
tion, and without a flaw. It is formed of a fine gray stone,
different from any found in the province, and closely resembling
the material of the remarkable stone tubes in the Provincial
Museum (Vide "Aboriginal Remains of Nova Scotia ;" Trans.
N. S. I. N. S., vol. vii.) It bears a fine polish. I did not
observe any tooth-marks upon the stem, as would probably have
been the case had it always been placed in the mouth without
some protective material. A short tube of wood may have
originally served as a mouth -piece.

It is a unique specimen in this part of the Dominion. I
consider it almost beyond question that it is not the work of
Micmacs, but probably came into Nova Scotia as a trophy of
war or else by trade with some distant tribe. The stone tubes,
just mentioned, probably owe their presence here to the same
agency. Trade was not uncommon among the prehistoric tribes,
and Lescarbot mentions that our Micmacs, or JSouriquois as he
called them, greatly esteemed the matachias, or strings of shell
beads, which came unto them from the Armouchiquois country, or
the land of the New England Indians, and they bought them
" very dear." Tobacco itself must have been obtained by trading
with nations by whom it was cultivated.

Strange to say, in Dr. Rau's account of the collection of the
U. S. National Museum (cut 192) is figured a pipe about four
and a half inches long, which bears an extremely close resem-
blance to the Nova Scotian specimen, both in the attitude of the
animal upon it and in general shape. Apparently, however, it
is much less boldly carved. It was found in Pennsylvania, and
is described by Dr. Rau as a very beautiful, highly polished
steatite pipe, carved in imitation of a lizard, the straight neck or
stem forming the animal's tail, and its toes being indicated by
incised lines. The similarity between the two specimens is
therefore remarkably pronounced.

Mr. David Boyle, in the report of the Canadian Institute
(session 1891, page 29). figures a similar pipe found in a grave in

56 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

the Lake Baptiste burying-ground, Ontario. Mr. Boyle speaks
of it as exceedingly rare. It is made of a soft " white-stone."
The animal whose form extends above the bowl and more than
half-way along the stem, he considers was probably intended to
represent a lizard.

Mr. Boyle also figures another pipe (Report Canadian
Institute, session 1886-7, page 29,) which may be likened to our
specimen, although the resemblance, owing to the different po^i-
tion of the figure and the absence of a distinct bowl and stem, is
not nearly so great as in the two instances we have just given.
It was discovered at Milton, Hal ton County, Ontario. The
material of which it is for med is a light-gray stone, very soft
and porous, containing minute specks, probably micaceous, and
quite unlike anything in the geological formation of that pro-
vince. The cavities on the body and long tail, resemble those
on the neck of the Nova Scotian specimen ; they are probably
intended to represent spots of colour such as the aboriginal artist
had seen on the animal he imitated. Several lizards bear clearly-
defined spots of bright colour upon their bodies. Notwithstand-
ing the length of the snout, Mr. Boyle thought that the
resemblance of the head to that of a monkey was very striking.
I am rather of the opinion that, like the figures on other pipes
mentioned, the carving was intended to represent a lizard.

Dr. Almon possesses another stone pipe (Fig. 98), which,
although most beautifully ornamented" and very symmetrical in
outline, is nevertheless of secondary interest, for the reason that
it is doubtless of comparatively modern manufacture. It was
purchased from a Micmac on the Dartmouth ferry-steamer. In
general appearance it closely resembles one found at Dartmouth
in January, 1870, described by me in a paper on the aboriginal
remains in the Provincial Museum (page 287), or another from
River Dennis, Cape Breton, which is figured in the plate
appended thereto. This form is considered by Dr. Patterson to
be the typical one adopted by our Indians. The bowl, somewhat
barrel-shaped, rises from a base, laterally flattened. In the

KELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 57

present specimen, this flattened base or keel, when viewed side-
ways, is square, not lobed, in outline, and below the centre it
contains a ronnd hole for the suspension of an ornament or to
facilitate attachment to the owner's dress by means of a thong.
The bowl and keel are most tastefully ornamented with single
and double straight lines, dots, very short diagonal dashes, and
conventional branches of foliage, all arranged in neat designs
which entitle the carver to much credit for his excellent work.
I have never seen a more comely Micmac pipe. The style of
ornamentation much resembles that of a very graceful pipe of
fine argil lite which belongs to my father, Henry Piers, Esq.
This, for the sake of comparison, I have illustrated in Fig. 97.
It was made by a Maliseet Indian of New Brunswick, and bears
the date March 5th, 1851). The figure on che fore part of the
bowl is excellently carved, and represents a long-haired Indian,
seated, with arms across his breast. The other decorations
manifest much taste on the part of their swarthy designer.*

Dr. Almon's specimen, last referred to, is made of a blackish
stone, probably a close grained argillite. The total length is
nearly 2*59 inches ; and the height of bowl, 1*40. It is in a fine
state of preservation, and everything seems to indicate that it
was formed with modern metal tools. Possibly it is not a century
old.

Dr. Almon's lizard pipe and the flat-based specimen from
Musquodoboit in the Provincial Museum, are the most interesting
examples of this class I have yet seen in our province. Neither,
however, are to be considered as typically Micmac.

Incertce sedis. — Three specimens, which cannot be treated
under any of the preceding heads, yet remain to be described. A

* The half-tone plate does not show with sufficient distinctness the designs on the
pipes represented in Figs. 97 and 98. M. Lescarbot says that " our Souriquois [Micmacs]
and Armouchiquois savages have the industry both of painting and carving, and do
make pictures of beasts, birds, and men, as well in stone as in wood, as prettily as good
workmen in these parts ; and notwithstanding they serve not themselves with them in
adoration, but only to please the sight, and the use of some private tools, as in tobacco-
pipes." [Book II, chap, v.]

58 RELICS OF THE STONE AGE IN NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

singular, roller-shaped object, presumably of aboriginal work-
manship, which I find in the McOulloch collection, is shown in
Fig. 79. The ends have evidently been cut off while the stone
was rotating. Another curious object (Fig. 78) is in the Fair-
banks collection. One face thereof is slightly hollowed, while
the other is correspondingly convex. The wider end has been
partially cut away so as to leave a short neck. I shall not
venture an opinion as to the use of these two relics. An oval
boulder (Fig. 77), very regular in shape, is in the same collection.
Not the slightest importance, however, can be attached to it, for
it is merely a natural form bearing no marks of man's work-
manship.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. TO III.

Scale: Figs. 1-16, 96-98, two-sevenths natural size; Figs. 17-95,

one-seventh natural size.

Pig. 1-11. Arrow-heads. Fig. 79. Roller-shaped stone.

12-16. Spear-heads or cutting imple- 80. Pendant or sinker.

ments. 81-83. Spear-heads or cutting imple-

17-54. Adzes and celts. ments.

55. Grooved axe or celt (?) 84-92. Adzes or celts.

56-72. Gouges. 93-94. Gouges.

73-74. Grooved axes. 95. Hammer.

75-76. Pendants or sinkers. 96. Lizard pipe.

77. Oval stone. 97. Maliseet pipe.

78. Stone of unknown use. 98. Keeled pipe.

V. — PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT SEVERAL STATIONS
IN EASTERN CANADA DURING THE YEAR 1894. — COM-
PILED BY A. H. MACKAY, L.L.D., HALIFAX.

(Read 13th May, 1895.)

The observations conducted under the auspices of the Botanical
•Club of Canada for 1894 are more complete and extended than
those published the previous two years. The observers to be
•credited with this work at the various stations are the following :

Yarmouth, N. S. — Miss Antoinette Forbes, B. A.

Shelburne, N. S. — Mr, Angus McK. Swanburg.

Halifax City, N. S. — Mr. Harry Piers.

Musquodoboit Harbor, N. S. — Rev. Jas. Rosborough.

Berwick, N. S. — Miss Ida Parker.

Wolfville, N. S.— Prof. A. E. ColdwelL M. A.

Port Hawkesbury, C. B. — Miss Louise M. Paint.

Antigonish, N. S — Prof. MacAdam, M. A.

Pictou, N. S.— Mr. C. B. Robinson, B. A. ; Mr. W. A. Hickman.

Wallace, N. S.— Miss,M. E. Charman.

Charlottetown, P. E. L — Principal J. MacSwain.

Grand Harbor, Charlotte Co., N. B. — Mr. Henry D. Perkins.

Richibucto, N. B. — Miss Isabella J. Caie.

Dalhousie, N. B. — Mr. Alex. Ross, B. A.

Winnipeg, Manitoba. — Rev. Win. A. Burman, B. D.

Tables B. and C. are given merely as specimens of inductions
which can be made from Table A, or the series of such tables for
a few years.

(59)

60

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACK AY.

TABLE A.— PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR 1894

Giving the day of the year (by number) of the first appearances of
each column of the table below. Last day of Jan., 31; Feb., 59 ,•
Sept., 273 ; Oct., 304; Nov., 334; Dec., 365.

£

QJ
f>

1
1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

PHENOMENA.

02

fc

A
|

Y*

113

GO

fc

'oT
a

|

O

A

m

107
190

a5
£

i

'3

112

i— i 1 Musqiiodoboit Har-

g | bor, N. S.

od

£

i

K

1

119
123
147
115
128
138

132
126
162
140
196
132

143
152
159
153
196

237
98
61
124
110
112
136
140
100
100
258

Alder. Shedding pollen

Aspen //

a Leafing out

140

Red Miaple Flowering

120

118

137

134

Hepatica. n

Adder's Tongue Lily. Flowering

Mayflower. // ....

69
112
114
156

104
124
124

74
137
133
167

110
137
138

Dandelion. //
Strawberry, (wild). // ...

// (cultivated). Ripe Fruit

Cherry (cultivated). Flowering

„ „ Ripe Fruit

AVild Red Cherry. Flowering

142
138

121
131

155
142

155
149

Indian Pear. n

// Ripe Fruit

Apple (cultivated) Flower

144

162

Oaks Flowering

175

Hawthorne. Flowering

168
163

156

170
169
211

170
170

Lilac //

Raspberry, (wild). Fruiting

\Vheat (Spring) 1st sewing

„ Harvesting

Song Sparrow 1st Appearance

90

American Robin. //

60

79

74
144
116
133

....

Spotted Sandpiper n

Swallow. //

109

109
118

Kingfisher n

Hummingbird. //

137

Night Hawk n

144

Wild Ducks. First Birds

n First Flock

68

// Migrating South

Wild Geese. First Birds . .

/, First Flock

82

337
108

....!....

Frogs' heard

96' 106

112

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACK AY.

61

IN THE ATLANTIC PEOVINCES AND WINNIPEG.

leaf, flower, fruit, bird, &c,, at each of the several Stations, above
Mar., 90; April, 120; May, 151; June, 181; July, 212; Aug., 243;

Number.

Wolfville, N. S.

Southern Nova
Scotia.

Port Hawkesbury,

N. S.

Antigonish, N. S.

cd
5R

I

o

£

Wallace, N. S. |

Northern Nova
Scotia.

Nova Scotia.

Charlottetown, P. E.
Island.

Grand Harbor, Char-
lotte, N. B.

Richibucto, N. B.

Dalhousie, N. B.

New Brunswick.

Atlantic Provinces.

Winnipeg, Manitoba.

1
2
3

4

5

e

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
li"
2(
51
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

120
116
133
112
130
133

140

145
139

149
157
159
157

114
121.5
143.5
124
122
135.5
93.8
128.6
128
161.6
140
196
141.6
140

149.5
161.3
163.6
162.4
203.5

135
130
155
140

'l21
138
140
186
156
213

"153
223
165

i32

Hi

127

136

io4
152

152

112
116
150
123
127
129
110
131
128

i53

i51
i52

109
120

iis

137
137
171
149

isi
iso

118.6
123
152.5
128.7
127
129
115.7
133.3
135.2
178.5
152.6
213
152.5
152
223
154.7

116.3
122.2
148
126.3
124.5
132.2
104.7
130.9
131.6
170.
146.3
204.5
147.
146.
223.
152.1
161 3

....

108
118
144
126

'i36

119
122

'isi

113.5
120
144
132

114.9
121.1
146.
129.1
124.5

121
134

133

'i33
132

isi

209
156
153

133
116
133
132.6
170
155
209
156.5
145.5

132.6
111.2
131.9
136.1
170.
150.6
206.7
151.8
145.7
??3

124

115

117

140
144
163

144

131
167

'i57
138

135
173
153

140
140

161

155

....

158

155.
161.3
164.6
163.4
206.1
132.
243.5
87.5
86.6
144.1
123.5
128.7
150.
155.1
100.
84.
293.2
79.8
96.5
341.

141
141

106', 131
237

105, 112
' 147

'167
213

1(51

157
159

157
162.3
213

160.3
162.3

208.2

....

'ie>8

206

169
161

'202
132
250
96
100
153
149

169
164.5
204
132
250
96
100
153
128

70

77

126

137

;;;
iii

237
86
70.2
134
114
121
136.6
142
100
84
258

82"
337
106.6

237.

104
87
146
130
158
150
188

...

37
82
127
118
115

60
i49

71
76.3
136.5
124
136.5
149.5
175.6

79.
73.2
135.2
119.0
128.7
143.0
158.8
100.

'ioi

157

157
152

163

....

152

145
100
106

' 100 '
102

84.

263

77
95

'125

'68

67

263
70.6
95
345
119

260.5
70.6
95.
341.
112.8

326

326

89
98

89
98

...

340350
...113

111

116

113.5 113.1

113

62

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

TABLE B.

AVERAGE OF DATES COMMON TO THE TABLES FOR THE YEARS 1892*

1893 AND 1894.

SPECIES COMMON TO TABLES OF
1892, 1893 AND 1894.

II

ca3^
o Joo

h>£SrH

Average date
Nova Scotia
and New
Brunswick,
1893.

Average date N.
S. and N. B.,
1894.

Normal for 3
years.

Cj

!1

^^

|l

-A.lcI.6F floW6r

102

114

115

110

20th April

Aspen, //

131

123

139

131

llth May

IVIciple //

123

130

128

127

7th //

Dog-tooth Violet, flower
M^ayflower //

135

98

136

108

132

108

134
105

14th ,/
15th April

Strawberry, //

129

133

132

131

llth May

Cherry, (cult.), //

146

142

•149

146

26th //

// (wild), u

150

144

150

148

28th //

Indian Pear, n

145

144

146

145

25th „

Apple, //
Hawthorn, //

146
163

146
160

154
163

149
162

29th //
llth June.

Lilac, //

154

160

163

159

8th „

Song Sparrow

99

115

84

99

9th April

Robin

96

94

82

91

1st //

Swallow

106

119

122

116

26th //

Kingfisher .....

128

137

129

131

llth May.

Humming Bird

143

159

148

150

30th ,/

Night Hawk

150

144

156

150

30th „

Wild Goose

54

88

80

74

loth M^arch

Frog . . . .

105

113

113

110

20th April.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

63

TABLE C.

SOUTHERN, COMPARED WITH NORTHERN NOVA SCOTIA.

(TEN COMMONLY OBSERVED PLANTS, 1894.)

Average date,
Southern
Stations.

Average date,
Northern
Stations.

Alder, first flowering .

114.

1189

Red Maple, //

124.

128.7

Mayflower, // ...

938

115 7

Dandelion, //

128.6

133.3

Strawberry, (wild) first flowering

128

1352

n (fruit)

161.6

1785

TVild Red Cherry, flowering

141.6

152.5

Indian Pear, //

140

152

Apple, //

149.5

154.7

Lilac, //

1624

1623

Average dates of the ten

134.35

143.18

Finding the Difference

134.35

Days, Average, Southern Stations are ii
of Northern Stations

i advance^

8.83

That is, vegetation, as judged from the ten species above, is nearly
nine days earlier in the South of the Province than in the
North.

VI. — A FORAMINIFEROUS DEPOSIT FROM BOTTOM OF THE

NORTH ATLANTIC. BY A. H. MAC KAY, LL. D.

(Read 10th December, 1894.)

The exact location of this deposit cannot be more tersely
described than it is in the following note from Captain Trott, of
the steamship Minia, dated Halifax, 31st April, 1894, which
accompanied the material sent to Dr. Murphy, Provincial
Engineer, who duly passed it on to me.

" Herewith the stones I spoke to you about. They came
" from a depth of 2450 fathoms, in latitude 49° CO' N., longitude
" 40° 15' W. The current in this vicinity runs strong to N. E.,
" varying sometimes two or three points either way, doubtless
" influenced by the moon. The surface temperature ranges from
" 54° to 59° Fahrenheit. This is as it is found nearly all the
" months of June and July. A little further west we found cold
" water and very little current. I am also sending some
" Globigerina ooze which came up in the same mushroom anchor
" with the stones — the anchor being full except on one side
" where it had beeu washed out while heaving up, thereby
" exposing the stones."

The spot, roughly estimating, is therefore not far from 700
miles south-easterly from Cape Farewell, Greenland, and some
300 or 400 miles east from Labrador, or 300 miles east by north
of Newfoundland. This is beyond the Great Banks and well
down into the profounder depths of the Atlantic. It would
appear then to lie near the circle which, like the circumference
of a vast oceanic eddy, lies tangential to the Gulf Stream on the
south-east, the westerly Arctic current from Iceland to Green-
land on the north, and the southerly Arctic current along the
Labrador Coast. The character of the deposit suggests the exist-
ence of such an eddy, no matter how circumscribed and swaying
its position may be.

(64)

A FORAMINIFEROUS DEPOSIT FROM THE NORTH ATLANTIC. 65

The mushroom anchor took up not only a nearly pure
stratum of foraminiferous ooze, but also a very clayey foramini-
ferous stratum, in which were fine and coarse grains of quartz,
mica, and other minerals, with pebbles, water-worn, of gneiss,
hornblende, black and white limestones. But lavas compact
and vesicular were abundant, one specimen weighing over a
pound or two. One pebble of dark hard texture is apparently
polished on one side, as if abraded by glaciaUaction.

The ooze contracted into a comparatively small volume, say
one-fourth, after being kept in a dry room for a few months.
Of the more highly foraminiferous stratum, about 50% was
sand and clay insoluble in Hydrochloric acid. The equivalent
of over 25% of carbonate of lime was precipitated as calcium
sulphate from the filtrate. From the more argillaceous
stratum 66% of sand, &c., was insoluble in HC1, while
H2 SO4 precipitated but a few grains from the filtrate. This
rough analysis was verified approximately by specimens of the
two strata analyzed more carefully in the laboratory of Dal-
housie College by Mr. J. M. Nissen. The difference between
the two strata was sufficiently discernible to the naked eye,
and clearly so by a close examination with a simple lens.

The species of foraminifera are fairly numerous. The fol-
lowing list of them has the authority of Mr. F. S. Morton,
F. R. M. S.. of Portland, Maine, who compared them with the
foraminifera described in the Challengers papers and more par-
ticularly with those described in a " Synopsis of the Arctic and
Scandinavian Recent Marine Foraminifera," by Dr. Alex. Goes of
Stockholm, which they more especially resemble. I have also to
acknowledge the service of G. F. Matthew, M. A., F. R. S. C.,
of St. John, New Brunswick, in testing some of my observa-
tions.

Globigerina, inflata Abundant.

G. dubia Not abundant.

G. conglobata Not abundant.

Orbulina universa Not uncommon.

5

66 A FORAMINIFEROUS DEPOSIT FROM THE

Sphseroidina dehiscens Rare.

Pulvinulina menardii Frequent.

P. micheliniana Frequent.

P. elegans Not rare.

Gaudryina pupoides Not rare.

Verneuilina propinqua Rather rare.

Truncatulina lobatula A few.

Uvigerina asperula Rare.

Haplophragmium canariense Rather rare.

H. globigeriniforme Rather rare.

Nodosaria mucronata Rare.

Biloculina depressa Rare.

Some other species and genera appear to be present, as well
as occasional diatoms and sponge spicules. The stones appeared
to be generally colored with a blackish hue which suggested
manganese ; but the only reaction observable was that of iron.

The presence of the stones, some of them quite large, some of
them water-worn, and one at least polished on one side, inter-
mingled with the ooze, seems to suggest that they must have
been dropped into the deposit in recent time. The only manner
in which this could occur is by their dropping from masses
of floating ice in the process of dissolution. Have we here
debris imprisoned in the glaciers of Iceland, Greenland, or
Labrador, swept around the coast into the margin of the Gulf
Stream which helps to whirl a great North Atlantic eddy, and
at the same time rapidly dissolves the floating ice from distant
coasts, and strews the oozy bottom of the ocean with rock and
gravel and clays from many lands ?

Both the changing temperature and changing current noted
by Captain Trott would seems to suggest that the steamer was
at the time near the contact of the Gulf Stream with this North-
West Atlantic edd) . If there is such an eddy, we can easily see
that it is building up a vast area of soil on the ocean bottom,
which is being transported from the glaciated highlands and
coasts of the Arctic regions already referred to. The process

BOTTOM OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC — MACKAY. 67

may be an illustration of the manner in which some of the
fertile fields of our present continents have to some extent been
built up.

It is hoped that a large series of such dredgings from exactly
noted points in the Atlantic may be obtained for examination,
An extensive series of such dredgings might throw much light
on the ocean currents and some geological problems, as well as
extend our knowledge of the distribution of zoological forms
on the floor of the ocean.

VII.-— NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK.
BY PROF. L. W. BAILEY, PH. D., F. E. S. C., University
of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N. B.

(Read 10th December, 1894.)

Of the more readily accessible portions of Nova Scotia there
is probably none less frequently visited, or of which less is
known by ordinary travellers, than the peninsula commonly
known as Digby Neck. Thus, while hundreds or thousands are,
in the course of every summer, whirled along the rails from
Yarmouth to Digby, and vice versa, or are forced into expressions
of admiration as they steam through the wonderful passage of
Digby Gut, few ever think it worth while to visit and study
the long, curious neck of land whose eastern end forms one of
the pillars of that famous gateway, and which, stretching thence
to the westward as a narrow and yet almost mountainous ridge,
separates the waters of St. Mary's Bay from those of the Bay of
Fundy. Even professional naturalists and geologists, usually
upon the alert for whatever is new or instructive in the world of
nature, would seem in but few instances to have visited Digby
Neck, except that portion immediately adjacent to the town of
Digby, and observations upon its structure, physical features,
mineral contents or floral characteristics, are alike few. And
yet it may safely be said that, with the exception of Blomidon, no
area of equal extent is to be found in Nova Scotia, and probably
not in eastern America, which presents such peculiar features of
scenery, geological structure, plant distribution, or mineral
associations, as are here met with.

It has hence been thought that the following notes, taken
during a sojourn of several weeks upon the Neck, in connection
with the work of the geological survey, may be of interest to the
members of the Institute, and possibly encourage others to the
task of its further exploration.

(68)

NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY. 69

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

Under the designation of " Digby Neck" will be included, for
the purposes of this paper, not only the long narrow ridge
properly so called, together with the isthmus by which this is
connected with the mainland of Nova Scotia, but also what is
clearly but a former extension of this ridge through Long and
Briar Islands.

As thus regarded, the area naturally becomes divided phy-
sically, as it is also geologically, into two portions, of which the
one, comprising the isthmus referred to, is comparatively low,
while the other, more by the abruptness of the contrast than by
the possession of any considerable altitude, may almost be termed
mountainous. This latter is indeed the extension, westward of
Digby Gut, of what, eastward of the latter, is commonly known
as the North Mountain range.

The total length of this belt of high land, from the Gut to the
extremity of Briar Island, is 44 miles ; and for much of the dis-
tance the breadth varies but little from a mile and three quar-
ters. There are, however, places, as at Sandy Cove, where inden-
tations on opposite sides of the peninsula considerably reduce
the actual distance from water to water, while at Petite Passage,
and again at Grand Passage, transverse gorges, excavated com-
pletely through the peninsula and of great depth, give free
movement to those waters as well as to navigation, from side to
side. On the other hand, the breadth of the isthmus connecting
the mountains with the mainland is, between the one and the
other, only about three miles, while between Annapolis Basin
and the head of St. Mary's Bay it is about five miles. Near the
town of Digby the connecting isthmus includes some rather high
and no very low land, but the elevation declines both in the
direction of the foot of the higher hills and again towards the
head of St. Mary's Bay, where, upon the ebb of the tide, the low
shores are prolonged outward into extensive mud-flats.

The maximum elevation of the hilly range is about 350 feet.
It would be very incorrect, however, to regard this as a simple
ridge extending through the peninsula and sloping from a

70 NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY.

central axis to either shore. On the contrary, a series of contour
lines would show that while the range is one in its relations to
the lowlands, it is itself made up of many subordinate ridges,
not quite parallel to the length of the peninsula itself, and so
arranged as to form a series of obliquely overlapping lines. The
course of the transverse valleys thus formed is usually not far
from north and south, and the descent to these, as at Sandy
Cove, is usually quite abrupt, while at the Petite Passage, which
strikingly illustrates the feature alluded to, the shores on either
side stand as well nigh precipitous bluffs overlooking the alter-
nate rush of the tides through that wonderful channel. An
admirable opportunity for the study of the orographic features
of the peninsula is afforded by a 'high and conspicuous peak,
which, with a nearly vertical face of over one hundred feet, over-
looks the picturesque settlement of Sandy Cove. In the almost
unobstructed view which may thence be obtained, and of which a
part only is shown in the accompanying photograph, Plate IV,
not only does the observer marvel at the wonderful beauty and
singular characteristics of the immediate foreground, but, for
miles to the westward, sees ridge after ridge presenting to the
sky an outline which is conspicuously serrated, suggestive of
what is actually the case, the existence of table upon table of
rocky masses, resting one upon another, each abrupt upon the
one side and upon the other sloping gently backward, only to
meet and to be capped by other masses similarly inclined.
This feature is more marked west of Sandy Cove than to the
eastward, and through much of the peninsula in that direction
this may be regarded as a sort of trough, formed by and parallel
with these bounding ridges. In this trough, through which
runs the stage road to Tiverton and Westport, are contained
almost all the cultivable lands of the peninsula, and in places
long narrow shallow lakes, with connecting streams and
meadows.

The peninsula of Digby Neck is thus, as regards its physical
features, a district of bold contrasts, including long and promi-
nent ridges, separated in some places by broad and open valleys,

NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY. 71

in others by narrow troughs, while across both, at intervals,
stretch transverse depressions, always relatively deep, and in
some instances sinking far below tide level. In these latter
cases, especially at Sandy Cove and in the Petite Passage, the
whole structure of the peninsula is admirably exposed, and
in the craggy bluffs which border them is determined scenery
which in many respects may well be compared with much of
that in the vicinity of the Giant's Causeway, in Ireland. So
high, indeed, and so steep is much of the shore, particularly upon
the southern side, that a safe descent to the beach, if beach there
be, is often hard to find and in places quite impossible.

As would naturally be inferred from such diverse physical
features, the depth and character of the soil over the peninsula
exhibit similar diversity. Thus, on the lowlands of the isthmus,
between Annapolis Basin and St. Mary's Bay, where the under-
lying rocks are sandstones, the soils derived therefrom are natur-
ally also sandy, though, like the corresponding soils of Annapolis
Basin, often quite productive. Nearing the hills to the north of
this tract, on the other hand, the land rapidly becomes stony,
through the distribution of drift, while the hill-slopes themselves
are thickly covered with scattered blocks of all sizes. Again on
the tops of the hills the soil-covering is usually very scanty and
often wholly wanting, but between these, and especially on the
transverse valleys, the soils are both deeper and richer, giving
support to numerous prosperous farms. The proportion of poor
to good land increases progressively to the westward, and in
Long and Briar Islands bare ridges of rock are separated only
by bogs and swamps.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.

The general geological structure of Digby Neck has long
been known, and has been made the subject of description by
several writers, the most prominent being Sir William Dawson.

As in the region bordering the Annapolis Valley, of which
that under consideration is the direct extension, there are in
Digby Neck and its vicinity two groups of rocks, the one sedi-
mentary, consisting chiefly of arenaceous beds, of a bright red

72 NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY.

colour, and the other volcanic, embracing a variety of doleritic,
trachytic, and amygdaloidal rocks disposed in successive sheets
as the evident result of repeated lava Hows. It has been usual
to regard both of these groups as being of New Red sandstone or
Jura Trias age. But at present there is, in this region, abso-
lutely no proof that such is their true position, while observa-
tions made elsewhere, in rocks of similar character and associa-
tions, at least make the reference somewhat doubtful.

By far the best opportunity for the study of the sandstones
is afforded by the shore section closely adjacent to the so-called
"sea wall," about six miles from Digby, in the settlement of
Rossway. At this point is exposed a series of bluffs which, both
by their height and colour, form a striking feature in the land-
scape. The section is nearly half a mile in length, gradually
rising with the dip of the strata from the water level at the
northern end to quite one hundred feet at the southern. This
height above the sea level is not very different from that seen
on the road from the town of Digby to Digby Light, and would
indicate that the depression in which these sandstones were
deposited, and which must at one time have connected the waters
of Annapolis Basin and St. Mary's Bay, must have had at least
a corresponding depth below its present level.

In character the sandstones are not unlike those seen at
various points in the Annapolis valley, but they lack, as far as
observed, the gypsiferous aspect which is so marked a feature
in the sandstones which underlie the traps of Blomidon. The
prevailing colour is a brick-red, of light and dark shades. At
intervals it is interstratified with light green bands varying in
width from half an inch to 5 or 6 inches. The green bands
especially characterize the lower beds, and these are also dis-
tinctly more arenaceous than the beds above. On one of
the reefs laid bare by the tide was observed what appeared
to be a tree-trunk several feet in length, together with some
obscure branching markings, which resembled tracks, but
both were obscure, and nothing else of this nature could be
found.

NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY. 73

The traps, which form by far the largest and most conspic-
uous element in the structure of Digby Neck, have been described
as varied, but the diversity which is seen is due rather to mere
variations of colour and texture than to any essential difference
of composition. And these variations seem to recur without any
definite order, the colour even within a few yards often shading
off from grey, the prevailing tint, to green or purplish, while
both in the coastal cliffs and in the interior compact or columnar
trap is associated very irregularly with beds which are scori-
aceous or amygdaloidal. A good opportunity for the study of
these rocks is to be had at Gulliver's Cove, to the north of the
sandstone section described above, here forming cliffs in some
places 100 feet high. They exhibit layers dipping at a slight
angle towards the Bay of Fundy, and are intersected by vertical
veins from mere streaks to 4 or 5 inches in width. These
consist of various silicious minerals, while those occupying the
horizontal fissures appear to be chiefly zeolitic. The vertical
veins have a strike about NNE. (magnetic).

Other good exhibitions, especially of the columnar structure,
may be seen about Digby Light and Broad Cove ; bnt none are
so remarkable as those afforded by the depressions of Sandy
Cove and the Petite Passage. This latter truly wonderful gap,
of which the northern entrance is shown in Plate VI, through
which flows alternately a tidal current nearly 100 feet deep,
and with a velocity at times of not less than 8 knots, is upon
its western side, above the little fishing village of Tiverton,
bordered and overlooked by beetling cliffs, of which the indivi-
dual columns are most complete, and so carved by the sea as to
exhibit in places all the aspects of human architecture. The
boldness of the scenery is here further enhanced by the occur-
rence of numerous large blocks of trap, often 20 or 30 feet in
diameter, and of grotesque shapes, which are perched, sentinel-
like, upon the very edge of the bluffs, more than ]00 feet
above the water. These, if not " boulders of decomposition,"
must have been derived from the trappean ridges which, though
now invisible through submergence, are known to lie along the
Bay of Fundy trough, outside of but parallel to the present coast.

74 NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY.

Plate V, accompanying this paper, represents the basaltic
structure as seen at Israel Cove, near the southern end of Petite
Passage.

Some fine basaltic scenery, of which a sketch is given in
" Acadian Geology," is also to be seen on Briar Island, near
Westport, but in general the land here is lower and the features
less bold than about the Petite Passage.

That so prominent a ridge as that of Digby Neck should
have been greatly affected by the conditions incidental to the
glacial period, would naturally be expected. These are, however,
shown rather in the evidences of enormous denudation than in
the production of new deposits. Portions of the ridge are, it is
true, somewhat deeply buried in boulder clay ; and boulders
(including in a few instances granitic and felsitic blocks which
must have come from the other side of the Bay of Fundy) are
scattered over all parts of its surface; but the occurrence in great
profusion of the characteristic rocks of the peninsula along the
southern side of St. Mary's Bay, and, though less abundantly,
over Yarmouth and Shelburne Counties, even to the Atlantic
seaboard, gives forcible illustration of the extent to which the
substance of the peninsula has been removed.

The fact also that the* transverse valleys of Sandy Cove,
Petite Passage and Grand Passage, as well as others less con-
spicuous, are oblique to the peninsula arid almost exactty parallel
to each other, while their course corresponds with that of the
glacial striation of the district, goes far to favor the view that
they owe their origin, partly if not wholly, as has been suggested
in the case of Digby Gut, to the excavating action of glacial
streams. The occurrence of striations on the surface of the
basaltic columns in Israel Cove, and within a few feet of the
surface of the water, gives further probability to this view.

MINERALS.

The minerals of Digby Neck are the same as those found in
other parts of the North Mountain Range, but are less abundant
and less varied than in the section of the latter which lies east
of Digby Gut.

NOTES OX GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY. 75

Iron ores are both the most abundant and most interesting
of these minerals. They occupy veins traversing the trappean
rock, and with a tendency, apparently, to run in north and
south directions. They occur at many points, the most promi-
nent being along the road from Digby to Digby Light, Nicholl's
mine in Rossway, Johnson's mine in Waterford. and Morehouse's
mine on the St. Mary's Bay shore near Sandy Cove. At several
of these points attempts have been made to remove the ore, and
considerable money has been spent, but the small size of the
veins and the cost of removal have in all instances prevented
them from being remunerative. The ore is sometimes massive,
but more generally crystalline, being partly magnetite and
partly hematite. Fine crystals of martite or octahedral hematite,
probably a pseudomorph of magnetite, are especially abundant
at Johnson's mine and near Sandy Cove. The mining never
proceeded beyond the digging of shallow trenches in the side of
the hills, and these are now largely filled with rubbish ; but it is
among the latter that the most interesting specimens, both of the
iron ore and of the associated minerals, are to be had.

Among these associated minerals quartz is by far the most
abundant, rock crystal being especially common and of great
variety and beauty. Amethysts are less common, and are now
hard to obtain, but very beautiful specimens were disclosed
during the opening of the trenches, and are occasionally met with
in boulders on the hillsides, or upon the beaches. With these
varieties of quartz, and others such as agate, chalcedony and
jasper, are often found one or more of the zeolites, and many
specimens have their beauty much enhanced by the curious way
in which the iron ore, rock crystal or amethyst, the zeolitic
minerals, and, it may be, white or yellow calcite, are commingled
or disposed in alternating layers.

It is of little use to name definite localities for these minerals,
other than the mines alluded to above, for the finding of speci-
mens is largely a matter of chance and of diligent search. It
may, however, be mentioned that the rocks near the light house
in Tiverton (Petite Passage) are especially noticeable for the

76 NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY.

large number and varied coloration of the chalcedonic and agate
veins which traverse them. These are also found quite abun-
dantly through most of the rocks which border the Bay of
Fundy side of the peninsula, and among the blocks with which,
in places, this shore is strewn. Among the zeolites some fine
specimens, varying in colour from pure white to grey, flesh or
cream -colour, red and yellow, as well as of unusual form, were
obtained at Johnson's mine in Waterford, where also were
observed geodes or amygdules of amethyst and chabazite
enclosed in jasper of red and yellow tints. At Murphy's Cove,
upon the north shore, about eight miles from Digby, was
observed quite a large vein of Thompsonite. This has yielded
some beautiful groups of crystals, but it is somewhat difficult of
access, and has been to a large extent softened and decomposed
by exposure to the waves. At Mink Cove, on the south shore
of the Neck, in addition to a vein of magnetite, is found a small
vein of crystalline calcite, carrying some galena. In general
metallic ores, other than those of iron, are of rare occurrence
Native copper, it is true, occurs not un frequently, especially on
Briar Island, but, as far as known, only in the form of small
granules scattered through the trappean rock.

BOTANICAL FEATURES.

If to the physical and structural characteristics of Digby
Neck we add those of its relations, in contour and relief, to its
surroundings, it will be readily seen that these are of such a
character as must exert a marked influence upon the nature and
distribution of its native plants.

It has been stated that the width of the peninsula is nowhere,
except at its head, more than two miles, and is generally less
Every portion of its surface is therefore more or less subject to
the influence of the adjacent waters, more particularly as regards
the prevalence of fogs. But while these latter not unf requently
enshroud the whole Neck in a dense and cool atmosphere of
rnist, the height of the ridge is such that its upper portions are
quite often bathed in sunshine, even though the shores and
adjacent waters may be wholly concealed from view. The fogs

NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY. 77

are also more frequent upon the Bay of Fundy side than upon
that of St. Mary's Bay. while the former also feels most keenly
the effects of cold northerly winds.

The influence of the above causes, combined with others
previously noted as resulting from geological structure and
depth of soil covering, are in the first place directly seen in the
contrast between the northern and southern sides of the penin-
sula as regards the variety and vigour of the vegetation, and
secondly, in a somewhat marked tendency towards an arrange-
ment of the vegetation in zones, parallel to the length of the
Neck and its bounding waters. Lastly, the depth and conse-
quently sheltered positions of such transverse valleys as that of
Sandy Cove present still other conditions, the influence of which
is directly reflected upon the plants there met with.

The limits and distinctive features of these several tracts
have not yet been worked out with any precision, if indeed that
is possible, but some of their more general characteristics may
be briefly stated.

The first of these zones is that which more immediately
forms the northern shore. This, although almost everywhere
rocky and in places precipitous, is more commonly low, present-
ing broad, bare ridges of rock, fringed below by a dense matting
of Fucus, and sheeted above by patches of grass or low-lying
shrubs. On wet and rocky cliffs tufts of Sedum Rhodiola are
not uncommon, associated with species of Saxifrage, and well
indicate the sub-arctic or sub-alpine conditions under which
their existence is maintained. The effects of such conditions
are also well seen in the woods which generally prevail along
this shore of the Neck. They contain much fewer broad-leaved
plants than occur farther inland, while their dwarfish and in
many instances almost prostrate growth, together with the
uniform bending of their trunks and branches away from the
direction of the prevalent winds, strikingly attest the effect of
their struggle with adverse influences.

From the immediate shore the land upon the north side of
the Neck rises rapidly, but often in a succession of steps, with

78 NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY.

bare ridges of rock, separated by parallel troughs. This tract
is generally densely wooded, but very imperfectly drained, and
still exhibits a preponderance of fir, spruce, and hemlock,
beneath which are found such plants as Clintonia borealis,
Monotropa, Cornus Canadensis, Pyrola, Brunella, Smilacina,
&c.

Reaching the summit of the ridge more favorable conditions
begin to prevail, and with them both a more vigorous growth of
trees and a greater variety of herbaceous plants. Among the
latter I was surprised and pleased to find a species not previously
credited, so far as I am aware, to the flora of Nova Scotia, and
not known to occur in New Brunswick, the Get ardia purpurea
— its small but conspicuous flowers being found abundantly and
as late as the middle of September, both on the summit and on
the southern side of the trappean hills. In places it was asso-
ciated with the bright little Anagallis arvensis, while in the
woods near by were noticed such plants as Linnaea borealis,
Aralia racemosa, Circaea Lutetiana, Mitchellarepens, Chiogenes
hispid ala, Chimaphila umbellata, Epigaea repens, Pyrola
rotundifolia, Trientalis Americana, Spiranthes, Scutellaria,
Galium, &c. At one point, but at one only in this belt, was
noticed Clematis Virginiana, twining its conspicuous leaves
and fruits over dense clusters of alder.

The next zone is that of the cleared lands bordering on either
side the main road which traverses the peninsula throughout its
length. Here, in the fields, are found the plants usual in such
situations, the ubiquitous Ox-eye-Daisy, two species of Thistle,
and a variety of Asters and Solidagoes, while in places are to be
seen dense clusters of Elecampane (Inula Helenium) and Tarizy
(Tanacetum vulgare). Along the roadsides and ditches alders
abound, associated generally with patches of Meadow Rue
(Thalictrum Cornuti), Meadow sweet (Spiraea salicifolia),
Rubus, Rosa, Ribes, Eupatorium, Antennaria, and occasionally
Ocnothera biennis. In portions of this belt, where ponds occur,
were noticed such water plants as Eriocaulon septangulare,
Potamogeton natans, Sparganium simplex, &c. The yellow

NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY. 79

Lily (Nuphar advena) was also common, but Nymphaea
odorata, the white Water-lily, was seen at one point only, in
the little pond midway between the northern and southern
outlets of Sandy Cove, its occurrence here being in keeping with
the warm and sheltered position of its habitat.

The southern side of the peninsula, fronting St. Mary's Bay,
may perhaps be regarded as forming another zone, but is less
well-defined than those previously noted, and marked rather by
the more general prevalence of broad-leaved trees and their
comparatively vigorous growth, than by the occurrence of any
special species.

Finally, over the red sandstone district constituting the
isthmus connecting Digby Neck with the mainland, the species
found are the same as those of the Annapolis Valley, of which
pretty full lists have been elsewhere published. The growth of
the Horse-Chestnut is especially noticeable.

Towards the western extremity of the peninsula and upon
Long Island, its natural extension, the above zones (excepting
the last which is here wholly wanting), tend to blend or to dis-
appear, while the increasing amount of low and boggy ground is
accompanied by the corresponding augmentation of ericaceous
plants, such as Vacciniums, Ledum, Kalmia, Cassandra, &c.
Potentilla fruticosa was also noticed here at several points,
forming dense clusters. P. anserina was also of common occur-
rence. Finally, over the surface of peat bogs, especially on Briar
Island, were to be found the different species of Drosera (D.
rotundi/olia and D. intermedia), Sarracenia purpurea and the
Orchids Habenaria psycodes and H. blephariglottis. Nowhere
have I seen these Orchids so abundant as over the barrens and
peat bogs of Digby and Yarmouth Counties.

Appended is given a more complete list of the plants observed
on Digby Neck. While by no means embracing all the species
which are doubtless represented there, it may be useful as a
basis both for comparison and for further exploration.

80 NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK. — BAILEY.
PLANTS OF DIGBY NECK.

Clematis Virginiana, L.

Nymphaea odorata, Ait.

Nuphar advena, Ait.

Sarracenia purpurea, L.

Drosera intermedia. D. longifolia, L.

Hypericum ?

Silene ?

Geranium Robertianum, L.

Impatiens fulva, Nutt. I. pallida.

Rhus typhinia. L.

Potentilla anserina, L. P. fruticosa, L.

Rubus Canadensis, L. R. strigosus. R. villosus, Ait.

Rosa Carolina, L.

Spiraea salicifolia, L. S. tomentosa, L.

Trifolium arvense, L. T. Agrarium, L.

Aesculus Hyppocastannm.

Acer Pennsylvanicum, L. A. spicatum, Lam.

Saxifraga ?

Sedurn Rhodiola, D. C.

Circaea Lutetiana, L.

Epilobium angustifolium, L. E. coloratum, Muhl.

Oenothera biennis, L.

Cornus Canadensis. C. alternata.

Linnaea boreal is, Grown.

Viburnum lantanoides.

Galium ?

Eupatorium purpureum, L.
Aster nemoralis, Ait., and others.

Soli dago sp ? S. sempervirens.

Inula Helenium, L.

Achillea millefolium, L.

Leucanthemum vulgare, Lam.

Tanacetum vulgare, L.

Antennaria margaritacea, R. Br. A. plantaginifolia, Hook.

NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY. 81

Cirsium arvense, Scop.
Leontoclon autumnale, L.
Onapordon acanthium, L.
Lappa officinalis.
Rudbeckea hirta, L.
Maruta cotula, D. C.
Campanula rotundifolia, L.
Vaccinium Canadense, Kalm.
Monotropa uniflora.
Chiogenes hispidula, Tr.
Chimaphila umbellata, Nutt.
Plantago major, L. P. maritima, L.
Trientalis Americana, Pursh.
Anagallis arvensis, L.

Utricularia sp ?

Yerbascum Thapsus, L.
Gerardia purpurea, L.
Linaria vulgaris, Mill.
Chelone glabra*
Mimulus ringens.

Veronica sp ?

Brunella vulgaris, L.
Scutellaria galericulata, L.
Polygon um persicaria, L.
Rumex acetosella.
Fagus ferruginea, Ait.
Cory 1 us rostra ta.
Betula.
Alnus incana, Welld.

Salix sps ?

Pin us strobus, L.

Abies alba ? Muhr. A. balsamea. A. Canadensis.
Arisaema triphyllum, Tor.
Typha latif'olia, L.
Sparganium simplex, Hud.
Habenaria psycodes, Gray.
6

82 NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND BOTANY OF DIGBY NECK — BAILEY.

Spiranthes ?

Iris versicolor, L.

Sisyrinchium Bermudianum, L.

Trillium erectum, L. T. erythrocarpum, Michx.

Streptopus roseus. Michx.

Clintonia borealis, Raf.

Smilacina bifolia, Kerr.

Eriocaulon septangulare, Witg.

Eriophorum

NOTE.— No attempt was made to identify Carices, Grasses, Equiseta, Ferns, or

VIII. — THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR AND ST.
PIERRE ET MIQUELON : PART II. BY THE REV. ARTHUR
C. WAGHORNE, St. Johns, Newfoundland

(Read 13th May, 1895.)

Circumstances have unhappily delayed the compilation of these
notes. The tirst parser was read before the Institute on April
10th, 1893, and was published in its Transactions of the 2nd
series, Vol. L, beginning at page 359. That dealt with Polype-
talse, as far as Leguminosse, inclusive. This second paper completes
the Polypetalse and includes a supplementary list of plants
belonging to the earlier portion of this division, which have been
found by the compiler and others since it was published, or of
whose claim to be included therein he has since been assured.
The plants in this supplementary list are additions either to the
Newfoundland or Labrador flora.

This fuller knowledge of our flora, which yields these supple-
mentary plants, and which renders the whole list more complete
and accurate, is derived from various sources, which are chiefly
these : —

1. The writer's own discoveries for 1893 and 1894. These
mostly concern the Labrador, as the greater part of both these
summers were spent on that coast, that of 1893 extending from
the Strait of Belle Isle (the southernward point being Bradore),
northwards through the Battle Harbour district, as far as Sand-
wich Bay.' Last summer his journey ings were confined to the
Strait of Belle Isle. The Newfoundland plants were almost
exclusively collected in Notre Dame Bay, on the North-east
coast, chiefly about Exploits.

2. Dr. Packard's " The Labrador Coast " contains a list of
Labrador plants extending over 22 pages, compiled for the author
by Professor Macoun. This list affords a few additions to those
plants included in Professor Macoun's " Catalogue of Canadian

(83)

84 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Plants," mostly the collections of the Moravian missionaries in
Northern Labrador.

3. Dr. Robinson, Professor of Harvard University, with
Mr. Schrenk, spent a month or so in Newfoundland last summer,
and their researches have added considerably to our knowledge of
the flora of this country. Dr. Robinson has generously presented
to us a collection of these plants, and this collection affords, of
course, valuable aid in the compilation of this list.

4. The Revd. R. Temple, Rural Dean of Notre Dame Bay,
kindly handed over to the compiler a few plants collected by him
some years ago, which have added a few names to our list. But
for the most part Mr. Temple's plants give no data as to whether
they were collected at Ferryland, on the South, or at White Bay,
on the North-eastern coast.

Dr. D. C. Eaton, of Yale, and Professor J. Fowler, of Queen's
University, Kingston, have kindly named most of the collections
of 1894, as far as they are included in this paper.

The writer's introduction to the previous paper probably
conveys whatever else need be stated by way of preface.

(Ranunculacese, &c., to Leguminosse, Supplementary to Part I.).

I. — RANUNCULACE.E. Crowfoot or Buttercup Family.

3. Actcea spicata, Linn. var. rubra. Ait. Lab: L'anse
au Clair and L'anse au Mort. (A. C. W. — Fowler). Low woods.
August.

1. Anemone parviflora, Michx. Ferryland or White
Bay (Revd. R. Temple— Fowler).

7. Ranunculus abortivus, Linn. Lab : L'anse au Clair
and Blanc Sablon. Wet places. (A. C. W. — Fowler and Coville.)
July.

12. R. Flammula, Linn. Freshwater Road, St. John's
(Prof. Holloway, Fletcher). Wet places. July.

Var : intermedius, Hook. Quidi Vidi Lake, St. John's.
(Robinson and Schrenk). Muddy shores. August.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON. — WAGHORNE. 85

Var : reptans, Meyer. New Harbour (A. C. W.) ; Ferry-
land or White Bay (Revd. R. Temple— Fowler) ; St. John's
(Miss Southcott) ; Placentia (Lady Blake) ; rocky banks of Ren-
nie's River, St. John's (Robinson and Schrenk). July. Lab :
Forteau and Independent (A. C. W.— Macoun and Fowler).
Edges and ponds. August.

8. R. hederaceus, Linn., St. John's (Miss Southcott). Road
side ditches, shores of Quidi Vidi Lake (Robinson and Schrenk).
August.

133. R. aquatilis, Linn. var. jrichophyllus. Chaix. White
Water Crowfoot. Exploits River, near Badger's Brook (Robinson
and Schrenk). August.

134. R. Macounii, Britton (R. hispidus, Hook). Placentia.
Wet ground. (Robinson and Schrenk). August. [Probably R.
repens. Var. hispida, Torr. and Gray.]

135. Ranunculus — ? Rocky banks of Rennie's River, St.
John's (Robinson and Schrenk), August.

III. — NYMPH^ACE^:. Water Lily Family.

27. Nuphar advena, Ait. Var. minus, Morong. Pond at
Whitbourne (Robinson and Schrenk). August.

26a. Nymphoea odorata, Ait. Var. minor, Sims. Lesser
Water Lily. Whitbourne (Robinson and Schrenk). August.

VII. — CRUCIFER.E. Mustard Family.

48<x. Draba incana, Linn. Var. arabisans, Wats. White
Bay ? (Revd. R. Temple— Fowler). Lab : Hopedale (Weiz)
[Packard] ; L'ansc au Glair (A. C. W.— Fowler). July.

136. D. aurea Vahl. Lab : Hopedale (Weiz) [Packard].

137. D. hirta, Linn. Lab : L'anse au Mort (A. C. W.—
Fowler). Rocky banks. July.

42. Cakile Americana, Nutt. Lab : English Point (For-
teau) and L'anse au Mort (A. C. W. — Eaton). Sea Beach.
September.

40. Cardamine hirsuta, Linn. Along Railway track,
Whitbourne (Robinson and Schrenk). August. Lab : L'anse

86 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

au Clair and L'anse au Mort (A. C. W. — Eaton and Fowler)
Streams. July and September.

60. Thlaspi arvense, Linn. Lab : About houses at Cap-
stan Island and Pixware River (A. C. W. — Eaton and Fowler).
August.

128. Nasturtium palustre.. D. C. Marsh cress. Cartwright.
Wet places about parsonage (A. C. W. — Fowler). September.

139. N. sylvestre, R, Br. Banks of Rennie's River, St.
John's (Robinson and Schrenk). August.

36. Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br. Lab: Near Forteau Light
House and near Blanc Sablon (A. C. W. — Eaton and Fowler).
July and August.

Var : stricta, Regel." Common Winter Cress. Lab : Cap-
stan Island (A. C. W.— Eaton). July.

140. Cochlearia Anglica, Linn. English Scurvy Grass.
Lab : Partly Modiste and L'anse au Clair (A. C. W. — Eaton and
Fowler). July and August.

141. Senebiera prunatifida, D. C. S. John's surface drains,
(Robinson and Schrenk). July.

VIII. — VIOLACE^E. Violet Family.

65. Viola canina, Linn. Lab : A specimen from L'anse
au Mort was thus doubtfully named by Dr. Eaton. August.

XIV. — CARYOPHYLLACE^E. Pink Family.

142. Stellaria graminea, Linn. S. John's ; borders of
fields (Robinson and Schrenk). July.

96. 8. longifolia, Muhl. To the references of occurrences
in Newfoundland given in previous paper may now be added,
Salmonier River, quarry bottoms. (Robinson and Schrenk).
August. Lab : L'anse au Clair (A. C. W. — Fowler.) July.

143. Spergularia rubra, Presl. S. John's, road-sides
(Robinson and Schrenk). August, Ferryland or White Bay
(Revd. R. Temple — Fowler).

77. Cerastium alpinum, Linn. Var. glabatum, Hook.
Lab : Hopedale (Weiz), Nachvak (R. Bell), [Packard].

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 87

XVII. — GERANIACE.E. Geranium Family.

144. Geranium Oarolinianum, Linn. Carolina Cranes-
bill Sambo (Revd. J. H. Bull, Dewey) ; Railway ballast, 15
miles north of Placentia Junction (Robinson and Schrenk).
July and August.

XX. LEGUMINOS^. Pea Family.

118. Astragalus oroboides, Hornem. A doubtful specimen
from Badger's Brook, Exploits, collected by Revd. J. H. Bull.
Submitted to Prof. Fowler, July.

145. Trifolium hybridum, Linn. AlsicJc. Whitbourne
(Robinson and Schrenk). August.

PART II. — POLYPETALJE (Continued.)

(Rosacece, <&c., to the end of the Polypetalous plants.)

XXI. ROSACES. Rose Family.

146. Agrimonia Eupatoria, Linn. Common Agrimony.
(Reeks). Topsail (Cat. IV., 518); Islands in Salmonier River
(Robinson and Schrenk). August.

147. Amelanchier Canadensis, Torr. and Gray. June Berry
(Indian or Wild Pear). (Reeks). (Cat. I., 148). Flat Bay,
West Coast (Bell) ; west of Random (Cormack), Cyrus Botry-
apium, he calls it) ; New Harbour, S. John, (Robinson and
Schrenk). Woods. June, July.

a. Var : oligocarpa, Torr. and Gray. (Cat. I., 149) ; S.
John's (Miss Southcott) ; New Harbour. June, July. Lab:
Swamps in Southern Labrador, (Butler). Deep Water Creek
and Pack's Harbour (A, C. W.) July, August. Flora Miq.
Peaty and stony places. Common. July.

b. Var : Botryapium ? (A specimen from Grand Bank
was thus doubtfully named by Prof. Macoun.)

c. Var : oblongifolia, Torr. and Gray. New Harbour
(A. C. W. [Fowler]). June.

148. Alchemilla vulgaris, Linn. Common Ladies' Mantle.
Twillingate (A. C. W.) August. Lab : Abundant on hillsides,
Amour (Butler). Battle Harbour, L'anse au Loup and Blanc
Sablon (A. C. W.) July, August.

88 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

149. Cratcegus coccinea, Linn. Scarlet- fruited Thorn.
Several places about Humber River (Bell). Bay Despair in
Hermitage Bay (Mrs. Gallop [Macoun] ).

150. C. oxyacantha, Linn. English Hawthorn. Hedges
in S. John's (A. C. W.)

151. Dryas octopetala, Linn., var. integrifolia, Cham. &
Schlecht. Lab : Hills about Amour (Butler) and at Battle Har-
bour (A. C. W.) Nackvak and Cape Chidley (Cat. Ill, 515).
Hopedale (Weiz) [Packard]. July.

152. Fragaria Virginiana, Duchesne. Wild Strawberry-
(Reeks). S. John's, New Harbour, Topsail, Exploits (A. C. W.)
May, June. Lab : Sparingly, hillsides at Amour and Southern
Labrador (Butler). Various places in the Straits of Belle Isle
(A. C. W.) [Fowler]. July, August.

153. F. veuca, Linn. Wood strawberry. New Harbour ;
doubtful specimen (A. C. W. — Fowler). (Reeks). Banks of
Manuel's River, Topsail (Robinson and Schrenk). June and
July. Flora Miq. Common ; stony and sandy places ; fruit
excellent ; ripe about the end of July ; flowers early in July.

154. Geum macrophyllum, Willd. Straight yellow-leaved
Avens. (Blood root in White Bay ; Jack root in Trinity Bay.)
(Reeks). Western Cove (White Bay) ; Flat Bay Brook on West
Coast (Bell). July, Oct. Lab : Battle Harbour and near Blanc
Sablon (A. C. W.) July, August.

155. G. rivale, Linn. Purple or Water Avens (Chocolate
root). (Reeks). Flat Bay Brook (Bell); (Cat. I, 133). West
of Random (Cormack), S. John's (Lady Blake). New Harbour
and neighbourhood, Harbour Breton (Fortune Bay), (A. C. W.)
Moist woods near Salmonier River (Robinson and $chrenk).
July, August. Lab : Brooksides, Southern Labrador (Butler),
springy places all along coast (Cat. III., 515). July, August.

156. G. strictum, Ait. Flora Miq. Marshy places ; rare.
July.

157. G. triflorum, Pursh. (Reeks). Lab: (Cat. L, 134).
Dry, rocky ground. (Judge Morrison) [Packard].

158. Poterium Canadense, Benth. and Hook. Canadian
or Salad Burnet, or Indian Tobacco.) (Reeks). Great Cod

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 89

Roy River (Bell) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; rather common
about Trinity and Fortune Bays (A. C. W.) (Cat. I, 143).
August and September. Lab : Abundant on hillsides on
South Coast (Butler). August. Flora Miq. ; very common.
August. Furnishes good forage for ruminants.

159. Prunus pumila, Linn. Sand or Dwarf Cherry,
[Bonycastle],

160. P. Pennsylvania, Linn. Bird or Pigeon Cherry.
(Cat. I., 125) ; Random (Cormack) ; Flat Bay Brook and Deer
Lake (Bell) ; Bonne Bay, South (Reeks) ; New Harbour (A. C.
W. [Fowler] ) ; Banks of Salmonier River (Robinson and
Schrenk). Woods. June, August. Flora Miq. ; common. July.
Lab : Caribou Island (S. R. Butler).

161. P. serotina, Ehrt. Black cherry. Flora Miq ; woods
of Mirande, Sylvain, Langlade wood ; rare. July.

162. P. Virginiana, Linn. Choke cherry (Chuckley plum
or Mazzard) Random (Cormack) ; Deer Lake (Bell) ; S. John's
(Miss Southcott) ; Exploits River (Austin) ; Harbour Breton
(A. C. W.) Along Salmonier River (Robinson and Schrenk).
Woods. July and August.

163. Potentilla argentea, Linn. Silvery Cinquefoil (Reeks).

164. P. anserina, Linn. Silverweed. Common in many
places by sea coast. June, July. Lab : Flats near the shore
(Butler) ; Battle Harbour and other places (A. C. W.) July,
August. Flora Miq., sandy places near houses ; common. June.

165. P. emarginata, Pursh. Lab : Cape Chidley (Cat. I.,
100; III., 518). (Packard).

166. P. fruticosa, Linn. Shrubby Cinquefoil. Very com-
mon on rocky margins of rivers and lakes from Labrador and
Newfoundland to the Pacific, and northward to the Arctic Sea
(Cat. I., 141) ; not uncommon in Trinity and Fortune Bays
(A. C. W.) ; Flat Bay Brook (Bell) ; marshy ground at Manuel's,
Topsail (Robinson and Schrenk). August. Lab : Forteau
(A. C. W.) July. Flora Miq., damp places, edges of water-
courses. July, August.

90 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

167. P. maculata, Poir. Lab : Nam and Nacbvak, Cape
Ghidley (Cat. I, 140 ; III., 518) ; Long Point (A. C. W.) ; Hills
about Amour (Butler) ; Hopedale (Weiz.) [Packard]. July,
August.

168. P. nemoralis, Nestler. White Bay or Ferry land
(Revd. R. Temple— Fowler). Lab : (Cat. I., 142). L'anse au
Mort (A. C. W.— Fowler). July, August.

169. P. nivea, Linn. Lab : (Cat. I., 139) ; Hopedale (Weiz).
[Packard].

170. P. Norvegica, Linn. (Reeks). S. John's (Prof. Holloway
[Fowler]); Flat Bay Brook (Bell); Trinity and Fortune Bays
(A. C. W.) ; along railway track, Whitbourne (Robinson and
Schrenk). August. Lab : all along coast (Butler) ; (Cat. I, 516).
" Quite smooth and distinct from ordinary form, very likely the
P. Labradorica of Lehmann "). Battle Harbour (Bull [Macoun] ).

I70ct. Var : hirsuta, Torr. and Gray. Trinity Bay (Cormack,
P. hirsuta).

171. P. Pennsylvania, Linn. White Bay (Revd. J. S.
Andrewes [Macoun] ).

172. P. tridentata, Solander. Mountain or Three-Toothed
Cinquefoil (Cat. I, 141). Appear to be common everywhere in
exposed places (A. C. W.) ; common in the interior (Cormack).
In August. Lab: (Cat. L, 41). Many places on the Labrador
(A. C. W.) July. Flora Miq., very common in stony and peaty
places. In August.

173. P. palustris, Scop. Marsh five-finger. (Reeks); New
Harbour and Arnold's Cove (Placentia Bay) ; (A. C. W.) Wet
places and bogs. July. Lab : (Cat. L, 140). Not uncommon
along coast of Southern Labrador. July, September. Flora
Miq. August.

174. Pyrus Americana, D. C. American Mountain Ash
(Dog-berry or Pig-berry). Common in most places in woods.
June, July. Lab : in gulches and on hills (Butler).

I74a. Var : microcarpa, T. & G. (Cat-berry). S. John's
(Miss Southcott) ; New Harbour. Lab : nob rare over Labrador
coast (Cat. III., 522); Fox Harbour (A. C. W.) ; Hopedale
(Weiz). [Packard]. August.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQQELON — WAGHORNE. 91

175. P. sambucifolia, Cham, and Schlecht. Whitbourne
(Robinson and Schrenk). Woods. August.

176. P. arbutifolia, Linn. Choke-berry (Winter, Loiu or
Indian Pear). S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; West of Random
(Cormack) ; near Cairn Mountain, Flat Bay (Bell). Common
near Brigus (Cat. III., 521) and many other places. Bogs and
wet places. May, July.

170a. Var : melanocarpa, Hook. New Harbour. Lab :
(Flora Miq.) Flora Miq., commonly called Wild Pear. Common.
July.

177. P. malus, Linn. Wild Apple. Flora Miq. Met once
between Cape de la Demoiselle and Bellevaux Wood. Rare even
at Longlade, and doubtless introduced ; creeping, and has pro-
duced apples as large as a pigeon's egg. Flowers in July.

178. Rosa blanda, Ait. Early Wild Rose. On rocks and
rocky shores of rivers and lakes (Cat. III., 518); Harbour Bre-
ton (A. C. W.)

179. R. Carolina, Linn. Swamp Rose. (Reeks). About
New Harbour (A. C. W.)

180. R. lucida, Ehrt. (Reeks); (Cat, I, 143; 111,519);
New Harbour and Harbour Breton (A. C. W.)

181. R. nitida, Willd. (Cat. I, 145; III., 521). Topsail
(A. C. W.) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott and Robinson and
Schrenk) ; West of Random (Cormack) ; Harbour Breton.
Flora Miq., dry or slightly wet places ; common. August.

182. R. Sayii, Schwein. Harbour Grace (Cat. I., 144 : IV.,
520.)

183. R. pimpinellifolia, Linn. Flora Miq. ("mentioned
by Southier, and not found by us ; if this case exists in Miquelon,
it has been introduced there.")

184. Rubus arcticus, Linn. Arctic Raspberry or Bramble.
(Ground Raspberry and Plumboy, Labrador) (Cat. I., 129) ;
(Reeks). Lab : (Cat. L, 129); level grassy places (Butler) in
Southern Labrador ; not uncommon in the Straits of Belle Isle.
July, August. Flora Miq. July.

92 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

184a. Var: grandiflorus, Ledeb. Lab : From Labrador to
the woods and swamps of the Rocky Mountains, Lat. 52°-56°,
(Drummond), (Cat. I, 129). Nain and Nachvak (Cat, III., 514)-
Indian Harbour, Holton (A. C. W.) July, August.

185. R. Ganadensis, Linn. (Cat. I., 131): (Reeks); S.
John's (Miss Southcott) ; New Harbour (A. C. W.) Open
grounds at Whitbourne (Robinson and Schrenk). Flora Miq.
July, August.

186. R. Chamcemorus, Linn. Cloudberry. (Bake apple).
Very common in most parts of Newfoundland and the Labrador ;
in peat bogs and wet places (Cat. I., 128 ; III., 514). May,
June. Flora Miq. Very abundant in the peaty plains of
Miquelon. Flowers in June ; fruit ripens in August.

187. R. hispidus, Linn. Swamp Blackberry. (Reeks).

188. R. occidentalis, Linn. Black Raspberry. West of
Random (Cormack).

189. R. slrigosus, Michx. Red Raspberry. Very common
in most parts of the country. July. Lab : (Cat. L, 130). In
inland gulches (Butler) ; frequent in many places from the Straits
to Hamilton Inlet. Flora Miq.

190. R triflorus, Richards. Dewberry, Plumboy. Common
in many places in woods and wet places. May, June. Lab :
(Cat. I., 130); hillsides in S. Labrador (Butler); Capstan
Island, and several places in the Strait and more northern
(A. C. W.) July, August. Flora Miq. Damp and stony places j
common. July.

191. R. villosus, Ait. Thimbleberry or Bramble. (English
Blackberry). Several places in Trinity and Fortune Bays
(A. C. W.) ; Cairn Mountain, Flat Bay (Bell) ; Brigus and Top-
sail (Cat. III., 514). July. I have never or scarcely ever seen
the fruit fully ripe, but I am assured that the berries ripen fully,
and are sold in small quantities about Burin.

a. Var: frondosus, Torrey. (Cat. I., 131).

b. Var: humifusus, Torr. and Gray. S. John's (Miss South-
cott); New Harbour and Harbour Breton (A. C. W.) The
specimen from New Harbour is reported by Prof. Macoun as
near var. humifusus.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 93

192. R. Idceus, Linn. Flora Miq. ; marshy, peaty and stony
place ; common. August.

192J. Sibbaldia procumbens, Linn. Lab : Cape Chidley
(Cat. I, 138; III., 51G). Labrador (McGill College Herb.);
Hopedale (Weiz) [Packard].

193. Spircea salicifolia, Linn. Common Meadow Sweet.
(Deadmans flowers). (Reeks) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott) ;
fairly common in Trinity Bay and elsewhere (A. C. W.) ; low,
damp places, generally near ponds and margins of streams from
Newfoundland to base of Rocky Mountains (Cat. I., 126). Flora
Miq. ; common. August.

194. 8. tomentosa, Linn. Hardhack, Steeplebush. (Reeks).

XXII. SAXIFRAGACE^E. Saxifrage Family.

195. Mitella diphylla, Linn. Mitre-wort or Bishop's cap.
Cow Head ? (A more common species than the next. Reeks.)

196. Mitella nuda, Linn. Dwarf or Naked-stalked Mitella,
(Cat. I., 157). Several places about New Harbour (A. C. W. —
Macoun) ; Flat Bay (R. Bell) ; common at Cow Head (Reeks) ;
Englee (A. C. W.) July, August. Woods. Lab : (Cat. I., 157).
Hillsides, Forteau (S. R. Butler), and several other places in
Southern Labrador (A. C. W.) ; cool, damp places (Hooker).
[Packard]. July, August.

197. Parnassia parvijlora, D. C. (Cat. L, 159). Lab:
(Cat. L, 159). L'anse au Mort, Holton, Forteau and Long Point
(A. C. W. — Macoun and Fowler). July, August. Wet places.

198. P. palustris, Linn. Common Grass of Parnassus.
Doubtful specimen from Chance Cove (A. C. W. — Macoun).
Lab: (Cat. L, 159). Hopedale (Weiz), (Hooker) [Packard].
Fox Harbour and Battle Harbour (A. C. W.) July. Wet rocky
places.

199. P. Kotzebuei, Cham, and Schlecht. Lab: (McGill
College Herb.— Cat. L, 160). Hopedale (Weiz), [Packard].

200. Ribes prostratum, L'Her. Fetid or Mountain Currant.
(Cat. L, 162); near Cairn Mount, Flat Bay (R. Bell); West of
Random (Cormack) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; New Harbour
(A. C. W.) May and June. Lab : (Cat. L, 162). Common in

94 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

ravines of Southern Labrador (S. R. Butler) ; S. Michaels and
L'anse au Clair (A. C. W. — Macoun and Fowler), July, August.
Flora Miq. ; rare. July.

201. R. rubrum, Linn. Red Currant. (Reeks) ; Great
Cod Roy River (R. Bell). July.

202. R. lacustre, Poir. Swamp Gooseberry (Cat. I., 162) ;
Great Cod Roy River (R. Bell) ; (Reeks), Englee, in White Bay
(A. C. W.) July. Lab : (Cat. I., 162) ; common in ravines in
Southern Labrador (S. R. Butler), L'anse au Clair and L'anse au
Mort (A. C. W. — Fowler). July, August. Wet woods.

203. R. oxyacanthoides, Linn. Smooth Wild Gooseberry
(Cat. I., 161) ; S. John's (Miss Southcottx ; Harbour Breton and
Belleoram (A. C. W.) Lab: L'anse au Clair (A. C. W.— Fowler).
July.

204. Saxifraga Aizoon, Jacq. Ferryland or WThite Bay
(Revd. R Temple— Fowler). Lab : (Cat I., 150), (Judge Mor-
rison) ; Hopedale (Weiz) [Packard].

205. S. aizoides, Linn. Yellow Mountain Saxifrage. Port
a Port, S. George's Bay (R. Bell), (Cat. I., 155). White Bay ?
(Revd. R. Temple— Fowler). Lab : on rocks, Forteau (S. R.
Butler); Nachvak (R. 'Bell) [Cat. III., 525] ; Hopedale (Weiz)
[Packard] ; L'anse au Mort (A. C. W. — Fowler). Rocky banks.
August.

206. S. ccespitosa, Linn. Tufted Alpine Saxifrage. (Mc-
Gill Coll. Herb.) [Cat. I., 150]. Englee (A. C. W.) Lab : For-
teau Bay (S. R. Butler) Nachvak (Cat. I., 150; III., 523). Bat-
tle Harbour (A. C. W.)

Var: Groenlandica, Wahl. Lab : Hopedale (Weiz). [Pack-
ard ; perhaps all the last references belong here.]

207. S. cernua, Linn. Drooping Bulbous Saxifrage. (Pursh.
Cat. I, 151). Lab: (Pursh. Cat. I, 151; III., 524); Cape
Chidley (R. Bell) ; Hopedale (Weiz), [Packard].

208. S. nivalis, Linn. Clustered Alpine Saxifrage. Lab:
(Pursh), Nachvak. Cape Chidley (R. Bell. Cat. I., 152 ; III.,
524) ; Hopedale (Weiz). Caribou Island (S. R. Butler— Packard) ;
Bolster Rocks (Revd. J. H. Bull — Macoun). August.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 95

209. S. oppositi folia, Linn. Purple Mountain Saxifrage.
(Gat. I., 149 ; in dense clusters in exposed places at Goblin
Head, Hermitage Bay (Dr. Fitzgerald — Macoun). Lab : Cape
Chudleigh (Cat. I., 109 ; III., 523) ; Battle Harbour (Revd J. H.
Bull — Fletcher) ; rocks, Amour (S. R. Butler) ; Hopedale (Weiz),
[Packard] ; L'anse au Mort (A. C. W.) August.

210. Saxifraga rivularis, Linn. Alpine Brook Saxifrage.
S. Anthony (A. C. W.) August. Lab : (McGill Coll. Herb.),
Nachvak, Cape Chudleigh (R. Bell. Cat. I, 151 ; III., 523) ;
Hopedale (Weiz) [Packard] ; Battle Harbour and Holton (A. C.
W.) July.

211. 8. stellaris, Linn. Starry Saxifrage. Lab: (Morri-
son. Cat. I., 152).

212. '8. tricuspidata, Retz. Lab : (McGill Coll. Herb.)
Nachvak (R. Bell), (Cat. I., 154; II., 525).

213. S. hieracifolia, Waldst. and Kit. Lab : Hopedale
(Weiz.) [Packard].

XXIII. CRASSULACE^E. Orpine Family.

214. Penthorum sedoides, Linn. Ditch Stone-crop. (Reeks).

215. Sedum Rhodiola, D. C. Rose root (Midsummer men,
on the Labrador, also, Houseleek and Scurvy Grass). (Cat. L,
165), Common in many parts of Newfoundland, especially on
sea-cliffs. Lab: (Cat. I., 165). Frequent along the coast (A. C.
W.) [Packard]. Flora Miq. Rare. July. Cleft of rocks.

216. S. Telephium, Linn. Live for Ever. S. John's Hospi-
tal grounds (A. C. W. — McKay). August. Lab : L'anse au
Mort (A. C. W. — Fowler). Sea-beech. August.

217. 8. acre, Linn. Mountain Moss. S. John's (Miss
Cowling). Specimen named by Mr. Fletcher doubtfully.

XXIV. DROSERACE^E. Sundew Family.

218. Drosera rotundifolia, Linn. Round-leaved Sundeiu
(Flycatcher). " A common inhabitant of peat bogs and marshes
from Newfoundland and Labrador to the Pacific and north to,
and beyond, the Arctic Circle." (Cat. I., 165. Flora Miq.] in
all marsh places of the Island. July, August. [Called Musk rat
flower in White Bay).

96 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

219. D. Anglica, Hudson. Great Sundew. (Watson; Cat.
L, 166).

220. D. intermedia, Drev. and Hayne. Var. Americana,
D. C. 'Long-leaved Sundew. New Harbour (A. C. W.) ; sphag-
num swamp, Manuel's (Robinson and Schrenk) ; Ferryland or
White Bay (Revd. R. Temple — Fowler). August. Flora Miq.
Less common than the first named. July, August.

XXV. HALORAGE.E. Water Milfoil Family.

221. Myriophyllum spicatum, Linn. Spiked Water Mil-
foil. In abundance about Deer Lake, on West Coast (R. Bell).
(Cat. L, 166).

222. M. alterni folium, D. C. Whitbourne. Immersed in
shallow water of ponds (Robinson and Schrenk). August.

223. M. verticillatum, Linn. Whorled Water Milfoil
(Reeks). Flora Miq. This and the first in stagnant water of
the plain and Market Place Point of Miquelon. Common. July.

224. M. ienellum, Bigl. Water places (Cat. I., 167) ; (Reeks) ;
New Harbour Brook (A. C. W.) ; shallow water, Quidi Vidi
Lake, S. John's (Robinson and Schrenk). August.

225. Hippuris vulgaris, Linn. Common Mares Tail.
Pools of water and margins of lakes in Newfoundland and Labra-
dor (Cat. L, 167* ; near Bonne Bay, rare (Reeks); muddy banks
Exploits River, near the mouth of Badger's Brook (Robinson and
Schrenk) ; ponds, Tickle Harbour and Harbour Deep (A. C. W.)
August. Lab: Cape Chudleigh (R. Bell. Cat. L, 167; III.,
529) ; Hopedale (Weiz) (Packard] ; Fox Harbour (A. C. W.)
Flora Miq. Damp. places; common. July.

226. H. maritima, Hellenius. Lab: (Morrison. Cat. I. ,168).

227. Callitriche verna, Linn. Spring Starwort. (Reeks).
Lab : Capstan Island, Long Point and Battle Harbour (A. C. W.
Macoun and Fowler) ; ponds.

228. C. autumnalis, Linn. Autumnal Starwort. Green's
Harbour (A. C. W.) August.

229. C. heterophylla, Pursh. Whitbourne ; borders of ponds
(Robinson and Schrenk.) August.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 97

XXVI. ONAGRACE^;. Evening Primrose Family.

230. Circcea alpina, Linn. Mountain or Alpine Enchan-
ters Nightshade. Flat Bay Brook (R. Bell) ; (Reeks) ; rocky
banks, Manuel's River (Robinson and Schrenk) ; near Green's
Harbour (A. C. W.) August.

231. *Epilobium latifolium, Linn. (McGill Coll. Herb.
Cat. I, 169). Lab: Amour Bay (S. R. Butler); Battle Harbour
and L'anse au Mort (A. C. W. — Macoun and Fowler) ; Hopedale
(Weiz). [Cat. I, 129; Packard]. August. Sea-beech.

232. E. spicatum. Law. E. angustifolium.) Fireweed,
Narrow-leaved Willow Herb}. (Cat. I., 168), Common in New-
foundland, especially in burnt woods. Lab : Various places in
Southern Labrador and Sandwich Bay (A. C. W.) ; Hopedale
(Weiz); (Hooker); Nain and Nachvak (R. Bell— Packard).
August. Flora Miq. Damp places or more often dry. Com-
mon. July, August.

233. E. adenacavblon, Haussk. (E. coloratura, Muhl and
E. tebagenum, Linn.) Port a Port and Brigus (R. Bell) ; banks
of South Arm, Holyrood, and rocky banks of Rennie's River, S.
John's (Robinson and Schrenk) ; Englee, Couche, South Dildo
(A. C. W.) ; (McGill Coll. Herb. Cat. I., 169 ; III., 530). July
and August. Lab : L'anse au Clair and S. Michaels (A. C. W. —
Fowler and Macoun). August. Flora Miq. Stony places ;
common. August.

234. E. palustre, Linn. Marsh Willow herb. (Reeks) ;
Conche and New Harbour (A. C. W.) ; Bally Heilly Bog, S.
John's (Robinson and Schrenk). August. Lab : (Morrison.
Cat. II, 459) ; Hopedale (Weiz) ; [Packard] ; Pack's Harbour,
Forteau, Blanc Sablon, Battle Harbour and Mullin's Cove (A. C.
W. — Fowler and Macoun). August. Flora Miq. Marsh or wet
places ; common. August.

Var : Lineare, Gray. New Harbour (A. C. W.)

*The nomenclature of the Epilobium genus adopted is that given by Prof. Macoun
in his " contributions from the Herb of Geol. Survey of Canada," II., p. 80 ; based upon
its revision by Dr. Wm. Trelease : that is, as far as was possible to the writer.

7

98 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Labradorica, Haussk. Moist places on rocky hills, S.
John's (Robinson and Schrenk). August.

235. E. alpinum, Linn. Alpine Willow Herb. (Reeks).
Lab : South Coast (Brunet. Cat. I., 169) ; wet places at Forteau
(S. R. Butler) ; Cape Chudleigh (R. Bell. Cat. III., 530) ; Hope-
dale (Weiz) [Packard]. Flora Miq. Mentioned by Southier but
not met with.

236. E. Hornemanni, Reichenb. Lab : Pinware River,
Cartwright, Forteau, Blanc Sablon and Pack's Harbour (A. C. W.
— Fowler, Eaton and Macoun). July, August. Wet places.

237. E. anagallidifolium, Lan. Lob: Gape Chidley (R.
Bell ; contributions from Herb, of Geol. S. of Canada, II, 85).

238. E. strictum, Muhl. (E. molle, Torr.) Pipe Stone Road,
Bay Despair, Hermitage Bay (Jas. Howley — Macoun).

239. dEnothera biennis, Linn. Common Evening Prim-
rose. Ferryland or White Bay (Revd. R. Temple — Fowler) ;
near Badger Brook, Exploits (Revd. J. V. Bull— Fowler) ; New
Harbour and Harbour Breton (A. C. W.) July.

240. A. pumila, Linn. Dwarf Evening Primrose. South
Dildo (A. C. W.) July.

XXVII. UMBELLIFER^:. Parsley Family.

241. Archangelica atropurpurea, Hoffm. Great Angelica.
(Reeks). West Coast (R. Bell. Cat. I., 185); confluence of
Exploits and Badger Rivers (Robinson and Schrenk). August.
Lab : South coast of Amour Bay and Caribou Island (S. R. But-
ler) ; Hopedale (Weiz— Packard) ; Battle Harbour (A. C. W.;
September.

242. A. Gmelini} D. C. Lab : (McGill Coll. Herb. Cat. I.,
186) ; Straits of Belle Isle (S. Cyr— Packard) ; Battle Harbour
(A. C. W.) September. Flora Miq. Damp places ; common.
July.

243. Carum carui, Linn. Garden Carraway. S. John's
(Miss-Southcott — Macoun) ; Green's Harbour (A. C. W.) Lab :
Smack Cove and Cape Charles (A. C. W.) Sept.

244. Conioselinum Canadense, Torr and Gray. S. George's
Bay (Howley — Macoun) ; New Harbour and Harbour Breton

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 99

(A. C. W.) ; Lab : Battle Harbour (J. EL Bull— Macoun) ; Veni-
son Tickle (A. C. W.) August. Flora Miq. Peaty places ;
•common, August.

245. Cicuta maculata, Linn. Spotted Coivbane. New Har-
bour Brook (A. C. W.)

246. C. bulbifera, Linn, Narrow-leaved Hemlock. West
of Random (Cormack).

247. Dancus carota, Linn. Carrot. (Reeks).

248. Heracleum lanatum, Michx. Downy or Cow Parsnip
(Health root or Hell trot). Common in many places. Lab :
(Cat. I., 187) ; fairly frequent in Straits of Belle Isle and north-
wards (A. C. W.) ; Caribou Island (S. R. 'Butler), (Hooker),
{Packard]. Flora Miq. Damp and sandy places ; very common.
July, August.

249. Ligusticum Scoticum, Linn. Scotch Lovage (Cat. I.,
184) ; West of Random (Cormack) ; Placentia, crevices of cliffs
(Robinson and Schrenk) ; New Harbour and various other
places (A. C. W.) August. Lab : (Brunet. Cat. I., 184); Cari-
bou Island (S. R. Butler) ; Battle Harbour, Capstan Island, etc.,
(A. C. W. — Macoun and Fowler). August, September. Sea
cliffs. Flora Miq. Dry or damp places ; very common. July.

250. Osmorrhiza brevistylis, D. C. Hairy Sweet Cicely.
Lab: Capstan Island and Forteau (A. C. W. — Fowler). August.
Low woods.

251. Sanicula Canadensis, Linn. Canada Sanicle. (Reeks).

252. S. Marylandica, Linn. (Cat. I.. 179) ; banks of Exploit.
River and confluence of Badger Brook (Robinson and Schrenk).
August.

253. Sium cicutcefolium, Gmelin. Water Parsnip. New
Harbour Brook (A. C. W.) , shallow water and muddy banks,
Whitbourne (Robinson and Schrenk). August, Oct.

254. Selinum Benthami,W&ts. Lab: (Morrison.- Cat. I.,
185.)

XXVIII. ARALIACE.E. Ginseng Family.

255. Aralia racemosa, Linn. SpiJcenard, Pelly Morrel.
(Reeks). A doubtful specimen from Englee (A. C. W. — A. H,
MacKay.)

100 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, ETC. — WAGHORNE.

256. A. hispida, Vent. Dwarf Elder (Cat. L, 189) ; bar-
rens at confluence of Exploit and Badger Rivers (Robinson and
Schrenk) ; Topsail (Prof. Holloway — Macoun). August.

257. A. nudicaulis, Linn. Wild Sarsapa>illa. Near Flat
Bay Brook (R. Bell) ; (Reeks) ; St. John's, rocky hills (Robinson
and Schrenk); several places about New Harbour and Harbour
Breton (A. C. W.) August. Flora Miq. Peaty places, often
sterile. July.

XXIX. CORNACE^E. Dogwood Family.

258. Cornus Canadensis. Linn. Dwarf Cornel or Bunch-
berry. (Cracke or Bunchberry.) " Very abundant in cold sandy
woods from the Atlantic to the Pacific " (Cat. I., 190). June,
July. Lab : Common on the Straits of Belle Isle and north-
wards (A. C. W.) Flora Miq. Very common. June, July.

259. 0. Suecica, Linn. Lapland Cornel. (Morrison. Cat
I., 190) ; Great Cod Roy Island. Grows everywhere in profusion
with the last ; quite as common as that all along the N. West and
on North Shore, nearly as far as Point de Monts (R. Bell) ; com-
mon at Cow Head (Reeks) ; at Harbour Breton, Brunei, New
Harbour and Exploits (A. C. W. — Macoun and Fowler). July,
August. Lab : Common everywhere (S. R. Butler) ; Nain (R.
Bell) ; Hopedale (Weiz), [Packard]. July, August. Flora Miq.
Heathlands, somewhat moist ; very common. June, July.

260. Cornus circinata, L'Her. Round-leaved Cornel or
Dogwood. Trinity Bay (Cormack) ; Great Cod Roy River
(R. Bell).

261. C. sericea, Linn. - Silky Cornel. (Reeks).

262. C. stolonifera, Michx. Red Brier, Kinnikinnik (Red
Rod). Appears to be frequent in many places ; Great Cod Roy
River (R. Bell) ; (Reeks) ; New Harbour, Harbour Breton and
White Bay (Macoun and Fowler). July. Flora Miq. Rare.
July.

263. C. paniculata, L'Her. Panicled Cornel (Reeks).

264. C. alternifolia, Linn. Alternate-leaved Cornel. Cairn
Mountain, Flat Bay (R. Bell). July.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

c0tiart Institute of

SESSION OF 1895-96.

I. — ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF MIXTURES
OF ELECTROLYTES. — BY PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR,

Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. 8.

(Read 9th December, 1895.)

Arrhenius has deduced* as one of the consequences of the
dissociation theory of electrolytic conduction, that the condition
which must be fulfilled in order that two solutions of single
electrolytes, which have one ion in common, and which undergo
no change of volume on being mixed, may be isohydric, i. e.t
may on being mixed undergo no change in their state of disso-
ciation, is, that the concentration of ions (i. e., the number of
dissociated molecules per unit of volume) shall be the same for
both. He obtained this result by combining the equations of
kinetic equilibrium for the constituent electrolytes before and
after mixture. As I shall have occasion to refer to these
equations below, I may give them here.

Let Pm Q and P^ R be the general chemical formulae for two
electrolytes having the ion P in common ; let >vl and v2 be the

*Ztschr. f. physikalisehe Chemie, ii, p. 284, (1888.)

(101)

102 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY .OF

volumes of the solutions of these electrolytes which are mixed ;
let them contain Nx and N2 gramme-molecules of the elec-
trolytes respectively ; and let al and «2 be the respective
coefficients of ionisation in the constituent solutions, and there-
fore, if the solutions are isohydric, in the mixture also. Then,
according to the dissociation theory of electrolysis and the
more general theory of solutions on which it is based, the
condition that there shall be equilibrium between the undissoci-
ated and the dissociated parts of the electrolytes in the simple
solutions, is expressed in the equations : —

-N! (1-a,)

Ci

/

\

N

d-gg) m ( n "I N2\n «2 N2

t'a V ^'2 / ^2

where ci and c2 are constants, i. e., are independent of the
values of N, v, and a. The condition that there shall be equili-
brium between the dissociated and undissociated parts of each
electrolyte after the mixture, in the case of isohydric solutions
which do not change either in ionisation or in volume on
mixing, is expressed in the following equations :

I
\

N2

•\r \wi n TVT
IN 2^ ^l_fNl,

V-, +Vn

It follows from the first and third of these equations, that

N2 in a

and from the second and fourth, that

in al Nj+71 «2 N, n a2 N2

vl+v2 ~~vz

Hence,

in a N n a N

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 103

i. e., the amount of the common ion which is dissociated per unit
of volume, must be the same in both constituent solutions.

According to the dissociation theory, the specific conductivity
of a mixture of two solutions of electrolytes 1 and 2, whose
volumes before mixing were v\ and i>'2 respectively, which
contained nl and n2 gramme-equivalents of the electrolytes per
unit of volume, whose combined volume after the mixture is
p (v\ -f- T/2 ), whose co-efficients of ionisation after mixing are
«! and «2, and whose specific molecular conductivities at infinite
dilution, under the circumstances in which they exist in the
mixture, are juooi and ^002, is given by the expression :

Since in any case in which isohydric solutions are mixed without
change of volume, n^, v\,n2 and v2 are known, al and «2 readily
determinable, and p equal to unity, the specific conductivity can
be calculated, provided we may assume that ft*>i and ^002 have the
same values in the mixture as in simple solutions. In the
particular case in which equal volumes of the constituents are
mixed without change of volume, the conductivity of the mix-
ture becomes obviously the mean of the conductivities of the
constituent solutions.

Arrhenius has subjected the result referred to above to a
number of tests. In one he determined by experiment several
series of dilute aqueous solutions of different single acids, such
that if any two of the members of the same series were mixed
in equal volumes, the mixture was found to have a conductivity
equal to the mean of the conductivities of the constituents.
Regarding the solutions of each series as shewn thereby to be
isohydric among one another, he calculated the concentrations of
the ions in the various solutions by the aid of Ostwald's obser-
vations of the conductivity of acids. The following table gives
the result, the numbers specifying the concentration of dissociated
hydrogen (in rngr. per litre) in the different solutions, and those

104 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

in each row applying to solutions found as above to be isohydrio
with one another :

HC1

(COOH)2

C4 H6 06

HCOOH

CH8 COOH

151.5

152.6

423

35.1

22.03

21.37

19.07

4.48

4.09

4.17

4.42

3.96

1.33

1.24

1.25

1.44

1.33

0.379

0.397

0.381

0.402

It will be observed that while the numbers in the various
horizontal rows shew a general agreement, they differ very
considerably from one another, the extreme differences ranging
from 0.7 to 20.5 per cent.

He found also that two solutions of ammonium acetate and
acetic acid respectively, which were determined in the above
way to be isohydric with one another, contained, according to
Kohlrausch, amounts of the ion C H3 COO which were in the
ratio 1 : 0.79, a ratio which is only very roughly equal to unity.

So far as result is concerned, these tests are not satisfactory;
but the lack of agreement may have been due to various causes :
(1.) the data for calculation may have been defective, (2) the
change of volume which would doubtless occur on mixing, even
with very dilute solutions, may have been too great for the:
application of Arrhenius's deduction, and (3) the difference
between the values of fix in simple solution and in a mixture, may
be too great to admit of the identification of isohydric solutions
by the method employed.

On the other hand, Arrhenius has calculated* the conductivi-
ties of two dilute solutions containing in each case given
quantities of two acids, employing for this purpose a series of
approximations based on his own observations of isohydric

*Wiedemann's Annalen, xxx, p. 73 (1887).

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 105

solutions of the acids ; and the calculated values were found to
agree with those observed to within 0.5 and 0.2 per cent, respec-
tively. So far as result is concerned, this forms a much more
satisfactory test than those mentioned above ; but the number
of calculations is too small to exclude the possibility of accidental
-agreement.

The calculation of the conductivity of a mixture of electro-
lytes is so severe a test of the ionisation theory of electrolysis
that I have thought it well to try its possibility on a larger
•scale, especially as a considerable body of material is available
for this purpose in the observations of the conductivity of
mixtures of solutions of potassium and sodium chlorides made
by Bender*. The present paper contains the results of calcula-
tions of the conductivities of mixtures determined experimentally
by him.

METHOD OF CALCULATION.

In order to make such calculations by Arrhenius's method, it
Would be necessary to make a prelimmarj^ determination of a
number of isohydric solutions of the two salts, and to restrict
the calculations to very dilute solutions. They may be made
however, without such preliminary experiments, and without
such restriction, by employing a more general form of Arrhenius's
deduction.

Two electrolytes, which have a common ion and are in a state
of equilibrium in the same solution, may be regarded as occupying
definite portions of the volume of the solution. If we apply the
equilibrium conditions to the parts of the solutions occupied by
the respective electrolytes, as well as to the whole solution, we
obtain equations which, mutatis mutandis, are identical with
those obtained by Arrhenius, as indicated above, for the iso-
hydric solutions and their mixture. Thus, if in the equations of
equilibrium given above, we take vl and V2 to be the portions
of the volume of the mixture occupied by the respective electro-
lytes, and ctj and <*2 to be their co-efficients of ionisation in the

*Wicdemann's Annalen, xxn, p. 197, (1884).

106 ONT THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

mixture, the above equations express the conditions which must
be fulfilled that there may be equilibrium between the dissociated
and unrlissociated portions of each electrolyte, both in the part
of the mixture occupied by it and throughout the whole volume
of the mixture. The result :

in al Nx n aa N2

«V. ~^a~

states that in a mixture of solutions of two electrolytes which
have a common ion, and are in a state of equilibrium, the con-
centration of the ions of the respective electrolytes per unit,
volume of the portions of the mixture occupied by them, must
be the same.

With the aid of this result we can find the ionisation co-effi-
cients of the constituents of mixtures such as Bender
examined. For if v\ and v\ are the volumes of the constituent
solutions before mixing, and nl} n2 the numbers of gramme-
molecules per unit of volume which they contain, it gives us the
equation :

«1

We have also

vl+v2 = p (v^ + v^) ....... (2)

and as the co-efficients of ionisation are functions of the
dilution only, at constant temperature, we have

(4)

Of the quantities involved in these equations, nlt n2, v^, v^
are known, and p may be determined by density measurements
before and after mixture. The form of the functions in (3) and
(4) may be determined if measurements of the conductivities of
sufficiently extended series of simple solutions of the constituent
electrolytes are made. We have thus four equations with but
four unknown quantities.

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 107

If we employ the symbol V to represent the dilution (v/n v)
we may write the above equations as follows :

$--£••• -a)

,2,

which in the case of mixtures of equal volumes becomes

• = <K (V,) ................... (3)

I determined a1 and «2 from these equations by the following
graphical process : — Equation (3) was employed by drawing, from
experimental data, for simple solutions of electrolyte 1, a curve
having values of the concentration of the ions («/V) as abscissae
and corresponding values of the dilution (V) as ordinates. This
curve was drawn once for all, and was used in all determinations.
The curve embodying equation (4) had to be drawn anew, (or
rather such portion of it as was necessary), for each mixture
examined. In the case of a mixture of solutions containing
%! and n2 gramme-molecules per unit volume of electrolytes
] and 2 respectively, the curve had as abscissae the concentrations
of ions of a series of simple solutions of electrolyte 2, and as
ordinates, since Bender's mixtures were mixtures of equal
volumes, n2/nl times the corresponding values of the dilutions.
Were the mixtures under consideration mixtures of unequal
volumes, Wat;9//'ji1v1/ times the values of the dilutions wrould
have to be used as the ordinates. Equations (1) and (2) were
applied by finding, by inspection, two points, one on each of the
above curves having a common abscissa (<*i/V1 = «9/V8) and

having ordinates (Vx and — V2 respectively) of such magni-

108 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

tude as to have a sum equal to p times the sum of the ordinates
of the points on the curves determined by the dilutions
(V/ and Vy respectively) before mixing. The value of the
abscissa common to the two points thus determined, gives the
concentrations of ions of both constituents in the mixture. The
corresponding ordinate of the first curve, and that of the second
curve multiplied by n1/na, give the dilutions (Vj and V2) of
the constituents in the mixture. The products of the common
value of a/V into Vx and V2 are the required values of al and
«2 respectively.

The above process will be more readily understood by refer-
ence to the accompanying diagram. A B is the curve whose
abscissae are the values of «/V and whose ordinates are the
corresponding values of V for a series of solutions of electrolyte 1.
If we are to determine the concentration of ions in a mixture of
equal volumes of solutions of electrolytes 1 and 2 respectively,
we draw the curve C D whose abscissae are the values of a/V
and whose ordinates are njn^^ times the corresponding values of
V, for a sufficiently extended series of solutions of electrolyte 2.
Let O F and F E represent the concentration of ions and the
dilution ("VV) of the solution of electrolyte 1 which is to be
mixed with an equal volume of a solution of electrolyte 2, and
let O H and H G represent the concentration of ions and

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 109

times the dilution (V'3) of the latter solution. Then, since
V.' -•:&>- ± -d V, -%, = i

we have

V ' - V

* i — *

1 11. •

Hence F E and H G are equal. In order to determine the con-
centration of ions after mixing, we must find two points J, K,
on the curves A B and C D respectively, having according to
equation 1, a common abscissa O L, and having according to
equation 2, ordinates L K and L J which together are equal to
p times the sum of F E and H G. If p is equal to unity (i- e., if
the change of volume on mixing is negligible), the line J K
joining the points J and K, when properly selected, will obviously
be bisected by the line E G. The points J and K may thus be
easily found by inspection. If p is not equal to unity, we must
cut off from F E and H G or from these lines produced, portions
F N and H P, equal to p. F E and p. H G respectively. Then,
as before, the proper points Q, R will be so situated that the line
Q R will be bisected by the line N P. Thus in this case also the
points Q, R may readily be found by inspection. The points J,
K (or Q, R) being thus found, O L (or O S) will represent the
common concentration of ions in the mixture, and L K and
L J (or S R and S Q) will represent the dilution of electrolyte 1?
and tnjnl times the dilution of electrolyte 2, respectively, in the
mixture. ,

If the solutions to be mixed have unequal volumes (y^ and i>2')
we must draw the curve c d having as abscissae the concentrations

of ions, and as ordinates nz v*f times the corresponding dilu-
tions of a series of solutions of electrolyte 2. Let Oh and hg
represent the concentration of ions, and the dilution (V/)
respectively, of the solution of electrolyte 1, which is to be
mixed with a solution of electrolyte 2, and let 0/and fe represent

the concentration of ions, and n2- ^ , times the dilution (V2') of
the latter solution, respectively.

110 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF
From the equations

V.--JL, and V,'=J_,
it follows that

/ ni

n

Hence / e and h g being proportional to the volumes of the
solutions before mixing will be unequal. As before, we have
to determine points j and A; on curves c d and A B respectively,
having a common abscissa 0 I and so situated that if p is equal
to unity,

k l+j l = e f+g h,

and if p is not equal to unity,

k l+jl=p(ef+gh).

If, in cases in which p is equal to unity, the points j, k be>
properly selected, it is obvious that a line i m drawn through i
the point of bisection of e g, parallel to the axis of ionic concen-
trations, 0 h, will bisect j k. Hence the points j, k, will be
easily determined by inspection. If p is not equal to unity, the
points corresponding to^' and k may be determined by proceeding
in a manner similar to that used in the case of a mixture of
equal volumes of the constituent solutions. To avoid complica-
tion the construction is not inserted in the diagram.

It will be obvious that the values of a\ and aa for a solution
containing two electrolytes with a common ion, may be
determined in the above way, whether it has been formed by the
mixing of two simple solutions or not. It may always be
imagined to have been formed in this way, and in cases in which
p is not negligible, if data are not available for its determination,
special density measurements may be made.

DATA FOR THE CALCULATIONS.

Bender's paper contains all the data required for the calcula-
tion of the conductivities of mixtures of solutions of potassium
and sodium chlorides, with the single exception of the specific

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

Ill

molecular conductivity of the simple solutions at infinite
dilution. Owing to the want of this datum, I have drawn the
curves a/V = <£ (V) by means of data based on Kohlrausch and
Grotrian's and Kohlrausch's Observations of the conductivity of
solutions of these salts. They are as follows : —

NaCl SOLUTIONS.

Concentration
Gramme-molecules
per litre.

Specific molecular
conductivity .

Dilution
Litres per
Gramme-molecule .

Concentration
of Ions.

0.5

757

2

0.3682

0.884

710.42

1.1312

0.6109

1

695

1

0.6761

1.830

618.59 0.5465

1.1012

2.843

539.93

0.3517

1.4932

3

528

0.3333

1.5418

3.924

466.35

0.2548

1.7802

5

398

0.2

1.936

5.085

392.53

0.1967

1.9416

5.325

377.65

0.1878

1.9562

5.421

371.95

0.1845

1.9611

KC1 SOLUTIONS.

Concentration
Gram me-molecules
per litre.

Specific molecular
conductivity.

Dilution
Litres per
Gramme-molecule.

Concentration
of Ions.

0.5

958

2

0.3939

0.691

933.43

1.4472

0.5304

1

919

1

0.7558

1.427

890.70

0.7008

1.0452

2.208

855.52

0.4529

1.5535

3

827

0.3333

2.0409

3.039

823.95

0.3291

2.0592

3.213

817.94

0.3112

2.1612

It will be seen that the above data are quite sufficient for
drawing the curves representing a/V as <J>(V) in the parts
corresponding to small dilutions ; but that the data are few for
the parts corresponding to the greater dilutions, where the
curvature is more rapid. In order to draw these parts of the
curves therefore, I obtained interpolation formulae, expressing a/V

*Wiedemann's Annalen, vi, p. 37 (1879) and xxvi, p. 195, (1885).

112 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

in the case of each salt in terms of reciprocals of powers of V.
In obtaining these formulae, I made use of Kohlrausch's data
•only, Kohlrausch and Grotrian's data not being at the time
Available to me. As the experimental data from which the
formulae were obtained, applied to a much greater range of
-dilution than that of the parts of the curves in the drawing of
which these formulae were used, I did not think it necessary to
re-determine the formulae when Kohlrausch and Grotrian's
•observations carne into my hands. The following tables shew
the accuracy with which the formulae reproduced the experi-
mental data on which they were founded :

DILUTION (V).

CONCENTRATION OF IONS (a/V)
CALCULATED FROM

KOHLRAUSCH'S
OBSERVATIONS.

FORMULA.

NaCl SOLUTIONS.

10

0.08414

0.08413998

2

0.3682

0.3681999

1 .

0.6761

0.6760998

03

1.5418

1.541798

0.2

1.9360

1.936008

KC1 SOLUTIONS.

10

0.08610

0.086099

2

0.3939

0.393900

1

0.7558

0.755802

0.3

2.0409

2.04088

As the formulae, owing to the narrow range of their applica-
bility, are of no permanent value, they need not be given here.
The consistency of the results of the calculations based on them,
AS given in the table below, would seem to show that they were
sufficiently accurate for the purpose in hand. •

As Bender measured the specific gravities of both his simple
solutions and his mixtures, his paper affords the necessary data
for determining the change of volume on mixing. Such change

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 113

will have a double effect on the calculated conductivity, (1)
affecting the value of a as determined from the curves, and (2)
introducing the factor p in the final computation. In the case
of Bender's solutions, though in some cases they were nearly or
quite saturated, the first effect was so small as to be much less,
than the error incidental to the graphical process, and I did not.
therefore take it into account. The second effect was also very
small ; but as in some cases it was nearly as great as Bender's,
estimated error, I took it into account in all the calculations.

While Kohlrausch's solutions had at 1 8°C both the constitu-
tion and the conductivity specified in his tables, Bender's solutions:,
had at 15° the constitution, and at 18° the conductivity ascribed
to them. I found that it did not appreciably affect the values,
found for a\ and «2 to regard the concentrations at 15° as being
the concentrations at 18°, but that this approximation was,
inadmissible in calculating the conductivity, as in some cases it,
made a difference of about the same magnitude as Bender's
estimated error. Hence in the calculations, I took as the values.
of nl and 7i2, Bender's values multiplied by the ratio of the
volume of the solution at 15° to its volume at 18°. As Bender
measured the thermal expansion of his solutions, his paper
furnishes the necessary data for this correction.

The conductivities given by Bender as the results of his
observations are the actual results of measurement, and are thus
affected by accidental errors, which in some cases are considerable.
In order that his observations might be rendered comparable
with the results of calculation, these accidental errors must as
far as possible be removed. I therefore plotted all his series of
observations on co-ordinate paper, drew smooth curves through
them, and estimated as well as I could, in this way. the
accidental errors of the single measurements. The corrections
thus determined are given in the table below in the column
headed : Correction a.

Bender himself draws attention to certain differences between
his observations of the conductivity of simple solutions of K Cl
and Na Cl, and those for solutions of the same strength con-~

114 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

tained in Kohlrausch's tables of interpolated values, ascribing
them (1) to his own observations being the results of actual
measurements, and (2) to the different temperatures at which
their respective solutions had the specified strength. These
differences are shewn in the following table : —

SALT IN
SOLUTION.

CONDUCTIVITY.

DIFFERENCE.

BENDER.

KOHLRAUSCH.

Na Cl.

388

380

+ 8

K Cl.

478

471

+ 7

Na Cl.

702

698

+ 4

K Cl.

916

911

+ 5

Na Cl.

977

974

+ 3

Na Cl.

1217

1209

+ 8

K Cl.

1362

1328

+ 34

Na Cl.

1425

1412

+ 13

Na Cl.

1594

1584

+ 10

K Cl.

1741

1728

+ 13

Na Cl.

1745

1728

+ 17

Na Cl.

1845

1816

- 1

K Cl.

2106

2112

- 6

K Cl.

2484

2480

+ 4

K Cl.

2820

2822

- 2

It will be noticed that the differences are all of the same sign
up to conductivities of about 1800, and nearly all of the opposite
sign for higher conductivities ; also, that for any given conduc-
tivity the difference is of the same sign and of about the same
magnitude for solutions of both salts. If they were due to the
first of the above causes, since Kohlrausch's interpolated values
agree well with his observations we should expect more alternation
of sign ; if to the second, there should be no change of sign ; if
to both, there should be greater and more irregular variation in
the magnitude. The fact that the differences are practically the
same for both electrolytes at any given value of the conductivity
would seem to show that the cause of the differences, a defect in
the apparatus possibly, or in the distilled water, was operative
in the measurements of both sets of simple solutions, and there-
fore probably in the measurements of the mixtures. Hence, to
render the results of calculations based on Kohlrausch's data for
the simple solutions, comparable with Bender's results for

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 115

mixtures, we must determine what the conductivities of Bender's
mixtures would have been if Kohlrausch had prepared and
measured them. To find this out as nearly as possible, I plotted
the data of the above table with Bender's conductivities as
abscissae, and the differences between them and Kohlrausch's
corresponding values as ordinates, and drew a smooth curve
through the points. By the aid of this curve I determined the
correction b of the table given below. This correction is of
course a more or less doubtful one ; for it is not certain that the
observations on mixtures suffered from the same unknown
source of error as the observations on simple solutions. It
seems probable however that they did ; and the results of the
table given below would appear to render it almost certain.

It may be well in one case to give an example of the mode
of calculation. We may take for this purpose the mixture of
solutions containing each 1 gramme-molecule of salt. It is
found by the graphical process that the value of a/V for this
mixture is 0.718 gramme-molecules per litre and that the dilu-
tions in the mixture are 0.937 and 1.063 litres per gramme-
molecule for the Na Cl and K Cl respectively. The densities of
the constituent solutions were 1.0444 and 1.0401 respectively,
and that of the mixture 1.0422. The expansions per unit volume
between 15° and 20° were 0.0013569 and 0.0012489 respectively.
The values of the conductivity at infinite dilution, I took to be
1028 and 1216 respectively, according to Kohlrausch's observa-
tions. Hence the conductivity of the mixture

2x10422 (1x0.118 x 0.937 x 1028 1UO718 x 1.063 x 1216\ ^ „
* 2.0845 \ 1 + 0.6x0.00136 " 1 + 0.6x0.00125 /

Bender's observed value (he used the same standard as
Kohlrausch) was 814. To this a correction of about — 3 must
be applied to make the observation agree with the others of the
same series (correction a) and a correction of about- 3 to make
it comparable with a calculated value based on Kohlrausch's
data (correction b). Bender's reduced value is thus 808, which
differs from the calculated value by 1.2, or 0.15 per cent.

116 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

RESULTS OF THE CALCULATIONS.

The following table gives the results of the calculations, the
2nd and 3rd columns containing the numbers of gramme-molecules
per litre in the simple solutions at 15°C, the 4th column Bender's
observed values of the conductivities of the mixtures, the oth
and 6th, corrections a and b referred to above, the 7th, Bender's
reduced values, the 8th, the calculated values, and the 9th, the
excess of the calculated values over those observed, expressed
as per-centages of the latter : —

Constituent solu-

tions;— grm.-

Conductivity of Mixture.

.j

molecules per litre.

§

»

§

Corrections,

1

w

%

D

Na Cl.

K Cl.

Bender
observed.

Bender
reduced.

Calcu-
lated.

&

fe

a.

b.

5

1

0.5

0.1875

291

0

291

289.5

-0.52

2

//

0.375

377

0

-'7

370

373.1

+ 0 84

3

n

0.5

436

0

- 6

430

426.1

-0.90

4

n

0.75

545

0

- 5

540

537.6

-0.44

5

ii

1.5

866

0

- 3

863

858.3

-0.54

6

1.0

0.1875

442

+ 23

- 6

459

461.4

+ 0.52

7

//

0.375

546

0

- 5

541

540.6

-0.07

8

II

0.75

707

0

- 4

703

701.1

-0.27

9

II

1.0

814

- 3

- 3

808

809.2

+ 0.15

10

„

1.5

1014

+ 6

- 5

1015

1015.2

+ 0.02

11

n

2.0

1224

- 6

- 9

1209

1200.6

-0.69

12

2.0

0.1875

776

0

- 3

773

773.9

+ 0.12

13

n

1.0

1085

0

- 6

1079

1086.3

+ 0.68

14

n

2.0

1458

0

-13

1445

1458

+ 0.90

15

n

3.0

1832

- 9

0

1823

1808.6

-0.79

16

3.0

1.0

1332

0

-11

1321

1324

+ 0.23

17

n

2.0

1674

0

-10

1664

1660

-0.24

18

n

3.0

2003

0

+ 4

2007

1988.7

-0.91

19

4.0

0.375

1367

-10

-12

1345

1350.4

+ 0.40

20

n

2.0

1857

0

+ 1

1858

1849.3

-0.47

21

n

3.5

2300

0

+ 3

2303

2239.2

-2.77

22

n

4.0

2428

+ 6

- 2

2432

2345.3

-3.56

It will be seen that in the case of the more dilute solutions
Nos. 1-17 and 19, the differences, which are in all cases less than

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 117

1 per cent, and for the most part considerably less, are one half
positive and one half negative, and that whether the solutions
are arranged in the order of conductivity , or in the order of
mean concentration, they exhibit quite a sufficient alternation of
sign to warrant the conclusion that they are due chiefly at least,
to errors in tbe observations and in the graphical portion of the
calculations.

In the case of the stronger solutions, Nos. 16-18 and 19-22,
the alternation of sign has disappeared. In the weakest solutions
of these two series, the differences are positive and small ; but
as the concentration increases, the differences become negative
and take increasing negative values, the negative difference
having its greatest value in No. 22, which is a mixture of a
strong solution of Na Cl with a saturated solution of K Cl. The
tendency towards a negative difference as the concentration
increases, may be recognised also in Nos. 11 and 15 ; and it is
perhaps worth noting that while the mean value of the positive
differences is slightly greater than that of the negative differences
up to a concentration of 1 gramme-molecule of salt per litre, the
mean negative difference is the greater for higher concentrations.

It is manifest from these results that for solutions of these
chlorides containing less than say 2 gramme-molecules per litre,
it is possible to calculate the conductivity very exactly, but that
for stronger solutions the calculated value is less than the
observed.

The jxcess of the observed over the calculated conductivities,
shews one or more of the assumptions implied in the mode of
calculation to be erroneous. It would seem to be probable that
the error is at any rate largely due to the assumption that the
molecular conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite dilution is
the same whether it exists in a simple solution or in a mixture,
and that the discrepancy is thus due to the effect of mixing on
the velocities of the ions. The mode of calculation assumes that
in the mixture the constituents are not really mixed, but lie side
by side, so that the ions of each electrolyte in their passage from
electrode to electrode travel through the solution to which they
2

118 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

belong only. They must rather be. regarded however as passing
in rapid alternation, now through a region occupied by one
solution, and now through a region occupied by the other. The
actual mean velocities of the ions in the mixture will therefore
probably differ from their values in a solution of their own
electrolyte only. In the case of dilute solutions the difference
will be small, in sufficiently dilute solutions inappreciable, but in
the case of the stronger solutions it may account in large part
for the discrepancy observed above. We have however, so far
as I am aware, no data for calculating the effect of mixture on
the ionic velocities or the extent to which the discrepancy is due
to this effect.

To obtain some rough conception of its magnitude, I have
calculated the conductivity of the mixture No. 18, on two
assumptions which seemed more or less probable, viz., (1) that
the velocities of the ions of each electrolyte in the mixture are
the same as they would be in a simple solution of their own
electrolyte of a concentration (in gramme-molecules per litre)
equal to the mean concentration of the mixture, and (2) that the
velocities of the ions of each electrolyte, when passing through a
region occupied by the other electrolyte, are the same as they
would be in a simple solution of the former of a dilution equal
to that of the latter. The expression used for the conductivity
wa

p

2 p

where ul and u2 are the sums of the velocities of the ions of
electrolytes 1 and 2 respectively in simple solutions of the
dilutions which they have in the mixture, while u^ and u2' are
the values these ionic velocities would have according to the
particular assumption employed, the velocities in all cases being
those corresponding to the same potential gradient. As the
graphical process above gave the dilution of each electrolyte in
the mixture, the values of u and u were readily determined by
the aid of Kohlrausch's table of ionic velocities.* I found that

*Wiedemann's Annalen, L, p. 385, (1893).

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 119

according to assumption (1) the conductivity would be greater
than Bender's reduced value by 1.6 per cent, and that according
to assumption (2) it would be greater by 1.3 per cent. Similar
calculations could not be carried out with solutions stronger
than No. 18, owing to lack of data. If the above assumptions
be regarded as representing even roughly the effect of mixing on
the ionic velocities, the calculations based on them shew that
the error introduced by neglecting the effect of mixing would be
of the same sign and order of magnitude as the differences
between the calculated and observed values of the above table.
While, therefore, such calculations are of little value, they
strengthen the suspicion that the discrepancies of the above
table are due to the impossibility of taking into account the
effect of mixing on the velocities of the ions.

II. — ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF MIX-
TURES OF ELECTROLYTES HAVING A COMMON ION,
— BY DOUGLAS MC!NTOSH, Physical Laboratory^
Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Received April 6th, 1896.)

In a paper read before this Institute some months ago, Prof..
MacGregor * shewed how to obtain, by a graphical process,
from observations of the electrical conductivity of a sufficient,
number of simple solutions of two electrolytes having a com-
mon ion, the data necessary for the calculation of the conduc-
tivity of a solution containing both electrolytes, according ta
the dissociation theory of electrolytic conduction ; and in order
to test this theory, he calculated the conductivities of a series
of mixtures of solutions of sodium chloride and potassium
chloride, which had been measured by Bender. He found that,
for dilute solutions his calculations agreed with Bender's obser-
vations within the limits of experimental error ; but that, as the
strength of the solution increased the differences became larger,
until with a mixture of solutions containing each four gramme-,
molecules per litre of salt (the strongest solutions with which
Bender worked) a difference of 3'6 per cent, was found. The-
method of calculation assumed that the ionic velocities of the
constituent electrolytes, were not changed by the mixing, and
Prof. MacGregor attributed the differences between the calculated
and observed values, to the change, which, as he pointed out,,
would probably be produced, in these velocities, by mixture.

At his suggestion I have made the observations described in
this 'paper, with the object of determining (1) what the differ-
ences between the observed and calculated values are, in the case
of mixtures of sodium and potassium chloride solutions, of
greater strength than those examined by Bender, and (2) how
the calculated and observed values are related, in the case of

* Trans. N. S. Institute of Science, Vol. IX, p. 101.

(320)

'CONDUCTIVITY OF MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — McIXTOSH. 121

solutions containing sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid, —
•electrolytes whose ionic velocities differ from one another much
more than those of sodium and potassium chlorides.

The expression for the conductivity of a mixture of equal
volumes of solutions of two electrolytes 1 and 2, which contain
TII and 7?.2 gramme-equivalents per unit of volume respectively,
the ionisation coefficients of which, in the mixture, are al and «2,
the molecular conductivities of which at infinite dilution are
pool and |Ua>2, and which so change in volume on mixing that the
ratio of the volume of the mixture to the sum of the volumes
of the constituent solutions is p, is

1 fa }

~ 2~p\l Ui '"col+G2 n2 '"<»*)•

In order to calculate the conductivity of such a mixture
therefore, the seven quantities in this expression must be known.
The ionisation co-efficients al and a2 are determined by the
graphical process referred to above, from series of observations
of the conductivities of simple solutions of the constituent
electrolytes. The conductivities at infinite dilution are deter-
mined by similar observations with very dilute solutions. The
concentrations may be determined by analysis, and the quantity
p by density measurements.

I intended at the outset to determine all these quantities
myself, in order that the data of calculation might apply to
exactly the same electrolytes. But owing to the fact that the
electrolytic cell, to be used in the determination of conductivities
at infinite dilution, although ordered months ago, did not arrive
in time, I am compelled to use Kohlrausch's values of the con-
ductivities at infinite dilution for the electrolytes examined.

Determination of Conductivities.

Kohlrausch's well-known method with the telephone and
alternating current was used. The apparatus- was supplied by
Queen & Co., of Philadelphia, and consisted of a German silver

122 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

bridge-wire, about three metres long, wound on a marble drum.
The wire was divided into 1000 parts, and had a resistance of
about 1.14 ohms. I calibrated it by the method of *Strouhal
and Barus, and applied the corrections thus determined to the
measured resistances. (The greatest correction that had to be
applied during the experiments was one division).

Four coils, marked 1, 10, 100, 1000 true ohms formed part of
the apparatus, and were guaranteed correct, to 0.1 per cent The
range of the resistances measured during the experiments, how-
ever, was so small that I needed to use only one of these coils
(that of 100 ohms). Hence it was not necessary for me to test
the relative accuracy of the coils. Nor did I need to test the
absolute accuracy of the 100 ohm coil, as it was not necessary
for me to express conductivities in absolute measure.

The cell used was a U-shaped one, with enlargements for the
electrodes, of the kind shown in Ostwald's Physico-chemical
Measurements, p. 226, Fig. 178. The cell and also the electrodes
(each of which had an area of about 7 sq. cm.), were smaller
than ordered, and the latter were so thin as to bo easily bent.
No change of resistance, however, could be noticed for small
bendings of the plates, which could be readily detected by the
eye and avoided. The induction coil was quite small, and had a
specially rapid vibrator. It was kept in an adjoining room, that
the noise might not disturb the operator ; but, after some practice
it was found that measurements could be made without difficulty,
even with considerable noise. Different kinds of batteries for
working the coil were tried. The most satisfactory was found
to be a small dry battery, made by the Mamisburg Electric Co.,
of the kind used for electric bells. With this apparatus the
" minimum " point on the bridge could be determined by the
telephone to within J division. This, at the centre of the
bridge, meant a possible error of 0.2 per cent., and at the point
of the bridge farthest from the centre, used in my experiments,
a possible error of 0.3 per cent.

*Wied. Ann., X, p. 326, 1880.

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — McINTOSH. 123

Temperature.

As the laboratory temperature varied considerably from day
to day, the electrolytic cell was placed in a bath whose tempera-
ture was regulated by a thermostat of the kind described by
Ostwald in his Physico-chemical Measurements, p. 59. The
resistances measured were so small that a sharp " minimum " was
obtained when a water bath was used. There was no necessity
therefore, for a petroleum bath. The bath was stirred by a
current of air from a small suction pump, and the temperature
kept as near to 18°C as possible. When this temperature could
not be exactly obtained, measurements of resistance were made
at several near temperatures, and the temperature co-efficients
found. The co-efficient was always about 2 per cent, per degree.

The thermometer used was graduated to 0.1 degree centri-
grade, and could be easily read to 0.05 degree. This meant a
possible error of 0.1 per cent, in the determination of the
resistance. The errors of the thermometer had recently been
determined at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin.

The Platinizing of the Electrodes.

The electrodes after having been boiled in alkali and acid,
were placed in a very dilute solution of chloroplatinic acid
(H2 Pt C10 ) and connected with a small battery, the direction of
the current being frequently changed. When the electrodes had
become covered with a black velvety coating, they were removed
from the cell, and in order to get rid of the chloroplatinic acid
which adheres strongly to the platinum black, they were washed
several times with boiling water. On one occasion, in the course
of the experiments, the minimum point was found to be indistinct
The plates were accordingly replatinized and distinctness found
to have been regained. The experiments previously made (those
on potassium chloride) may have been affected by a slight error
due to defective platinizing.

The Salts and Acids.

The potassium and sodium chlorides, obtained as chemically
pure from Eirner and Amend of New York, were further purified

124 Oy THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

by recrystallization. Solutions of them were found to be neutral
and free from sulphates and magnesia. Neither potassium nor
other metals could be detected in the sodium chloride with the
spectroscope. Sodium, but no other metal, could be detected in
a flame coloured by the potassium chloride. The hydrochloric acid
was obtained as chemically pure, and gave no residue on evapora-
tion. It was free from sulphates.

The Water Used.

The water was doubly distilled, with addition of sodium
hydrate, in a tin-lined retort, and condensed in a block -tin pipe,
the first part of the distillate being rejected. It was stored in
bottles which had been used for this purpose for several years.
It gave no residue when evaporated, was neutral, and gave no
colour with Nessler's reagent.

Preparation and Analysis of the Simple Solutions.

The simple solutions were prepared by dissolving about the
amount of salt required for the strongest solution, and subsequent
diluting. The concentration in each case was determined by
volumetric analysis. A solution of silver nitrate was used in
estimating the chlorine in the potassium and sodium chlorides,
and the amounts of salt present were calculated from the data
thus obtained.

In making an analysis I c. c. (or 5 c. c.) of the solution at
18°C was drawn off by a pipette, placed in a flask, diluted, and
coloured distinctly with neutral potassium chromate. Silver
nitrate standardised at 18°C was run in from a burette, and a
glass bulb filled with potassium chromate of the same shade as
the solution being analysed, was held before the eye. The end
point by this means could be seen quite sharply.

A solution of ammonia was employed for estimating the
hydrochloric acid, with cochineal as an indicator.

The pipettes and burettes used were tested by weighing the
water which they delivered. They were found to be accurate
to 0.1 per cent.

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — McINTOSH. 125

To determine the accuracy of the volumetric analysis, a
solution of sodium chloride was prepared, containing a known
quantity of the pure fused salt. The results of the analyses
were found to be correct to 0.1 per cent.

Specific Gravity Determinations.

The object of specific gravity determinations was the finding
of p in the above expression for the conductivity. For this
purpose it was necessary to find the specific gravity to the third
decimal place only. Hence the determinations were made with
a Mohr-Westphal balance which read to the fourth decimal
place, and might be trusted in the third.

In all the mixtures examined p was found to be practically
equal to unity.

Preparation of the Mixtures.

A 50 c. c. pipette which had been carefully washed, and
stood on filter-paper for some time, was rinsed out several times
with one of the constituents of the intended mixture, whose
composition and specific gravity had been determined. The
pipette was filled to the mark, and the solution run into a clean
and dry bottle. The pipette was then washed, and the other
constituent placed in the bottle as before, care being taken to
use the pipette in exactly the same manner in both cases. All
mixtures were made at 18°C. and the same pipette was used for
both solutions, in order that the mixture might consist of exactly
•equal volumes of them.

The conductivities of solutions were found to increase on
standing, which was doubtless due to portions of the glass being
dissolved. The conductivities were therefore measured as soon
-after the solutions were made up as possible.

Capacity of the Electrolytic Cell.

To find the factor which would reduce the observed conduc-
tivities to the standard employed by Kohlrausch, viz., the
conductivity of mercury at 0°C, the following simple solutions
of potassium and sodium chloride were analysed, and their con-
ductivities measured :

126 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

POTASSIUM CHLORIDE.

SODIUM CHLORIDE.

Concentration,
(Gramme-Molecules
per Litre.)

Conductivity,
xlO8-

Concentration,
(Gramme-Molecules
per Litre.)

Conductivity,

xlO8-

2.07

1854

2.06

1199

2.61

2281

2.56

1517

2.94

2521

2.83

1616

3.26

2767

3.37

1786

3.68

3040

3.70

1876

3.88

3187

4.29

1970

4.69

2025

5.12

2087

These values were plotted on co-ordinate paper with con-
centrations as ordinates and conductivities as abscissge, and
smooth curves were drawn between the points so as to obviate
accidental errors. Conductivities were taken off these curves
and compared with the numbers given by Kohlrausch* for
solutions of equal concentration, as shewn in the following table,

POTASSIUM CHLORIDE.

Concentration
(Gramme-Molecules
per Litre.)

CONDUCTIVITY.

RATIO.

Kohlrausch.

Observed.

2
2.5
3
3.5

1728
2122
2480
2822

1800
2199
2566
2924

.960
.961
.966
.965

SODIUM CHLORIDE.

Concentration
(Gramme-Molecules
per Litre.)

CONDUCTIVITY.

RATIO.

Kohlrausch.

Observed.

2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5

1209
1412
1584
1728
1846
1935
1991

1277
1500
1675
1815
1928
2000
2066

.946
.941
.946
.952
.957
.968
.964

*Wied. Ann., Vol. vi, p. 146.

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — MCIXTOSH. 127

It will be noticed that the ratios in the above table are not the
same for all solutions, but are practically the same for solutions
of both salts of the same conductivity. The variation of the
ratio may have been due to some unknown defect of apparatus
or mode of using it ; but as this source of error was equally
operative in the case of solutions of both salts of the same
conductivity, it would probably be equally operative also in
mixtures of the same conductivity. Hence in reducing the
observed conductivity of a mixture of potassium and sodium
chloride solutions to Kohlrausch's standard, the factor employed
was the value of the ratio for the conductivity which the mixture
was found to have, this ratio being determined from the above
table by graphical interpolation. Bender found a similar
variation in the ratio of his conductivities of solutions of these
salts to Kohlrausch's conductivities for solutions of the same
strength.

On comparing the observed conductivities of solutions of
hydrochloric acid with conductivities of solutions of equal concen-
tration, as given by Kohlrausch, the ratios were found to be
practically uniform and equal to 0.955. In the tables which
follow all conductivities are expressed in terms of Kohlrausch's
standard.

Conductivities of the Simple Solutions.

In order to obtain the data for the calculations, it is necessary
to draw curves giving the relation of the dilution to the concen-
tration of ions in the simple solutions, and therefore to know
the concentrations and conductivities of sufficiently extended
series of these solutions. In the case of sodium and potassium
chlorides sufficient data were available for this purpose in
Kohlrausch's observations. The following tables give the dilu-
tions and ionic concentrations of solutions of these salts examined
by him.

128 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE.

DILUTION.

CONCENTRATION
OP IONS.

DILUTION.

CONCENTRATION
OP IONS.

2

1
0.666
0.500

0.3861
0.7467
1.0885
1.4164

0.400
0.333
0.285

1.7311
2-. 0328
2.3131

SODIUM CHLORIDE.

DILUTION.

CONCENTRATION
OF IONS.

DILUTION.

CONCENTRATION
OP IONS.

2.30

0.3257*

0.500

1.1738

2.00

0.3689

0.400

.3709

1.80

0.4036*

0.333

.5378

1.64

0.4378*

0.285

.6776

1.50

0.4732*

0.250

.7920

1.20

0.5752*

0.222

.8783

1.13

0.6109

0.200

.9320

1.00

0.6777

0.182

.9596

0.666

0.9456

*Obtained through Prof. MacGregor's interpolation' formula, Trans. N. S. Inst.
Sci., Vol. ix, p. 112.

In the case of hydrochloric acid, sufficient data were not
available. I therefore made a series of measurements of the
concentrations and conductivities of solutions of this acid, the
results of which are given in the following table :

Concentration

Molecular

Concentration

Molecular

(Gramme - molecules
per Litre.)

Conductivity,

xlO8'

(Gramme- molecules
per Litre.)

Conductivity,

xlO8'

1.58

2550

2.80

2065

1.93

2403

2.88

2052

2.11

2347

3.15

1960

2.18

2305

3.29

1914

2.24

2290

3.39

1890

2.46

2245

3.60

1789

2.51

2192

3.83

1726

2.56

2164

4.13

1636

2.66

2141

4 55

1534

2.78

2090

4.87

1456

The following table contains values of the dilution and con-
centration of ions in hydrochloric acid solutions, obtained in

MIXTUKES OF ELECTROLYTES. —

129-

part by graphical interpolation of the above observations, and
in part by the aid of Kohlrausch's tables : —

Dilution.

Concentration
of
Ions.

Obtained, j

Dilution.

Concentration
of
Ions.

Obtained.

2.000
1.666
1.428
1.250
1.111
1.000
0.800
0.666
0.571

0.4310
0.5090
0.5840
0.6567
0.7269
0.7943
0.9557
1.1031
1.2370

Kohlrausch

1

Observed

0.500
0.444
0.400
0.364
0.333
0.286
0.250
0.222

1.3600
1.4660
1.5685
1.6516
1.7229
1.8379
1.9132
1.9746

Observed
t«

ti

Kohlrausch

Observed
(i

The values of the specific molecular conductivity at infinite-
dilution for potassium chloride, sodium chloride, and hydrochlorio
acid respectively, were taken to be 1220 x 10~8, 1030 x 10~8 and.
3500 X 10 ~8 according to Kohlrausch's determination.*

Results of Observations on Mixtures.
(A). — Sodium and Potassium Chlorides.
The following series of mixtures of potassium and sodium,
chloride solutions were examined :

CONCENTRATION (GRAMME-MOLECULES PER LITRE.)

CONDUCTIVITY

xlO8

K Cl.

Na Cl.

3.88
3.20
2.49
1.93

5.12
a

K
(f

2494
2326
2187
2029

3.88

«
«

a

5.12
4.28
3.37
2.56
2.06

2494
2404
2316
2196
2124

3.46

3.80

3.20
2.23

2160

1877

*Wied. Ann., Vol. xxvi, p. 204.

130

ONT THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

The following table contains a statement of the measured
and calculated values of the conductivities of the above mixtures,
with the concentrations of the constituent solutions, and the
data necessary for the calculations, viz , the dilutions of the
respective electrolytes and their ionic concentrations, in the
mixtures, these data being obtained by Prof. MacGregor's
graphical process. The measured values of the conductivity
were obtained from the above observations by graphical inter-
polation.

Constituent Solu-
tions (Gramme-

Dilution in the

oj
o

Conductivity,

"5

molecules per

mixture.

'-£ fl «

, s

-o

Litre.)

2-2 g

-% 3

xlO°

c ^
c o>
PCL

K Cl.

Na d.

K Cl.

Na Cl.

0 C.rt
§M^

O

Calculated.

Mea-
sured .

f

5

3.75

5.12

.247

.143

2.013

2312

2469

-6.4

3.50

d

.234

.156

1.993

2276

2420

-6

3.00

a

.205

.1855

1.950

2202

2313

-4.8

2.50

a

.175

.216

1.890

2109

2190

-3.7

2.00

a

.151

.239

1.822

2013

2049

-1.7

3.88

5.00

.26

.14

2.014

2323

2481

-6.4

4 50

.291

.151

1.998

2295

2429

-5.5

4.00

.335

.166

1.980

2292

2377

-3.6

3.50

.388

.182

1.955

2261

2324

-2.7

3.00

.462

.205

1.916

2227

2260

-1.4

2.50

.573

.227

1.864

2174

2189

-0.7

2.00

.750

.250

1.788

2096

2116

-1.0

3.46

3.12

.412

.2295

1.848

2130.5

2160

-1.3

2 23

3.80

.2432

.2824

1.68

1875.5

1877

-0.08

2.87

4.69

.225

.202

1.924

2177

2222

-2

The results of Bender's experiments, as calculated by *Prof.
MacGregor, are given below for comparison.

CONCENTRATION (GRAMME-
MOLECULES PER LITRE,)

CONDUCTIVITY.

DIFFERENCE,
PER CENT.

K Cl.

Na Cl.

Measured.

Calculated.

2.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
3.5
4.0

2.0
2.0
30
3.0
4.0
4.0
4.0

1445
1823
1664
2007
1858
2303
2432

1458
1808.6
1660
1988.7
1849.3
2239.2
2345.3

+ 0.90
-0.79
-0.24
-0.91
-0.47
-2.77
-3.56

'Trans. N. S. Institute of Science, Vol. ix, p. 101.

MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — McINTOSH.

131

The two sets of observations agree very well together, the
differences between calculated and observed values being of the
same sign and in general for mixtures of about the same mean
concentration, of approximately the same magnitude.

The two series of mixtures of strong solutions shew that the
differences increase rapidly as the constituent solutions are more
and more nearly saturated, reaching in the case of practically
saturated solutions 6.4 per cent.

(B.) — Sodium Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid.

The conductivities of the following series of mixtures of
hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride solutions were measured :

CONSTITUENT SOLUTIONS

CONCENTRATION : GRAMME-MOLECULES

PER LITRE.

CONDUCTIVITY OF

MIXTURE,

xlO8'

NaCl.

HCl.

2.02

4.55

4932

3.89

4492

3.29

4089

3.19

4073

3.06

3958

2.66

3623

2.56

3489

2.34

3323

1.04

4.55

5069

3.97

4682

3.80

4315

3.10

3989

2.86

3696

2.18

3112

2.11

3025

1.93

2824

1.58

2427

1.15

1928

0.607

1.120

1813

0.970

1620

0.815

1412

0.730

1296.5

0 603

1114

0.485

952

132 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

The following table contains in columns 1 and 2 the concen-
trations of the solutions of hydrochloric acid and sodium
chloride which were mixed, and in column 7 the measured
conductivities of the mixtures, obtained by graphical interpola-
tion from the above observations. The 3rd, 4th arid 5th columns
give the common concentration of ions and the respective dilu-
tions of the electrolytes, in the mixture, as determined by Prof.
MacGregor's graphical process. The 6th column gives the cal-
culated values of the conductivity, and the 8th the excesses of
the calculated over the observed values expressed as percentages.

Constituent Solu-
tions.
Concentration
(Gramme-mole-
cules per litre.)

Concentra-
tration of
Ions

Dilution in the
Mixture.

Conductivity
of Mixture,

xlO8'

Differ- ''
ences

in the

per cent. ;

HC1.

NaCl.

Mixture.

HC1.

NaCl.

Calcu-
lated.

Mea-
sured .

I

2

2.02

1.272

.539

.451

3020

3008

+ 0.4

2.5

"

1.392

.592

.398 '

3489.5

3456

+ 1.0

3.0

it

1.485

.636

.354

3885

3888

-0.08

3.5

K

1.570

.668

.322

4233.5

4260

-0.6

4.0

"

1.665

.700

.290

4622.3

4580

+ 1.0

4.5

H

1.740

.726

.264

4944 ,

4880

+ 1.3

1

1.04

.744

1.031

.892

1751

1752

-0.005

1.5

"

.916

1.215

.708

2373

2332

+ 1.7

2.0

«

1.062

1.345

.578

2928.3

2900

+ 0.9

2.5

"

1.196

1.431

.492

3428.5

3398

+ 0.9

3.0

(•

1.324

1.495

.428

3906

3872

+ 0.9

3.5

ii

1.440

1.545

.378

4340.7

4316

+ 0.6

4.0

«

1.538

1.585

.338

4715

4700

+ 0.3

4.5

"

1.628

1.616

.307

5055

5036

+ 0.4

.4

.607

.392

1.450

.844

829.8

838

-1.0

.5

"

.436

1.636

.656

983.4

976

+ 0.8

.6

n

.474

1.794

500

1125.5

1116

+ 0.8

.7

'

.508

1.922

.372

1255.

1250

+ 0.4

.8

i

.544

2.022

.272

1384.7

1388

-0.2

.9

t

.582

2.121

1.173 1524.6

1525

-0.025

1.0

t

.620

2.195

1.099

1658.6

1656

+ 0.16

1.1

i

.655

2.267

1.027

1787.6

1784

+ 0.2

1.2

t

.692

2.322

.972

1917.1

1913

+ 0.2

It will be seen that in ^he series of weakest solutions, the
differences between calculated and observed values are of such

MTXTUKES OF ELECTROLYTES. — MCINTOSH. 133

small magnitude and shew such alternation of sign as to war-
rant the conclusion that they are due chiefly to accidental
errors. In the two series of stronger solutions the differences are
more irregular in magnitude and the alternation of sign is much
less marked, the most of the differences being positive. The
above results, therefore, seem to shew that even in the case
of two electrolytes with a common ion, which differ so markedly
in ionic velocity from one another as sodium chloride and
hydrochloric acid, the dissociation theory enables us to calculate
the conductivity of solutions containing both, within the limits of
experimental error, up to a mean concentration of about 1
gramme-molecule per litre, and that in the case of solutions of
greater mean concentration, the calculated value is greater than
the observed.

III. — THE UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — BY
E. GILPIN, JR., LL. D., F. R. S. C., INSPECTOR OF MINES.

(Read 10th February, 1S96.)

The question of the possible discovery of new coal fields in
this province is interesting from both a scientific and a practical
standpoint. At present the growth of our coal industry is
measured by the home demand. The Maritime Provinces take
an amount which is steadily, if not rapidly, increasing, as new
manufactures are started and firewood becomes scarcer. The
Newfoundland demand will not, so far as can be seen, increase
rapidly, and moreover, competition is threatened by the island
deposits. The trade of the St. Lawrence appears at present
practically secured to Nova Scotia, and will grow proportionately
to the development of that important section of the Dominion.
Ottawa and Montreal appear to mark the western limit of the
trade. The inauguration of any policy by which our coals can
be pushed further westward against the competition of United
States coals rests with the deepening of the canals and the assist-
ance of the Federal Government.

If an outlet be obtained in the New England States the
development would grow apace.

We have the subject presented from a practical standpoint.
What are the possible reserves beyond those deposits now being
worked ? While the present mines can be extended in the worked
and adjoining seams to meet a demand many times larger than
the present, the enquiry is still pertinent. If there is an assur-
ance that outside of the present development there are other
tracts that may be drawn upon when needed, the confidence and
credit of the province are increased. The assurance of unlimited
supplies of fuel, even though we sigh now for larger markets,
advertises us abroad and encourages capital to examine our
resources of other minerals, and generally to consider more
favorably our aspirations for investments of capital.

(134)

UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA— GILPIN. 135

The Journal News has recently published a summary of
explorations carried on last year by the Cumberland Railway &
Coal Company in the measures underlying the seams at present
worked by them. It has always been known that there were
underlying seams, but details as to their size were not available.
The company has now shown that there are a number of work-
able seams of good quality available at any time, as shown by
the following section in descending order from West slope seain :

Feet. Inches.

Seam 3 4

Strata —

Seam 4 3

Strata —

Seam 5 6

Strata ..... , —

Seam 2 8

Strata —

Seam 1 6

Strata —

Seam 7 6

Strata —

Seam 2 0

Strata —

Seam 4 8

Strata —

Seam 5 0

Strata —

Seam , 7 0

Strata —

Searn 2 4

Strata —

Seam -

This is a case exactly in the line of this argument. The value
of the property of this company was before a defined item ; they
had large tracts of coal opened by their slopes, ensuring, as far
as the coal miner could judge, many years of work. The dis-

136 UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN.

covery, however, of these seams, even if they are not likely to-
be worked for some years, has been a distinct advertisement for
that district, and encourages the confidence the local business-
men and the province feel in the permanency and future exten-
sion of the trade of Cumberland County.

I do not pretend this evening to have the wand of Fortunatus,.
and to disclose to you vast fields of unworked coal, but briefly
to refer to districts which may be found upon examination to
hold coal of economic value.

The student of geology is most appreciated when he can
show the public some material advantage accruing from his,
investigation, and his predictions are often correct and useful
even when they are unpalatable.

I need not refer here to those sections in the province in
which coal is now being regularly worked, but proceed to notice
briefly the geological conditions which, so far as our experience
goes, govern the presence of coal in Nova Scotia.

The term carboniferous is applied by geologists to a group of
palaeozoic strata, which, while distinguished by holding the best
deposits of coal, are also possessed of certain other notable
characteristics.

Sir William Dawson stands out as the special delineator of
the divisions of this system in the Maritime Provinces. He
divided it into : —

Upper Coal Measures,

Productive Coal Measures,

Millstone Grit,

Limestone Series,

Lower or Basal Measure.

And these sub-divisions have been in a general way followed by
other geologists.

In this province the limestone series has not presented any
workable deposits of coal. It is, as you know, distinguished as
an important source of limestone for fluxes, etc., as well as fur-
nishing enormous deposits of gypsum. It is also valued by the

UNDEVELOPED COAI, FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 137

miner as containing ores of iron, manganese, barytes, as well as
scattered indications of copper and lead ores. In this connection,
however, it need not be referred to in greater detail. The same
may be said of the Lower or Basal series. This is composed
largely of conglomerates and coarse Grits which often rest on
Silurian or Laurentian strata, in some cases holding contact
deposits of iron ore or manganese. At several points, however,
in the province, the conditions of deposition permitted the accu-
mulation of more finely comminuted strata, and we have beds of
shales, often bituminous or carbonaceous. It is noticed at a few
points that the accumulation of carbon matter has been large
enough to form impure " coal " beds. Prospectors have spent
much time and money with unsatisfactory results in these strata,
which often surpass the shales of the productive measures
in their various carbon contents. In a few cases these coaly
beds have been hardened by metamorphic action into graphitic
slates or semi-anthracitic beds.

As far as I am aware the Upper Coal measures contain only
a few thin but remarkably persistent seams running from
Merigomish to River John. This set of strata appears to pass
by no fixed line into the lower and preceding productive measures.
These again are divided by no arbitrary boundary from the
Millstone Grit. Coal seams are not infrequent in the Millstone
Grit in Nova Scotia as in other countries. We are therefore, in
the study of this subject, concerned in the presence of coal in
the Productive and the Millstone Grit measures, and they may
be considered together.

In the Sydney coal field the boundary laid down between
these systems is based principally on the cessation of thick and
abundant coal beds and the presence of seams smaller and not so
abundant, as well as on the appearance of strata coarser in texture.
Mr. Fletcher of the Geological Survey, however, in continuing
his survey of Cape Breton, found that in many places nature did
not present coal seams and differing strata conveniently for this
purpose, and has grouped the two together. The question need
not be gone into here as to the true horizon of some of our coal

138 UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN.

deposits, as we are now practically concerned about the size, etc.,
of coal beds, not about their scientific age.

Leaving the consideration of the productive measures of the
Sydney coal field out of the question, and adopting the boundary
there laid down by the Geological Survey between the two sets
of measures, it may be taken as a fact that in the Millstone Grit
in that district there do exist workable seams of coal of which I
may mention the Mullins, Gardner, Long Beach and Tracey
seams. It is plain, therefore, that even if exception may be
raised to the productive age of the rocks holding coal seams else-
where, we are starting with the important premises that the
Millstone Grit does hold valuable coal seams in the Sydney dis-
trict, and that in other districts explorations may show deposits
of equal value. The following condensed sections will show
what is so far known of the coal contents of this horizon in the
Sydney district : —

In Cape Breton County there extends from the rear of Lin-
gan Bay and Glace Bay to Mira, and thence up the river of that
name and its branch, the Salmon River, as far as Loch Lomond
on the county line, a large area of Millstone Grit. Seams of coal
are known throughout this district. Classing the Mullins,
Gardner and Tracey seams in this horizon the fact is established
that it presents seams of workable size lying, geologically speak-
ing, thousands of feet below the seams classed as the lowest of
the true or productive measures, as shown by the following
condensed section : —

In the section showing from the south head of Cow Bay to
the head of Mira Bay there are, in about 1,900 feet of strata,
eleven seams of coal, the thickest, the Tracey, being 4 feet. Four
of them have a workable thickness.

In the centre of the district, assuming with the Geological
Survey that the summit of the Millstone Grit begins a short
distance above the Lorway or Gardner Seam, we have first that
seam 5 feet 9 inches thick, then in about 700 feet of measures
there are six coal seams varying in thickness up to two feet.

UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 139

In the section underlying the productive measures at Low
Point, at a vertical distance of 600 feet below the top of the
Millstone Grit, is the Mullins seam, 6 feet 4 inches thick.
Several other smaller seams unknown in this section of which I
have no details.

On the North Sydney side of the harbor the Geological
Survey give only one seam about 530 feet below the top of the
Millstone Grit, the Matheson seam, 2 feet thick. It is claimed
by those who have since prospected this district that there are
several other seams up to 5 feet in thickness.

On the Big Bras d'Or the sections of the Millstone Grit have
hitherto shown only traces of coal.

For a few years past attempts have been made to trace the
Mullins seam southwardly into the extensive district lying
between Sydney and Glace Bay, and to prove the Tracey seam
northwardly into the same district. These efforts have not yet
proved successful. There are a number of seams known in this
area, as shown in the section, none, however, large enough to
compete with those at present worked, although they will be
drawn upon in the future when the larger seams become
exhausted, and they contain in the aggregate many millions of
tons of coal.

On the Morrison road explorations have been carried on by
Mr. Harold and other Sydney parties. They claim to have
bored through a number of workable seams. The details of this
exploration, not yet completed, will be received with interest, as
if their claims as to the thickness of the seams are supported by
a good quality of coal a most important addition wTill be made to
the coal resources of the district.

An interesting portion of this coal field was described by me
in a paper read before you last winter, as the results of some of
the prospecting for the Tracey seam. Attention was drawn to
the curious fact that the fossils of the Cossitt coal field were
identical with many characteristics of the true coal measures,
although the locality lies in the heart of a wide expanse of
Millstone Grit.

140 UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIX.

Southerly of this lies the Mira district ; here there are a few
known outcrops of small seams, but little tested except at some
natural exposures. The country is swampy with numerous
lakes and moss grown, and the natural exposures are principally
of the harder ridges of sandstone or grit. In the Salmon River
district there are three well marked seams of coal from 12 to 36
inches in thickness, lying in the valley between the East Bay
and Mira felsites, etc.

The work showed the existence of a long narrow trough
holding the outcrops of several seams under two feet in
thickness.

The first of these on the Gaspereau River road is stated to be
eighteen inches thick, to burn well and to yield little ash. A
second outcrop similar in character occurs between the Glengarry
and Ardoise roads on the shore of a small lake. The third and
most important exposure is on the Salmon River, two miles south
of the Morrison road, where two eighteen inch seams are met
divided by a band of fire-clay. The coal burns readily, but from
the following analysis contains an unprofitable amount of ash : —

Moisture 1.53

Volatile Combustible Matter 20.16

Fixed Carbon 47.49

Ash 30.82

It was stated some time ago that explorations had shown
larger and more promising outcrops in this district. The pros-
pectors have taken out a number of leases and as they are will-
ing to pay the annual rental on them it must be presumed that
they are satisfied with their prospects.

In the district lying to the westward of the General Mining
Association's lease at Sydney Mines, and extending from Sydney
Harbor to the Big Bras d'Or, there are a number of outcrops of
seams. Local authorities, as already stated, claim to have
identified them with the lower seams on the Victoria Mines
shore of the harbor, and that they are in some instances increased
in size.

UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 141

As yet, however, this district has not as a whole been syste-
matically tested, and indications are not wanting that the con-
ditions, favorable to the formation of coal beds in the Millstone
Grit, decreased with proximity to the syenitic rocks of St. Ann's.

The Millstone Grit of the Sydney district appears to attain
its maximum thickness in the Mira Bay section, and according to
Messrs. Fletcher and Robb, it decreases until at its northern
extremity in the Cape Dauphin district it has diminished from
over 5000 feet to less than 2000 feet. Being derived from the
detritus of the underlying strata it is reasonably noticed that as
it approaches the older and harder pre-carboniferous rocks it
becomes scanter and coarser. This change necessarily diminish-
ing the opportunity for the presence of those conditions per-
mitting the accumulation of carbonaceous matter.

Passing to Richmond County there is found a long stretch of
the debateable Productive Millstone Grit measures running from
near St. Peter's across the lower part of the Inhabitants River
nearly to Hawkesbury.

Coal seams of economic value are known at Coal Brook,
Little River and Carabacou Cove. At the first named place
explorations have shown a three feet, a four feet, and several
smaller seams of coal. The quality is stated to be good as far
as the crop workings were extended. At Carabacou Cove, or, as
it is also called Sea Coal Baj^. quite extensive workings were
carried on about thirty years ago in a seam eleven feet eight
inches thick, holding some layers of shale. Reports made to the
Government of Nova Scotia state that there are in this connec-
tion at least seven other seams ranging in thickness from three
feet upwards, beside a number of smaller ones. The Big Seam
was reported by Sir William Dawson to carry an abnormally
large amount of ash, as shown by the following analysis : —

Volatile Matter , 25.2

Fixed Carbon 44.7

Ash 30.1

100.0

142 UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN.

Owing to the want of demand for coal and to the heavy sur-
face cover accompanied by the almost vertical position of the
seams, little progress has been made in tracing the seams inland
towards Hawkesbury. It is probable that they are sharply
folded at no great distance from the shore, and their nearest
outcrop at Little River represents their re-appearance on a
parallel folding.

At Little River the measures are steeply inclined and present
the following section ascertained by the Eastern Development

Company some years ago : —

Feet. Inches.

Coal 3 0

Strata 154 0

Coal 4 0

Strata 00 0

Coal 3 0

Strata 45 0

Coal 5 0

The upper beds were opened and a few hundred tons extracted.
The coal is compact and apparently of good quality. The upper
part of the section appears to agree with that of Sea Coal Bay.
The following analysis given by Sir William Dawson in a
report made by him many years ago, will show that the large
percentage of ash forms the principal drawback to the fuel : —

Volatile Matter 30.25

Fixed Carbon 56.40

Ash , 13.35

100.00

I am informed that the workings of the Eastern Development
Company a few years ago showed a decided improvement in the
quality of the coal away from the outcrop. Attempts made to
follow these seams have not proved successful, probably because
Tthey are here as at Sea Coal Bay folded in sharp curves, and the
surface is level and deeply covered with detritus. The construc-
tion of a railway from Hawkesbury to St. Peter's and Louisburg,
recently subsidised by the Provincial Government, across this

UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 143

coal field will undoubtedly lead to a fresh interest being taken
in this important but hitherto almost unknown coal field, so
favorably situated for marine shipments all the year round.

During the early days when the almost complete abandon-
ment of the exclusive rights of the General Mining Association
threw open the provincial coal areas to the public, a great deal
of desultory prospecting was done in this district. It is to be
regretted that the results of this work have been lost, if indeed
they were ever recorded. Mr. Fletcher, after compiling all
available information, has been able to present only a compara-
tive statement of its structure.

This district differs from that already described in that there
appears to be a relationship between the gypsum and the coal
beds not yet clearly explained.

At Glendale, on the upper waters of the River Inhabitants,
there is a small fairly well defined coal field, a few square miles
in extent, showing, from recent explorations, a three feet and a
smaller seam. Great part of the Inhabitants district is swampy
and overgrown with spruce and alder thickets. The strata in
many places are soft, worn down, and covered with heavy local
detritus. For these reasons little progress has been made in
tracing the structure, and beyond the known outcrops it will be
necessary to resort to the expensive process of systematic and
deep borings. So far, however, it may be fairly assumed of this
coal field that there must undoubtedly be a large amount of
coal in it.

At Mabou there are two small patches of coal measures,
separated by half a mile of lower strata, evidently at one time
connected. They contain in the more southerly basin four seams
given by Mr. R. Brown in his " Coal Fields of Cape Breton," as

follows : —

Feet. Inches.

First Seam , . 5 0

Second Seam 7 0

Third " 13 0

Fourth " , 4 0

included in about 550 feet.

144 UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN.

As these strata have an inland range of only a few hundred
yards and dip under the sea, their value is by no means com-
mensurate with the richness of the section. It is important,
however, to note that such favorable conditions existed on this
side of the island for the accumulation of coal seams.

The Port Hood district may next be referred to. Here open-
ings have been made on an excellent seam, which, outcropping
on the shore, dips under Port Hood Harbour. In the rear of this
seam there is an area of about ten square miles which merits
examination. Coal seams of small size are reported about a mile
from the shore at Port Hood, and indications of coal for nearly
two miles further east.

The following section shows the relative positions of the

seams as given by Mr. Brown : —

Feet. Inches.

Coal at tide water 6 0

Strata 360 0

Feet. Inches.

Coal 1 0

Coal Slate.. 0 9 Seam worked 6 0

Coal 4 3

Strata containing several thin seams..lo()0 0

Should coal seams be found in the as yet unexplored district
back from the shore they will presumably extend not only
under the land area but also conjointly with the known seams
under the harbor.

The islands forming Port Hood Harbor are partly underlaid
by coal measures. It has been assumed that a shaft sunk on
them would open up a large coal field. While the measures are
the same on the islands as on the mainland, the faults on them
bringing up the limestone and gypsum would render the assump-
tion of absolute continuity a matter of discussion. The question
of their value to the coal miner could be settled only by boring.

At Broad Cove work has been done to show that in the land
area there are a number of valuable coal seams, which will also
be available under the water. The area of this coal field appears

UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 145

to be limited on the south by the syenite of Cape Mabou on
which it rests without the intervention of any of the lower
groups of the carboniferous. Its inland extension at other points
appears to be limited distinctly by the belt of limestone and
gypsum which sweeps from the shore north of the mouth of the
Broad Cove Brook nearly to the Mabou Hills. Here there is an
interval of metamorphic lower carboniferous rock probably
valueless to the coal miner. The coal field on land is about six
miles long and about two miles across at its greatest width.

The sections of the seams as given me during the past few
years do not agree with those hitherto published, or with one
measured by me some years ago.

Mr. W. H. Ross, who has been engaged by the Broad Cove
Coal Company in opening the seams and in making a shipping
harbor at Mclsaac's Pond, an inlet on the centre of this coal field,
has kindly agreed to give the Institute a full description of this
district. I will therefore not attempt to correlate the sections,,
but for the purpose of rounding out these notes will give the
following sections from Mr. Robb's report to the Canadian Geo-
logical Survey : — In descending order,

Seam No.

1

Feet.

3

Inches.

0

ii

2

5

o

K

3 ... .

7

o

(C

4

4

6

1C

5

3

o

((

6...

3

9

An idea of the importance of the western shore of Cape-
Breton as a future coal producer may be formed from Mr. Robb's
estimate that these seams contain on land not less than 26,000,-
000 tons in the land aiea and 34,000,000 in the sea area to a
distance of only half a mile from the shore. As there is also, in
addition to the seams named, a fourteen feet seam of coal, these
estimates should be largely exceeded, and the sea area of avail-
able coal held by parties other than those named by him* also,
hold lanre amounts of coal.

146 UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — G1LPIN.

Continuing to the north, the Margaree, or as it is more com-
monly known the " Chimney Corner " district, is next met. Here
the shore from Marsh Point to Margaree Harbor is occupied by
coal measures, indicated as being made up of Productive and Mill-
stone Grit rocks. The length of this field on land is about twelve
miles and its width about 2J miles. At Chimney Corner work-
able seams of excellent quality have been opened and mined to a
small extent. At the mine these beds are close to the water
and could presumably be followed under it. Little or no mining
and exploratory work has been done at Chimney Corner for a
number of years. The following section is from a report by
Professor Hind : —

Feet. Inches.

Thin Seam 1 6

Strata 300 0

Coal 3 0

Strata 8S 0

Coal 5 0

Strata 200 0

Coal 3 6

The seams have been traced to the south about four miles,
and are stated to be larger and of equally good quality. The
section of country lying back of these seams has yet, so far as I
am aware, never been examined for coal. It is stated that a few
outcrops of thin seams and of a three feet seam have been found
about two miles from the shore. The reasons for this indifference
as to the possible coal values of this district are not far to seek.
The isolation of the locality and the absence of shipping facili-
ties are evident. If, however, at any time shipments were
decided on, no difficulty would be experienced in making a har-
bor at Chimney Corner, or in dredging the entrance to Margaree
Harbor. A lagoon harbor is now being made at Mclsaac's Pond,
at Broad Cove, and the establishment of the same style of harbor
at Margaree would be attended with less difficulty as the volume
of the Margaree River is sufficient to secure a considerable

UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 147

It maybe mentioned that Seat Wolf Island lying a short
distance off the shore at Chimney Corner is composed of measures
the same as those on the mainland, and this fact contributes to
the permanence of any subaqueous extension of the coal seams.
From Margaree to the northern end of Cheticamp Island there is
a narrow fringe of coal measures. I am not in possession of
any information as to the indications of the presence of coal in
the Cheticarnp district.

No point in the interior of the island presents coal measures,
and it has been carefully examined by Mr. Fletcher. The two
systems occurring there are the felsites, syenites, limestones, etc.,
of the Laurentian and the basal conglomerates, limestones, gyp-
sums and associated beds of the lower part of the carboniferous.

Reports of discoveries of coal are not infrequently made from
localities outside of those I have referred to, but so far as our
geological information goes they are not likely to prove of value,
and the test of exploration has invariably sustained this view.
At St. Lawrence Bay the coal seam is a black bituminous shale
holding patches of coaly matter and associated with limestone
and gypsum.

At Hunter's Mountain and Ingonish irregular and impure
layers of coaly matter occur in the Lower' Carboniferous. On
the Mabou River, East Bay, and a number of other places work
has been done on carbonaceous shales, which often carry suffi-
cient carbon to burn and give heat enough to raise steam and to
be used for domestic purposes. The percentage of ash, however,
is a fatal barrier to their competition with imported Anthracite
coal. These beds may present greater value as sources for the
manufacture of oils, etc.

Beds of graphitic shale or slate are frequently taken to indi-
cate the vicinity of coal, or are tested with faith in the mining
axiom that every mineral becomes richer the deeper it goes.

Other discoveries of coal resolve themselves into beds of
black tire clay or shale carrying streaks of coaly matter, or into
limited masses of coal due to some small accumulation of plant
remains, and consolidated into a more or less bituminous coal,
often holding a high percentage of ash.

148 UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILP1N.

The following analyses will show the character of these
" coals :" —

1 11

Volatile Combustible Matter 17.80 36.72

Fixed Carbon 29.04 46.64

Ash 53.16 16.64

At present, of course, the interest of the prospector in the
unexplored portions of the coal fields of Cape Breton lies in the
hope of discovering seams which will compete in size with those
now being worked. All things being considered a seam of coal
about six feet thick can be worked as economically as a larger-
one and more cheaply than a smaller one. As this paper is
written with as much reference to the future as to the present
status of the coal industry, it is fair to remember that coal seams
with a much less thickness than six feet often acquire more than
a local value. From the recently published report of the inves-
tigation of the British Iron Trade Association into the conditions
affecting the iron industries of Belgium and Germany, a reference
can be given directly bearing on this point. The official reports
of the Belgian Government show that the average depth of the
Belgian coal pits was 1,400 feet, and the average thickness of
the worked seam was 2.08 feet.

In Germany, the same report states, the official returns show
the average thickness of the worked seams to be 3.28 feet. It is
plain from these figures that in these countries a large number
of very thin seams must be worked to give so low an average
thickness. Connected with this point the figures given by the
report as to the cost of the coal at the pit head in these countries
is interesting. The cost is in Belgian about $1.75, in Germany
about $1.60, and in England about $1.45 per ton.

The discovery therefore in the areas referred to of seams of
coal, even though they be smaller than those at present worked,
is of value, as locating future reserves of fuel. The work so far
done has proved that very large areas in these districts present
seams at present available to the coal miner so far as their size

UNDEVELOPED COAL FIELDS OF NOVA SCOTIA — GILPIN. 149

and quality is concerned ; and there appears to be good ground
for believing that these seams may be found to extend over
considerably larger areas than at present proved, that other
seams equally good may be discovered, and that numerous smaller
seams which will prove valuable in the future are present, and
that others will probably be found.

IV. — NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND. — BY T. C.
WESTON, F. G. S. A., LATE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SUR-
VEY OF CANADA.

(Read llth May, 1896.)

The following notes have been written partly to record a few
palseontological facts not mentioned elsewhere and partly to give
a brief outline of the various geological formations and show the
similiarity in the fossil faunas of Newfoundland to the members
of the upper and lower silurian of Canada. Should the reader
wish for a more detailed account of the geology, he will find it
in the admirable reports of the late director of the Geological
Survey of Newfoundland, Alex. Murray, also in those of his
assistant, Jas. P. Howley, and of the late Sir W. E. Logan, Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, 1 863.

The Laurentian. — In considering the more interesting
geological features of the island, we shall commence with the
base of the great geological column, which in Canada has an
estimated thickness of 32,750 feet.

The Laurentian rocks of Newfoundland are similar to those of
Canada, consisting of gneiss, granite, syenite, limestone, quartz-
ite, mica schist, etc., all of which are frequently cut by granite
and other dykes. . They form a large portion of the island which,
as Mr. Murray remarks, " has materially contributed to produce
the remarkable geological aud topographical features which it
presents." Probably it was the chopped up appearance of the
Laurentian and Huronian formations which caused him to
remark that " Newfoundland was formed of the chippings of the
world." The Laurentian of Newfoundland, so far as we know,
is totally destitute of the remains of either vegetable or animal
structure, and therefore must still be considered azoic, although
this term has been abandoned by some geologists in the nomen-
clature of Canadian rocks owing to the discovery in the Upper

(150)

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND — WESTON. 151

Laurentian of certain forms which resemble Stromatocerium
rugosum, one of the Protozoa of the Silurian. This peculiar
mineral aggregate (?), received from Sir W. E. Logan and J. W.
Dawson the name Eozoon Canadense. Literature enough to
fill a cart has been published for and against this supposed organ-
ism, among which Dawson's Dawn of Life is the most interesting.
With the exception of Sir J. W. Dawson, probably no one has
clone more work at this supposed fossil than the writer, who has
prepared hundreds of microscopic sections, micro-photographs,
micro-drawings, illustrative collections for the Paris, London,
Philadelphia and late Chicago Expositions, and for other public
and private collections ; still he could never make up his mind
that Eozoon Canadense is of organic origin. Mr. Billings, late
palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of Canada, pronounced
strongly against the organic character of Eozoon. I have
frequently conversed with Dr. Selwyn, Mr. Whiteaves, Dr. Ami,
Dr. Ells, the late Mr. Yennor (who obtained the Tudor specimens),
and other members of the Canadian Survey, but none of these
gentlemen ever admitted that Eozoon , is a fossil. However
Eozoon will always remain an interesting subject for students
in palaeontology and mineralogy.

The Huronian. — In Canada the Huronian system represents
a thickness of about 20,000 feet of strata consisting of quartzites,
slates, limestones, sandstones, chert, jasper, conglomerates and
other rocks in which no fossils have been found. While import-
ant measures represented in Canada are missing in Newfound-
land, there is a great similiarity between the Huronian of the
two countries. Its exact thickness in Newfoundland does not
appear to be known. Murray gives a section of 11,370 feet of
strata consisting of diorites, quartzites, jaspers, slates, conglomer-
ates, sandstones, etc. Like our Canadian Huronian, these rocks
in Newfoundland have yielded no fossils unless we consider
Billings' Aspidella terranovica, and two other obscure forms
mentioned by the same writer as organic.

In his report for 1868 Mr. Murray speaks of these forms
described by Billings — Palaeozoic Fossils, Vol. II, Part I., and also

152 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND — WESTON.

refers to other forms found in Huronian argillite by the
Rev. Mr. Harvey. At the time of the discovery of these fossil-
like markings they were considered to be most important, and
were supposed to belong to the genus Oldhamia, and specimens
were sent to Sir W. E. Logan. Billings would not decide one
way or the other as to their organic affinity, and they were
handed to me. I said at once they were concretionary, and, what
had not' been observed by others, that these markings lay trans-
verse to the bedding of the slate in which they were.*

Billings describes his Aspidella terranovica thus : " Small
ovate fossils five or six lines in length, and about one-fourth less
in width. They have a narrow ring-like border within which
there is a concave space all round. In the middle there is a
longitudinal roof -like ridge, from which radiates a number of
grooves to the border. The general aspect is that of a small
Chiton or Patella, flattened by pressure. It is not probable,
however, they are allied to either of these genera."

While in the City of St. Johns in 1874, I made a diligent
search for these forms and collected several of the so-called Aspi-
della. These, together with all other specimens now in the
Dominion Geological museum, vary so much in form and appear-
ance that I am afraid they also will ultimately be classed with
the concretionary forms already spoken of, collected by the Rev.
Mr. Harvey. Thus it will be seen that we have no definite
organic remains either in the Laurentian or Huronian rocks of
Canada or Newfoundland.

The Primordial Silurian of Newfoundland and Canada.
— In spite of the oft-repeated assertion of Professor Jukes and
the late director of the Geological Survey of Canada, — " If the
fossils don't agree with the stratigraphy, so much the worse for
the fossils," my long experience as a collector of fossils and
close observer of the various geologic horizons leads me to think
that if the stratigraphy does not agree with the fossils so much
the worse for the stratigraphy. To illustrate the faith the late

•"Notes by the writer, and a reproduction from a nature print in Trans. Nova Scotian
Inst. of Science, Second Series, Vol. I, Part 2, page 139.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND — WESTON. 153

director of the Newfoundland Survey had in palaeontological
evidence, I will relate one incident out of many similar ones
known to the writer : — In the summer of 1874 Murray wrote to
Sir W. E. Logan, then director of the Canadian Survey, saying :
" I have made my Manuel's River rocks Primordial; I am doubt-
ful, however, whether my stratigraphy is correct ; neither Howley
nor I have been able to find the ghost of a fossil ; could you
arrange in any way to send Weston down for a few weeks." The
result was that I left by the next steamer which called at New-
foundland, and a few days after my arrival at St. John's was sent
by Murray to Manuel's River where he got lodgings for myself and
indian guide. The following day I commenced my search for
fossils, and in a short time was rewarded by finding, in the gray
argil lites, the well-known crustacean Microdiscus Dawsoni,
Hartt, which occurs in abundance in the primordial slates of St.
John, at Ratcliffe's Mill Stream, and other localities in New
Brunswick. This crustacean, Microdiscus, is a puny thing, not
larger than the half of a small pea, but it told me a big tale
about the geological horizon — told me that Murray's stratigra-
phy was correct, and that I stood on primordial strata similar to
those of St. John, New Brunswick.

I may mention here that the term primordial, used by Bar-
rande and the late palaeontologist of the Canadian Survey, Mr.
E. Billings, is seldom used now — St. John Group being thought
a better name for that extensive group of rocks. This Cambrian
division of the lower silurian of Newfoundland according to
Murray would, if found consecutive at any one locality, repre-
sent a thickness of 6,000 feet of black, gray and other coloured
argillites, micaceous calcareous slates and limestones, sandstones,
conglomerates and other rocks, some of which are prolific in
fossils, especially the iron-stained argillites of Manuel's River
and other localities in Conception Bay. The fauna is similar to
that of the primordial of St. John, Ratcliffe's Mill Stream, and
other localities in New Brunswick.

Among the forty or more genera and species of this group in
Newfoundland Billings describes about sixteen species, some of

154 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND — WESTON.

which are now placed in the next zone — Middle Cambrian. I
mention here only a few of the most typical forms :

Eophyton linnceanum, Torrell.
Cruziana similis, Billings.
Linc/ula Murrayi, Bill.
Hyolithes excellens, Bill.
Senella reticulata, Bill.
Stenotheca pauper, Bill.
Microdiscus Dawsoni, Hartt.
Paradoxides tenellus, Bill.

The Upper Potsdam as represented in Canada and parts of
the United States does not appear in Newfoundland.

Calciferous. — The calciferous group which in Canada forms a
prominent feature, having a thickness of 300, feet and a large
fossil fauna, does not appear to be defined in Newfoundland,
although H is said to be represented there by a thickness of
1,000 feet, and another set of strata over 200 feet thick which
may belong to the upper calciferous zone.

This great thickness of rock does not appear to have yielded
any typical calciferous fossils. From my personal observations
I am inclined to think that a great portion of it belongs to the
series known as " The Quebec Group/' of which I shall now say
a few words :

The Quebec Group. — This great metalliferous group which
forms an important feature in our Canadian geology is largely
developed in Newfoundland and is characterized by the same
varieties of rock, among which are various coloured limestones,
black, gray, green, red, and other shales and slates, conglomer-
ates, serpentines, etc., forming a thickness of over 5,000 feet.
It is in Newfoundland, as in Canada, the great mineral-bearing
belt of rocks, in which silver, copper, lead, iron, manganese,
plumbago, gypsum, marble, petroleum, etc., have been found.

It was recognized by the finding of typical Levis fossils
— Graptolites — which are peculiar to this zone of the Quebec
group of Canada.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND — WESTON. 155

It is probable, however, that a portion of the rocks now
classed as Quebec group in Newfoundland belong to a higher-
zone. A glance at some of the fossils from these limestones
(which may be seen in the museum of the Geological Survey of
Canada) especially silicified forms which have been exposed by
dissolving the matrix with acids, will show the resemblance
between them and our Canadian Black River and Trenton forms
which is remarkable.

The following are a few of the more interesting fossils
collected in various localities in Newfoundland, by Murray,
Richardson, and Weston :

PROTOZA, —

Trachyum rugosum, Bill.

cyathiforme, Bill.
Stromatocerium rugosum, Hall.
Calothium affine, Bill.
" filloni, Bill.

HYDROZOA,—

Callograptus degans, Hall.
Tetrayraptus (Graptolithus) fruticosus, Hall.
bryonoides, Hall.

BRACHIOPODA, —

Lingula irrene, Billings.

Murray 'i, Billings.

GASTEROPODA, —

Pleurotomaria numera, Billings.
Murchisonia simulatrix, Billings.
Maclurea crenulata, Billings.
emmonsi, Billings.

CEPHALOPODA,—

Orthoceras piscator, Billings.

servile, Billings.
Nautilus calciferus, Billings.

156 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND — WESTON.

CRUSTACEA, —

Baihynrus timon, Billings.
Asaphus morosi, Billings.
Illcenus arcuatus, Billings.
Agnostus fabius, Billings.

For other fossils of the Quebec group from Newfoundland,
see Billings' Palseozoic fossils.

In this short description it would take too much space to
record information obtained of other members of the upper and
lower silurian. Some of these are not represented as in Canada,
while others probably never will be well defined owing to the
absence of, or a poor state of preservation of the fossils, which
consist chiefly of corals, stems of encrinites, and other forms
which are not typical of any formation between the Trenton and
Devonian. 1 shall therefore conclude with a few remarks on
the Devonian, Carboniferous and Superficial formations.

The Devonian. — This formation in Newfoundland is supposed
to be equivalent to a portion of the Gaspe sandstones of Canada,
which at Gaspe, according to one of Logan's sections, has a thick-
ness of 7,036 feet, consisting of sandstones, shales, limestones,
conglomerates, etc. It is not well defined but some of the fossils
which characterize the Gaspe sandstones at Gaspe1 have been
found also in Newfoundland, among which are Psilophyton,
Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Sphenopteris. The Gaspe series
contains a large fossil fauna and is important owing to its
petroleum springs and other minerals.

Carboniferous formation. — Murray states that the carbonifer-
ous of Newfoundland is clearly an extension of the rocks which
constitute the coal-fields of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia. The
formation consists of conglomerates, shales, limestones, sand-
stones and interbedded coal seams. Jukes, in his geology of
Newfoundland, speaks of a seam of coal 6 inches thick on the
Coal Brook. Other thicker workable seams have of late years
been reported. A description of the coal mining district by Dr.
Gilpin is to be found in the transactions of this Society (Trans.
N. S. List, of Sc., Vol. Ill, page 357.)

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND — WESTON. 157

The limestones of this formation are often prolific in fossil
shells; one of these bands is 26 feet thick, and is composed
chiefly of a species of Terebratula ; others hold Stigmaria root-
lets, Sigillaria and beautifully preserved ferns. The carbonifer-
ous rocks of Nova Scotia are more than 14,570 feet in thickness.
One of the bands of conglomerate is 1,400 feet thick. The car-
boniferous formation is probably the most important group of
rocks in the 28 miles of strata which once formed, what we only
have a portion of now, the crust of the earth.

Superficial Deposits. — The superficial deposits of Newfound-
land are represented by stratified clays containing modern shells.
Some of these clays are from 50 to 60 feet thick. Erratic
boulders fill many of the valleys and cover large portions of the
island.

Ottawa, April, 1895.

V.— GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG. — BY W. H.
PREST, Chester Basin, N. S.

(Read llth May, 1896.)

While prospecting for gold bearing veins during the past two
years, my attention was called to the opportunities thus given
to study the glacial geology of the district worked in. The
following observations and deductions are chiefly the results
of work done in the district between Bridgewater and Mahone
Bay, during parts of the years 1895 and 1896. My study of
this district is not in any way thorough, but consists merely of
occasional observations and their resulting conclusions. Know-
ing the great difficulty of correlating distinct and distant
deposits, I approach the subject w^ith trepidation, but, notwith-
standing, trust that the facts given may be of some service to
future investigators.

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

The general physical features of this part of Nova Scotia
are those of a gradual slope from the central watershed to the
Atlantic coast. This watershed, the South Mountain, averages
probably 700 feet in height, and is about 45 miles from the
Atlantic, which gives the very gentle descent of 1 foot in 340.
Its surface is diversified by morrainic accumulations which reach
a considerable development near the coast at Lunenburg. The
more local features are those of a low table-land, bounded on the
south-west by the valley of the Lahave, on the north-east by
the Mush-a-mush valley and Mahone Bay, and on the south-east
by the Atlantic Ocean. Its northern end is a continuation of
the higher land of the interior. In the central parts of this
table-land are the shallow subsidiary basins of Rhodenizer's and
Cantiloup's Lakes. At Blockhouse, in the eastern part of this area,
the surface is undulated by morraines and intervening swamps
and valleys. Here in a shallow valley, running about S. 50° E.,
a large part of my work was done, and observations made. The

(158)

GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST. 159

height above the sea level is probably about 135 feet. The
Lahave occupies a narrow pre-glacial valley, reaching 20 to 30
feet below high tide, and flowing amid picturesque hills about
200 feet high. The Rhodenizer Lake basin drains the highest
part of the table-land and flows S. S. W. between morraines and
kames until it reaches the estuary of the Lahave. The central
part of this basin, at Blysteinner Lake, is 183 feet above mean
tide level, while Rhodenizer's Lake is 160 feet. The Cantiloup
Lake basin drains the southern part of the tract under discus-
sion, and is occupied and surrounded by morraines which have
in some cases diverted the streams from their pre-glacial courses.
At Dorey's Brook, in this basin, work was done which disclosed
several facts bearing on the glacial succession in this district.
I will now give a few sections which represent fairly the major-
ity of those recorded by me. They are numbered to correspond
with the glacial or inter-glacial epoch in which they are sup-
posed to have originated. (See page 164.)

DESCRIPTION OF DEPOSITS.

Blockhouse. — The sections set down below are copied from a
record kept on the spot, and taken down as the work of trench-
ing and sinking proceeded. As those pits are sunk quite close
to each other, the correlation of the deposits in this locality was
not a very difficult matter. The sections of course differ as the
position and depth of the pits showing them' differed, but the
corresponding layers in each section will be numbered alike
regardless of their distance from top to bottom. The absence or
presence of auriferous quartz in the upper layer was owing to
its position in regard to the lead. If on the lead, the lower layer
contained the gold-bearing quartz ; but if to the south-east, then
the upper layer contained it.

Section 1, beginning at the top, 13 feet deep.

5, Clay and rocks, mostly local and much oxidized.

4, Sioris of denudation.

' O

3, Dark coloured boulder clay, including granite, quartzite,
and other northern drift.

160 GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST.

2, d, Signs of denudation.

" c, Small stones firmly cemented with bog iron.

" b, Soft red gravelly clay, slightly stratified.

" a, Fine blue clay with local angular drift and auriferous

quartz from lead beneath.
Section 2.— Depth 10J feet.

7, Unstratified brown rocky soil, of local origin, on edge of
meadow, probably disarranged by ice.
6, White clay

5, Brown, rusty, gravelly and sandy clay, with broken slate
and quartz, all of local origin.

4, Bright red and yellow ocheous clay.

3, Rusty, red and brown stoney clay, with well worn boulders
of granite and quartzite, but no local drift. Polished round and
oval pebbles, doubtless from a kame of earlier origin, are
included in this bed.

2, Blue clay with slate and auriferous quartz from vein
beneath.

Section 3.— Depth 8 feet.

6, Fine dark coloured clay.

5, Well oxidized local drift, consisting of gravel, clay, quartz-
ite and slate.

4, Finely stratified sandy seam.

3, Gravel, clay, and worn boulders, some of them granite,
with tough clay near bottom.

Section 4.— Depth 8 feet.

5, Brown, loose, rusty slate, gravel, and auriferous quartz, all
of local origin.

4, Four inch seam of angular slate, cemented with bog iron

3, Boulder clay of a more northern origin.
Section 5. — Depth 14 feet.

5, Brown, rusty, and partly cemented drift, of local origin,
containing auriferous quartz.

4, Signs of denudation.

3, Clay, with massive boulders of quartzite slate, trap and
granite, all wyell worn. This bed contains polished pebbles of

GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST. 161

granite and quartz, no doubt derived by denudation from a
kame of earlier age.

2, Blue clay, with broken fragments of local rocks.
Section 6.— Depth 15 feet.

5, Brown, rusty and partly cemented slate and gravel, with
auriferous quartz, all of local origin.

4, Signs of denudation.

3, Boulder clay with large boulders of trap, granite, quartz-
ite, and slate, and fine tough clay at the bottom. Contains
rounded and smoothly polished crystalline rocks which seem to
have been eroded from an earlier deposit.

Dorey's Brook. — Section, 6 feet deep.

5, Local drift, with auriferous quartz, from a vein near by.

4, d, Fine tough white clay, without quartz.
" c, Fine tough brown clay, without quartz.

" b, Fine tough brown clay, with quartz, from above-men-
tioned vein.

" a, Modified boulder clay, with quartz.

3, Boulder clay, granite rare, quartz absent. The above
section is about 140 feet above tide level.

Rhodenizer's Lake. — Kame with section at an angle of 45°,
about 60 feet deep, and about 180 feet above mean tide level.

3 (?), Surface soil apparently till, 4 feet.

2 e, Stratified beds of sand, gravel, clay, and small rounded
rocks, 17 feet, 8 inches.

11 d, Conglomerate of large rounded rocks, many of them
granite and trap, 2 feet.

" c, Stratified beds, as at 2, e, 12 feet, 4 inches.

" b, Unstratified or disintegrated bed of sand clay and water-
worn rocks, 4 feet.

" a, Stratified layers as at 2,e, 15 to 20 feet.

1, Drift conglomerate of worn and angular fragments of slate,
quartzite, granite, and trap, thoroughly cemented by bog iron.

162 GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST.

It shows no sign of stratification, and contains large numbers of
striated boulders.

A few boulders with the striations almost effaced are found
in 2, a, and striated boulders are also found in the surface soil,
3. Oxidization is most complete in the lowest bed, 1, which is
of great thickness, while the upper bed is the least oxidized of
all. This is only part of a larger kame which has suffered
extensive denudation on the western side.

At Bridgewater it is impossible to get a good section, but
near the railway station and at Sebastopol the beds show the
following arrangement :

7, Recent alluvium, with tree trunks and stumps, and ancient
Indian implements, overspread by forest growth.

6, Modified drift and river gravels.

2 to 5, Succession uncertain. Deposit consist of boulder
clay, karnes, and river terraces ; the kames being very highly
oxidized and consisting of the same material as the underlying
oxidized drift.

1, The so-called Bridgewater conglomerate, — a pasty iron
cemented mass of rounded and angular boulders of quartzite,
slate, granite, trapand diorite. This is the most highly oxidized
deposit in this part of the province, and contains striated rocks.
It is slightly modified in its upper portions, but is underlaid by
completely oxidized local drift, consisting of angular fragments
of slate in a matrix of clay and sand.

CORRELATION OF DEPOSITS.

First Glacial Epoch.

The Bridgewater drift conglomerate is evidently the most
ancient glacial deposit in this part of Nova Scotia. The evidence
for this is' as follows : —

1st. It is always seen in direct contact with the bed rock
and cemented thereto, so as to become in its lower portions
almost immovable without the aid of dynamite.

GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTKAL LUNENBUEG— PREST. 163

2nd. In spite of its extreme hardness, it has been denuded
to a greater extent than any other such wide-spread deposit in
the region under consideration. The only places where it can
now be seen being along the valley of the Lahave, and along
the watershed to the east.

3rd. Since its deposition over highland and lowland alike,
and in the pre-glacial valley of the Lahave, that river has been
re-excavated and the conglomerate left only in a few isolated
patches along its banks. And this has taken place before the
depositions of lowest kames and boulder clay.

4th. It debris has been formed into kames which are in
turn older than the boulder clay that covers them.

oth. It is more intensely oxidized than any other deposit
in the southwestern counties ; so much so, that some parts of it
constitute almost pure bog iron ore. In no more striking
manner can its immense relative antiquity be illustrated than by
comparing its highly oxidized condition with that of the over-
lying till. While the later boulder clay is oxidized only a few
feet in depth, this earlier deposit is oxidized and cemented
throughout a depth of at least 20 feet. Even beneath the
Rhodenizer Lake kame it is just as highly oxidized as elsewhere,
although over 30 feet, and formerly 60 feet, of stratified beds
covered it.

Extent. — It seems to have formerly masked a large part of
the province, since it is found at widely separated points, as
Bridgewater ; Greenfield, Queens County ; Maitland, Lunenburg
County ; and the Grove, Richmond, which is within the limits
of the City of Halifax. The depth to which it covered the
country was no doubt considerable, as it is found in the Lahave
valley from the sea level to 200 feet above it.

Origin. — That this deposit is not pre-glacial or inter-glacial,
its unstratified condition decides. That it is'glacial the presence
of striated boulders testifies with no little weight. That it is of
northern origin is proved by the contents, wrhich consist of slate
from near by, quartzite from the north-west, granite from the

164 GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST.

central watershed, diorite from the south side of the Annapolis
valley, and trap from near the Bay of Fundy.

First Inter glacial Epoch.

To this epoch evidently belongs the Rhodenizer Lake kame,
arid the lower part of section 1 at Blockhouse. The evidences
of their position and antiquity are : —

1st. At Blockhouse, section 1, we have 2, a, blue clay, with
local drift; b, stratified soft red gravelly clay ; c, bog iron ore,
underlying the lower boulder clay.

2nd. At Rhodenizer's Lake the kame seems to be overlaid
by boulder clay, and underlaid by the Bridgewater conglomerate.

3rd. This kame is more highly oxidized at a depth of 30
feet than the boulder clay at a depth of 5 feet. At Blockhouse
also, the bog iron of section 1 is over one foot, showing an inter-
glacial period of considerable lengtb.

4th. The Rhodenizer Lake kame seems to have suffered
great denudation on its western side. What remains seems to
be but a fraction of its former size.

5th. Rounded, oval, and smoothly polished pebbles of quartz
and crystalline rocks have been found in the lower boulder clay
at Blockhouse, and which, no doubt, were eroded from an earlier
water-worn deposit, such as the Rhodenizer Lake kame. The
difference between the semi-angular boulders of the lower till,
and the polished pebbles scattered among them, was at once
noticeable and bespoke for the latter a far greater age.

Since the re-excavation of the pre-glacial valley of the
Lahave, I cannot conceive how the conditions could have been
favourable for the formation of the Rhodenizer Lake kame on
the watershed to the east.

That the Lahave was re-excavated before the deposition of
the lower boulder clay, is shown by the presence of that deposit
in the valley at tide level two miles below Bridgewater. The
formation of the kame and the re-excavation of the valley must
have been contemporaneous, as the deepening of the latter and

GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST. 165

its tributaries, and the consequent draining of the watershed at
Rhodenizer's Lake, would have prevented the formation of the
kame. If, as is maintained, this was near the southern limit of
glacial extension, then the deep valleys to the east and west of
this tableland would influence the course and lessen the eroding
power of the thinned-out extremity of the last glacier. The
complete removal of a kame on a watershed would then be
extremely doubtful. Again, the formation of interglacial kames
was but the natural result of influences then in operation. The
retention of interglacial , as well as pre-glacial deposits, while
being over -ridden by glaciers, was also but a common occur-
rence.* River terraces must also have been formed from the
debris resulting from the re-excavation of the Lahave in this
epoch. But whether their remains are represented by the
deposits on the river east and south of Bridgewater, I had no
time to attempt to decide.

Second Glacial Epoch.

To this period probably belongs the lower till of Blockhouse
and Dorey's Brook, and the morraines surrounding them. It is
seen filling the re-excavated valley of the Lahave at tide level,
without having been there modified to any noteworthy extent.
At Blockhouse it underlies the auriferous drift, and at Dorey's
Brook it is seen beneath the interglacial clays and upper or
auriferous beds, which last are of local origin. This lower till
contains trap, granite, diorite, slate and quartzite. These rocks
are sometimes much worn, but are generally semi-angular and
easily distinguished from the rounded and polished pebbles
included among them, and which were evidently eroded from
some earlier deposit. It is but slightly oxidized where it is
covered by the upper auriferous drift, showing that no very
long time elapsed between the deposition of those two deposits.
The course travelled by the drift, from the lode at Blockhouse
was about S. 22° E. This may be a local deflection, as the

* Chalmer's Report on the Surface Geology of Eastern Ne\tf Brunswick, 1895, page
47 ; M. also, Acadian Geology, 2nd ed., page 68.

5

166 GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST.

general course of the strise on the highlands around, is about
S. 45° E., while the course of the valley in which the lode lies is
about S. 50° E.

At Dorey's Brook, a thin bed of partly oxidized boulder clay
containing granite and other northern drift, laid on the bed
rock ; while in the layers above, granite was absent. A large
morraine, 2J miles southeast of Dorey's Brook, contains much
northern drift, with quartz, easily recognized as coming from a
vein a little east of the brook. Their travelled course was about
S. 40° E. The lower till, where covered by an upper layer of
later origin, is but slightly oxidized, and in some places not at
all ; but this is probably owing to subsequent denudation, I
have not been able to divide the till of the northern part of this
district into an earlier and later deposit. The inference from
this seems to be, that the next interglacial recession did not reach
to the northern part of the area under discussion. A single
deposit would there include what is represented further south
by the deposits of two apparently distinct glacial epochs separ-
ated by a short interglacial period.

Second Interglacial Epoch.

This should be classed as a slight re-cession of the glaciers,
rather than an interglacial epoch-. The evidence at hand seems
to indicate that while there was a re-cession of the ice at Block-
house, it did not retire as far north as the granite, or even as far
as the next quartzite belt, two or three miles distant. However,
in its effect upon the purpose of nry work, viz., the discovery of
a gold bearing vein, it was adequate to an ordinary interglacial
epoch, as it divided the drift into two portions, differing in
character, condition of contents, and in the course traversed by
it. The deposits belonging to this epoch consist, at Blockhouse,
of red and yellow ochreous clay, (see section 2) ; finely stratified
sand, (section 3) ; thin bed of bog iron, (section 4).

At Dorey's Brook are various coloured clays underlaid and
overlaid by unstratified drift (see section). The overlying drift
in all these sections is of local, and the underlying drift chiefly

GLACIAL SUCCESSION IX CENTRAL LUXENBURG — PREST. 167

of northern, origin. This shows that the ice sheet did not recede
far enough to gather before it in its second advance any northern
drift, while the slight oxidizing of the lower beds reveals a
length of time which is very limited when compared with that
of the first great interglacial epoch. This epoch is often repre-
sented by a slight denudation of the oxidized part of the under-
lying boulder clay.

Third Glacial Epoch.

This, the last invasion of this district by the ice sheet, has
left as its legacy the local auriferous drift of Blockhouse and
Dorey's Brook. In both these places it was probably gathered
from exposed hummocks and loose debris in the immediate
neighbourhood. It consists largely of angular slate boulders
and oxidized clay and gravel, with here and there a few boulders
eroded from the lower till. The most noteworthy point in this
deposit, aside from the fact that it contains the gold-bearing drift
of Blockhouse, is that the direction of its movement is different
from that of the lower boulder clay. While the course of the
latter has been about S. 22° E, that of the former has been from
S. 50° to 55° E. Thus, while the underlying drift has been
subject to continental or at least provincial influences, the upper
drift is local both in composition and course of movement. At
Dorey's Brook, also, the course travelled by the upper drift is
influenced by the local surface contour. Its course is about
S. 65° E., while that of the quartz in the interglacial clays is
N. 80° to 90° E., and the underlying boulder clay probably
S. 40° E. The tracing of the course travelled by the different
layers of drift, is often a painstaking and difficult study, where
no striations are left as a guide. But once its origin and the
course it has travelled are known, it becomes our most reliable
guide in the search for gold-bearing veins, and as such will
repay the most patient investigation.

Post Glacial Epoch.

The deposits of this epoch consist of modified drift and river
terraces. At this time the land appears to have been more
elevated than at present, during which the beds of many of our

168 GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST.

rivers were deepened. This I attempted to show in a paper
read before the Institute on February 8th, 1892. These old
river beds now form the channels of many of our harbours.
Their formation has been ascribed to the tides, but apparently
nothing less than the disjointing action of frost, aided by the
attrition of rocks and gravel urged on by a rapid torrent, could
cut away those deep and precipituous channels. The modifying
influences of this epoch have had a very important effect on the
distribution of the drift in some of our gold districts. At Block-
house, however, it did not disturb the upper deposits to any
appreciable extent, so we gave it but little attention.

As the deposits of the recent era merge into those of the
historical period, I shall not deal with them. Several facts
which have lately come to my knowledge possess a peculiar
interest, inasmuch as they throw some light on that dim period
that connects the historical with the geological history of Nova
Scotia. They deserve a critical examination and a more
extended notice than I am able to give them.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

As this paper is already probably too long, I shall conclude
it with the following remarks. That there has been a time
when a continental glacier ploughed its way across the Bay of
Funcly and the Province of Nova Scotia, seems to be beyond
doubt, notwithstanding recent assertions to the contrary.* The
alternative of a local or provincial ice sheet, is not in accord-
ance with well-known facts except in the latest stages of the
ice age. How otherwise could boulders of trap from the Bay of
Fundy surmount the central watershed, and be distributed over
the whole southern slope from Halifax to Yarmouth ? They
are not a chance occurrence, but are found in abundance in
nearly every morraine and kame. How could a comparatively
thin ice sheet flow along such a gentle descent as 1 foot in 340,
unless it had t he powerful influence of a continental glacier to

* See Chalmers Report on the Surface Geology of Eastern New Brunswick, 1895,
pages 95 and 108.

GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST. 169

back it ? If we choose the latter as the cause of many of our
phenomena, we have the following succession of events. They
are numbered to accord with the supposed corresponding
deposits in the sections before given : —

1. General glacial epoch : Nova Scotia covered by a conti-
nental glacier which masked the country with an enormous
thickness of glacial debris of northern origin.

2. Interglacial epoch of considerable length, during which
the pre-glacial valley of the Lahave was re-excavated to its
former depth, immense kames formed, and the remaining drift
oxidized more completely than any recent deposit. As a proof
of the enormous length of this interglacial epoch, nothing is
more convincing th^n the complete oxidization of these under-
lying deposits compared to the relatively slight change of a like
nature wrought in ordinary boulder clay of a more recent date.
The development of the Pithecanthropus erectus, with its 1000
cubic centimetre skull, is no surprise when such lengthened
periods are dealt with (pardon this digression.)

3. A glacial epoch of shorter duration and less intense
action. This was probably divided into two lesser epochs near
the southern limit of its extension by a slight recession, and
thus gave rise to the upper and lower deposits of Blockhouse.
There was probably a repetition of such recessions and advances,
until the general ice sheet dwindled to a local ice field and finally
disappeared.

4. A local recession at Blockhouse, as mentioned above,
during which a few beds of clay, sand, and bog iron were
deposited.

5. A slight re-advance of glaciers on courses governed by
the local surface contour. In its bearing on the deposition of
the auriferous drift at Blockhouse, this re-advance was adequate
to a separate glacial epoch, and from a miner's stand-point will
have to be treated as such.

6. Final retreat of glaciers, formation of river terraces
and general elevation of the country, during which our now
submarine river channels were excavated.

170 GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN CENTRAL LUNENBURG — PREST.

7. Recent subsidence of our southern coast, as our buried
forests and peat bogs indicate.

As is well-known, the study of glacial geology is of vast
importance to the future of gold mining in Nova Scotia, and the
discovery of important lodes are even now depending on a true
explanation of the mysteries which surround the deposition and
distribution of those deposits. What makes the matter very
intricate, is that each district has been subject to local as well as
general influences, thus necessitating a thorough local investiga-
tion before any trustworthy conclusion can be arrived at.
Neglect of such a thorough investigation has been the chief
cause of the many failures in the search for gold-bearing veins
in Nova Scotia, But the days are fast going by when the
working miner looked with supreme contempt on the study of
geology as the hobby of a few students and men of leisure. It
has been said that the science of the past will be the common-
sense of the future, and the writer can make no apology for
this article other than that he is contributing his feeble efforts
to bring about this much-desired end.

VI. — NOTES ox THE SUPERFICIAL GEOLOGY OF KINGS Co., N. S.
BY PROF. A. E. COLDWELL, M. A., Acadia College,
Wolfville, N. S.

(Read 13th January, 1896.)

Kings County has an average length and breadth of 35 by
25 miles, but within this somewhat limited area there is very
much to interest the student of geological phenomena.

Facing the Bay of Fundy on the northern side, and protect-
ing the rest of the county from the chilling fogs, somewhat too
prevalent in that arm of the Atlantic, stretches the noted trap
ridge, known as North Mountain. This extends eastward from
the Annapolis boundary to the famous Cape Blomidon, where it
takes a northerly direction, then doubling on itself stretches
westward till it terminates in the rugged but picturesque cliffs
of Cape Split. The length of this ridge in the county is fully
45 miles, and it can be traced under the waters of Minas
Channel for a long distance, making the rips off Cape Split and
also those off Cape d'Or on the Cumberland side of the Channel.
On the south of this mountain lies a valley with an average
width of about 6| miles. The surface rock here is Triassic
sandstone underlying the trap at their junction, as is well seen
at Cape Blomidon. This valley is drained by four rivers, the
Pereaux, Habitant, Canard and Cornwallis, flowing eastward
into Minas Basin, and having at their mouths large alluvial
deposits composed of the comminuted sandstone and trap
deposited daily by the tides. On the Canard river alone 2500
acres of this have been reclaimed, making most valuable hay-land.
On the south of this valley, and generally parallel to the North
Mountain runs the South Mountain range. At Gaspereau Lake
this subdivides making the narrow valley of the Gaspereau
River. The spur or offshoot of the South Mountain has its
greatest altitude in Canaan, whence with a gradual descent it
runs in the rear of Wolfville, and terminates at Horton Landing.

(171)

172 NOTES ON THE SUPERFICIAL GEOLOGY OF

The southern part of the county is elevated, and is mainly
covered with forests interspersed with lakes. Vast masses of
granite form the outcrop.

GEOLOGICAL HORIZONS.

The northern part of the county, including the trap ridge and
the valley sandstone, is without doubt Triassic, as it conforms to
the triassic formations in other parts of the continent. This
was a period when the weakened crust was unable to withstand
the upward pressure of the molten rock and it burst through
making long ridges or dykes. The original amount of this
material must have been enormous, as it can now be found as
drift extending south over the province to the Atlantic ocean.
The Cornwallis sandstone, like other red rocks, contains no
fossils, but its age can be inferred as above from its relation to
the trap.

The rock of the South Mountain is a hard shale, for the most
part often carrying veins of quartz. Quartzite also occurs in
large masses in the vicinity of White Rock and stretches across
the Gaspereau, making rapids in that river. In Webster Brook,
two miles south of Kentville, in fawn-colored slates. Dictyonerna
Websteri is found, probably Cambrian, and on Canaan Mountain,
one mile further south, Silurian encrinites may be obtained.
The ridge south of Wolfville contains no fossils, and the moun-
tain still further south is also barren, but a little to the east-
ward the brooks running into the Gaspereau show in their beds
abundance of plants, lepidodendrids, sigillarids and catamites.
These fossilliferous rocks continue to the extreme east of the
county, Horton Bluff, and are probably sub-carboniferous, though
some of the western series may be Devonian. In the eastern
part of the town of Wolfville, running south from the dyked
marsh to the top of the ridge and reappearing on the south of
the Gaspereau River, is a deposit of varying width known locally
as " Wickwire Stone." It is a coarse friable sandstone or fine
conglomerate, the sharp grains of quartz being held together by
a red cement of ferric oxide. It is largely quarried, being the
principal material used for the foundations of buildings in this

KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — COLDWELL. 173

vicinity. It some instances it resembles the triassic sandstone,
but differs from it in containing no calcium carbonate. I have
traced this formation to within a short distance of the shale
but have not been able to observe the junction of the two. Its
age has not been accurately determined, but it may be sub-
carboniferous.

EVIDENCES OF GLACIATION.

Drift material from the North Mountain abounds on the
South Mountain, being especially plentiful in the gulches and
beds of brooks. This is mainly Amygdaloidal trap, which, not-
withstanding its tendency to decompose through weathering, is
found in somewhat large masses. In Wolfville, it is found in
the soil to a considerable depth, especially along the line of a
former beach. I have also found small boulders of syenite and
diorite, which must have come from the Cobequid Mountains, as
they resemble the rocks found in that range, and are unlike any
country rock I have seen on this side of the Minas Basin.

STRLE.

On the summit of the ridge south of Wolfville, in the hard,
fine-grained shale exposed on the side of the highway, parallel
markings may be seen in different places, evidently glacial
striae. I have also observed coarse markings on a freshly
exposed surface of Wickwire stone. These scorings all trend in
a south-easterly direction.

EVIDENCES OF ELEVATION AND SUBSIDENCE.

The encrinites found on New Canaan mountain indicate that
that formation was at one time covered by the sea, but its
present altitude is probably due to the upthrust of the mountain
range as distinguished from elevation over large areas. There
is good evidence, however, that the sea was at one time nearly
50 feet higher than at present in an old beach formation, extend-
ing along the line of Acadia Street, parallel to the present water
frontage. This, wherever dug into, presents a similar structure
of rounded stones, evidently well worn by attrition. Imme-
diately to the south of this, and at a higher elevation, is a

174 SUPERFICIAL GEOLOGY OF KINGS CO., N. S. — COLDWELL.

deposit of clay, while in front, about thirty feet lower, is a
deposit of fine sand. The rounded stones in this old beach are
mainly trap, so that the formation is of comparatively recent
origin, probable Quarternary. At this time the sea must have
covered the whole of the Cornwallis and Annapolis Valley.

There is also evidence that the land must have been at one
time considerably higher than at present, for on the northern
side of Long Island, about thirty feet below high water mark,
are the remains of buried trees, in situ, the stumps, roots, and
even trunks well preserved. This would call for a subsidence of
40 to 50 feet.

VII. — ON AN ARBORESCENT VARIETY OF Juniperus communis,

OF LlNN^US, OCCURRING IN NOVA SCOTIA, AND NOT
PREVIOUSLY NOTICED IN OUR FLORA. — BY J. SOMERS,

M. D, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated llth December, 1893 ; received 15th April, 1896.)

Some time ago my attention was directed to a variety of our
common juniper not commonly met with. Mr. William Gibson
of this city, had for some years given much time to investigating
the subject. He introduced rne to several arborescent junipers,
some of them, one at least, growing to the size of a lofty shrub.
Another, he tells me, grew to the size of a small tree, the bole of
which he judged would be four inches in diameter. The locality
of these was on the Dartmouth shore of the harbor, near the old
windmill. The larger one, which I did not see, grew on the
Halifax side, near the Cotton Factory road. He informs me he
has been observing the growth of the shrub juniper for over
twenty years. Some have disappeared in process of clearing,
others still remain. At the time I visited the place where most
of those plants grew, Mr. Power, of the Public Gardens, procured
several specimens for transplantation. I think I am correct in
stating that some success was attained in this. I know from
experience of earlier years that though the low juniper was
common in our vicinity, the shrub form was not. With us, the
ordinary conception of juniperus communis is of a low shrubby
plant, decumbent, froming a circle of growth from the centre
towards the periphery, the patches varying from two to six
feet in diameter, depending on the surroundings, rarely rising in
growth two feet above the surface, the tough fibrous roots
spreading themselves somewhat deeply in the soil.

The juniper here presented departs widely from the method
of growth described above. It rises upward in a form beauti-
fully symmetrical, assuming the proportions of a shrub with
numerous branches, and root stocks ascending and adpressed to

(175)

176 ARBORESCENT VARIETY OF JUNIPER US COMMUNIS,

the parent stem, attaining the height of fully fifteen feet in old
plants, forming a column cylindrical and varying in circumfer-
ence, in the largest one seen, I should say, about five or six feet,
a beautiful column of greenery, surpassing in appearance many
exotic cultivated species of its tribe.

Studying this juniper from a botanical view, the sole
difference presented to us is the difference in growth between it
and the ground juniper. In foliage, infloresence, and fruit they
are alike. The only question is, from its mode of growth should
we describe it as a marked variety. In the locality where the
upright plants grew were many circles or saucers of the low
growing plant. In some of these the terminal (peripheral)
branches showed a tendency to upward growth. Individual,
central branches grew upwards a foot or more above their
neighbours. Some arborescent plants seemed to rise from pros-
trate roots. They, however, did not assume the perfect cylin-
drical form of the true shrubby plants which we found growing
independently and remote from the ground-lying form. The
fact seemed that upgrowth exists most strongly in isolated
plants of this kind. The individual difference between the
junipers mentioned above is so great as to the eye of any ordi-
nary observer, even though having botanical knowledge, to cause
the supposition that they were distinct species. Closer observa-
tion, however, convinces that the plants are the same though
varying in growth.

We will, for descriptive purposes, take first, Linnseus's
diagnosis of his Juniperus communis from the Sps. Plantar.,
1470, viz.: "A large shrub, extremities of the branches smooth
and angular; leaves in threes, linear, acerose, sharply mucronate,
shining green beneath, but with a glaucous line along the centre
of the upper surface, they are resupinate, turning their upper
surface to the ground ; barren flowers in aments, small, axillary,
with roundish stipitate scales, enclosing the anthers ; fertile
flowers on another plant having a small, three-parted involucre
growing to the scales, which are three ; fruit fleshy, berried, of
a dark, purplish color, formed of the confluent succulent scales,

OF LINX^US, OCCURRING IX NOVA SCOTIA — SOMERS. 177

which are marked with three prominences, or vesicles, at the top,
and contain three seeds." We have in the above a perfect
description of our arborescent juniper drawn by a master hand.
Periera, English medical authority, thus describes Juniperus
communis: — "Leaves three, in a whorl, spreading, linear,
subulate, mucronate, longer than the galbulus ; a bushy shrub,
flowers sessile, axillary, male and female flowers separate ; fruit
called a berry, in botany a galbulus, requires two seasons to
arrive at maturity, black with blue bloom not more than half
the length of the leaves."

Louden, in his Arboriticum, Vol. IV.. p. 2489, mentions seven
varieties, some of which he says are probably distinct species.
c< One juniper, Nana (Smith), procumbent stems, imbricated,
incurved ; leaves, linear, lanceolate, fruit nearly as long as the
leaves, endigiment in mountains."

Prof. Amos Eaton, Manual of Botany, sixth edition, pub.
Albany, 1833, by Oliver Stub, gives, from an American view, a
diagnosis like that of Linnaeus, though he calls the plant
" Juniperus communis, Willd." He mentions two varieties : —

" Var. 1, erecta, branches erect.

" 2, depressa, branches prostrate, or horizontal." He
gives no details as to appearance of erecta, except the above.

Wood, in his class book, gives " a shrub, with numerous
prostrate branches, growing in dry woods and on hills, often
rising in a slender pyramid six to eight feet high." He quotes
Bobbins assaying it is rarely arborescent. This, of Wood, agrees
with our shrub. He gives no varieties. Gray is very indefinite.
After the usual diagnosis he says : " Low shrub, ascending or
spreading on the ground (Europe)." It requires some botanical
skill to evolve our juniper out of this.

Taking all the above statements into consideration, I am of
opinion we have two varieties of Juniperus communis, Linn. ;
one most common, decumbent, the other uncommon, shrubby.

Since writing the above I have received' from Prof. George
Lawson, LL. D., the following valuable information which he

178 ARBORESCENT VARIETY OF JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS,

kindly forwarded to me to help out my notes on the Junipers,
for publication in the Proceedings. It is dated January 5th, 1895 :

DEAR DR. SOMERS, —

On reference to Endlicher's Synopsis Conifer arum, published
at Cracow, in 1847, I find that he describes four forms of
Juniperus cominunis, viz. : —

(a) vulgaris. — Shrubby, with spreading branches and
spherical berries.

(b) Hispanica. — With ascending straight branches, and
egg-shaped berries.

(c) Caucasica. — With divaricate spreading, somewhat pend-
ent branches, leaf clusters or verticils distant from each other,
berries ovate.

(d) arbor escens. — With ascending straight fastigiate
branches, forming a top.

In Koch's Synopsis Florae, Germanicce, edition of 1844.
Juniperus communis is described as shrubby (fruticosus) erect,
becoming arborescent.

In the English Cyclopedia (Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 311,) it is
stated that juniper occasionally becomes a small tree.

The French dictionaries give the name Genevre, Juniper ;
Genevrier, Juniper tree. The name of the old town of Geneva
is said to be derived from the juniper, as are obviously the names
in modern European languages of the fermented liquor called
Geneva, obtained from juniper berries, and the distilled spirit
from grain flavored with these berries, called Holland gin, the
latter being a contracted corruption of Geneva.

In the Flora Rossica of Petrus 8. Pallas, a large folio of
magnificent colored drawings, published at St. Petersburg, in
1784, by command by Catherine II, the Juniperus com-
munis, is described as growing in sterile, sandy places and
wood}^ hills throughout the Russian empire, frequent in the
northerly and temperate regions, occurring also in the southern
mountain tracts, as in the Taurian Chersonese, about Sudak,
Balaklava, Lambat, and Sebastopol Harbour, also in the

OF LINNAEUS, OCCURRING IN NOVA SCOTIA — SOMERS. 179

Caucasian promontory, viz. : " Mostly shrubby, but in the tem-
perate and southern parts with well-marked erect stems, but in
Siberia almost always shrubby." The remark is made by Pallas
that this plant is so common and well-known in the use of both
the berries and wood that it is not necessary to inform Russians
on this point. Yours truly,

GEORGE LAWSON.

The recent lamented death of Dr. Lawson, pioneer botanist of
Canada, will, I am sure, invest this communication of his with
great interest to those w.ho, knowing him, admired him, as being
probably among the last of his writings upon the science so
endeared to his heart.

VIII. — SOME NOVA SCOTIAN ILLUSTRATIONS OF DYNAMICAL
GEOLOGY.— BY PROF. L. W. BAILEY, PH. D., LL. D.,

University of Neiv Brunswick.

(Read 9th March, 1896.)

The following notes "and accompanying photogravure plates
are designed to present to students of the geology of Nova
Scotia a few phenomena and results which seem to the writer
sufficiently remarkable to deserve some special notice. The
notes and pictures were all taken in connection with the work
of the Geological Survey of Canada, and are reproduced here
by the kind permission of the Director.

I. SAND HILLS OR DUNES OF THE SOUTHERN COAST.

At several points along the shores of Queen's and Shelburne
Counties the attention of the traveller is attracted, even in mid-
summer, by what appear, in the distance, to be great drifts of
snow. Especially is this the case in driving along the post-road
at the head of Port Mouton Harbor, whence, though at a
distance of a mile or more, such drifts, in reality of blown sand,
are readily seen, forming indeed a conspicuous feature of the
landscape. They here occur upon the west side of the indenta-
tion named, stretching along the latter, though somewhat
interruptedly, for nearly a mile, and attaining in places a height
of thirty or forty feet. They conceal for the most part from
view the underlying rocks, but these, as seen in several islands
near by, are undoubtedly granitic, and such as, by their decom-
position, might readily afford the pure white siliceous sand of
which the dunes consist. This sand is almost wholly incoherent,
and readily blown to and fro by the winds, while, near the
water's edge, quicksands occasionally become a source of danger
to the incautious traveller ; but why so great an accumulation of
such material should take place at this particular spot is not
directly obvious.

(180)

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vol. IX.

PLATE IV.

SANDY COVE,

Looking towards St. Mary's Bay, shewing Vertical Bluffs of Trap.

Illustrating Prof. Bailey's Paper : " On the Geology and Botany of Digby Neck.

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vol. IX.

PLATE V.

VIEW AT ISRAEL COVE, PETITE PASSAGE,

Shewing Columnar Structure.

Illustrating Prof. Bailey's Paper: " On the Geology and Botany of Digby Neck"

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vol. IX.

PLATE VI.

ENTRANCE TO PETITE PASSAGE, NORTH SIDE.
Illustrating Prof. Bailey's Paper: " On the Geology and Botany of Digby Neck:

ILLUSTRATIONS OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY. 181

The difficulty referred to, as to the location of the Port
Mouton sand-hills, is enhanced when with these we compare the
similar hills of blown sand which form portions of the shore of
Barrington Bay. The accompanying Plates, VII and vui, will give
a good idea of these, as regards both the extent of the area they
cover, the height to which in places they have been heaped up
and the fact that they are still travelling inland, burying bushes
and even forests as they go. I am without any exact measure-
ments as to the area covered, but think that this cannot well be
less than fifteen or twenty acres, while the height of the hills,
which is greatest at the inner margin of the area, is probably
not less than forty feet. It is said that a portion of the area,
(which is on the lower part of Village-Dale,) was once occupied
by a French village. However this may be, it is certain that
the hills are gradually travelling inland, and that each year
adds appreciably to their height as well as to their distance
from the sea. In all these features they nearly resemble the
sand hills of Port Mouton, but in two other important respects
there is a noticeable difference. In the first place, while the
dunes of the harbor last named are upon its western side, those
of Barrington Bay are upon the eastern side of that indentation;
and, secondly, while in the former instance the rocks at hand
are granitic, and well adapted to yield the necessary material for
these accumulations, the sand-drifts of Barrington Bay rest on
beds of Cambrian slate and quartzite. It is true that there is
abundance of granite at the head and upon the west side of this
latter Bay, but this is several miles distant.

It is therefore again difficult to see what have been and are
the special circumstances which have led to the production of
such large deposits of such material at this particular spot. It
is also difficult to see wherein either of these spots differs
materially, either as regards exposure to the winds, nature of the
rocks, or in other respects, from innumerable other localities along
the shore, in which no trace of such deposits is to be found.
Possibly further and closer study may remove the difficulties of
explanation which now exist.
6

182 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN ILLUSTRATIONS

II. GLACIAL TROUGHS.

It is probable that most observers are familiar with glacial
markings or striations, the scores left by the great ice-sheet of
the Glacial Period in the course of its movement southward, and
which are abundantly exhibited in the Park and elsewhere-
about the City of Halifax. Bub probably few, if any, have seen
such a proof of the power of ice action to carve the surface over
which it moves as is afforded in the photographic plate No. DC
This remarkable view was taken on Lockeport Island, within,
ten or fifteen minutes walk of the town of Lockeport. The
rocks at the place are Cambrian slates and quartzites, the latter
predominating, in beds 10 to 15 feet in thickness, and dipping
south-easterly at an angle of about 50°. The trough, which is.
plainly shown in the picture, runs in the direction of the beds,,
and, no doubt, owes its origin in part to that fact, and to the
unequal hardness of the two kinds of rocks which the strata
contain ; but even with all allowance for such favoring circum-
stances, the magnitude of the result is not only unusual but
phenomenal. Not having any means of exact measurement ats
hand, the writer is unable to give precise data as to the dimen-
sions of the trough, but is safe in saying that its length was at
least 30 feet, its depth at centre at least 4 feet, and its breadth
as much as 4 or 5 feet, the larger part being in massive quartzite..
The form of the trough, as seen in the view, was in section not
unlike that of a canoe, the sides curving gracefully down to the-
middle line, while; along the same sides arid parallel with the axis,
of the trough, were numerous striations of the ordinary kind, also
clearly seen in the photograph, and leaving no doubt as to the
nature of the agent to which the trough itself is to be ascribed.

A trough of such magnitude, due to glacial erosion, is,
certainly a very unusual occurrence, at least in this part of the
world ; but, remarkable as it is, it in turn sinks into insignifi-
cance in comparison with some other troughs, due to the same
agency, which \vere subsquently seen. These occur about mid-
way between Port-la-Tour and Baccaro, on the coast of Shelburne
County, and upon a small point, which is almost an island,.

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. IX.

PLATE X.

' - _ _ -2J liJiiL"'^ J. ^ l^jfl If _ j. '!*i +ij'r.k

'

Illustrating Prof. Bailey's paper on " Triassic Hocks of Digby
Basin." Fig. 1, Red sandstone bluff, Digby, N. S., holding frag-
ments of Triassic trap. Fig. 2, Bluff of red sandstone, overlaid
by conglomerate, holding blocks and columns of trap, East side
of Digby Gut. Fig. 3, Fissure in Triassic trap, filled with trap
debris, Red Head, Grand Manan.

OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY. 183

locally known as Crow's Neck Point. The rocks here are mica-
schists, conspicuously studded with staurolitic crystals, as well as
with irregular knobs or blotches, (some 6 x 3 or 4 inches in
size,) which are in part at least half-formed crystals of andalusite.
The rocks are massive but distinctly bedded, with a S. W. dip of
20° ; and at right angles to this dip runs a trough or gully,
similar in character and doubtless in origin also, to that of
Lockeport Island described above, but in this instance not less
than L20 feet broad and 20 feet deep ! The sides, as before, curve
regularly to the axis, and are everywhere smoothed and striated
along lines parallel to the latter.

It is to be regretted that the writer, at the time of his visit
to this locality, was unprovided with a camera. A view of this
trough would, however, be less satisfactory than that of Locke-
port Island, as in this instance the trough is in part occupied
by a large boulder (possibly concerned in its origination),
which somewhat obscures the prospect. Other troughs of less
magnitude, but yet of unusual size, are found in the same
neighbourhood.

III. ERRATICS, MORAINES, KAMES, ETC.

Nova Scotia presents, almost everywhere, abundant oppor-
tunities for the study of surface geology, more particularly as
dependant upon the ice-movements and probable general glacia-
tion of the Pleistocene Era ; but nowhere are such opportunities
more forcibly pressed upon one's attention than in the south-
western counties. Some of the facts there exhibited have
already been made the subject of comment by the writer, as well
as by others, in the Proceedings of the Institute. It is not the
intention of this paper to discuss them further here, but only to
direct attention to a few localities in which they are especially
noticeable.

Boulders. — Of boulder-strewn districts probably none is more
remarkable than that of the tract tying to the north-west of
Lake Rossignol in Queen's County, and along the county lines
separating Digby County from Shelburne and Yarmouth. Here,
over an extensive tract, including the so-called Blue Mountains,

184 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN ILLUSTRATIONS

boulders of granite completely hide from view the under-
lying ledges, and attain immense size. One, north of Pescowess,
according to observations by Mr. W. H. Prest, was 35 feet in
height above the debris in which it was imbedded, while another
in the same vicinity, was 47 feet long, 22 feet wide, and 15 feet
high, or 15,000 cubic feet, and would weigh over 1000 tons. Only
those, who, like Mr. Prest, have traversed this district, can form
any idea of the extreme difficulty involved in so doing, or of the
wild, weird and indescribably desolate aspect which it every-
where presents.

A boulder of somewhat smaller dimensions, but still a giant,
and one which is more accessible, occurs upon the Liverpool
River, about four miles above Milton. It is composed of grey
micaceous sandstone, with slaty layers, and is 30 feet long, 15
feet wide, and 20 feet high.

In the vicinity of Shelburne there are also many large
boulders, particularly on the west side of the harbor, towards its
head, where they have, in many instances, been the basis of the
quarrying and stone-cutting operations carried on here.

Finally, on the west side of Petite Passage, between Digby
Neck and Briar Island, and overlooking the village of Tiverton,
is a very remarkable assemblage of detached blocks of rock.
Like the beds on which they rest they are composed of trap, but
in what way they acquired their present position and character
is by no means obvious. They are of immense size, and both
individually and in their grouping, exhibit features which border
upon the grotesque. Were they at the base of a cliff they might
well be the fragments detached from its brow and piled one
upon another, but here they are at the top, not the base, of the
cliff, and most numerous near its edge, where they stand like
sentinels, 100 feet or more above the swirling waters which they
overlook. Are they the remains of a lateral moraine, formed in
connection with a glacier which once traversed and perhaps
made the Petite Passage ? The occurrence of glacial striae along
this passage and at the waters edge, as seen at Israel Cove, lends
some countenance to this supposition.

OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY. 185

It is not probable, in any of the cases above cited, that the
distance of boulder travel has been great, the rocks being
similar in nature to those occurring in situ at points not widely
removed. Of true erratics, or long distance boulders, the most
noticeable, perhaps, was one of dark grey felsite-conglomerate,
seen in Tiverton, near the middle of Petite Passage, and probably
not more than 20 or 30 feet above the level of the tide. No
rock of this character has yet been observed in south-western Nova
Scotia, but it is common in southern New Brunswick, whence
in all probability it was derived. Granite boulders were also
observed in this vicinity, as well as on Briar Island, which may
also have come across the Bay, though possibly derived from the
granite of the Blue Mountains in Nova Scotia, some 40 miles
distant. Boulders of the traps of Digby Neck are occasionally
met with over all the south-western counties, even as far as the
Atlantic shore.

Of ordinary terminal Moraines, the interior of Queen's, Shel-
burne, and Yarmouth Counties affords many examples, and to
their presence and influence many features in the drainage of
the country are no doubt due. The headwaters of the Port
Medway, Liverpool, Jordan, and other rivers may be cited in
illustration. In a similar way some of the islands off the coast,
and particularly those which, in such large numbers, dot the
surface of Tusket Inlet, are, in all probability, of morainic origin.

In addition to moraines, the peculiar accumulations known
as Kames or " Horse-backs," are abundant in south-western Nova
Scotia, and are, in some instances, of remarkable character. A
ridge, which is probably of this nature, crosses the Liverpool and
Annapolis road in the northern part of Maitland Settlement,
whence it was followed by W. H. Prest in a direction E. or ENE.,
across the Maitland River to Gull Lake, and then northerly, by
Gull Lake Stream, to the south of Perrot's Settlement, while in
the opposite, or westerly direction, it was similarly followed,
westerly or west by south, by way of Long Lake to Frozen
Ocean, finally crossing into Digby County, south of the Sissaboo.
A peculiarity in this case is that, while consisting, like other

186 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN ILLUSTRATIONS

kames, partly of sand and gravel, the main source of its
materials, blue slate, would seem to have been derived from the
south, not from the north, and from beds which are somewhat
remote. The course of the ridge, across the general slope of the
country and parallel with the coast, is also peculiar, suggesting a
possible beach origin.

Other good examples of kames or gravel ridges are to be
seen in Shelburne County, between Clyde Village and Port
Clyde, and at the head of a long, narrow promontory separating
Negro Harbor from Port la Tour. In each of these cases the
ridges are several miles in length, somewhat tortuous in their
course, but with a general southerly trend, are from 20 to 40
feet high, and usually just broad enough at top to afford room
for a roadway, a use to which, in both of the instances given,
they have been applied.

But by far the most remarkable of such ridges is the so-called
" Boar's Back " of Digby County, the total length of which,
though somewhat interrupted, cannot well be less than twenty
miles. The best place for its examination (where also are the
" moving stones " referred to in Lord Dunraven's account of his
travels in Nova Scotia, regarded by him as inexplicable, but the
result, probably, of the expansion of lake ice), is on the " Hecta-
nooga Road " in Yarmouth County, a short distance north-west
of where this joins the Weymouth Road, near Wentworth Lake.*
As usual this kame consists of sand and gravel, with some
imbedded boulders, and also, as usual, it is bordered on either
side by extensive low and flat tracts, occupied mainly by bogs
and barrens. In a few instances, as on the Jordan River, above
Jordan Falls, the kames are found to bifurcate, or to enclose
deep circular or oval depressions, forming " kettles."

IV. UPLIFTS AND DISLOCATIONS.

Marine and River Erosion. — No finer opportunity for the
study of disturbed strata could readily be found than that
afforded by the south coast of Nova Scotia. Almost every

* See Church's Map of Digby County.

OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY. 187

variety of folding, and through a scale equally various, is here
exhibited ; while the outline of the coast, distinguished by long
projecting tongues of land and intervening narrow valleys or
fiords, affording natural sections, make their examination
unusually easy and attractive. The erosive action of the sea, as
modified by the unequal hardness and the varying altitude of
the beds, together with the positions, equally various, of bedding
planes, cleavage, joints and fault planes, is also strikingly
-exhibited. Upon the coasts of Queen's and Shelburne Counties
the rocks are either Cambrian quartzites and slates, or granite,
and the former are generally, though not always, titled at high
ang^s, the result of orogenic movements of which the date has
not as yet been definitely fixed. A characteristic example of such
tilted beds is to be seen on Lockeport Island, not far from the
point exhibiting the glacial furrows already described. The
ledges here exposed are composed of quartzite, dipping 40° or
50°, while the parallel troughs by which they are separated
correspond to the softer and more easily removed slaty beds. A
feature of additional interest in the case of this quartzite ledge,
is the fact that, notwithstanding the metamorphism of the
quartzite, which glistens with scales of mica, its surface shows a
number of unmistakeable impressions of what have elsewhere
been described as fossils under the name of Asteropolithon. The
real nature of these impressions, however, (which may be well
studied in the quartize ledges on the summit of the hills over-
looking Bedford Basin,) whether really organic or only imitative
forms of concretionary origin, is still disputed. If of organic
derivation, (and some of the markings seem inexplicable upon
any other view,) they probably represent the burrows arid the
radiating trails of marine worms.

While the southern coasts owe their peculiarities largely to
the general presence of Cambrian quartzites or of granite, those
of Yarmouth and Digby illustrate, in an equally striking way, the
results of upheaval and of marine erosion where the prevailing
rocks are >lates. The most remarkable exhibitions of the effects
due to these two causes are to be found about Point Fourchu,
(Yarmouth Harbor), in the vicinity of Chegoggin Point, thence

188 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN ILLUSTRATIONS

northward to Port Maitland, and again between Cape St. Mary
and Metegban. All along this coast the strata are thrown into a
series of short folds, usually oblique to the coast line, and are
broken by numerous faults. To the north of Cape St. Mary Light,
the shore is especially high and bold, presenting an almost
endless variety of craggy precipices, overhanging bluffs, caves
and " stacks," the latter sometimes of grotesque outline. There
is seldom any beach, or any safe means of ascent or descent, so
that any examination of the section must be made by boat, and
even this method is possible only in the calmest weather. The
views afforded, however, and the instruction to be gained, are
well worth some little risk.

Among other incidents of marine erosion may be mentioned
here the occurrence of some noticeable " spouting horns " near
the extremity of Western Head, near Lockeport.

Besides the examples of folded rocks and of erosion to be
found along the coast are those afforded by the rivers and streams
of the interior. Of these in Queen's County one of the best is
that of the Port Medway; in Yarmouth County, the Tusket ;
and in Digby County, the Sissaboo or Weymouth River. The
section afforded by the latter is especially interesting for its
variety and completeness, and as affording a key to the structure
of a large part of this county. So also are the sections afforded
by the Grand Joggins, Bear River, Moore River, and Deep Creek,
on the south side of Annapolis Basin, as well as by the
several smaller creeks emptying into the same sheet of water.
In a single railway cutting, near the mouth of Bear River, may
be counted not less than fourteen small folds, and as many as
six faults.

At the head of St. Mary's Bay, and adjoining the so-called
" Sea Wall," is a fine example of a monoclinal block, the red
sandstones, of probable Triassic age, here forming a series of
very picturesque vertical bluffs, rising to a maximum of a
hundred feet, with a regular but low inclination northward, and
affording many curious instances of marine sculpture in com-
paratively soft beds.

OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY. 189

V. JOINTS, CLEAVAGE, ETC.

The divisional planes referred to above are of such common
occurrence in regions of metamorphic or partly metarnorphic
rocks, such as form so large a part of Nova Scotia, as hardly to
deserve notice here. And yet their recognition and distinction
from each other and from planes of bedding is one of the most
serious practical difficulties to be encountered by the field
geologist, especially in the study of the Cambrian rocks of the
southern coast. The quartzites of this system abound in joint
planes, often causing them to divide into prismatic blocks, while
the slates of the same system have in general a strongly pro-
nounced cleavage structure. Both may be, and often are, much
more pronounced than the bedding planes, so that strata which
are really level-lying, or in low undulations, may present the
appearance of being highly inclined. Such a condition of things
is especially prominent over much of the country north of
Caledonia in Queen's County, where, were it not for the fact that
the rocks are strongly banded or ribbanded with somewhat
strongly contrasted colors, indicating the true planes of deposi-
tion, mistakes might very readily be made as to their true posi-
tion. Portions of the coast south-east of Lunenburg, where
similar strongly ribbanded beds occur, afford other illustrations
of the same fact.

Besides the joints which characterize the massive quartzites
of the Cambrian, or the granite by which the latter is invaded*
it is proper to notice here the similar divisional planes found in
the traps of Digby Neck, Briar Island, &c. Some of the columns
thereby determined are illustrated in Plate v. (Part 1 of the
present volume of the Transactions,) as seen at Israel Cove on
the Petite Passage, and others much more remarkable occur
along the south side of Briar Island.

VI. METAMORPHISM.

Almost every stage of the metamorphic process may be well
studied along the coasts of the south-western counties. The
uuartzites, as might be expected, show the least evidence of

190 SOME NOVA SCOTIAX ILLUSTRATIONS

change, the effect in their case being usually confined to greatly
increased hardness and compactness, or to the development in
the mass of mica scales and metallic sulphurets ; but among the
finer beds, now mica schists, the alteration is often much more
extreme, the mica being not only far more conspicuous, but
accompanied, often over large areas, by multitudes of staurolites
and small garnets, as well as andalusites. The staurolites are
often quite perfect and readily separable from the matrix, but
the andalusites are rarely well formed or differentiated, shading
into the associated rock, while they are themselves indefinitely
penetrated by mica, garnet, and staurolite crystals. The best
localities for the collection of staurolites are the vicinity of
Jordan Falls, arid the west side of Shelburne Harbor, in the
village of Carleton, while both these and andalusites may be
found in large numbers about Baccaro, on St. Anne's Point, in
Pubnico, and about Brazil Lake and Lake Annis in Yarmouth
County. The garnets observed upon the coast, though numerous
and usually quite clear, were all small, while those of the interior,
along the borders of the granite, while considerably larger, were
generally dull. A somewhat remarkable example of this latter
class is to be seen in the fields half a mile east of Brazil Station
on the Dominion Atlantic R. R. in Yarmouth, the schistose rock
having its surface thickly covered with projecting crystals of this
mineral from the size of a pea up to a diameter of an inch or
more. Rocks of very similar character occur about the shores
of Lake George, and again upon the coast at Chegoggin Point.
Near an old quartz mill in this vicinity is an 18 foot belt of
garnetiferous schist, having cross veins of pure garnets mingled
with hornblende and menacoanite. Along the same belt of
me tarn orphic strata (between Yarmouth Harbor and Lake
Wentworth) the rocks frequently contain scattered sheafs of
hornblende, and in places become a nearly pure hornblende rock.

Quite a different type of metamorphisin is to be found along
the northern side of the great central granite tract in Digby and
Annapolis Counties. Here the stratified rocks which adjoin the
granite are of much more recent origin than those described

OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY. 191

above, being of Devonian age, and in places filled with the
•characteristic fossils of that formation. The best opportunities
for their study are to be found along the line of the Nova Scotia
Central R. R, between Alpina and Nictaux Stations, (this
interval being almost continuously occupied by rock cuttings,
usually fossiliferous,) the east branch of Bear River, (a mile and
a half above the head of the tide,) and in Mistake Settlement,
between North and South Range, in Digby County. The strata
include iron ores in addition to slates and sandstones, and the
former as well as the latter carry organic remains. Near the
granite the rocks assume more or less fully the character of
gneisses, while the iron ores, elsewhere hematites, have become,
in part at least, converted into magnetites. The fossils often
show also the distortions due to the pressure they have
undergone.

VII. VEINS, CONTACT PHENOMENA, ETC.

Space will not allow of any lengthy reference here to the
quartz veins of the Cambrian system. Nor is this necessary, as
their character and relations with the associated strata have been
so fully described by earlier writers in connection with the
development of the gold mines of which they form the basis.
It will be sufficient, in illustration of their occasional magnitude,
to refer to two instances only; the first, that of the "Jumbo
Mine," in Westfield, Queen's County, with a width, though not
wholly of pure quartz, of over sixty feet, while the second is that
on which was located the stamp mill, referred to above, at
Chegoggin Point, and which is about 26 paces across, of pure
milk-white quartz. At this latter locality may also be seen an
interesting example of slickensiding^he pure milk-white quartz
of which the vein consists being divided by a vertical fissure or
fault plane, of which one wall to an unknown depth has, by the
friction accompanying the fault, been polished to the smoothness
and brilliancy of a mirror. These large veins are, however,
1-ass auriferous than those of smaller size.

192

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN ILLUSTRATIONS

QUARTZ VEIN IN LAMINATED SLATES.

A singular instance of a very narrow but tortuous vein seen
upon the shore about Eagle Head Breakwater, east of Liverpool
Harbor, is here reproduced. The contortions are in exact corres-
pondence with the corrugations of the enclosing strata.

Another type of veins of much interest is where these latter
consist of granite, and, with other contact phenomena, finds
abundant illustration at many different points along the borders
of the principal granitic masses. A striking example of such a
granite vein or dyke of large proportions may be seen on the
shore opposite Coffin's Island, near the eastern head of Liverpool
Harbor. The beds exposed here are chiefly gneisses, quartzites,
and mica schists, of the Cambrian system, and have a very
regular northward dip of 40°. Across these beds, however, and
almost at right angles, run heavy masses of coarse white
weathering granite, the dip and strike of the strata being
apparently wholly unaffected thereby. (See Fig.) In the same

GRANITIC INTRUSION IN CAMBRIAN STRATA, BERLIN, QUEEN'S COUNTY.

OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY. 193

vicinity a mass of granite, 20 or 30 feet wide, may be seen
enclosed between tilted beds of quartzite and running for 100
yards or more in perfect conformity with the latter, then suddenly
terminating. On the other hand on the Shelburne River, where
crossed by the post road, may be seen a good illustration of the
intricate blending of the granitic and schistose masses commonly
met with along their lines of contact. Regularly stratified beds
are, as before, abruptly cut off across their line of strike, long
irregular tongues of granite invade the associated strata, and
what look like detached blocks of the latter are sometimes com-
pletely enclosed by granite.

In the section on the Nictau River, already referred to, and
just north of Alpina Station, is a good opportunity of studying
the intrusion of granitic masses among Devonian strata, showing
both the exotic origin of the granite and the period of its
extrusion.

In connection with the granitic masses, both small and large,
occur numerous veins in which the constituent minerals of
granite, viz., quartz, felspar and mica, have been segregated out
on a larger scale, affording fair specimens of each. A good
illustration of such segregated veins may be seen at the western
head of Liverpool Harbor, at the Government Breakwater, where,
in addition to good specimens of felspar, may be found sheafs of
pale yellowish plumose mica. In some instances these veins
carry tourmaline and garnet as well as mica.

Still a third type of veins, abundantly illustrated in the
region under review, is found in connection with the traps of
Digby Neck. Like the veins in the Cambrian rocks, first
described, these are usually silicious, but whereas the former are
of pure milky quartz, with accompaniments of metallic sulphurets
and gold, the latter are as generally highly colored and banded,
including all varieties of agate, jasper, chalcedony, &c., as well
as amethyst, while the associated minerals are calcite, zeolites of
many varieties, together with oxides of iron (hematite, martite,
magnetite). Simple veins of agate and jasper, from one quarter
of an inch to a foot in diameter, may be seen almost anywhere

194 ILLUSTRATIONS OF DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY — BAILEY.

along the Bay of Fundy shore of Digby Neck, but are especially
numerous and finely colored in the hills overlooking the Petite
Passage, about Tiverton. Veins of iron ore occur three miles
from Digby on the road to Broad Cove, at Johnston's mine, in
Waterford, at Mink Cove, and elsewhere, while at Nichol's mine,
in Rossway, are to be seen particularly interesting combinations
or associations of all the minerals named above. A peculiar
brownish white unctuous or soapy clay is another abundant and
interesting accompaniment of the veins at this locality, filling
the fissures of the rock in all directions and causing it to be
locally known as a soap mine.

Veins of pure zeolites occur in various parts of Digby Neck,
but less frequently than those of quartz or iron ore. '±hompsonite
is the one of most frequent occurrence, and is especially abundant
on the Bay of Fundy shore at Broad Cove, seven miles from
Digby, and again near Gulliver's Cove.

Veins of native copper may be seen on the eastern side of
Digby Gut, near the entrance.

IX. — PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT SEVERAL STATIONS
IN CANADA DURING THE YEAR 1895. — COMPILED BY
A. H. MAC<KAY, LL. I)., Halifax.

(Bead llth May, 1896.)

The phenological observations made under the auspices of
the Botanical Club of Canada during the year 1895, are more
extensive and more complete than those made during the pre-
vious three years. Among the observers there are some who
have made (as will be seen in the following tables) valuable
zoological and meteorological observations as well as the botanical
ones. It was distinctly stated in the directions given observers,
that sports out of season or due to narrowly local conditions of
shelter, &c., which would affect less area than a small field, should
not be recorded except parenthetically. As far as possible the
observations recorded were the appearances of the first which
was immediately followed by the many of the same kind.
When phenomena are not very common in any specified locality,
it can be readily understood that the first arrival may not be
seen for some days after. This is a source of error which can-
not well be guarded against ; as is also the impossibility of an
observer's sometimes being able to make his complete tour of
observation every day. Whatever defects may characterise any
of these observations, I have reason to believe that on the whole
they are becoming more accurate from year to year. It is to be
regretted that there are still very many blanks at many stations ;
but a blank is infinitely better than a wrong figure. With
reference to thunderstorms, it will be seen that many observers
were not mindful of noting even those which occurred during
hours when, not being asleep, they must have noticed them.
However, as in the other cases, we must be content with such
facts as have been recorded, remembering that there is no pre-
tence to say that all have been recorded.

In connection with every school there should be such records
kept and pasted into the Register for each year, or kept in a

(195)

196 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATONS— MACK4Y.

special book, — all the pupils in the school, under the direction
of the teacher, being utilized to their amusement and edification
in observing throughout the whole school section each day when
going to and returning from school. From such complete, well-
checked and numerous observations, most valuable inductions
might be made in the near future.

STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.
NOVA SCOTIA.

Yarmouth. — Miss Antoinette Forbes, B. A.

" Miss Beth Lovitt.

Berwick. — Miss Ida Parker.
Halifax. — Mr. Harry Piers, Stanyan.

" Mr. Johnstone MacKay, 32 Morris Street.

Musqwodoboit Harbor. — Rev. James Rosborough.
Port Hawkesbury. — Mrs. Louise Paint Forsyth.
Pictou. — Mr. Charles B. Robinson, B. A, Academy.
Wallace. — Miss Mary E. Charman.
Amherst. — Grades VIII. and IX., Public Schools.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.
Charlottetown. — Mr. John MacSwain, Prin. Public Schools.

NEW BRUNSWICK.

Grand Harbor. — Mr. Henry F. Perkins, Grand Manaan.
St. Stephen. — Mr. J. Vroom.
St. John. — Students, Victoria High School.
Hammond River. — Miss Edith Darling.
.Kingston. — Miss Mary F. McLean.
Richibwcto. — Miss Isabella J. Caie.

ONTARIO.

Niagara Falls Park — Mr. Roderick Cameron.
Ottawa.— Mr. James Fletcher, F. R. S. C.
Muskoka. — Miss Alice Hollingworth, Beatrice P. O.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY. 197

MANITOBA.

Winnipeg. — Rev. W. B. Burman, B. D.
" Mr. E. A. Garratt.

ASSINIBOIA.
Pheasant Forks. — Mr. Thomas R. Donnelly.

ALBERTA.
Olds.— Mr. T. N. Willing.

BRITISH COLUMBIA.
Vancouver. — Mr. J. K. Henry, B. A., High School.

FULL LIST OF PHENOMENA ASKED TO BE OBSERVED.
BOTANICAL.

[E. C. & W. mean Eastern, Centre and Western Canada, respectively.]

1. ALDER (Alnus incana). Catkins shedding pollen,

2. ASPEN (Populus tremuloides.) Catkins shedding pollen.

3. " " " Leafing out.

4. Spring Anemone (A. patens, var. Nuttalliana.) Flowering.

5. Red Maple (Acer rubrwm.) Flowering. (E.)

6. Hepatica (Hepatica, & H. triloba-acutiloba). Flowering.

7. Adder's-tongue Lily (Erythronium Americanum). Flow'g.

8. Mayflower (Epigaea repens). Flowering. (E.)

9. DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale). Flowering.

10. Salmon-berry (Rubus spectabilis). Flowering. (W.)

11. ii " Ripe fruit. (W.)

12. Ash-leaved Maple (Acer Negundo). Flowering. (C. & W.)

13. STRAWBERRY (WiLD.) (Fragaria Virginiana&Chilensis) Fi.

14. M n •• " Ripe fruit.

15. Wild Plum (Prunus Americana). Flowering. (E.)

16. CHERRY (CULTIVATED). Flowering.

17. " " Ripe Fruit.

18. WILD RED CHERRY (Prunus Penn. & emarg.) Flowering.

19. INDIAN PEAR, JUNE-BERRY, (Amelanchier.) Flowering.

20. " " (Amelanchier). Ripe fruit.

21. BLACKBERRY (Rubus occidentals & leucodermis.) Flow'g.

198 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACK AY.

22. APPLE (CULTIVATED.) Flowering.

23. Western Dog-wood (Cornus Nuttallii). True flowers open.

24. OAKS (RED, BLACK or WHITE). Flowering.

25. HAWTHORN (Crataegus). Flowering.

26. LILAC (CULTIVATED) (Syringa vulgaris}. Flowering.

27. RASPBERRY (WiLD). First ripe fruit.

28. WHEAT (WINTER). First sowing.

29. " " Flowering.

30. " " Harvest.

31. " (SPRING). First sowing.

32. " " Flowering.

33. " " Harvest.

METEOROLOGICAL.

34. LAST SPRING FROST, date with note explaining particulars.

35. FIRST AUTUMN FROST, " « "

36. OPENING OF LAKES Devoid of Current in SPRING, date.

37. CLOSING " " " FALL, "

38. OPENING OF RIVERS IN SPRING, date.

39. CLOSING OF RIVERS IN FALL, date.

40. NUMBER OF THUNDER STORMS IN YEAR,(with dates of each).

Jan Feb March Apr

May June July

Aug Sept

Oct Nov Dec

41. DATES AND DURATIONS OF DROUGHTS AFFECTING VEGE-

TATION.

ZOOLOGICAL.

42. Song Sparrow (Melospiza fasciata). First appearance.

43. Sparrow (M. montana, guttata, and rufina). First app.

44. Robin (Merula migratorius\ (E. & C.)

45. " (M. propinqua). (W.)

46. Blue Bird (Sialia sialis). (E. & C.)

47. " (S. arctica and Mexicana). (C. & W.)

48. Junco, slate colored snow-bird (J. hiemalis). (E. & C.)

49. " (J. annectens and Oregonus). (W.)

50. RED-WTINGED BLACKBIRD (Agelaius Phoeniceus).

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY. 199

51. SPOTTED SANDPIPER (Actitis macularia}.

52. SWALLOW (Tachycineta bicolor).

53. Meadowlark (Sturnella magna). (E.)

54. KINGFISHER (Ceryle Alcyori).

55. Hummingbird (Trochilus colubris). (E. & C.)

56. " (T. rufus and Calliope}. (W.)

57. Nighthawk (Chordeiles Virginianus). (E. & C.)

58. » ((7. ffenryi). (W.)

59. WILD DUCKS, First birds.

60. " First flock.

61. " Flocks migrating south.

62. " Last birds.

63. WILD GEESE, First birds.

64. " First flocks.

65. " Flocks migrating southward.
6<i. ' Last birds.

67. First date at which " Frogs" are heard whistling.

200

PHEXOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

TABLE A.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895.

Number. |i

Last day of Jan., 31 of year.
Feb., 59 "
Mar., 90 "
Apl., 120 "
1 Mav, 151 "
1 June,181 "
July, 212 "
Aug. ,243 "
Sep., 273 "
Oct., 304 "
Nov.,334 "

E=<
£
o

I

Yarmouth, L.

Berwick.

Halifax, P.

Halifax, M.

j

2

o

1
1
1

Average,
South Nova Scotia.

Port Hawkesbury.

1

102
111
131

^

111
113
128

|

0

J3
5
H

Average,
North Nova Scotia. |l

1

2
3
4
5

6
7
8
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
20
27
31
33

BOTANICAL.

Alder, pollen
Aspen pollen

102

104
124
139

98
122
143

101.1
123.0
141.0

1' '

140

106.5
112.0
133.0

// leaf

Anemone, fl

Red Maple, fl
Hepatica, fl

125

123

126

...

. . .

124.7

...

126 123
127

120

123.0
127.0
1125.0
116.2

125.7

Ad T. Lily, fl

' ; 125

125:110 114
126 120133

116
124;

.1

Mayflower, fl

61
119

102

108

105
129

111

iii ii2

129,130

100.9
125.0

Dandelion, fl

Salmon-berry, fl ....

" fr

l

1

Negundo, fl

,

Strawberry fl

124

129
158

126
159

124
159

130
156

134

127.9
158.0

134
179

129
161

130

124
154

129.2
164.6

134.2
190.0
134.0
141.0
187.0
168.0
141.2

" f r .

Wild Plum, fl ,

Cherry (Cult.), fl..

150

131

136

139.0

144
193

157
196
172
150

133

136
131

178
164
139

133
187
135

127

iii

135 i

" " f r . . . .

Wild Red Cherry, fl.
Indian Pear, fl ,

a a fp

145
144

151

132 143
128134

144
137

139

142.3
135.7

Blackberry, fl
Apple, fl

169
133

156

163 164
143149

iso

165.3
146.2

isi

145

Western Dogwood,fl.
Oaks, fl

142
148
147
180

156
160
152

197

153

161
161

149.0
157.5
155.51

182.7J

iii

196

130
140
147

• •

130.0
140.0
151.5
196.0

Hawthorn, fl

161
161
169

i59
185

Lilac, fl . .

Raspberry, f r

Spring Sowing 1st

" Harvest, 1st.

. .1

j

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACK AY.

201

TABLE A.— Continued.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895.

Number. 1

c
£

jD
1

1
g

Grand Harbor.

St. Stephens.

,<3
O
i-s

02

Hammond River.

Kingston.

1 Richibucto.

Average,
New Brunswick.

—
Niagara Falls.

Ottawa.

Muskoka.

d

-*fl

8>|

go

>
<i

107.7
108.0

Winnipeg, B.

Winnipeg, G.

Pheasant Forks.

Olds, Alberta.

Average,
Central Provinces.

\

61

1

2

3

4
5

0
7
8
0
10

11

12

13
14
15
10
17
18
10
20
21
22
•T;
24
25
20
27
31
33

124
128

(108

103

110

107.0

107

105
102

Ill
114

114105
130121
100102

;;;

105

Ill
122

97

110.0
124.3
101.0

124|

124

126

124.0
131.0
123.2
124.0
122.0
117.3
131.0

125
139

iso

126

. .131
118119
. .'124
...|124
...jl!8
127 ...

••

121
111
109
111

iii

io9

126
128
114

121.0
115.3
118.5
112.5

120
130

122
139

112
132

126

118.5

123

123

143

129.7

99
82
154

lio

159

139

!124
163

128
157

124
171

in

^

126 126". 8
166 164.2

127

119

126
165
13r>

123.0
126.0
165.0
1370

li2 105
128130
158166

'.'.'.

l36
172

108.5
131.3
165.3

iap

...

135

...

143139.0
188 188.0
...1139.5
133132.8

124

124

112
174
124

145

136

130

138
131

134

141

126

.

130
129

126
126

128.0
127.5

128
130

128.0
130.7

207.0

125

137

207

160
126
139

160.0
129.0
126.0

139.6
137.5

155

135

145

145

145.0

129

. . . i28
..J145
.. 127
140 135
140 132

:

128.0
145.0
127.0
137.5
136.0

123

146
125

ios\

123

134 134.0
158149.5
150 150.0

1

149-
150

139

136

...

128

128 128.0
239 239

...

....

94

95

96
234

94

94.7
234.0

...

202 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

TABLE B.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895.

Number. j.

Last day of Jan., 31 of year.
11 " Feb., 59
ii ii Mar. 90
L Apl., 120
• May, 151
i June, 181
• July, 212
• Aug., 243
• Sept.,273
Oct., 304
ii Nov., 334 "

^

^

£

Yarmouth, L.

Berwick.

(X
w
|
1

Halifax, M.

Musquodoboit Harbor.

Port Hawkesbury.

Pictou.

Wallace.

Amherst.

34
85
86

37
38
39

40
41

METEOROLOGI

Spring frost, la
Autumn " fii
Lakes op6n

3AL.

st

st

259

284
110

294
110

276

283
110
347

Rivers opsn ....

110

103

Thunderstorms -
Droughts

Jan. .
April

May .
June.

July .

Aug .

Sept .

Oct . .
Nov..
I Dec. .

22
110
119

130

115
150

115

115

115

138
179

130
131

130
150

••

207

230

254
269

'308
336

230

268

188
197
207

216
230
236

269
301

196

*206

'233

269

298

226
232
233

273

278

298

298

{

152
177
182

197

f

157
170
182
( 197

•-

....

I

....

..{

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACK AY. 203

TABLE 'B.— Continued.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895.

Number.

Charlottetown.

Grand Harbor.

St. Stephens.

a

02

Hammond River.

Kingston.

Richibucto.

Niagara Falls.

Ottawa.

Muskoka.

Winnipeg, B.

Winnipeg, G.

Pheasant Forks.

Olds, Alberta.

Vancouver.

34

120

154

154

141

141

147

159

164

35

272

288

257

257

234

251

226

,ST>

116

i ' '

37

38

109

98

100

97

91

30

6

342

302

305

• •

40

' *

100

1

91

123

123 '

124

151

....

150

128'
150

131

117

123

146

••

r

156

161

154

162

153

165

163

163
165

166
173

....

....

163
164

••

165

173

166

177

168

* *

170

174

203

18Q

183

204

....

193

....

181

194

204

206
207

....

....

202

186

...

190
200

200
206

208

212

207
209

'•

220

218

215

220

226

. . . •

223

224

229

OQQ

233

....

229

225

232
233

••

4OO

234
236

269

260

251

215

f

252
254

••

298

298

I

259

41

r

165

' \

173

f

177

* *

(

209

I

18Q

1 . . . .

..1

216

204

PH ENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

TABLE C.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895.

Number. • .

Last day of Jan., 31 of year.
" Feb., 59
" Mar., 90
" ApL, 120
" May, 151
" June, 181
" July, 212
" Aug., 243
" Sept.,273
" Oct., 304
» Nov,,334

• \ Yarmouth, F.

Yarmouth, L.

Berwick.

Halifax, P.

Halifax, M.

Musquodoboit Harbor.

Average,
South Nova Sotia.

Port Hawkesbury.

0

S

Wallace, |

Amherst.

Average,
North Nova Scotia. 1

42

\?,
44
45
!()
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
5(>
57
5S
.-><>
(50
01
(52
(5: 5
(M
(55
M
(57

ZOOLOGICAL.

Song Sparrow, arrived.
Mt
Robin, "
Western Robin, "
Blue Bird, »
Western B. Bird, "
Junco, "
Western Junco, »
Red-Winged B.B. "
Sandpiper, <>
Swallow, "
Meadowlark, "
Kingfisher, "
Hummingbird, "
Western H. B., «
Night Hawk, «
Western N. H., "
Wild Duck, 1st B

97

92

97

95.3

98

98.0

••

••

94

94

97

950

95

105

••

Ill

103.6

••

••

102

100

101.0

••

••

...

....

,

122
127

149
112

i

135.5

1 ' |

119.5

-•

132

...

132.0

128
137

127
144

..

127.5
140.5;

140

124

138

134.6

••

147

153

••

150.0

182

••

110

146.0

76
111

76.0
111.0

IstFl ...
Fl. S....

••

84

56

70.0

••

" B. S

Wild Geese, 1st B

IstFl....

Fl. S....

••

71

71.0

••

85
305
334
110

85.6
305.0
334.0
110.5

" B. S

Frogs Whistle

109

110,113

• • !

llO.Gi

mi ..

PHEXOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

205

TABLE C.— Continued.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895.

1

H
z

4'2
43
44
45
46
47
48
40
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
50
60
61
(52
68
64
65
66
67

g. 3 ! Charlottetown.

Grand Harbor.

| St. Stephens.

3

1

^
QQ

I Hammond River.

I Kingston.

Richibucto.

Average,
New Brunswick.

£

1
2

83

Ottawa.

j Muskoka.

x 1 Average,
w Ontario.

| Winnipeg, B.

Winnipeg, G.

Pheasant Forks.

Olds, Alberta.

Average,
Central Provinces.

£
1

1

82

1

si

' 82.0

91

91.0

98

••

108

98

96.2

91

••

93

92.0

96

110

100

91

99.2;

••

I

97

970

j

|

92

92.0

••

103

w

.1

. . .^

94
102

• •

95

...

94.0
97.5

•

i

145
132

••

••

••

"\

106
133

...

106.0
123.0

108

112

110.0]

123
101

123

'94

123.6
97.5

1

111

111.0
91.0
128.0

••!!••

••

•

116;

138

118.0
138.0

91
128

,..

?•?!

••

203
110

76
85
260

113

-•

W

"89
95

127

146

88
92

'86
. . .

3?3

136.5
87.7
93.5

323.0
79.0
99.5
297.0

••

83

83

83.0
83.0

85

96

'

277

"

277.0
i. • ...

98
103

98.0
94.6

83
83

83.0
83.0

79
91

280

127

79

90

'90
314

117 123

120.0

102

Ill

106.5

95

90

98

94.3

53

W" above = winters.

206

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

It will be noticed that the averages of some phenomena
in northern Nova Scotia appear to be more advanced than in
the southern stations this year. Last year it was noticed that,
taking ten common plants, the average season in the south was
over eight days earlier than in the north. Whether this
announcement stimulated the northern observers to be more
constantly watchful than usual in the interests of their climate,
or whether it is to be accounted for otherwise, there need not be
the slightest suspicion that any of the observers, who are well
known to me, put a single figure down in the " interest of any
particular climate." They may have made a greater effort to get
at the exact facts, which would tend to bring phenomena more
promptly to their notice.

The following table shows another manner of treating these
statistics, in order to draw general inferences, which were the
figures exactly true and the stations fairly arranged, must be
correct :

Average Date of Floioering of TEN Common Plants, at tJie Stations
in Nova Scotia, in 1892, 1893, 1894, and 1895.

NAME.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895. i

Average
of these
years.

Early Spring Flowers.
Mayflower

98

108

104 7

108 5

104 8

Aspen . ...

131

123

122 2

117 5

123 4

Red Maple

123

130

126 3

123 9

125 8

Strawberry

1?9

133

131 6

123 5

130.5

Late Spring Flowers.
Cherry (Cult)

146

142

146 3

136 6

142 7

Indian Pear

145

144

146 0

138 3

143 3

Cherry (Wild) .

150

144

147 0

138.1

144.8

Apple

146

146

152 1

143 7

146 9

Hawthorn. .

163

160

160 3

154 0

[ 159 3

Lilac

163

160

162 3

153 5

159.7

Average date of the ten
plants. .

139 4

139 0

139 9

134 3

138 1

Days, season in advance ( + ),
or behind ( - ) on the aver-
age, taking the ten plants.

1- .3

-0.9

-1.8

+ 3.8

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

207

Taking these ten plants whose times of flowering range
from April to June, it will be seen that the spring season of
1895 was, in Nova Scotia, nearly four (3.8) days in advance of
the average for the four years, while that of 1894 was nearly
two (1.8) days behind. But, dividing the spring season into
two divisions, before and after the middle of May, the first four
plants belong to early spring and the last six to late spring.
The average dates of blooming, and the differences from the
average of the four years, are shown in the following table :

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

II

< "

First four plants above . . (
(Early Spring Fl.) \

Last six plants above ....-{
(Late Spring Fl.)

120.2
+ 0.9

123.5
-2.4

121.2

-o-i

119.6
+ 1.5

121.1

152.2

-2.7

149.3
+ 0.2

152.3

-2.8

144.0
+ 5.5

149.5

This means, that the early spring of 1892 was nearly a day,
(0.9), in advance of the average, but the late spring was retarded
nearly three (2.7) days. Was the latter part of May in 1892,
colder than the average ? And so forth with the other items.

X. PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA.
BY HARRY PIERS.

(Read 13th April, 1896.)

The order Orthoptera, which includes the cockroaches,
crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs, etc., may be defined as
a group of insects having mouth parts formed for biting, an
incomplete metamorphosis, and four wings, the first pair thick-
ened, the second pair thin and folded into longitudinal plaits
when at rest.

The species of this order are mostly common and well-
known ; and as many of them are very destructive to vegetation,
their study is of much economic importance. In the United
States, extensive reports have been made upon the more harmful
kinds, and the question of how to keep them in check has
been carefully considered by many experts.

With the exception of incidental notes in Walker's list of
Canadian species,* the Orthoptera of Nova Scotia have received
no attention from naturalists. During the past year (1895) and
occasionally in former seasons, I have given some attention to
their collection and study, and I now present a few preliminary
notes on the species which have so far come to my notice. I
hope to devote some years to their study, and will, I trust, at
a future time be able to give a full account of our species.
It is probable that the Orthopterous fauna of this province does
not embrace a great many species, but future collecting will
reveal the presence of a number which have not come under my
observation during the time I have already devoted to the order.

The Orthoptera of Nova Scotia, as far as observed by me,
represent four families, viz , (1) the Blattidse or cockroaches, of
which two species (introduced) are recorded in the following
pages, and one or more other species will doubtless be found

* Vide Hcmiptcra, Heteroptera and Derrnaptera (Orthoptera) of America to the
north of the United States. By Francis Walker, F. L. S., London, England. Canadian
Entomologist, vol. iv., 1872, pp. 29-31.

(208)

ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 209

under stones and the bark of stumps ; (2) the Gryllidse or
crickets, two species reported ; (3) the Locustidse or grass-
hoppers, two species reported ; (4) the Acrididoe or locusts, eight
species. Of the remaining North American families — the
Forticulidse or earwigs, the ManticUe or praying mantes, and
the Phasmidse or walking-sticks — I have so far met no specimens.
I am under obligations to Dr. Samuel H. Scudder, of Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, the best authority upon North American
Orthoptera, and also to William Beutenmiiller, Esq., Curator of
the Department of Entomology, American Museum of Natural
History, New York, for examining specimens and thus checking
my own determinations. The nomenclature of my paper follows
in the main that of Mr. Beutenmiiller's "Descriptive Catalogue
of the Orthoptera found within fifty miles of New York City"
(Bulletin American Museum of Natural History, vol. vi., 1894,
pp. 253-316.)

BLATTID^:.

Phyllodromia germanica (Linn?eus).

Croton Bug ; German Cockroach.

This species, which is a native of Europe, made its appear-
ance in New York at the time the Croton aqueduct was built.
It is very abundant in some houses in Halifax, and is locally
known by the name " Yankee Settler." It is a small species,
about 16 mm. in length, and is of a yellowish brown colour, with
two dark-browrn longitudiual stripes on the thorax. Warm
places, such as the vicinity of fire-places and hot-water pipes,
are most attractive to it ; and it is said to be particularly
destructive in buildings heated by steam. It is less likely to be
found in filthy surroundings than the oriental cockroach. The
great rapidity with which it breeds, and its small size, which
permits it easily to hide itself in cracks, make the species one of
the worst insect pests in cities. Dr. Riley was of the opinion
that Persian insect powder was the best means of stopping the
inroads of this roach. The species is less strictly nocturnal
than S. orientalis.

210 ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIi — PIERS.

Stylopyga orientalis (Linnaeus).

Oriental Cockroach ; Black Beetle.

This large, dark-brown roach is a native of Asia, but it has
been carried by shipping to all parts of the world. It is common
in Halifax, and delights in damp, dirty places. The intoduction
and continual burning of electric lights in our city bakeries, has
done much to rid such places of these pests, for they have a great
aversion to light. Bakers tell me that they largely use powdered
borax for keeping them in check. Infested places should be
kept clean, dry, and light.

GKYLLIDM.

Gryllus pennsylvanicus, form neglectus, Scudder.

On September 4th, 1892, I observed immense numbers of
these large crickets in the grass of King's Meadow, near King's
College, Windsor, N. S. They were in company with Nemobius
fasciatus vittatus, but far outnumbered the latter. The extreme
timidity which characterizes the species was cast aside and they
only moved from an approaching foot when it threatened to
trample upon them. They were still numerous when I left
Windsor at the end of September. Seven alcoholic specimens,
six females and one male, were preserved. The species seems to
be rare about Halifax. On September 2nd, 1896, I obtained
two specimens on Bedford Rifle Range, where they are probably
not uncommon ; and another was taken at Halifax on October
10th.

It may be mentioned that the nomenclature of the Gryllidse
has been very unsettled and the study of the family is conse-
quently attended with much difficulty. Gryllus luctuosus, G.
nigra, and G. neglectus, which were formerly considered as
species, have recently been regarded as merely forms of G-
Pennsylvania us.

Nemobius fasciatus, form vittatus (Harris).

Wingless Striped Cricket.

This well-known small cricket is exceedingly abundant in
fields about Halifax. I have also found it very common at

ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA — PIE US. 211

Windsor, and it is probably as plentiful all over the province.
Its notes are one of the most familiar sounds of autumn, and are
heard both during the day and night. The stridulation is pro-
duced by lifting the wing-covers about 45° above the abdomen
and then shuffling them together, producing a sound resembling
the word plee-e-e-e, plee-e-e-e, plee-e-e-e, or cree-e-e-e, etc. It has
been suggested that these notes can be reproduced by taking a
silver half-dollar between the lingers and striking the coin with
the edge of a nickle. These autumnal sounds ring continually
in our ears until the first frosts put a stop to the love-making.
During recent years the shrilling of this species has been first
noted on the following dates : August 19th, 1890 ; August 6th,
1891 ; July 29th, 1892 (at Windsor, N. S.) ; August 2nd, 1893 ;
July 29th, 1895 ; August llth, 1896. By October 31st of last
year, only two or three individuals could be heard, and by
November 6th, a lovely, warm, Indian summer day, on listening
at one place, only about one individual could be detected — in
fact the species was all but silent. None were noted after that
date, although a few individuals might have been found two or
three days later.

I have not observed the form fasciatws in Nova Scotia.

Scudderia pistillata, B runner.

The general colour of this insect, as found in Nova Scotia, is
a pale oil-green or apple-green ; upper part of eye, brown ;
region between base of antennae, centre of face, and labium,
white ; a cream -buff stripe on each dorso-lateral part of the
thorax ; beneath, whitish-green ; white between the legs and on
the throat, and two longitudinal white lines, slightly raised, on
the ventral surface of the abdomen ; soles of feet and antennae
light brownish. Length of head and body, exclusive of abdo-
minal appendages, 22 mm.

This handsome Katydid is very common about Halifax. It
is found upon the foliage of bushes, chiefly alders, in or near
swampy places. Although so plentiful, }^et its protective simili-
tude to a leaf, both in colour and form, and its usual slow move-

212 ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

ments, make it very difficult to detect. Attention is chiefly
directed to it by the loud stridulation of the males at nightfall.
During the day they are usually silent, or at rare intervals
produce a short, sharp note, zip. After dark, however, they
make the swamps resound with their loud calls, and we then
become aware of their abundance. On close examination at such
a time, the males — usually only one on each bush — may be seen
walking very slowly over the leaves and twigs. Occasionally
they suddenly slightly lift and part the wing-covers and close
them again, thereby producing a sharp zip or crick, not very
loud — this being the note which is usually heard during day-
light. After making this sound at irregular intervals for some
time, the wing-covers are opened to a greater extent, and are
then again closed, producing a long-drawn, exceedingly loud
cr-r-r-r-T-r-r-ick, This is repeated in couplets several times in
succession. This challenging cry is immediately answered by
one after another of its neighbouring fellows, until numbers are
rasping out their ear-piercing notes, as notable a rural chorus as
that of the Tree Toads. Gradually the sounds become few, but
after a short interval they are again frequent. This note is
doubtless the loudest produced by any of the Orthoptera I have
yet heard in the province. It can be partially produced by
moving the wing-covers of a captive or dead individual. The
note bears little or no resemblance to that of its famous relative,
the broad-winged Katydid ( Cy rtopliylliis concavus) of the Cen-
tral and Eastern States. Our species, as I have before observed,
is usually very slothful. Occasionally, however, in daytime,
and doubtless also at night, they fly some distance from tree to
tree. One noted on September 28th, while it was attempting to
cross a road, made only short flights, and usually fell on its
side when it came to the ground. It, however, easily flew to
and lighted upon a fence rail. Usually the insect can be readily
captured with the fingers while it clings to a leaf. Occasionally,
on a near approach to the bush upon which it rests, it will drop
suddenly a foot or two to a branch beneath. I have not yet
succeeded in detecting the female, although I have carefully

ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 213

searched at night with a lantern. There is a female, however,
among some Orthoptera collected by Mr. G. Marshall in the
eastern part of Annapolis County. I have noted the species as
late as October 17th, (1895). This insect has not heretofore
been reported from Canada.

Xiphidium fasciatum (De Geer).

Slender Meadow Grasshopper.

This fragile, apple-green species, with a long, straight ovi-
positor, is very common about Halifax, and I have also collected
specimens on the meadows at Windsor. The species has a very
wide range, perhaps the widest of any of the North American
Locustidse, being found, according to Redtenbacher, from Canada
to Buenos Ayres. It frequents damp situations, and numbers
were observed among the rank marsh grass on Marsh Lake, at
Sackville, N. S., on September 3rd, 1895. The last individual
noted in 1895 was seen on September 10th. Females are
observed much more frequently than males. The stridulation of
this grasshopper is rather weak. One observed in September
produced a song which may be represented thus, plee-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-
e-e-e-e, tcit, tcit, tcit, tcit. This was produced by rapidly vibrating
the tegmina for the first note, plee, and doing the same at
intervals for the remaining ones, tcit, (imitated by suddenly
drawing in the breath, with the tongue applied to the roof
of the mouth).

ACRIDID^E.

Stenobothrus curtipennis (Harris).

Short-winged Locust.

Abundant in Nova Scotia among grass in meadows. Both
the green and the more sober coloured varieties are found. The
species is easily known by its short tegmina. Its stridulation is
frequently heard in the country, and hundreds rise from about
the feet when walking through short grass. The last individuals
of 1895 were noted on October 19th. Several were seen on
October 25th, 1896.
8

214 ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS.

Camnula pellucida, Scudder.

Clear-winged or Pellucid Locust.

This sober-coloured insect occurs from Connecticut north-
ward, and has been reported from Quebec (Provancher) and is
common at Montreal (Cauifield). I have so far obtained but two
specimens, both females. The first was captured, September 5th,
1895, in company with Circotettix verruculatus in a stony place
near Block-house Pond, Halifax. The second was taken,
October 2nd, in a damp, grassy spot on the side of the road,
close to Cow Bay Bridge. When upon the ground, the species
somewhat resembles C. verruculatus.

Dissosteria Carolina (Linnaeus).

Carolina Locust.

This locust is widely distributed, being found from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and in the United States as well as
in Canada. It is the largest acridian occurring in Nova Scotia.
It frequents dry stony places and roadsides, and resembles in
colour the prevailing tint of the situation in which it occurs.
It is much less abundant than C. verruculatus which is found
in the same situations. The last individual noted in 1895 was
seen on September 28th.

Circotettix verruculatus (Kirby).

Very common in dry, warm stony places, in company with
the less abundant species, D. Carolina. During flight it produces
a loud cracking or clapping sound, which is familiar to all and
very suggestive of hot and dusty country roads. Although
resembling, when on the ground, the larger D. Carolina, it may
be readily distinguished when in flight — the basal portion of
the wing being yellow in verruculatus , whereas in Carolina it
is black and the outer edge of the wing is yellow. In 1895 the
last specimen of verruculatus was taken on September 28th.
It appears about the end of July.* Six specimens of this insect
are among some Orthoptera collected by Mr. Marshall in the

* In 1895, it was first noted on July 18th, and it was common on the 25th.

ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS. 215

eastern part of Annapolis County, and it is doubtless found
throughout the entire province.

Mecostethus gracilis (Scudder).

A handsome species, apparently rare in this vicinity. Last
year I was able to obtain but four specimens, all males. One of
these was taken among long grass in a dry situation on the
summit of Block-house Hill, Halifax, September 1st, 1895. The
remaining three were captured in a damp, grassy place on the
side of the road near Cow Bay Bridge, on October 2nd. The
stridulating area on the wing of this species is large and pro.
minent, and stridulation may be easily produced in the dead
insect by moving the femora against the wings. The species
has not hitherto been reported from Canada.

Melanoplus femur-rubrum (De Geer).

Red-legged Locust.

This excellent flyer is common in Halifax County. It was
also noted on the diked meadows about Windsor, and without
doubt is abundant throughout the entire province. It is generally
pistributed over Canada and the United States, occurring from
the Atlantic to the Pacific and south to Central America. It is
said to occur, however, only at certain suitable localities within
its limits, a favourable amount of humidity being the chief cli-
matic condition required. The species is closely related to the
very destructive Rocky Mountain Locust (M. spretus) — the most
terrible insect pest in America. It seldom, however, exhibits
the migratory habits of the latter. Femur- ru b rum no doubt
does much damage throughout Nova Scotia, devouring field
crops and other vegetation, and it should be destroyed whenever
possible. The species was noted up to October 20th, 1895.

Melanoplus atlanis (Riley).

Lesser Migratory Locust.

Apparently not common about Halifax, but at present very
abundant on Sable Island. Next to M. spretus of the Western
United States, this is the most destructive locust of North
America, and the question of how to protect the country from

216 ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

its ravages, has occupied the attention of all agriculturists and
economic entomologists. It occurs from 53° north latitude or
even nearly to the Arctic circle, to the north of Mexico, and from
ocean to ocean. With femur-rubrum it has, perhaps, a greater
range than any other species of North American Acrididse. To
an unpracticed eye, it can be easily mistaken for the less
destructive femur-rubrum, from which it has only of recent
years been separated by the late Prof. Riley. To distinguish it,
a minute examination of the last abdominal segment and the
cerci of the male is necessary. The former is notched in the
present species, and the latter are of uniform width and rounded
at the end, instead of tapering as in femur-rubrum. The
females are very difficult to distinguish, these differences being
inapplicable to that sex.

Although I have examined hundreds of specimens of femur-
rubrum collected about Halifax during the past summer, yet I
have found but few of the present species. A male was taken on
August 29th in a dry field, two more were taken in short, poor
grass on Camp Hill, September 28th, and another was captured
at Cow Bay, October 2nd. I think it probable, however, that it
will be found more frequently in such situations as Camp Hill.

Last fall the Marine and Fisheries Department gave me some
locusts that had been taken on Sable Island, off the coast of
Nova Scotia, on September 23rd, 1894. Upon examination they
proved to be M. atlanis, one male and three females. I was
told that these insects had suddenly become a' frightfnl scourge
upon the island, insomuch as to demand attention from the
authorities in charge. Mr. R. J. Boutilier, superintendent of the
place, informs me that up to about 1891, he had neither seen
nor heard of any locusts upon the island. About that time,
however, they made their appearance, and since then have
increased at an appalling rate. So destructive did they become,
that in 1894 it was only possible to cut one load of hay at a place
where fourteen loads had previously been obtained. They seem
to attack the grass near the root, and unless kept in check they
will ultimately destroy what little vegetation there is upon the

ORTHOFFKRA OF NO\A SCOTIA — 1>IE1;S. 21*7

place. This would be a serious matter, for the sod prevents the
'jand from being shifted by the winds. Should the grass become
destroyed, nothing could prevent the island from ultimately dis-
appearing beneath the sea, in which case this dreaded spot
would become a hundredfold more dangerous to shipping.

Last year, 1895, these pests were more numerous than ever,
and it was necessary to import a quantity of hay for the purpose
of supporting the ponies, which were suffering from want of
grass. It also became necessary to send to the mainland more
of these animals than is usual, in order to reduce the stock wh:ch
had to be fed. I am told that the insects could be swept in
bucketsful from the doorsteps, and I have the superintendent's
positive assurance that they even entered the half-closed window
of an unused room and ate considerable portions of a cotton
blind, a piece of which was sent to me. No means have been
taken to keep them in check, and the probability is that during
the coming summer the plague will be worse than ever.*

Thinking that possibly there might be more than one species
upon the island, I asked Mr. Boutilier to send me, upon his
return, a larger number of the insects, and particularly any
wrhich appeared to differ from those already examined. In
November I received a pint bottle full of locusts preserved in
alcohol. All were utlanis, mostly females. Mr. Boutilier informed
me that upon his return to the island on October 12th, he found
that many of the insects had disappeared owing to the lateness of
the season, and at the time he wrote (November 10th) they were
all dead, although in 1894 they had survived very cold weather
if not frost. So far, he said, the season had been very mild with
no frost.

It therefore cannot be doubted that Melanoplus atlanis is
responsible for all the extraordinary damage upon the island.
Their sudden appearance in a place previously without such
insects, and so many miles from the mainland, is most rernark-

* In a letter dated May 28th, 1896, received since the preparation of the above paper,
Mr. Boutilier writes as follows : " The locusts are with us again, but are a moixth later
than last year Th6 season, however, is that much late— very cold and backward, and
vegetation is greatly retarded. The young have appeared as yet only at the east end
of the island, whereas they were much more plentiful at the west end last year."

218 ORTHOPTERA OF NOVA SCOTIA — PIERS.

able. It is possible that they may originally have been taken
to the island in small quantities of hay used for packing — for no
cargoes of hay were then imported ; or perhaps the eggs had
been introduced in some earth which may have coated vegetables.
This, however, is unlikely to account for their sudden appear-
ance in large numbers. Upon informing Dr. Scudder of the
matter, he said he had no doubt that the insects had flown to
the island, their powers of flight being great when aided by an
advantageous wind.* The scarcity of natural enemies has since
greatly favoured their rapid increase.

The introduction of a number of turkeys would, I think, be
the best means of destroying the invaders, if it were possible to
protect the birds from animals which might prey upon them.
Perhaps some of the locust- killing appliances used in the United
States might be employed in the present instance with advan-
tage. The matter seems to demand immediate attention.

Melanoplus femoratus (Burmeister).

Yellow-striped Locust.

This insect is familiar to everyone, and its distinctive
colouring makes it impossible to confound it with any other locust
found in this locality. It is one of the most abundant species in
the county of Halifax, and is also without doubt as common in
all other parts of the province, probably doing much damage
wherever it occurs. It is common in long grass in meadows, and
seems very fond of the rank vegetation which grows on the
skirts of fields. I have also frequently observed it in marsh
grass. The last individual was noted in 1895 on October 20th.
Should it be found advisable to keep this pest in check, the
destruction of weed patches and the plowing of waste spots in
the vicinity of field borders, etc., as recommended in the United
States, would probably keep down its numbers and render it
capable of doing little injury.

This species has a very extensive range, being found from
Nova Scotia to British Columbia, and from Hudson's Bay south
nearly to the Ohio and North Carolina.

* Sable Island is one hundred miles from the mainland. There are no intervening
islands.

Proc. and Trans. N,S. I.S.; Vol ix., Part 2; date of publication, Oct. 31st, 1896.

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. IX.

PLATE VII.

DRIFT SAND HILLS, HARRINGTON BAY, N. S

Illustrating Prof. Bailey's Paper : " On Illustrations of Dynamical Geology?

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. IX.

PLATE VIII.

INNER SLOPE OF DRIFT SAND HILLS, BARRINGTON BAY, N. S.
Illustrating Prof. Bailey's Paper: " On Illustrations of Dynamical Geology"

TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. IX.

PLATE IX.

GLACIAL TROUGH IN TILTED CAMBRIAN QUARTZITES, LOCKEPORT

ISLAND, N. S.

Illustrating Prof. Bailey's Paper : " On Illustrations of Dynamical Geology.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

cotian Institute of

SESSION OF 1896-9T.

I. — ON THE RELATION OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION. —
BY PROFESSOR J. G. MACGREGOR, Dalhousie College,
Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated 14th December, 1896.)

It has often been pointed out that, according to the dissocia-
tion or ionization conception of the constitution of a solution of
an electrolyte, the difference between the physical properties of
one in which ionization is complete and those of the solvent
must be compounded additively of the differences produced by
the two ions. It would seem to be equally obvious that, in the
case of solutions in which the ionization is not complete, the
differences referred to must be similarly compounded of those
produced by the undissociated molecules and by the free ions ;
and if so, it should be possible to express the numerical values
of the various properties in terms of the state of ionization.
Such an expression would take its simplest form in the case of
solutions so dilute that the molecules, dissociated or undisso-
ciated, might be regarded as sufficiently far apart to render
mutual action between them impossible, and in these circum-
stances the change produced in the properties of the solvent by
the undissociated and the dissociated molecules respectively
might be expected to be simply proportional to their respective
numbers per unit of volume. It is the object of this paper to

(219)

220 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

test the applicability to sufficiently dilute solutions, of such an

expression, viz.,

P = Pw + k (I — a) n + Ian, (1)

where P is the numerical value of any property (density, &c.),
Pw that of the same property of water under the same physical
conditions, n the molecular concentration of the solution, i. e.,
the number of gramme-equivalents of the dissolved substance
per unit volume of the solution, a the ionization-coefficient cm
and (1 — a)n consequently the numbers of dissociated and undis-
sociated gramme-equivalents per unit of volume respectively,
and k and I constants, which may be spoken of as ionization-
constants, which will vary with the solvent, the substance
dissolved, the property to which they apply, the temperature,
and the pressure, but not with the concentration of the solution.
The formula can obviously apply only to properties for
which P has a finite value. Thus it is inapplicable to electrical
resistance, for which P^ would have a practically infinite value.

SIMPLE SOLUTIONS.

In order to test the applicability of the above expression I
have determined the ionization-constants for the density, thermal
expansion, viscosity, surface-tension, and refractive index of
solutions of Sodium and Potassium Chlorides, by the aid of
observations made by Bender *, Bruckner f, and Rother J. 1
selected these observations as a first instalment, not because of
their precision (for in one or two cases more exact observations
are available), but because these observers, in all cases but one,
determined the values of the above properties for mixtures of
solutions as well as for simple solutions. I selected the above
chlorides partly because I thought it well to begin with salts of
simple molecular structure, but largely also because, for the pur-
pose of calculating the conductivity of mixtures of them (as
described in my paper on this subject §), I had already obtained
interpolation formulae and curves which, judged by the results

*Wied. Ann. vol. xxii. (1884) p, 184, and vol. xxxix. (1890) p. 89.

t Ibid. vol. xlii. (1891) p. 293. t Ibid. vol. xxi. (1884) p. 576.

§ Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci. ix. (1896) p. 101 ; and Phil. Mag. [5] xli. (1896) p. 276.

TO THEIR STATE OF IQNIZiTION — MACGREGOR.

221

of that paper, gave with considerable accuracy the ionization-
coefficients of the simple solutions of these salts in terms of
their molecular concentration. To save space I may tabulate
here the values of the ionization-coefficients used in the calcula-
tions for simple solutions. They are as follows : —

SODIUM CHLORIDE.

POTASSIUM CHLORIDE.

Grm.-mols.
per litre.

lonization-
coefficient at
18° C.

Grm.mols.
per litre.

lonization-
coefflcient at
18° C.

•25

•792

'1875

•8267

*5

•736

•3402

•811

•8928

•6866

•375

•796

1-0

•676

•5

•788

1-5

•633

•6856

•769

1-8353

•601

•75

•768

2-0

•5866

1-0

•756

2-5

•5504

1-0467

•755

2-8373

•5255

1-4292

•731

3-0

•514

1-5

•731

3-9375

•4516

2-0

•712

2-185

•7048

2-5

•695

2-986

•681

3-0

•680

These coefficients were obtained from Kohlrausch and
Grotria.n's and Kohlrausch's observations of conductivity at
18° C.* In obtaining them I took the specific molecular con-
ductivity (referred to mercury) at infinite dilution to be
1216 X 10-8 for KC1, and 1028 x 10~8 for NaCl, not being aware
at the time that Kohlrausch had given 1220 and 1030 respec-
tively as more exact values. Nevertheless, to save labor, I have
used the above values of a in the calculations of this paper,
having satisfied myself by a re-calculation in one case that
no appreciable difference in the results would be produced
by the employment of more exact values. It will be noticed
that in one or two cases the above values of « are obviously a
little out ; but they would seem to be sufficiently accurate for
my purpose. I did not foresee the extent of the calculations,

Wied. Ann. vi. (1879) p. 37, and xxvi. (1885) p. 195.

222 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

or I should have determined all the values of a required at
the outset, and checked them by comparison with one another.

I have determined the ionization-constants (k and I) in all
cases in which more than two observations of a property on
solutions of sufficient dilution were available, by the method of
least squares. The constants thus determined and used in the
calculations are tabulated below. In all cases the available
observations had been made on solutions of such great concen-
tration that the values of the constants obtained cannot be
regarded as exact ; but the calculations may serve as a test of
the general applicability of the expression referred to above.
The only available observations, as far as I know, on solutions
of sufficient dilution for the determination of the ionization-
constants and the limits of concentration within which the
above expression is applicable, are those by Kohlrausch and
Hallwachs* on the specific gravity of dilute solutions, from
which two of my students have undertaken to determine the
density- constants for the salts and acids examined.

With regard to the observations which I used in determining
the various ionization-constants, the following statements should
be made : —

Bender's determinations of density (i. e. specific gravity
referred to water at 4° C.) were made at 15° C., but were
readily reduced to 18° by the aid of his observations on the
thermal expansion between 15° and 20° of the same solutions.
According to his statement, the fourth place of decimals in his
values may be in error by ±2 or ±3. The density of water
was taken to be 0'99863.

Bender's determinations of thermal expansion are for the
interval between 15° and 20° C., and will therefore be sufficiently
nearly proportional to the coefficients of expansion at 18° for
my purpose. He considers that they may be in error by ±2 in
the sixth place of decimals. On plotting his observations, how-
ever, it becomes obvious that they do not all attain this degree

* Wied. Ann. liii. (1894) p. 14.

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGGR. 223

of accuracy. The expansion of water was taken, according to
his observations, to be 0 03878 for the same interval.

Bruckner's observations of viscosity were made at 15° C. ;
but he gives an interpolation formula, applicable between 15°
and 20°, by means of which at least approximate values for 18°
were obtained. His values for water at 15° and 20° do not
agree well with those given by Landolt and Bornstein. I have
therefore taken 0'010613 as the viscosity at 18° of the water
used by him, a value which has to his value at 15° the same
ratio as Landolt and Bornstein's for the same temperatures.
The actual concentrations of Bruckner's solutions differed from
those given in the tables below by about O'l per cent. ; but so
small a difference could produce no appreciable error in the
result. He gives as his "mean probable error of observation,"
±2'4 in the fifth place of decimals for sodium-chloride solutions,
and ±1'8 for those of potassium chloride.

Bother's observations of surface-tension were made at 15°
and are therefore not precisely comparable with calculated
values based on the values of ionization -coefficients for 18°.
From Kohlrausch's data,* howTever, it would appear that
between 15° and 18° in the case of potassium-chloride solutions
containing 0'5 and 3 gramme-molecules per litre, the ionization-
coefficient changes only by about O'l 3 and 1'3 per cent, respec-
tively ; and in the case of sodium-chloride solutions of the same
concentrations only by about 0'4 and 0'6 per cent, respectively.
For the more dilute solutions, therefore, my calculations will be
practically comparable with Rother's observations. He seems to
regard his determinations as possibly in error by ±5 to 8 in the
the third place of decimals. The surface-tension of the water
he used he found to be 7'357.

Bender's observations of refractive index were made at
15° C., but were reduced to 18° by means of data provided in
his paper, based on observations made by Fouqu^f. The
refractive index of the water he used he found to be 1 '333 10

*Wied. Ann. xxvi. (1885) p. 223.
t Compt. Bend. Ixiv. (1867) p. 121.

224 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQfJEOUS SOLUTIONS

SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS.

POTASSIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS.

*rm.-
niols.
>er litre.

Observed
Value.

Calc.
Value.

Difference.

Grm.-
mols.
per litre.

Observed
Value.

Calc.
Value.

Difference.

DENSITY (BENDER'S OBSERVATIONS).

0.25
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

1.00898
1.01930
1.03925
1,05834
1.07772
1.09633

1.00916
1.01929
1.03910
1.05842
1.07701
1.09532

+ 0.0318
01
15
+ 08
71
-0.02101

0.1875
0.375
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0

1.00752
1 01567
1.03317
1.04362
1.06630
1.08767
1.10755
1.13057

1.00731
.01586
.03278
.04401
.06621
.08823
.11008
.13177

-00821
+ 19
39
+ 39
09
+ 56
+ 0.02253
+ 120

THERMAL EXPANSION (BENDER'S OBSERVATIONS).

0.25
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3

.001013
.001141
.001357
.001522
.001663
.001776
.001876

.001022
.001141
.001349
.001526
.001657
.001769
.001848

+ 0.059

± 8

+ 4
6
7
- 0.0 28

0.1875
0.375
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

.000963
.001037
.001183
.001249
.001395
.001500
.001580

000966
.001040
.001173
.001255
.001395
.001517
.001621

+ 0.0403
+ 03
10
+ 06
± 00
+ 17
+ 41

VISCOSITY (BRUCKNER'S OBSERVATIONS).

0.5
1.0
1.5

2.0
2.5
3.0

.010988
.011480
.012048
.012707
.013472
.014373

.010978
.011475
.012047
,012730
.013458
.014267

-0.0410
05
01
+ 23
14
-0.08106

0.5
1.0
1.5

2.0
2.5
3.0

.010457
.010395
.010351
.010394
.010444
.010566

.010451
.010379
.010366
.010393
.010457
.010555

-0.0406
16
+ 15
01
+ 13
11

SURFACE-TENSION (ROTHER'S OBSERVATIONS).

0.8928
1.8353
2.8373
3.9375

7.482
7.629
7.780
7.954

7.482
7.629
7.798
7.997

io.ooo

± 0
+ 18
+ 43

0.3402
0.6856
1.0467
1.4292
2.1851
2.9859

7.411
7460
7.518
7.584
7.705
7844

7.408
7.462
7.519
7.583
7.709
7.846

-0.003

+ 2
+ 1
1
+ 4
+ 2

REFRACTIVE INDEX, D LINE (BENDER'S OBSERVATIONS).

0.5

1.33824

1.33824

-U).0300

0.5

1.33803

1.33806

+ 0.0303

1.0

1 34307

1.34306

- 01

1.0

1.34278

1.34274

04

1.5

1 34770

1.34770

± 00

1.5

1.34721

1.34722

+ 01

2.0

1.35213

1.35206

- 07

2.0

1.35179

1.35158

21

2.5

1.35673

1.35632

41

2.5

1.35623

1.35582

41

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR. 225

at 18° for the D line. He seems to regard his observations as
possibly in error by ±1 in the fourth decimal place.

The tables on page 224 contain the results of the calculations
of the values of the physical properties mentioned, with both
the observed values on which the determination of the con-
stants was based, and a few additional observed values for
stronger solutions.

The following comments may be made on these tables :

Density. — NaCl. The first four observations were used in
determining the constants ; and up to a concentration of 1'5
the differences are within the limits of experimental error, and
show a satisfactory alternation of sign. — KC1. The first five
observations were used. The differences are large, but the
alternation of sign showrs that the expression is applicable. On
plotting Bender's values they are readily seen not to lie on a
smooth curve.

Thermal Expansion. — NaCl. The first four observations
were used. The differences up to a concentration of 2 '5 are
probably within the limits of experimental error, and their
alternation of sign is satisfactory. — KC1. The first five obser-
vations were used. The differences are not so satisfactory as in
the case of the sodium salt either as to magnitude or sign ; but
on plotting the observations the third is seen to be somewhat
out ; and it is obviously to this observation that the defective
agreement is due.

Viscosity. — NaCl. The first five observations were used.
The differences are within the limits of error, but the signs are
not satisfactory. The fourth observation, however, appears to
be defective. Miitzel*, in applying a formula for viscosity in
terms of density and concentratiou to these observations, found
also that this observation was out. It is worth noting, also,
that Miitzel found his formula, which expressed the increase of
viscosity due to the salt in solution on the assumption that the
only action occurring was between salt and water, was applicable

*Wied. Ann. xliii. (1891) p. 35.

226 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

to only the first five of the above observations. To represent
the viscosity of stronger solutions he had to introduce a term
expressing the effect due to the mutual action of the molecules
of salt. — KC1. All six observations were used. The agreement
in this case is quite satisfactory.

Surface-Tension. — NaCl. Only two observations on suffi-
ciently dilute solutions were available, and the applicability of
the formula cannot therefore be tested. The constants were
found, for use in the calculation of the surface-tension of
mixtures. — KC1. The first four observations were used, and the
agreement is quite satisfactory up to a concentration of 3 grm.-
raols. per litre.

Refractive Index.— In the case of both salts the first three
observations were used, and in both the agreement is quite satis-
factory up to a concentration of about 2 grm.-mols. per litre.

The above tables seem to be at any rate quite consistent
with the possibility of expressing the values of at least five of
the physical properties of moderately dilute solutions in terms
of their state of ionization. I hope to find leisure at an early
date to extend the investigation to solutions of salts and acids
of a more complex character and to other properties.

The following are the ionization-constants used in the above
calculations : —

SODIUM C

HLORIDE

POTASSIUM

CHLORIDE.

k.

I.

k.

I.

Density

+ '030841

+ '045079

+ '03543

+ '048591

Thermal Expansion.
Viscosity

- -0001445
+ -002347

+ -0007658
+ '0001504

- -000614
+ '001904

+ -00069685
•0009247

Surface-Tension ....
Refractive Index.. .

+ -20574
+ -006318

+ -11001
+ -011713

+ -24249

+ -0027853

+ -126806
+ -011853

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR. 227

These constants are obtained from solutions of too great
concentration to be regarded as exact values. Nevertheless it
may be admissible, tentatively, at least, and so far as these two
salts are concerned, to draw the following conclusions : — Undis-
sociated and dissociated molecules are nearly equally effective in
increasing the density, — those dissociated, however, being some-
what the more effective of the two. (2) Undissociated molecules
diminish the thermal expansion, those dissociated increasing it to
a greater extent. (3) In the case of viscosity it is the undis-
sociated molecules which have the preponderating influence,
those dissociated having but a slight effect, which may be an
increasing or a diminishing effect. Thus Arrhenius's expecta-
tion that all dissociated ions would be found to diminish
viscosity seems to be only partially realized, though possibly
from observations on more dilute solutions, both Z's might be
found to be negative. (4) In the increase of surface-tension
the undissociated molecules have about twice as great an influ-
ence as the dissociated. (5) In increasing the refractive index
it is the dissociated molecules which have the preponderating
influence ; and their superiority is greater in increasing the
refractive power than increasing the density.

MIXTURES OF SOLUTIONS.

For a solution containing several salts, 1, 2, etc., the value of
a property, according to the conception under consideration,
will be : —

P = Pw + kl(l-al)nl + llalnl+k2(l-a2)n^ + l2a2n^+&c.) . (2)

the TI'S being numbers of gramme-equivalents per unit volume
o the solution. If the solution have been formed by the
mixture of the volumes Vi and Vz of two simple solutions
of salts, having one ion in common, for which, before the mix-
ing, the property had the values : —

then, since on mixing, the state of ionization will, in general,

228 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

change, we shall have as the value of the property for the
mixture, assuming no change of volume on mixing,

the n's being numbers of gramme-equivalents per unit volume
of the original simple solutions, and «i' and a2f being the
ionization-coefficients in the mixture As the values of the k's
and I's have been determined above for sodium and potassium
chloride for a number of properties, and, as I have shown in rny
paper on the " Conductivity of Mixtures," cited above, how the
ionization-coefficients after mixing may be determined, it should
be possible to predict the values of these properties for mixtures
of solutions of these salts.

The following tables show that this can be done. The
ionization-coefficients were determined in the way described in
the paper referred to. The constants k and I employed in the
calculations were those determined above. The observations
were made by the authors whose determinations for simple
solutions were used above ; in fact in most cases it was the
solutions of the tables given above which were mixed. The
limits of experimental error are thus of about the magnitudes
mentioned above in each case. All remarks made above with
regard to the reduction of observations to 18° C., the values of
the property for water, etc., apply also to the mixtures. In all
cases, except that of surface-tension, the solutions mixed were
mixed in equal volumes. Unfortunately, Bender made no
observations on the refracting power of mixtures.

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR.

229

ConstitTient Solu-

lonization

tions (grm.-mols.

Coefficients in

per litre.)

Mixture.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value.

Difference.

NaCl.

KC1.

NaCl.

KCl.

DENSITY (BENDER'S OBSERVATIONS).

1-0

0.1875

.7268

.7720

1.02358

1.02350

-0.0808

0.375

.714

.7625

1.02785

1.02766

19

0.75

.688

.7629

1.03641

1.03600

41

1.0

.6728

.7632

1.04139

1.04158

+ 19

1.5

.6494

.7478

1.05293

1.05263

-0.0S30

3.0

.6143

.7283

1.08580

1.08595

+ 15

THERMAL EXPANSION (BENDER'S OBSERVATIONS).

1.0

0.1875

.7268

.7720

.001174

.001174

±0.0400

0.375

.714

.7625

.001208

.001203

- 05

0.75

.688

.7629

.001275

.001264

11

1.0

.6728

.7632

.001297

.001305

+ 08

1.5

.6494

.7478

.001376

.001376

4- 00

3

.6143

.7283

.001543

.001596

+ 53

VISCOSITY (BRUCKNER'S OBSERVATIONS).

|

1.0

0.5

.7059

.7635

.010940

.010947

+ 0.0407

«

1.0

.6728

.7632

.010918

.010920

+ 402

«

1.5

.6494

.7478

.010876

.010915

+ 39

n

2.0

.6143

.7283

.010890

.010956

+ 66

SURFACE TENSION (ROTHER'S OBSERVATIONS).

CONSTITUENT SOLUTIONS.

09

0

c»

lonization

a

Concentration
(grm.-mols. per
litre).

Volume
(litres.)

Coefficients in
Mixture.

I

o

o
o
q

L

g

NaCl.

KCl.

NaCl.

KCl.

NaCl.

"KCl.

0

3

o

P

0.8862

0.6836

0.14487

0.14545

0.6G06

0.7632

7.477

7.472

- 0.005

1.8109
0.8824
2.8406

1.411
2.1822

0.6862

0.13993
0.14489
013511

0.14096
0.13659
0.14544

0.6087
0.6123
0.6027

07279
0.7311

0.7298

7.607
7.600
7.622

7.602
7.591
7.616

5

9
6

1.8155

2.9887

0.13996

0.13241

0.5185

0.7125

7.734

7.810

+ 76

230 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

It will be noticed that in the case of the third mixture of
the density and thermal expansion series (the same mixture)
the differences are comparatively large ; but it is obvious from
the data of the fourth column in these series that the ionization-
coefficients have not been accurately determined for mixtures of
about the concentration of the one referred to. With these
exceptions the agreement between observed and calculated
values is satisfactory, the differences being either well within,
or at worst on, the limit of observational error, up to mean
concentrations of about 1.5. The determination of the ioniza-
tion-coefficients was especially difficult in the case of the
surface-tension observations, because Rother mixed equal
weights of his simple solutions, not equal volumes. Neverthe-
less, in all except the strongest of these mixtures, the differences
are probably not beyond the limits of experimental error.
Obviously, alternation of sign is not to be expected in these
calculations.

RELATIVE VALUES OF A PROPERTY FOR A MIXTURE AND FOR
ITS CONSTITUENTS : " CORRESPONDING '' SOLUTIONS.

As change of ionization in general occurs on mixing two
solutions, it follows from (3) and (4) that the value of a pro-
perty for a mixture of two solutions having one common ion
will differ from the volume-mean, (Vj?! +v2P<i)/(v1+v2))of. its
values for the constituents by the amount

(5)

The name of " corresponding " solutions has been given to
solutions for which this quantity vanishes. In general it will
obviousty have a value, though that value may be small.

In most cases this conclusion is borne out by experience.
But Rother has concluded from his observations that, in the
case of surface-tension, throughout a wide range of concentra-
tion, solutions of all concentrations are " corresponding." Were
this the case it would throw serious doubt on the possibility of
expressing surface-tension in terms of state of ionization. If,

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR. 231

however, with the aid of the constants for surface-tension deter-
mined above, we compute, in the case of Sodium and Potassium
Chlorides, the difference between the value for a mixture and
the volume-mean of the values for its constituents, we find it
to be beyond the limit of Rother's power of observation. Thus,
in the case of his first mixture calculated above, the difference
amounts to only 0.0 3 15. His conclusion should thus have been
that the difference, if any, between the surface-tension of a
mixture and the volume-mean of those of its constituents was
within the limits of his experimental error. He might even
have concluded, however, that there was probably such a differ-
ence in the case of Sodium and Potassium Chlorides ; for in all
the mixtures of solutions of these salts which he examined, the
volume-mean of the values for the constituent solutions were
found to be less than the values for the mixtures.

The above expression (5) will vanish if the constituents of
the mixture are isohydric. i. e., have states of ionization which
do not change in the mixing ; and it will vanish in that case,
whatever the values of the other quantities involved in the
expression may be. When the constituents are not isohydric
the condition of its vanishing will be

It is obviously improbable that in any case in which this con-
dition may be fulfilled the numbers of gramme-equivalents per
litre in the constituent solutions will have a simple relation,
such as 1 : 2, 4 : 3, &c.

The conclusions drawn by Bender and Bruckner from their
observations on density, thermal expansion, electrical conduc-
tivity, and viscosity, viz., that there is such a simple relation in
the case of all " corresponding " solutions, so far as the proper-
ties mentioned are concerned, is thus inconsistent with the possi-
bility of expressing the values of these properties in terms of
the state of ionization.

232 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

Both Bender* and Briicknerf obtained their results from
numerous series cf observations, in each of which a solution of
given concentration of one salt was mixed in succession, in equal
volumes, with a number of solutions of different concentrations
of a second salt having one ion in common with the first. The
values of the property under consideration were determined
both for the simple solutions and for the mixtures, and the
arithmetic means of the values for the constituents of the
several mixtures were found. Curves were then plotted with
molecular concentrations of the simple solutions of the second
salt as abscissae, and the observed values for the mixtures and
the arithmetic means of the values for the constituents, respec-
tively, as ordinates. The " corresponding " solutions were
indicated by the points of intersection or contact of these curves.
Jn all cases the two curves for each series are found to run very
close together, so close that it is impossible to determine exactly
at what points they touch or cross ; and when the observational
errors admitted by the authors are taken into account, they
must be considered to be within touching or crossing distance
at considerable distances on each side of the points at which
Bender and Bruckner assumed them to be contact or to inter-
sect. I have plotted a number of these curves so as to indicate
accurately all significant figures, and have found, on taking
possible errors of observation into account, that in no case can a
more definite conclusion be drawn than that " corresponding "
solutions have pretty nearly the simple relations as to concen-
tration claimed by the authors. It is not necessary to enter
into details ; but I may, by way of illustration, give the follow-
ing :—

* Wied. Ann. xxii. (1884) p. 184, and xxxix. (1830) p. 89.
t Ibid. xlii. (1891) p. 293.

TO THEIR STATE OF IONJZATION — MACGREGOR.

233

Molecular Concentrations of Corresponding and Isohydric

Solutions.

NaCl.

KCl.

Values between
which curves may
be in contact.

Value assigned
by Observer.

Isohydric
Solution.

CONDUCTIVITY (BENDER'S OBSERVATIONS).

0.5
1
2

3
4

0—1.0
0—1.1
1.2—1.5
1.8-2.55
2.6-3.15

0.375
0.75
1.5
2.25
3.0

0.47
0.89
1.60
2.20
2.57

VISCOSITY (BRUCKNER'S OBSERVATIONS).

"I

05 -1.9
1.25—2.5

1.0
2.0

1.2
2.6

The fourth column of the above table gives approximate
values of the concentration of the solutions of KCl (obtained
from Kohlrausch's data) which are isohydric with the solutions
of NaCl in the first column ; and it will be noticed that in most
cases these values are within the limits within which Bender's
and Bruckner's curves must be regarded as being possibly in
contact.

It would thus appear that both Bender and Bruckner drew
too definite conclusions from their observations, and that the
observations themselves are not inconsistent with the applicabil-
ity of expression (1) to the physical properties of solutions.

APPLICATIONS OF THE ASSUMED LAW OF IONIZATION -CONSTANTS.

RATIO AND DIFFERENCE OF THE VALUES OF A PROPERTY

FOR SOLUTION AND SOLVENT.

If the expression under consideration is applicable to solu-
tions of moderate dilution it should give by deduction the laws
which have been found to hold for particular properties of such

234 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

solutions, and might be expected to be of use in showing their
relation to one another. I need not refer here to the more
obvious of such deductions, as, for example, the properties of
non-electrolytes, or of electrolytes at extreme dilution, but may
restrict myself to cases in which both constants k and I play a
part.

The ratio of P to P will be

rw

For dilute electrolytes throughout a certain range of concentra-
tion, and through a wider range in the case of non-electrolytes,
a varies but slightly with n. Throughout such range the
coefficient of n in the above expression will thus vary but
slightly. Hence, n being small,

-=« =A".

rw

approximately, where e is the base of Napier's logarithms and
A a constant. Arrhenius,* Reyherf and WagnerJ have found
this result to hold in the case of the viscosity of both classes of
solutions.

The difference between P and P^ will be
P-Pw=(k+(l-k}a)n.

and for the reason just given, will, throughout a certain range
of low concentration, wider in the case of non-electrolytes than
in that of electrolytes, be approximately proportional to n.
This form of the expression obviously includes such laws as
Raoult's for vapour tensions, and van 't Hoff's for the depression
of the freezing point in non-electrolytes, as well as the approxi-
mate proportionality of the rotation of the plane of polarisation
to concentration. It has recently been verified by Kohlrausch
and Hallwachs's observations on density, § they having found

* Ztschr. f. phys. Chemie, i, (1887) p. 285.

t Ibid, ii, (1888), p. 753.

t Ibid, v, (1890), p. 31.

§ Wied. Ann., liii, (1894), p. 36.

TO THEIR STATE, OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR. 235

that between concentrations of 0.005 and 1 gramme-equivalent
per litre, (P — PJ/'W- varies in the case of certain salts and
acids only by from 5 to 20 per cent, and in the case of sugar
only by 1.5 per cent.

VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE AND OTHER COEFFICIENTS WITH

CONCENTRATION.

The temperature-coefficient of any property of a solution
of given concentration will be

<5P rffc (SI Sk\ 7 Sa
™+-r,n+( TL--T. }an+(l-4e)-r.n

1 dP^ 6t 6t ^6t 6t' 6i (7)

P 6t ~ Pw + kn + (l-k)an

The pressure-coefficient will have the same form, p being
written for t. The concentration-coefficient will be

r— ™ )

6n J (g)

w + kn + (l—k)an

In the case of a solution of a given salt of given concentration,
temperature, and pressure, a, n, and a's rates of change have
definite values the same for all properties. For moderately
dilute solutions, <ja/<tf, 6aJ6p*, and 6u/^n are all small, and da/ty
and da/An at least have the same sign. Also the fc's and I's for
the different properties all depend upon the mutual action
between molecules and solvent, and may thus be expected to
have more or less closely related values. We may therefore
expect not only that the coefficients of one kind for the various
properties of solutions of a given salt will vary with concentra-
tion in a somewhat similar manner, but also that the variation
with concentration of all the coefficients, but especially the
temperature and pressure-coefficients, will exhibit a certain
family likeness. It is obviously not to be expected that the
variation will be exactly similar in any case.

This family likeness has been observed in the case of the
temperature-coefficients for electrical conductivity and fluidity

* I have not seen Rontgen's paper, on which the statement that 6a/fip is small is
based. The Fortschritte der Physik reports Tammann as quoting him to that effect.

2

236 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

by Grotrian*, who found that, in general, with increasing
concentration both of these temperature-coefficients undergo
changes in the same sense. Grossmannf claimed to have proved
these coefficients to be equal ; but afterwards withdrew the
claim as based on an error J. Kohlrausch and Hallwachs also
have noticed for very dilute solutions a close similarity between
the curves representing the density and the conductivity
respectively of the same salt as functions of the concentration.

The following tables show that this family likeness extends,
to a greater or less extent, to all the coefficients for at any
rate a considerable number of the properties of solutions. The
tables include some of Grotrian 's coefficients with others calcu-
lated from the observations of Kohlrausch, Bender, Bruckner,
Rother, Rontgen and Schneider^, Fink ||, and Timberg 1F. The
coefficients are in almost all cases mean values, the ranges of
temperature, &c., to which they apply, though che smallest for
which data are available, being not in all cases the same. As I
wish to show only a general similarity, it is not necessary to
specify the ranges. The temperatures, &c., of the lower limits
of the ranges are also not in general exactly the same. The data
of the tables are thus not exactly comparable ; but they are
sufficiently so for my purpose. The heading n stands for
gramme-equivalents per litre.

* Wied. Ann. viii. (1879) p. 552.
t Ibid, xviii. (1883) p. 119.

J See Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. xxvi. (1885) p. 224.
§ Wied. Ann. xxix. (1886) p. 194.
II Ibid. xxvi. (1885) p, 505.
IT Ibid. xxx. (1887) p. 545.

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR.

237

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'238 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

A glance at these tables shows that if regard be had to sign,
Grotrian's conclusion as to the temperature-coefficients for con-
ductivity and fluidity applies to all the coefficients for all the
properties tested. A given change in the concentration pro-
duces a change in the coefficients in the same sense. Too much
importance, however, must not be attached to this ; for it is
obvious that if we should tabulate, say, the coefficients for con-
ductivity, surface tension, viscosity (instead of fluidity) and
specific volume (instead of density), it would be found that the
changes produced in the first two are in the opposite sense to
those produced in the last two. It is interesting, however, to
note that the expectation suggested by the above formulse is
distinctly realized.

At very great dilution of electrolytes, the temperature-coeffi-
•cient becomes, approximately,

~P~W = (~6t + n~6i'' w+>

the pressure-coefficient having the same form. The concentra-
tion-coefficient becomes

1 (JP

— ^ , ,w*i . , (10)

P on

If we compare (9) and (10) with (7) and (8), it becomes
obvious that the variation with concentration of the tempera-
ture arid pressure coefficients will probably be more closely
related at low than at high concentrations, but that the oppo-
site will be true of the concentration coefficients. Accordingly,
having plotted Grotian's coefficients and those of the above tables
as functions of the concentration, I find that the temperature
coefficient curves, for any one substance in solution, are in
general more closely similar at low than at high concentrations ;
but that this is not the case for the concentration coefficient
curves. In the case of the pressure coefficients the data are
insufficient.

A corresponding similarity holds for the absorption spectra
of solutions though it cannot be expressed in coefficients. In a
former paper * I have shewn that for all solutions for which

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., ix (1891), sec. 3, p. 27.

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR. 239

data were available, the absorption spectra were similarly
affected by elevation of temperature and increase of concen-
tration.

THE OCCASIONAL CONSTANCY IN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
MOLECULAR VALUES OF PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS HAVING
THE SAME MOLECULAR CONCENTRATION.

The difference between the values per gramme-equivalent of
any property for two simple solutions, 1 and 2, of different
electrolytes but of the same concentration, will be

(Pl-PJ/n=k1-kgl + (^-A^) 01- (I2~kt)a2 (11)

Now a in all cases diminishes as n increases. Provided there-
fore, the values of the (£ — &)'s have the same sign, and the rates
of change of the as with concentration are inversely propor-
tional, or approximately so, to the (l — k)'s of their respective
solutions, we shall have (Pj — P2)/7i exactly or approximately
constant. If we regard (?l — P2) /n as approximately constant
when its absolute value changes with n only to a small extent,
then the more nearly the (l — k's) and the a's are inversely
proportional to one another the more nearly constant will
(Pl — P2)/n be. If, however, we regard this quantity as con-
stant when its values for different values of n differ from one
another by only a small percentage, then the magnitude of the
(l — k)'s becomes of importance, and we may have (P1 — P2)/r*
approximately constant, even though the (I — &)'s may be far
from being inversely proportional to the a's.

In the case of certain solutions of moderate strength, this
approximate constancy of (P1 — P2)/n has been observed by
Valson and Bender* for the density and the refractive index,
by Wagner -f- for viscosity constants, and by Jalm J for the
electro-magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization ; and a
very close approximation to constancy in the case of the specific

* Wied. Ann., xxxix, (1890), p. 89.

t Ztschr. f. phys. Chemie, v. (1890), p. 31.

t Wied. Ann., xliii, (1891), p. 280.

240 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

gravities of very dilute solutions is clearly shewn in the results
of Kohlrausch and Hallwachs's observations^

So far as Sodium and Potassium Chlorides are concerned,
Bender found that in respect to their density at 15° 0.;

For n = 1-0 20 3'0

(P1-P2)/™ = >0243 '°249 '°251

The value of I — k for NaCl is +0'01424 and for KC1 +0-01316,
while a glance at the first table (p. 221) shows that the ionisa-
tion coefficient of solutions of the former salt falls oft' with the
concentration somewhat more rapidly than, indeed for some
concentrations, about twice as rapidly as, in the case of the
latter. There cannot, therefore, be a close approximation to
constancy in the absolute values of (Pl — P2)/n, but as these
values are comparatively large, the percentage difference between
them is comparatively small.

For the thermal expansion of these salts we have from
Bender's observations,

For n = 1 1-5 2 2'5

(Pi-P2)M = '03108 -0485 -04815 -0478

The value otl-k in this case for NaCl is + 0'039i, and for KC1
+ 0'0213. There is thus a closer approximation to equality in
the values of (I — k) A« /&n for the two salts, for thermal
expansion than for density. Accordingly the absolute differ-
ences in the values of (Px — P2) /n are smaller than in the case
of density. But as the values themselves are much smaller, the
differences between the values when expressed as percentages
of any one of the values are greater. And thus the approxima-
tion to constancy, of (Pl — P2) /n, in the case of thermal
expansion is not so great as in the case of density, when
judged in this way.

For viscosity I — k for NaCl is — 0'0022 and for KC1

-0-0028. The values of (l — k)*a/*n will thus be less

nearly equal than in the case of the thermal expansion and the

§ Wied. Ann., liii, (1894), p. 14.

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION — MACGREGOR. 241

differences between the values of (P1 — P2) /n will be somewhat
greater. As the (I — k)'s in this case, however, are more than
twice as great as in the case of thermal expansion, the differ-
ences in the values of (Pl-P2)/n, if expressed as percentages
of one of them, will be smaller than in the case of thermal
expansion. Accordingly we find from Bruckner's observa-
tions,

For n = 0-5 1-0 1-5 2-0 2-5

(P!-Pa)/n - -02116 02122 -02126 -02128 '02135

For surface-tension I — k for NaCl is — 0'096 and for KCi
— (H16. The approximation to constancy (judged by the per-
centage criterion) will thus not be so close as in the last case.
Bother's observations give, by graphical interpolation,

For n = 1-0 1*5 2-0

(pi-P2)/™ = '016 -0113 -0105

For refractive index £ — k for NaCl is +0'0054 and for
KCI +0-0091. Thus the values of (l — k)&a/&n for the two
salts are much more nearly equal than in the case of the other
properties and consequently the differences in the values of
(?! — Pa) /n will be smaller than in the case of the other
properties. Bender's observations give for the D line,

For n = 1-0 2'0 3'0

(PjL-P^/n = -0329 -0,17 '0324

If the value for n = 2 be omitted from consideration, as being
probably in error, (Pj — P2) /n is seen to be more nearly con-
stant so far as absolute magnitude is concerned than in the other
cases considered. As the values of (?! — P2)/n however, are
small, their differences when expressed as percentages are com-
paratively large, and the approximation to constancy, viewed in
this way is less than, e. g., in the case of density.

The above account of this phenomenon may be further
tested by the aid of Kohlrausch's observations of electrical
conductivity ; for in this case I — k is the molecular con-
ductivity at infinite dilution (usually written fi.). The

242 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

following values of differences of molecular conductivity will
be sufficient :

(Pl-P2}/U FOR CONDUCTIVITY.

HC1 and NaCl.

HCl and

iK2C03

i H2S04 and
AgN03

Ag NO and
NaCl.

o-oi

2454

2333

1838

+ 55

0-1

2379

2365

1198

+ 21

0-5

2260

2289

1171

- 29

1-0

2085

2120

1185

- 60

Compare with this the following table of values of JUTO and

IONIZATION-COEFFICIENTS (a).

71

HCl

NaCl

iK2C°3

iH2S04-

AgN08.

A.=3500.

^ = 1030.

//00 = 1400.

//„ =3700.

^ = 1090.

0-01

•976

•934

•773

•772

•933

o-i

927

•840

•628

•563

•794

0-5

•862

•735

•520

•513

•668

1-0

•794

•675

•471

•492

•582

The approximate constancy holds in the case of HCl and
JK2C03, because ^ for HCl being more than twice as great as
for JK2CO3, a for the Matter falls off nearly twice as rapidly
as for the former. In the case of AgNO3 and NaCl there is
no approximation to constancy, because the values of ^ being
nearly equal, the rates at which a varies with n are very
unequal.

THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS MADE TO THE
VALUE OF A PROPERTY BY THE FREE IONS.

The constant I for a salt ap will, according to the dissocia-
tion conception, be composed additively of two parts, la and lp,
pertaining to the ions a arid p respectively, and these constants

TO THEIR STATE OF IQNIZiTION — MACGREGOE. 243

la and lp will be characteristic of the ions and will not depend
upon the salt from which they have been dissociated. A certain
amount of evidence has been accumulated which may be said to
point in this direction. In the case of several properties it has
been shown that for solutions of considerable dilution, the
difference between the values of the property for solutions of
two salts (ap and bp) having a common ion and the same
molecular concentration, is independent of what the common
ion may be ; and the value of the difference divided by the
number of gramme-equivalents per litre of the salts in solu-
tion has been taken to be approximately the difference between
the constants la and lb. Results of this kind have been
obtained by Valscn and Bender for density and refracting
power, by Kohlrausch for electrical conductivity, by Raoult for
the depression of the freezing point, by Traube * for the change
of volume on solution, by Rontgen and Schneider for compress-
ibility, and by Jahn for the electromagnetic rotation of the
plane of polarization.

Applying the above expression, we have for the difference
in the values of a property per unit of molecular concentration,
(Pap-Pbp) /n = kap (! ~ %>) - kbp(l~abp ) + lp (%- % ) + laaap-lbabp' (12
arid at infinite dilution

Had the experiments referred to been all carried out at extreme
dilution, as were those of Kohlrausch, afterwards extended by
Loeb and Nernst^, the evidence would be quite satisfactory.
But in general they have been made at only moderate dilution,
and it is obvious from (12) that the approximate independence
of the common ion on the part of (P — Pftp) /n, may be quite
consistent with considerable variation in la — lb. It is clear that
the first three terms of (12) may readily mask any variation
in the last two, and that, if the last two did not vary, la — lb
could not in all cases be the same.

* Ztschr. anorgan. Chemie, iii. (1892), p. 1.
t Ztschr. fur phys. Chemie, ii. (1888) p. 948.

244 RELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

That no satisfactory conclusion can he drawn from experi-
ments of this kind, unless conducted at extreme dilution, may
be shown roughly in the case of density by the aid of the
results obtained above. For we may assume that the ionization-
constants for density obtained above will not be very different
from those which would be derived from observations made at
greater dilution*. We know from Kohlrausch and Hallwachs's
observations that if ap and bp represent NaCl and JNa2C03
respectively, (Pa — Pft ) /n will have the value 0'0139 for solu-
tions containing '005 grm.-equivalents per litre, and that for
NaCl and HC1 it will have the value of 0'0235. We may
assume that for NaCl and KC1 it will be about '02. From the
values of k for these salts we find the first two terms of (12) to
be '0364. If we assume I to have half the mean value of I for
NaCl and KC1, the third term will amount to — '049S. The
first three terms thus amount to about '0354, or say 3 per cent,
of the value of (P — P. In. Thus, observations of the kind

^ ap op'

referred to, for density, could give no satisfactory result, even if
conducted at this very great dilution, At a dilution of '001
grni. -molecules per litre, the first three terms of (12), calculated
in the same way, amount to '031, or about 0*5 per cent of
(Pfl — P6 ) In. A proved independence of p at this dilution
would be more satisfactory.

Observations at such extreme dilutions, in the case of most
properties of solutions, are probably impracticable. But they
are fortunately unnecessary for the settling of the question
under consideration. For if the values of the ionizatton-
constants for any property have been obtained as above from
observations over a range extending to great, though not neces-
sarily extreme, dilution, the values so obtained may fairly be
assumed to apply very approximately to much greater dilutions ;
and from the values of la + lp, ^, + ^y ^a + V ^> + ^' etc<> tnus
obtained, it may readily be determined whether or not la — lb
is independent of the ions p, q, etc. Unfortunately, Kohlrausch
and Hallwachs's observations on specific gravity are not suffi-
ciently numerous for this purpose.

* Mr. E. H. Archibald, one of my students, tells me that for magnesium sulphate
Kohlrausch and Hallwachs's data give k = '05663 and I = 'OG6887.

TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZAT1ON — MACGREGOR. 245

THE DETERMINATION OF THE IONIZATION-CONSTANTS FOR THE

FREE IONS.

The values of the constants la, lb, I , etc., may probably, in
some cases at least, be determinable in the following way :
The experiments just referred to would give la + l , lb + l , etc.,
as well as kap and kbp, etc. If now, guessing at the value of I ,
we find the first three terms of (12) to be negligible at dilutions
at which Pab and Pbp can be determined with sufficient accuracy,
determination of these quantities will give the value of la —l^b \
and if aap and abp be known with sufficient accuracy, la, lb, and I
may then be found. It would of course be necessary to check our
guess at the value of lp by substituting the value found in
expression (12) and seeing whether or not with this value the
first three terms would be negligible.

II. — SOME ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER
MINERALS. — BY E. GILPIN, JR., LL. D., F. R. S. C., Inspec-
tor of Mines, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated March 8th, 1897.)

I purpose this evening to give you a few analyses of Nova
Scotia minerals which are of interest.

A set of analyses of Coals from the three seams worked at
Springhill by the Cumberland Railway and Coal Company were
given me some months aao. They are as follows, and taken
from the workings at a depth of from 800 to 1000 feet:

East or No. 1 Slope — Black or Main Seam :

Moisture , . 2'02

Volatile combustible matter 18'94

Fixed Carbon 75'29

Ash . 375

100-00
Sulphur 114

West or No. 2 Slope — South Seam. Sample No. 1, from
upper division of seam :

Moisture . . . , , 1*41

Volatile combustible matter 27'93

Fixed Carbon 67'47

Ash 3-19

]00 00
Sulphur '58

West or No. 2 Slope — South Seam, lower division of seam

Moisture 1'51

Volatile combustible matter 28'44

Fixed Carbon 65%38

Ash 4 67

100-00
Sulphur -61

(246)

SOME ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIA COALS, ETC. — GILPIN. 247

North or No. 3 Slope — North Seam :

Moisture 271

Volatile combustible matter 28-41

Fixed Carbon 64'69

Ash 419

100-00
Sulphur °79

Analyst — J. T. DONALD, Montreal.

These analyses show the coals to be of excellent quality.
The amounts of ash and sulpher are small, and that of the fixed
carbon is large.

These analyses are interesting when compared with a set of
analyses of the same seams made by me in the year 1881, and I
believe not hitherto published, and with an analysis of the
Black seam made by me in the year 1880, and published in the
Transactions of the North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers, in a paper on Canadian Coals, giving a full set of
analyses of Nova Scotia coals, their ashes, etc.

The analyses made in the year 1881 are as follows : —

East Slope — Black or Main Seam :

Moisture , 3'86

Volatile Combustible Matter, Fast Coking. . 35'65

Slow " .. 26- 16

Fixed Carbon Fast " . . 59-90

Slow " .. 65-23

Ash 4-45

Specific Gravity 1'29

Theoretical Evaporative Power 8.858 Ibs.

West Slope — South Seam : —

Moisture 1/399

Volatile Combustible Matter, Fast Coking. 34-808

Slow " . 31-225

Fixed Carbon ' Fast " . 58'003

« Slow " . 61-586

Ash 5790

Sulphur '808

Theoretical Evaporative Power. 8*46 Ibs.

248 SOME ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIA COALS,

North Slope — North Seam :

Moisture T625

Volatile Combustible Matter, Fast Coking. 33'401

Slow " . 28-672

Fixed Carbon Fast " . 60701

Slow " . 65-431

Ash 4-272

Sulphur 783

Theoretical Evaporative Power 8.99

The analysis of the Black seam made in the year 1878 has a
complete sample column of coal representing the whole seam as
then worked. A companion column was presented to the
museum of the Geolegical Survey at Ottawa. The section of the
seam was as follows : —

Feet. Inches.

Top coal, a little coarse 1 7

Coal, good 1 2J

Fire clay parting — 0|

Coal, good — 8

Coal, good 1 6

Fire clay parting — 6

Coal, a little coarse — 9

Coal, good — 11

Fire clay parting — 1

Coal, good 2 2

Coal, good, one inch soft — 3

Coal, coarse — 8J

Total 10 4J

I need not repeat here the minute description given then of
the various layers. It m&y be stated that the coal of the sample
was bright, with occasional calc-spar and pyrites films, with
somewhat irregular fracture. In the vicinity of the point in the
mine where the sample was taken a large amount of coal was
beautifully iridescent, recalling that splendid mineral Chry-
socolla. Samples of this when analysed with the means at my
disposal did not give a reason for the coloring. It may have
been due to some process of oxidation of iron pyrites.

AND OTHER MINERALS — GILPIN. 249

Each band of caal was analysed with the following results :

BAND, No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

&

9.

.98
30.84
34.75
60.73

57.82
745
.85
1.31
8.33
7.95

.76
32.22
3612
60.91
57.01
6.11
.56
1.30
8.40
7.65

1.21

3381
37.25
63.13
59.60
1.85
.79
1.28
8.65
8.20

.30
29.19
3265
67.95
64.48
2.56
1.21
1.27
9.28
8.83

.63
28.90
33.84
65.16
60.22
5.31
1.85
1.29
8.92
8.30

.90
34.56
35.17
60.59
59.98
3.95
.89
T.28
8.32
8.20

1.34
33.64
35.94
59.86
57.56
5.16
1.40
1.29
8.20
7.88

.56
30.27
33.88
60.89
57.28
8.28
2.65
1.33
8.35
7.75

.41

28.54
30.47
6363
61.70
7.42
2.25
1.32
8.99
8.54

Volatile Comb, f Slow Coking..

(Fast Coking..

f Slow Coking. .
Fixed Carbon ..<
{ Fast Coking..

Ash

Specific Gravity

Theoretical Bvap. f Slow Coking

Power . . . . 1 in 4. rt i •

(Fast Coking

Coke bright and tolerably compact.

Ash of average sample grey, with tinge of pink.

The average of the analyses calculating the respective thick-
ness of the bands is about : —

Moisture '78

Volatile Combustible Matter, Slow Coking. 31'32

Fast " 3345

Fixed Carbon Slow " 62'54

Fast " 59.53

Ash 5-34

Sulphur 1-38

The ultimate analyses of the coal gave : —

Carbon ., 78'51

Hydrogen 5'19

Oxygen | g.98
Nitrogen j

Sulphur 1'12

Ash , 5-20

100-00

As compared with the coal from other Provincial districts
the Cumberland coals stand as follows : —

Cape Breton. Pictou. Cumberland.

Moisture 75 M9 T8.6

Volatile Combustible Matter .... 37'26 29.10 2676

Fixed Carbon 5874 60--63 66 65

Ash 3-25 9.34 470

250 SOME ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIA COALS,

From a comparison of the later with the older analyses it
will be seen that those of coal from the deeper portions of the
seams show lessened amounts of volatile combustible matter,
increased percentages of fixed carbon, and diminished amounts
of sulphur and ash. Speaking in general terms the coal would
appear to have developed more into a steam fuel, the evapora-
tive power being in a general way proportionate to the percent-
age of fixed carbon.

This would give the coals as at present mined a high calorific
power. From analyses by Mason and Matheson in a paper lead
before the Nova Scotia Mining Society, it would appear that the
calorific powers of coals from the Sydney coal fields vary from
7238 to 7623 ; of Pictou coal (sample from Intercolonial mine)
6963 ; and of Springhill coal 7898.

As compared with United States coal they should 'stand
nearly in the rank of the best free burning coals of Pennsyl-
vania, Virginia, and Maryland. Those coals hold from 12 to 21
per cent of volatile matter, and from 69 to 76 per cent of fixed
carbon. The average contents of the United States coals are
from 29 to 35 per cent of volatile matter and from 53 to 67 per
cent of fixed carbon. These coals therefore from Springhill
should rank for steam purposes next to the class which may be
described as the best selected for use on the large ocean
passenger vessels.

I have not at hand any proximate analyses of English coals
to compare with these under consideration. However, taking
the results obtained in the English Admiralty trials of steam
coals, and comparing the percentage of fixed carbon found in
the trials with the fixed carbon given in these analyses, it will
be found that the English and Scotch coals run from 49 to 88
per cent as compared with 68.2 per cent in the Springhill coals.

This would give the Springhill coal about the same relative
position to the best Welsh coals as has already been assigned to
it in comparison with the best American coals. The evaporative
power of the Springhill coals would, from the analyses, stand
higher than that of the English and Scotch coals, and rank next

AND OTHER MINERALS — GILPIN. 251

to that of the best Welsh steam coals. It may be remarked that
the best American and Welsh coals would be classified as free
burning, semi-anthracite, while the Springhill coals are bitu-
minous and coking.

I also give here an analysis of the Patrick seam as worked
on the Patrick Lease, now the property of the Canada Coals and
Railway Company, on the west bank of the Macan River. The
sample is from the lower part of the seam : —

Moisture ... TOO

Volatile Combustible Matter 55'61

Fixed Carbon 35'60

Ash 7'49

Sulphur .... , t . » *50

As reddish and pulverulent.

The following analyses of pit waters may be given here : —

Vale Colliery :—

Water contained in 1000 parts.

Sulphate of Lime '514

Magnesia '100

Silicious matter '190

Chloride of Sodium T452

Carbonate of Sodium « 7'509

Iron and Alumnina Trace.

Organic matter Trace.

No free acid.

Springhill, from feeder 1300 feet level, water clear, free from
smell, slightly acid : —

Sulphuric Acid, free Trace.

Sulphate of Lime Large.

Magnesia Small.

Chloride of Sodium Considerable.

Carbonic Acid Small.

Carbonate of Lime Small.

Iron Oxides . Small.

Water exerted slightly corrosive action on iron exposed to it
for twenty-four hours.

A number of analyses of Nova Scotia mineral and pit waters
are given in a paper by the writer, read before the Newcastle
Mining Institute some years ago.
3

252 SOME ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIA COALS

In the upper part of George's River in Cape Breton County
there is a large deposit of iron pyrites in rocks which are, I
think, laid down as Laurentian by the Geological Survey. The
deposit has as yet been examined only superficially, but so far
appears somewhat low in sulphur. The following analysis of
samples from the most promising exposure gives : —

Sulphur 25-00

Copper 1-10

Gold Trace.

Silver Trace.

Silica 52-00

Iron, etc 25'00

For a number of years the presence of iron ore at Whycog-
omah in Cape Breton has been well known. The ores which are
magnetites and red hematites are so very favourably situated,
being close to the waters of the Bras d'Or Lake, that a good
deal of work was done on them a number of years ago. A
number of beds were opened and traced. They varied up to
nine feet in thickness, and occurred in the Limestone division of
the Laurentian, as described by Mr. Fletcher in his numerous
reports on the Geology of Cape Breton, issued by the Survey.

The analyses of the ores were contradictory in character,
some being high in phosphorus, while others were very pure and
ran high in iron. Last fall fresh discoveries were made in this
district some distance from the old openings, of beds of magnetite
some upwards of 100 feet in width. Indications are not want-
ing that these ores extend over a large tract of country.

The following analyses will serve to show the quality of
the ores : —

Silica 14-41

Alumina 7'33

Manganese Oxide '61

Lime 3'00

Sulphur -22

Metallic Iron ,....« 54'50

Phosphorus Trace.

Magnesia Trace.

AND OTHER MINERALS — GILPIN. 253

Iron. Phosphorus. Sulphur.

5570 None -GcS

59-60 -16 -23

63-20 -004 -31

54-30 -005 -38

53-20 -38 -25

5074 -31 -024

53-12 -28 -026

52-b5 , . -0058 -138

Silica 21-05

Ferric Oxide 53'54

Ferrous Oxide 21*24

Alumina 2'26

Manganese Oxide -50

Lime , 1-17

Magnesia , -36

Sulphur , -023

Phosphorus Trace.

Metallic Iron . 54.00

Metallic Iron , 54'36

Phosphorus -38

Silica 13'00

Metallic Iron 55"70

Sulphur -68

Phosphorus Trace.

These analyses show that there are ores in this vicinity
valuable enough for shipment as regards quality, and the present
owners consider that new explorations now being carried on
will show that the ore is present in quantities sufficient to war-
rant working on a large scale.

In this connection reference may be made to this division of
the Cape Breton Laurentian in which these deposits occur. It
may be distinguished as the Limestone division, as it is distin-
guished mineralogically from the other, or felsite division, by the
presence of numerous beds of limestone, in addition to the
felsites, gneisses, granites, etc., common to both. These lime-
stones furnish marble, as at West Bay and other, localities, lime

254 SOME ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIA COALS, ETC. — GJLPIN7.

of excellent quality, and dolomites, suitable, as at New Camp-
bellton,for furnace linings. Iron ores occur in them at numerous
points both hematite and magnetite. Graphite is also found
In all probability, phosphates, similar to those found in Quebec
will be proved on search being made. Where these measures
are cut by dykes, copper and lead ores carrying gold and
silver occur, and may in some cases prove valuable. As yet so
far as my information goes free gold has not been found in
quartz in the limestone division. The gold of Middle River and
Cheticamp appears to be associated with soft talcose and felsitic
schists of the other division. This gold occurs at Middle River
free in quartz, and in the river gravel, derived presumably both
from the quartz and augmented by gold flakes from the schists.
At the Cheticamp River, so far as can be judged from the work
done, it would appear to have a similar source, and to be con-
nected only with the felsite series. In the latter case part of
the gold may be derived from mineralized zones adjoining the
dykes cutting the various rocks. However, the explorations of
the coming season will probably give us more exact information.
It is interesting to note in connection with the occurrence of
gold at Cheticamp that native silver occurs in the Mackenzie
River a short distance north, and it is possible that explorations
in that section may result in the discovery of important amounts
of this metal and associated gold.

III.— NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY : No. 4.— BY HARRY
PIERS, Halifax, N. S.

(Read mh April, 1897.)

In the following, paper is recorded anything of interest
regarding the zoology of the province that has come to my
notice during the past year or two. Former contributions on
the same subject will be found in recent volumes of the Trans-
actions of this Society.

MAMMALS.

GRAY SQUIRREL (Sciurus carolinensis). The capture of a
specimen of this large species is recorded in a former paper of
mine (vide Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat Sc., vol. vii., p. 467). Another
was killed, May 20th, 1894, near the old sugar refinery, on the
western side of the North-West Arm, Halifax.

RED Fox (Vulpes vulpes var. fulvun*). In the winter of
1893-4, an albinistic Fox was killed at Musquodoboit, Halifax
County, and was brought to Mr. A. G. Kaizer, furrier of this
city, who subsequently sold it to Captain Campbell. The
general colour of the pelt was cream white with a rusty tinge.
Each hair of the tail was tipped with black, giving the whole
brush the appearance of having been slightly singed. More of
this black was towards the end and underside of the tail, but
the extreme tip was whitish. Posterior parts of ears, black ; but
inside, white. Snout dusky. On the chest, a little behind the
four legs, was a lead-coloured blotch which merged into the
surrounding colour of the under parts. A white line margined
with black extended on the front of the hind legs, from hock
upward ; front of hind legs, from hock to claws, black. Length
of pelt from snout to tip of brush, four feet.

*Mr. Outram Bangs in a paper published in the Proceedings of the Biological
Society of Washington (March 16, 1897), describes a new form of Fox from Nova Scotia
under the name Vulpes pennsylvanica vafra, it being distinguished from the typical
V. pennsylvanica ( = fulvus) by its larger size and deeper colour. Mr. Bangs also con-
siders the American Red Fox entirely distinct from the European species ( V. vulpes).

(255)

256 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS.

Mr. Kaizer informs me that some years ago he obtained a
similar skin. This and the specimen just described, are the only
albino Red Foxes he has ever seen, although he handles very
many pelts.

Regarding the Silver Fox (var. argentatus}, a well-known
variety of the Red Fox, Mr. Kaizer tells me that while it is
found on the Island of Cape Breton and in the eastern and
western parts of Halifax County, and sometimes also in Guys-
borough, yet he has never for thirty years heard of its capture
west of the County of Halifax. He is therefore inclined to
think it is somewhat local in distribution.

BIRDS.

ROSEATE TERN (Sterna dougalli). On June 2nd, 1894, Mr.
T. J. Egan obtained a specimen which had been shot at Prospect>
Halifax County, N. S., a day or two before.

MALLARD (Anas boschas). A male was shot at Cole Harbour,
Halifax County, on October 17th, 1895, and was brought to Mr.
W. A. Purcell. Another, killed at the same place, was in the
Halifax market on November 2nd, of that year. It had evi-
dently been taken two or three days before. The Mallard is a
rare Nova Scotian bird.

WOOD DUCK (Aix sponsa). Mr. Purcell informs me that a
male Wood Duck was shot several miles westward of Halifax
(at Joshua Umlah's) about September 18th, 1895, and another
was taken about the same date near Three Fathom Harbour.

KING EIDER (Somateria spectabilis). A fine specimen, a
male, of this rare winter bird was killed on February 22nd,
1895, at Devil's Island, at the mouth of Halifax Harbour.
Another male was taken at Three Fathom Harbour, Halifax Co.,
about March 20th, of the same year. Both birds were brought
to Mr. Purcell. One or two other specimens were in the Halifax
market about the last-mentioned date.

LEAST BITTERN (Botaurus exilis). In March, 1896, a bird of
this species was brought to me for identification. I examined it

NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS. 257

" in the flesh " and found it to be an adult male in full
breeding plumage ; total length, 14 ins.; wing 4.70 ; bill 1.88. It
had been shot by Thomas Beck on the 16th of the above men-
tioned month, at Upper Prospect, Halifax County.

This small, handsome species has never before been met with
in Nova Scotia, and its occurrence here is remarkable. Its
regular range in the east only extends as far north as Massa-
chusetts, but stragglers have been taken in Maine and New
Brunswick. In the latter province some five individuals were
shot between 1877 and 1881, on the Bay of Fundy shore
between Black River and Mispeck (Chamberlain, " Catalogue
of Birds of New Brunswick"). In Ontario, Mr. Mcllwraith
reports it as generally distributed throughout the south part of
the province, and as a regular summer resident at Hamilton Bay
(Birds of Ontario, 2nd ed., p. 108.) Its presence in Nova Scotia
is the more remarkable when we consider the very early period
of the year in which it was taken ; a time when only the more
hardy birds arrive here.

LITTLE BLUE HERON (Ardea ccerulea). On March 18th,
1896, a male of this species, in adult plumage, was killed at
Lawrencetown, Halifax County. The bird was thin and had
evidently had but little food for some time. It was brought to
Mr. Egan. On April 10th, 1897, another specimen, an adult,
was taken at Sheet Harbour. It was mounted by Mr. Egan
and now belongs to Mr. Hart of Halifax

With these two exceptions, the species has only once been
collected in the province. The late Mr. J. Matthew Jones
reported that a specimen was taken at Cole Harbour, near
Halifax, during the summer of 1884, (vide Chamberlain's
Catalogue of Canadian Birds). The specimen referred to by
Mr. Jones was formerly in the collection of Mr. Egan, but is
now owned by the Fisheries Department at Ottawa. It was in
whitish immature plumage.

PURPLE GALLINULE (lonornis martinica). This handsome
but somewhat bizarre species is an accidental visitor in Nova
Scotia. Two specimens have been taken in the -province in pre-

258 NOTES OX NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS.

vious years, one having been killed near Halifax on January
30th, 1870 (Jones, American Naturalist, iv., 253), and another
captured in April, 1889 (vide Trans. Inst. Nat Sc., vii., 468).
It not unfrequently comes as far north as the New England
States, but in Canada has only been reported from our own
province, New Brunswick and Ontario, in all of which localities
its occurrence is merely casual.

In 1896, 1 saw a adult female which had been captured alive on
Devil's Island, Halifax Harbour, about January 16th of that
year, the bird had evidently struck the lighthouse on the island
and fell to the ground disabled. It was kept alive for about
twenty-five days when it died and was mounted by Mr. Walter
Brett. S. Fraser of Halifax, who now possesses the bird, also
has another of the same species, which he tells me was found
dead at Chezzetcook, Halifax County, in the same week as that
in which the above-mentioned specimen was taken.

WILSON'S SNIPE (Gallinago delicata). About October llth,
1894, there was shot at Canning, King's County, a Snipe whose
colours were so very light and tinged with gray, as to constitute
partial albinism. It was mounted by Mr. Purcell for Mr. Dickie,
of Canning. On December 3rd, 1894, I noted a Snipe at
Halifax — the latest date on which I have seen the species.
There was about five inches of snow on the ground at the time.
The last Snipe of the regular body was noted on November 21st
of that year. I have been told that individual birds occasion-
ally remain very late in the season.

L APWING (Van ellus vanellus). This is another purely acci-
dental visitor in our province. The species is a native of the
northern portions of the eastern hemisphere, although it occasion-
nally has braved the perils of the Atlantic and been found in
Greenland.

On March 17th, 1897, an individual of this species was found,
lying dead, on the sand of the shore at Ketch Harbour, near
Halifax, N. S. It was very thin and death had evidently

NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS. 259

been largely owing to starvation. The bird was brought to Mr.
Egan's store, where I examined it before it was skinned.

It is doubtful if there is another well authenticated record
of the occurrence of this bird in temperate America, for Mr.
Ridgway in his Manual places a query after "Long Island" in
the list of localities where it has been met.

MOURNING DOVE (Zenaidura macroura). Several Mourning
Doves were taken in Halifax County during October, 189G. Mr.
Searle, taxidermist, had three specimens : one killed about
October 2nd ; another shot at Terence Bay, about October 6th ;
and a third killed about the 9th. I also saw a fourth specimen
in the market on October l()th, which had been killed at Porter's
Lake, probably the day before. Mr. Franckljm of Halifax pur-
chased a specimen in the market on September 28th, 1895. It
had likely been killed on the previous day. Still another speci-
men was shot at Canning, N. S., by C. R. Dickie, on November
4th, 1895.

BLACK VULTURE (Oatharista atrata). On January 12th,
1896, a Black Vulture was killed at Pugwash, Cumberland Co.,
N. S., and two days later was brought to Mr. Egan. I examined
it after it had been mounted and identified it as the above species.
It measured as follows : wing 17.75 ins., tail about 7.50, culmen
.93, tarsus 3.13, middle toe without claw 3.

The occurrence of this bird in our limits is remarkable, and
is doubly so when we consider the period of the year in which
it was taken. It is regularly found as far north as North
Carolina, and has been met as a casual visitor in the New
England States, and Chamberlain (Nuttall's Ornithology, 1891,)
records that it has even been killed on Grand Manan in the Bay
of Fundy. With this exception, it has not hitherto been met
with in Canada.

BROAD-WINGED HAWK (Buieo latissimus). In September,
1894, Mr. Purcell showed me a hawk which I identified as a
young bird of the above species. It had been shot at Windsor,

260 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS.

N. S., on the 9th of the month. The species is very rare about
Halifax, although in some portions of the Maritime Provinces it
has been reported rather common. The bird is evidently local
in distribution.

DUCK HAWK (Falco peregrinus anatum). About 1893, Mr.
Austen mounted an adult male which had been killed on Devil's
Island, at the mouth of Halifax: Harbour. The bird irj very rare
in Nova Scotia. Two individuals were taken on McNab's Island
in September, 1892, as recorded in '• Notes on Nova Scotian
Zoology, No. 3."

AMERICAN HAWK OWL (Surnia ulula caparoch). This owl
has now become -rare in the province. In the winter of 1S95,
Mr. Purcell had four specimens — a most unusual number : a pair
purchased in the Halifax market on November 16th, probably
from near Musbuodoboit ; one brought in, November 2;3rd, by
John Paul, Indian, who had killed it near Salmon River, Halifax
County ; and another brought to town on December 2nd, from
West Chester where it had been taken. All were quite fresh
and had evidently been shot only a day or two before.

PILEATED WOODPECKER (Ceophlceus pileatus). A female was
shot at Liverpool, N. S., on October 17th, 1895 ; another female
was taken on the Windsor Road, Halifax County, about Nov-
ember 3rd, 1896 ; a male was brought to Mr. Purcell on January
6th, 1897 ; and a fourth specimen was killed at Oxford, Cumber-
land Co., about February l()th, 1897.

AMERICAN CROW (Corviis americanus). A curious freak of
nature is found in a partially albinistic Crow which was shot at
Shad Bay, Halifax Co., on October 6th, 1896. It agreed per-
fectly with descriptions of normal individuals except in the
colouring, which may be more particularly described as follows:
general colour brown (umber brown or light hair-brown), darker
on throat, cheeks and belly ; scapulars and feathers of back
margined obscurely with whitish ; primaries mostly whitish ;
tertials white ; tail feathers light reddish brown (cinnamon

NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS. 261

rufous) margined with whitish on outer edge ; legs and bill dark-
brown ; eyes brown. Measurements: wing, 12.90 in.; tail,
7.50; exposed culmen, 1.93; depth of bill at base, .92 ; tarsus,
2.37.

BOBOLINK (Dolichonyx oryzivoruus). As is well known, this
bird is now exceedingly rare at Halifax, although formerly it
was rather common. On the marshes in the western parts of the
province it is still very abundant. On May 20th, 1895, while
walking past a field in the western part of Halifax, my ears
were saluted by the rollicking, gurgling notes of a Bobolink, and
I saw a fine male in full plumage sitting on the top rail of a
fence. His notes brought to my mind the flat, diked lands of
Grand Pr£ and Windsor. I went over a wall after him and
vsoon he flushed out of the wet grass and in full song flew to the
top-rail of a neighbouring fence, where he alternately pruned his
feathers and sang his glorious song. This ditty begins with a
few metallic notes, somewhat bell-like in tone, from which
the singer proceeds belter skelter into an inimitable rush of
liquid, light-hearted music.

On May 28th, 1897, I heard another Bobolink singing in a
swampy bit of grass-land on the side of Chebucto Road, near
the North West Arm, Halifax.

In May, 1896, my friend Mr. Walter Brett, of Sackvllle,
N. S., showed me a specimen which he had collected at that
place. He also informs me that during the spring he saw two
males: one at Sackville and the other on the Bedford rifle-range.
Still another, a young male, was taken by him on September
13th, 1897. It therefore is evident that the bird is found occa-
sionally on the meadows bordering the Sackville River.

MEADOW LARK (Sturnella magna). On October 24th, 1895,
a Meadow Lark was obtained by Mr. Dickie, of Canning, King's
Co. The bird is very rare in this province.

BRONZED GRACKLE (Quiscalus quiscala ceneus). On Novem-
ber 9th, 1894, one of these Grackles was shot on the Preston

262 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS.

Road, about two miles from Dartmouth, by Mr. Watson L.
Bishop. There was about four inches of snow on the ground.
It is the first of the species he has obtained, although he
had collected for many years near Kentville, in the western
part of the province. About Pictou, I understand, the species
is more common, but near this city it is rare.

NORTHERN SHRIKE (Lanius boreali*). This is a rare winter
visitor in Nova Scotia. Mr. Francklyn shot a specimen at the
North West Arm, Halifax, on February 22nd, 1895. The bird
at the time was engaged in killing Snowflakes (P. nivalis).
Another was obtained at Canning, King's Co., on March 1st of
the same year, by Mr. Dickie.

BAY-BREASTED WARBLER (Dendroica castanea). In a pre-
vious article (" Notes on N. S. Zoology, No. 2") I noted a nest
and two eggs of this warbler which had been collected by Mr.
Austen. The same gentleman informed me that during the
summer of 1895 he found two more nests at Dartmouth, near
Halifax. One of these, containing four eggs, was taken during
the latter part of June, and the other was collected about July.
Nests and eggs of this species are rare.

BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER (Dendroica Uacldmrnice). During
the summer of 1896 Mr. Walter Brett, of Sackville, Halifax
County, took one specimen at that place. The late Mr.
Downs considered this species very rare. Mr. Chamberlain
thinks its secluded habits may have given rise to its reported
rarety in Canada.

WINTER WREN (Troglodytes hiemalis). An account of the
very rare nest and eggs of this wren has already appeared in the
publications of the Institute (Transactions, vol. viii., p. 203).
On June llth, 1894, my brother and myself found another nest
of the species at the Rocking-stone (Kidston's) Lake, Spryfield,
Halifax County. It was only a few feet away from the spot
in which was situated the one described in the paper just
referred to. As far as could be observed, the second nest was

NOTES ON NOVA SCOT1AN ZOOLOGY — PIERS. 263

precisely like the first in form, construction and materials. Both
were built in moss, which was constantly saturated with water
trickling from the bank above and slowly flowing over the top
of the stone upon which the moss grew. The present nest con-
tained a number of young, which we could just reach with
the tip of the finger. There is not the slightest doubt about
identification, for one of the parent birds was seen entering and
leaving the opening a number of times. It is quite likely that
this nest was constructed by the same birds which built the one
found in May, 1891.

RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET (Eegulus calendula). Mr. Austen,
to whose exertions we owe much of our knowledge of the eggs
and nest of this little bird, found two more nests at Dartmouth
during the month of June, 1895. One of these contained eleven
eggs, the other seven. Both were suspended beneath the limbs
of black spruces. He tells me that nests of both the Ruby-
crowned and Golden-crowned Kinglets may be found either on
the limb or suspended beneath, so that the situation of the nest
does not decide to which species it belongs.

REPTILES.

RING SNAKE (Diadophis punctatus). On July 24th, 1896,
Mr. Augustus Allison saw one of these very rare snakes in
Point Pleasant Park, Halifax, but he was unable to capture it.
As well as he could judge, it measured about 10 or 11 inches in
length. On the 17th of the succeeding month, on passing near
the same place, he picked up a snake that had been crushed by
a wheel. It proved to be D. punctatus. He kindly lent me
the specimen, which I examined after it had been in alcohol
for about a day. It furnished the following description :
back, bluish black with slightly violet reflections in some lights.
Beneath, orange buff, deepest about anus, palest on throat.
Occipital stripe two scales wide, yellowish orange (nearly as
deep in colour as abdomen near anus). Blackish spots on centre
of each abdominal scutellum from near throat to near anus.
These spots are small and round on anterior part of body,

264 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS.

transversely longer on posterior part. Lateral ends of each
abdominal scutellum with a blackish, somewhat triangular mark.
Length, 14.25 inches ; tail, 3.70 ; greatest diameter of body, .30.
Fifteen rows of dorsal scales.

TRUNK-BACK or LEATHER TURTLE (Dennochelys coriacea).
The occurrence of this animal in Nova Scotian waters has only
once been previously recorded. In my " Notes on N. S. Zoology
[No. 1]", was described a specimen which had been taken near
Prospect, N. S., about August 30th, 1889.

In 1894 I had an opportunity of examining a second
one, which had been taken on September 9th of that year
by a man named Dauphiney, who found it entangled in his
mackerel net about three miles off Hubbard's Cove, St.
Margaret's Bay, to the westward of Halifax. It was brought
to land and kept alive until September 13th, when it died, and
was taken to Halifax for preservation. Subsequently it was
placed on exhibition. The following measurements were taken
after the reptile had been stuffed, and consequently a few of
them are only approximately accurate : total length, 86 inches
(7 ft. 2 ins.) ; length of head, 10 ins. ; greatest breadth of head,
8| ins. ; breadth between orbits, 4 ins. ; length of fore-paddles,
32 ins. (plus about 2 ins., which had been worn off); greatest
breadth of fore-paddles, 11 ins. ; length of hind-paddles, 14 ins. ;
greatest breadth of hind-paddles, 10 J ins. ; length of tail (may
have been extended in mounting), 12 ins. ; length of dorsal
shell or carapace, 58 ins. ; breadth of dorsal shell, 34 ins. ; depth
of notch in posterior margin of hind-paddles, about £ in. The
furrows or grooves in the shell were not so deep as those in the
specimen of 1889. This is probably owing to a difference in age.

On August 16th, 1895, another of these turtles was cap-
tured off the same place (Hubbard's Cove) and was brought to
a fish-dealer in this city. I examined it on August 20th while
it was alive in a tank of water. As the animal was moving
about, it was difficult to obtain exact measurements, but the
following are very nearly accurate. Total length, 75 ins. (6 ft. 3

NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS. 265

ins.) ; length of head, 10 ins. ; breadth of head between orbits,
4 ins. ; length of fore-paddle, 34 ins. ; length of dorsal shell or
carapace, 52 ins. This last measurement, however, does not
include about six inches of the posterior point of the carapace,
which had apparently been broken off. Each hind-paddle had
a well-defined notch, about one inch deep, on the posterior
margin. Such a notch was observed in the specimens taken in
1889 and 1894. In the present individual there was a hole, about
an inch long, through the left fore-paddle. This was probably an
old wound, for there was no indication that the turtle had ever
been secured thereby.

The Trunk-back is a wandering species, whose presence on
our coast is entirely accidental.

FISH.

SUNFISH (Mola mola). This is a rare visitor to our
coasts. Only two specimens have been previouly recorded — one
by the late Dr. Gil pin and the other by the present writer.
On July 18th, 1894, one was captured by a man named
Reino, about ten miles off Devil's Island, at the mouth of Halifax
Harbour. It was brought to Halifax, where I examined it, and
found that it differed only in size from the one taken in August,
1889. The length of the present specimen from tip of snout to
end of most remote digitation of tail, was about 53.50 inches.
From tip of dorsal fin to tip of anal fin it measured 67 inches.
There were about ten scallops or digitation s on the tail. Several
parasites (Pennella filosa ?) had penetrated the sides of the fish
in like manner to those noted in the specimen of 1889.

On August 14th, 1895, while on the shores of Bedford Basin
with my brother, we noticed a black object appearing and dis-
appearing on the glassy surface of the water about half a mile
from shore. From the peculiar motion and form of the object it
was recognized as the dorsal fin of a Sunfish. The animal was
watched for some time as it rolled its fin out of the water and
then back again, meanwhile progressing very slowly. It was

266 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS.

evidently basking on the calm, warm surface. At times we
thought another tin could be seen above the surface at a little
distance from the first one ; and if this was so, a second fish
must have been present. Finally we obtained a boat and rowed
out to the bobbing black fin. The boat was put alongside the
animal, which made no attempt to escape. It was lying on its
side at the surface, a yard or two from us, and in full view. We
estimated its length to be about 5J feet, and it did not differ
in shape from former specimens. It showed no alarm until
struck with a pole, when it slowly sank, turned over, and pro-
pelled itself away beneath the surface by lateral movements of
the dorsal and anal fins. It soon came up and once more waved
its dorsal in the air. On being touched, it again went out of sight,
but soon re-appeared and then sank once more. Finally the
fin rose out of the water not far away and we pulled alongside.
The animal, however, was now more alarmed, and on being
merely lightly touched with an oar, turned over and, more
rapidly than before, made off in an oblique direction down-
ward. It was beneath for some time, and then appeared close
to the shore, but was very shy and disappeared as soon as
approached. A little later a wake was seen on the surface of
the smooth water, progressing with a good deal of rapidity. It
was without doubt caused by the fish swimming a little beneath
the surface. It made toward the shore and then sheared off and
went close along the beach, but in deep water, and then finally
disappeared.

BATRACHIANS.

RED EFT (Diemyctylus viridescens = miniatus). The
viridescent form of this species has been reported in the province
by Dr. MacKay and myself, but the red, immature land form
(miniatus) has not previously been collected. About October
10th, 1896, however, a red terrestial specimen was taken at Lake-
view, near Bedford, by Miss M. H. King, and was brought to me
for identification.

Up to a few years ago these young specimens had been a
great enigma to scientists. The red form is so different in

NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY — PIERS. 267

coloration from the older, viridescent one, that it was originally
considered an entirely distinct species under the name miniatus,
and even at one time was placed in a different subgenus. The
late Prof. Cope in 1859 expressed the opinion that miniatus
was only a state of viridescens, but it was not till a number of
years later that the whole process of transformation from
immature to mature pigmentation was observed in captive
animals and fully described. The red specimens are found
upon land, whereas the viridescent, full-grown form is aquatic
in habits.

IV. — PHKNOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1896. COMPILED
BY A. H. MAcK AY, LL, D., Halifax.

(Read 10th May, 1897.)

I present here, in tables A and B, the observations made at
twenty-two stations throughout Canada. The Province of Nova
Scotia, has by far the : largest representation as usual ; but that
is not remarkable, as the observations were commenced in 1892
at Nova Scotia stations alone. In 1893 four New Brunswick
stations were added. In 1894 the stations were extended to
Winnipeg, and in 1895 to Vancouver.

In addition to the Dominion tables referred to, I give as a
sample of problems which may be solved by an annual series of
such tables, one showing the average date for five years of the
first appearance of twenty objects in the Province of Nova
Scotia. When these tables become fuller, as they promise to do
in the future, averages for each station during a term of years
would give interesting normals for each station for the com-
parison of the variations of climate from year to year. The
comparison of the normals of each station throughout a province
would be even more interesting. The publication of these tables
will put all such data at the disposal of those wishing to utilize
them for general or local purposes at present or in the future.

I expect this summer to have such reports from very many
stations in Nova Scotia, as a great many of the public schools
are making observations on a list of 100 objects in their
respective stations in every quarter of the Province.

STATIONS AND NAMES OF THE OBSERVERS, 1896.

Nova Scotia.

Yarmouth, Yarmouth Co. — Miss Antoinette Forbes, B. A.
Berwick, Kings Co. — Miss Ida Parker.
Maitland, Hants Co.— Miss Bertha B. Hebb, B. A.

(268)

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY. 269

Halifax, Halifax Co. — Mr. Harry Piers.

" " Mr. G. M. Johnstone MacKay.

Amherst, Cumberland Co. — Principal E. J. Lay.
New Canaan, Cumberland Co. — Miss Sarah C. Ross.
River Philip, Cumberland Co. — Miss Jean McLeod.
Wallace, Cumberland Co. — Miss Mary E. Char man.
Pictou, Pictou Co.— Mr. C. L. Moore, B. A.

Mr. C. B. Robinson, B. A.

New Glasgow, Pictou Co. — Miss Maria Cavanagh.
Antigonish, Antigonish Co. — Prof. D. M. MacAdam.
Port Hawkesbury, Inverness Co. — Mrs. Louise Paint Forsyth.

Prince Edward Island.
Charlottetown, Queens Co, — Principal John MacSwain.

New Brunswick.

Saint John, St. John Co.— Geo,U. Hay, M.A., Ph. B., F. R. S. C.
Richibucto, Kent Co. — Miss Isabella J. Caie.

Ontario.

Niagara Falls, Welland Co. — Mr. Roderick Cameron.
Beatrice, Muskoka Co. — Miss Alice Hollingworth.

Manitoba.
Reston, Dennis Co. — Mr. H. B. MacGregor.

Assiniboia.
Pleasant Forks — Mr. Thomas R. Donnelly.

British Columbia.
Vancouver City, High School — Mr. J. K. Henry, B. A.

270

PHEXOLOG1CAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

TABLE A.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1896.

Number. ||

Day of the year, 1896, corresponding to
the last day of each month.

January 31 July 213

Yarmouth, N. S.

Berwick, N. S.

03

fc

•d"

a

4§
'3

73

fc
g
X

£
1

Halifax (M), N. S.

Average Southern
Nova Scotia

Amherst, N S.

rn

fc

I

o
1

0

«

River Philip, N. S.

February 60 August 244
March 91 September.. ..274
April 121 October. . 305

May 152 November 335

June 182 December... . 366

1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
» 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
2f>
26
27

Alder sheddincr pollen

106

102
1°?

110

••

106-0
123-0
141-5

Ill
114

Ill
1U

Aspen, shedding pollen

" leafing out
Spring Anemone, flowering..

139

144

Red Maple, flowering

106

125

117

...

.116 0

126

...

tlepatica flowering . .

126 . . .

.Mayflower, fio\verin°r

82
116

103
135

100
129

102
131

103
130

98-0
128.2

96

130

131

109

Dandelion, flowering

Salmon-Berry, flowering

Strawberry, flowering ....

122

151

125
157

123

137

130

127-4
154 Oi

128
170

128
175

125
161

" fruiting

Cherry (cultivated), flowering

H7

137-0

141

152...

" " fruit

Wild Red Cherry, flowering
Indian Pear (Amelanchier), flowering. .
41 " " fruiting...
Blackberry (Rubus ') flowering

147
140

141
138

144
144

146
137

144-5
139-7

141

139
143

138

143
149

174
152

145

Apple (cultivated), flowering

143

153

...

152

149-3

Oaks flowering

16?

162-0
165-5

157-5i

Hawthorns (Crataegus) flowering . . . t
Lilac (cultivated) flowering

165
154

157

166
162

157

162

161
159

PHEXOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

271

TABLE A.— Continued.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1896

Number. 1

Wallace, N. S.

Pictou (M), N. S.

Pictou (R), N. S.

New Glasgow, N S.

Antigonish, N. S.

PortHawkesbury,N S.

Average Southern
Nova Scotia. .

*Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Saint John, N. B.

Richibucto, N. B.

6
1

£

Muskoka, O.

Reston, Man.

Pheasant Forks, Assa.

Vancouver, B. C.

1

103

106

107

117

1091 1

141

114

116

107

106

70

2

s

140

120
140

119
146

153

140
153

120-8
146-4

136

121

140

109

116
30

....

136

4

1?0

117

11?

116

5

139

135

130

131

133

138

133-1

137

199

131

111

1°4

6

122

107

124

7

8

no

130
106

129
105

129

108

108

117

128-5
107-4

in

128
128

117

107

111
115

....

....

9
10

128

129

129

124

125

135

128 9

139

128

138

119

124

....

149

88

8?,

11

162

1°

116

133

13
14
l^i

130
160

130
167

131

125

132
171

138
174

129-6
168-3

....

130
183

127
172

123
145

126

132
161

144

180
141

134
186

102
150

If?

142

144

149

158

157

149-0

146

118

107

188

206

203

205 '6

204

153

1 ^

14Q

151

153

146 '0(

159

143

145

130

126

19
°0

....

140

140

141

148

152
223

143 6

136

144

9,08

118

124

138

150
196

128

01

154

173

145

196

90

147

154

157

166

152-9

159

159

131

132

126

00

164

135

°1

148

131

25
op.

1 ^Q

155
161

149

Ifi6

155-0
lfiV'5

166

....

160

158

136
132

135
135

138

....

149
136

27

218

194

199

272

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

TABLE B.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS CANADA, 1896.

Day of the year, 1896. corresponding to
the last day of each month.

January 31 July 213
February 60 August 244

| Yarmouth, N. S.

| Berwick, N. S.

| Maitland, N. S.

Halifax (P), 1ST. S.

GO

fc
1

K
4

i

Average Southern
! Nova Scotia. 1

Amherst, N. S.

CO

fc
1

0>

%

| River Philip, N. S.

March 91 September. .. .274
April 121 October 305

May .... . ..152 November 335

June 182 December 366

Spring Wlieat first sowing

" flowering

Last Spring Frost

146

268

—

'366

146 0
284-0

144

268
104

First Autumn Frost
Opening of Still Lakes

Closing of Still Lakes ,

Closing of Rivers in Fall

f

100

130
144
172

.139
172

140
143
172
173

•••

....

\W

...

....

174

I
Droughts affecting Vegetation \
Song Sparrow, first appearance

212....

222

222

232

95
83

97
95

*74
*104

103
103

98
92

;.".

American Robin Eastern

Merula propinqua, Western

Junco, Eastern species
" Western species

104

104

....

116....

....

Red -Winged Blackbird

Spotted Sandpiper

1ST

lOo

White-bellied Swallow

126

109

117

....

101

126

....

Meadow Lark

Kingfisher

i20! ....

Hummingbird, first appearance

138

136

143

140

Western species

Night Hawk, Eastern species
" Western species

147

139

Wild Ducks, first birds

101

" Flocks

last Flock

298

" Birds

W d Geese first Birds'

92

93

" Flock

78

last Flock

. i

" Birds

?16

1

Frogs piping first date

107 | 108

106

105 110

....

Winters in.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACK AY.

273

TABLE B.— Continued.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1896.

Number.

Wallace, N. S.

Pictou (M), N. S.

Pictou (R), N. S.

New Glasgow, N. S.

Antigonish, N. S.

Port Hawkesbury,

N. S.

Average Southern
Nova Scotia.

Charlottetown, P.E.I.!

Saint; John, N. B.

Richibucto, N. B.

O

,2§

1
£

Muskoka, O.

Reston, Man.

Pheasant Forks, Assa.

Vancouver, B. C. IJ

'SI

195

197

197

3?

....

191

33

237

997

"

991

?1

166

165

176

16? '7

144

159

113

—

107

....

35

281

249

239

259 "2

9fifi

. • • .

975

9fifi

01 Z

. . . .

36

118

....

• • . .

S7

329

353

341 -0

?8

72

101

109

89

106

OS

39

357

o^jj

qofi

....

OAQ

99 T

110

111

110

....

109

89

107

IOC

98

133

139

109

19Q

169

131

«...

113

1d/>

139

145

173

172

174

156

128

157

137

158

* *

174

185

170

136

159

162

169

180

192

174

138

166

194

194

194

1-18

168

197

197

197

197

158

. • . .

169

*

203

160

• • i

4(K

213

215

208

217

232

217

217

....

186

215

....

292

242

225

222

190

225

250

249

198

....

251

260

214

263

263

217

279

303

323

{'

178

1

to
198

\

42

101

101

88

44

99

97

109

106

88

95

4*1

89

119

105

48

101

49

°91

50

88

114

105

51

104

59

116

130

137

116

105

1T>

58

94

97

108

54

124

116

103

55

139

138

141

138

110

191

5fi

....

140

57

177

179

111

149

58

1?1

59

' '*

88

101

87

60

91

88

111

106

61

264

1

69

63

67

75

87

118

87

87

61

68

80

98

87

87

94

98

65

252

298

271

317

66

340

67

103

103

103

107

111

105

116

105

104

112

115

50

274

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

MEAN OF TWENTY PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA
SCOTIA, FOR THE FIVE YEARS, 1892 TO 1896.

i

1

i

1

1

£H

45 <£

Species common to the Tables
of the five years.

Ij

0>S
fcOcS

g«

0>S

ga

|l

a>3

bCcS

go

1|

i^

p

O

o

B

P

c o ^

•4

<3

<4

4

•<

£

O Q

& 03

Mayflower, first flowering

98

108

104-7

113 55

102-70

104-79

5th April.

Alder,

102

114

116-3

103-8

107-55

108-73

9th "

Aspen,

131

123

122-2

117-5

121-90

123 12

4th May.

Maple,

123

130

126-3

123-85

124-55

125-54

6th

Strawberry.

129

133

131 6

128-55

128-50

130-13

1 Ith

Dog-tooth V.,

135

136

132-2

125-

128-50

131 -34! 12th

Cherry (Cult),

146

142

146-3

136-6

143 ' 00

142 -78 23rd

Indian Pear,

145

144

146-

138-35

141-65

143-

24th

Cherry (wild),

150

144

147'

138-15

145-25

144-88

25th

Apple,

146

146

152-1

166-65

151-10

152-37

2nd June.

Lilac.

154

160

162-3

153-5

160-50

158-06

8th

Hawthorn,

163

160

160-3

148-75

160-25

158-46

8th

Wild Goose first

54

88

70*6

78-00

80-00

74-12

6th March

Robin,

96

94

73-2

99-30

96-14

9T73

2nd April.

Song Sparrow.

99

115

79-

96-65

94-66

96-86

7th <'

Froys piping,

105

113

112-8

110-55

106 • 30

109-53

10th "

Swallow

106

119

119-

125-75

117-76

117-50

18th "

Kingfisher,

128

137

128 '7

127-50

122-00

128-64

9th May.

Humming Bird,

143

159

143-0

137-25

139-30

144-31

•25th "

Night Hawk, "

150

144

158 8

148-00

154-33

151-03

1st June.

Y. — SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON VENUS. — BY A. CAMERON,
Yarmouth, N. S.

(Read 10th May, 1897.)

In the Transactions of this Institute for 1892-3, (Second
Series, Vol. I, Part 3), there is an article of mine on " Venus in
Daylight to Eye and to Opera Glass." On page 34-5, the late
M. Trouvelot of the Observatory at Meudon, is quoted to the
effect that in a clear sky Venus may be seen in daylight with
the naked eye, when her angular distance from the sun is not
less than 10° at inferior conjunction, and not less than 5° at
superior conjunction.

On pages 347-8 particulars are given of a naked eye observa-
tion made at noon on July 6, 1892, when the angular distance
between Venus and the Sun was less than 7°. This was a little
over three days before inferior conjunction. Three of these
conjunctions have occurred since then — in February, 1894,
September, 1895 and April, 1897 — but, so far as I know, no
closer observation was got at any of them. On the morning of
February 14th, 1894, 1 saw Venus with naked eye, when less
than two days before inferior conjunction ; but this was not a
" daylight " observation as defined in the article cited ; and,
besides, the elongation was more than 7°. This observation was
one of a pair, which, as a pair, had some rather curious features.
(See Series II., Vol. I, pp. 391-4.)

The chief purpose of this note is to make a few additions to
what was said in the Daylight article about observations made
near superior conjunction. M. Trouvelot thought that Venus
should be as easy to the naked eye in full daylight, when only
5° from superior conjunction as when 10° from inferior con-
junction. My reasons for thinking so too are given on pages
349-52. But when writing that article, the best reliable
observation of this kind I had been able to make near any
superior conjunction was made thirty-six days after the one in
May, 1893, when the elongation was 10°. (p. 351.)

(275)

276 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON VENUS — CAMERON.

There have been two superior conjunctions since then, and at
each of them a better observation than the above was made.

At Denver, Colorado, on October 30th, 1894, Mr. Roger
Sprague saw Venus with the naked eye at 9.45 a. m. This was
thirty -one days before the superior conjunction of November
30th. 1894. The angular distance was 7° 46'. Mr. Sprague
says that the planet was " quite a difficult object to distinguish
with the naked eye and required very persistent and careful
looking to make it out at all." The difficulty of his observation
led him to doubt the possibility of seeing Venus at all under
the conditions that prevailed on July 6, 1892, Venus was fiva
times as bright to him in October, 1894, as to me in July, 1892 ;
she was nearly a degree farther from the sun ; and Denver is
5000 feet nearer heaven and is blessed with a clearer atmosphere
than Yarmouth. As the feat of seeing the planet was found
extremely difficult under this fourfold set of favorable condi-
tions, it was quite natural for the observer to think it impossible
under the unfavorable conditions. I would think so too, had I
not had experience of its possibility, and of the wonderful
change that even a few minutes sometimes make in the seeing
quality of the atmosphere or in the clearness of some particular
patch of the sky. The clearest and purest blue is found
between broken masses of cloud, and it was in such a swept and
garnished bit of sky that 1 found Venus at her inferior con-
junction in 1892. Another thing — she was 28° nearer my
zenith then than she was to Mr. Sprague's zenith when he made
his observation, and all observers know what a deal of difference
that makes. Had he looked again an hour and a half later,
when she was on his meridian, he would probably have found
her — if his sky was clear — absurdly easy instead of extremely
difficult.

Mr. Sprague's observation was the best one near superior
conjunction that I had any record of up to that date.

The date of the next superior conjunction was July 9, 1896,
at 9 a. m., 60° VV. time.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON VENUS — CAMERON. 277

To better the record, it was necessary to see Venus when less
than thirty -one days from that date, and less than 7|° from the
sun.

The thirty-first day before conjunction was June 8th. The
midday sky was cloudy then, and so it was on the 9th, 10th, and
llth. On the 12th we had the pure blue sky that follows
summer rain, and at noon my naked eye found Venus " disgrace
fully easy." So my notes say. I suppose they mean it would
have been disgraceful for even a bad eye (as was one of the two
that made the observation) not to see her. They go on : — " Eye
holds her dodging through clouds, and picks her up over and
over again." This was twenty-seven days before conjunction-
On the 13th, she was easier than on the 12th. Then there were
nine days unfit for observation. On the 23rd, we had another
of those glorious skies that follow a spell of rain and fog, and
Venus was again easy, and was found very quickly after being
located by a field-glass. On the 24th, she was not so easy,
because the sky was white. On the 25th, the sky was fine, and
my naked eye saw her for the last time before conjunction. It
was fourteen days before, and the angular distance from the
sun's centre was under 4°.

All the observations from June 12th to June 25th, were made
between 12 and 12.30, (60° W. time), when Venus was very near
the meridian, As the conjunction was a July one like the
inferior conjunction of 1892 — the very same day, indeed, July
9, in both cases — I had the advantage of high altitude.

This is likely my last note on this subject, and it may be as
well to set down here a summary of the extreme observations
which I have managed to make on Venus both with the naked
eye and with an opera-glsss. A description of the glasses I
used is given in the article cited, p. 354*.

With naked e}re ; —

(a) At inferior conjunction — 3 days before the conjunction
of July 9, 1892. Elongation 6° 50' from sun's
centre. Altitude 64°.

278 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON VENUS - CAMERON.

(b) At superior conjunction, — 14 days before the conjunc-

tion of July 9, 1896. Altitude 70°. Elongation,
3° 51' from centre, 3° 35' from limb.

Both, of these observations were made within 15 minutes of
mean noon.

(c) Near greatest elongation or greatest brilliancy, — April

30, 1892 : found by eye when 18° above east
horizon, the sun at the time being 44° high.
Angust 23, 1892: held by eye till only 8° above

W. horizon, sun being over 35° high.

(Then there is the curious pair of observations already
referred to — one after sunset on February 13, 1894, the other on
the following morning before sunrise.)

With opera -glass or field -glass : —

(a) At inferior conjunction, — July 9, 1892 : on the day

and at the hour of conjunction. Elongation 4J°.
Altitude 64°.

(b) At superior conjunction, — May, 11, 1893 : 9 days after

conjunction. Elongation 2J° from limb. Altitude
64°.

December 12, 1894: 16 days after conjunction.
Elongation 3f°. Altitude 22.°

( c) Near greatest elongation or greatest brilliancy, — March

28, 1892: found when 7J° above East horizon.
Sun's altitude 24J°.

August 23, 1892 : held till only 3° above West horizon.
Sun's altitude 29°.

YARMOUTH, N. S., April -50, 1897.

VI.— THE RAINFALL IN 1896. Bv F. W. W. DOANE, M. CAN.
Soc. G. E. CITY- ENGINEER, Halifax, N. S.

(Read 10th May, 1897.)

The systematic and accurate registration of the rainfall is a
matter of the greatest importance to the Engineer. It is abso-
lutely necessary in order to enable him to design intelligently
works for water supply, sewerage, water power, drainage of
roads, bridges, culverts, &c.

He requires certain data to enable him to design dams
spillways, storage reservoirs, sewers, bridges, &c., so that every
possible requirement may be provided for.

The quantity of rain that falls annually in any one place
varies greatly from year to year ; the extreme being sometimes
greater than 2 to 1. As a general rule, more rain falls in warm
than in cold countries, and more in elevated regions than in low
ones. Local peculiarities and conditions, however, sometimes
reverse this, and also cause great difference in the amount in
places quite near each other. It is sometimes difficult to account
for these variations.

The earliest known records of rainfall were made in Paris in
1668. Sir Christopher Wren designed the first rain gauge in
1663. This great architect also designed the first recording
gauge, but it was not constructed until 1670.

The rainfall records of some portions of the United States
cover periods extending into the last century. In Canada, the
average amount of rain falling in Ontario has heen taken by
the officials of the Magnetic Observatory at Toronto for the past
56 years. The meteorological station at Halifax was established
in 1869, and observations began at Truro in 1873,; a systematic
registration of rainfall has been made at Yarmouth since 1379,
and the record at Sydney dates back to 1893.

(279)

280 THE RAINFALL IN 1896 — DOANE.

An examination of the records of the United States reveals
some interesting and important facts, which it may be well to
quote at this stage for the purpose of comparison.

The greatest annual rainfall on this continent is recorded
at Greytown, the Atlantic entrance to the proposed Nicaragua
Canal. It there assumes the enoimous total of 240 inches (20
ft.), a figure which is only surpassed in the Western Hemisphere
on the Mexican Gulf Coast in the West Indies, by Guiana and
by the coast of Brazil. It is reported that from 7 to 10 per
cent, of the total annual rainfall may descend in one day. The
results of such a precipitation can be better imagined than
described ; dry river beds become torrents in a few minutes, the
water coming down in a wall several feet high ; marshes change
to lakes, and the power so quickly developed is necessarily very
dangerous to any work of man.

The most remarkable rainfall is recorded at Cuyamaca Dam
in San Diego Co., California, about 40 miles east of San Diego.
During a storm ending February 27, 1891, the record shows
that 23.40 inches fell in 54 hours, of which 13 inches fell in 23
hours, and 7 inches in 10 hours. The elevation of the reservoir
is about 4500 feet above sea level. The highest surrounding
mountains are 6500 feet above sea level, and lie to the west of
the reservoir between its watershed and the direction whence
the storms come. The eastern boundary of the basin is on the
rim of the desert at an elevation of not over 5000 ft. The
topography of the country is such that a rain gauge at the dam
would not be likely to indicate the maximum precipitation on
the three peaks that bound the water shed on the west. The
most notable thing about the above remarkable rainfall, however,
is that the place where it occurred is within a few miles of one
of the very driest regions in the world. The average annual
rainfall at Indio, San Diego Co., a station on the Southern
Pacific Railway, about 50 miles east of the Cuyamaca Dam, is
given by General Greely as but 1.92 inches, and he says of this
and Camp Mohave, Arizona, where the average rainfall is but
1.85 inches : " These stations, doubtless, have the smallest known

THE RAINFALL IN 1896 — DOANE. 281

rainfall on the face of the globe. Statements have been made
frequently that rain never falls in these localities, but there is
no year at any station where a measurable rainfall has not been
recorded, the least observed being that at Indio, 0.10 in., during
the seasonal year 1884-85."

General Greely's "American Weather" gives the following
instances of heavy rainfalls, which exceed the above record :
Mayport, Fla., Sept. 29, 1882, 13.7 ins. in 24 hours; Newtown,
Del. Co., Pa., Aug. 5, 1843, 13 in. in 3 hours ; and at Brandy wine,
Hundred, Pa., 10 ins. in 2 hours.

Nevada Co., California, reports the rainfall for the month
from Dec. 23, 1861, to Jan. 23, 1862, 45 ins. Providence, R. I,
records a rainfall Aug. 6, 1878, 4.49 ins. in 1 hour, 3.5 ins. of
which fell in 36 minutes. At New York, the heaviest fall is
Aug. 19, 1893, 1J ins. in 20 minutes ; for 12 hours Aug. 23, 1893,
3.81 ins. ; 24 hours Sept. 23-4, 1882, 6.17 ins. ; month Sept., 1882,
14.51 ins.

The average annual rainfall at Halifax from 1869 to 1895
was 55.862 inches. It varies from 45 808 ins. in 1894 to 66.294
inches in 1888. A rainfall of 39.51 inches is reported for 1860,
but as the Meteorological Observatory had not been established
at that time, it is doubtful if the record is reliable. There is no
doubt, however, that the rainfall for that year was far below the
average. The scarcity of water, meagre supply from the lakes,
and consequent inconvenience to householders lead to the pur-
chase of the water works from the company in the following
year, 1861.

Reference to the records shows that the years of smallest
rainfall are immediately followed or preceded by years of greatest
rainfall. Thus in 1888 the rainfall reached the maximum 66.294
inches. In the following year it dropped to 48.659, within 2.851
inches of the minimum. In 1894, as already noted, the season
was very dry. The rainfall was the smallest recorded since the
establishment of the Observatory at Halifax. The sources of
our water supply dried up so that there was danger of a water
famine. Similar conditions were noted throughout the New

282 THE RAINFALL IN 1896 — DOANE.

England States. In the following year the records show a total
of 62.152 inches, while in 1896 Mr. Allison. Dom. Government
Meterological agent at Halifax, reports 69.862 inches, 3.568 ins.
greater than that of any previous year. Rain or snow fell on
183 days. The greatest monthly rainfall on record previous to
1896 was 10.34 in February, 187C. In 1888 the heaviest
monthly fall was 7.764, which is recorded in December. In
1896, 8.729 ins. fell in July, and 8.786 inches in March, while in
September and October, the record shows 12.092 inches and
15.039 inches, respectively. Rain fell on 16 days in September,
and on 20 days in October. The fall on the 7th, 10th, 13th and
18th of September, was 1.232 ins., 3.912 ins., 3.146 ins., and
1.510 inches, a total for the four days of 9.8 ins., or more than
f of the whole precipitation for the month. In October, 4.394
ins. fell on the 19th, 29 per cent, of the rainfall for the month,
and 6 per cent, of the total for the year. The first month,
January, gave the modest total of 1.72 inches, while for January,
1895, 10.131 inches is recorded.

There were four heavy storms during the year. Early in
the morning of July 31st, rain began to fall, and during 3.8
hours the gauge showed 3.506 inches, or at the rate of .92 inches
per hour. The rate of fall was the heaviest on record, although
the quantity was exceeded in subsequent storms of greater
duration.

On Sept. 10th, rain fell during 7.5 hours, the quantity regis-
tered being 3.912 ins., or at the rate of .52 ins. per hour, 0.186
inches fell on the llth during 4.1 hours, 0.13 ins. on the 12th
during 2 hours, and on the 13th, 3.146 ins. fell during 9.5 hours,
or at the rate of .33 ins. per hour. The total fall for the four
days was 7.374 inches. On October 19th the maximum quantity
was recorded, the precipitation being 4.394 inches during 14.3
hours, or at the rate of .30 inches per hour.

The September rains referred to above raised Long Lake
about 32 inches, the highest level reached being 10. 5 inches above
the waste weir. In October, the ground was saturated with

THE RAINFALL IN 1896 — DOANE. 283

water, and the rain falling on the 19fch flowed off rapidly. Long
Lake was raised 20 inches by the heavy storm ot the 19th in
about 24* hours. The water level was 25 inches above the spill-
way of the dam, while at Lower Chain Lake it overflowed the
screen chambers and ran over the floor of the old gate house.
Drains and culverts were destroyed, roads washed out and
bridges carried away. Jubilee Road was excavated by the rush
of water for a length of 100 yards, the road metal being carried
away for a width of half the roadway and a depth of 6 ft.
Heavy stones were deposited at the foot of the hill, while the
lighter material went to sea. The main trunk sewer on the
common was not only full to overflowing, but a torrent of water
followed its course on the surface, sweeping through the gardens
and down South Park Street, until it found an outlet at South
Street.

The Meteorological Agent at Truro reports about 30 hours
rain on the 18th and 19th October, the greatest on record with
regard to duration. At Yarmouth and Sydney the rain fall was
light.

September 10th-13th, Sydney reports no rain ; Yarmouth
and Truro comparatively light rains. July 31st, moderate rain-
fall at Sydney, Truro and Yarmouth.

Comparing the Halifax records by months we find : —
July, 1896, 8.729 ins.— next— July, 1884, 8.294* ins.
Sept., 1896, 12.092 " " Sept. 187G, 6.094 «'
Oct., 1896, 15.039 " " Oct., 1875, 9.98 "

Mr. E. H. Keating, City Engineer, says in making his report
on a design for the Halifax sewer system : —

" The heaviest rainfall in a short time, of which I have any
information, occurred on the 19th June, 1872, when 0.183 of an
inch fell in half an hour."

He also reports a rainfall of 4.406 inches in 18 hours on the
10th October, 1875.

Our sewer system was designed to discharge a rainfall of
0.38 ins. per hour, together with the house sewage when running

284 THE RAINFALL IN 1896 — DOANE.

two-thirds full. The designer made a liberal estimate in deter-
mining the capacity required, and yet during the past year it
was plainly demonstrated that the capacity of the sewers was
not sufficient to carry off the rainfall, and great trouble, damage
and inconvenience has been caused in consequence. There is not
the slightest doubt that the greater part, if not the whole, of
this trouble would have been obviated if records of self-recording
rain gauges had been available. While the greatest rainfall on
record in 1876 was .183 inches in half an hour, we had in 1896
a storm lasting 7.5 hours, with an average rate of fall of .52
inches per hour, and another lasting 3.8 hours, with an average
fall of .92 inches per hour. The maximum rate must have been
greatly in excess of even the latter figure, but as the storm came
n the dark hours of the morning, and the rain was not measured
by self-registering instruments, we can only guess at the maximum
rate per hour.

The design of sewers depends principally on two classes of
storms. These are short storms of great rates of precipitation,
and long storms of ordinary rates of precipitation. It is not
sufficient to know the rainfall per hour. The severity of a
storm often reaches a maximum during from 10 to 20 minutes
only, and this maximum should be determined, if possible. It
is also most important that the local conditions of the surface
should be known. If the ground is saturated before the storm
the rainfall will run off more rapidly.

A chief purpose to be subserved by a rainfall record is not
merely how often does the maximum rainfall occur at each point,
for that is an event which only occurs once or twice in a century.
The great desideratum is : How often do the heaviest rainfalls
of various rates occur, and for how long a maximum and average
time does such a rainfall continue ? The records from which
such laws are deduced must necessarily be somewhat voluminous,
and yet by proper study, aided by records of a number of years,
a very close approximation to the real probabilities could be
obtained and drawn graphically on charts, which would be of the
greatest aid to hydraulic and city engineers ; and even without

THE RAINFALL IN 1896— DOANE. 285

this, the bare records would give to a man who might be design-
ing works at special points, material for digging out for himself
some approach to a law where now all is guess work, and often
very bad guess work.

It is to be regretted that the Meteorological Stations in this
Province are not supplied with the most modern self-recording
instruments. With an ordinary rain gauge it is not possible to
determine the rate per hour of the fall of rain during a storm,
without noting the time with a watch ; and as it is very incon-
venient, if not impracticable in the majority of cases to do this,
it is very rarely done, and when it is, an average rate is all that
is generally ascertained, although it may have been raining faster
or slower at intervals during the time noted. By the use of a
reliable self-recording rain gauge the different rates at which
rain has fallen during a storm can be readily determined.

286

THE RAINFALL IN" 1896 — DOANE.

DEPTH OF RAINFALL AND MELTED SNOW, AND DURATION OF EACH STORM,
FOR THE YEAR 1896.

1

o

I

JANUARY.

FEBRUARY.

MARCH.

APRIL.

MAY.

JUNE.

4J

<

£

B

O

a

*j

<J

03

S5
O

a

4$

4

£
§

a

43

<

2

3
0

g
<

£
o
W

4»

<3

oi

$-1

i

1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

0.180
0.020

1.5

0.440
»T.

20.

0.089
0.094
0.510
0.186

7.2
3.5
6.7
4.

*0.889
0.015
0.323
0.012

'^6
1.

6.5
0.5

0.065

1.75

o.ioe

0.050

2.0
2.0

T.

0.020

0.5

....

1.310

14.

0.030
0.596

1.6

7.

6! 660
0.030

ii)'.5

2.5

0.010
0.342
0.480
0.100
0.020
0.522

1.
6.5
3.

l!7

7.75

T
T.

....

0.770
0.970
0.090
0.444

10.1
11.3
2.3

8.5

'6! 030
1.619

1.1

15.

0.130

0.5

0.040
0.140
T.
0.020

1.5
4.66

0.009
0.034
T.
0.040
0.015
0.020
0.010

1.0
2.0

'2l5
2.0
0.8
1.0

T.

0.841
0.086

14.5
3.

10.

0.260

6.5

0.040
1.655

2.
13.5

'6! 250
0.068
0 210

....

0.010
0.220
0.410

1.
5.2

8.3

1.0
3.0
3.5

0.010
6!650

0.5

i'.h

0.020
1.498

0.8
9.4

0.050

7.5

0.305
0.186

5.8
0.5

0.060

1.7

'6! 390
0.270
0.045
0.010

l6!"
12.5
1.75

0.075

2.

0.192
1.450

1.7

8.5

0.230
0.200

4.0
3.7

0.247
0 014

3.0

0 046

0.540
0.426

2.7
6.0

0.700

8.3

0.274
0.503

8.2
7.3

1.720

....

4.199

....

8.786

....

1.413

....

2.532 ...

4.671

....

Trace.

THE RAINFALL IN 1896 — DOANE.

287

DEPTH OF RAINFALL AND MELTED SNOW, AND DURATION OF EACH STORM,
FOR THE YEAR 1896.

1
1

•8

1

JULY.

AUGUST.

SEPTEMBER.

OCTOBER.

NOVEMBER.

DECEMBER.

40-
<J

w
E

d
o

w

43

<3

e

p

0

ffi

«5

e

0

E

«*•

<J

03

1

4J

c

<

02

3
O

£
<1

1
o

0.5

1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

2352
0.764
0.552
0010

104
9.5
8.7
1.5

0.005
0.170
0.032

0.4
6.6
1.0

0.020

' ' T.'

0.938

...

0.354
0.378

5.0
5.0

....

T.

....

0.112

38

11.0

0.362

5.3

0685
0.312
0.230

11.2
24.
6.5

0.824
T.

10.1

0.664
0.3C6

6.0
3.0

0.102
0.010

8.0
1.0

1.232
0.030

12.5
1.0

0.853
0.036
0.033
0.682
T.
0.207
T.
0071

6.5
03
2.0
5.5

*7.3
'^0

1.524
0.020
T.

13.3
0.8

0 010

....

3.912
0.186
0.130

7.5
4.1
2 0

• •

T.

T.
T.

. ..

3.146

9.5

0.756 100
1.5971 12.2
0.125 12.0
0.022 6.1

0.020

1.0

0.170
O.C62
0.220
T.

S S

1.2

5.0

0450
0.150

"97
2.5

0.250
0.082

5.5
3.0

i.7

0.9

0.302
1.510
0.546
0.507
T.

4.0
4.5
4.5

0823
4.394

10.4
14.3

0.034
0.060

0.020

1.5

0.692

8.0

0.670

11.0

0.010
0.732

0.1
7.5

....

0.041
0.405

1.5

58

0.372

5.2

1.041

12.8

T372

8A

0.562
1.007

6.0
8.0

0.178

9.4

0.568

8.0

0.130
0.121

130
6.3

0.010

3.2

6!584

7.'6

0.333
0.052

5.4
3.8

0.010

0.4

0.033

0.2

0.109
0.227
0. 130

3.0
18.2
4.1

0202
0.090

63

50

T

3.506

3.8

T.

• •

T.

8.729

....

3.037

..

12.092

15.039

....

4.396

3.248

.

288

THE RAINFALL IN

— DOANE.

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THE RAINFALL IN 1896 — DOANE.

289

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290

THE RAINFALL IN 1896— DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT TRURO IN 1896.

MONTH.

Rainfall

Melted Snow

TOTAL.

007
0.12
4.11
0.60
1.45
3.44
619
2.24
5 01
11 47
2.58
1.49

2.3
1.5
1.0
05

2.37 inches.
1.62 "
5 11 "
1.10 "
145 "
3.44 «
6.19
224 '
5.01
11.47
3.20
2.14 '

March

Mav

Julv

October

November . . .

062
0.65

Totals

38.77

0.44
033
0.35
4.65

402

451
43.85

657

45.34 inches.

July 31

Sept 10-11

" 13

Get 1-3

" 18-19

Average rainfall for Octo
ber for 23 years

Average precipitation for
17 years.

PRECIPITATION AT YARMOUTH.

July 19-25, 18

96 . 2.02

30-31,

0.58

Auff. 23-24,

2.45

Sept. 6-7,

0.91

" 13-14,

0.48

Oct. 1-2,

0.12

" 18-19,

0 04

" 23-24,

. 1.97

Heaviest recorded rain, 4.16 inches, August 5th, 1885, in 8 hours.
Greatest precipitation in a month, 10.7 inches, October, 1888.
Total in 1888, 71.57 inches, 22.5 above the average.

PRECIPITATION AT SYDNEY.

July 31, 1896 ; 0.60

Sept. 10, " 000

" 13, " 0.00

Oct. 1, " 1.76

" 19, " 0.54

Heaviest rain on record, 2.04 inches, August 17th, 1893.
Date of publication of Vol. ix, Part 3 : November 30th, 1897.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

rScotian Institute of Science.

SESSION OF 189T-98.

I. — ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS CONTAINING POTASSIUM AND SODIUM SUL-
PHATES. — BY E. H. ARCHIBALD, B. Sc., Dalhousie
College, Halifax, N. S.

(Read November 15th, 1897.)

According to the dissociation theory of electrolysis, held by
Arrhenius and others, the conductivity of a mixture of two
solutions of electrolytes, 1 and 2, which have one ion in common,
and which contain n^ and 7i2 gramme-equivalents per unit of
volume, is given by the expression :

where v-^ and v2 are the volumes of the two solutions mixed, p
the ratio of the volume of the mixture to the sum of the volumes
of the constituent solutions, ^ ! and ^2 the molecular conducti-
vities, at infinite dilution, of the respective electrolytes under the
conditions in which they exist in the mixture, and «1( «2, the
ionization coefficients of the respective electrolytes in the
mixture.

The value of p in the above formula may be determined by
density measurements, before and after mixing ; //^j and px2
which for sufficient! v dilute mixtures, may be considered to have

(291)

292 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

the same values in the mixture as in the simple solutions, may
be determined by conductivity measurements, to great dilution,.
of each electrolyte; and nl and 7?2 may be determined by
analysis. Provided, therefore, we can find the value of al and «2
the conductivity can be calculated.

In a paper communicated to this society in 1896, Professor
MacGregor* explained a method for the determination of the as
in the above formula. He applied this method to some mixtures
of solutions of Sodium and Potassium Chloride, examined by
Bender, and found it possible to calculate their conductivity
when they contained less than two gramme-molecules per
litre, within the limits of experimental error. For more concen-
trated mixtures he found the observed values to be greater than
the calculated, and the difference to increase with the concentra-
tion, till at a concentration of four gramme-molecules per litre
the difference was between 3 and 4 per cent. The conductivi-
ties of mixtures of Sodium and Hydrogen Chloride solutions were
measured and calculated by D. Mclntosh,f who found that the
conductivity of these mixtures could be calculated, within the
limits of experimental error, up to a mean concentration of
about one gramme-molecule per litre, and that for a mean con-
centration greater than this, the calculated value was greater
than the observed.

The measurements, described below, were undertaken with the
view of ascertaining if the conductivity was calculable, in the
case of mixtures of solutions of Potassium and Sodium Sulphates,
salts of more complex molecular structure than those previously
examined. They were conducted in the Physical and Chemical
Laboratories of Dalhousie College.

The work included purification of the salts, and of water;
preparation and analysis of a series of simple solutions, and
determination of their conductivity ; plotting curves, giving the
relation of concentration of ions to dilution for these simple
solutions ; preparation of the mixtures, and measuring and
calculating their conductivity.

* Transactions N. S. Inst. Science, ix (1896), p. 101.
t Transactions N. S. Inst. Science, ix (1896), p. 120.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 293

Purification of the Salts.

The salts were obtained as chemically pure from Eimer and
Amend of New York. They were carefully re-crystallized three
times. After being thus treated, no impurities to any extent
could be detected.

Purification of the Water.

The water used was purified by the method described by
Hulett,* except that a block tin condenser was used instead of
a platinum one. Water, purified by this method, had a conduc-
tivity at 18°C, varying from 0.85 X KT10 to 0.98 xlO~10,
expressed in terms of the conductivity of mercury at 0°C. It
was kept in bottles which had been used for this purpose for
several years. It was neutral and left no residue on evaporation.

Preparation and Analysis of Simple Solutions.

The method adopted was to make up as concentrated a solu-
tion as it was desired to measure. This solution was carefully
analysed, and from it successive multiple dilutions were pre-
pared by adding water, all solutions being prepared at a tempe-
rature of 18°C.

A volume of fifty cubic centimetres of these solutions would
be introduced into the electrolytic cell, and successive dilutions
prepared from this in the cell itself, by withdrawal of a certain
volume, and addition of an equal volume of water. As a check
upon errors of dilution, after a portion had gone through a
number of dilutions, it was taken from the cell and carefully
analysed, and, if found necessary, the previous determinations
of the concentration were corrected from these results.

The concentration of the solutions was determined by gravi-
metric analysis, the quantity of salt in solution being esti-
mated from the amount of Barium Sulphate precipitated by
Barium Chloride, when added in slight excess to a known

* Journ. Phys. Chem., Vol. I, p. 91.

294 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

volume of the solution to be analysed. The following results
will show with what accuracy such analyses could be carried
out : —

(1.) K2S04 in 5c.c. of solution = 0.2174 gram.
(2.) " " " = 0.2178 u

(3.) " " " = 0.2179

Mean = 0.2177

(1.) Na2S04 in oc.c. of solution = 0.2365
(2.) " " = 0.2369

(3.) " " " - 0.2370

Mean = 0.2368

It would seem that the result might be in error by about
0.14 per cent.

In the case of the Potassium Sulphate, standard solutions
were made up from weighed quantities of the salt, which had
been dried to constant weight in an air bath.

Preparation of the Mixtures.

For convenience in calculating, the mixtures were made up
of equal volumes of the constituent solutions. All mixtures
were prepared at a temperature of 18°C, the constituent solu-
tions being kept, for about 20 minutes previously to mixing, in a
water bath, the temperature of which was kept as near 18°C as
possible, by means of a thermostat. A 50 c.c. pipette was used to
measure out the volumes ; the same pipette being used for both
solutions, and care being taken to use the pipette in the same
manner in both cases. During outflow, the point of the pipette
was allowed to rest against the side of the vessel, and when
outflow had ceased it was slightly blown into without removing
the point.

All pipettes used were calibrated by weighing the water they
delivered. None were used in the experiments, in which the
time of outflow was less than 40 seconds.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 295

Determination of the Conductivity.

The Kohlrausch method with the telephone and alternating
current was used. The measuring apparatus consisted of four
resistance coils, and a german-silver bridge wire, about three
metres long, wound on a marble drum. The wire was divided
into 1000 parts, and had a resistance of about 1.14 ohms. It
was calibrated by the method of Strouhal and Barus,* the
corrections thus obtained being plotted against length on co-ordi-
nate paper, and the correction for any point on the wire taken
off this curve.

The resistance coils were marked 1, 10, 100, and 1000 ohms.
As I used only one coil (that of 1000 ohms), and as it was not
necessary to express che conductivities in absolute measure, I
did not need to know the relative accuracy of the coils, or the
absolute value of the one used.

Two electrolytic cells were used, one for solutions more con-
centrated than 0.1 equivalent gramme-molecules per litre, the
other for solutions more dilute. They were of the U-form,
shown by Ostwald in his Physico-Chemical Measurements, page
226, fig. 378.

The electrodes were of stout platinum foil, not easily bent,
circular in form, and about 3.5 cm. in diameter. Care was
taken to have the electrodes always in as nearly the same posi-
tion in the electrolytic cell as possible. No change of resistance
could be observed for small differences in position, such as could
be detected by the eye, and avoided.

The induction coil was small, and had a very rapid vibrator.
It was kept in a box stuffed with cotton wool, that the noise
might not interfere with the determination of the sound mini-
mum in the telephone. A Leclanch^ cell was found most
convenient for working the coil. With this arrangement the
minimum point on the bridge-wire could be determined to within
0.3 of a division.' This would allow an error of 0.12 per cent
in the determination of the resistance at the centre of the bridge,

* Wied. Ann., x (1880), p. 326.

296 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

and 0.15 per cent at the point farthest from the centre, used in
my experiments.

Platinizing the Electrodes.

The electrodes, after being washed in boiling alkali and acid,
were placed in a solution prepared from a recipe given by
Lummer and Kurlbaum, and referred to by Kohlrausch.* This
solution consists of 1 part platinum chloride, 0008 of acetate
of lead, and 30 of water. They were then connected with the
terminals of two Bunsen cells arranged in series, the direction
of the current being frequently changed. When the electrodes
had become covered with a velvety coating of platinum black,
they were removed from the solution and thoroughly washed
with boiling water to remove all traces of the chloroplatinic
acid. The platinizing can be done much more quickly with the
above solution than with the chloroplatinic acid alone.

Reduction Factor.

To find the factor, which would reduce the observed conduc-
tivities to the standard employed by Kohlrausch, (the conduc-
tivity of mercury at O.C), the values of the conductivity for a
series of solutions of each salt, which were measured for the
purposes of calculation, were plotted against the concentration
(gramme-equivalents per litre), and conductivities corresponding
to the concentrations examined by Kohlrausch, taken off these
curves and compared with the values given by him. The ratio
of these values was found to be practically constant for each
salt through as wide a range of dilution as it was necessary for

me to measure.

Temperature.

All conductivity measurements were made at 18°C. To
insure this condition, the cell containing the solution to be
measured was placed in a water-bath, the temperature of which
was regulated by a thermostat, of the form recommended by
Ostwald in his Physico-Chemical Measurements, p. 59, fig. 42.
The regulating liquid, which was water, was enclosed in a brass

* Wied. Ann., LX (1897), p. 315.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 297

tube, about .'35 cm. long and 4 cm. in diameter, bent so as to
form three sides of a square. Two vanes fixed at an angle of
45° near the bottom of the bath, to a vertical axis, which was
turned by a small hydraulic motor, kept the water of the bath
well stirred. The thermometer used was graduated to fiftieths
of a degree, and could easily be read to hundredths. Its readings
were compared with those of another, whose errors had recently
been determined to hundredths of a degree at the Physikalisch-
Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin. With this apparatus the
temperature of the bath could be kept constant to within a
fiftieth of a degree, for half an hour at a time. A variation of
one-fiftieth of a degree might cause an error of 0.05 per cent in
the determination of the resistance.

That one might be sure that the temperature of the solution
to be measured had come to be that of the bath, two or more
determinations of the resistance were always made at intervals
of about five minutes, and that reading taken which was found
to be the same for successive intervals.

Data for the Calculations.

For the simple solutions the ionization coefficient («) was
taken to be equal to the ratio of the specific molecular conduc-
tivity to the specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution.
Kohlrausch's values for the specific molecular conductivity at
infinite dilution were used. They were taken to be 1280 x 10~8
and 1060 X 10~8for Potassium and Sodium Sulphate respectively,
as determined by him.*

The value of p in the above formula was found by density
measurements before and after mixing. These measurements
were carried out with Ostwald's form of Sprengel's pyknometer.
Measurements, accurate to one in the fourth place of decimals,
which was bej^ond the degree of accuracy required, could be
made without much difficulty. The value of p was found to be
practically equal to unity for the most concentrated solutions
examined.

* Wied. Ann., Vol. xxvi., p. 204.

298 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

Results of Observations on Simple Solutions.

For the purposes of calculation it was necessary to draw
curves for each salt, showing the relation of dilution to ionic
concentration. It was therefore necessary to know the concen-
trations and conductivities of a sufficiently extended series of
dilutions of each salt. The following table gives the dilution,
conductivity, and concentration of ions of each solution
examined.

POTASSIUM SULPHATE.

SODIUM SULPHATE.

Dilution.

Conduc-
tivity.

Concentration
of ions.

Dilution.

Conduc-
tivity.

Concentration
of ions.

20.00

959

.0375

20.00

784

.0370

15.62

934

.0467

15.62

771

.0466

12.50

918

.0574

12.50

753

.0568

10.00

898

.0702

10.00

734

.0692

8.605

893

.0811

7.047

663

.0888

7.173

879

.0957

5.882

651

.1044

5.973

856

.1119

5.313

648

.1150

4.977

839

.1316

3.692

623

.1592

3.456

791

.1787

i 2.918

598

.1933

2.880

771

.209

2.431

583

.226

2.400

753

.245

2.022

562

.262

2.073

741

.279

1.689

541

.302

2.000

737

.288

1.408

521

.349

1.440

707

.384

1.176

496

.397

1.200

689

.449

1.016

478 ,

.443

1.000

672

.525

.847

456

.507

The dilutions are expressed in terms of litres per equivalent
gramme-molecule at 18°C. The conductivities are specific mole-

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.

299

cular conductivities at 18°C, expressed in terms of 10 8 times
the specific conductivity of mercury at 0°C. The concentrations
of ions are the ratios of the specific molecular conductivity to
specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution, divided by
the dilution.

Results of Observations on Mixtures.

The following table contains both the data for, and the
results of, the calculation of the conductivity of each mixture
examined.

Concentration of the
Constituent Solu-
tions.

Concen-
iration of
ons in the

Dilution in the
Mixture.

Conductivity of Mixture.

*KaS04.

*NaaS04>

Mixture.

*K2s<V

*NaaS04.

Calcu-
lated.

Observed.

Difference
per cent.

1.000

2.000

.637

.7940

.6030

746.0

735.0

+ 1.47

.8263

.,

.605

.8463

.6510

707.2

699.7

+ 1.06

.9915

1.998

.635

.7959

.6050

743.4

738.4

+ 0.67

ii

1.667

.588

.8742

.6790

687.7

682.9

+ 0.68

n

1.427

.554

.9441

.7440

648.0

645.4

+ 0.40

I.

.9982

.482

1.096

.9060

564.7

565.9

-0.21

.4957

.9975

.3760

1.473

1.272

438.5

436.8

+ 0.38

n

.6658

.3105

1.837

1.634

363.6

364.4

-0.21

n

.4996

.2740

2.112

1.908

320.9

322.1

-0.37

.4166

.5050

.2572

2.281

2.077

300.6

301.2

-0.19

.3333

n

.2360

2.509

2.304

276.0

275.5

+ 0.18

.2500

n

.2141

2.795

2.576

250.3

249.5

+ 0.31

n

.2525

.1544

4.121

3.840

180.5

180.9

-0.22

n

.1683

.1332

4.933

4.554

155.7

155.2

+ 0.32

n

.1262

.1210

5.463

5.024

141.5

141.3

+ 0.14

.1000

.1010

.0700

10.02

9.870

81.89

81.90

-0.01

II

.0800

.0631

11.18

11.03

73.81

73.71

+ 0.13

II

.06734

.0598

12.01

11.86

69.96

70.05

-0.12

II

.05050

.0542

13.33

13.20

63.40

63.49

-0.14

.04000

n

.03485

22.28

21.95

40.76

40.83

-0.17

.02500

n

.02860

26.96

26.25

33.45

33.36

+ 0.26

.01500

"

.02570

30.63

30.50

30.05

30.12

-0.23

300 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

The concentrations of solutions are expressed in terms of
equivalent gramme-molecules per litre at 18°0. The conduc-
tivities are specific conductivities at 18°C expressed in terms
of I0~8 times the specific conductivity of mercury at 0°C.
The concentration of ion« (column 3) common to the two elec-
trolytes in the mixture and the dilutions of the electrolytes in
the mixture (columns 4 and 5) are obtained by Prof. MacGregor's
graphical process.* The former is the number of dissociated
gramme-equivalents of either electrolyte present in the mix-
ture, divided by the volume in litres of the portion of the solu-
tion occupied by it. In any one mixture it has the same value
for both electrolytes. The latter are the volumes in litres of
the portions of the solution occupied by the respective electro-
lytes divided by the numbers of gramme-equivalents present.
In each mixture they have different values for the two electro-
lytes. The product of the former into the value of the latter
in the case of either electrolyte gives the ionization coefficient
for that electrolyte in the mixture.

It will be seen from the above table that the differences
range from 1.47 per cent to 0.12 percent, that the greater differ-
ences are for the stronger solutions, and that in the case of these
solutions all the differences but one have the same sign.

For more dilute mixtures than 0.7 equivalent gramme-
molecules per litre, the differences are within or but little
beyond the limit of the error of an observation, which would
be about 0.25 per cent. The sign also changes frequently. The
differences in these cases are therefore probably due to acci-
dental errors.

In the case of the stronger solutions, it was to be expected
that the differences would be beyond the limit of error, as the
ionization coefficients (a) were taken to be the ratios of the
specific molecular conductivity to the specific molecnlar conduc-
tivity at infinite dilution, and this is rigorously true only for
infinitely dilute solutions. Also the value of the specific mole-
cular conductivity at infinite dilution for an elecrolyte in a

* Loc. cit., p. 108.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — AKCHIBALD. 301

mixture can be taken to be exactly the same as the value found
by observations on the simple solutions only in the case of
infinitely dilute mixtures.

The fact that for mixtures of nearly saturated solutions of
these salts, the difference between the calculated and observed
values is only 1.47 per cent, while for solutions of KC1 and NaCl
as near saturation, the difference is about 5 per cent, as deter-
mined by MacGregor* and again by Mclntosh*, would seem to
indicate that in the case of this class of salts, the magnitude of
the differences depends on the amount of salt in the solution,
not on the nearness to saturation.

It would appear from the above results that for mixtures of
solutions of these salts not more concentrated than 0.8 equiva-
lent gramme-molecules per litre, it is possible, by the aid of the
dissociation theory, to calculate the conductivity within, or but
little beyond, the limit of the error of observation.

*Loc. cit.

II. — REMARKS ON SOME FEATURES OF THE KENTUCKY FLORA.

BY THE LATE PROFESSOK GEORGE LAWSON, LL. D.,*

of Dalhouixie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Read December llth, 1893.)

Having received a set of the extensive collection of plants
made in the south-eastern part of the State of Kentucky during1
the past summer by Mr. T. H. Kearney, Jr., of the Botanical
Department of Columbia College, New York, Dr. Lawson
embraced the opportunity to show some of the more remarkable
species to the members of the Institute, and to point out some
of the prominent resemblances and differences in feature between
the Kentucky and Eastern Canadian floras.

The most striking feature of the Kentucky flora to a
Nova Scotian or Eastern Canadian botanist, is the presence of
noble arboreous forms that do not extend northerly so as to
spread into Canada, and others that only touch its southern
limits, about Lake Erie and the western part of Lake Ontario.
Such southern forms, represented in Mr. Kearney's collection,
are seen specially in the magnificent magnolias, of which three
species were shown, viz., Magnolia Fraseri, M. macrophylla,
with leaves a foot or more in length, and M. tripet<ila. These
are the remnants of a genus at one time wide.ly spread over the
American continent, as shown by comparatively abundant fossil
remains that have been found even in the arctic regions, but
which in later time, presumably as the result of climatic change,
retreated to the south. The specimens of the last named species
had ripe fruit, with the remarkable pendent seed<, the nature
of the thread-like connection between the fruit and seeds being
described and illustrated by figures from Schnitzlein's Icono-
graphia and the American Sylva.

* This short account of a communication made to the Institute by the late Professor
Lawson, on the llth December, 1893, and never completely elaborated, has been found
among his manuscripts. Though written for insertion in the Proceedings, it is printed
here without change.

(302)

THE KENTUCKY FLORA — LAWSOX. 303

The following synonymy of these magnolias is gleaned from
Index Kewensis, vol. iii : —

Magnolia Fraseri, Walt. Fl. Carol., p. 159. M. auricularis,
Salisb. Parad. Lond., t. 43. M. auriculata, Desr. in Lamarck's
Ency. iii, p. 673. M. pyramidata, Bartram ex Pursh Fl. Am.
Septent, ii, p. 382.

M. macrophylla, Michaux, Fl. Bor. Am., I, p. 328. M. Mich-
auxiana, Hort. ex D. C. Syst, I, p. 455.

M. Umbrella, Desr. in Lamarck's Encyc., iii, p. 673 Hook,
and Jacks , Ind. Kew , p. 146, 1. M. frond osa, Salisbury, Prod.,
p. 379. M. Umbdlata, Hort. ex Stendel, Norn. ed. i,, ii, p. 90.
M. Virfjiniana, Linn. Sp. PL, ")35 = (acuminata, ylauca,
Umbrella). M. tripetala, Linn. Syst.- ed. 10, p. 1082.

The Kentucky Oaks shown were of three species, Quercus
alba, valuable for its timber ; Q. Prinos, called chestnnt oak
from the resemblance of its leaves to the true (not horse)
chestnut (dastanea), and whose thick furrowed bark is used for
tanning; and, lastly, Q. tinctoria, the quercitron oak, which, as
the name indicates, is used by the dyer as well as the tanner.

The southern beech (Fagus atropunicea), although obviously
related to our Canadian F. ferruginea, which forms the bulk of
the original hardwood forest in many parts of Nova Scotia, is
nevertheless quite a different tree, and instead of having a more
ample foliage, as we might expect in the southern form, has
even smaller leaves than ours. The European beech, F. sylvatica,
was probably as abundant in western Europe in early times as
our Canadian beech is still along the Atlantic seaboard, and it
is difficult to separate it as a species.

The only maple in the collection is Acer Eugelii.

The red-bud, or Judas tree, was named Cercis Canadensis by
Linnaeus at a time when the geographical limits of " Canada "
were rather vague. New York State embraces its most northerly
range.

Kalmia latifofia, also, must be relegated as a southern
(although a mountain) plant. From its northern range in the

304* REMARKS ON SOME FEATURES OF

United States, it seems difficult for American botanists to
realize that it does not extend into Canada through some of the
valleys that connect the two countries. It was attributed to
Canada by Michaux. Like the Cercis, it was included in
Hooker's Flora Bo reali- Americana, an authority of Pursh ; and
even in Dr. Asa Gray's lasi and greatest work, the Synoptical
Flora, it was recognized as Canadian. The fact is, however,
that we have no actual evidence of the occurrence of this species
in British America. The only definite record to the contrary is
that of Mr. B. Billings, Jr., who thirty years ago included the
name in a list of Prescott Plants published in the Annals of the
Botanical Society of Canada. Mr. B., however, found, some
some years later, that he had mistaken a broad-leaved form of
K. anyustifolia for the more southern species. That the southern
limitation of certain woody plants is not due to unsuitable
climatal conditions in the north at the present time is shown
by the readiness with which such plants grow when planted, as
in the case of the southern Rhododendron Catawbiense, which
has flourished in a remarkable manner at Lucyfield, near
Halifax, growing freely, and forming thickets of from ten to
fifteen feet in height, blossoming abundantly, and spreading
itself by seed to adjoining grounds. Indeed it is a much more
robust plant and more rapid grower than the native R. maxi-
mum, which seems to be now almost extinct in Nova Scotia, and
to have become very rare in the Province of Quebec. At Lucy-
field, Rhododendron ponticum has not survived, although large
numbers have been planted, while Azalea pontica that grows
with it in beech woods in the Caucasus, is perfectly hardy and
grows as vigorously as any native bush.

Of other plants in Mr. Kearney's collection may be noticed
the oil nut, Pyrularia pmbera ; sassafras (the Laurus Sassafras
of Linnaeus, Sassafras offidnale of Nees and Esenbeck, and of the
forthcoming volume of Hortus Kewensis), the fruit as well as
the bark of the root of which yields sassafras oil. This species,
although indicated in books such as Lindley's Flora Medica, as
growing generally in " woods of North America from Canada to

I

THE KENTUCKY FLORA— LA WSON. 305

Florida," is really essentially southern in its range, occurring
sparingly on the banks of the Humber near Toronto, (only one
bush six or seven feet high was seen in I860,) and a few other
favoured spots in the extreme southern parts of the Province of
Ontario.

There is also the spice-bush, Lindera Benzoin, of Meissner
in DeCandolle's Prodromus, and of Hortus Kewensis, iii, p. 89,,
located in the latter as " Am. Bor." This is not Adamson's
genus Lindera (1763), now referred to Myrrhis, Tourn., (Umbel-
liferse), but that established later by Thunberg, Diss. Nov. Gen.,
iii, p. 44, (1783). This is the Laurus Benzoin of Linngeus, Sp.
Plantar-urn, p. 370, amplified by Michaux in the Fl. Bor. Am. into
L. pseudo-Benzoin, for the obvious purpose of preventing con-
fusion of this lauraceous plant with a conspicuous one belonging
to the Styracaceae, viz., the Siamese Styrax Benzoin of Dryander
(Phil. Trans., Ixxvii, 308, t. 12,) which yields gum benzoin, and
was called Benzoin officinale by Hayne. (Buchanan-Hamilton
used the name Laurus Benzoin, according to Wallich's Cata-
logue of Indian plants, for Cinnamomum obtusijolium).

Our American plant, which forms a bush from eight to ten
feet high, was named Benzoin odoriferum by Nees von Esenbeck
(Laurin.. 497). The berries yield an aromatic oil; the wood and
bark are also highly aromatic, and, as this plant is said to have
been used in the United States during the first American war,
as a substitute for allspice, it may be responsible for the
American tradition of wooden nutmegs. It is known by the
several names of spice-bush, spice-wood, spice-berry, fever-wood,
&c. Dr. Lindley, in Flora Medica, indicates its range thus :
Low moist places, damp shady woods, from Canada to Florida.

Rhus copallina, Sumach.

Azalea lutea.

Vitis aestivalis. — The Summer Grape. The bunches bore
bunches of ripe fruit, from the seeds of which plants are being
raised for comparison with more northern forms.

Ilex opaca. — The American Holly, a species that closely
resembles in habit, its bright shining evergreen foliage, ,the

306 THE KENTUCKY FLORA. — LAWSON.

English Holly, with which it is often cultivated in English
gardens.

Stuartia pentagyna was named by Linnaeus in compliment
to John Stuart (Lord Bute), who was a prominent patron of
botany in his time, and author of a remarkable book, of which
some account has been recently given in the Journal of Botany.

Diospyros Virginiana. — The Date Plum, with large ripe
fruit on the specimens, like ordinary plums in size and form.

Resemblance to our Nova Scotiau flora is seen in the occur-
rence, in southern Kentucky, of Rhododendron maximum, the
magnificent species brought from Ship Harbour, N. S., by the
late Robert Morrow, many years ago (the history of which is
given in our Transactions), and of such plants as Vaccinium
stamineum, the widely spread Viburnum d-ceri folium, found
by Cormack and De la Pylaie in Newfoundland, Richardson and
Drummond from Lake Huron to the Saskatchewan, and Scouler
and Douglas at Vancouver, and other species of which specimens
were exhibited. Several of the ferns are identical with Nova
Scotian species, such as Lastrea Noveboracevsis and Polypodium
vulgare, two of our common species, and the rarer AspleniwW
Trichomanes. There is also the Walking-leaf Fern, which,
although generally regarded as a southern species, occurs in
several parts of Ontario, as at High Falls, Portland Township,
Oxford, Hamilton, Ancaster, Lake Medad, Wolfe Island, Owen
Sound, and Ottawa, — having been also found at Montreal.
Mr. Kearney's collection includes the beautiful and still more
southern mountain spleen-wort, Asplenium montanum, of
which fine, large tufts were shown.

III. — ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS CONTAINING THE DOUBLE SULPHATE OF
COPPER AND POTASSIUM, AND OF MIXTURES OF EQUI-
MOLECULAR SOLUTIONS OF ZlNC AND COPPER SUL-
PHATES. — BY E. H. ARCHIBALD, B. So., Dalhousie
College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacGregor, 21st February, 1898.)

In a paper,* read before this Society last October, I showed
that for mixtures of solutions of Potassium and Sodium Sulphate,
when not more concentrated than one equivalent gramme-
molecule per litre, it was possible, by the aid of the dissociation
theory of electrolysis, and by employing Prof. MacGregor's
graphical methodf for the determination of the. ionization
coefficients in the mixture, to calculate the conductivity within
or but little beyond the limits of an error of obsesvation. The
conductivity of mixtures of solutions of Potassium and Sodium
Chloride, which were measured by Bender, have been calculated
by Prof. MacGregor, *f who found that for mixtures of these
solutions, more dilute than two equivalent gramme-molecules
per litre, it was possible to caclulate their conductivity within
the limits of experimental error. D. Mclntosh J has measured
and calculated the conductivity of mixtures of solutions of
Potassium and Hydrogen Chloride, and found the conductivity
calculable within the limits of experimental error, up to a mean
concentration of one equivalent gramme-molecule per litre.

At Prof. MacGregor's suggestion I have made the observa-
tions described in this paper, to find if the conductivity is also
calculable in the case of a solution containing a double salt, on
the assumption that the salt does not exist as a double salt in
the solution. The salt selected was the double Sulphate of
Copper and Potassium.

* Transactions N. S. Inst. Science, IX. (1897), p. 291.
t Transactions N. S. lust. Science, IX. (1896), p. 101.
t Transactions N. S. Inst. Science. IX. (1896), p. 122.

(307)

308 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

The work included the purification of the salts and of water,
preparation and analysis of a series of simple solutions of the
constituents of the double salt and determination of their con-
ductivity ; plotting curves, giving the relation of concentration
of ions to dilution for these simple solutions ; preparation of the
double salt and of its solutions, and measuring and calculating
their conductivity. The experiments were conducted in the
Physical and Chemical Laboratories of Dalhousie College.

Purification of Materials.

The salts were obtained as chemically pure, from Eirner and
Amend of New York. They were carefully re-crystallized three-
times. No iron or other impurities could be detected in the
Copper Sulphate.

The water used was purified by the method described by
Hulett,* except that a block tin condenser was used instead of a
platinum one. It was found to have at 18°C a conductivity
varying from 0.88 xlO"10 to 0.97 xl(r10 expressed in terms of
the conductivity of mercury at 0°C. It was kept in bottles
which had been used for this purpose for several years. In the
case of the more dilute solutions, where the water would
appreciably effect the conductivity of the solution, the conduc-
tivity of the water used in making up a solution was substracted
from the observed conducticity of that solution.

Experimental Methods.

Details as to the preparation and analysis of simple solutions
and the measurement of the conductivity, will be found in the
paper referred to above. I mention here only points in which
the procedure of the present paper differs from the procedure of
the former.

The only change in the apparatus was the use of a cylindrical
electrolytic cell in measuring the more dilute solutions. This,
cell was about 14 cms. long, and had an internal diameter of 3.3.
cms. It was provided with circular electrodes of stout platinum,

* Journ. Phys. Chera., Vol. J., p. 91.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.- -ARCHIBALD. 309

foil, not easily bent. The stems of these electrodes were fused
into small glass tubes, which passed through, and were sealed
to the ebonite cover of the cell. The electrodes were kept tirmly
in position by means of a rubber band, passing over the cover
.and around the bottom of the cell. This cell, being long, and of
the same diameter throughout, could, by varying the distance
between the electrodes, be used for solutions extending through
a wide range of dilution.

In preparing the double Sulphate of Copper and Potassium,
solutions of each salt were prepared of equal molecular concen-
tration. In the case of the Potassium Sulphate these solutions
were prepared by adding a known weight of anhydrous salt
(which had been dried to constant weight in an air bath) to
water so as to form a solution of known volume. For the Cop-
per Sulphate a solution was made up, analysed by determining
the sulphur present, and the required concentration obtained by
adding a known volume of water to a known volume of solution.
Equal volumes of these solutions were then mixed, and the
mixture evaporated at a temperature below 70°C. If the tem-
perature was allowed to rise above this point, a light green
substance was precipitated out, which, according to Brunner,*
is a basic double salt of Copper and Potassium.

When a sufficient quantity of the double salt had been pre-
pared, portions were weighed out and analysed for the purpose
of ascertaining the composition of the crystals. The method
adopted was the determination of the copper present by precipi-
tating it in the metallic state by means of pure zinc and hydro-
chloric acid in a platinum crucible. The results of three deter-
minations agreed to within 0.11 per cent and indicated crystals
of the composition CuK2(SO4)2 + 6 H20.

A solution of the double salt was then prepared and the con-
centration estimated by determination both of the copper and of
the sulphur present in a definite volume of the solution, the
results from the two methods agreeing to within 0.12 percent.

* Pogg. Ann., 50, 43.

310 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

More dilute solutions were prepared from this one by adding
water, and their concentrations calculated. Check analyses,
however, were made after any portion had gone through a
numher of dilutions, and, if found necessary, the calculated con-
centrations were corrected from these results.

As the method of calculation required a knowledge of any
appreciable change of volume which would occur on mixing
simple solutions of each of the salts, of such strength as to form
a solution of the same concentration as the solution of the double
salt under investigation, density determinations were made of
a number of such solutions, before and after mixing. These
measurements were carried out with Ostwald's form of Sprengel's
Pyknometer. They might be in error by about 5 in the tifth
decimal place. No change of volume was found to occur on
mixing the most concentrated solutions examined which would
appreciably effect the calculation of the conductivity. The
density of a mixture of the constituent solutions of the double
sulphate was found in the case of some of the stronger solutions
(the only ones tested) to be the same, within the limits of experi-
mental error, as the density of a solution of the double salts of
the same concentration.

For the simple solutions the ionization coefficient was taken
to be equal to the ratio of the specific molecular conductivity to
the specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution. The
values of the molecular conductivity at infinite dilution used in
the calculations were :— 1280 x 1CT8, and 1100 xlO~8 for Potas-
sium and Copper Sulphate respectively, as determined by
Kohlrausch.* I was not aware, at the time the calculations were
made, that he had given 1270 X 10~8, and 1120 X 10~8, as better
values for these salts.f I have, however, repeated some of the
calculations and find that the difference caused by using these
later values are in all cases less than 0.06 per cent.

* Wied. Ann., Vol. 26. p. 204.

t Wied. Ann., Vol. 50 (1893), p. 406.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.

311

Observations on Simple Solutions of Potassium and
Copper Sulphates.

TABLE I.

POTASSIUM SULPHATE.

COPPER SULPHATE.

Dilution.

Conductivity.

Concentration
of ions.

Dilution.

Conductivity.

Concentration
of ions.

400.0

1173

.002291

400.0

852

.001935

333.3

1166

.002732

333.3

832

.002266

285.7

1168

.003166

285.7

812

.002583

250.0

1152

.003600

250.0

795

.002890

222.2

1146

.004029

222.2

778

.003182

200.0

1140

.004453

200.0

763

.003465

181.8

1134

.00487

181.8

749

.00375

166.6

1130

.00530

166.6

738

.00403

150.0

1124

.00585

150.0

726

.00440

183.3

1116

.00654

133.3

713

.00486

125.0

1112

.00695

125.0

704

.00512

110.1

1104

.00783

110.1

687

.00567

100.0

1097

.00857

1000

676

.00614

80.0

1083

.01057

80.0

651

.00737

60.00

1062

.01382

60.00

616

.009133

50.00

1046

.01634

50.00

592.0

.01076

45.00

1037

.01800

45.00

579.0

.01169

35.71

1015

.02220

35.71

545.5

.01388

30.00

997

.02596

30.00

522.5

.01583

25.00

978

.03054

25.00

497.0

.01807

20.00

960

.03748

20.00

479.6

.02180

16.66

945

.04432

16.66

465.8

.02541

15.00

936

.0487

15.00

457.5

.02773

13.33

925

.0542

13.33

447.0

.0305

12.50

918

.0574

12.50

441.8

.0321

11.01

905

.0642

11.01

431.7

.0356

10.00

895

.0699

10.00

423.5

.0385

8.00

872

.0852

8.00

403.2

.0458

6.000

840

.1093

6.000

378.1

.0573

5.000

824

.1287

5.000

359.5

.0654

4.500

815

.1414

4.500

349.9

.0707

3571

792

.1731

3.571

329.0

.0837

3.000

775

.2018

3.000

318.0

.0963

2.500

756

.2363

2.500

304.5

.1110

2.000

736

.2877

2.000

288.2

.1310

1.500

709

.370

1.500

268.3

.1626

1.333

698

.409

1.333

261.3

.1781

1.101

679

.482

1.101

249.8

.2061

1.000

672

.525

1.000

242.1

.2200

.806

650

.630

.651

209.8

.292

.773

647

.654

.521

192.0

.335

312 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

The foregoing table, I, contains the necessary data for the
drawing of the ionic concentration-dilution curves for each salt.
Dilutions are expressed in terms of litres per equivalent gramme-
molecule of anhydrous salt at 18°C. The conductivities are
specific molecular conductivities (i. e. per gramme-equivalent) at
18°C, expressed in terms of 10"8 times the specific conductivity
of mercury at 0°C. The concentrations of ions are the ratios
of the specific molecular conductivity, to specific molecular con-
ductivity at infinite dilution, divided by the dilution.

Observations on the Double Sulphate Solutions.

Table II contains both the data for, and the results of, the
calculation of the conductivity of each solution of the double
sulphate examined, together with the observed values, and the
differences between observed and calculated values, expressed
as percentages. The concentrations of solutions are expressed in
terms of equivalent gramme-molecules of anhydrous salt per
litre at 18°C. The conductivities are specific conductivities at
18°C, expressed in terms of 10~8 times the specific conductivity
of mercury at 0°C. The concentration of ions common to the
two electrolytes in a solution, and the dilutions of the electro-
lytes in the solution, are obtained by Prof. MacGregor's graphical
method, on the assumption that a solution of double salt may
be made by mixing equal volumes of equi-molecular solutions of
the simple salts, and that, on mixing, the double salt does not
form The former is the number of dissociated gramme-equiva-
lents of either electrolyte, which on that assumption would be
present in the solution, divided by the volume in litres of the
portion of the solution occupied by it. In any one solution it
will have the same value for both electrolytes. The latter are
the volumes in litres of the portions of the solution occupied by
the respective electrolytes, divided by the number of gramme-
equivalents present. In each solution they will have different
values for the two electrolytes. The product of the former into
the value of the latter, in the case of either electrolyte gives the
ionization coefficient for that electrolyte in the solution.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.

313

TABLE II.

Concentration
of the Double Salt
Solutions.

Concen-
tration of
ions in the
Solution.

Dilution in the
Solution.

Conductivity of Double Salt
Solutions.

iCuK2(SO4)2.

JK2S04.

£CuSO4.

Calcu-
lated.

Observed.
504.1

Differences
per cent.

1.294

.4300

1.260

.284

535.9

+ 6.38

1.000

.3610

1.540

.460

447.0

423.5

+ 5.54

.909

.3350

1.682

.520

414.8

394.4

+ 5.17

.7500

.2875

2.000

.665

354.7

340.1

+ 4.29

.6666

.2615

2.226

.774

322.4

310.5

+ 3.83

.5000

.2072

2.910

1.090

254.9

246.3

+ 3.49

.4000

.1728

3.62

1.385

212.3

205.9

+ 3.11

.3333

.1480

4.29

1.710

181.7

176.7

+ 2.83

.2222

.1046

6.30

2.705

128.1

126.1

+ 1.59

.1666

.0816

8.32

3.68

99.85

99.21

+ 0.65

.1000

.0536

13.48

6.52

65.44

65.20

+ 0.37

.0909

.0494

14.76

7.26

60.34

60.21

+ 0.22

.0750

.0420

17.71

8.95

51.12

50.96

+ 0.31

.06666

.0379

19.80

10.21

46.13

46.26

-0.20

.05000

.0294

26.05

13.95

35.79

35.89

-0.28

.04000

.0242

32.3

17.66

29.43

29.40

+ 0.10

.03333

.0207

38.8

21.25

25.11

25.18

-0.28

.02222

.01455

56.5

33.5

17.64

17.59

+ 0.34

.01666

.01145

73.8

46.2

13.85

13.88

-0.22

.01000

.00729

119.0

81.0

8.784

8.760

+ 0.27

.00800

.00597

146.8

103.2

7.196

7.180

+ 0.22

.00750

.00565

156.0

110.5

6.797

6.776

+ 0.31

.00600

.00463

191.8

141.4

5.569

5.584

-0.26

.00500

.00393

228.4

171.6

4.719

4.730

-0.23

It appears from the above table that while in the case of
solutions with concentration ranging from the weakest examined
up to about 0.1 gramme-equivalent per litre, calculated and
observed values agree within the limit of observational error,
(which, as in the former paper, was estimated at 0.25 per cent),
the differences between observed and calculated values for solu-

314 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

tions with concentration ranging from 0.1 to the highest
examined. 1.294, are beyond the limit of error, and are much
greater than the differences observed for mixtures of Potassium
and Sodium Sulphate, or for any mixtures yet examined of a
corresponding concentration. This result would appear there-
fore to support the view that the double salt does exist as such
to a certain extent at any rate in solution.

Comparison of the Conductivity , of Solutions of the Double
Salt with Equivalent Mixtures of Solutions of
its Constituents.
TABLE III.

Concentration.

Conductivity
of Mixture.

Conductivity of
Double Salt.

Differences
per cent.

1.000

425.7

423.5

+ 0.52

.909

396.3

3944

+ 0.48

.7500

341.2

340.1

+ 032

.6666

311.6

310.5

+ 0.35

.5000

246.9

246.3

+ 024

.4000

206.4

205.9

+ 0.24

.3333

176.4

176.7

-0.17

.2222

126.0

126.1

-0.07

.1666

99.33

99.21

+ 0.12

.1000

65.31

65.20

+ 0.16

.0909

60.29

60.21

+ 0.13

.07500

51.02

50.96

+ 0.11

.06666

46.20

46.26

-0.08

.05000

35.86

35.89

-0.08

.04000

29.45

29.40

+ 0.17

.03333

25.14

25.18

-0.15

.02222

17.62

17.59

+ 0.17

.01666

13.86

13.88

-0.14

.01000

8.770

8.760

+ 0.11

.00750

6.781

6.776

+ 0.07

.00600

5.574

5.584

-0.17

.00500

4.724

4.730

-0.12

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 315

It was thought, therefore, that it would be interesting to see
to what extent a mixture of equal volumes of equi- molecular
solutions of the constituents of the double sulphate of Potassium
and Copper corresponded to a solution of the double salt of the
same concentration. For that purpose mixtures were prepared
of the same concentration as the solutions of the double salt
previously examined. Table III gives the concentrations
common to the mixtures and the solutions of the double salt,
the observed conductivity of each, and the differences between
the two values expressed as percentages. Concentrations and
conductivities are expressed in terms of the same units as in
Table II.

The results given in Table III show that in the case of the
weaker solutions the differences are within the limits of experi-
mental error, but that in the case of the first four solutions the
errors of observation would need to be of opposite sign for the
two solutions in each case in order to account for the differences
observed. In the stronger solutions, therefore, the conductivity
of the mixture would appear to be greater than the conductivity
of the equally concentrated solutions of the double salt. This
might be due to the molecules of the double salt not having
become broken up in solution, to the extent that they are in a
mixture of solutions of its constituents. Similar results for
Potassium Chrome Alum have been observed by Jones and
Mackay.*

Observations on Solutions containing Zinc aud Copper

Sulphates.

As the large differences between the calculated and observed
valuer of the conductivity, in the case of the double sulphate
solutions, were still unaccounted for, I thought it advisable to
see how closely it was possible to predict the conductivity of
mixtures of equi-molecular solutions of each of the constituents
of the double salt with some other sulphate with which it does
not form a double salt of the same nature as the Potassium

* Am. Chem. Jour., Vol. XIX,, No. 2, p. 83.

316 OX THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

Copper salt. For this purpose Zinc Sulphate was selected to be
associated with Copper Sulphate and Sodium Sulphate with
Potassium Sulphate.

In Table IV are given the data for the drawing of the ionic
concentration-dilution curve for Zinc Sulphate. Conductivities,
dilutions and concentrations of ions are expressed in terms of

TABLE IV.

ZINC SULPHATE.

Dilution.

Conductivity.

Concentration
of ions.

100.0

684

.00633

80.0

665

.00770

66.66

647

.00899

50.00

610

.01129

40.00

582

.01347

33. ,33

555

.01541

25.00

520

.01925

22.22

508

.02117

20.00

500

.02314

16.66

484.0

.0269

13.33

463.0

.0322

12.50

455.0

.0337

10.00

430.4

.0399

8.00

414.0

.0479

6.666

400.0

.0556

5.000

375.0

.0694

4.000

354.5

.0821

3.333

341.0

.0947

2.500

317.0

.1174

2.222

309.0

.1287

2.000

302.0

.1398

1.666

290.5

.1614

1.333

270.6

.1879

1.176

260.8

.2052

1.000

248.5

.2300

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.

317

the same units as in Table I. In calculating the concentration
of ions, the value of the molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution was taken to be 1080, according to Kohlrausch's* deter-
mination.

Mixtures of equal volumes of equi-molecular solutions of
Zinc and Copper Sulphates were then prepared, and their con-
ductivity measured. In Table V are given the necessary data
for the calculation of the conductivity of each mixture examined,
together with the observed and calculated values and the

o

differences expressed as percentages. The different values are
expressed in terms of the same units as in Table II.

TABLE V.

Concentration of the
Constituent Solu-
tions.

Concen-
tration of
ions in the
Mixture.

Dilution in the
Mixture.

Conductivity of Mixture.

£ Zn SO4-

iCuSO4.

J Zn SO .

JCuSO4.

Calcu-
lated.

Observed.

Differences
per cent.

l.()00

1.000

.2252

1.032

.968

245.1

245.4

-0.12

.850

.850

.2006

1.212

1.140

215.6

215.3

+ 0.13

.7500

.7500

.1832

1.382

1.284

199.4

199.7

-0.15

.6000

.6000

.1562

1.744

1.588

170.1

170.5

-0.23

.5000

.5000

.1354

2.080

1.920

147.5

147.3

+ 0.12

.4000

.4000

.1144

2.600

2.400

124.6

124.5

+ 0.08

.2000

.2000

.0674

5.22

4.79

73.30

73.20

+ 0.13

.1000

.1000

.0393

10.22

9.78

42.76

42.83

-0.16

.0850

.0850

.0346

12.10

11.42

37.68

37.63

+ 0.13

.0750

.0750

.0314

13.80

12.86

33.82

33.88

-0.17

.06000

.06000

.02618

17.26

16.06

28.50

28.55

-0.17

.05000

.05000

.02245

20.70

19.30

24.05

24.01

+ 0.16

.04000

.04000

.01866

26.1

24.0

20.32

20.36

-0.19

.02000

.02000

.01105

51.6

48.4

12.03

12.05

-0.15

.01250

.01250

.00753

82.1

77.9

7.837

7.830

+ 0.08

Wied. Ann. Vol. xxvi (1885), p. 195.

318 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

These results show that in the case of solutions containing
equi-molecular quantities of Zinc and Copper Sulphate up to 1
gramme-equivalent per litre, the calculated and observed values
of the conductivity agree within the limits of observational
error.

Observations on Solutions Containing Sodium and
Potassium Sulphate.

Table VI contains the results of calculations and observations
on some mixtures of equal volumes of equi-molecular solutions
of Sodium and Potassium Sulphates, of the same range of con-
centration as those of the Copper-Potassium Sulphate solutions
and Zinc-Copper mixtures examined. The data for the drawing
of the ionic concentration-dilution curve for Potassium Sulphate

TABLE VI.

Concentration of the
Constituent Solu-
tions.

Concen-
tration of
ions in the
Mixture.

Dilution in the
Mixtnrc.

Conductivity of Mixture.

*K2S04.

*Na2S04.

*K2S04.

iNa2S04.

Calcu-
lated.

Observed.

Differences
per cent.

1.000

1.000

.483

1.096

.904

570.0

568.5

+ 0.26

.909

.909

.448

1.202

.998

528.1

526.6

+ 0.29

.750

.750

.384

1.432

1.234

4519

452.8

-0.19

.6666

.6666

.351

1.605

1.395

413.3

414.4

-0.26

.5000

.5000

.276

2.105

1.895

323.8

324.6

-0.24

.4000

.4000

.228

2.60

2.40

267.7

267.2

+ 0.19

.2000

.2000

.1254

5.14

486

147.1

147.3

-0.13

.1000

.1000

.0696

10.06

9.94

81.40

81.49

v -Oil

.0800

.0800

.0571

12.56

12.44

66.82

66.70

+ 0.18

.0750

.0750

.0540

13.40

13.26

6312

63.02

+ 0.15

.06CO

.0600

.0441

16.76

16.56

51.60

51.67

-0.13

.0500

.0500

.0372

20.16

19.84

43.48

43.51

-0.07

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 319

are given in Table I. Similar data for Sodium Sulphate are
given in my previous paper.* As the above data, in the case of
the Potassium Sulphate, are better than those given in my
previous paper, I have thought it well to make new observations
and calculations on these mixtures. Concentrations, dilutions,
concentrations of ions, and conductivities, are expressed in terms
of the same units as in Table II.

The results of this table show that the calculated and
observed values of the conductivity of mixtures of equi-
molecular solutions of Potassium and Sodium Sulphates agree
within the limits of observational error, at least up to a concen-
tration of 1 gramme-equivalent per litre. The observations of
my former paper, in which the mixtures examined were not
equi-molecular in concentration, gave a similar result.

Conclusions.

An examination of Tables II, V, and VI, will show, that in
the case of the Potassium-Copper sulphate solutions, the differ-
ences between the observed and calculated values of the
conductivity, are all of the same sign and positive from a con-
centration of O.I to one of 1.294 equivalent gramme-molecules
per litre, that the differences increase with the concentration,
reaching in the case of the strongest solution examined
6.38 per cent.

For the mixtures of Sodium and Potassium Sulphates and
of Zinc and Copper Sulphates examined, the difference for a like
concentration are not greater than 0.30 per cent. Now, errors
are caused in the calculations by taking the ionization coeffi-
cients to be the ratios of the specific molecular conductivity at
infinite dilution, which is rigorously true only for infinitely
dilute solutions, and also by taking the value of the specific
molecular conductivity at infinite dilution for an electrolyte in a
mixture to be the same as the value found by observations on
the simple solutions, which is strictly true only for infinitely

* Loc. cit.

320 CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.

dilute mixtures. But the fact that the differences are so large
where a double salt may exist, would seem to furnish evidence
for the assumption, that in the more concentrated solutions of
the double Sulphate of Potassium and Copper, the molecules of
the double salt are not all broken up, but exist to some extent
as a double salt in the solution.

For solutions of the Copper-Potassium sulphate, more dilute
than 0.1 equivalent gramme-molecules per litre, as for the Zinc-
Copper and Sodium-Potassium sulphate mixtures, through as
wide a range of dilution as here examined, the differences are
within the limit of observational error and change sign fre-
quently, which seems to show that they are due to accidental
errors. It is thus possible to calculate the conductivity of these
solutions and mixtures ; and it would follow that, as far as the
conductivity measurements can show, for the more dilute solu-
tions of Copper-Potassium sulphate there is no double salt
existing as such in the solutions.

IV. — ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF. AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS CONTAINING THE CHLORIDES OF SODIUM
AND BARIUM. — BY T. C. McKAY, B. A., Dalfiousie
College, Halifax, N. S.

(Read Ikth March 1898.)

The object of this research was to test the possibility of
calculating the conductivity of mixtures of solutions of the
chlorides of sodium and barium by means of the dissociation
theory of electrolytic conduction. It was undertaken at the
suggestion of Prof. J. G. MacGregor, and was conducted in the
Physical and Chemical Laboratories of Dalhousie College.

The method of calculation is fully described in one of Prof .
MacGregor's papers.* It may suffice here to state that by a
graphical treatment of the dilutions and ionic concentrations of
series of simple solutions of the two electrolytes, the magnitude
of the dilution of each salt, in the portion or region of a
mixture which it may be supposed to occupy, can be found,
together with the common value of the concentration of ions of
the electrolytes in their respective regions. These having been
found, their products give the ionizatipn coefficients in the
mixture, and the conductivity of the mixture is then obtained
from the expression of the dissociation theory for the conduc-
tivity, viz. : —

+v )

where the te's represent the ionization coefficients of the electro-
lytes in the mixture, the ris the concentrations of the constituent
solutions (in gramme-equivalents per litre), the v's the volumes
of the constituent solutions, the few's the specific molecular con-
ductivities (i. e., per gramme-equivalent) at infinite dilution, of
the electrolytes in the mixture, and p the ratio of the volume of
the mixture to the sum of the volumes of the constituent solu-

* N. S. Inst. of Sci., Trasactions, Vol. ix, p. 101.

(321)

322 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

tions. The method of procedure in calculation will be more
exactly described after the experimental determinations have

been dealt with.

To obtain the experimental data required in the calculation,
it is necessary to make up a long series of solutions of each salt
and measure their conductivity. The volumes of the constituent
solutions before mixing must be known, and in cases where there
is an appreciable change of volume on mixing the densities of
the single solutions and of the mixture must be found. These
determinations will be taken up in order.

Purity of Salts.

Of the salts used the sodium chloride had been furnished
by Merck, the barium chloride by Eimer & Amend of New
York. The former was tested for metals of the alkali and
alkaline earth groups, as well as for iron. No indication of
these was found. The barium chloride was tested by heating
in a Bunsen flame. No impurities were discovered in this way.
A further indication that the salts were sufficiently pure for
the purpose in view is given by the comparison of the conduc-
tivities with those of Kohlrausch, as shown farther on in the
paper. All the salt, however, used in the experiments described
here, was recrystallized once by the writer.

Purity of Water.

The water used in making up the solutions was obtained by
adding potassium hydroxide, about 1 gramme to a litre, to ordi-
nary distilled water, and redistilling by means of a copper boiler
lined with tin, the distillate being collected in a block-tin worm.
The conductivity of the water before the potassium hydroxide
was added was about 1.87 in terms of the conductivity of
mercury at 0°CxlO~10. After distillation the conductivity
ranged from 1.1 to 0.95, the latter being that of the water used
for the very dilute solutions.

At an earlier stage of the experiments water was purified by
methods derived from a paper by G. A. Hulett.* Instead of the

* Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. I, No. 2.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — M^KAY. 323

platinum tube which he used, however, for condensing the water
vapor, a block-tin tube was used. Generally, too, only the
second distillation described by him was carried out, ordinary
distilled water of a conductivity of 1.87 being treated with
Ba(OH)2, 50 c.c. of a saturated solution to two litres. The water
distilled in this last way had a conductivity of about 1.11.

Methods of Making up Solutions.

The general plan adopted in making up a series of solutions
of any salt was to dilute strong solutions by means of pipettes
and measuring-flasks. In measuring off volumes of strong solu-
tions the pipettes were rarely of smaller volume than 50 c.c. The
flasks were filled to the mark when the salt solution and water
added had been well mixed and had attained a temperature at
or near 18°C. The calibration of the flasks and pipettes will be
described in a future paragraph. Analyses were made of two
or three of the solutions thus formed, of intermediate concentra-
tions, and from these the concentrations of the other solutions of
any one series were determined.

To obtain solutions with smaller differences of concentration
than could be conveniently got by the above method, a known
quantity of one of the solutions of a series, generally a volume
of 100 c.c., was placed in the dry conductivity cell and diluted by
small additions of water down to the next solution in the series.
5 c.c. were generally added four or five\ times from a pipette.
After each addition of water had been made, and the liquid well
mixed, a conductivity measurement was made. An analysis of
the final solution was also made if the solution was not very
dilute. In that case it was assumed that the increase in the
volume of the solution was equal to the volume of water added.
With the stronger solutions made up in this way, the shrinkage
in the combined volumes of solution and water as shown by the
experimentally determined concentration of the final solution
was apportioned equally among the intermediate dilutions.
Judging from the course of the curves representing conductivity
and concentration good results were attainable is this way up to

324 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

a concentration of 0.6 gramme-equivalent per litre. Above that
concentration the solutions, which were to be used in obtaining
data for the calculations, were made up outside the cell. Two
sets of solutions made in the cell in which the concentrations of
the final solutions were calculated by a comparison of their con-
ductivity with the conductivity of other solutions of approxi-
mately the same, and of known, concentration, were used to give
an idea of the course of the conductivity-concentration curves,
between 0.7 and 1 gramme-equivalents per litre, but in none of
the mixtures calculated and tabulated at the end of the paper
does the determination of the ionisation coefficients require the
use of these portions of the curves.

To test the validity, within the limits of experimental error,,
of the assumption, that, in the case of dilute solutions, the
volumes of the latter are increased by the volume of water
added, I made use of Kohlrausch and Hallwachs' observations
of the specific gravity of solutions of sodium chloride.* For
solutions whose concentration is not greater than 0.2 gramme-
molecule per litre, the specific gravity may be represented to 1
in the fifth place of decimals by the equation

s = I + . 04244?™ - . 003m2,

where s represents the specific gravity at 18°C and m the
concentration in gramme-molecules per litre. The following is-
a comparison of the values obtained by this equation with those
obtained by Kohlrausch and Hallwachs : —

m.

s (by formula).

s (K. & H.)

.2

1.008*68

1.008358

.1

1.004214

1.004202

.05

1.002115

1.002111

Writing then k for the first constant in the formula, and I for
the second, W for the weight of water in grammes, w for the
weight of salt when divided by a the value of the molecular

Wicd. Ann., 53 (1894) p. 14.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — MCKAY. 325

weight of the substance (in this case 58.5), and D for the density
of water at 18°C, we obtain : —

W+aiv j _ kw w2

D v v r2'

Then differentiating with respect to v, since to is a constant,

dv .4-

SW D(l-t% = A1

v*

which becomes in the above particular case

1

.003m2) '

Therefore when m is sufficiently small to make the quantity
Zra2 neligible, the increase of the volume of the solution is equal
to the volume of the water added, since in that case

1 dv _ ,

D dW~

Calibration of Flasks, Pipettes and Burettes.

The flasks were calibrated by weighing them empty and
again when filled with distilled water of known temperature up
to the mark. The error in calibrating a 250 c.c. flask was deter-
mined by a large number of measurements to be possibly .03
per cent. No flasks of less volume than 200 c. c. were used in
making up solutions.

With the pipettes, the weight of water of known temperature
which they delivered was found. In doing this the point was
always held against the receiving vessel, and the liquid which
remained in the point after the delivery was removed by blow-
ing sharply into it once. The amount of water delivered in
this way was determinable to about .005 c. c.

The burettes used held 50 c. c. and were graduated to tenths
of 1 c. c. To calibrate them accurately it was found necessary
to determine the volume of the tube for every 2 c. c., and in
some cases for smaller lengths. These determinations were
checked a large number of times by weighing the volumes of
water between very various points on the tube. Readings could
be made to .01 c. c., and the calibrations were carried nearly, if

326 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

not quite to that accuracy. In using them for making analyses
volumes of 30 c. c. or over were delivered.

Analyses.

The strength of NaCl solutions was found by volumetric
determination of the chlorine according to Mohr's method.
Many of them also, particularly the stronger ones, were made
up by weighing dry NaCl, which had been kept in a desiccator,
in calibrated flasks, and filling up with water.

The Bad 2 solutions were analyzed by precipitating the
barium with Na2SO4. The barium sulphate was collected on
filters and its amount determined in the ordinary way. In
many cases also the amount of chlorine in the filtrate was
determined volumetrically.

The volumetric analyses were not so reliable as the gravi-
metric, the error of the former sometimes reaching five-tenths
of one per cent, though generally in the direct analyses of the
chlorine, one or two tenths.

Conductivity Measurements.

The conductivity of the solutions whose strength had been
determined in these various ways was measured by Kohlrausch's
telephone method. The bridge wire, made of German silver,
was divided into thousandths, which again admitted of easy
subdivision by the eye into tenths. Of a set of four platinum
resistances in the instrument, viz., 1000 ohms, 100, 10, and 1,
the first two only were used. These were certified by Queen
&; Co., of Philadelphia, to be correct to one-fiftieth of one per
cent. A number of solutions were compared with both of these
resistances, and the difference between the conductivities thus
measured lay within the limits of error.

To contain the solutions during the measurement of conduc-
tivity, two cells of different type were used. One was in the
shape of all-tube, the middle part being about f inch in diameter
and 5 inches long, while the two arms had each a diameter of If

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — MCKAY. 327

inches. The electrodes were of stout platinum and supported
by platinum wires passing through the ebonite covers of the
cell. The diameter of the electrodes was 1J inches. The second
cell was a cylindrical vessel of diameter 1 J inches. The elec-
trodes, whose diameter was nearly as great, were also of
platinum. The platinum wires leading from them were fused
into glass tubes, in the interior of which they made connection
through mercury with the outside wires. The glass tubes were
moveable through holes in the cover of the cell so that the
distance between the electrodes could be adjusted. For any
given adjustment the tubes were held in place with sealing-
wax. The solutions, whose conductivity could be measured in
this cell, ranged from the most dilute to, in the case of sodium
chloride, about .02 gramme-equivalent per litre. The range of
of NaCl solutions which could be measured in the first cell
varied from 0.1 to 5 gramme-equivalent per litre. The electrodes
of both cells had been platinized in a solution containing 1
grm. of platinum tetrachloride and .008 grm. of lead acetate to
30 grm. of water.

Measurements were made near the temperature 18°C, almost
always within 0.3 degree of that temperature. The thermometer
could be read to .01 degree, and was corrected by compari-
son with a standard thermometer tested at the Physikalisch-
Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin. The thermometer was kept in
a separate tube in the bath ; and it was found, on several occa-
sions, by placing another chermometer in the cell itself, that the
temperature of the liquid in the cell could be read off from the
thermometer in the tube in almost all cases to less than 0.1
degree. Where the measurements were not made at exactly 18°,
correction was made by means of the temperature coefficients
given in Fitzpatrick's Table in the British Association Reports.*

The bridge wire was calibrated by Strouhal and Barus'
method. The resistances for this purpose were made of German
silver wires, whose ends were soldered to short pieces of thick

* Nottingham, 1893.

328 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

copper wire. In order to draw the correction curve more
accurately, the wire was calibrated by this means in a number
of different fractions. The possible error of a conductivity
measurement, when the reading was made at the middle of the
bridge wire, was shown by a number of determinations to be
about one-tenth of one per cent. For solutions of BaCl2 and
NaCl measured in the cell first described, the reading would be
made at this part of the wire if the concentration was about 0.3
gramme-equivalent. For 0.5 gramme-equivalent solutions, with
the reading at or near .64 of the length of the bridge, two-tenths
per cent, for normal solutions four-tenths. With the cell for
dilute solutions, the possible error, wherever the reading might
be made, was about six-tenths. Here other sources of error,
such as change of capacity of the cell, were greater than the
bridge error. In order to obtain a good minimum also a high
clear note from the induction coil was necessary when a very
dilute solution was in the cell, and this could not always be
obtained.

The capacity of each cell was determined by a comparison of
the conductivities of the solutions measured in it, with the values
given for corresponding solutions by Kohlrausch. The numbers
given below, under the headings NaCl and BaCl2 are the ratios
of the conductivities of solutions measured in the first cell, to the
specific conductivities of corresponding solutions, as measured
by Kohlrausch.

RATIO.

Concentration.

NaCl.

iBaC!2.

5

.2134

3

.2119

1

.2135

.2148

0.5

.2126

.2131

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — McKAY. 329

The mean of these ratios is .2131. This was taken as the
calibration constant, and by means of it the conductivities of
solutions measured in the first cell were expressed in Kohl-
rausch's units. The capacity of the second cell was determined
in the same manner. It will be seen that the solutions above,
which show the closest agreement with Kohlrausch's values, are
those which could be measured near the middle of the bridge,
viz., those of concentrations 0.5 and 5 gramme-equivalents per
litre.

Observations on Simple Solutions.

The following tables give the concentrations and the conduc-
tivities of the simple solutions of NaCl and BaCl2, by means of
which the curves that show the relation between the ionic con-
centration and dilution were drawn.* The concentrations are
expressed in gramme-equivalents per litre for the temperature
of 18°C. The conductivities are expressed in terms of the
conductivity of mercury at 0°C, multiplied by 10~8, the tempera-
ture being also 18°C.

* See paragraph on making up of solutions.

330 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

NaCl.

i BaCl2.

Concentration.

Conductivity.

Concentration.

Conductivity.

5.013

2002

2.775

1390

3.010

1594

2.317

1245

2005

1212

2.029

1139

1.994

1211

.6796

469.8

.9986

693.1

.6404

447.7

.7964

576.3

.6005

424.2

.5979

444.9

.5661

403.7

.5016

380.7

.5060

366.4

.4781

366.3

.4800

349.3

.4383

335.1

.4580

334.7

.4194

323.2

.4016

297.5

.4030

311.3

.3850

287.3

.3360

263.5

.3044

234.2

.2996

237.3

.2747

212.6

.2477

198.7

.2018

160.1

.2177

175.5

.1915

153.3

.2004

162.9

.01113

11.12

.1935

158.3

.00955

9.66

.1818

149.3

.00837

8.54

.01002

9.64

.00744

7.62

.00915

8.78

.00667

6.85

.00839

8.11

.00775

7.54

.00672

6.54

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — MCKAY. 331

The conductivity of the water used in making up the above
solutions did not need to be taken into account. The water
used in making up the weakest NaCl solution had a conductiv-
ity equal to less than two-tenths of one per cent of the conduc-
tivity of the solution itself.

Density.

Recurring to the formula for the conductivity of a mixture
of two electrolytes, given at the beginning of the paper, it will
be seen that the ratio of the volume of the mixture to the sum
of the volumes of the constituent solutions is required. When
equal volumes are mixed as was the case in the present deter-
minations, this ratio is equal to the ratio which the mean density
of the constituent solutions has to the density of the mixture.
The ratio is generally so nearly equal to 1 as to be negligible.
Still its value was calculated for the mixtures of solutions above
0.2 gramme-equivalent per litre. The greatest difference from
unity in the mixtures studied was .0017. The densities of the
simple solutions were taken from Kohlrausch and Hallwachs'
determinations in the case of NaCl, and from the British
Association report before referred to in the case of BaCl2. The
densities of the mixtures were determined by the writer by
means of Ostwald's form of Sprengel's pycnometer. The error
might be about 1 in the fourth place of decimals.

Preparation of Mixtures.

The mixtures examined were in all cases mixtures of equal
volumes. They were made either with the same pipette or with
pipettes of equal volume. These were filled with the respective
solutions at the temperature 18°C, and delivered into dry flasks
or bottles.

Procedure in Calculation.

In making a calculation of the conductivity of any mixture,
the conductivities and concentrations of the single solutions were
first plotted on coordinate paper. From the curves thus obtained

332 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

the conductivities at regular intervals were read off and divided
by the value of p» for that salt, Kohlrausch's values being
employed, viz., for sodium chloride 1030 and for barium chloride
1150, the conductivity unit being the same as hitherto. The
quotients thus obtained were taken to be the values of the ionic
concentrations. These last, divided by the corresponding dilu-
tions, were plotted against the dilutions, and from the curves
thus obtained, by Prof. MacGregor's graphical process, the
common value of the ionic concentration of the electrolytes in
their respective regions in the mixture and their dilutions
throughout these regions, were found. The products of the
latter values and the former gave the corresponding ionization
coefficients. The plotting was done on very various scales as
was necessary in order to plot all the curves so that readings
could be made to 0.1 per cent. The calculation of the conductiv-
ity required three readings from the curves representing ionic
concentration and dilution. Supposing these curves correct, the
error involved in making these readings might amount to 0.15 or
0.2 per cent.

Results of Calculations.

The following table gives the results of the calculation of the
conductivity of the mixtures. The first two columns give the
concentration in gramme-equivalents per litre of the NaCl and
Bad 2 solutions before mixing, their volumes being then equal.
The third, fourth, and fifth columns give the ionic concentrations
and the dilutions of each salt in its portion of the mixture, each
of these being expressed in terms of the units and quantities
before described. The sixth and seventh columns give the
specific conductivity at 18°C, in terms of 10~8 times the specific
conductivity of mercury as calculated, and the value of the same
determined experimentally. The eighth column gives the excess
of the calculated over the measured value expressed in fractions
of 1 per cent of the latter.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — MCKAY.

333

C one en tration.

Concen-
tration of
ions in the
Mixture.

Dilution in Mixture.

Conductivity.

NaCl.

i BaCl2.

NaCl.

JBaCl2.

Calcu-
lated.

Measured.

Differ-
ence
per cent.

3.012

2.029

1.282

.4439

.3283

1373

1380

— .5

2.007

2.775

1.195

.4886

.3672

1304

1310

— .5

2.007

2.029

1.079

.5580

.4322

1167

1171

— .4

.9986

.3044

.4501

1.601

1.315

474.8

473

+ .4

.7964

.3044

.3853

1.903

1.586

407.8

407.6

+ .1

.5979

.6404

.4084

1.658

1.574

445.2

444.9

+ .1

,4994

.4048

.3128

2.377

2.009

337.7

339.8

— .6

.4994

.3044

.2852

2.641

2.289

307.9

307.4

+ .2

.4013

.4048

.2803

2.688

2.275

304.0

304.9

— .3

.4013

.3044

.2457

3.098

2.635

270.6

270.8

^

.00602

.01113

.00757

123.9

116.8

8.577

8.56

+ .2

.01002
.01002
.00602

.00667
.01113
.00667

.00756 116.9
.00961 96.54
.00582,162.9

124.0
90.85
153.3

8.166
10.38
6.36

8.159
10.36
6.322

+ .1

+ .2
+ .6

In the case of solutions of from 0.3 to 0.5 gramme-equivalent
per litre, which can be measured in the first cell, under the most
favorable circumstances, the combined error of conductivity and
analysis may amount to about 0.3 per cent. In the case of
normal solutions it may reach 0.6 per cent, and in the case of very
dilute solutions 0.6 per cent also. Hence, except in the case of
the first solution of the above table and one other, the differ-
ences of the last column are all within the limits of experi-
mental error. Also, the number of positive differences is about
the same as the number of negative, and except that in the
three strongest solutions they are all negative, and in the

334 CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — McKAY.

four weakest all positive, the differences exhibit the alternation
of sign which we would expect if they were due to accidental
errors.

The results of the experiments, therefore, lead the writer to
conclude that it is possible, by means of the dissociation theory,
to calculate the conductivity of mixtures of solutions of the
chlorides of sodium and barium at least for solutions whose
concentrations are not above 2 gramme-equivalents per litre.

V. — ON THE RELATION OF THE SURFACE TENSION AND
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CERTAIN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
TO THEIR STATE OF IONIZATION. — BY E. H. ARCHIBALD,
B. Sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacGregor, December 13th, 1897 J

In a paper communicated to this Society last winter, Prof.
MacGregor* pointed out that according to the ionization concep-
tion of the constitution of a solution of an electrolyte, in the
case of a solution in which the dissociation was not complete,
the difference between the physical properties of the solution
and those of its solvent, must be compounded of the differences
produced by the undissociated molecules and by the free ions,
He drew from this that it should be possible to express the
numerical values of the various properties of such a solution
in terms of the state of ionization of the electrolytes it contained.
In sufficiently dilute simple solutions where the molecules dis-
sociated or undissociated might be regarded as being far enough
apart to render mutual action between them impossible, such
an expression would be of the simple form,

S=Sw+k (1 — a) n + l an ............... ............... (1),

where S is the numerical value of any property of a solution
(density, surface tension, &c.,) Sw that of the same property of
water under the same physical conditions, n the number of
equivalent gramme-molecules per unit volume, a the ionization
coefficient of the electrolyte in the solution, and I and k
constants, called ionization constants, for any given property of
any given electrolyte. In the case of mixtures of simple solu-
tions, provided no change of volume occurs on mixing, the
expression will be of the form,

]_ -r v a ~t~

&c ........... (2),

Tran. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. IX., p. 219.

(335)

336 ON THE SURFACE TENSION AND

where the n'a are the numbers of equivalent gramme-molecules
contained in unit volume of the original simple solutions, the as
are the ionization coefficients in the mixture of the respective
electrolytes mixed, the vs the respective volumes of the original
simple solutions mixed, and the Ts and k's the ionization con-
stants found for the simple solutions of the several electrolytes.

Prof. MacGregor applied the above expressions to the calcu-
lation of the density, thermal expansion, &c , of some simple
solutions and mixtures of Potassium and Sodium Chlorides, and
found it possible to calculate the various properties of these
solutions within the limits of experimental error.

At his suggestion I have carried out the observations and
calculations described in this paper, to see if it is possible to
represent by the fir.it of the above expressions the density and
surface tension of simple solutions of Sodium, Potassium and
Copper Sulphates, salts of more complex molecular structure
than those previously examined, and then, by means of the
ionization constants thus obtained, to predict the values of the
same properties for mixtures of solutions of these salts. I have
also thought it well to test the possibility of predicting the
specific gravity of solutions containing Potassium Sulphate
and Sodium Chloride, and consequently also Sodium Sulphate
and Potassium Chloride.

Data for the Calculations. — Experimental Methods.

The methods employed in purifying the water and salts used,
and of preparing and mixing solutions and determining their
concentration and conductivity, were the same as described in
the papers I have read before the Institute during the present
session.*

Observations of Surface Tension.

I have made no observations of surface tension myself, but
have used those made by Rother.f His measurements were made
at 15°C, and are there therefore not strictly comparable with

* Tran. N S. Inst. Sci., Vol. IX., p.^91, and 307.
t Wied. Ann., 21 (1884), p. 576.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 337

calculated values based on the values of ionization-coefficients
for 18° C. I have, however, calculated some of the ionization-
coefficients, for the different salts, corresponding to 15°C, by
using the conductivity coefficients given by Kohlrausch, and find
that the differences between the values for 18° and 15° are not
large enough to cause any appreciable error in the calculations
Rother seems to regard his measurements as possibly in error
by o to 8 in the third decimal place. He found the surface,
tension of the water he used to be 7.357.

Observations of Specific Gravity.

The specific gravity observations were all made at 18°C, and
are referred to water at 18°C. Ostwald's form of Sprengel's
pyknometer was used in making the measurements. It was
filled by dipping one arm in the solution to be measured and
connecting the other by means of a rubber tube with an exhaust
bottle. When the pyknometer had filled beyond the constant
volume mark on the stem, it was placed in a water bath provided
with a mechanical stirrer, which was connected with a wTater
wheel driven by the water from a tap. The temperature of the
bath was not allowed to vary more than a twentieth of a degree
from 18°. When the liquid column in the arm had remained
stationary for three or four minutes the meniscus was adjusted
to the mark, the pyknometer taken from the hath, dipped in
distilled water, then carefully dried with a linen cloth and
weighed. From several measurements of the same solution, it
would appear that the values of the specific gravity might be in
error by about 5 in the fifth decimal place.

The lonization Coefficients.

For simple solutions, the ionization coefficients, as in former
papers, were taken to be the ratios of the specific molecular
conductivity to the specific molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution. The data for finding them for the simple solutions of
Potassium, Sodium, and Copper Sulphates will be found in the
above papers. In the case of the chlorides of Potassium and

338 ON THE SURFACE TENSION AND

Sodium, the data are taken from my paper on the " Conductivity
of Solutions containing Potassium Sulphate and Sodium Chlo-
ride."*

In calculating the ionization coefficients, the values of the
specific molecular con<fuctivity at infinite dilution which I used,
were those first given by Kohlrausch,f viz., 1280 x 10~8,
1060 Xl0~8, 1100 xl(T8, 1220xlO~8, and 1030xl(r8,m terms
of the conductivity of mercury at 0°C, for Potassium, Sodium,
and Copper Sulphates, and Potassium, and Sodium Chlorides,
respectively. KohlrauschJ has since published what he considers
closer values for the sulphates, viz., 1270, 1070, 1120, for the
Potassium, Sodium, and Copper Sulphates respectively. Having
had my attention drawn to these later values. I have recalculated
a few of the ionization constants, and find that the difference
caused by using the later values is in all cases negligible.

The following table contains the values of the ionization
coefficients used in the calculations. They apply to 18°C. Con-
centrations of solutions are expressed in terms of equivalent
gramme -molecules of anhydrous salt, per litre, at 18°C.

* Trans. Roy. Soc., Can., 2nd Ser., Vol. 3. Sec. 3.
t Wied. Ann., Vol. XXVI, p. 204.
t Wied. Ann., 50 (1893), p. 406.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 339

TABLE I.

Concen tration.

IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS AT 18°C.

£K2S04.

£Na2S04.

JCuS04.

KC1.

NaCl.

.8416
.7500
.7100
.6666
.6000
.5050
.5000
.4000
.3366
.3333
.2525
.2500
.2222
.2000
.1442
.1000
.0918
.0800
.0750
.0666
.0631
.0600
.05000
.04809
.08258

.473

.545

.238

.492

.554

.244

.780

.718

.527

.576
.591

.262

.278

.786
.794

.737
.757

.565

.606

.289

.591

.811

.786

.636

.318

.829

.805

.625

.697

.385

.854

.841

.698

.860
.863

.853

.857

.721
.727

.406
.416

.730

.873

.882

.866
.871

.749

.436

.744
.775

340

ON THE SURFACE TENSION AND

The ionization coefficients of the salts in the mixture were
determined by Professor MacGregor's* graphical method. The
above table contains all the data required for finding them, as
Specific gravity measurements showed that even for the strongest
solutions the change of volume on mixing was negligible.

Determination of Ionization Constants.

In determining the ionization constants (L and I in expression
(1) ) for any salt, and for either property, the data for the six
weakest solutions examined were in all cases employed ; and the
values of the constants were found from these data by the
method of least squares.

The values thus found were employed in calculating the
values of the properties of the various mixtures.

Results of the Caculations. — Simple Solutions.

The following table contains the values of the ionization
constants for the various salts and for the two properties investi-
gated, with the values of the properties calculated by means of
these constants, and the differences between observed and calu-
lated values. Concentrations of solutions are expressed in terms
of the same units as in Table I.

TABLE II.— SURFACE TENSION AT 15°C, (Bother's Observations).

Concen-
tration.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value.

Differ-
ences.

Concen-
tration.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value.

Differ
ences.

i K2SO4.-(fc=0.09627 ; 2=0.18001).

i Na2SO4.— (£=0.11146; 2 = 0.14223).

.2341

7.392

7.392

0.000

.2041

7.393

7.394

+ 0.001

.3881

7.414

7.413

1

.4796

7.418

7.418

0

.3946

7.415

7.414

1

.7404

7.450

7.450-

0

.3966

7.415

7.415

0

1.008

7.481

7.482

+ 1

.3976

7.415

7.415

0

.4773

7.418

7.418

0

.6038

7.442

7.443

+ 1

.4827

7.421

7.418

3

.8131

7.473

7.472

1

.9995

7.471

7.481

+ 10

1.244

7.537

7.543

+ 6

1.557

7.541

7.552

+ 11

h Trans. N. S. Inst. Science, IX (1896), p. 101.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 341

TABLE III.— SPECIFIC GRAVITY (at 1S°C, referred to water at 18°C).

Concen-
tration.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Valne.

Differ-
ences.

Concen-
tration.

Observed
Value.

Calculated! Differ-
Valjie. ences.

i K2 SO 4.— (k -0.05831; £ = 0.07728).

\ Na 2 SO 4. -(A; =0.05129 ; £-0.07207).

.0500

.00360

1.00363

+ 0.043

.01980

1.00135

1.00136

+ 0.041

.0666

.00481

1.00480

1

.03258

1.00225

1.00222

3

.0750

.00535

1.00539

+ 4

.04809

1.00328

1.00325

3

.1000

.00718

1.00715

3

.06312

1.00423

.00425

+ 2

.2222

.01566

1.01564

2

.09181

1.00609

.00612

+ 3

.3333

1.02323

1.02326

+ 3

.1442

1.00947

.00943

4

.4000

1.02782

1.02781

1

.2525

1.01635

.01636

+ 1

.5000

1.03457

1.03460

+ 3

.3366

1.02163

.02165

+ 2

.6666

1.04572

1.04584

+ 0.031

.5050

1.03213

.03214

+ 1

.7500

1.05130

1.05149

+ 0.082

.8416

1.05263

.05276

+ 0.031.

% CuSO4.— (&=0.07109 ; £=0.1072).

\ CuSO4.— (Continued.)

.0500

1.00433

1.00434

+ 0.041

.2222

1.01829

1.01833

+ 0.044

.0666

1.00576

1.00574

2

.3333

1.02722

1.02718

4

.0750

1.00640

1.00643

+ 3

.4000

1.03240

1.03245

+ 5

.1000

1.00855

1.00851

4

.5000

104016

1.04029

+ 0.031

KCL—(/c= 0.06676; £=0.04556).

NaCl.— (k =0.03109 ; £=0.04445).

.0500

1.00245

100241

- 0.044

.0500

1.00211

1.00213

+ 0.042

.0600

1.00289

1.00290

+ 1

.0600

1.00254

1.00256

+ 2

.0750

1.00368

1.00364

4

.0750

1.00320

1.00319

1

.0800

1.00390

1.00388

2

.0800

1.00344

1.00340

4

.1000

1.00482

1.00486

+ 4

.1000

1.00420

1.00421

+ 1

.2000

1.00956

1.00958

+ 2

.2000

1.00836

1.00837

+ 1

.2500

1.01233

1.01231

2

.2500

1.01041

1.01039

2

.4000

1.01970

1.01985

+ 0.032

.4000

1.01645

1.01648

+ 3

.5000

1.02401

1.02512

+ 0.021

.5000

1.02041

1.02047

+ 6

.6000

1.02880

1.03013

+ 0.022

.6000

1.02420

1.02440

+ 0.032

342 ON THE SURFACE TENSION AND

Comments on above Tables.

Surface Tension. — The differences between observed and
calculated values are well within the limits of error, through the
whole range of the observations used in determining the
ionization constants ; and in the case of the K2S04 somewhat
beyond this. The alternation of sign is also satisfactory.

Specific Gravity. — For all the salts examined, and through a
somewhat greater range of concentration than that of the obser-
vations used in determining the constants, the differences are
within the limits of error. Change of sign is also quite satis-
factory.

It thus appears that for both properties of all the salts
examined, the expression under consideration represents the
observed values well throughout the range to which it has been

applied.

Mixtures.

Tables IV and V contain the results of the endeavor to
predict the values of the surface tension and specific gravity for
mixtures by means of the above expression (2) of page 335,
employing the values of the ionization constants obtained as
above from observations on simple solutions. All the mixtures
whose specific gravity I determined, were mixtures of equal
volumes of the constituent solutions. Bother's mixtures were
mixtures of equal weights, which renders the calculations much
more tedious. His paper, however, furnishes the requisite data
for determining the volumes of the solutions which he mixed ;
and these are given in the table below. As I had equi-molecular
solutions of the Copper and Potassium Sulphates prepared for
the purpose of finding their electrical conductivity, these solu-
tions were used in preparing the mixtures for specific gravity
measurements.

The following tables also contain the ionization coefficients
in the mixtures, as determined by the graphical method referred
to above. Concentrations of solutions are expressed in terms of
equivalent gramme-molecules of anhydrous salt per litre at
18°C. The specific gravities are those at 18°C, referred to water
atl8°C.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 343

TABLE IV.— SURFACE TENSION (Bother's Observations).

CONSTITUENT SOLUTIONS.

lonization
Coefficients in
the Mixture.

Observed Value.

p

i

"9

o

QJ
O

S3

Q

Concentration.

Volumes
(litres).

IK2S04.

£Na2SO4

iK.SO,

iNa2S04

i K2SO4.

}Na2S04

.2341

.2041

.14770

.14738

.631

.587

7.394

7.393

- 0.021

.3881

.4796

.14622

.14575

.588

.540

7.416

7.413

3

.3946

.7404

.14616

.14355

.573

.509

7.433

7.432

1

.3966

1.008

.14614

.14143

.560

.487

7.451

7.455

-f- 4

.3976

.4773

.14613

.14577

.587

.538

7.420

7.417

3

.6038

.4827

.14422

.14572

.574

.512

7.432

7.432

0

.8131

.9995

.14229

.14151

.540

.450

7470 7.476

+ 6

1.244

1.557

.13878

.13742

.508

.389

7.539 7.549

+ 0.01

TABLE V.— SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Sodium and Potassium Sulphate Mixtures.

Concentrations of
Constituent Solutions.

lonization Coefficients
in Mixture

Specific Gravity of Mixture.

£K2S04.

£Na2SO4.

£K2S04.

^Na2SO4.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value.

Difference.

.02500

.0505

.771

.750

1.00256

1.00261

+'0.045

.0500

.0505

.748

.737

1.003M

1.00351

3

.1000

.0673

.718

.709

1.00577

1.00582

+ 5

.1000

.1010

.701

.691

1.00690

1.00693

+ 3

.2500

.2525

.636

.593

1.01694

1.01698

+ 4

.2500

.5050

.598

.551

1.02484

1.02489

+ 5

.3333

.5050

.592

.544

1.02777

1.02774

3

.4166

.5050

.586

.534

1.0306C

1.03056

4

.4957

.4996

.578

.523

1.03300

1.03305

+ 5

.5000

.5050

.577

.522

1.03331

1.03337

+ 6

.4957

.6658

.570

.507

1.03809

1.03820

+ 0.081

344

ON THE SUilFACE TENSION AND

TABLE V. (Continued) — SPECIFIC GKAVITY.
Copper and Potassium Sulphate Mixtures.

Concentrations of
Constituent Solutions.

lonization Coefficients
in Mixture.

Specific Gravity of Mixture.

iK2S04.

£CuSO4.

iK2S04.

£CuSO4.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value.

Difference.

.04(XX)

.04000

.783

.427

1.00322

1.00319

- 0.043

.05000

.05000

.766

.410

1.00395

1.00397

+ 2

.06666

.06666

.749

.386

.00527

1.00525

2

.07500

.07500

.743

.376

.00591

1.00589

2

.0909

.0909

.729

.359

.00707

1.00710

+ 3

.1000

.1000

.722

.349

.00783

.00780

3

.1666

.1666

.679

.300

.01271

.01275

+ 4

.2222

.2222

.658

.283

.01694

.01690

4

.3333

.a333

.635

.253

.02503

.02510

+ 7

.4000

.4000

.625

.239

.03000

.03006

+ 6

.5000

.5000

.603

.226

.03720

.03734

+ 0.081

It appears from the above Tables IV and V that the differ-
ences between calculated and observed values are within the
limits of error, throughout nearly the same range of concentra-
tion as that of the observations on simple solutions used in
determining the constants. This range is somewhat greater for
the Sodium and Potassium Sulphate mixtures than for the Cop-
per and Potassium Sulphate mixtures, which would seem to
support the view taken of these mixtures in my previous paper,
viz., as to the existence of a double salt in the solution. It
might also be mentioned here, in support of this view, that for
mixtures of stronger solutions of the Copper and Potassium
Sulphates than are here given, I have observed a quite noticeable
change of volume on mixing which is not the case for mixtures
of solutions of the Sodium and Potassium Sulphates for a like
concentration.

As the ionization constants used in the calculations were not
determined from the observations of these tables, such alternation

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 34"

of sign is not to be expected in the differences as was observed
in the differences between observed and calculated values for
the simple solutions. In any case in which variation of sign
might be expected, as in the case of mixtures of the Copper
and Potassium Sulphates where the solutions mixed were equi-
molecular, alternation of sign in the differences is quite satis-
factory.

The results of the above tables would seem to warrant the
conclusion that it is posssible by aid of the dissociation theory
of electrolysis, to predict the surface tension and specific gravity
of mixtures of moderately dilute solutions of Sodium Sulphate
with Potassium Sulphate and Potassium Sulphate with Copper
Sulphate within the limits of the error of observation, by means
of data obtained by observations on simple solutions of these
salts.

Observations on the Specific Gravity of Solutions containing
Potassium Sulphate and Sodium Chloride.

As it appears from the above results to be possible to predict
the specific gravity of a mixture of two solutions of sulphates^
and from Prof. MacGregor's results in the case of mixtures of
two chlorides also, I thought it would be interesting to see if a
similar prediction was possible in the case of a mixture of a
sulphate solution with that of a chloride of a different metal
In such a case there will be four electrolytes present in the*
solution. Hence the formula for calculating, expression (2) on
page 335, will involve four each of the quantities &, I, «, n, v, and
the calculation is thus extremely difficult. Prof. MacGregor has
found it practically impossible to calculate even the conductivity
in the case of mixtures of any two solutions taken at hap-
hazard. I therefore did not attempt to do so in the case of the
specific gravity. The plan adopted was that of my paper on
the conductivity of solutions containing Potassium Sulphate
and Sodium Chloride,* viz., to prepare simple solutions of the
four salts having the same concentration of ions and to mix

* Loc. tit.

346

ON THE SURFACE TEIsTSION AND

these in the proportions as to volume requisite to prevent
change of ionization on mixing, and then to measure and cal-
culate the specific gravity of the mixture. For the exact mode
of determining the ionization coefficients, concentrations and
volumes of the four simple solutions to be mixed, I may refer to
my paper cited above. All the data required for the calcula-
tions are given in Table VI, together with the calculated and
observed values. The concentrations of solutions and specific
gravities are expressed in terms of the same units as in pre-
vious tables. The column headed " volumes " contains the
volumes in c. c. of the Potassium and Sodium Chloride solutions
mixed with 25 c. c. each of the sulphate solutions.

TABLE VI.

CONSTITUENT SOLUTIONS.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 18°
18°

Concentration.

Volumes
in c. c. of
KC1 and
NaCl.
Solutions.

\-

Concen-
tration
of ions.

Observ'd.

Calcu-
lated-

Differ-
ence.

KC1.

NaCl.

iK2S04.

|Na2SO4

.0500

.0512

.0607

.0611

3053

.0445

1.00325

1.00319

-0.046

.0527

.0536

.0640

.0644

30.57

.0467

1.00339

1.00334

— 5

.0648

.0659

.0791

.0800

30.88

.0568

1.00403

1.00410

+ 7

.0787

.0800

.0969

.0984

31.25

.0683

1.00492

1.00500

+ 8

.1032

.1063

.1287

.1419

34.37

.0887

1.00664

1.00668

+ 4

.1219

.1265

.1552

.1700

34.85

.103

1.00795

1.00789

— 6

.1310

.1349

.1674

.1834

34.99

.112

1.00849

1.00847

— 2

.1675

.1736

.2201

.2374

35.42

.141

1.01084

1.01092

+ 8

.2008

.2083

.2702

.2902

36.14

.167

1.01310

1.01317

+ 7

.2380

.2500

.3225

.3478

36.56

.196

1.01556

1.01568

+0.031

The above table shows that in all except the last solution
examined the differences between the observed and calculated
values are either within or but little beyond (in three cases
within and in six a little beyond) what I consider my possible
error of observation. They are also about equally divided as to
sign. Considering the large number of sources of error involved

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 347

in the preparation of the solutions, and in the calculations, the
agreement between observed and calculated values seems to me
to be* exceedingly satisfactory, and to justify the conclusion that
even in this yery complex case it is possible by aid of the dis-
sociation theory to predict the specific gravity within the limits
of experimental error.

Summary of Conclusions.

(1.) Expression (1) represents observed values of the sur-
face tension and specific gravity of the solutions examined
through a range of concentration extending from 0.05 to about
0.4 or 0.5 equivalent gramme-molecules per litre.

(2.) It is possible by aid of the dissociation theory of elec-
trolysis to predict the surface tension and specific gravity of
mixtures of Potassium and Sodium Sulphate solutions and the
specific gravity of mixtures of solutions of Potassium and
Copper sulphates throughout nearly the same range as above,
within the limits of the error of observation.

(3.) It is possible by aid of the above theory to predict the
specific gravity of mixtures of solutions of Potassium Sulphate
and Sodium Chloride within the limits of experimental error.

VI. ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS

SOLUTIONS OF POTASSIUM-MAGNESIUM SULPHATE.— BY
T. C. McKAY, B. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Read March 9th, 1898.)

The measurements and calculations, the results of which are
given in this paper, were made .with a view to finding out
whether the conductivity of solutions of the double sulphate of
potassium and magnesium could be calculated on the supposition
that it separates on solution in water into potassium sulphate
and magnesium sulphate. The research was undertaken at the
suggestion of Professor MacGregor, and carried out in the physical
and chemical laboratories of Dalhousie University.

The method by which the calculation of the conductivities
was made is based on the dissociation theory of electrolysis, and
was devised by Professor MacGregor for the calculation of con-
ductivities of mixtures of two electrolytes containing a common
ion.* The writer showed in a former paper f that by the use of
this method of calculation, the conductivity of mixtures of solu-
tions in water of the chlorides of sodium and barium could be
calculated on the supposition that the two salts exist separately
in the solution. Most of the experimental methods used in the
present research were described in that paper, and need not be
referred to here.

The potassium sulphate used in the determinations was
obtained from Eimer & Amend, New York ; the magnesium
sulphate, partly from Eimer & Amend and partly from Merck.
All the salt obtained from the former was recrystallized once.
Merck's magnesium sulphate was his guaranteed reagent, and
with the exception of that used for some MgS04 solutions from
.5 to 1 gramme-equivalent per litre, was not recrystallized by
the writer. The salts were tested with silver nitrate for the

*Trans. N. S. Inst. Sc., Vol. IX., p. 101.
tTrans. N. S. Inst Sc., Vol. IX., p. 321.

(348)

CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — McKAY. 349

presence of chlorides, and with potassium ferrocyanide for iron.
In none of these tests was any reaction observed. The solu-
tions whose conductivities were measured range in the case of
potassium sulphate from 1 to 0.1 gr.-eq. per litre and from 0.02 to
0.0066, and in the case of magnesium sulphate from 2 to 0.4, and
from 0.025 to 0.008 gr.-eq. per litre. All the determinations by
Kohlrausch which lie within these limits agree with the writer's
within the latter's limits of error, except the value for the solu-
tion of magnesium sulphate of concentration 0.5, the conductivity
of which, as measured by the writer, is 0.6 percent, less than the
value given by Kohlrausch. This difference was found to hold
in the case of four specimens of recrystallized salt, both Eimer &
Amend's and Merck's. The error of the writer's determination
in this case might be 0.4 per cent.

In the first attempts to prepare the double salt, the K2S04
and MgSO4 were brought together in equimolecular, or nearly
equimolecular proportions. In the case of the salt numbered I
below the solution thus obtained was evaporated until crystals
began to form. It was then allowed to cool to 75°C. and kept at
a temperature varying from 60°C. to 7o°C., until a large part of
the salt had crystallized out. The crystals were dried on filter
paper, and a portion heated in a platinum crucible to a dull red
heat, until the weight was constant. The amount of SO4 in the
dry salt was then determined. The second specimen was crystal-
lized out from a solution containing a small excess of MgSO4, and
wras treated in a similar manner, except that the drying on filter
paper was omitted. The third specimen was recrystallized
according to a method given in its essentials in Dittmar's Quan-
titative Analysis. 87.1 grammes of powdered recrystallized
K2SO4, together with 153.4 gms. of Eimer & Amend's chemically
pure MgSO4 + 7 H2O, which had not, however, been recrystallized
by the writer, were dissolved in 350 grammes of hot distilled
water. The solution was made up to about 645 grammes, and
after it had cooled to 50°C, put in a porcelain basin and left 24
hours. The crystals thus obtained were washed in pure water,
powdered, and then dried on filter paper and by exposure to the

350 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

air. The following table shows the proportions in which the*
two salts were brought together, and the percentage of S04
obtained by analysis of the salt freed from the water of crystal-
lization By theory the percentage should be 65.27 : —

Percentage of Difference per cent.
K2SO4 MgSO4 SO4 from theoretical value..

1 1.... 1 64.31 -1.5

II 1 1.038 65.00 -0.4

III 1 1.13 65.47 +0.3

The error in a single analysis might be 0.2 per cent. The-
constitution of the specimens used was determined from two
analyses. The salt used in the double salt determinations was,
the specimen III., and another portion of salt prepared similarly
to it and which showed the same excess of SO4. This excess was
probably due to the fact that the double salt was crystallized out
of a solution containing an excess of 13 per cent, of MgS04, an
excess of which, however, is necessary to prevent the formation
of K2S04 crystals along with those of the double salt.

Of the double salt solutions referred to in the tables below,,
those in italics were made up in the cell itself by the addition
of 5 c. c. of water each time in the case of the solutions above-
0.1 gr.-eq. per litre, the original quantity h'aving been 100 c.c.
The other solutions were made up outside the cell and allowed!
to remain for some time before their conductivity was
measured. To obtain equimolecular mixtures of the simple
solutions, two solutions of K2SO4 and MgSO4 were made up,
of nearly the same concentration. Each of these was carefully
analyzed, the difference being found to be 0.2 per cent. The
proper amount of water was then added to the stronger solution
to make the two equimolecular. Other solutions were made up
by diluting these, the same pipette and flask being used in each
case to dilute the K3S04 and MgSO4 solutions to the same extent.
Mixtures of equal volumes were then made in order to obtain
equimolecular mixtures of solutions of the two salts. The con-
ductivities of these were measured within at most four hours,
after they had been made up.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — McKAY. 351

Distilled water was used in making up all the solutions. In
'the case of the very dilute solutions, the conductivity of the
water used was subtracted from the measured conductivity of
the solution. The greatest value of this correction was 0.2 per
cent.

The combined error in 'the determination of the conductivity
and concentration of a double salt solution might be for solutions
of concentration 0.4 gr.-eq. per litre, 0.3 per cent., for 0.8 solu-
tions, 0.4 per cent., and for the very dilute solutions, from
0.02 downwards, 0.8 per cent. The errors in the case of the
stronger simple solutions mi^ht be 0.2 per cent, greater. The
error in plotting results and calculating from them by Professor
MacGregor's graphical process might be 0.2 per cent.

Kohlrausch's values of the molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution, were used in the calculations. They are, for potassium
sulphate 1270, for magnesium sulphate 1080, expressed in terms
of 10~8 times the conductivity of mercury at 0°C.

The following table gives the results of the measurements of
simple solutions, made to secure data for the subsequent calcula-
tions. The concentrations are given in gramme-equivalents
per litre at 18°C. The conductivities are for the temperature
18°C., and are expressed in terms of the conductivity of mercury
at 0°C. multiplied by 10-* :—

352 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

POTASSIUM SULPHATE.

MAGNESIUM SULPHATE.

i K SO .

£ Mg SO

2 4

4

Concentration. Conductivity.

Concentration.

Conductivity.

.9980

668.6

2.017

404.7

.9509

640.5

].922

396.1

.9078

616.9

1.837

386.6

.8688

596.1

1.759

378.4

.8327

575.6

1.687

370.9

.7975

555.0

1.622

363.6

.7604

533.2

1.388

333.1

.7264

513.1

1.324

3234

.6955

491.5

1.266

314.9

.6671

474.1

1.212

305.9

.6662

472.8

1.001

270.6

.6251

446.1

.9384

259.0

.5889

427.3

.8837

248.3

.5568

405. &

.8345

239.0

.5281

387.2

.7913

230.7

.5029

369.6

.7520

222.1

.5016

369.7

.7050

211.8

.4992

369.4

.6636

201.8

.4542

341.0

.6268

194.4

.4166

316.4

.6146

191.1

.3852

294.9 -

.5805

182.6

.3580

274.9

.5510

175.9

.3347

259.0

.5227

168.8

.3344

260.1

.5224

168.9

.3136

246.1

.5028

164.8

.2954

233.5

.4997

163.6

.2991

222.3

.4751

158.3

.2645

211.4

.4545

152.9

.2514

201.1

.4356

147.8

.2508

201.2

.02516

15.43

.2091

171.0

.02359

14.61

.0999

89.43

.02220

13.91

.0200

20.76

.02097

13.32

.01668

17.70

.02012

12.76

.01430

15.32

.01678

11.07

.01001

11.00

.01438

9.679

.008340

9.226

.01260

8.659

.007706

8.581

. .01121

7.861

.006680

7.509

.01009

7.273

.006706

7.517

.01007

7J 85

.008395

6.156

.007754

5.773

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — McKAY.

353

The following tables show the results of the calculation of
the conductivities of the double salt solutions and of the equi-
molecular mixtures :

Concen-
tration .

Concentra-
tion of
ions.

Regional Dilution.

Conductivity.

*K2S04.

£MgS04.

Calculated.

Measured.

Differ-
ence
per cent.

DOUBLE SALT SOLUTIONS (i MgK2 (804)2.

1.001

.3734

1.499

.4996

456.5

451.4

+ 1.1

.8345

.3266

1.747

.6500

398.0

393.5

+ 1.2

.6688

.2757

2.127

.8640

335.0

331.6

+ 1.0

.5019

.2191

2.768

1.216

265.5

261.6

+ 1.5

.4705

.2073

2.938

1.312

251.2

249.8

+ .6

.4429

,1976

3.113

1.403

239.3

237.3

+ .8

.4183

.1884

3.284

1.498

228.0

227.0

+ .4

.3963

.1800

3.459

1.593

218.0

216.7

+ .8

.3765

.1721

3.626

1.687

208.1

2069

+ .6

.02004

.01408

59.34

40.42

16.79

16.73

+ .4

.01671

.01199

70.54

49.08

14.29

14.36

- .5

.01433

.01045

81.63

57.87

12.45

12.46

- .1

.01255

.009305

92.47

66.80

11.07

11.08

- .1

.01116

.008364

103.6

75.63

9.960

9.977

- .2

.01004

.007614

114.4

84.62

9.063

9.009

+ .6

.009972
.008318
.00714

.007558
.006421
.00599

115.3
136.9
158.6

85.33
103.3
121.7

8.987
7.632
6.640

9.009
7.665
6.660

- .3
- .4
- .3

EQUIMOLECULAR MIXTURES.

1.002

.3734

1.499

.4996

456.4

451

+ 1-2

.6690

.2757

2.127

.8640

334.9

327.8

+ 2.1

.5003

.2184

2.777

1.220

264.7

258.6

+ 2.3

.0200

.01406

59.47

40.51

16.76

16.64

+ .7

.nooi

.07584

114.8

85,02

9.021

9.024

- .05

The columns in order give (1) the concentrations, in gramme-
equivalents per litre, of the double salt solutions, or of the

354 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF

constituent simple solutions of the equi-molecular mixtures, as
the case may be; (2) their concentrations of ions; (3) the
dilutions, in litres per gramme-equivalent, of the respective salts
in the regions of the solutions occupied by them, determined by
the graphical process referred to above, on the hypothesis that
the salts exist separately, (4) the values of the conductivities as
measured, and (5) as calculated, and (6) the excess per cent, of
the former values over the latter. The concentrations of ions,
that is the ionization coefficients divided by the dilutions, and
the conductivities, are given in terms of the units before
specified. The solutions, the values of whose concentrations are
printed in italics, were made up in the cell.

In the case of the double salt solutions from 1 gr.-eq. per litre
down to 0.4, the values of the conductivities are less than they
would be if the salts were separated, as judged from the values
calculated on that hypothesis. For this range of solutions the
signs in the last column are all positive, and the differences are
beyond the limits of error, though in. two cases not much beyond.
With the first four solutions the excess of the calculated values
does not differ much, though the fourth is unexpectedly high.
On the first addition of water to the 0.5019 solution, the difference
becomes much smaller and continues so as water is added.
Moreover, with most of the solutions from 0.5 to 0.37, that is,
with the solutions which were diluted in the cell, the conduc-
tivity rose after the water had been added and mixed. In these
cases the last value observed was taken as the conductivity of
the solution. Thus the first measurement of the conductivity of
the 0 4075 solution gives a value 1 per cent, less than the calcu-
lated value ; but the last two measurements of the same solution
taken half an hour later give a value only 0.6 per cent. less. In
the case of the 0.4183 solution, however, no change was noticed.
The effect is as if the addition of wacer, and possibly also the
stirring of the solution, caused the double salt to undergo rapid
dissociation. But it may have been due to the thorough mixture
of the original solution and the water added, requiring time.

In the case of the dilute solutions the differences are within
limits of error, although their signs are not entirely satisfactory

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — McKAY.

355

most of the signs being negative. The results of these measure-
ments seem to show that at such dilution the double salt is
separated into its components.

The conductivities of the strong double salt solutions seem
to he greater than the conductivities of corresponding mixtures,
though in the case of dilute solutions they agree.

A fact which makes the writer somewhat suspicious of the
trustworthiness of the measurements of the mixtures of strong
solutions is that the density of these mixtures was found to be
less than the mean density of the constituent solutions, amount-
ing at the concentration 0.8 to a difference of 0.1 per cent.
The error of a density measurement might be 0.03 per cent. The
density of the double salt solutions was found to be equal to the
mean density of the K2S04 and MgS04 solutions of the same
strength. The following are the measurements on which these
statements are based. With the exception of those for the
MgSO4 solutions, the values of which are taken from Kohlrausch
and Hallwachs' determinations, they were made by the writer.

iK2S04.

iMgS04.

Double Salt.

Equimolecular
Mixtures.

Gr.-eq.
per litre.

Sp. Grav.

at 18°.

Gr.-eq.
per litre.

Sp. Grav.

at 18°.

Gr.-eq.
per litre.

Sp. Grav.
at 18°.

Gr.-eq.
per litre.

Sp. Grav.

at 18°.

.8327
.7975
.6688
.5029
.5016
.2508
.01001

1.0567
1.0539
1.0456
1.0344
1.0340
1.0173
1.0006

1.
.5
.25 s

.01

1.05863
1.02987
1.01518
1.00063

1.001
.8345

.6688
.3744
.0998
.02004
.01004

1.0633
1.0531
1.0427
1.0243
1.0040
1.0015
1.0004

.8019
.6690
.5003

1.0503
1.0422
1.0317

The results of the double salt measurements lead the writer
to conclude that in dilute solutions the double salt entirely
separates, but that in strong solutions the two component salts
are at least partly united.

VIL— TRIASSIC (?) ROCKS OF DIGBY BASIN.— BY PROF. L. W.
BAILEY, LL. D., F. R. S. C., Fredcricton, N. B.

(Read May 10th, 1898.}

In the course of a geological survey of the south-western
counties of Nova Scotia, of which the results form the substance
of a report soon to be issued by the Geological Department at
Ottawa, several interesting questions in connection with the
rocks of the Annapolis Valley were brought to notice, but as to
which the data obtainable at the time were not sufficiently
complete to warrant definite conclusions. It was hoped that
opportunities for further study would be available, but as this,
so far as concerns the writer, does not now seem probable, he has
thought it well, in the following notes, to make brief reference
to the nature of these questions, that others interested in the
geology of this part of the Province, and more favorably situated
than he, may be able to give them further attention.

It has been usual to regard all the rocks of the Annapolis
Valley, other than those which form its southern wall, as being
of Triassic age, and, further, as embracing a sedimentary and a
volcanic series of which the latter was altogether the more recent
and overlaid the former. A close examination of some sections
in the vicinity of Digby tend to modify the second at least of
these conclusions.

The first section to which reference is made is to be found in
the parish of Granville, on the eastern side of Digby Gut. From
the point where the latter suddenly expands to form Annapolis
Basin, the shore, for nearly half a mile to the northward, shows
a series of low bluffs of a bright red colour, in connection with
which at some places may be seen ledges of very soft red shales.
In going northward along the Gut shore and approaching the
high trappean hill whose face has been laid bare by an extensive
land slide, similar red beds continue to show, but become some-

(356)

TRIASSIC (?) HOCKS OF DIGBY BASIN. — BAILEY. 357

what pebbly. They are nearly horizontal, but with the frequent
occurrence of what appears to be false bedding. Still farther
north they become, within a few yards, quite coarse, while the
colour changes from red to chocolate brown, more or less mottled
with light grey. The paste is soft and clayey, but imbedded in
the latter, in addition to masses of red sandstone, are numerous
columnar blocks of trap. These blocks are markedly prismatic
and of considerable size, one of them, as shown in the accompany-
ing sketch, projecting from the face of the bluff for over two
feet. What is the age of these beds ?

Evidently they are newer than the trap of which they con-
tain imbedded columns. But how much newer ? Possibly
Quaternary. Regarded solely by themselves, there would seem
to be no great objection to this conclusion, and it is favored by
the occurrence in the vicinity of beds filled with trappean blocks
which bear every evidence of being of this age, but the latter
are of a different colour, and do not show that intimate associa-
tion with the Triassic beds which characterizes the former. This
association is well exhibited in the accompanying sketch, made
upon the ground. (See Plate X, Fig. 2.)

The lowest beds exposed at this point are brownish red sand-
stones, horizontally stratified, and no doubt a continuation of
those seen along the Granville shore. Resting upon them, but
somewhat irregularly, are beds of purplish red conglomerate,
which are also obscurely stratified, but seem to pass upwards
into the very coarse conglomerate in which are contained the
large blocks of trap. Between the two there is no clear line of
separation as regards either colour or texture. The coarse beds
are, however, exposed* only for a few yards, while beyond them
the finer beds, somewhat mottled, show at intervals for nearly a
furlong. In this latter direction they form the shore beneath
the high hill of columnar trap to which reference has been made*
but owing to the land-slide which has affected the face of the
latter, the relations of the one to the other are not easily to be
made out. The purplish grey beds along the shore would seem,
from their position, to extend beneath the trappean hill, but in

358 TRIASSIC(?) ROCKS OF DIGBY BASIN.— BAILEY.

following the former along the shore for a short distance they
are found, after becoming gradually harder and somewhat
vesicular, to terminate abruptly along a vertical line, which would
appear to be a line of fault, the only rocks seen beyond it, but in
loose blocks, being composed of trap.

From a review of the above conditions it would seem to be at
least possihle that the red and purple beds, which are undoubtedly
a part of the group usually referred to the Trias, are more recent
than the neighboring traps, unless indeed there were several
periods of eruption, between or during which the stratified rocks
were deposited, and then received their burden of trappean
fragments.

We have now to notice another section in which facts of a
similar character are still more clearly exhibited.

This second section is found in the town of Digby, just below
the point where the track of the Dominion Atlantic Railway, in
taking the direction of Bear River, runs along the top of a series
of low bluffs overlooking the Annapolis Basin. One of them,
about twenty feet high, is nearly vertical and almost wholly
composed of rock, exhibiting the arrangement reproduced in the
accompanying diagram. (See Plate X, Fig. 1.)

At the summit are about two feet of soil, consisting of a
reddish sandy loam. This rests upon a bed which in texture
resembles a coarse gravel, but with the pebbles contained in a
matrix which, while sandy, is compact, and bleached to a light
grey colour by the action of humus acids from above. The pebbles
in this bed include traps similar to those of the North Mountains,
both crystalline and amygdaloidal, besides granite and slate ;
and, as in the case of some of the beds on the Granville shore,
they suggest a Quaternary origin. But directly beneath is a
bed of reddish grey sandstone, several feet in thickness, which
as clearly belongs to a much earlier formation, and in one par-
ticular only differs from the ordinary red sandstones of the
Annapolis valley. It al*o contains, but not uniformly, blocLs
of Xorth Mountain trap. Further, below this red sandstone
bed, but at the northern end of the section, and merging into it,

TRIASSIC (?) ROCKS OF DIGBY B.VSIN. — BAILEY. 359

is another coarse pebble-bed, in which the trappean blocks are
very abundant and of large size. Finally, the base of the
section, at its southern end (the whole section being about 30 feet
in length) shows another bed of red sandstone, about two feet,
thick, and quite free from pebbles, while at the other extremity
repeated alternations of beds with and without the trappean
blocks may be seen. The lower part of the section is here-
obscured by a talus.

It seems very certain, from what is here exhibited, that white
the trappean overflows along the Bay of Fundy trough were in
part and perhaps largely subsequent to the accumulation of
the Triassic red sandstones, as so clearly seen at Blomidon, they
must also in part have antedated or else been contemporaneous
with the deposition of red sandy sediments usually regarded as,
of the same age with the former.

As having, perhaps, some bearing upon this interesting ques-
tion, reference may here be made to a curious section to be seen
near the south-western end of the island of Grand Manan, of
which, as is well known, so large a part consists of Triassic traps.
The more exact location of the section is in the settlement of Red
Head, at the south-west extremity of the relatively low tract of
old (Huronian ?) rocks underlying the inhabited portions of the
island, and to the south of the trappean ridge extending thence
to the Southern Head. The older rocks referred to are hardx
rubbly, dark grey slates, which are often greenish or chloritic,.
and much stained, sometimes ribbanded with oxide of iron.
They are greatly contorted, but have a general north-west dip
at a high angle. Resting on these slates, but without any dis-
tinct bedding, is a quantity of breccia or conglomerate, filled with,
blocks, both rounded and angular, of trap and slate. Then fol-
lows a mass of more solid trap, which is partly columnar, and,
into this the conglomerate or breccia seems to graduate.

About fifty feet to the north of the above exposures, a second
and much more conspicuous bed (?) of breccia is seen, (Plate X,
Fig. 3), flanked on either side by solid columnar trap, the
conglomerate being about 10 feet wide and rising almost.

360 TRIASSIC(P) ROCKS OF DIGBY BASIN. — BAILEY.

perpendicularly, making a very marked appearance in the
face of the cliff, and having much of the aspect of a dyke. It
is, however, wholly made up of detached blocks, — some of
them two or three feet long, — of the same nature, and some of
them exhibiting the prismatic shape of the trap columns near
by. In some instances, however, they are rounded. No trace
of the ordinary red sandstones or of any beds resembling those
about Digby is to be seen.

It seems hardly possible that the material of this agglomerate
should have received its present position except through intro-
duction from above into a previously opened fissure ; but whether
introduced contemporaneously with the lava flows and ash
accumulations represented in the neighboring dolerites and
amygdaloids, i. e., in the Trias-Jura epoch, or later and possibly
in the Quaternary, is a question which the writer is at present
unable to answer.

Reviewing the entire subject, it is evident that there are still
some unsolved problems in connection with the supposed Mesozoic
rocks of the Bay of Fundy trough (including in the latter the
Annapolis Basin) ; and if the observations here given prove the
means of originating any further enquiries in this direction, the
purpose of this paper will have been served.

VIII. — THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR, and ST.
PIERRE ET MIQUELON : PART III.— BY THE REV. ARTHUR
C. WAGHORNE, Bay of Islands, Newfoundland.

(Read May 9th, 1898.)

A change of residence, and the charge of a new and extensive
parish, are the hindrances which are chiefly accountable for
the delay in the continuance of this series of papers, of which
the first part appeared in the Transactions of the Institute,
Vol. VIII (Ser. 2, Vol. I), page 359 ; and the second part in
Vol. IX (Ser. 2, Vol. II), page 17.

To the prefatory remarks of the two preceding papers, a few
notes should here be added : —

1. The Part I. here h'rst presented is made up of Polypetalous
plants which have been added to our Newfoundland or Labrador
lists of plants since 1895.

2. These have been obtained from three sources, chiefly : —

(a) Professor Macoun's Contributions from the Herbarium
of the Geological Survey of Canada, (Parts I. — VI.) ; these are
indicated herein briefly as " C. H. Geo. S. of C."

(b) A list of Newfoundland plants collected by Mr. A. B.
Bullman, B. A. Sc. (of H. M. Newfoundland Survey). The
plants were collected by him on the West coast in 1896, and in
White Bay in 1897. This gentlemen modestly says that he lays
no claim to be a botanist, so that his determinations may be
subject to revision, a fate which befalls even those of men who
are botanists. If Mr. Bull man's decisions are sustained as to
certain plants, his list adds fifteen names to our flora.

(c) My own collections since 1895 in the Bay of Islands, and
a week while in Bay St. George, and a trip across the country
in 1895, and to Brenton and Clode Sound in Bonavista Bay, on
the East coast. At Mr. Reid's stone quarry, about 80 miles from
the Bay of Islands, on both sides of the railway track, by the

(361)

362 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

sides of the ponds in the bogs, I was fortunate enough to find,
for the first time, the Schizsea pusilla, Pursh, in fair quantity.

3. To the gentlemen who have kindly assisted me in the
determination of my plants, I may now add the names of Dr.
Wm. Trelease of St. Louis, Dr. B. L. Robinson of Harvard, and
Mr. T. V. Coville of Washington.

4. If permitted so to do, I would gladly say that I have been
for the last three or four years distributing my plants, including
mosses and lichens, (the fungi I hope to have ready this coming
season), and that I should be glad to hear of any who may desire
specimens.

I.— POLYPETAL^:. (Supplementary to Parts I. and II.)

I. — RANUNCULACE.E.

265. Anemone nemorosa, L. WOOD ANEMONE. Deer Arm,
Bonne Bay (Bullman). Moist places. July.

7. Ranunculus abortivus, L. Var. micranthus, Gray*
Chimney Cove, B. of L, (A. C. W.— Fowler). Sea cliffs. June.

266. R. septentrionalia, Poir. Near Meadows, B. of L
(A. W. Trelease), and Deer Lake (according to Dr. Robinson, but
this plant was named R. Macounii by Dr. Trelease). Meadows
and wet places. July.

267. R Macounii, Brit. Chimney Cove, B. of I. (A. C.
W.— Trelease). Fields. July.

268. R fasicularis, Muhl. Birchy Cove, B. of I. (A. C. W.—
Trelease. Fields. June. (Dr. Robinson says this is R. repens,
L.)

19. R. recurvatus, Poir. Humber River (A. C. W. — Fowler).
River side. June.

IV. — MENISPERMACE^E.

269. Menispermum Canadense, Pointe Lafontane, West
Coast (Bullman). Low ground. June.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 363

VII. — C-RUCIFER^E.

270. Erysimum asperum, D. C. Chimney Cove, B. of I.
(A. C. W.— Fowler). Sea cliffs. June.

271. Arabia loevigata, Poir. SMOOTH ROCK CRESS. Cow
Head (Bullman). Dry, rocky ground. June.

36. Barbarea vutgaris, R. Br. Mentioned in Prof. Macoun's
C. H. Geo. S. of C. (V. 2) as not before recorded from the Labra-
dor, was twice collected by the compiler in 1894 in the Straits of
Belle Isle. See Part II., p. 20.

138. Nasturtium palustre, D. C. To the Labrador reference
in Part I., p. 20, may now be added its Newfoundland occurrence
at Deer Lake (A. C. W. — Fowler). River side. August.

272. Cardamine Pennsylvanica, Muhl. Whitbourne,
appearing introduced (R. & S.).

273. Hesperis matronatis, L. Street of St. John's ; infre-
quent (R. & S.)

274. Subuleria aquatica, L. Terrestrial form. Exploits
River and around pond near Whitbourne (R. & S.). August.

VIII. — VlOLACE^S.

62. Viola pcdustris. L. Though recorded in Part I., p. 9,
from the Labrador (named by himself), this is mentioned in
Prof. Macoun's C. H. Geo. S. of C. (V. 2), as not before (1894)
recorded from Labrador.

65. V. canina, L. Muhlenbergii. In Bay of Islands at
Birchy Cove (Fowler), Coal River and Lark Harbour (Robinson),
and Rope Cove (Trelease). Fields and wet places. June.

XIV. — CARYOPHYLLACE.E.

275. Silene Armeria, L. Deer Lake (A. C. W. — Fowler).
Near gardens. August.

276. Arenaria Sajanensis, Willd. Coal River, near B of L
(A. C. W. — Robinson). Sandy places. July. Lab : Cape Chid-
ley (C. H. Geo. S. of C, V. 5).

6

364 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

69. A. verna, L. Englee, White Bay, and Coal River, B. of
I. (A. C. W.— Fowler). June.

var. hirta, Bigel. Coal River (A. C. W. — Fowler). Sandy
places. June.

277. A. patula, MX. Chimney Cove, B. of I. Hills. June.
(Dr. Robinson says, A. verna, L.).

278. A. ciliata, L., var. A. humifusa, Hornen. Coal River
(A. C. W. — Robinson). Sandy places. July.

89. Stellaria borealis, Bigel. Var. alpestris, Gray. Shoal
Point, B. of I. (A. C. W. — Trelease) ; Dr. Robinson says " this is
very different from Dr. Gray's conception and is much better
considered only as S. borealis, L."

XVI — HYPERICACE^;.

104. Hypericum Canadewse, L. Var. miserrimum, Chois.
Seal Rocks, Sandy Point, Bay St. George (A. C. W.— Fowler)
Wet places. August.

XVII. — GERANIACE^E.

279. Geranium Robertianum, L. Chimney Cove, near
Bay of I. (A. C. W.— Fowler). Ravines. July.

110. Oxalis acetosella, L. To the doubtful occurrence
referred to in my Part I, 13, may now be added Portland
Creek, White Bay (Bullman). Woods. June.

XX. — LEGUMINOS^E.

280. Astragalus astragalinus, D. C. Minnesota Botanical
Studies. Bull. IX., p. 65.

117. A. alpinus, L. Chimney Cove, B. of I. (A. C. W.—
Trelease). High seacliffs. July. Professor Shelden (St. Louis)
refers this to Spiesm Lamberti (Pursh), v. spicata. Hook.

124. Oxytropis campestris, D. C. Chimney Cove (A. C. W.
Fowler and Robinson). Hills. July and August. And White
Bay (Bullman). Stony Shore.

119. Hedysarum boreale, Muhl. Wild Cove, near B. of I.
(A. C. W.— Trelease). Sea bank. July.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 365

XXXIL— ROSACES.

281. Gillenia trifoliata, Moench. Ponds River, West Coast.
(Bullman). Woods. June.

282. Agrimonia striata, MX. Chimney Cove, B. of I. (A.
C. W. — Shelden). Hills. July. Reported as A. Eupatoria by
Prof. Fowler.

283. A. Ursula, Wilds. Chimney Cove (A. C. W.— Robin-
son). High hills. August.

253. Fragaria vesca, L., var. Americana, Porter. Chim-
ney Cove (A. C. W.— Trelease). Banks. July.

284. Geum album, Gmel. Cow Head, Bonne Bay (Bullman).
Woods. June.

285. Potentilla litoralis, Rydberg. Chimney Cove, B. of I.
(A. C. W.— Robinson). Hills. August. Reported by Dr. Fow-
ler as P. Pennsylvania, L.

179. Rosa Carolina, L. The reference to this from New
Harbor (Part II., p. 25) should have been marked as very
doubtfully named by Prof Macoun. M. Crepin says it must be
omitted.

286. R. humilis, Marsh. Shoal Point, near Bay of Islands
(A. C. W.— Dr. G. N. Bert). St. John's (Robinson and Schenk).
Woods. August.

XXXIII. — SAXIFRAGACE.E.

201. Ribes rubrum, L, var. subglandulosum, Maxim.
Crabbs (Fowler) and Frenchman's Cove (Robinson), B. of I.
(A. C. W.) Woods. June.

287. Ribes floridum, Wild Black Currant. Cow Head
(Bullman). June.

197. Parnassia parviflora, D. C. Chimney Cove (Robin-
son), and Goose Arm, B. of I. (Fowler). A. C. W. Hills and
wet banks. August.

XXXV. — DROSERACE^E.

220. Drosera intermedia, Drev. and Hayne. Var. Ameri-
cana, D. C. Lab : Upper West Branch, Hamilton River (A. P.
Low, 1894, C. H. Geo. S. of C., V. 6.)

THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

XXVIIL— RHAMNACEJE. (Buckthorn Family).

288. Rhamnus alnifolia, L'Her. Deer Lake (Fowler) and
Lark Harbour, B. of I., (A. C. W.), Woods. July.

XXXVI. — HAMAMELACE-E. Water-hazel Family.

289. Hamamelis Virginiana, L. Cow Head, Bonne Bay
(Bullman). Woods. July.

XL — LYTH RACERS.

290. Nescea verticiUata, H. B. K. ? St, John's Island, St.
John's Bay, West Coast. (Bullman). July.

XLV. — UMBELLIFER.E.

250. Osmorrhiza brevistylis, D. C. Frenchman's Cove, B.
of I. (A. C. W.— Fowler). Woods. June and July.

251. Sanicula Canadensis, L. Wild Cove (Trelease), and
Shoal Point, B. of I. (Fowler) A. C. W. Banks. July. Mr.
Fernand says of the Wild Cove specimen that it is better con-
sidered as 6'. Marylandica, L.

GAMOPETAL^:.
XLVIII. — CAPRIFOLIACE^E. Honeysuckle Family.

275. Diervilla trifida, Moench. Bush Honeysuckle, S.
John's. Common (Robinson and Schrenk). Brigus (Bell., Cat.
III., 540) ; Nipper's Harbour (Notre Dame Bay) and near Bad-
ger's Brook, Exploits River (both of these collected by Revel. J. H.
Bull, named by Messrs. Macoun and Fowler). Topsail (A. C. W.
— Macoun). Rocky hills. July and August. Flora Miq., on
little hillocks near the Brook Sylvain.

276. Linncea borealis, L. Twin-flower (GROUND-IVY AND.
TRUMPET-FLOWER) appear to be pretty common throughout
Newfoundland and the Labrador, in mossy woods. Reported
from Trinity Bay, S. John's, Fortune Bay, White Bay, Bay St.
George, and Bay of Islands. Lab : Hopedale (Weiz-Packard) ;

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 367

•collected at Pack's Harbour and Forteau by myself, and by Mr.
Butler, on hillside. July and August. Flora Miq.

277. Lonicera ccerulea, L. Mountain Honeysuckle (Cat. II.,
198) ; (Reeks) ; West of Random. In full fruit September 10.
Cormach, S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; New Harbour and Green's
Harbour, (Trinity Bay), and Harbour Breton (Fortune Bay) ;
collected by myself and named by Prof. Macoun. Rope Cove,
B. of I. (Fowler). Whitbourne (Robinson and Schrenk). Long
Point, north of Cape St. George (Bell). Bogs and wet woods.
July and August. Lab : (Cat. II., 198), found by myself at
Indian Harbour (near Battle Harbour), and Battle Harbour, and
L'anse au Loup, and Blanc Sablon, (determined by Professors
Macoun and Fowler). Caribou Island (Butler-Packard). July.
Var. villosa, T. & G., (Cat. II, 198, " Newfoundland
(Pylaie), Coast of Labrador (McGill College, Herb) ").

278. L. oblongifolia, Hook. Swamp Honey sucMe. Great
Cod Roy River (Bell).

279. Sambucus racemosa, L. Red-berried Elder. Random
(Trinity Bay), Bay Despair (Hermitage Bay), Swan Island
(Notre Dame Bay), and Bay of Islands. Collected by myself
and named by Messrs. Macoun, Fowler and Morton). Woods.
July.

Var. pubens, Wats, (which Prof. Macoun [Cat. III., 537]
unites with the last), near Flat Bay Brook (Bell), and S. John's
(Miss Southcott — Macoun).

280. Viburnum Lentago, L. Sweet Viburnum, Sheep
Berry. Near Flat Bay Brook, Bay St. George, and Humber
River, B. of I. (Bell). June and July.

281. V. cassinoides, T. & G. Withe Rod. (Cat. II, 194).
This appears to be common in woods throughout the country. I
have it reported from Trinity Bay, S. John's, Bay Despair, Her-
mitage Bay, and several places about Bay of Islands. July and
August. Flora Miq.

282. V. pauciflorum, Pylaie. Few-Flowered Viburnum or
Arrow-wood (SQUASH BERRY). Several places in Fortune and

368 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Trinity Bays, Bay of Islands, S. John's (Miss Southcott). Petty
Harbour (Reeks). Great Cod Roy River, Bay S. George (Bell).
Manuel's River, Conception Bay (Robinson and Schrenk). Rocky
banks near brooks in woods. June — August. Lab : ravines
(Butler, Cat. II, 195.)

283. V. Opidus, L. High-Bush Cranberry (called *TRASH
BERRY, I believe by Newfoundlanders mostly). Not so common
as the last. Topsail (Bell, Cat. Ill, 539V Swamps near conflu-
ence of Exploit and Badger's River (Robinson and Schrenk).
Great Cod Roy River (Bay S. George), Humber River and island
in Deer Pond (B. of I), Bell ; (Reeks). July and August.

284. V. acerifolium, L. Maple-leaved Arrow-wood. Near
Flat Bay Brook, Bay St. George (Bell). June.

XI — RUBIACE^:. Madder Family.

285. Galium boreale, L. Northern Bedstraw (Reeks).

286. G. asprellum, MX. Rough Bedstraw. Whitbourne
(Robinson and Schrenk) ; Bay Bull's Arm (Trinity Bay) and
Shoal Point, B. of I. (A. C. W.— Macoun and Fowler) ; (Reeks).
Woods and moist ground. August.

287. G. trifidum, MX. Small Bedstraw. In the Bay of
Islands, collected by myself, at Riverhead (Fowler), and Lark
Harbour (Robinson), Benton, Bonavista Bay (Fowler) ; several
places in Trinity Bay, and Topsail in Conception Bay (Fowler
and Macoun). Wayside and wet places. August. Lab : Hope-
dale (Weiz-Packard) ; Forteau (A. C. W.— Eaton). August.

Var. pusillum, Gray. Sunny banks, Whitbourne (Robinson
and Schrenk) ; White Bay or Ferryland (Revd. R. Temple —
Fowler). Lab : Forteau (A. C. W. — Fowler and Butler). June
and July.

Var. tinctorium, T. & G. (Cat. II, 201).

Var. lati folium, Torr. Open woods, S. John's (Robinson
and Schrenk). August.

* The "Joint-wood Berry" and "White-wood Berry" of Newfoundland, must, I
think, be this, or one other of this genus.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 389

288. G. Aparine, L. Gooseqrass. Middle Arm, B. of I.
(A. C. W.— Fowler). Woods. July.

289. G. triflorum, MX. Three-flowered Galium. Near
confluence of Exploits and Badger's River (Robinson and
Schrenk) ; New Harbour, Trinity Bay (Macoun) ; and Wild
Cove (Fowler), and Chimney Cove (Trelease). Woods. July.
Lab : Capstan Island (A. C. W. — Eaton). Open woods. July.

290. G. Mollugo, L. Narrow-leaved Bedstraw. S. John's
(Robinson and Schrenk). Ploughed ground. August.

291. G. palustre, L. var. minus, Lge. Lab : Long Point,
Hamilton Island (A. C. WV- Macoun), (C. H. Geo. S. of C., IV.
202).

292. Mitchella repens, L. Partridge berry. (Reeks) ; Flat
Bay Brook (Boll). Flora Miq., found once near stream Bibite,
in damp ground, in August. Sought after by the partridges of
the island.

I. — VALERIANACE^E. Valerian Family.

293. Valeriana dioica, L. var. sylvatica, Wats. Marsh
Valerian (Banks, Cat. III., 204).

III. — COMPOSITE. Composite Family.

294. Achillea Millefolium, L. ^Yarrow. Milfoil (Dead
Mans Daisy J. Common in fields. Lab : Forteau. August,
(rose-coloured). Flora Miq., common, July, August.

Var. nigrescens, E. Meyer. Lab : Nain (Bell, Cat. III., 552),
Caribou Island (Butler), and Hopedale (Weiz-Packard.)

295. A. Ptarmica, L. Introduced, Harbour Grace (McGill
Coll.. Herb.— Cat. IL, 251).

29(J. Arnica alpina, Murr. Lab : Nachvak and Cape
Chimney (Bell) Cat. IL, 261 ; III, 535.

297. Antennaria alpina, L. Everlasting. Lab : (Kolmeister
—Cat. IL, 236), Hopedale (Weiz), and Caribou Island (Butler)
Packard.

298. A. Carpathica, R. Br. Wet, boggy places and river
margins, (Gray) Cat. IL, 237.

370 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

299. A. dioica, Gaertn. Mountain Cudweed or Everlast-
ing. From Newfoundland to Labrador, and the extreme Arctic
regions and dry mountain pastures of the Rocky Mountains
(Cat. II., 236). S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; Exploits (A. C. W.
Fowler). Rocky banks. July.

300. A. plantagini folia, Hook. (Reeks), Badger's Brook
(Revd. I. H. Bull— Fowler) ; Middle Arm, B. of I. Rocky bed
of S. W. Arm River. Holyrood (Robinson and Schrenk). Sea
cliff. Open Woods. June to September.

301. Anaphalis margaritacea, Benth and Hook. Pearly
Everlasting. (Reeks). Commotion dry soil along the margins
of fields and borders of woods, from Newfoundland to the
Pacific (Cat. If., 237). Rocky hills, S. John's and Holyrood
(Robinson and Schrenk); Bay S. George (Howley and Bell).
Common about B. of I. and Trinity Bay (A. C. W.) July.

302. Artemisia borealis, Pall. var. spithamcece, T. & G.
Lab: (Kolmeister, Cat. II., 255). Hopedale Island (Weiz-
Packard).

308. A. Canadensis, MX. Near Badger's Brook (Revd. I. H.
Bull — Fowler) ; in the Bay of Islands, Middle Arm, near Rope
Cove, Chimney Cove and Goose Arm (A. C. W. — Fowler and
Robinson). Woods, sea cliffs, and sandy plains ; dry river bed.
July and August.

304. A. Absinthium, L. Wormwood. Naturalized in
numerous places by roadsides, in lanes, and about dwellings, from
Newfoundland to the western part of Ontario. (Gray, Cat. II.,
259).

305. Arctium Lappo, L. Burdock. S. John's (Professor
Holloway — Fletcher). In leaf only, but probably var. minus*
Holyrood (Robinson and Schrenk).

306. Anthemis arvennis, L. Wild Chamomile. Random,
Trinity Bay (A. C. W.— Macoun).

307. A. Cotula, D. C. Clode's Sound, Bonavista Bay
(Robinson and Schrenk), Frenchman's Cove, B. of I. Garden
weed and about buildings. August and September.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE, 371

308. Aster macrophyllus, L. Large-leaved Aster. I cannot
find my authority for this plant.

309. A. Radula, Ait. Rasp-Leaved Aster. (Cat. II., 219).
West of Random (Cormack) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; New
Harbour and S. Anthony, N. E. coast, (collected by myself and
named by Prof. Macoun) ; Benton, Bonavista Bay (A. C. W.—
Fowler). Rocky bank Manuel's River (Robinson and Schrenk).
Lab: (Butler, Cat. II., 219); collected by myself at Battle
Harbour and L'anse au Loup (Macoun). August and September.
Wet places. Flora Miq., damp marl, rarely dry places ; very
common.

Var. strictus, Gray. Rocky hills, S. John's ; moist open
ground at confluence of Exploit and Badger's River; Grand
Lake, B. of I. (Robinson). Lab : (Pursh, Cat. II., 219) ; Hope-
dale (Weiz-Packard) ; Square Islands and Capstan Island (A. C.
W. — Macoun and Eaton). Bogs and wet places. August.

310. A. Icevis, L. Little Harbour, near B. of I. (A. C. W.-
Trelease, — " inflorescence more corymbose and bracts more t'oli-
aceous, and not so green-tipped "). September.

311. A. paniculatus, L. Harbour Breton, Fortune Bay,
(A. C. W. —Macoun).

312. A. salicifolius, Ait. Harbour Breton (A. C. W. —
Macoun).

313. A. Novi-Belgii, L. Exploits River (Robinson and
Schrenk) ; near Frenchman's Cove and Coal River, B. of I.
(A. C. W. — Robinson). The latter was reported as A. tardi-
florus by Prof. Fowler. Wet places. September. Vide A.
longifolius below, No. 315.

314. A. tardiflorus, L. Long-leaved Aster. S. John's
Beach and Lark Harbour, B. of I. (A. C. W.— Fowler) ; New
Harbour, Trinity Bay, and Harbour Breton, Fortune Bay (A.
C. W.— Macoun). Lab : (Gray, Cat. III., 545) ; Battle Harbour
(Bull) ; Fox Harbour, Hawk's Bay and Cartwright (A. C. W.—
Macoun) : L'anse au Mort. (A. C. W. — Fowler). August and
September.

372 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND. LABRADOR

315 A. longifolius, Law. Near meadows, B. of I (A. C. W.
—Robinson). Reported by Mr. Covelle as A. Novce- Anglic
var. banks. September.

316. A. punicius, L. Red-stalked Aster or Starwort
(Reeks). New Harbour and Harbour Breton (A. C. W.—
Macoun) ; river banks, Salmonier,common (Robinson and Schrenk);
Benton, Bonavista Bay (A. C. W.— Fowler). Woods. August
and September. Lab : Lake Michikamov (A. L. Low— C. H.
Geo. S. of C., VI., 6) ; L'anse au Loup (A. C. W.— Fowler).
September.

Var. lucidulus, Gray. Was named by Dr. Trelease and
found in the Bay of Islands.

Var. firmus, T. & G. ( = v. Icevicantes, Gray). A doubtful
specimen of Mr. Howley's from Bay S. George (Macoun). Lab:
Deep Water Creek (A. C. W.— Macoun ; reported as doubtful).

Var. ? Shoal Point, B. of I. (A. C. W.— Trelease). Woods.
August.

317. A. acuminatus, MX. I cannot give the authority for
this.

318. A. ptarmicoides, T. & G. S. John's Island, S. John's
Bay, West Coast (Bullman). Stony hills. July.

310. A. nernoralis, A.it. Wood Aster. Harbour Grace
Cat. III., 227); West of Random (Cormack) ; S. John's (Prof.)
Holloway — Fowler) ; Harbour Breton (Macoun), and Seal Rocks,
Sandy Point, Bay S. George (A. C. W.— Fowler) ; Bailey Rally
bog, S. John's (Robinson and Schrenk). Bogs. August. Flora
Miq., very common.

320. A, linariifoliws, L. Double-bristled Aster. (Cormack,
Cat. II, 229).

321. A. umbellatus, Mill. (Cat. II., 229) S. John's (Miss
Southcott — Fletcher) ; S. George's Bay (Howley — Macoun) ;
collected by the compiler at South Side, Harbour Grace, Harbour
Breton and Bay Bull's Arm ; named by Prof. Macoun, and at
Clode Sound (Trelease). Common, especially along streams.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 373

Manuel's, Conception Bay (Robinson and Schrenk). Wet places.
August and September.

322. Bidens frondosa, L. Common Bigger-tick, Stick
Tight. Near meadows.

323. Centaurea Cyanus, L. Blue-Bottle. Introduced,
(Reek).

324. C. nigra, L. Black Knapweed (Broad Weed and
French Clover) (Reeks). S. John's (Miss Southcott and R. & S.).
Apsey Beach (B. of I). Fields. July and August.

325. Cichorium Intybus, L. Chicory. S. John's. Infre-
quent (R. & S.).

326. Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm. Common Roadside
Thistle. Manuel's (R. & S.) ; Norman's Cove, Trinity Bay,
Birchy Cove, B. of I. -Cleared ground, roadsides. August.

327. C. muticus, Pursh. Glutinous or Swamp Thistle.
Horse Tops, in White Bay (Reeks). Englee and other places in
White Bay. and New Harbour, Trinity Bay ; S. Paul's Bay
(Bullman) ; Exploit's River (R. & S.). July — September.

328. C. pumilus, Torr. Pasture Thistle. Flat Bay (Bell).

329. C. arvensis, Pursh. Canada or Field Thistle. Hope-
dale, Trinity Bay (Macoun), and Birchy Cove, B. of I. (A. C. W.
— Fowler) ; Bonne Bay (Bullman) ; Great Cod Roy River
(Bell) ; S. John's (R. & S.). Wayside. July— September.

330. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L. Great White
Large Daisy, (BACHELOR'S BUTTONS), (Reeks) ; S. John's, com-
mon (R. & S.) ; Birchy Cove, and a few other places about Bay
of Islands. Pastures. July and August. Lab: Battle Harbour,
and by paths over hill near Forteau Lighthouse (A. C. W. —
Fowler). August and September.

331. Erigeron acris, L. Fleabane. Lab : (Torr and Gray,
Cat, II, 234).

Var. Drcebachianus, Blytt. Lab : (Gray, .Cat. II., 235);
Hopedale (Weiz-Packard).

Var. debilis, Gray. Lab : Lab. North, and Hudson Bay
(Gray, Cat. III., 548).

374 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

332. E. Canadense, L. Fireweed (Reeks).

333. E. striyusus, Muhl. Bay S. George (Howley — Macoun) ;
Badger Brook (Revd. I. H. Bull— Fowler), July.

334. E. eriocephalus, I. Vahl. Lab : Cape Chidley (Bell,
Cat. III., 347).

335. E. Philadelphia us, L. Canadian or Common Flea-
bane. (Reeks).

336. E. uniflorus, L. One-flowered Fleabane. Lab :
(Kolmeister, Cat. IF., 31); Nachvak and Cape Chidley (Bell,
Cat. III., 549); Hopedale (Weiz-Packard).

337. E. annuus, Pers. One solitary specimen in oats in
recently cleared land at Deer Lake (A. C. W. — Fowler). August.

338. Erechtites hieracifolla. Raf. Fireweed. Moist
places in recently burnt clearings. Very common throughout
Newfoundland and Canada, and extending west to the Saskatche-
wan (Cat. II., 262).

339. Eupatorium purpureum, L Joe Pijes weed. The
Gould's and S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; Bay S. George (Howley
-Macoun); Topsail (Bell, Cat. III., 541). In Bay of Islands,

collected by myself; Apsey Beach (Fowler) ; Shoal Point and
Coal River (Trelease); New Harbour, Trinity Bay (A. C. W.),
and Cormack, in the same Bay ; Salmonier River, and "a form
passing to var. amcenum, Gray, was collected on the Manuel's
River (R. & S,)." Wet places and sea cliffs. August and Sep-
tember. Prof. Macoun says (Cat. III., 541) : — " Our specimens of
this species nearly all belong to the variety macutatwm ; ' and he
evidently includes Dr. Bell's Topsail plant ; but all my specimens
have been referred to the species itself.

340. Gnaphalium Norvegicum, Sunner. Highland Cad-
weed. Lab: (Torr and Gray, Cat. II., 238) ; Hopedale (Weiz-
Packard).

341. G. supinum, Vill. Mountain or Dwarf Cudweed or
Everlasting. Englee, White Bay (A. C. W.— Fowler). Banks.
September. Lab : (Morrison, Cat. II., 238) ; Hopedale (Weiz-
Packard).

AND ST. PIERRE ET M1QUELON — WAGHORNE. 375

342. G. uliginosum, -L. Mud or Loiu Cudiueed. New
Harbour (A. C. W.) ; Summerside, B. of I., and Sandy Point, Bay
S. George (A. C. W. — Fowler). Marshy meadows. Quiddi Vidi
Lake, slender uliginous form, and in the bushy branched form ;
very abundant in burned regions, Holyrood (R. & S.). August.

343. Hieracium pilosella, L. Mouse-ear Hawkweed. S.
John's (Prof. Holloway — Fowler).

344. H. Canadense, MX. Canadian Hawkweed. Harbour
Deep, White Bay. In Trinity Bay, New Harbour and Bay Bull's
Arm (Macoun). In and near the Bay of Islands and Little
Harbour and Grand Lake (A. C. W. — Fowler) ; Manuel's River
(R. & S.). Lakeside, roadside, and rocky river banks. August-
October. Lab : L'anse au Clair (A. C. W. — Fowler). August.
Flora Miq., damp, peaty places. Rare.

345. H. vulgatum, Frier. " Less frequent than the preced-
ing, and occurring in crevices of rocks by swift streams and
waterfalls, Holyrood and the cataract of the Rocky River. To
all appearance, indigenous. The leaves are nearly all mottled "
(R. & S.). A doubtful specimen from New Harbour (A. C. W.).
August. Lab: (Kolmeister, Cat. II., 275); Hopedale Islands
(Weiz-Packard).

346. H. scabrum, MX. Bay S. George (Howley-Macoun).
In Bay of Islands, Coal River, and possibly Grand Lake (A. C.
W. — Fowler). September.

347. Knautia arvensis, Coult. Field Knautia or Scabious
S. John's (Miss Southcott).

348. Lactuca Canadensis, L. Field Lettuce. Trinity Bay
(Cormack); Harbour Breton, Fortune Bay (A. C. W.) Doubtful.

349. L. leucophcea, Gray. (Cat. II., 281). Bay de 1'eau,
Fortune Bay (Macoun), and Mclver's Cove, Bay of Islands (A.
C. W. — Fowler). Borders of fields. August.

350. Leontodon autumnale, L. Fall Dandelion. (HORSE
DANDELION, AUGUST FLOWER). " Naturalized by becoming
abundant in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and
Quebec" (Cat. II., 277). Common, at any rate about Fortune

376 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

and Trinity Bay, S. John's, and the Bay of Islands (A. C. W.)
Fields and roadsides. July— September. Flora Miq.

351. Matricaria inodora, L. Wild Chamomile. Har-
bour Grace (McGill Coll. Herb, Cat. II., 253). Only on rubbish
heaps, S. John's (R. & S.) ; Trinity Bay (A. C. W.). August.

352. Tnula Helenium, L. Common Elecampane. Jackson's
Arm, White Bay (Bullman). Rocky ground. August.

353. Petasites palmata, Gray. Butterbun, Sweet Coltsfoot.
" Swamps and shady banks of streams from Newfoundland and
Labrador to Rocky Mountains (Richardson, Cat. II., 260) ; White
Bay (Revd. S. I. Andrewes— Macoun). Lab: Hopedale (Weiz-
Paekard),

354. Prenanthes alba, L. White Lettuce. *(PiGROOT).
(Cormack, Cat. II., 282). (Reeks). Flora Miq., very common
in bushes. August.

355. P. serpentaria, Pursh. Rattlesnake Root. Trinity
Bay (Cormack), and New Harbour Brook (?) (A. C. W.) ; S.
John's (Miss Southcott and Lady Blake), and Bay D'Espoir in
Hermitage Bay; all named by Prof. Macoun. Var. Nana, Gray.
Holyrood and S. John's (R. & S.). Rocky hillsides, 6 inches to 2J
feet high. August. Lab : L'anse au Clair (A. C. W.— Fowler).
September.

356. P. altissima, L. Tall White Lettuce. (Reeks)
(Cormack, Cat. IL, 282).

357. Onopordon Acanthium, L. Cotton or Scotch Thistle.
Harbour Grace (Clift).

358. Rudbeckia hirta, L. Cone/lower. S. John's and
Holyrood, not yet abundant, (R. & S.). Near meadows, Bay of
Islands (A. C. W. — Fowler) ; Tiddleton, near Conception Bay
(Clift — Macoun). Fields. August.

359. Senecio aureus, L. Golden Groundsel, Common Rag-
wort. " From Newfoundland and Labrador to the Rocky

* The Flora Miquelonensis remarks on this plant,—" Pigs are very fond of the
root known as the plant nnder the name of ' Mountain Turnip.' It gives to the flesh
an excellent flavour."

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELOX — WAGHORNE. 377

Mountains and the Pacific." (Cat. II, 264) ; (Reeks) ; S. John's
(Professor Holloway — Fletcher) ; Salmonier and near Placentia
Junction (R. & S.) ; near Badger Brook (Bull— Fowler) ; by
myself in the Bay of Islands at Benoit's Cove, Mclver's Co\7e
and other places (Fowler & Coville) ; White Bay (Macoun).
Bogs. Jane and July. Lab : found by myself at Capstan
Island, L'anse au Clair, and Forteau, in the Straits of Belle Isle
(Fowler and Eaton). July — August.

Var. obovatus, T. & G. Bay East River, Hermitage Bay
(Howley-Macoun).

Yar. borealis, T. & G. Lab : (Gray, Cat. II, 265) ; Nachvak
(Bell, Cat. Ill, 354) ; Hopedale Islands (Weiz-Packard).

Var. discoideus, Hook. Lab : (Pursh, Cat. Ill, 265) ;
by myself at Forteau (Eaton). July.

Var. Balsamitce, T. & G. Holyrood and Exploit's River (R.
& S.) ; Chimney Cove, Birchy Cove, and on the Bay of Islands
(Fowler and Robinson). June. Lab : at Forteau and L'anse au
Mort (Fowler), and Long Point, Hamilton Inlet (Macoun) ;
(Butler). Swamps. June — August.

360. S. frigidue, Less. " Newfoundland (?) and Labrador "
(Gray, Cat. II, 267).

361. /S. palustris, Hook. Marsh Groundsel or Fleawort.
Lab : Indian Harbour, North (Revd. W. fiow — Macoun).

Var. congestus, Hook. Battle Harbour (Bull) ; a northern
form at Seal Islands (A. C. W.) ; both determined by Prof.
Macoun. Marshes. August.

362. 8. Pseudo-Arnica, Less. False Arnica. Newfoundland
and Labrador (Hooker, Cat. II, 267); Harbour Breton (Macoun),
and Sandy Point, Bay S. George (Fowler) ; several places about
the entrance to Bay of Islands (A. C. W. \ Lab : (Butler) ;
Hopedale Islands (Weiz-Packard) ; Battle Harbour (Bull —
Macoun) ; by myself at L'anse au Mort (Fowler) ; and further
north about Sandwich Bay. Sea beach and sandy places. July
and August. Flora Miq., dry and stony places. July, August.

363. S. vulgaris, L. Common Groundsel. " Newfoundland
and Labrador and Hudson Bay (Hooker, Cat. II, 263) ; appears

378 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

to be common everywhere in and about gardens ;" sandy shore,
strange to say, Flat Bay (Bell).

364. 8. sylvaticus, L. Railway ballart, Whitbourne;
abundant (R. & S.). August.

365. S. Jacobcea, L. Common Ragwort. S. John's (R. &
S.) Roadsides, August.

366. Sonchus asper, Vill. Spiney Sow Thistle. New
Harbour (A. C. W.), and Bay d' Espoir, Hermitage Bay (Mrs.
Gallop-Macoun). August.

367. S. arvensis, L. Corn or Field Soiv Thistle. " Abun-
dant along roadsides and in fields from Newfoundland through-
out the Atlantic Provinces and Quebec " (Cat. II, 283) ; New
Harbour (A. C. W,). Gravel banks in Salmonier River, exclu-
sively with native plants, as if indigenous (R. & S.) August.

368. S. oleraceus, L. Common Sow Thistle. Fields.
Placentia (R. & S.). In Trinity Bay, at Heart's Content (Miss
Southcott); and at Rawdon and New Harbour (A. C. W).
" Naturalized from Newfoundland to Manitoba and B. Columbia "
.(Cat. II., 283). August.

369. Solidago rugosa, Mill. Tall Golden Rod. Holyrood.
A smoothish form was collected in open woods near S. John's
(R. & S.) ; at Harbour Breton (Macoun) ; in Bay of Islands, at
Little Harbour, and Lark Harbour (Fowler) ; and at Benton,
Bonavista Bay (Trelease) by myself. Fields and wet woods.
August, September.

370. S. arguta, Ait. (Reeks).

371. 8. bicolor, L. v. concolor, T. & G. White Bay (Bull-
man) ; in Bay of Islands, at Apsey Beach, and Shoal Point
(Fowler). Two other specimens are referred to this plant by
Dr. Robinson, one from Goose Arm (called S. nemoralis, " low
canescent form " by Dr. Trelease), and the other from Coal River
(said to be S. humilis, by Prof. Fowler). Sea cliffs and woods.
August.

372. 8. Canadiinsis, L. Canadian or Common Golden Rod.
(Reeks). Trinity Bay (Cormack) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott) ;

AXD ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 379

Bay S. George (Mr. Howley-Macoun) ; Harbor Breton, Fortune
Bay (A. C. W.); also by myself at Goose Arm ; Bay of Islands
(Fowler). Lab : L'anse au Glair (A. C. W.— Fowler). Woods
August, September.

373. S. ccesia, L. ? ^

Var. ftexicaulis, Hook. / Z don>t see the authorifcy for these-

374. S. humilis, Pursh. (Herb. Banks, Cat. II., 213) ; col-
lected by myself at Long Cove, Trinity Bay, and at Harbour
Breton; in Fortune Bay (Macoun); at Gander and Exploit's
Rivers, Notre Dame Bay (l)rummonrl, E. E.— Macoun). Lab :
(McGill Coll. Herb., Cat. II., 213— Ungava, just outside our
Northern limit).

375. S. juncea, Ait. ? S. John's (Miss Southcott) [?].

376. S. lati folia, L. Trinity Bay (Cor mack) ; at Lark
Harbour (Fowler). Woods. September.

377. S. multiradiata, Ait. Harbour Breton (A. C. W.).
Lab : collected by myself at Mullin's Cove, Hamilton Inlet, and
Independent Sandwich Bay (Macoun), and Forteau, in the Straits
(Fowler). July, August.

378. S, serotina, Ait. var. gigantea, Gray. Gigantic
Golden Rod. " Borders of thicket and low grounds. Common
throughout Canada, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and westward
to the Pacific" (Cat. II., 216) ; New Harbour (A. C. W.).

379. $. squarrosa, Muhl. Ragged Golden Rod. Flora Miq.y
Chappean Hill. Common.

380. S. Terrce-Novce, T. & G. (Pylaie, Cat. II., 21 5 S Whit-
bourne. " Clearly a more corymbosely branched form of S.
uliginosa, towards which intergradations were found near the
Exploits River" (R. & S.). Bogs. August. Flora Aliq., Chap-
pean Hill. Common.

381. S. puberula, Nutt. White Bay (Bullman). August.

382. S. nemoralis, Ait. White Bay (Bullman). Banks.
August. (Vide S. bicolor, var. concolor, No. 371, above).

384. /S. macrophylla, Pursh. S. John's (Miss Southcott and
R. &S.); by myself at New Harbour, Trinity Bay, Harbour
7

380 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Breton in Fortune Bay (Macoun) ; Lark Harbour (Coville), and
Goose Arm (Robinson) ; Bay of Islands and at Benton, Bonavista
Bay (Coville). Lab : (McGill Coll. Herb., Cat. II., 212) ; Ford's,
Harbour (Bell, Cat. III., 54*3) ; by myself at Forteau and L'anse
au Clair (Fowler) in the Straits, and north of this at Battle
Harbour, Deep Water Creek, and Venison Tickle (Macoun).
Woods. August— October.

385. 8. uliginosa, Nutt. Swamp Golden Rod. " Newfound-
land, to, and beyond the Rocky Mountains in the wooded
country " (Cat. II., 214) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; by myself
at New Harbour and Bay Bull's Arm ; Trinity Bay (A. C. W.) ;
in "Bay of Islands at Shoal Point (Fowler) ; and near Riverhead
(Robinson) ; and at Benton, Bonavista Bay (F.) ; Exploit's River,
etc., (R. & S.). Wet places and woods. August.

386. S. Virgaurea, L. var. alpina, Bigel. Nipper's Har-
bour and Belt Cove, Notre Dame Bay (Bull — Macoun). Lab :
Ford's Harbour and Nachvak (Bell, Cat. III., 543) ; Hopedale
(Weiz-Packard).

387. S. sempervirens, L. Harbour Breton (A. C. W.).

388. Tanacetum vulgare, L. Tansy. (Reeks). Trinity
Bay and Bay of Islands, here and there. Flora Miq., near
Dwellings. August, September.

389. Taraxacum officinale, Weber. Dandelion (DuMBLE-
-JOR). Appears to be common throughout Newfoundland about
settled places, and at Battle Harbour, and some other places on
the Labrador. Flora Miq., common. July.

Var. alpina, Koch. Lab : not uncommon along the Labrador
coast. Flowers usually very large (W. A. Stearns,). Labrador
to B. Columbia (Gray, Cat. II, 289). Rocky soil at Nachvak
and Nam (Bell, III, 558) ; Hopedale (Weiz) ; and Caribou Islands
(Butler-Packard).

390. Tussilago Farfara, L. Coltsfoot. S. John's (Holloway
-Macoun). Lower Brook, Bay of Islands (introduced from
Nova Scotia).

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 381

The Flora Miquelonensis notes, — " Erigeron Canadensis, L.,
Solidago Canadensis, L , Aster tripolium.L, Artemisia borealis,
L., Carduus nutans, L., Cineraria carnosa, de la Pel., Hypocharis
radicata, mentioned by Gunthier, have not been found " (by us).

LIII. — LOBELIACE^S. Lobelia Family.

391. Lobelia Dortmanna, L. Water Lobelia. West of
Random, Trinity Bay (Cormack), and in the same Bay, Green's
Harbour and New Harbour (A. C. W.) ; Placentia(Lady Blake);
Quidi Vidi Lake (R. & S.). Shallows, ponds and brooks. Flora
Miq., very common.

392. L. Kalmii, L. Kalms Lobelia. In Bay of Islands,
at Goose Arm and Middle Arm, in Bay S. George, at Seal Rock.
Sandy Point (A. C. W. — Fowler). Wet quarry places and bogs,
August.

LIV. — CAMPANULACE.E. Campanula Family.

393. Campanula uniftora, L. Lab : Arctic regions from
Labrador to Aleutian Islands (Gray, Cat. II., 287) ; Nachvak and
Cape Chidley (Bell, Cat. III., 559) ; Hopedale (Weiz-Packard).

394. Campanula rotundifolia, L. Rock Bellfloiver, Hare-
bell. Petty Harbour (Bell, Cat. II., 559) ; reported from S.
John's, Bay S. George , found by myself in Trinity and Fortune
Bays, White Bay and Bay of Islands. Lab : common (Butler
and Stearns, Cat. II., 288) ; Battle Harbour and several places in
the Straits (A. C. W.). Flora Miq., abounds in the fields and in
the damp portions of the island. Cliffs and rocky and sandy
places. July, August.

Var. arctica, Lange. This is the one few-flowered forms
and ranges from Canada and Labrador to the arctic regions "
(Gray, Cat. Ill, 560) ; Nachvak and Cape Chidley (Bell, Cat.
III., 560) ; Hopedale (Weiz), and L'anse Amour and Caribou
Islands (Butler and Martin — Packard).

C. Scheuchzeri, Vill. Newfoundland, Labrador and Alaska
(Gray, Cat. II., 287) ; New Harbour (A. C. W.).

382 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Var. hderodoxa, Gray. Near the coast on western side of
Newfoundland (Pylaie, Cat. II., 288).

These Professor Macoun (Cat. Ill, 560) refers to C. rotundi-
folia, L.

LV. — VACCINIACEJS. Huckleberry Family.

395. Chiogenes hispidula, T. & G. Creeping Snowberry.
(MAIDENHAIR, CAPILLAIRE) seems to be common and widespread
in most woody parts of the country and on the Labrador (A. C.
W.), so Drummond in Cat. II., 351. " Damp mossy woods, creep-
ing over logs." Flora Miq., very common. May — July.

396. Gaylussacia dumosa, T. & G. Dwarf or Pale Huckle-
berry (Gray, Cat. II., 289) ; Whitbourne (R. & S.) ; Little Bay,
Fortune Bay. Edge of woods. August.

397. G. resin osa, T. & G. Black Huckleberry. (BLACK
HURTS). (Reeks) ; (Cat. II., 289 ; rocky or sandy woodland, or
swamps) ; by myself at New Harbour (Trinity Bay), Long Har-
bour (Fortune Bay), and at Little Harbour near Bay of Islands
(Macoun and Fowler). Wet places. July.

398. Oxycoccus vulgaris, Pursh. Common or Small Cran-
berry. (MARSHBERRY). (Reeks). Very common in bogs, it
would appear, throughout Newfoundland and Labrador (A. C.
W.). Lab : Hoped ale (Weiz), and Caribou Island (Butler-Pack-
ard). June — August.

399. 0. macrocarpus, Pursh. Large American Cranberry,
(CRANBERRY, BEARBERRY and BANKBE*RRY). Bogs, and especi-
ally on the margins of ponds and small lakelets in the soft mud.
Newfoundland, Anticosti, Nova Scotia, etc., to Thunder Bay
Macoun, Cat. II., 293) ; West of Random (Cormack), and New
Harbour (A. C. W.) in the same neighbourhood ; Cod Roy River
(Bell), and Bay of Islands. Much less frequent than the last;
said to be common about Lamaline and Lawn in Burin district,
there called Bankberry. Lab : by lakelets along the coast (Abb^
(Brunot : Packard). Flora Miq., says of this and the last
<c barrens, hills, dry or damp places, almost everywhere, very
common." June — August.

AND ST. PIERRE ET M1QUELON — WAGHORNE. 383

400. *Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum, Lam. Common Low or
Early Fruiting Blueberry or Whortleberry. (Low BUSH HURTS).
Very abundant on burnt tracts (R. & S.) ; seems to be about our
most common whortleberry. I have it from White Bay, Notre
Dame Bay, Bay S. George, Trinity Bay and Bay of Islands.
Flora Miq., very common ; open woods and barrens. June to
August.

Var. angusti folium, Gray. GROUND HURT. On the
Labrador, TOBACCO HURT. Rocky hills, Placentia, infrequent ;
Salmonier (R. & S.) ; Trinity Bay and Bay of Islands (A. C. W.).
Lab : (Gray, Cat. II., 290) ; hillsides and Caribou Island (Butler) ;
Nain (Lundbery— Packard) ; Snack Cove, Sandwich Bay (A.. C.W.)
Flora Miq. : very common. June — August.

401. V. ccespitosum, MX. Dwarf or Tufty Bilberry or
Blueberry. (SUGAR HURT — Labrador), (Reeks) ; Lab : Hopedale
(Weiz), and Belles Amours, and on Caribou Islands (Butler —
Packard) ; (at Snack Cove, near Sandwich Bay, and Cape Charles
(A. C. W.). Hillsides. ' July.

402. V. Canadense, Kalrn. Canadian Blueberry. (Reeks);
Bay S. George, White Bay and Bonne Bay (Bullman) ; Harbour
Breton, Fortune Bay (A. C. W.). July.

403. V. corymbosum, L. Swamp Blueberry. (Reeks) ;
swamps and low woods from Newfoundland to Western
Ontario (Gray : Cat. II., 290) ; S. Paul's Bay, N. W. coast (Bull-
man). Wet places. July.

404. V. Vitis-Idcea, L. Cowberry, Red Whortleberry
(PARTRIDGE BERRY, fREDBERRY). Very abundant from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, except Southern Ontario and the prairie
regions (Hook, Cat. IL, 292). Appears to be abundant and
widely distributed throughout Newfoundland and the Labrador.

* The Vaccinium family (excepting V. Vitis Ideea, L.) is* generally called by our
people on the east coast, " hurts ;" on the west coast, " blue berries."

tA dear old friend of mine, writing from the neighbourhood of Sandwich Bay,
Labrador, told me, a few years ago, that she and the three girls had that fall gathered
and sold 40 gallons of "bakeapples" (Rubrus Chamamorus), and 28 gallons of "red-
berries."

384 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Flora Miq., abounds in the peaty plains and also in the dry parts
of the island. June— July.

405. V. uliginosum, L. Mountain or Bog Blueberry
(GROUND HURT), (Cat. II., 291). In mountain bogs and exposed
shores below. From Newfoundland, Labrador, etc,, thence west-
ward to the Pacific, and northward to the Arctic Sea. Flat Bay
(Bell) ; several places in Trinity Bay and Bay of Islands
(A. C.'w.) ; S. John's and Holyrood (R. & S.). Lab : at Blanc
Sablon (Strait), Deep Water Creek, Seal Islands, and Hamilton
Inlet (A. C. W.). Common on the coast at Nain, Ford's Harbour
and Nachvak (Bell-Packard). Flora Miq., very common. June
—July.

406. V. ovalifolium, Smith. (BLUEBERRY HURT, MAZZARD).
Frenchman's Cove,. B. of L, in woods (A. C. W.— Robinson).
Lab : *West S. Modest, in the Strait of Belle Isle. June.

LVI. — ERICACEAE. Heath Family.

407. Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi, Spreng. Red Bearberry
(INDIAN HURT and HARDBERRY, in Hermitage Bay). (Richard-
son) rocky or sandy soil from Newfoundland to the Pacific, and
north to Fort Franklin, Lat. 64° (Richardson, Cat. II, 295);
Trinity Bay (Cormack and A. C. W.) ; Harbour Breton (Fortune
Bay) and Bay de Verde, East coast, and Chimney Cove, Bay of
Islands (A. C. W). Also, Sampson's Island, Notre Dame Bay,
Flat Bay Brook (Bell). Sea cliffs and rocky banks. June.

408. A. alpina, Spreng. Alpine or Black Bearberry.
Trinity Bay (Cormack) ; by myself at Brunet and Harbour Bre-
ton (Fortune Bay), Bay de Verde, and Swan Island, Notre Dame
Bay, Great Cod' Roy River (Bell). Lab: (McG\}\ Coll. Herb.,
Cat. II., 294); Ford's Harbour and Cape Chidley (Bell: Cat
III.. 561); Hopedale (Weiz-Packard) ; by myself at Battle
Harbour and L'anse au Loup. Flora Miq., common. Hill tops-
June.

*An intelligent resident of this place informed me that the fruit made good wine ;
which would imply that it was fairly plentiful, but I have only met with it once, and
then in very small quantity.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 385

409. Andromeda Polifolia, L. Marsh Andromeda, Wild
Rosemary. (Reeks) ; common about Fortune and Trinity Bays>
Chimney Cove and Little Harbour, Bay of Islands (A. C. W.) 5
S. John's (Miss Southcott) ; Exploits River, and near Whitbourne
(R. & S.) ; near Flat Bay, Bay S. George (Bell) ; Lab : Hopedale
(Weiz), Caribou Island (Butler — Packard), Indian Harbour, near
Battle Harbour, Square Islands, and other places (A. C. W.).
Flora Miq., very common. Bogs. June — August.

410. Bryanthus taxifolius, Gray. Mountains at Great Cod
Roy River (Bell). Lab : (Morrison, Cat. II., 299) ; Nain, Nach-
vak, and Ford's Harbour (Bell, Cat. III., 562) ; Hopedale (Weiz-
Packard) ; Battle Harbour and Seal Islands, and L'anse au Clair
(A. C. W.). June — August.

411. Chimaphila umbellata, Nutt. Princes Pine (Reeks).

412. Cassandre calyculata, Don. Leatherleaf. (Cat. II.,
296). Common in Trinity and Fortune Bays and Bay of Islands
<A. C. W.) ; near Flat Bay (Bell) ; Exploits River and Salmonier
(R. & S.). Lab : (Cat. II., 296) ; Battle Harbour (A. C. W.) ;
borders of lakelets and swamps along the coast (Hooker) ; Square
Islands (B. P. Mann — Packard). Flora Miq., very common.
April — July.

413. Cafluna vulgaris, Salisb. Heath or Heather. Near
Caplin Bay, Ferryland, Renews ; S. Mary's Bay and Trepassey
Bay (Cormack and Lawson, Cat. II., 298) (Reeks).

414. Cassiope hypnoides, Don. Moss-like Cassiope, Moss-
plant. ' Lab : (Morrison, Cat. II., 296) ; Nain and Cape Chidley
{Bell, Cat. III., 562) ; Hopedale (Weiz -Packard).

415. C. tetragona, Don. A specimen in the museum in S.
John's, named Menziesia Polifolia, Professor Macoun thinks may
be this. Lab : (Kolmeister and Douglas, Cat. II., 297). Abund-
ant along coast at Nain (Bell, Cat. III., 562) ; Hopedale (Weiz-
Packard).

416. Epigcea repels, L. Trailing Arbutus, May Flower.
(Reeks). Near Flat Bay Brook (Bell) ; Bonne Bay, common
(Bullman) ; also at the Bay of Islands ; Little River (Burgess) ;

386 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Hermitage Bay : abundant at Rose Blanche (Revel. G. A. Field).
Woods and thickets. April— June.

417. Gaultheria procumbens, L. Boxberry, Tea-berry, or
Partridge Berry (MOUNTAINEER TEA). (Cat. II., 295); near
Harbour Breton (A. C. W.) ; S. Paul's Bay, West coast (Bullman);
(Reeks). Flora Miq., common. June — September.

418. Kalmia glauca, Ait. Pale or Swamp Laurel (GoLD
or GOULDWITHY) (Reeks). Common in peat bogs throughout
the country apparently (A. C. W.). Lab : hillsides and swamps,.
Caribou (Butler-Packard) ; Battle Harbour, and a few other
places ; not so common where I have been on the Labrador as
the next (A. C. W.). Flora Miq., abundant ; " one of the first to
flower ; it is also found in flower in some places even in August
and September.

419. *K. angustifolia, L. Sheep-laurel or Lamb-hill (Cat,
II., 300). Apparently as frequent and widespread as the last
(A. C. W.). Lab : (Cat. II, 300). West S. Modest, Chatham,
"vnd Battle Harbour (A. C. W.). Flora Miq., very common.
Wet and rocky places. July — September.

420. K. latifolium, L. Mountain Laurel, Calico Bush.
Lab : reported as being found in ravines and near ponds in the-
interior up Salmon River, and on Esquimaux Island (Stearns,
Cat. II, 300).

421. Loiseleuria procumbens, Desv. Alpine or Trailing
Azalea (MAY FLOWER and WHITE FLOWER in Hermitage Bay).
(Morrison, Cat. II.. 298) ; Flat Bay Brook (Bell) ; Pustelbrough,
Hermitage Bay (Revd. H. G. Bishop) ; Chimney Cove, B. of I.
(A. C. W.). Lab : (Morrison) ; hillsides, Caribou (Butler, Cat.
II, 298) ; Battle Harbour and Seal Islands (A. C. W.) ; Hope-
dale (Weiz) and Ford's Harbour (Bell —Packard). Flora Miq.,
dry places ; not common. Hills. June — September.

422. Ledum palustre, L. (CRYSTAL TEA, Labrador) (Reeks),
Newfoundland and Labrador, and through the Arctic region to

^Called everywhere, like K. glauca, " Gouldwithy-" This appears in Trinity Bay
to be taken as the earlier-flowering K. glauca, in its second bloom.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 387

Alaska and Aleutian Islands (Gray, Cat. II., 301) : (Cormack).
Lab : Seal Islands, Pack's Harbour and Snack Cove (A. C. W.) ;
Hopedale (Weiz), and Nachvak, Ford's Harbour and Cape Chid-
ley (Bell— Packard) (Cat. Ill, 563). Flora Miq. says of this
and the next — very common. Bogs. July.

423. L. lati folium, Ait. Labrador Tea (INDIAN or LABRA-
DOR TEA). Peat bogs and marshes from Labrador, Newfoundland
and westward to the Pacific (Cat. II., 301). Appears to be
frequent in suitable habitats. Lab : common on hills Caribou
Islands (Butler) ; Hopedale (Weiz -Packard). July — August.

424. Monesis uniflora, Gray. One-flowered Pyrola or
Wintergreen (SwEET FLOWER, in White Bay). Very' common
in shady or mossy woods, from Labrador. Newfoundland, etc.,
westward to the Pacific and northward to Lat. 64° (Hooker, Cat.
II, 306) ; Whitbourne, rare (R. & S.) ; fairly common in Trinity
and -Fortune Bays and Bay of Islands (A. C. W. — Macoun and
Fowler) ; Great Cod Roy River (Bell) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott)
and Ferryland. Lab : in damp and shady places (Butler) ; Tur-
ner's Head (Hamilton Inlet) ; Venison Tickle, S. Michael's, and
further south at L'anse au Clair (A. C. W.) ; Hopedale (Weiz-
Packard). Flora Miq., found in groups of 12 or 15 individuals
in damp peaty places, but always rare. .July — August.

425. Pyrola secunda, L. One-sided or Serrate Pyrola, or
Wintergreen. Rich woods throughout Canada, from Newfound-
land, etc., to the Pacific, and far northward on the Mackenzie
(Hooker, Cat. II., 304) ; S. John's (Lady Blake and R. & S.) ;
(Reeks) ; White Bay, Harbour Breton and New Harbour ( A.C.W.).
Lab : in the Straits of Belle Isle, atForteau, L'anse au Mort, and
Capstan Island (Eaton and Fowler). Flora Miq., common.
August — September.

Var. minor, Gray. Chimney Cove, Bay of Islands (A.C.W.).
Lab : peaty bogs and mossy swamps, from Labrador to Alaska
(Gray, Cat. II., 304) ; Hopedale (Weiz- Packard) ; Forteau and
L'anse au Mort (A. C. W. — Fowler). Woods. August.

426. P. minor, L. Smaller Pyrola. Near Cairn Mountain,
Flat Bay (Bell) ; (Reeks) ; New Harbour, in Trinity Bay (A.G W,).

388 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

Lab : cold woods (Morrison, Cat. II., 303) ; Battle Harbour and
neighbourhood, and in the Strait, Forteau and BJanc Sablon
(A. C. W.— Fowler); Hopedale (Weiz-Packard). July, August.

427. P- chlorantha, Swartz. Green- flowered or Small
Pyrola. Rather dry or sandy woods, generally under conifers,
from Newfoundland, Labrador, etc., westward to the Rocky
Mountains, and northward to Bear Lake (Richardson and Gray,
Cat. II, 304); (Reeks); Lark Harbour and Coal River, Bay of
Islands'(A. C. W.— Fowler) ; Exploits and Gander River (Drum-
•mond, C. E— Macouri) ; S. John's (R. & S.). Lab: (Morrison-
Packard). July— August.

428. P.rotundifoli<i,L. Round-leaved Winter green. Sandy
or dry woods, in swamps, and on mountain tops, from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and northward to the Arctic regions
(Hooker, Cat. II, 305); Harbour Grace (Miss Trapnell— A. H.
MacKay) ; near Cairn Mountain, Fiat Bay (Bell) ; S.John's (-Lady
Blake) ; Sphagnum Swamp, Manuel's (R. & S.). Lab : in swamps,
Amour (Butler). August. ,

Var. pumila, Hook. Lab : from Labrador to the Mackenzie
River (Gray, Cat. IL, 30-5). Quite common along the Labrador
coast (Butler, Cat. IL, 503); Battle Harbour (A. C. W.) ; Hope-
dale (Weiz-Packard). September.

Var. incarnata, D. C. Lab : Battle Harbour (A. C. W.).
August. A doubtful specimen.

429. Rhododendron Wtodora, Don. Pink Rhodora. False
Honeysuckle ( BULL'S EYE, BULL'S TON GUP:). Cool bogs and
open peaty places, from Newfoundland, Labrador, etc., westward
to the vicinity of Montreal (Maclagan, Cat. II., 302) ; Flat Bay,
and on Cairn Mountain, white specimen (Bell) : S. John's and
Exploit's River, abundant (R. & S.) ; appears to be common and
widely diffused (A. C. W.). Lab: hillsides, Caribou Islands
(Butler-Packard). Flora Miq., common. June — July.

430. R. Lapponicum, Wahl. Lab : (Morrison, Cat. II . 302) ;
Nachvak (Bell) ; Hopedale (Weiz) ; on a hill top Belles Amours
(Butler— Packard).

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 389

LVIL — MONOTROPACE.E. Pipewort Family.

431. Monotropa uni flora, L. Indian Pipe. Corpseplant
(GHOSTPLANT OR GHOSTFLOWER). New Harbour and B. of I .,
Fortune Bay (A. C. W.) ; near Cairn Mountain, Flat Bay (Bell) ;
(Reeks) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott and R. & S. Messrs. Robin-
son and Schrenk remark, — " in woods near the Exploits River a
small form was found, which, although agreeing as to anther and
stigma with M. uniflora, had flowers in size just intermediate
between this and M. Hypopitys. In drying, also, these plants
have assumed an intermediate color between the black of the
former species and the tawny color of the latter." Bear's Har-
bour, Parson's Pond, Bonne Bay (Bullman). Woods. August.

4S2. Hypopitys lanuginosa, Nutt. Yellow or Pine Birds-
nest or Pinesap (Reeks) ; in woods near Exploits River (R. & S.) ;
Great Cod Roy River (Bell) ; White Bay (Bullman). Woods.
July, August.

LVIII. — DIAPENSIACE^E. Diapensia Family.

433. Diapensia Lapponica, L. Northern Diapensia (Moss
LILY, GROUND IVORY FLOWER). Western Head, Harbour Bre-
ton and Conne in Fortune Bay, and near Rantem, Trinity Bay
(A. C. W.). Lab: (Morrison), common on hill tops at Caribou
(Butler, Cat. II., 308) ; Naiu, Ford's Harbour and Cape Chidley
(Bell, Cat. Ill , 564) ; Hopedale (Weiz— Packard). Flora Miq.f
very common. Hills. June, July.

LIX. — PLUMBAGINACE.E. Leadvjort Family.

434. Armeria vulgaris, WTilld. Common Thrift, Sea Pink.
(Reeks) ; Coal River (A. C. W.— Fowler). Lab : Labrador, New-
foundland, and N. W. America, and in the barren country of the
interior (Hooker, Cat. II., 309); Nain, Nachvak, and Cape Chid-
ley (Bell) ; Hopedale (Weiz) (Cat. III., 564, and Packard). Hills
and sandy plains. July.

435. Statice Limonium, L. Var. Garolinianum, Gray. Sea
Lavender, Marsh- Rosemary. (Miss Brenton, Cat. II., 308);
(Reeks); Lab : (Gray, Cat.'lL, 308).

390 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

LX.— PRIMULACE.E. Primrose Family.

436. Anagallisarvensis,"L. Common or Scarlet Pimpernel*
Harbour Grace (McGill Coll. Herb., Cat. II., 315). Flora Miq.,
introduced into cultivated places.

437. A. tenella, L. Flora Miq., fields; common.

438. Glaux maritima, L. Sea Milkivort, Black Saltweed^
Salt marshes along the coast of the Atlantic, from Newfoundland
and Labrador to the Coast of Maine (Cat. II, 315).

439. Lysimachia stricta, Ait Wood Loosestrife. New-
foundland to the Saskatchewan (Gray, Cat. II., 314) ; moist
ground, Whitbourne (R. & S.) ; Trinity Bay (Cormack), and by
myself in the same Bay at Spreadeagle ; Fenyland (Revd. R.
Temple — Fowler) ; near Brigus (Miss Trapnell — MacKay). Wet
places. August. Flora Miq.

440. L Nummularia, L. Moneywort. Harbour Grace
(McGill Coll. Herb., Cat. II, 314).

441. Primula Mistassinica, MX. (Reeks; common); Mid-
dle Arm, Grand Lake, and several other places in and about Bay
of Islands (A. C. W.— Fowler) ; Flat Bay (Bell) ; Batteau barrens,
N. W. coast (Bullman). Lab : Bonne Esperance and neighbour-
ing islands at Forteau (Butler, Cat. II, 309); Hopedale (Weiz-
Packard) ; Battle Harbour (A. C. W.). Rocky and most exposed
places. June — August.

442. P. farinosa,L. Bird's Eye Primrose (SALMON FLOWER).
(Reeks ; common) ; crevices of rocks, Port a Port (Bell) ; Englee,
White Bay, Middle Arm, and Chimney Cove, and Coal River
(A. C. W.— Fowler); Flower's Cove, in the Straits (Spence).
Lab : crevices of rocks and exposed points along the sea, lakes
or rivers (Butler) ; Hopedale (Weiz) ; Caribou Island and L'anse
Amour (Butler - Packard) ; Sandwich Bay, Battle Harbour,
Long Point (Hamilton Inlet), and L'anse au Clair (A. C. W.—
Macoun and Fowler). July.

443. P. Egaliksensis, Hornem. Lab : Northern (Cat. III.,

564).

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON— WAGHORNE. 391

444. Samolus Valerandi, L. Var. Americanus, Gray.
Water Pimpernel (Reeks).

445. Trientalis Americana, Pnrsh. Ghickweed Winter-
green, Star Flower. Appears to be quite common everywhere,
chiefly in damp grassy woods, in Newfoundland and on the
Labrador (A. C. W., Cat. II., 313, and Packard). June— August.

LXI. — OLEACE.K Olive Family.

446. Fraxinus Americana, L. White Ash (Reeks); a very
rare tree ; only in the country surrounding S. George's and Port
a Port Bays (Prof. Howley in Geological Survey Report, p. 44).

447. F. pubescens, Lam. Red or River Ash (Reeks ; com-
mon) ; (Howley).

448. F. sambuci folia, Lam. Black or Sv:amp Ash. Hum-
ber River, quite abundant, and Deer Lake, in and about Bay of
Islands (Bell).

LXII. — APOCYNACE^E. Dog Bane Family.

449. Apocynum cannabinum, L. Indian Hemp. Bad-
ger's Brook (Revd. I. H. Bull — Fowler). August.

450. A. androscemifolium, L. Exploits River (R. & S.).
Open woods. August.

LXIV. — GENTIANACE.E. Gentian Family.

451. Bartonia tenella, Muhl. Screwstem. Open woods.
(Gray, Cat. II., 327).

452. Bartonia, sp.* (Centaurella Moseri, Steud. & Hochst.).
A plant which appears to represent, at least in part, this rare and
poorly understood species, was discovered in a small bog near
Holyrood (Robinson and Schrenk ; for their further remarks on
this plant see their "notes"). August.

453. Gentiana crinita, Froel. Blue-fringed Gentian (Reeks).

*Bartonia iodandra, Robinson. Botanical Gazette, 1898, July, p. 47.

392 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

454. G. quinqueflora, Lain. Parson's Pond, Bonne Bay
(Bull man). Dry hillsides. August.

455. (j. propiwqua, Richards. Lab : (Gray, Cat. II., 322).
On hillsides at Amour and lowlands at Bonne Esperance (Stearns

Packard). Prof. Macoun notes, however, that this is more

likely to be the next.

456. G. Amarella, L. var. acuta, Hook. Autumnal or
Small-flowered Gentian. (Reeks ; common in short grass) ;
Chimney Cove, Bay of Islands (A. C. W. — Robinson). Lab :
(Gray, Cat. II., 322) ; Hopedale (Weiz), and Caribou Island
(Butler — Packard) ; by myself in the Strait ; L'anse au Clair and
Forteau (Fowler). August.

457. G. serrata, Gunner. Shorn or Smaller-fringed Gen-
tian. Wet grounds, by streams and on rocks (Gray, Cat. II.,
321); Englee (Revd. R. Temple— Fowler).

458. G. Andrewsii, Griseb. (Reeks).

459. G. nivalis, L. Small Alpine Gentian. Lab : collected
by the Moravian Brethren (Gray), and Hopedale (Weiz—Packard).

460. Halenia deflexa, Griseb. Spursed Gentian. Fehvort.
(Reeks); Conche (N. E. coast), New Harbour and Bay of Islands
or Chimney Cove (A. C. W. — Macoun and Fowler). Lab : For-
teau Bay (Miss Brodie) ; on hillsides at L'anse Amour, and
lowlands at Bonne Esperance (Stearns) ; Caribou Islands (Butler
— Packard) ; Bluff Head (Hamilton Inlet), Capstan Islands and
Forteau in the Strait (A. C. W. — Fowler). Hills. August.

Var. Brentoniana, Gray. Harbour Grace (Cat. II., 326).
Rocky hills, S. John's (R. & S.) August.

461. Menyanthes. trifoliata, L. Buck or Bog Bean. Quite
common in bogs, swamps and slow-flowing streams, from Labra-
dor, Newfoundland, etc.; to the Pacific, and northward to Sitka
(Cat. II., 327) (Reeks) ; West of Random (Cormack), and at New
Harbour in the same neighbourhood (A. C. W.) ; also at Hermi-
tage Bay, Fortune Bay, Bonne Bay and Bay of Islands (A.C. W.)
Lab : Hopedale (Weiz), and Caribou Island (Butler — Packard) ;
Holton (A. C. W.). Flora Miq., common. June.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON— WAGHORNE. 393

462. Pleurogyne rotata, Griseb. (Cat. II., 325) ; Englee
(A. C. W.). Lab : on the flat at Caribou and low lands at Bonne
Esperance (Stearns — Packard) ; Battle Harbour, and at Sand-
wich Bay, and Hamilton Inlet. August.

Var ? Harbour Breton (A. C. W.— Macoun).

463. P. carinthiaca, Griseb. Var. pusilla, Gray. Conche,
sea beach (A. C. W.— Fowler). Lab : (Hooker, Cat. II., 325);
Battle Harbour and neighbourhood (A. C. W.) August —
September.

LXVII. — BORAGINACE.E. Borage Family.

464. Cynoglossum officinale, L. Common Hound's Tongue
(Reeks; rare).

465. Echinospermum Lappula, Lehm. (Reeks).

466. E. Virginicuni, Lehm. (Reeks; rare).

467. Mertensia maritima, Don. Sea Lungwort. (!CE
PLANT, Labrador). (Reeks). Appears to be fairly common
along most parts of the coast. I have found it in all. or nearly
all, the open sea beaches where I have been. Lab : Hopedale
(Weiz), and Caribou Island (Butler) ; several places in the Strait,
at Indian Harbour and S. Michael's. Flora Miq.y very common.
July, August.

468. Myosotis laxa, Lehm. Harbour Grace (Cat. II., 340) ;
New Harbour, Harbour Breton, Exploits, and several places in
the Bay of Islands (A. C. W. — Macoun and Fowler) ; Manuel's
(R. & S.). Gardens and waste places. July, August.

469. M. arvensis, Hoffm. Field Scorpion Grass or Forget-
me-not. S. John's (R. & S.), appearing as if introduced. Lab :
Sandwich Bay (Revd. W. Shears — Macoun). A doubtful plant.
August.

470. M. palustris, With. Marsh or Great Forget-me-not
Harbour Grace (Miss Trapnell — A. H. Mac Kay).

471. Symphytum oflicinale, L. Common Comfrey. Har-
bour Grace (McGill Coll. Herb., Cat. II., 343) ; S. John's (R. & S.).

394 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

LXVII1. — CONVOLVULACE^E. Bindweed Family.

472. Convolvulus sepium, L. Hedge or Great Bindweed.
West Bay, Cape S. George (Bell), and Stevenville, Bay S. George

(A. White A. H. MacKay) ; Spreadeagle in Trinity Bay, and

Topsail, Conception Bay (A. C. W.) July, August.

LXIX.— SOLANACE.E. Potatoe Family.

473. Solanum Dulcamara, L. Bittersweet S. John's (R.
& S.). Topsail road (Prof. Holloway— Fletcher).

LXX. — SCROPHULARIACE. Figwort Family.

474. Bartsia alpina, L. Lab : (Coin aster) ; Nachvak
(Bell, Cat. II, 367 ; III., 572).

475. Chelone glabra, L. Snake or Turtle Head. West of
Random, Trinity Bay (Cormack), and New Harbour in the same
Bay ; Frenchman's Cove, Bay of Islands (A. C. W.) ; Whitbourne
and Exploits River (R. & S.) ; S. John's (Miss Trapnell— MacKay) ;
The Goulds, near S.John's (Miss Southcott) ; (Cat. II, 354).
WTet places. August. Flora Miq. ,

476. Castilleia pallida, Kunth. Painted Cup. Lab :
Forteau (A. C. W. — Eaton). August.

Var. septentrionalis, Gray. In Bay of Islands at Chimney
Cove (Fowler), and Grand Lake (Robinson) by myself ; in island
at north side of Deer Lake (Bell) ; wet places and hills. July
— August. Lab : Hopedale (Weiz); Ford's Harbour and Nach-
vak (Bell— Packard).

477. C. acuminata, (Pursh) Spreng. Shoal Point (A. C. W.
— Coville). In grassy places. July. Dr. Robinson thinks that
this is the last-named plant.

478. Euphrasiaojj/icinalis,Li. Common Eyebright. Appears
to be common in grassy places in many districts (Cat. III., 367).
Lab: (Cat. II, 367) ; Hopedale (Weiz-Packard) ; L'anse au Clair,

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 395

Battle Harbour and Fox Harbour (A. C. W.). Flora Miq., very
common. July, August.

Var. Tartarica, Berith. Lab : (Pursh), Caribou Island
(Butler— Packard).

479. E. purpurea (E. gracilis, Fries), " new species." , Sea
coast at Cow Head. Much smaller in all parts ; dark purple
flower. (Reeks).

480. Linaria vulgaris, Mill. Butter and Eggs. Harbour
Grace (Miss Trapnell). S. John's (Southcott and R. & S.) ;
Harbour Breton (A. C. W.) ; La Scie, Notre Dame Bay, Revd. A.
Pitman — Fowler). August.

481. L. striata, D. C. S. John's, on Rennie's River, but
near waste heaps ; doubtless a waif (R. & S.).

482. Pedicularis palustris, L. Marsh Lvusewort. Moist
meadows, S. John's (R. & S.). " The typical form of this does
not appear to have been heretofore recorded in America. It
differs from the var. Wlassoviana, Bunge, conspicuously in the
form of the Corolla, and has also been collected in Labrador by
Mr. J. A. Allen."

Var. Wlassoviana, Bunge (Cat. II., 369 — Morrison) ; S.
John's (Miss Southcott). Lab : Holton (A. C. W.) Bogs. July.
Var ? S. John's (A. C. W.— Mr. Howley and Macoun).

483. P. flammea, L. Ford's Harbour and Cape Chidley and
Nachvak (Bell) ; Hopedale (Weiz, Cat. III., 573, and Packard).

484. P. hirsuta, L. Lab : Ford's Harbour and Cape Chid-
ley (Bell, Cat. Ill, 376).

485. P. Lapponica, L. Lab : (Kolmeister, Cat. II., 368) ;
Nachvak (Bell) and Hopedale (Weiz — Packard).

486. P. pedicellata, Bunge. Lab : (Gray, Cat, II, 368).

487. P. euphrasioides, Stephen. Lab : (Kolmeister, Cat.
IL, 368) ; Hopedale (Weiz), and Ford's Harbour (Bell— Packard) ;
Sandwich Bay (Revd. T. Quinton) ; Holton (Revd. Wm. How—

Macoun).

8

396 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

488. P. Grcenlandica, Retz. Lab : (Morrison, Cat. II., 368) ;
Nachvak (Bell), and Hopedale (Weiz- Packard).

489. Rhinanthus Crista-Galli, L. Yelloiu Rattle (SHEP-
HERD'S COFFIN). Appears to be very common throughout the
country in grassy and wet places. Lab : abundant and very
common in places on Bonne Esperance1, and found all along the
Labrador coast (Stearns, Cat. IL, 371). July, August.

490. Veronica Anagallis, L. Speedwell. (Reeks\ Hawk's
Bay, N, W. Coast (Bullman). June, July.

491. V. Americana, Schwein. A mertcan Brooklime. Great
Cod Roy River (Bell) ; in Bay of Islands at Riverhead (Fowler) ;
Chimney Cove (Robinson) ; Mclver's Cove (Treiease), collected
by myself. Wet places. July, August.

492. V. scutellata, L. Skull-cap Brooklime, Marsh Speed-
well. S. John's (Lady Blake) ; muddy bank, Whitbourne (R. &
S.) ; at Dildo, Trinity Bay (Macoun), and at Deer Lake near
Bay of Islands (A. C. W.— Fowler) ; (Reeks). Wet places.
August.

493. V. Buxbaumii, Tenore. S. John's (Miss Southcott) ;
Harbour Breton in Fortune Bay (A. C. W.).

494. V.serpylliJ-olia,L. Thyme-leaved Speedwell. (Reeks);
New Harbour, etc., Trinity Bay, Topsail and Exploit (A. C. W.) ;
S. John's (Lady Blake) ; Great Cod Roy River (Bell) ; Birchy
Cove, Bay of Islands (A. C. W. — Fowler). Lab : L'anse au Clair
(A. C. W.). Grassy and wet places. June and July.

495. V. officinalis, L. Common Speedivell. S. John's
(Miss Southcott and R. & S.). July.

496. V. alpina, L. Lab : (Gray, Cat. II., 361) ; Port Bur-
well, Cape Chidley (Bell, Cat. III., 571); Nain (Lundbery), and
Hopedale (Weiz — Packard).

497. V. arvensis, L. Corn Speedwell. New Harbour
(A. C. W.).

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 397

498. V. agrestis, L. Rocky hills, S. John's (R. & S.) ; gar-
dens, Birchy Cove, B. of I. (A. C. W. — Fowler). August.

499. Mimulus luteus, L. V. sessilifolius. Birchy Cove,
B. of I. (A. C. W. — Fowler). Brooklets. August. Dr. Robinson
says this is M. moschatus, Dougl.

500. Scrophularia Marylandica, (L.) Fries. Figwort.
Meadows, B. of I. (A. C. W.— Coville). Wet places. July.

501. Pentstemon pubescens, Solander. Beardstongue. Cow
Head, W. coast (Bullman). Dry soil. June.

502. Limosella aquatica, L. V. tenui folia, Hoffm. " Meed-
wort," Sterile, and accordingly doubtful specimens collected upon
precipitous cliffs of Placentia Harbour (R. & S.).

LXVI. — HYDROPHYLLACE.E. Water leaf Family.

503. Hydrophyllum Virginicum, L. Bonne Bay (Bullman).
Wet places. July.

LXXI. — OROBANCHACE^E. Broumrape Family.

504. Aphyllon uniflorum, Gray. Naked or One-floivered
Broomrape. (Reeks). (Miss Brenton, Cat. II., 372) ; Dildo (Rev.
H. Petley — Macoun) ; Kilbride near S. John's (Miss Trapnell—
A. H. MacKay) ; Coal River, B. of I. (A. C. W.— Fowler). Open
woods. July.

505. Conopholis Americana, Walb. Squawroot. (Reeks).

LXXI I. — LENTIBULARIACE^E. Bladderwort Family.

506. Utricularia vulgaris, L. Common Bladderwort.
Whitbourne and Exploits River (R. & S.).

Var. Americana, Gray (Reeks) ; West of Random (Corrnack);
also in Trinity Bay, at New Harbour (A. C. W.). Ditches and
brooks.

507. U. minor, L. (Reeks ; rare).

398 THE FLORA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

508. U. intermedia, Hayne. Brook, Placentia (R. & S.) ;
about New Harbour and Broad Cove, Trinity Bay, Harbour
Breton, Western Cove, White Bay, Great Harbour, Hermitage
Bay (A. C. W.). July — August. Flora Miq., stagnant waters.
Common.

509. II. cornuta, MX. Horned Bladderwort. Sphagnous
or sandy swamps from Newfoundland to Lake Superior (Gray,
Cat. II., 376) ; (Keeks) rare; S.John's (Lady Blake); Chimney
Cove and Grand Lake, and other places in Bay of Islands ; New
Harbour and Harbour Breton (A. C. W.) ; Whitbourne and
Exploits River (R. & S.). Flora Miq., common. July, August.

510. Pinguicula, villosa, L. Lab : (Gray, Cat. II., 376) ;
Hopedale (Weiz-Packard).

511. P. alpina, L. Lab: Steimhauer ; not elsewhere
detailed in America (Gray, Cat. II., 376); Hopedale (Weiz-
Packard).

512. P. vnlcjaris, L. Common Butterwort. (Miss Brenton,
Cat. II, 376); Burin graveyard, and not uncommon about Bay
of Islands (A. C. W.) ; Flat Bay Brook, Bay S. George (Bell).
Lab : (Cat. II., 376) ; L'anse Amour Bay (Butler) ; Hopedale
(Weiz); Nachvak (Bell— Packard); Forteau, Battle Harbour,
Seal Islands, Snack Cove, Holton (A. C. W.). Wet rocks. June
— August. Flora Miq., common.

LXXVII. — LABIATE. Mint Family.

513. Brunella vulgaris, L. Seal Head. (Reeks). Great
Cod Roy River (Bell) ; Trinity Bay and several places about Bay
of Islands and at Harbour Breton (A. C. W.), near Salmonier
River ; common ; (R. & S.) ; S. John's (Miss Southcott). Flora
Miq., very common. July, August.

514. Collinsonia Canadensis, L. Horseweed. (Bonycastle).

515. Calamintha dinopodium, Benth. Wild Basil. Rich
bottoms, Salmonier (R. & S.) ; Chimney Cove, B. of I. (A. C. W.
—Robinson). Grassy hills. August.

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 399

516. Galeopis Tetrahit, L. Dead Hemp Nettle. S.John's
(Miss Southcott and R. & S.) ; (Reeks) ; New Harbour and else-
where in Trinity Bay (A. C. W. — Cormack) ; Chimney Cove>
Birchy Cove and Middle Arm, Bay of Islands (A. C. W.— Fowler);
Riverhead, White Bay (Bullman). Roadside and gardens. July,
August.

517. Galeopsis Ladanum, L. Hemp Nettle. (Reeks); S*
John's (Miss Southcott).

518. G. versicolor, L. S. John's (Miss Southcott).

519. Lycopus Virginicus, L. Bugle weed, Virginian H ore-
hound. West of Random and in Trinity Bay (Cormack ; and
New Harbour (A. C. W.) ; S.John's (Miss Southcott), and rocky
banks, Rennie's River (R. & S.) ; Sandy Point, Bay S. George
(A. C. W. — Fowler), and a few places in Bay of Islands. Wet
places. August. Flora Miq., common.

520. L. sinuatus, Ell. Salrnonier River (R. & S.) Gravel
beds. August.

521. Lamium amplexicaule, L. Henbit Dead Nettle. New
Harbour (A. C. W.) ; S. John's, fields (R. & S.). August.

522. L. purpureum, L. Red Dead Nettle. S. John's (Miss
Southcott) ; New Harbour and Harbour Breton (A. C. W.).

523. L. maculatum, L. New Harbour (A. C. W.) Gardens.

524. L. incisum, Willd. S. John's; a single specimen by
roadside (R & S ).

525. Mentha viridis, L. Spearmint (Reeks).

526. M. arvensis, L. Cornmint. Manuel's River, rocky
banks ; common along streams (R. & S.) August.

527. M. Canadensis, L. Canada or Horse Mint. New
Harbour, Trinity Bay (A. C. W.), and elsewhere in the same Bay
(Cormack) ; Flat Bay (Bell) ; (Reeks) ; Chimney Cove, and
Irishtown, B. of I. (A. C. W. — Fowler). Wet places. August.

Var. glabrata, Benth. Spreadeagle, Trinity Bay (A. C. W.).

528. Nepeta Cataria, L. Catnip, Catsmint. John's Beach,
B. of I. (A. C. W.). Roadside. August.

400 THE FLOKA OF NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR

529. N. Glechoma, Benth. Ground Ivy, Gill over-the-ground
(SCARLET-RUNNER). Harbour Grace (McGill Coll. Herb., Cat.
II., 387) ; S. John's R. & S.); Topsail, old shop (Trinity Bay),
and Bay de Verde (A. C. W.) Lab : Battle Harbour (A. C. W.).
Roadside and old gardens. June— August.

530. Scutellaria lateriflora, L. Maddog Scullcap. (Reeks).
Deer Lake, near Bay of Islands (A. C. W. — Fowler). River
banks. August.

531. 8. galericulata, L. Common Skullcap. (RED TOPS).
Cat. II., 388). Trinity Bay (Cormack) ; Green Harbour and

other places in the same Bay (A. C. W.) ; (Reeks) ; Manuel's
River, rocky banks (R. & S.) ; Salt Water Pond, White Bay
(Bullraan). Sea beach. July — August.

532. Stachys palustris, L. Woundwort (Cormack) ; Har-
bour Grace (Miss Trapnell— A. H. MacKay) ; S. John's (R. & S.,
wet meadows) ; Sandy Point, Bay S. George, gardens (A. C. W.
— Fowler. Wet ground, from Newfoundland to the Pacific (Gray,
Cat. II, 390 . August.

N. B. — The Flora Miquelonensis says that Thymus vulgaris,
L., Satureia hortense, L., Galeopsis Ladanum, L., Mentha piperita,
L.,Lamium amplexicaule,L., have been introduced and are found
in gardens or in the neighbourhood.

LXXVIII. — PLANTAGINACEJL Plantain Family.

533. Plantago major, L. Common Plantain (RAT-TAIL.)
(Reeks) ; Great Cod Roy River (Bell) ; S. John's (R. & S.) ;
Birchy Cove, B. of I. (A. C. W.). Lab : Battle Harbour (A. C. W.)
Roadsides. August.

534. P. eriopoda, Torr ? Prof. Macoun thinks this may be
Dr. Bell's P. Virginica.

535. P. maritima, L. Seaside Plantain. Trinity Bay
(Cormack) ; New Harbour and other places about Trinity Bay,
and at Middle Arm, and in Bay of Islands (A. C. W.) ; Placentia

AND ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON — WAGHORNE. 401

(R. & S.). Dr. Bells says a large variety (?) was found with
broad leaves'and long tapering point near extremity of Flat Bay.
Lab:. (Pursh, Cat. II, 393); Nachvak (Bell, Cat. Ill, £75);
Hopedale (Weiz) ; and Caribou Islands (Butler-Packard). Sea
cliffs. July, August. Flora Miq., very common.

536. P. decipiens, Barneoud. Port a Port (Bell) ; crevices
of rocks. (P. maritima, var. juncoides, Gray). Lab : (Gray, Cat.
II, 393).

537. P, lanceolata, L. Ribwort Plantain. (Reeks) ; Mid-
dle Arm and Birchy Cove, B. of I (A. C. W. — Trelease and
Robinson); S. John's (R. & S.). Fields and gardens. June —
August.

538. Littorella lacustris, L. Plantain Shoreiveed. Exploits
River (R, & S.). Muddy banks. August.

The Flora Miq. remarks that P. major, L., and P. lanceolata,
L., are common around houses ; probably introduced.

IX.— PHEXOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1897. COMPILED
BY A. H. MAC KAY, LL. D., HALIFAX.

(Read 9th Mag, 1898).

In the following tables I have compiled the observations taken
at fifteen stations throughout the Dominion from Halifax to
Vancouver. Seven of these stations are in the Province of Nova
Scotia. Between two and three hundred stations have had
similar observations made in connection with the public schools
during the year, so that there is very abundant material for the
study of these phenomena in this province.* The schedule names,
which are abbreviated in the tables, are those of the Public School
Schedule for Nova Scotia, used also by the Botanical Club of
Canada during the present year : —

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1897.

STATIONS AND NAMES OF THE OBSERVERS.

Nova ticotia.

Berwick, Kings Co. — Miss Ida Parker.

Halifax City. — Mr. Harry Piers.

Musquodoboit Harbour, Halifax Co. — Rev. James Rosborough.

Wallace, Cumberland Co. — Miss Mary E. Charman.

New Glasgow, Pictou Co.— Miss Maria Cavanagh.

Port Hawkesbury, Inverness Co. — Mrs. G. Ormond Forsyth.

Sydney Mines, Cape Breton Co. — Miss Louise MacMillan.

Prince Edward Island.
Charlottetown. — Principal John MacSwain.

*As this is going to press, Nova Scotian observations for 1898 have come in from
between six and seven hundred stations. These will be reduced to tabular form
when opportunity admits of it.

(402)

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY. 403

Ontario.

Niagara Falls (Queen Victoria Park). — Mr. Roderick Cameron.
Beatrice, Muskoka. — Miss Alice Hollingworth.

Manitoba.

Winnipeg. — Rev. W. A. Burman, B. D., (up to No. 57 in table).
Res ton. — Mr. H. B. MacGregor, (from No. 67 to end of table).

Assiniboia.
Pheasant Forks. — Mr. Thomas Donnelly.

British Columbia.
Langley. — Mr. A. H. P. Matthew.
Vancouver. — Mr. J. K. Henry, B. A.

404

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— MACK AY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1897.

Day of the year, 1897,
corresponding to the
last day of each month.

L
rt
W

02

t»
2

02

hH

d

d

I

1

°f

d

Number.

Jan... 31 July.. 2: 2
Feb... 59 Aug.. 243
March 90 Sept. .273
April. 120 Oct... 304
May.. 151 Nov.. 334
June.. 181 Dec... 365

Berwick, N. S

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit
boiir, N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

3

<u

Port Hawkesb

Sydney Mines

Charlottetown

Niagara Falls,

Beatrice, Musi

Winnipeg, Ma

Pheasant Fort

Langley, B. C.

Pfi

p

c
>

(First Flowering, etc.)
Alder

144

108

110

105

1?,S

93

79

60

115

133

118

199

3

Mayflower

86

98

103

113

113

113

116

114

4

Violet, blue
Violet white

124
117

129

126

118

122

127

135
135

143
135

122
118

....

....

100

....

6

Maple, red

114

199

1?,6

1?,4

119

137

134

98

Bluets

135

g

Horsetail

137

161

131

9

Dandelion

1?5

134

137

137

118

137

139

14?

110

135

117

89

10

A. T. Lily

131

111

190

79

Hepatica

130

91

12

Gold Thread

1?6

198

135

161

147

131

13

Strawberry

116

1?t8

1?8

198

119

137

130

137

196

131

140

140

117

89

14

fruit .

159

178

167

158

177

159

186

15

Cherry red

134

117

141

114

144

135

140

140

111

16

" " fruit

906

201

17

Blueberry

199

115

111

114

137

165

11°

18

" fruit

?01

199

195

991

19

Buttercup tall

145

159

150

148

170

159

166

195

" creeping

155

166

167

171

199

21

99

Dlintonia
Trilium, painted

144

151

149
153

154
154

161

134

148

....

Starflower

145

151

118

151

166

155

155

?4

Lady's Slipper

144

151

159

144

179

150

?5

Marsh Calla

96

Indian Pear

140

11°

137

149

148

121

131

120

139

109

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— MACKAY.

405

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1897.— Continued.

£

o>

,0

1

£

27

28
2!)
30
31
32
33
34
35
30
37
38
3!)
40
41
42
43
44
45
40
47
48
41)
50
51
52

Day of the year, 1897,
corresponding to the
ast day of each month.

Berwick, N. S.

02
fc

frf

S

1

Musquodoboit Har-
bour, N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

New Glasgow, N. S.

Port Hawkesbury, N. S.

Sydney Mines, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. T.

0
f2~
1

1
1

6

«

24

O
24

00
P

8

*c

1
B

Winnipeg and Beaton,

Man. 1

Pheasant Forks, Assa.

Langley, B. C.

d

w

&r
<p

1

Jan.... 31 July... 212
Feb. .. 59 Aug . 243
Mar... 90 Sept... 273
April .120 Oct.... 304
May.. 151 Nov. ..334
June.. 181 Dec. ..365

(First Flowering, etc.)
Indian Pear, fruit —
Raspberry

<W

^01

162
196
165
213

171
226

175

174
196

176

256

205
178
213
IT9

180
209
165

172

206

....

fruit
Blackberry

159

172
240

150

115

fruit
Pale Laurel

I'M

148
136
136

Sheep Laurel
Pigeonberry

140
146

182
149

162
149

174
149

155

171

170

" fruit

Blue-eyed Grass
Twin-flower

152
155

199

167

160

158
166

159

171

167

172

152

....

156

Butter and Eggs

Yellow- Rattle

174

Pitcher Plant

161
183

191

174
179

181
10f

162

187
199

Brunella
Epilobium

183

182
152

Wild Rose

1S9

199

188
189

197
171
14*>

201
170

w,]

Fall Dandelion

19«

Cherry

146

146

147

151

127

106
163

190

160

American Hawthorn. .
Plum

143

167

144

146

145
140

155
165

167
167

163
151

147

1S7

150

154

136

Apple early

145

154

155

137

143

...

117

Apple, common

406

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1897 —Continued.

1

53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
65a
65b
66
67
68
69
70
71
72

73a
74
75
76

77

78

I

79

Day of the year, 1897,
corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Berwick, N. S.

: | Halifax, N. S.

H-I 1 Musquodoboit Har-
& 1 bour, N. S.

02
"c3

137

New Glasgow, N. S.

Port Hawkesbury, N. S.

03

c

g
If

f

02

Charlottetown, P. E. I. II

Niagara Falls, O.

Beatrice, Muskoka, O. 1

Winnipeg and Reston, j
Man.

Pheasant Forks, Assa.

Langley, B. C.

Vancouver, B. C. 1

Jan.... 31 July... 212
Feb.... 59 Aug. ..243
Mar. .. 90 Sept. -.273
April. 120 Oct. ...304
May.. 151 Nov. ..334
June.. 181 Dec 365

(First Flowering, etc.)

197

140

152
203

146

140

fruit
Currant, black
" fruit
Lilac

m

110

143

....

148

182

158

166

149

148

163

186
185

167
213

158

137

159

145 ....

131

Timothy flower

Clover, white
" red
Early leafing
Late leafing. .

157

111
117
110

170
170

170
166

174
165

116
110

165
160

176

138
154
134

134

181
177
152

137
124

172

105

221

106

130
146
98
105
132
132
188
216
263

97

....

96

141

139
137

Ploughing begun
Sowing begun
Planting Potato

....

Shearing Sheep

IT*

134
194

288

128
180

203
232

102

96

Hay cutting

184
244

270
101

240

95

128
181

Grain-cutting

78

Potato-digging
(Meteorological.)
Rivers open

Last Snow

Last Frost 102

127

140

153

159

156

117

306

118

First Frost

261

275
322
338

257

241

....

251

259

232

241

First Snow ...

Rivers closed '

352

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — MACKAY.

407

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA,

-Continued.

rp

Day of the year, 1897
corresponding to the
last day of each month

&

CO*

£

00

HH
«

0
«

i

W

fc

3

£

O

o

-

0

Number.

Jan.... 31 July. ..21
Feb. .. 59 Aug. ..24
Mar. .. 90 Sept. ..27
April .120 Oct.. ..30
May... 151 Nov. ..33
June.. 181 Dec. ...36

3 &

II

5 1

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit
bour, N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

New Glasgow,

Port Hawkesb

Sydney Mines,

Charlottetown

Niagara Falls,

Beatrice, Musi

Reston, Man

Pheasant Fork

O
ffl

Vancouver, B.

(Meteorological.)

5

68

76

IIS

IIS

,

117

111

....

126

131

129

125

126

140

138

140

IS9

1S9

151

142

141

150

141

141

149

167

166

165

160

157

165

160

169

169

169

174

166

165

174

176

171

176

179

176

186

166

166

177

176

176

1S1

191

181

169

189

191

197

19?,

19?

184

171

90S

213

190

•

194

197

80

Thunderstorms !

205

218

218

203

199

200

198

202

211

221

99-}

20"

202 201

?1 S

99/|

204 ! 202

1

....

225

213

...

205 203

224

219

....

996

918

206 223

995

?90

-227

227

226

218

207

227

228

228

229

221

221

236

236

252

252

225

222 241

243

|

9^Q

997

228 254

248

249

I

254

238

228

229 278

249

256

256

229

241 98Q

286

232

253

I

408

PHENOLOG1CAL OBSERVATIONS— MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 18W , -Continued.

Day of the vear, 1897, cor-
responding to the last
day of each month.

1

i

to
fc

to

_o

CO

rf

K
a

0

koka, O.

of

—•

Number.

Jan 31 July ....212
Feb .... 59 Aug. ..243
Mar.... 90 Sept. ..273
April.. 120 Oct 304
May. ..151 Nov. ...334
June... 181 Dec. ...365

Berwick, N. S

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboi
bour, N. S.

1

1 New Glasgow

PortHawkes

I Sydney Mine

Charlottetow

1

Beatrice, Mus

j Reston, Man.

1 Pheasant For

| Langley, B. C

! Vancouver, I

(Meteorological.)

80

Thunderstorms j

9Sq

(Migrations, &c.)
Wild Ducks

f 74

1

97

82
83

81

Wild Geese

Song Sparrow
Robin

81

102
67

72

90

77

i

83
340

h

87

79

95
114

110

86
270
99

(270

91
291

77
74

J

132

297
....
69

87 1
116

21

••

8/j

87

96

106

OSI

00

ion

146

95

87

Meadow-lark

96

9^

88

Kingfisher

140

141

74

89

Yel'w-crowned "Warbler

m'

119

90

Yellow-bird

135

137

110

135

91

Whitc-throatedSparrow

Humming-bird

139

145

j

145

132

138

9?

Kingbird

138

1

Til

1S9

91

Bobolink

138

i

175

144

95

Goldfinch

i • • • •
11S

139

96

Redstart

97

Cedar Waxwing

157

98

Night Hawk

14°

isq

16"

164

w

119

99
100

Piping Frogs
Snakes, seen

107

ne

1

115

113

120

116
175

115

112

79

105

j 104
103

105

33

PH ENOLOGIC AL OBSERVATIONS— MACK AY.

409

MEAN OF TWENTY PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA,
FOR THE FIVE YEARS, 1892 TO 1896, COMPARED WITH 1897.

Species common to the
.Tables of the five years.

03 oo
c3 o
w"e8

•5°

cS o

P

|l

E5

P o3
^°

si

$2

i>^

03 OO

IS
?*$

"ive Year I
Mean. |

II

48$

d a

S'S'S d
r J diJj

*|i'

p

«r

(First appearance).

Mayflower, flower

98

108

104.7

113.55

102.70

104.79

5th April.

106.

Alder, "

102

114

116.3

103.8

107.55

108.73

9th " .

119.

Aspen,

131

123

122.2

117.5

121.90

123.12

4th May .

128.

Maple, "

123

130

126.3

123.85

124.55

125.54

6th " .

124.8

Strawberry, "

129

133

131.6

128.55

128.50

130.13

llth " .

126.5

Dog-tooth V., "
Cherry (Cult ) "

135
146

136
142

132.2
146 3

125.
136 6

128.50
143 00

131.34

142 78

12th " .
93rd "

131.
146

Indian Pear "

145

144

146

138 35

141 65

143.

24th " .

141.8

Cherry (wild) "

150

144

147.

138.15

14C 25

144.88

25th May .

142.6

Apple "

146

146

152.1

166 65

151.10

152.37

2nd June .

155.3

Lilac "

154

160

162 3

153.5

160.50

158 06

8th "

157

Hawthorn, "
Wild Goose

163
54

160

88

160.3
70 6

148-75

78 00

160.25
80.00

158.46
74 12

8th " .
6th March

156.

80

96

94

73.2

99.30

' 96.14

91.73

2nd April.

91.

99

115

79

96.65

94-66

96 86

7th •' .

95.6

Frogs piping

105

113

112.8

110.55

106.30

109.53

10th " .

113.2

Swallow

106

119

119.

125.75

117-76

117.50

18th " .

Kingfisher

128

137

128 7

127.50

122.00

128.64

9th May..

141.6

Humming Bird
Night Hawk

143
150

159
144

143.0

158.8

137.25

148.00

139.30
154.33

144.31
151.03

25th "
1st June..

143.
165.5

Date of publication : December 31st,

APPENDIX.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1894-95.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15, 1869

Anderson. James F., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 2, 1894

Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bennett, Joseph Nov. 3, 1886

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Bliss, Donald M., Boston, U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. B., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Butler, Prof. W. R., c. E., King's College, Windsor, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

€ampbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Clements, E. F., Yarmouth, N, S Jan. 10, 1891

Cowie, A. J., M. D., L. R. c. P. E., Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Denton, A. J April 13, 1884

DesBrisay, A. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1891

DeWolfe, James R., M. D., L. R. c. s. E., Halifax Oct. 26, 1865

Dick, Alexander, M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Doane, F. W. W., City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Point Tapper, Cape Breton ..-. Nov. 30, 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Miss Bertha, Halifax March 4, 1895

Fearon, James, Principal Deaf & Dumb Institution, Halifax . May 8, 1894

Finn, William D., M. D., Halifax Oct. 29, 1894

Faville, E. E., Director, N. S. School of Horticulture. Wolfville Nov. 29, 1894

Forbes, John, Halifax March 14, 1883

Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N. S March 14, 1883

Fraser, C. F., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Fraser, Rev. W. M., B. A., B. sc., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Fyshe, Thomas, Halifax Jan. 9, 1888

Gilpin, Edwin, M.A., LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.S.C.. Inspector of Mines, Halifax .. April 11, 1873

Greer, T. A., M. D., Colborne, Ontario April 7, 1893

Hall, Charles Frederick, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Hare, Alfred A Dec. 12, 1881

Harris, Herbert, Vancouver, British Columbia Jan. 31, 1880

Hattie, William Harop, M. D., Halifax Nov. 12,1892

Hendry, William A., Jr., c. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Jacques, Hartley S., M. D., Halifax May 8, 1894

Johnston, H. W., c. E., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Keating, E. H., c. E., City Engineer, Toronto, Ontario April 12, 1882

Kennedy, W. T., Principal, County Academy, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

II

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

Locke, Thomas J .....Jan. 4,1892

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., F. G. s., Halifax March 14, 1881

MacGregor, Prof. J. G., M.A., D.SC., F.R.SS. c. & E., Dalhousie Coll., Hfx . .Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL.B., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Macintosh, Kenneth, Mabou, Cape Breton Jan. 4, 1892

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

MacKay, A. H., B.A., B.sc., LL.D., F.S.SC., F.R.S.C., Superintendent of

Education, Halifax Oct. 11, 1885

MacKay, Ebenezer, B. A., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A. Nov. 27, 1889

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Marshall, G. R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Mason, F. H., F. c. s., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Morrow, Arthur, M. D., Sand Coulee, Montana, U. S. A Nov. 27, 1889

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O'Hearn, P., Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D,, M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax March 31, 1890

Piers, Harry, Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

Poole, Henry S., F. G. s., Stellarton, N. S Nov. 11, 1879

Read, Herbert H., M. D., L. R. c. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Ritchie, Thomas, c. E Jan. 2, 1894

Robb, D. W., M. E., Amherst, N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Stellarton, N. S Jan. 8, 1865

Shine, Michael, Halifax Dec. 3, 1891

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12, 1887

Silver, William C., Halifax May 7, 1864

Smith, Capt. W. H., R. N. R., F. R. G. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Somers, John, M. D., Halifax Jan. 11, 1875

Spike, C. J., Halifax May 8, 1894

Stewart, John, M. D., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Tremaine, Harris S., Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Uniacke, Robert F., c. E March 9, 1885

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice, Halifax March 28, 1895

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N. S.Nov. 29, 1894

Willis, C. E., M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

Yorston, W. G., C. E., Truro, N. S Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan, 31, 1890

Calkin, Principal J. B., M. A., Normal School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

*Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Coldwell, Prof. A. E.. M. A., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

De Wolfe, Melville G., Kentville, N. S May 2, 1895

*Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborough Co March 4, 1895

Eaton, F. H., M. A., Normal School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

* Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. Ill

Date of Admission.

Faribault, E. R., c. E., Ottawa, Ontario March 6, 1888

Fox, John J., Montreal May 8, 1882

Hardman, John E., M. E., Halifax March 4, 1890

Harris, Prof. C., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ontario Nov. 13, 1881

Hunton, Prof. S. W., M. A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B...Jan. 6, 1890

* Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., M.A., D.sc.. P.G.S., King's College, Windsor, N. S.Nov. 9, 1882

McKenzie, W. B., c. E., Moncton, N. B March 31, 1882

Magee, W. H., PH. D., High School, New Glasgow, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Matheson, W. G., M. E., New Glasgow, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Patterson, Rev. George, D. D., New Glasgow, N. S March 12, 1878

Prest, W. H., Chester Basin, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

*Reid, A. P., M.D. L.R.C.S., Supt. Victoria Gen. Hospital, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour. N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Smith, Prof. H. W., B. sc., Prov. Agricultural School, Truro, N. S....Jan. 6, 1890
Wilson, B. C., Waverley, N. S March 4, 1890

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ambrose, Rev. John, D. c. L., Herring Cove, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Ami, Henry M., D. sc., F. G. s., Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., F. R. s. c., University of New Brunswick,

Fredericton, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev. C. J. S., Port Hope, Ontario

Dawson, Sir J. W., c. M. G., LL.D., F. R. s., Montreal Jan. 31, 1890

Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland Dec. 30, 1887

Ells, R. W., LL.D., F. G. S. A., F. R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont.Jan. 2, 1894

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Ganong, Prof. W. F., B.A., PH.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U. S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL.D., F. R. s. c., St, John's, Newfoundland Jan. 31, 1890

King, Major, R. A , Nov. 19, 1877

Litton, Robert T., F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McClintock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F. R. s June 10, 1880

Marcou, Jules, Cambridge, U. S. A Oct. 12, 1871

Matthew, G. F., M. A., F. R. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. M., D. D., Waltham, Mass., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine, U. S. A March 31, 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W., PH.D., F. G. s., State Geologist, Atlanta, Ga., U.S.A. Jan. 31, 1890

Trott, Capt., S. S. " Minia," Anglo-American Telegraph Co Jan. 31, 1890

Waghorne, Rev. Arthur C., St. John's, Newfoundland May 5, 1892

Weston, Thomas C., F.G. S.A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario.... May 12, 1877

* Life Member.

.— II.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1895-96.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15, 1869

Anderson, James F., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 2, 1894

Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bennett, Joseph Nov. 3, 1886

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Bliss, Donald M., Boston, U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. B., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Butler, Prof. W. R., c. E., King's College, Windsor, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Clements, E. F., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Cowie, A. J., M. D., L. R. c. P. E., Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

DesBrisay, A. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1891

De Wolfe, James R., M. D., L. R. c. s. E., Halifax Oct. 23, 1865

Dick, Alexander, M. E., Halifax Nov. 29,1894

Doane, F. W. W., City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Point Tupper, Cape Breton Nov. 30, 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Miss Bertha, Halifax March 4, 1895

Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf & Dumb Institution, Halifax May 8, 1894

Finn, Wiiliam D., M. D., Halifax Oct. 29, 1894

Faville, E. E., Director N. S. School of Horticulture, Wolf ville Nov. 29, 1894

Forbes, John, Halifax March 14, 1883

Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N. S March 14, 1883

Fraser, C. F., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Fraser, Rev. W. M., B. A., B. sc., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Fyshe, Thomas, Halifax Jan. 9, 1888

Gilpin, Edwin, M.A., LL.D , F.G.S., F.R.S.C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax. . .April 11, 1873

Greer, T. A., M. D., Colborne, Ontario April 7, 1893

Hall, Charles Frederick, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Hare, Alfred A Dec. 12, 1881

Harris, Herbert, Vancouver, British Columbia Jan. 31, 1880

Hattie, William Harop, M. D., Halifax Nov. 12. 1892

Hendry, William A., Jr., c. E., Halifax. Jan. 4, 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Jacques, Hartley S., M. D., Halifax May 8, 1894

Johnston, H. W., c. E., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Keating, E. H., c. E., City Engineer, Toronto, Ontario April 12, 1882

Kennedy, W. T., Principal, Connty Academy, Halifax Nov. . 27, 1889

VI LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

Locke, Thomas J Jan. 4, 1892

McColl, Roderick, c, K., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., F. G. s.. Halifax March 14, 1881

MacGregor, Prof. J. G., M.A., D.sc., F.R.SS., c. &E., Dalhousie Coll., Hfx.Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL.B., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Macintosh, Kenneth, Mabou, Cape Breton Jan. 4, 1892

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

MacKay, A. H , B. A., B. sc., LL. D., F. s. sc., F. R. s. c., Superintendent of

Education, Halifax Oct. 11, 1885

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, B.A., PH.D., Dalhousie Coll., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Marshall, G. R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Mason. F. H., F. c. s., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Morrow, Arthur, M. D., Sand Coulee, Montana, U. S. A Nov. 27, 1889

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O'Hearn, P., Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D., M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax March 31, 1890

Piers, Harry, Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

Poole, Henry S., F. G. s., Stellarton, N. S Nov. 11, 1879

Read, Herbert H., M. D., L. R. c. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Ritchie, Thomas, C. E Jan. 2, 1894

Robb, D. W., M. E., Amherst, N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Stellarton, N. S Jan. 8, 1865

Shine, Michael, Halifax Dec. 3, 1891

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12, 1887

Silver, William C., Halifax May 7, 1864

Smith, Capt. W. H., R. N. R., F. R. G. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Somers, John, M. D., Halifax Jan. 11, 1875

Spike, C. J., Halifax May 8, 1894

Stewart, John, M. B. c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Tremaine, Harris S., Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Uniacke, Robert F., c. E March 9, 1885

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice March 28, 1895

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N. S. . .Nov. 29, 1894

Willis, C. E., M. E , Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

Yorston, W. G., c. E., Truro, N. S Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Calkin, Principal J. B., M. A., Normal School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

*Cameron, A. , Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Cold well, Prof. A. E , M. A., Acadia College, Wolf ville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

De Wolfe, Melville G., Kentville, N. S May 2, 1895

*Dickenson, S S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborough Co : March 4, 1895

Eaton, F. H., M. A., Normal School, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

*Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. VII

Date of Admission,

Faribault, E. R., c. B., Ottawa, Ontario March 6, 1888

Fox, John J., Montreal May 8, 1882

Hardman, John E. M. . Halifax March 4, 1890

Harris, Prof. C., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ontario Nov. 13, 1881

Hunton, Prof. S. W., M. A., Mount Allison College, SackviUe, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

* Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T , M.A., D sc., F.G.S., King's College, Windsor, N. S.Nov. 9, 1882

McKenzie, W. B., c. E., Moncton, N. B.. ..' March 31, 1882

Magee, W. H . , PH. D. , High School, New Glasgow, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Matheson, W. G., M. E., New Glasgow, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Patterson, Rev. George, D. D., New Glasgow, N. S March 12, 1878

Prest, W. H., Chester Basin, N. S .Nov. 29, 1894

*Reid, A. P., M.D., L.R.C.S., Supt. Victoria Gen. Hospital, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbor, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Smith, Prof. H. W., B.SC., Prov. Agricultural School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Wilson, B. C., Waverley, N. S March 4,1890

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ambrose, Rev. John, D. c. L., Herring Cove, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Ami, Henry M., D.SC., F.G.S., Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL.D., F. R. s. c., University of New Bruns-
wick, Fredericton, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev. C. J. S., Port Hope, Ontario

Dawson, Sir J. W., C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Montreal Jan. 31, 1890

Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland Dec. 30, 1887

Ells, R. W., LL. D., F. G. s. A , F. R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont.Jan. 2, 1894

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.. Jan. 6, 1890

Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. s. c., Post Office Department, Ottawa May 5, 1896

Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL. D., F. R. s. c., St. John's, Newfoundland Jan. 31, 1890

King, Major, R. A Nov. 19, 1877

Litton, Robert T., F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McClintock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F. R. s June 10, 1880

Marcou, Jules, Cambridge, U. S. A Oct. 12, 1871

Matthew, G. F., M. A., D sc., p. R. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. M., D. D., Waltham, Mass., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine, U. S. A March 31, 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W., PH.D., F.G.S., State Geologist, Atlanta, Ga.. U.S.A.Jan. 31, 1890

Trott, Capt., S. S. " Minia," Anglo-American Telegraph Co Jan. 31, 1890

Waghorne, Rev. Arthur C., St. John's, N ewfoundland May 5, 1892

Weston, Thomas C., F. G. s. A., Ottawa, Ontario May 12, 1877

*Life Member.

APPENDIX.— III.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1896-97.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15, 1869

Anderson, James F., Darmouth, N. S Jan 2, 1894

Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Ruf us, Halifax March 4,1890

Bennett, Joseph Nov. 3, 1886

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Bliss, Donald M., Boston, U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. B., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Butler, Professor W. R., c. E., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ont. . . .Nov. 27, 1889

Campbell, Donald A., M n , Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Clements, E. F., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Cowie, A. J., M. D., L. R. c. P. E, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

DesBrisay, A. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1891

DeWolfe, James R., M D., L. R. c. s. E., Halifax Oct. 26, 1865

Dick, Alexander, M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Doane, F. W. W., City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Point Tupper, Cape Breton ,. Nov. 30, 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Miss Bertha March 4, 1895

Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Institntion, Halifax May 8, 1894

Finn, William D., M. D., Halifax Oct. 29, 1894

Faville, E. E Nov. 29, 1894

Forbes, John, Halifax March 14, 1883

Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N. S March 14. 1883

Fraser, C. F., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Fraser, Rev. W. M., B. A., B. sc., Halifax , Nov. 29, 1894

Fyshe, Thomas, Montreal Jan. 9, 1888

Gilpin, Edwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax April 11, 1873

Greer, T. A., M. D., Colborne, Ontario April 7, 1893

Hall, Charles Frederick, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Hare,AlfredA Dec 12, 1881

Harris, Herbert, Vancouver, British Columbia Jan. 31, 1880

Hattie, William Harop, M. D., Halifax ..Nov. 12, 1892

Hendry, William A., Jr,c. E., Halifax Jan. 4,1892

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Jacques, Hartley S., M. D., Halifax May 8, 1894

Johnston, H. W., c. E., Halifax - Dec. 31, 1894

Keating, E. H., c. E., City Engineer, Toronto, Ontario April 12, 1882

Kennedy, W. T., Principal, County Academy Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

X LIST OF MEMBERS

Date of Admission.

Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11,1885

Locke, Thomas J Jan. 4, 1892

McColl. Roderick, c. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., F. G. s., Halifax March 14, 1881

MacGregor, Prof J. G., M. A., D sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL.B., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Macintosh, Kenneth, Mabou, Cape Breton Jan. 4, 1892

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

MacKay, A. H., B.A., B.SC., LL.D., F.R.S.C., Sxiperintendent of Education,

Halifax Oct. 11, 1885

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH.D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27,1889

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Marshall, G. R , Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Mason, F. H , F. c. 8., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Morrow, Arthur, M. D., Sand Coulee, Montana, U. S. A Nov. 27, 1889

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L.. Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O'Hearn, P., Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D, M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax March 31, 1890

Peter, Rev. Bro. J., La Salle Academy.lHalifax Dec. 3, 1896

Piers, Harry, Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

Poole, Henry S., F. o. s., Stellarton, N. S Nov. 11, 1879

Read, Herbert H., M. D., L. R. c. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Ritchie, Thomas, c. E Jan. 2, 1894

Robb, D. W,,M. E., Amherst, N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Stellarton, N. S Jan. 8, 1865

Shine, Michael, Halifax Dec 3, 1891

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12, 1887

Silver, William C., Halifax May 7, 1864

Smith, Capt. W. H., R. N. R., F. R. G. s., Halifax ..Nov. 27, 1889

Somers, John, M. D., Halifax Jan. 11, 1875

Spike, C. J., Halifax May 8, 1894

Stewart, John, M. B. c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Tremaine, Harris S., Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Twining, Chas.. Bank of B. N A., Halifax Dec. 3, 1896

Uniacke, Robert F., c. E March 9, 1885

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice, Halifax March 28, 1895

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N S . . .Nov. 29, 1894

Willis, C, EM M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

Yorston, W. G , c. E., Truro, N. S Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Calkin, Principal J. B., M. A., Normal School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

*Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Cold well, Prof. A. E., M. A., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

De Wolfe, Melville G., Kentville, N. S May 2, 1895

Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborongh Co., N. S March 4, 1895

* Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XI

Date of Admission.

Eaton,F. HM M. A Jan. 6, 1890

Faribault, E. R., c. E., Ottawa, Ontario March 6, 1888

Fox, John J., Montreal May 8, 1882

Hardman, John E., M. E., Montreal March 4, 1890

Harris, Prof. C., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ontario .Nov. 13. 1881

Hunton, Prof. S. W., M. A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

James, C. C., M. A., Dep Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3, 18%

* Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T.. M.A., D.SC., p G.S., King's College, Windsor, N.S.Nov. 9. 1882

McKenzie, W. B., c. E., Moncton, N. B March 31, 1882

Magee, W. H., PH.D., High School, Parrsboro', N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Matheson, W. G., M.E, New Glasgow, N. S Jan 31, 1890

Patterson, Rev. George, D D , LL. D., New Glasgow, N. S March 12, 1878

Prest, W. H., Chester Basin, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

*Reid, A. P., M D., L.R c.s., Supt Victoria Gen Hospital, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbor. N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Russell, Lee, B. s., Normal School, Truro, N. S Dec. 3, 1896

Smith, Prof H. W., B. sc , Prov. Agricultural School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Wilson, B C , Waverley, N. S March 4, 1890

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ambrose, Rev. John, D. c. L., Herring Cove, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Ami, Henry M., D. sc., F. G. s,, Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W , PH. r>., LL D.. F. R. s c., University of New Bruns-
wick. Fredericton, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N S ,. Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev C. J. S., Port Hope, Ontario

Dawson, Sir J. W , c. M. G., LL.D., F. R. 8., Montreal Jan. 31, 189

Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland Dec 30, 1887

Ells, R. W., LL.D., F.G.S.A , F.R.s c , Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont. . . . Jan. 2, 1894
Fletcher, Jas.,LL.D., F.L.S , F.R s.c., Entomologist and Botanist, Central

Exp Farm, Ottawa, Ont March 2, 1897

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U. S. A Jan. 6. 1890

Harrington, W. Hague, F.R. s c., Post Office Department, Ottawa May 5, 1896

Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL.D., F. R. s. c., St. John's, Newfoundland Jan. 31, 1890

King, Major, R. A Nov. 19, 1877

Litton, Robert T., F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McClintock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F R. s June 10, 1880

Marcou, Jules, Cambridge, U. S. A Oct. 12, 1871

Matthew, G. F., M. A., F. R. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. M., D. D , Ithaca, N. Y., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Prince, Prof. E E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 5, 1897

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine, U. S. A March 31, 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W., PH. D , F. G. s., Washington, D. C., U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Trott, Capt., S. S. " Minia," Anglo-American Telegraph Co Jan. 31, 1890

Waghorne, Rev. Arthur C , St. John's, Newfoundland May 5, 1892

Westori, Thomas C., F.G S.A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario May 12, 1877

* Life Member.

APPKND1X.- IV.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1897-98.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission^

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15, 1869

Anderson, James F., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 2, 1S'J4

Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bennett, Joseph Nov. 3, 1886

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6," 1890

Bliss, Donald M., Boston, U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. B., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Butler, Professor W. R., c. E., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ont. . . .Nov. 27, 1889

Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Clements, E. F., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Cowie, A. J., M. D., L. R. c. P. E., Halifax Jan. j 27, 1 189S

DesBrisay. A. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1891

DeWolfe, James R., M. D., L. R. c. s. E., Halifax Oct. 25, 1865-

Dick, Alexander, M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Doane, F. W. W., City Engineer. Halifax Nov, 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Point Tupper, Cape Breton '. Nov. 30, 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Miss Bertha March 4, 1895

Fearon, James, Principal Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax May 8, 1894

Finn, William D., M. D., Halifax Oct. 29, 1894

Faville, E. E Nov. 29, 1894

Forbes, John, Halifax March 14, 1883

Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N. S Marchl4, 1883

Fraser, C. F., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Eraser, Rev. W. M., B. A., B. so., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Fyshe, Thomas, Montreal Jan. 9, 1888

Gilpin, Edwin, M. A., LL. D., F. R. s. c., Inspector of Mines, Halifax April 11, 1873

Greer T. A., M. D., Colborne, Ontario April 7, 1893

Hall, Charles Frederick, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Hare, Alfred A Dec. 12, 1881

Harris, Herbert, Vancouver, British Columbia Jan. 31, 1880

Hattie, William Harop, M. D., Halifax Nov. 12, 1892

Hendry, William A., Jr., c. E., Halifax Jan. 4. 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Jacques, Hartley S., M. D., Halifax May 8, 1894

Johnston, H. W., c. E., Halifax Dec. [ 31, 1894

Keating, E. H.. c. E., City Engineer, Toronto, Ontario April 12, . 1882

Kennedy, W. T., Principal County Academy, Halifax Nov. 27, 1888''

xjv LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

Locke, Thomas J Jan. 4, 1892

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., F. G. s., Halifax Marchl4, 1881

MacGrcgor, Prof. J. G., M. A., D. sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL. B., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Macintosh, Kenneth, Mabou, Cape Breton Jan. 4, 1892

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

MacKay, A. H., B.A., B.SC., LL.D., F.R.S.C., Superintendent of Education,

Halifax Oct. 11, 1885

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH.D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

McKerron, William, Halifax * Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Marshall, G. R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Mason, F. H., F. c. s., Halifax .Dec. 31, 1894

Morrow, Arthur, M. D., Sand Coulee, Montana, U. S. A Nov. 27, 1889

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O'Hearn, P., Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D., M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax MarchSl, 1890

Peter, Rev. Bro. J., La Salle Academy, Halifax Dec. 3, 1896

Piers, Harry, Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

Poole, Henry S., F. G. s., Stellarton, N. S Nov. 11, 1879

Read, Herbert H., M. D., L. B. c. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

.Ritchie, Thomas, c. E Jan. 2, 1894

Robb, D. W., M. E., Amherst, N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E,, Stellarton, N. S Jan. 8, 1865

Shine, Michael, Halifax Dec. 3, 1891

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12, 1887

Silver, William C., Halifax May 7, 1864

Smith, Capt. W. H., R. N. R., F. R. G. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Spike, C. J., Halifax : May 8, 1894

Stewart, John, M. B. c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Tremaine, Harris S., Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Twining, Chas., Bank of B. N. A., Halifax Dec. 3, 1896

Uniacke, Robert F., c. E March 9, 1885

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice, Halifax .March28, 1895

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N. S . . . .Nov. 29, 1894

Willis, C. E., M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

Yorston, W. G., c. E., Truro, N. S Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Calkin, Principal J. B., M. A., Normal School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

*Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Cold well, Prof. A. E,, M. A., Acadia College, Wolf ville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

De Wolfe, Melville G., Kentville, N. S May 2, 1895

Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborough Co., N. S March 4. 1895

Eaton, F. H., M. A Jan. 6, 1890

Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XV

Date of Admission.

Faribault, E. R., c. E., Ottawa, Ontario March 6, 1888

Fox, John J., Montreal May 8, 1882

Hardman, John E., M. E., Montreal March 4, 1890

Harris, Prof. C., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ontario Nov. 13, 1881

Hunton, Prof. S. W., M. A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

James, C. C., M. A., Dep. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3, 1896

* Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., M.A., D.sc., F.G.S., King's College, Windsor, N.S.Nov. 9, 1882

McKenzie, W. B., c. E., Moncton, N. B MarchSl, 1882

McLeod, R. R., Brookfleld, N. S Dec. 3, 1897

Magee, W. H., PH, D., High School, Parrshoro, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Matheson. W. G., M. E., New Glasgow. N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Prest, W. H., Chester Basin, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

*Reid, A. P., M.D., L.R.C.S., Supt. Victoria Gen. Hospital, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbor, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Russell, Lee, B. s., Normal School, Truro, N. S Dec. 3, 1896

Smith, Prof. H. W., B. sc., Prov. Agricultural School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Wilson, B. C., Waverley, N. S March 4, 1890

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,

Ambrose, Rev. John, D. c. L., Herring Cove, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Ami, Henry M., D.SC., F.G.S., Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH.D., LL,D., F.R.S.C., University of New Brunswick,

Fredericton, N, B Jan, 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev. C. J. S., Port Hope, Ontario

Dawson, Sir J. W., C.M.G.. LL.D., F,R.S., Montreal Jan. 31, 1890

Dobie. W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897

Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland Dec. 30, 1887

Ells, R. W., LL.D., F.G.S.A., F.R.S.C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont Jan. 2, 1894

Fletcher, Jas., LL.D., F.L.S., F,R.S.C., Entomologist and Botanist, Central

Exp. Farm, Ottawa, Ont March 2, 1897

Fletcher, Hugh, B.A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

,Ganong, Prof. W. F., B.A., PH.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U. S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. s. c., Post Office Department, Ottawa May 5, 1896

Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL.D,, F.R.S.C., St. John's, Newfoundland Jan. 31, 1890

King, Major, R. A Nov. 19, 1877

Litton, Robert T., F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McClintock. Vice- Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F. R. s June 10, 1880

Marcou, Jules, Cambridge, U. S. A Oct. 12, 1871

Matthew, G.F., M.A.,F.RS.C., St. John, N.B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. M., D. D., Ithaca, N. Y., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Prince, Prof. E. Ev Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 5, 1897

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine, U. S. A March31, 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W.. PH.D., F.G.S., Washington, D. C., U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Trott, Capt.. S. S. " Minia," Anglo-American Telegraph Co Jan. 31, 1890

Waghorne, Rev. Arthur C., St. John's, Newfoundland May 5, 1892

W^eston, Thomas C., F. G. s. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario May 12, 1877

*Life Member.

VOL. IX.

(Roman numerals refer to the Proceedings, Arabic numerals to the
Transactions.)

PAGE

Address, Presidential. See Presidential address.

Alg-ae, Calcarious. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D xcii

Analyses of Nova Scotia Coal and other minerals. By E. Gilpin, LL.D. 246
Aqueous solutions, Relations of physical properties of, to their state of

ionization. By Prof. J. G. MacGreg-or 219

Arborescent variety of Juniperus communis. By J. Somers, M. D.... 175
Archibald, E. H. — Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions con-
taining the double sulphate of copper and potassium, and of
mixtures of equimolecular solutions of zinc and copper sulphate 307
Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions containing- potas-
sium and sodium sulphates 291

On the state of ionization of simple and complex solutions, at o°c.,
as determined by freezingf-point and conductivity methods.

(Title only) cv

Relation of surface tension and specific gravity of certain aqueous

solutions to their state of ionization 335

Bailey, Prof. Loring- Wort. — Geology and botany of Dig-by Neck.... 68

Some Nova Scotian illustrations of dynamical g-eology 180

Triassic (?) rocks of Dig-by Basin 356

Batrachians and reptiles of Nova Scotia. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D. . xli

Beothuk skulls, Measurements of two. By W. H. Prest Ixxxviii

Bishop, Watson L. — Exhibition of an albino junco xxxvii

Exhibition of striated quartz xxii

Butler, Prof. William R. — Water supply of the towns of Nova Scotia.

(Title only) xciv

Butterflies of Truro, N. S. By Miss L. C. Eaton ... xvii

Butterflies of Truro, N. S., Remarks upon a list of. By H. Piers xix

Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions containing- the chlorides

of sodium and barium. By T. C. McKay 321

Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions containing- the double
sulphate of copper and potassium, and of mixtures of equimolec-
ular solutions of zinc and copper sulphates. By E. H.Archibald. 307

INDEX. XV11

PAGE

Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions containing- potassium

and sodium sulphates. By E. H. Archibald 291

Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions of potassium-magnesium

sulphate. By T. C. McKay 348

Calculation of conductivity of mixtures of aqueous solutions of electro-
lytes having- a common ion. By D. Mclntosh < 120

Cameron, A. — Supplementary note on Venus 275

Visibility of Mercury to the naked eye. (Title only) xxii

Calcareous algae. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D xcii

Calculation of conductivity of mixtures of electrolytes. By Prof. J. G.

MacGreg-or 101

Coal fields of Nova Scotia, Undeveloped. By E. Gilpin, LL.D 134

Coals and other minerals, Some analyses of Nova Scotian. By E.

Gilpin, LL. D . . • 246

Coldwell, Prof. Albert Edward. — Notes on superficial g-eology of King-'s

Co., N. S 171

Tidal erosion and deposition in Minas Basin. (Title only) xxii

Concretions found in Canadian rocks. By T. C. Weston i

Conductivity of aqueous solutions containing- potassium and sodium sul-
phates, Calculation of. By E. H. Archibald , 291

Conductivity of aqueous solutions of potassium-magnesium sulphate,

Calculation of. By T. C. McKay 348

Conductivity, Calculation of, of aqueous solutions containing- the chlorides

of sodium and barium. T. C. McKay 321

Conductivity, Calculation of, of aqueous solutions containing- the double
sulphate of copper and potassium, and of mixtures of equimolec-
ular solutions of zinc and copper sulphates. By E. H.

Archibald 307

Conductivity of mixtures of aqueous solutions of electrolytes having- a

common ion, Calculation of. By D. Mclntosh 120

Conductivity of mixtures of electrolytes, Calculation of. By Prof. J. G.

MacGreg-or 101

Dialect of people of Newfoundland. By Rev. G. Patterson xliv

Dig-by Basin, Triassic (?) rocks of. By Prof. L. W. Bailey 356

Dig-by Neck, N. S., Geology and botany of. By Prof. L. W. Bailey . . 68

Doane, F. W. W.— Rainfall in 1896 279

Dynamical g-eology, Some Nova Scotian illustrations of. By Prof. L.

W. Bailey 180

Eaton, Miss Lucy C. — Butterflies of Truro, N. S xvi

Edwards, Arthur M., M. D. — Glacial clays of New Jersey. (Title only) ciii
Electrolytes, Calculation of conductivity of mixtures of. By Prof. J. G.

MacGreg-or ... 101

Electrolytes having- a common ion, Calculation of conductivity of mixture

of aqueous solutions of. By D. Mclntosh 1 20

xviii INDEX.

PAGE

Faville, Prof. E. E. — Some important scientific problems in horticulture.

(Title only) xvii

Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador, and St. Pierre et Miquelon. By Rev.

A. C. Wag-horne (Pt. ii) 83 ; (pt. iii) 361

Foraminiferous deposit from bottom of the North Atlantic. By A. H.

MacKay, LL.D 64

Geology and botany of Dig-by Neck. By Prof. L. W. Bailey 68

Geology of Newfoundland, Notes on. By T. C. Weston 150

Geology of Nictaux, N. S. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D xv

Geology, Some Nova Scotian illustrations of dynamical. By Prof. L.

W. Bailey 180

Gilpin, Edwin, LL.D. — Iron ores of Nictaux, N. S., and notes on steel

making in Nova Scotia 10

Presidential address, 1896. [Review of season's work ; system of

instruction and examination of mining' officials in N. S.] Ixxix

Presidential address, 1897 xcv

Some analyses of Nova Scotia coals and other minerals 246

Undeveloped coal fields of Nova Scotia 134

Glacial succession in central Lunenburg. By W. H. Prest 158

Iron ores of Nictaux, N. S., and notes on steel making1 in Nova Scotia.

By E. Gilpin, LL. D 10

Juniperus communis, Arborescent variety of. By J. Somers, M. D 175

Kentucky flora, Some features of. By Prof. G. Lawson 302

King's County, N. S., Notes on superficial geology of. By Prof. A. E.

Coldwell 171

Labrador, St. Pierre et Miquelon, Flora of Newfoundland. By Rev. A.

C. Wag-horne (Pt. ii) 83; (pt. iii) 361

Lawson, Prof. Georg-e. — Note on coal gas as a probable source of argon.

(Title only) xxii

Presidential address, 1894 i

Some features of Kentucky flora 302

Obituary notice of Prof. Lawson. By Prof. J. G. MacGreg-or .... xxiii

Librarian's report xii, xxxiii, Ixxxvi, c

Lunenburg, Glacial succession in central. By W. H. Prest 158

MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon. — Calculation of conductivity of mixtures

of electrolytes ibi

Note on Newton's third law of motion xxxviii

Obituary notice of Prof. Lawson xxiii

Physical laboratory work of an elementary grade. (Title only) . . . civ
Relation of physical properties of aqueous solutions to their state

of ionization 219

Mclntosh, Douglas. — Calculation of conductivity of mixtures of aqueous

solutions of electrolytes having a common ion 120

INDEX. Xix

PAGE

MacKay, Alexander Howard, LL.D. — Batrachians and reptiles of Nova

Scotia xli

Calcareous algae , xcii

Foraminiferous deposit from bottom of the North Atlantic 64

Geology of Nictaux, N. S xv

Manganese dendrites on red sandstone xxxviii

Phenological observations. . .(1894) 59 ; (1895) 195 ; (1896) 268; (1897) 402

Plan of proposed ethnological survey of Canada : cv

McKay, Thomas C. — Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions

containing the chlorides of sodium and barium 321

Calculation of conductivity of aqueous solutions of potassium-mag-
nesium sulphate 348

Manganese dendrites. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D xxxviii

Members of N. S. Institute oi Science, List of Appendix

Mining officials in Nova Scotia, System of instruction and examination.

By E. Gilpin, LL.D Ixxxi

Murphy, Martin, D. Sc. — Cheap and effective bicycle track for rough

country roads. (Title only) xxi

Tides of the Bay of Fundy : second paper. (Title only) xciv

Newfoundland, Dialect of people of. By Rev. G. Patterson xliv

Newfoundland, Labrador, St. Pierre et Miquelon, Flora of. By Rev. A.

C. Waghorne (Pt. ii) 83 ; (pt. iii) 361

Newfoundland, Notes on geology of. By T. C. Weston 150

Newton's third law of motion. Note on. By Prof. J. G. MacGregor . .xxxviii

Nictaux, N. S., Geology of. By A. H. Mackay. LL.D xv

Nova Scotian Zoology, Notes on : no. 4. By H. Piers 255

Office-bearers, N. S. Inst. Science

(1894-5) xiii ; (1895-6) xxxvi; (1896-7) Ixxxvi ; (1897-8) cii

Orthoptera of Nova Scotia, Preliminary notes on. By H. Piers 208

Patterson, Rev. George, D.D. — Dialect of people of Newfoundland. . . . xliv

Obituary notice of Dr. Patterson. By E. Gilpin, LL.D xcv

Peter, Rev. Brother J. — Exhibition of dried plants Ixxxviii

Phenological observations. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D

(1894) 59 ; (1895) 195; (1896) 268; (1897) 402

Piers, Harry. — Notes on Nova Scotian zoology : no. 4 255

Preliminary notes on orthoptera of Nova Scotia 208

Recording secretary's report xxxi

Relics of the stone age in Nova Scotia 26

Remarks upon a list of butterflies of Truro, N. S xix

Preliminary notes on orthoptera of Nova Scotia. By H. Piers 208

Presidential address, 1894. By Prof. G. Lawson i

1896. By E. Gilpin, LL.D Ixxix

1897. By E. Gilpin, LL.D xcv

Prest, Walter H. — Glacial succession in central Lunenburg 158

Measurements of two Beothuk skulls.. . . .Ixxxviii

xx INDEX.

PAGE

Prince, Prof. Edward E. — Recent discoveries regarding the eggs and

young of fishes. (Title only) Ixxxvii

Rainfall in 1896. By F. W. W. Doane 279

Relation of physical properties of aqueous solutions to their state of

ionization. By Prof. J. G. MacGregor 219

Relics of the stone age in Nova Scotia. By H. Piers 26

Robb, D. W. — True surfaces and accurate measurements .... 21

St. Pierre et Miquelon, Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador. By Rev. A.

C. Waghorne (Pt. ii) 83 ; (pt. Hi) 361

Somers, John, M.D. — Arborescent variety of Juniperus communis not

previously noted in our flora 175

A variation in the plumage of the Canadian ruffed grouse ( B.

iiinbellus togata). (Title only) xxx\ ii

Steel making in Nova Scotia, Notes on. By E. Gilpin, LL.D 10

Stone age in Nova Scotia, Relics of. By H. Piers 26

Superficial geology of King's Co., N. S., Notes on. By Prof. A. E.

Cold well 171

Surface tension and specific gravity of certain aqueous solutions, Relations

of, to their state of ionization. By E. H. Archibald 335

Triassic (?) rocks of Digby Basin. By Prof. L. W. Bailey 356.

True surfaces and accurate measuremencs. By D. W. Robb 21

Truro, Butterflies of. By Miss L. C. Eaton .... xvii

Truro, Remarks upon a list of butterflies of. By H. Piers xix

Twining, Charles. — Explanation of a working-model of a "pivot boat."

(Title only) civ

New arrangements in sailing gear. (Title only) xc

Undeveloped coal fields of Nova Scotia. By E. Gilpin, LL.D 134

Venus, Supplementary note on. By A. Cameron 275

Victoria research fund, Resolutions regarding xci

Waghorne, Rev. Arthur C. — Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador, and St.

Pierre et Miquelon (Pt. ii) 83 ; (pt. iii) 361

Weston, Thomas C. — Notes on concretions found in Canadian rocks ... i

Notes on geology of Newfoundland I5a

Zoology, Notes on Nova Scotian : no. 4. By H. Piers 255

2797 4

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