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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY

SB

354
A47

V.39
1922

-lai U.

PROCEEDINGS

of the

AMERICAN

POMOLOGICAL

SOCIETY

Council Bluffs, Iowa
November 15, 16 and 17, 1922

LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE

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PROCEEDINGS

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AMERICAN

POMOLOGICAL

SOCIETY

Organized 1848

Council Bluffs, Iowa
November 15, 16 and 17, 1922

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. PROCLAMATION

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OP THE

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n|UIUtL?^mrty-ijyil):'°l(Vwention af the American Pomological Society

1848-1922

In accordance with the action of the Executive Committee in determin-
ing the place and date and in pursuance of long-established custom, it is
hereby declared that the thirty-ninth convention and exhibition of the
American Pomological Society will be held in Council Bluffs, Iowa, in
conjunction with the Mid-West Horticultural Exposition and in co-opera-
tion with the Iowa State Horticultural Society, beginning in the fore-
noon of Wednesday, November 15th and continuing to the 17th, 1922. All
friends of fruit-growing, whether amateur or commercial, whether their
areas are small or large, are cordially invited to be present to hear the
discussions and to partake in them, to view the exhibits, and to join in
the fellowship; and likewise all nurserymen, commercial men, manu-
facturers, whose enterprises touch the fruit-growing interests; and
equally all persons in colleges, experiment stations, government depart-
ments, and elsewhere whose work brings them into relation with the
growing, marketing or utilization of fruits. The general public is wel-
comed to the meetings. The convention should he a yearly clearing-
house of fruit-growing inspiration, information, and development. To
further this work, we request that commercial firms, institutions, and
horticultural societies send delegates.

Specimens of good fruits, new and old, are solicited for the exhibition
tables; as also containers, implements, machines and any mechanical de-
vices of interest to fruit-growers, and also nursery-stock, books, mate-
rials, and whatever else may contribute to the interest of the convention.

The American Pomological Society covers the national and interna-
tional fields. It does not interfere with the work of State and local
societies. It is concerned primarily with questions of broad policy affect-
ing the growing and disposal of fruits of all kinds, and with the enlight-
enment of the public to the uses of fruits and the blessings in growing
them. It is an educational body. To this end, we look forward to a
large and varied attendance. We hereby formally announce the event

to our membership.

L. H. Bailey, PrQsident.

R. B. Cruickshank, Secretary-Treasure?-.
October 16, 1922.

^

THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

In joint session with the Iowa State Horticultural Society, the
American Pomological Society held its thirty-ninth convention
at Council Bluffs, Iowa, November 15, 16 and 17, 1922. Vice-
President Paul C. Stark, Louisiana, Missouri, presided as chair-
man.

ADDRESS OF WELCOME

W. p. Dawson, Aurelia, Iowa, President Iowa State Horticultural Society

Gentlemen of the American Pomological Society: The Iowa State
Horticultural Society extends a cordial welcome to you, the oldest fruit
organization in America.

The Iowa State Horticultural Society, with its affiliated societies, has a
membership of about three thousand. This includes fruit growers, vege-
table growers, florists, nurserymen, landscape architects and beekeepers.
All these societies extend to you of the American Pomological Society
greetings and hearty welcome. It is not going too far to assure you that
this midwestern region — Iowa and her sister states — unite wholeheartedly
in this welcome.

There are many reasons why we are pleased that the executive com-
mittee decided to hold the Thirty-ninth convention of the American Pomo-
logical Society here: This middle west is perhaps the greatest general
agricultural region in the world. Its people have passed the pioneering
stage and are now in the midst of the development of convenient modern
homes and attractive and congenial home surroundings. They are be-
ginning to realize that with proper home environment there can be no
better place to grow up and live than in a home in the mid-west. In this
constructive work we need the advice and help of those who have al-
ready met and solved similar problems. You, learned gentlemen of the
American Pomological Society, by your presence, your experience and
knowledge of fruit and allied lines, will help greatly in encouraging and
advising in proper planting, care and management of their orchards and
small fruit gardens. They are in need of instruction in sorting, grading,
packing, and especially in the marketing of their fruits. You, having
passed through this stage of development and solved its problems, will
realize that we may gain much from you and we, figuratively, "sit at
your feet" to receive information and learn wisdom.

Iowa and the mid-west are known nationally as "the place where the
tall corn grows," but those of us who know the possibilities of the soil
and climate of this region and the temper of its people will prove to you
that it also is "where the juicy, red apple" can be made to grow, and
where such homey homes can be made that our sons and daughters will
grow up to good citizenship in them, leave them with reluctance and re-
turn to them with pleasure and contentment.

Gentlemen, we believe your presence here will aid and encojirage us in
this. And again we welcome you.

CO

TWO SIDES OF POMOLOGY

L. H. Bailey, President, Ithaca, New York

On the occasion of its thirty-ninth convention and in its seventy-
fourth year, the American Pomological Society faces new responsibilities
and goes into its enlarging work with assurance and determination. The
plans of reorganization have taken form. The society is moving in har-
mony with the expanded vision of those who see the fruit-growing inter-
ests of the continent in a bold way, and yet it does not forget the humble
growers— the amateurs and the others — to whom a little enterprise lies
as close to the heart as does the great activity of masterful men. These
are the two coordinate sides of the works of the American Pomological
Society — to keep in touch with every commercial movement and to aid
it, and at the same time to stimulate the growing of fruits at the homes
of an increasing number of our people. In proportion as the society is
able to cover these two sides of its field will it have an assured success.

These two fields of effort are not conflicting. A common motive under-
lies the whole range of pomology — ^to produce excellent fruits. The
growing of fruits at the home does not limit the sales of fruits by the
commercial grower. Rather does it stimulate such sales, for it develops
a habit of fruit consumption; and rarely can the home of small area grow
enough for all its needs. The more publicity we develop on the subject
of fruit and its consumption, the greater will be the demand for it and
the more satisfactory its movement. There must always remain vast
numbers of the population who can never grow fruit under any condi-
tions; for them other processes of education are to be made available.
The sensibilities are greatly developed by the use of fruit in the home —
the beauty and fragrance of the product, the form and color, the eating
qualities that stimulate the discriminating faculties rather than merely
to satisfy hunger; fruit-eating does not lead to gluttony. By all means
must we stimulate the artistic appreciation of fruits.

Sometimes we think there is inharmony and perhaps even antagonism
between the points of view of the amateur and the regular commercial
grower, although there has been little, if any, misunderstanding of a
personal kind; fruit-raisers have been singularly sym]>athetic. But the
objectives may be different. It is perhaps in the question of varieties
that the divergent objectives are most apparent. The home grower wants
a considerable range of varieties; he is keenly interested in new kinds.
We come to this convention to view and to admire the varieties on exhi-
bition. Yet we read that commercial growers would strictly limit the
number of varieties to be planted, and perhaps would have a standard
small list adopted for each state, province or region. Can we reconcile
these objectives? This is a very real problem, leading to relationships
and points of view in many other subjects. The problem is central to
the work of this society.

The traditional influence of this society has been to stimulate the pro-
duction and appreciation of varieties of fruits, new and old. I am here
minded to repeat two or three paragraphs from a paper I read before this
society more than a dozen years ago — at the St. Catharines meeting. I
then engaged in a retrospect to my first meeting with the society, at
Grand Rapids in 1885, now thirty-seven years ago. I recalled some of

the men whom I met there; "and so do I remember the spirit of that
convention. The spirit was to test and appreciate good fruits and to
name them properly. Marshall P. Wilder, in the president's address,
which was read in his absence, dwelt on the great influence of the society
in raising the standard of excellence by which our fruits are judged, in
establishing a uniform system of rules under which fruits are to be
exhibited, the great advance made by the publishing of its catalogue of
approved fruits, and in the spread of correct ideas of nomenclature. He
emphasized the importance of producing new fruits by raising seedlings
of the most approved kinds; and he especially urged the society to use
all its influence to give American pomology a high character as a science.
How different all this sounds from the discussion of the present day!"

"Let us stop once more to admire an apple. I see a committee of the
old worthies going slowly and discriminately among the plates of fruits,
discussing their shapes and colors and sizes, catching their fragrance,
debating their origin and their history, and testing them with the utmost
precaution and deliberation; and I follow to hear their judgment.

"This variety is very perfect in spherical form, deeply cut at the stem,
well ridged at the shallow crater, beautifully splashed and streaked with
carmine-red on a yellowish green under-color, finely flecked with dots,
slightly russet on the shaded side, apparently a good keeper; its texture
is fine-grained and uniform, flavor mildly sub-acid, the quality good to
very good; if the tree is hardy and productive, this variety is to be rec-
ommended to the amateur for further trial. The next sample is some-
what elongated in form, rather below the average in color, the stem very
long and well set and indicating a fruit that does not readily drop in
v/indstorms, the texture exceedingly melting, but the flavor slightly
lacking in character and therefore rendering it of doubtful value for
further test. Another sample lacks decidedly in quality, as judged by
the specimens on the table, and the exhibitor is respectfully recommended
to withdraw it from future exhibitions; another kind has a very pro-
nounced aromatic odor, which will commend it to persons desiring to
grow a choice collection of interesting fruits; still another is of good
size, very firm and solid, of uniform red color, slightly oblate and there-
fore lending itself to easy packing, quality fair to good, and if the tree
bears such uniform samples as those shown on the table it apparently
gives promise of some usefulness as a market sort. My older friends
can construct the remainder of the picture."

The scientific papers and discussions were good at that meeting, now
so long ago; yet I recall the varieties of fruits, because I remember the
sensitive, careful men who viewed them. The names of those men are
still sweet old memories to me. This attention to the kinds of fruits was
not peculiar to the Grand Rapids meeting, for in the old by-laws is the
provision for the appointing of the fruit committees and the declaration
that it shall be the duty of one of the committees "to examine, and, be-
fore the close of the session, report on all new seedling varieties that
may be exhibited."

But we must not forget, also, that the purpose of these re'ports was
to "prove all things" and "hold fast that which is good." These com-

mittees were fearless in disapproving of poor and duplicate varieties; and
the society has exerted a powerful stabilizing influence on the introduc-
tion of new varieties and on the appropriate naming of them. Persons
having meritorious kinds have sought the judgment of the society.

I think the society may still exercise a discriminating and limiting in-
fluence, and in a way that will cover the situation. Recommended lists
of varieties for commercial planting in the different regions may well be
made, be the number of varieties ever so small; the work should be un-
dertaken, however, only by careful study of the situations by competent
men acting in committees. I am in sympathy with the making of such
standard lists if we keep the other needful considerations well in mind;
for the society must meet the needs of the time.

These other considerations are such as these: That we do not dis-
courage the discovery and the production of new varieties, whereby we
hope to advance the science of pomology and give scope to the plant-
breeder and to every other person who is looking beyond; that we do not
reduce fruit-growing to mere standardized quantity-production, as we
tend to reduce manufactured articles at such a basis, thereby limiting
personal choice on the part of the buyer; that we do not conflne com-
mercial fruit-growing to the choice of merely good shipping varieties in-
dependently of their quality, for in the long run the intrinsic quality of
the product will determine our success even as the quality of a man's
life, rather than the gain, is the measure of it; that we recognize the
need of variety in life, for in a world abounding in lovely and interesting
thinks we have no right to prevent any man in appreciation and enjoy-
ment of them.

We must indeed recognize the fact that there is merit in variety; for
has not Cowper taught us for more than a century that "variety's the
very spice of life?" The tendency of our day to reduce everything to
uniformity, whereby we may organize, regulate and govern it, is in reality
a process of suppression and the eliminating of personality, even in a
time when personality is needed more than ever before. We must not
tie things up too tight. And here is where we need the conserving in-
fluence of the amateur, who is interested in collecting, whether of fruits
or books or objects of art, in order that we may have the privilege of
contact with abounding variety, that the affections may expand and the
soul may grow. This, also, is one of the needs of the time. I hope I am
permitted to copy here a statement on this subject that I have elsewhere
put in print ("The Apple-Tree," p. 77) "The objects and productions of
high intrinsic merit are preserved by the amateur. It is so in art and
letters. It is necessarily so. A body of amateurs is an essential back-
ground to the development of science. The late Professor Pickering,
renowned astronomer, encouraged the amateur societies of star-observers,
and others. The amateurs in the background, disinterested and unself-
ish, support appropriations by legislatures for even abstruse public work.
The amateur is the embodiment of the best in the common life, the con-
servator of aspirations, the fulfillment of democratic freedom. I hope
pomology will not lag in this respect. In all lines I hope that profession-
alism will not subjugate the man who follows a subject for the love of

it rather than for the gain of it, or for the pride of it. In horticulture,
when we lose the amateur, who, as the word means, is the lover, we lose
the ideals.

"Naturally, the nurseryman cannot grow trees of all the good apples
that may be wanted. The experiment stations cannot maintain living
museums of them, for their function is to investigate rather than to pre-
serve. Arboretums are concerned with other activities. Is there not
some person of means, desiring to do good to his successors, now ready
to establish a fructicetum in perpetuum for the purpose of preserving a
single tree of at least one hundred of the choicest apples, to the end
that a record may be kept and that amateurs may be supplied with cions
thereof?"

Can not this old and careful society meet the important commercial
and regulatory needs of the day by recommending lists of varieties spe-
cially to be considered for market conditions, and at the same time leave
the way open for progress and the expression of personal desires?

8

THE PAST YEAR'S WORK AND THE FUTURE OF THE
AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Paul C. Stark, Vice-President, Louisiana, Missouri

The aims of the American Pomological Society and the services ren-
dered American orchardists were so clearly outlined by President Bailey
in his address last year at Toledo that further reference would probably
be duplication.

It might be well to simply mention a few of these aims and accom-
plishments, such as monthly information letters to members, fruit crop
reports, encouragement of better grading and packing, increased fruit
consumption campaigns, condensed reviews of new horticultural publi-
cations, registration and encouragement of new fruits, inventions and
contributions to pomology, legislation encouraged for extension and safe-
guarding of 'the fruit interests, cooperation with fruit growers, marketing
associations, affiliation with and service to state, provincial and local
horticultural societies, thereby acting as a general clearing house of all
horticultural information, registration of new fruits and acting as a
supreme court in horticultural matters.

In the midst of our new activities, however, we should not overlook
the fundamental horticultural ideas that called the society into being.
The American Pomological Society should still be the great dignified,
scientific body whose rulings in certain things are final, and, while the
addition of commercial ideas are necessary as conditions have changed,
this society should remember its traditions, dear to us all, that have made
it great and respected in its field, and not depart from them.

The executive committee and the officers felt that it was to the best
interests of the society to concentrate most of their efforts on a few of
these activities, although considerable progress has been made in almost
all of the aims mentioned above.

Our secretary has given very conscientious and efficient service to the
society, even at the sacrifice of personal interests. Unless one is closely
connected with the work, it is impossible to realize how much time and
effort was required in handling the secretary's work.

One of the big fundamental accomplishments of the society during the
past year was the demonstration of the need and value of the American
Pomological Society to the American orchardists and the realization and
firm belief in its present and future development. This faith was neces-
sary before this or any other great movement can succeed. All sections
of the country, all classes of horticultural interests have recognized the
present and potential value of the American Pomological Society. The
commercial fruit growers have shown their confidence by increased mem-
berships. The scientific horticulturists, almost without exception, are
working hard for the strengthening of the society. The state horticul-
tural societies are urging all their members to join the American Pomo-
logical Society, which they are looking to as the "mother organization"
and clearing house for all the state and local associations.

The allied commercial Industries, such as the spraying concerns, the
equipment companies, fertilizer companies, nurserymen, package compa-
nies, and others have shown their recognition of the value of the society
by helping to obtain more members and by financial support. These con-
cerns have realized that this national organization will help stabilize
the fruit industry and help assure good, profitable crops for the fruit
grower — and that will benefit all industries who serve the fruit growers.

The cooperative marketing associations of fruit growers have shown
this year their appreciation of the value of our society. Especially the
Federated Fruit and Vegetable Growers (whose activities some thought
would duplicate those of the American Pomological Society) have ex-
pressed themselves very decidedly in favor of mutual effort and coordi-
nation of work between their association and our society, saying that
they realized that our society was working along educational and produc-
tion lines, while they were solely concerned with marketing, which would
more than keep them busy. Our executive committee was invited to the
executive meetings of the Federated Fruit and Vegetable Growers and
were given the privilege of the floor. Several of us did attend these
meetings and, as a result, we feel that the best of understanding exists —
both are working for the good of. the fruit growers, but along two separate
and distinct lines.

This year has not been a rosy one for fruit growers. The coal strike,
railroad strikes, and the general unsettled condition of the public mind
resulting therefrom, has cost the fruit growers of the United States mil-
lions of dollars. However, it has clearly demonstrated the need of a
strong central organization of fruit growers that recognized the old say-
ing, "United we stand — divided we fall." "The clouds of the past year
have a silver lining" which is now being demonstrated by the improve-
ment in general business conditions and the increased prices that the
farmer is getting for his corn, hogs, and other crops. Realizing that the
consumption of fruit and the prosperity of the fruit grower depend on
the general public, this is indeed an encouraging sign.

This year has further demonstrated that the careful grower who pro-
duces good quality fruit, clean fruit, carefully graded and packed, will
make a profit either by selling at a premium above the average run of
fruit or by storing until the poorer grades are off the market and prices
advance.

This year has another benefit in that it has helped to eliminate the
lazy man who thinks that fruit growing is "no work and all profits."
The sooner that type of grower goes out, the better it is for the industry,
because orcharding requires plenty of "brain work, back work, and faith."

I often think of what was told me by the late Professor Whitten, whose
death was a great loss not only to the American Pomological Society,
but to the whole fruit industry. Professor Whitten said that he consid-
ered San Jose scale one of the greatest blessings ever bestowed on the
fruit industry, because it helped the careful, efficient growers who could
control it, while the lazy, careless grower was eliminated — "th« survival
of the fittest." This thought is more or less true of the other or-
chard pests.

10

This condition was brought out clearly on a 7,000 mile automobile trip
that I took this summer through the orchard sections east of the Missis-,
sippi river. Most of the successful, brainy growers were men who were
following up-to-date business methods in their orchard work — active, en-
ergetic young men or older men with young ideas, which gives the same
result. These men love their work — and they are hard workers, both
with brain and muscle. That is a combination that can't be defeated —
and to me it is the most encouraging feature for the future success of
the orchard industry— it is a substantial and sound foundation.

On this automobile trip we visited several hundred of the leading or-
chards and talked with several thousand fruit growers in their orchards
or at the various summer horticultural meetings. The officers of the
horticultural societies seemed willing and anxious to have us present to
give their growers the facts and advantages of membership in the Ameri-
can Pomological Society, and in these talks and in personal talks with
the growers I didn't find a man who was not interested in the work of
the society and expressed himself as realizing the need of such a na-
tional organization. On my return home I wrote to these growers and
many of them have joined the society and many more will join later,
I believe.

In this connection, I would suggest that some member of the American
Pomological Society in each state or section be appointed to present the
benefits of membership in the society to every meeting of growers in
every state during the coming year. If this is continually done, I believe
that a very large active membership can be secured in all the leading
orchard sections. The growers have realized that crop conditions outside
of their own state affect their profits more than their local conditions
and they are ready and anxious to get this general, national crop infor-
mation from a reliable source.

Babson and the other statistical organizations have shown by many
past instances that the man or organization conducting a fundamentally
sound business (whether it be fruit growing or manufacturing) and who
follows a carefully studied plan of broad and sane development will win
out in the long run. It has been the experience that those who have fol-
lowed this line of development — not being affected by over-development in
boom periods or periods of inflation, but, on the contrary, have gone
ahead when others let up when times temporarily looked bad, were the
ones who won out in the end.

11

THE GEOGRAPHY OF APPLE GROWING IN AMERICA

H. P. Gould, Pomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. President, Members of the American Pomological Society, Ladies
and Gentlemen: 'The president dignified my part on the program by
calling it an address. It is not to be an address. It is to be absolutely
informal, and if I don't learn more about the geographical distribution of
commercial apple growing in 1;he United States before I get through than
does anyone else here, it will be because I am not able to get the response
from those in the audience that I hope I shall get.

L-0 ^

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RING AGE

CE, 1919

•** * • /
/ *• ^^

APPLE TREES OF BEARING AGE
APPROXIMATE ACREAGE, 1919 "==" "eS^Tc'RET'"^

^"""—^ — ACTUAL ARE* COVERED BY THE

I TKEES 1

ntinued)

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APPLE TREES OF BEA

1 APPROXIMATE ACRE>

^~~1

THE CROP AREA IT RePREBEWTS

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APPL

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stat£

ACRES i

Tenn .
Ark..

Hlfif:

Ind ..
Iowa .
Idaho.
Md ..
Mau .
Other.

66,285
58,214
55,252
52,143
48,968
43,310
39,674
34,414
33,857
360,130

STATE

ACRES

STATE

ACRES

S/^ "\^

' N. Y..
P. ...

Ohio. .
Mich .

V. . . .
Waib.

2eT,681
194,130
165,847
155,990
153,843
132.738

W. Va
Me. ..

niL'.'.'.

Ill

N. C.

115.751
78,701
77,985
74.749
73,050
72,394

.^-

U.S..

2,355,106

FIG. 1. — About 15 per cent of the acreage of apple trees of bearing age
was in the West in 1920, and nearly half of this western acreage was in
the state of Washington. New Yorlv, Pennsylvania, " Ohio, Michigan, and
Virginia, however, exceeded Washington in acreage. Most of the apple
acreage of the nation is found in the Hay and Pasture Region from Maine
to West Virginia and Michigan, where the climate is cool, but owing either
to lake or mountain protection, the winters are moister and less severe
than in the interior of the continent. (U. S. Department of Agriculture
Yearbook, 1921.)

I want to apologize to any of our Canadian representation that may be
here, and to their spirits if they are not here in person, (because I know
they are here at least in spirit if they are not here in person), for omitting
in any definite thing that I may say all reference to the distribution of
commercial apple growing on the other side of the border. I am not so
narrow-minded as to think that America applies only to the United States.
I have simply not had time to get the necessary information which would
enable me to say anything except in a most incidental way about the
geographical distribution of commercial apple growing in Canada.

I wish there was some way of projecting before you some maps that
are publishd in the 1921 year book of the department of agriculture
which are based on the census of 1920. These maps show the acreage of

12

bearing apple trees in the United States and their distribution; also the
acreage of trees not of bearing age (see figures 1 and 2).

As it is not possible to project those maps before you, I have here three
year book separates in which four maps are given. Possibly you can pass
them back and forth and get just a glance, just a bit of visualization of
the way the acreage of bearing trees and the acreage of non-bearing
trees and the production looks when it is projected on a map on a
dot basis.

Now, if you are able to see the outline map that I have displayed here,
you will visualize in just a moment the substance of all I want to say,

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APPLE TRE
^..___A,PPRO>

ES NOT OF

CIMATE ACR

BEARING AGE

EAGE, 1919 EACH DOT REPRESEN
600 ACRES

^^S^.*--;,^ VX rMC CROP ftOEA IT HEPRESEN

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^

1 APPLE TREES NOT OF BEARING ACE^-

APPROXIMATE ACREAGE, 1919

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APPLE TREES

(Continued)

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STATE

ACRES '

Calif..
N.J. .
Ga. ..
Md. . .
Me...
Ind. .
Wa.h.
Ark. .
Wis. .
Other

19,069
16,900
16,799
15,964
14,227
13,274
12,601
12,537
11,787
112,361

STATE

ACRES

STATE

ACRES

^/^-^^

N.Y..

' p.. . .

' v.. . .

Mich.
Ohio .
W.Va

81,452
72,999
59,516
56,953
56,880
36,123

Ky. ..
N.C..

111. . . .

Mo...
Mas..
Tenn .

29,735
29,055
26,084
22.649
21,992
21,506

_^

Luj.j

760,463

FIG. 2. — There has been very little planting of apple orchards in the West
in recent years, the higher freight rates increasing the difRculties of
competition with eastern grown fruit. Less than 9 per cent of the apple
trees not of bearing age were in the West in 1920. Most of the acreage
of young trees, it will be noted on the map, is located along the shore of
Lake Ontario in New York, in the lower Hudson Valley, in New England,
along the Appalachians from Pennsylvania to Georgia, in the upper Ohio
Valley, along the Lake Michigan shore of Michigan, and in the Sonoma
Valley of California. Trees not of bearing age numbered 36 million in
1920 as compared with nearly 66 million in 1910. (U. S. Department of
Agriculture Yearbook, 1921.)

because I have attempted to indicate on this map the principal areas in
the different states where apples are grown commercially.

I realize perhaps more keenly than the most of you here do how im-
perfect it is. In some of the states the commercial areas are fairly defi-
nitely delimited. In other states the commercial districts are pretty
diffused. It is pretty difficult to put your finger on any particular section
and say "this is the region in which commercial apple production occurs."
But as I go along, and get to certain states in my talk, as I said a moment
ago, I am going to ask different people whom I see here in the audience
to make their own claims with regard to their own states.

Starting with the New England states, in Maine there is scattered

13

commercial production pretty well over the southern half of the state,
with the largest concentration in Kennebec county. The same is true with
regard to New Hampshire, the largest production being rather scattered
through much of the southern half of the state. In Vermont the produc-
tion is in the southeastern and southwestern parts of the state, with the
outstanding concentrated commercial apple district being in the north-
western part of" the state bordering Lake Champlain. It is one of those
many interesting instances where a body of water has been the deter-
mining factor in the location of an important commercial fruit district.
In the other New England states — Massachusetts, Connecticut and
Rhode Island, the apple industry is widely diffused. While there are
some centers of relatively large production, the industry is mainly one
feature of a general agriculture — a type of fruit growing which has some
large advantages as well as disadvantages when compared with special-
ized fruit growing.

In New York, if you notice on those small maps in the year book sepa-
rates that are being passed around, the dots are distributed pretty uni-
formly over a large portion of the state, with the exception of an area in
the north central part of the state where there are very few apples. The
important commercial districts, however, occur in the Hudson river val-
ley and in the four or five counties bordering Lake Ontario and to some
extent in the second tier of counties extending, also, in the region of the
Finger Lake district in the west central part of the state.

Coming to Pennsylvania, that is another one of those states where
apple production is pretty well distributed over the entire state. If you
will note the small map showing the distribution of the trees you will
observe that the dots are pretty uniformly distributed over the state.
But there is an outstanding concentration of the apple industry in the
four or five counties in the south central part of the state, coun-
ties which are distinctly in the Blue Ridge or the Appalachian mountain
district — York, Adams, Bedford and Franklin counties being the ones
of special importance. And then in Luzerne county there is also a large
production. That is the county in which Wilkes-Barre is located.

I think I can illustrate the distribution of apple growing in Pennsyl-
vania by referring to the figures for cherries for Pennsylvania given in
the thirteenth census. According to those figures, Pennsylvania was one
of the largest cherry producing states in the country. When five or six
years ago I was devoting considerable attention to cherry growing, I
undertook to locate the commercial cherry growing districts in Pennsyl-
vania, and I simply found "that they weren't" — they didn't exist. But
cherries — yes, they are there, but they are scattered in small orchards
pretty much all over the state, and if the fruit is sold at all it simply
goes into local markets. And, of course, being the large industrial state
which it is, Pennsylvania furnishes a large local marketing opportunity.

The distribution of apples in Pennsylvania is very much the same as
cherries, except the rather large commercial development in the south-
ern counties as described.

In New Jersey, there again the same thing holds true to a' considerable
extent, with the principal commercial development In the west central

14

15

part, in what might be termed the Philadelphia region — in Monmouth,
Burlington, and Gloucester counties, and in one or two other sections in
the west central portion of the state; that area being the large commer-
cial producing district.

It is going to take too long if I attempt to go over each state in this
way. So I think I will hurry along and not attempt to indicate the re-
gion in the different states so much by counties as by general regional
locations.

Delaware, though small in area, grows many apples. The industry is
largely located in Kent county, but extensive developments have occurred
in Sussex, with smaller interests in New Castle county.

In Maryland apple production is mostly in the western part of the state
in the mountainous section, Frederick and Washington counties being
typical.

Then, in Virginia, the principal apple district is represented by a belt,
roughly speaking, two counties in width, extending in a northeast and
southwest direction, the counties being those which have their common
boundary line on the top of the Blue Ridge mountains. The row of coun-
ties on the western slope of the Blue Ridge and which extend into and for
the most part across the Shenandoah valley and the counties which cover
the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge extending into the Piedmont region
comprise this district.

In West Virginia the apple industry is extensive but not located In
especially well defined areas. Production is important in the counties
comprising the eastern panhandle, representing the lower Shenandoah
valley and the Potomac valley; then at various points along the western
border of the state in the Ohio valley. Formerly many apples were grown
in the northern panhandle, but the industry has declined there.

In North Carolina there are large potential apple possibilities in the
mountainous section in the western part of the state, and considerable
production Is already in progress in several counties.

The corresponding part of South Carolina has likewise some possibili-
ties which are only partially developed.

A considerable development in commercial apple -growing has been de-
veloped In northeastern Georgia, particularly in Rabun and Habersham
counties, the two northeasternmost counties in the state, with some de-
velopment in the other northern counties; those counties representing
the southern extension of the Blue Ridge and Appalachian mountains.

Tennessee: Some production in the lower portion of the Cumberland
valley, some In the central part of the state and a limited production In
the western part of the state.

In Alabama, a few orchards in the northeastern part of the state; and
a few in northeastern Mississippi. But, of course, from the commercial
standpoint, those orchards are negligible.

In Kentucky limited production Is pretty generally distributed over
the state, but the commercial orchards are largely along the Ohio river.

In Ohio — will someone from Ohio please speak? I know certain dis-
tributions, commercial orcharding being quite largely aloilg the Ohio
river. In the southern part of the state, some in the central part and

16

pretty generally throughout the lake shore counties, with a rather wide
distribution throughout the entire state; but these particular districts
that I have mentionefl are the most outstanding from the standpoint of
large commercial production.

In Michigan the apple industry is widely distributed. Oakland county,
in the southeastern part of the state, stands out prominently; large quan-
tities are grown in the southern tier of counties; but the district which
stands out in comparison with all others, not only for apples, but for
many other fruits, is in the western tier of counties, and consists of a
comparatively narrow belt bordering on Lake Michigan.

Indiana: I saw Professor Greene, didn't I, come in a little while ago?
I expect now to hear from him. In Indiana, as far as I know, the most
Important commercial apple producing counties are along the Wabash
river in the west central part of the state, a little north of the center
perhaps, and pretty generally through the southern third of the state.
Is that sufficient? Can the production be localized. Professor Greene?

Mr. Greene: Not very specifically.

Mr. Gould: This is another one of those cases of rather generalized
distribution.

To a large extent the same is true, so far as I know, in Illinois, with
the large producing areas pretty generally distributed over the southern
third of the state, with large production in the counties bordering the
Mississippi river; several counties north of S't. Louis, that is, north of
that latitude, with a large production; but the orchards more isolated in
individual counties in the north central part of the state, including
Champaign, Bureau and several others. Professor Blair, how about it?

Prof. J. C. Blair: That covers it very well. The areas are between
the Illinois and the Mississippi; then in the south, the Ozark region.

Mr. Gould: It is rather difficult to localize those areas to the extent
that can be done in many of the states.

Arkansas: The large production is in the northwestern corner of the
state. A half dozen counties produce by far the larger part of the apple
crop; in fact, nearly all of the commercial production.

In Missouri the southwestern-most counties and the counties through
which the St. Louis & San Francisco Railroad passes; that includes
Greene, Webster, Texas, Oregon and several others. There are also quite
a number of counties along the Missouri river in which many apples
are grown. And again, there is to me a most interesting district, one
which includes the northwestern counties of Missouri, the northeastern
counties in Kansas, the southeastern counties in Nebraska and the south-
western counties in Iowa. The area thus composed represents some of
the most important apple growing interests of the four states concerned,
although the Arkansas valley in Kansas should be mentioned, especially
centers of production that occur in Reno, Sedgwick, Sumner and Cowley
counties, and in Iowa the southern half of the state produces a great
many apples, with commercial orchards pretty generally distributed
over them.

Perhaps some of the Iowa people here would like to amplify what I
have said with regard to their state. If so, it is your privilege,

Mr. Reeves: You have that right.

17

Mr. Gould: In Wisconsin, Door county, consisting as it does of a
peninsula, is the banner county of the state in one respect. I think it is
the only one in Wisconsin in which there were reported a larger number
of bearing trees in 1920 than in 1910. There is some production along
Lake Michigan, likewise in three or four counties in the southwestern
part of the state north of the Wisconsin river — Crawford, Sauk, Rich-
land, and possibly others.

In Minnesota, the southeastern corner with the Lake Minnetonka dis-
trict is the center of quite a large production, relatively speaking. Else-
where in the state production is rather light and much scattered.

South Dakota: Quite a large production, relatively speaking, in the
Black Hills section and some in the southeastern counties. But for the
most part we will pass over North Dakota and South Dakota.

Oklahoma: Scattered production, but not any very great amount by
way of totals. But in Logan, Garfield and Canadian counties, all in the
central part of the state, there are commercial orchards of some im-
portance.

Texas: Not very much can be said about apple growing in Texas, yet
there are some counties in which they are found in some quantity. These
are located in general in the northeastern part of the state; in Floyd,
Hale, Lubbock and other counties in the panhandle region, and in the
southwestern section some production is also reported.

New Mexico: The apple districts in New Mexico have been outlined in
detail by Professor Garcia in a bulletin published some years ago by the
New Mexico Experiment Station. The Pecos valley, in the southeastern
part of the state, is the largest producing area in the state. But apples
are grown at numerous points along the Rio Grande valley as well as in
smaller irrigated valleys or districts in several other parts of the state.

In Colorado the principal area, of course, is the Grand valley in Delta
in the western part of the state; then in the Gunnison valley in the same
county, with the industry centering about Delta, Hotchkiss and Paonia,
and Montrose in Montrose county. These centers, together with a num-
ber of others of less importance, make up the "we.stern slope" fruit in-
terests of the state. East of the mountains the Canon City district in
P'remont county is important, as are various other centers along the
Arkansas river valley in its eastern course through the state.

In Utah commercial apple growing is confined mostly to the northern
part of the state, interests occurring in the eastern part of Box Elder
county, and in Cache, Weber, Davis, Salt Lake and Utah counties. The
industry is located largely in irrigated valleys and to some extent where
the influence of Great Salt lake and Utah lake doubtless moderates the
climatic conditions somewhat.

There is little to say about Wyoming, Nevada or Arizona, as they are
among the few states that are scarcely represented in the commercial
apple world. And yet in restricted areas and in limited quantities very
excellent apples are produced in each of these states.

In Montana, in the western part of the state, the Bitterroot valley and
the Flathead lake country have figured rather largely in the apple world
during the past ten years, but because of the extensive plantings that

18

v/ere made, and many of which have failed, rather than because of any
important production that has come out of these districts.

In Idaho, the valleys in the western part of the state, centering about
Nampa, Payette and Weiser, and the Boise valley have witnessed exten-
sive orchard developments. Then, farther north in the state, with the
areas extending over into Washington, there are the Palouse section, the
Lewis and Clarkson area and one or two others of lesser importance.

In Washington the production that we really hear about is largely in
tv/o great valleys, the Yakima and the Wenatchee valleys. But there are
many apples grown in the Walla Walla valley, in the Palouse region in
the east central section, and in the Okanogan district in the north central
part of the state, with some production in the Puget sound region; these
areas being the outstanding ones, but with a number of other smaller ones.

Oregon: The northeastern part of the state in the Milton Freewater
section, which is substantially an extension of the Walla Walla valley;
in Union county, in the northeastern part of the state; then in the north-
ern part of Wasco county, two or three districts; the Hood River valley,
the Willamette valley, the Umpqua valley, and the Rogue river valley —
all of these districts contribute to the apple production of the state.

And finally, California: Until rather recently about sixty-five per cent
of the commercial apple crop grown in California was produced in the
Pajaro valley, or, as more commonly called, the Watsonville district; in
Sonoma county, the Sebastapol section has been producing fifteen or six-
teen per cent of the crop of the state. But during the past eight or ten
years other sections have been developing and are now calling for rec-
ognition. One of these newer districts is in the southwestern part of
San Bernardino county in the general vicinity of Redlands, known as the
Yucaipa district. That area is a magnificent sight. I don't know how
many thousands of acres there are in it, but there are several, four or
five thousand, I think at least. It is practically a solid orchard. You can
go back on the hills, just a little way, and get a view over the whole area.
Most of the orchards are now in the neighborhood of ten years old and
are just coming into quite large production.

Then another district is in the northwestern part of Riverside county,
not many miles from the Yucaipa district, there are Banning and Beau-
mont, comprising a center of rather large apple interests.

Then there are some plantings in Los Angeles county and in San Diego
county at some of the higher elevations, making, so far as distances are
concerned, the production of apples and the production of oranges and
other sub-tropical fruits in rather close proximity to one another. But
this comes about through the differences in elevation and the resulting
differences in temperature.

Now, if you will bear with me just a few moments longer, I want to
continue what I started to say and what a lot of others started to say a
year ago in trying to interpret and apply the census figures.

I think in the course of what I said I suggested the possibility that the
reduction of thirty-six million bearing trees as indicated by the census
of 1920 as compared with the census of 1910 (the figures being in round
numbers 151,000,000 in 1910 and 115,000,000 in 1920), might not mean

19

just what it appeared to mean through simply a superficial consideration
of the figures.

It was suggested that possibly the reduction might not represent a cor-
respondingly large decrease in the potential apple production of the
country.

My point was that possibly a very considerable proportion of the de-
crease had taken place, not in these important commercial apple produc-
ing districts, but in the areas where the orchards were principally farm
and home orchards; in other words, orchards the product of which never
entered to any considerable extent into commerce.

I have listed the more important apple growing counties with their
respective number of bearing trees in thirty-seven states and if I have
reckoned up the figures accurately I think there are twenty of the thirty-
seven states, which, on the basis of these apple producing countries, show
an actual decrease, while there are seventeen which show an increase.

I have grouped the states according to the census grouping. There is
the New England states, the middle Atlantic, the east, north, central, etc.

The number of bearing trees in 1910 in these important counties that
I have listed was 46,000,000, In 1920 in those same counties the number
was 44,000,000 in round numbers. Now, in the states in which there was
a net increase, the increase was 9,600,000 trees. In the same way, the
states in which the larger apple growing counties show a decrease, the
total reduction in those counties was 11,680,000, so that in round numbers
on the basis of that comparison there was a decrease of two million
bearing trees during the decade 1910 to 1920 in the more important com-
mercial producing counties. That looks somewhat different from a de-
crease of 36,000,000. The conclusion is that the decrease of the other
34,000,000 occurred in counties relatively unimportant from a commer-
cial standpoint.

An analysis of these figures is not without its interest. Of the in-
crease shown, nearly 7,000,000 trees were in the Pacific states and in the
inter-mountain states. Of the decrease, a very considerable proportion
occurred in Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois and Kansas.

Now, taking the states in which there was an increase, it is of interest
to note that they comprise the Pacific coast states and the inter-mountain
states in the west and the states in the east through which the great
Appalachian mountain system extends, reaching from New York in the
north to Georgia in the south. The decrease in bearing trees, so far as
the large commercial districts are concerned, occurred in the New Eng-
land states (as a group) and in the great interior valley regions of the
Mississippi, the Ohio and the Missouri rivers, together with their adja-
cent tributary areas.

Mr. James Sharp: May I just give you a little illustration? Spokane
county in 1920 had more apple trees growing than Yakima county. In
1919 Spokane county shipped about four hundred carloads of apples,
while Yakima county shipped thirteen thousand.

Mr. Gould: There are a lot of those comparisons that could be made
all the way through.

Mr. B. G. Pratt: That is very interesting, but I'd like to know what

20

has become of the sixty-five million apple trees under bearing age in 1920.
They seem to have been lost in the shuffle. In 1910 there were 110,000,000
trees of under-bearing age, which in ten years were either alive and bear-
ing or dead. So when you reduced the number of trees to 115,000,000
bearing trees, they must be lost somewhere.

Mr. Gould: Well, I am not attempting to explain where they went;
but unquestionably a great many of them are dead.

Mr. Cranefield: I think your investigations confirm only what Vice-
President Stark said and what Professor Bailey conveys to us in his mes-
sage that the careless man is getting out of this game. God is impeding
his progress. Your description, it seems to me, hooks up with Mr. Stark's
and Mr. Bailey's thought.

Mr. Gould: I was rather interested to see that out of that thirty-six
million reduction between 1910 and 1920 so small a portion apparently
took place in the important commercial apple producing states of the
country. Taking those as a whole, as I pointed out, the increase is in
the inter-mountain and the Pacific coast states, and in the Atlantic coast
and the mountain states in the east, with the really striking reduction
occurring in the great Mississippi valley region and the important tribu-
taries, including the Missouri river and a very considerable portion of the
Ohio river valleys.

21
THE CHEKRY INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN

M. B. Goff, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin

Type Varies from New York and Michigan. Those fruit growers who
are familiar with the cherry orchards of western New York and much of
western Michigan would be somewhat surprised to visit the concentrated
areas of the Wisconsin cherry belt in the Door county peninsula. In
New York state comparatively few orchards of sour cherries exceed ten
acres in extent, and many of the fruit growers consider their sour cher-
ries as a side line, as is evidenced by the fact that a considerable per-
centage of the cherries in New York state are raised along the roadside
or in small blocks, interspersed between apples and pears. In western
Michigan few fruit growers have cherries exclusively, and most of them
prefer to use the New York plan of diversifying their acreage. In Wis-
consin, however, large numbers of fruit growers raise practically nothing
but cherries, and many corporations make the growing of this fruit their
sole business.

The Industry Located Largely in Door County. Sour cherries are
grown in Wisconsin almost wholly in the Door county peninsula, which,
as one looks at the map, is the thumb of land jutting out into Lake
Michigan from the northeast corner of the state. In the Bayfield penin-
sula, which bears a similar relation to Door county, in the Lake Supe-
rior region, sour cherries are grown to a small extent, but no orchards
of large size exist in that locality, and few, if any, of the growers make
cherries their principal business. In southwestern Wisconsin some cher-
ries are grown in the unglaciated area of the Kickapoo valley. In west-
ern Wisconsin there are some limited plantings of cherries on the rich
soils of the Eaugalla river region. One company in this area, although
largely devoting its energy to the growing of apples, has made a start
in sour cherry planting. The regions enumerated are by no means all
of the localities in Wisconsin which could profitably grow sour cherries.
The peculiar topography which has in a measure assisted the success
of the Door county region is caused by a belt of Niagara limestone which
extends, in the form of an escarpment, from the tip of the Door county
peninsula in a belt down the whole eastern side of the state. The cliffs
of this formation appear on the eastern shore of Lake Winnebago, and
forms a more or less regular range of bluffs and hills down through
Calumet, Fond du Lac, Washington, Waukesha, Racine, and Kenosha
counties. This whole area includes a similar type of Miami clay loam
to sandy loam soils which are underlaid largely by a strong red clay sub-
soil. Almost anywhere on the well-drained soils of this area fruit trees
thrive. The elevations are sufficient to give ample frost protection, and
the whole relationship of this locality to transportation and markets Is
such that it will some day become one of the foremost fruit growing
regions of the middle west. Apparently, the chief limiting factor in the
spread of the commercial sour cherry industry is the strong tendency
of the fruit buds to winter killing. The Wisconsin climate is much more
rigorous in its extremes than that of western Michigan and, the Ontario
shore of New York. Consequently, any locality which proves profitable

22

for sour cherry growing in Wisconsin must be so situated as to give suflft-
cient annual terminal growth to allow the maintenance of the spur system
of fruiting. Repeated experiment under Professor Roberts' direction at
the Wisconsin station have demonstrated beyond doubt that fruit spurs
are much less likely to receive serious winter injury than fruit buds
which grow on laterals. The spur system is, of course, only maintained
by vigorous terminal development. Even localities which are able to
secure a terminal growth of twelve inches or more may have a growing
season sufficiently long to induce over-development of the fruit buds,
v.'hich in itself makes them more susceptible to winter injury. The Door
county area has the happy combination of these desirable soil types, only
a moderately long growing season, and a situation in Lake Michigan
which greatly reduces frost danger, so that this area has logically de-
veloped into what is perhaps the most concentrated sour cherry growing
area in the world. In my discussions I shall confine myself principally
to Door county, because of the preponderance of its industry in Wisconsin.

History

The development of the Door county cherry region has furnished a
striking example of the general attitude of the public toward any un-
tried enterprise. The plantings began with experimental acreage imme-
diately following the World's Fair in Chicago, the first of which was
made by Mr. A. L. Hatch, a veteran horticulturist of Wisconsin's early
days, in company with his son-in-law, D. E. Bingham, and my father, E.
S. Goff, at that time horticulturist of the Wisconsin station. The enthu-
siasm of these men was reflected in a small number of other plantings
made by neighbors, but the general attitude in the locality was one of
skepticism, and it remained for these orchards to reach maturity, and
prove beyond all question of doubt that the industry held promises of
success before there was any large scale of expansion. The next con-
siderable planting began in 1909. In 1910 the first orchard of over forty
acres of sour cherries was planted. In 1911 a very rapid expansion be-
gan, which saw approximately 3,500 acres planted by the close of 1913.
Although the war conditions served to retard further acreage, it is a
grave question whether even without the war further planting would
have been done until this large expansion had demonstrated itself as
advisable. Consequently, another period of ten years passed, during
which the orchards that had been started were brought to maturity, and
again demonstrated their success. The spring of this year saw approxi-
mately 700 acres of sour cherries planted. The spring of 1923 promises
at least 1,000 acres, with every indication that the year following will
see another large expansion. Whether the growth will outstrip the for-
mer plantings to any extent that will much more than replace the losses
of trees in the former plantings still remains to be seen; but, at any rate,
the sour cherry industry of Door county is on a permanently large com-
mercial basis. From a financial standpoint, each of these cycles of or-
chard development have been exceedingly interesting. Most of the grow-
ers and corporations which engaged in the business entered it without
sufficient capital; most of them developed their holdings by borrowing to

23

their limit; most of them survived and rapidly reduced their indebted-
ness when their orchards reached maturity. In all cases, the value of
the orchards at maturity, based upon an income-returning basis, have
proved sufficient to absorb all of the development costs and leave the
orchards capitalized on a conservative, sound basis. This is a notable
difference from some commercial regions which have developed in this
country. The Door county area has not been inflicted with the promo-
tional stock selling type of organization, and those investors who have
lost money in the Door county business have been almost solely those
who have failed to do their own proper part in the care of their acreage.

Cultural Problems

The varieties planted in Door county have been almost solely the Early
Eichmond and large Montmorencies. These varieties have been planted
in approximately equal numbers. Mahaleb stock has been largely used,
although sprouts from the stock in many orchards show a sprinkling of
Mazzard. One year trees have been most extensively planted, and the
stock has come largely from southern Indiana. English Morellos have
not been planted to any extent. The Richmonds and Montmorencies
have made a harvesting season sufficiently long to make the addition of
Morellos a rather serious problem from the picking and marketing stand-
point. Door county is the last section to come in with its cherries each
year, and on that account its season invariably approaches the season
for peaches and other early fall fruits. The Morello has also not proved
as vigorous and productive a tree as the other varieties. Uniform dis-
tance for planting is twenty feet apart in squares. Some orchards are
planted on the diagonal or hexagonal plans. One large orchard has been
planted as fillers in a permanent apple planting. Some orchards have
been planted at greater distance than twenty feet, but, on the whole, this
standard distance has proved more acceptable.

Clean cultivation has been religiously followed, and is carried out from
early spring until picking time, which is after the first of July. The
opinion of some growers is in favor of extending the cultivation period
well into August, because of a belief that this additional cultivation will
somewhat increase terminal growth, and will occasion a retarded devel-
opment of fruit buds, which makes them less subject to winter killing.
The general practice, however, is to cease cultivating at the beginning
of the fruit harvesting. Tractors are used to a great extent in orchard
cultivation. The caterpillar type is gaining in preference. Tandem discs
are used. In the spring little plowing is done. Through the summer,
spring-tooth harrows are used of as large size as the power of the trac-
tors permit. In order to get well under the trees, many orchards are
using what is known as a split drag, consisting of two spring-tooth har-
rows, one at each end of a long evener. Fertilization is employed in one
form or another by all growers, but has not yet become standardized,
although nitrates are recognized as a basis by everyone. A number of
orchards use stable manure; some of them have herds of beef or dairy
cattle for this purpose. Others purchase large quantities from terminal
stockyards. One orchard alone, the cooperative orchard company, which

24

has 600 acres of cherries, uses close to 100 cars of stockyard manure
annually. Cover crops are grown only in very irregular fashion. Cover
crops are easily grown in younger plantings, but in the older orchards
the dense shading and wide expanse of the root systems of the trees se-
riously interferes with a good stand. A sufficiently dense weed growth
can always be secured to insure a deep covering of snow. Commercial
fertilizers are used in increasing volume with nitrate of soda, and sul-
phate of ammonia greatly in the lead. The use of potash and phosphate
is not at all uniform. Many growers use nothing but nitrates. A stand-
ard application for bearing cherries has become from three to five pounds
of nitrate of soda or its equivalent.

Spraying has become very much standardized owing to the valuable
work of the Wisconsin station. Three applications of bordeaux mixture
of a strength of 3-3-50 are used; one immediately following blossoming,
one two weeks later, and another following the harvest. In years espe-
cially favorable to the development of disease another application just
previous to harvest is recommended. Lime sulphur has proved, in all
years, fully equal to bordeaux for the first two sprays, although its tim-
ing must be a little more accurate, and the application more thorough.
Lime sulphur has not proved so successful for the post-harvest spray,
since its effects are not retained so long as those of bordeaux. The Wis-
consin station has conducted dusting experiments with fair success, but,
like lime sulphur, the dusting has proved ineffectual in the long period
following the harvest. As an auxiliary to liquid sprays, particularly in
rainy periods, dust promises to become of decided assistance.

The machinery for spraying is undergoing a rapid increase in size
and efficiency. Practically all of the larger orchards are coming to trac-
tor drawn equipment, carrying at least 400 gallons of liquid, and capable
of maintaining three guns at high pressure. These larger machines
prove much more economical because of the possibility of moving con-
tinuously without the necessity of stopping at each tree. The tendency
is toward still larger machines, but where this movement will cease is
still open to debate. Horse-drawn outfits are used by practically all but
the largest orchards. However, the big cooperative orchard company
uses horse-drawn, air-pressure machines for a great part of its .work
owing to the difficulty of operating a large number of engine-driven ma-
chines without delays due to mechanical troubles. The first disease to
be combatted is shot-hole fungus, which in favorable seasons results in
the total defoliation of unsprayed trees. Where proper spraying is done,
little difficulty has been encountered in the control of shot-hole, although
occasionally an extra spray has been found useful. The only insect pests
of serious nature are aphis and the pear tree slug. Nicotine sulphate is
used increasingly for aphis, although dust promises to be a most effectual
remedy. Arsenate of lead used with the other sprays takes care of the
remaining insects nicely. Spraying has been sufficiently well done
through the whole history of the region to hold insect pests well in hand,
with the result that wormy cherries are practically unknown.

25

Organization of the Industry

It would be strange, indeed, if so concentrated an area had not devel-
oped an efficient organization. While much remains to be accomplished
in the perfection of the marketing and auxiliary organizations, neverthe-
less the handling of the Door county cherry crop, from the growing of
the trees to the processing and marketing of the product has become the
highly specialized work of the Door County Fruit Growers Union and
its allied organizations. The union purchases practically all of the grow-
ers' supplies, including nursery stock, fertilizers, spray materials and
orchard equipment, and finances the growers in buying these items.
Through a subsidiary box factory the union secures its packages. Through
the Fruit Growers Canning Company the union processes and markets
all of the crop which it does not desire to ship as fresh fruit. Through
an allied cold storage interest, storage is provided in necessary amounts.
Even the picking of the crop is to an extent handled through an organi-
zation which recruits pickers, cares for them, and handles them in the
picking of the crop of a large number of orchards. At the present time,
a realignment and an improvement in the organization is being worked
out, which, when completed, will probably consolidate most of the activi-
ties in the Fruit Growers Canning Company. The fruit will be secured
to the Door County Fruit Growers Union, a strictly cooperative associa-
tion, by a binding contract for five years. The union will contract with
the canning factory for the processing and handling of its fruits, and
the canning company will perform the other functions, such as handling
supplies, financing growers, picking fruit and marketing. In order to
accommodate the increased volume, the canning company is preparing to
enlarge its facilities to include a large cold storage plant, a dehydrating
plant, a vinegar plant, an increased canning factory, and one or more
boats for handling the coastwide collection of fruit from the isloated
areas of the county. The success of this industry is best shown by the
statement that practically 100% of the 300 odd growers of the county
are members. No carload shipments of cherries are made by anyone but
the organization. With such complete control of the industry, coopera-
tive marketing has many of the usual problems solved. The handling of
the fruit becomes merely a matter of adjusting the volume of business to
adequate distribution. The canned goods now go to a large number of
the states east of the Rocky mountains, and to some extent even to the
Pacific coast. The canning factory has grown to be much the largest of
its kind in the country, and last year during the flush of the picking sea-
son handled as much as thirty carloads of fresh, cherries per day. A
larger amount, in fact, than many plants in the country handle in a
season. The past season a small amount of cherries was barreled and
frozen. This outlet promises to assume increasing proportions. The
fresh fruit shipments, while not large in total number of cars, when added
to the fruit delivered to the canning factory make approximately 900 cars
for a season just past. The cherries canned by the factory, if placed in
No. 2 cans and lined up end to end, would form a line reaching from
Chicago to the Gulf of Mexico. When it is considered that nearly all of
this business is handled within a period of twenty days, any person can

26

realize the extent to which the efficiency has been developed by the organi-
zation. During the past several years: the amount of wastage of fruit
has been almost negligible and it can safely be said that no fruit has
been spoiled due to lack of pickers or inability of. the organization to
accept deliveries from growers on time.

The harvesting of the crop becomes, as may well be imagined, the chief
occupation of every available man, woman and child in this locality. The
past year approximately ten thousand people were at one time or another
engaged in the harvesting and handling of the crop. Approximately four
thousand pickers came in from other towns in Wisconsin and adjoining
states. Many of them were handled under the supervision of the Y. M.
C. A. and Y. W. C. A. in camps operated by the Cherry Harvesting Asso-
ciation, a corporation formed for the purpose of picking the crop for its
members. Other large orchards had camps of their own, the Cooperative
Orchard camp containing almost 1,000 pickers. Every effort has been
made by the growers to place the handling of the pickers on a satisfac-
tory social and educational basis. As a result, a very high class of help
has been induced to return to the orchards annually for this peculiar
kind of an outing in the country, which pays for itself. In this manner,
the great bugaboo held up by the skeptics who predicted that the large
expansion of acreage which occurred just previous to the war could never
be handled, have been effectually silenced. It has no longer become a
question of whether this enormous volume of business can be handled
quickly and efficiently, but is merely a problem of finding the most effi
cient and economical means of securing results.

Future of the Industry

The successful solving of the growing, harvesting, and marketing prob-
lems makes the future expansion and development of the industry a cer-
tainty. From the marketing standpoint, a much greater volume of busi-
ness is justified. The people of the United States have not yet learned to
appreciate the sour cherry. Large areas of this country are not accus-
tomed to making cherry pies, and hotels and restaurants in many large
cities do not include it on their bills of fare. The large variety of delica-
cies which can be made from fresh and canned cherries are not known
by the public. Careful study of the marketing situation in various centers
of the country have convinced the Door county people that they need
have no fear of expanding their industry to the uttermost possibilities
of the land they have available for development. The problem of market-
ing is more easily solved when there is sufficient volume of goods to
market to justify proper handling facilities and proper marketing and
distributing machinery. A small volume of business, and even the present
volume of Door county sales is not sufficient to require the fullest stimu-
lation of cherry consumption.

Social Effects of Organized Horticultural Industry

From the fruit growers' standpoint the real success of an industry of
this character should be judged, not alone by the profits it produces,
but by the type of rural development which follows. The Door county

27

area promises to vindicate, from the standpoint of rural social condi-
tions, all of the energy which has been expended. With increasing busi-
ness succcess, there has followed a greater desire on the part of the fruit
growers for a higher standard of rural life. This standard is attracting
to the business many people who would not be satisfied with the limita-
tions of ordinary rural existence. Such a group of growers makes wider
and fuller cooperation a certainty. Tendencies toward increased social
intercourse and comtnunity helpfulness are becoming daily more ap-
parent. The cooperative organization stimulates proper horticultural
methods in every way in its power, encourages scientific studies by close
cooperation with the state agricultural college, fosters growers' meetings
and demonstrations, and has laid a solid foundation for state develop-
ment. Judged by these conditions, which are the only fundamental facts
that need to be ascertained by the person investigating an industry of
this kind, the sour cherry industry of Wisconsin is an outstanding success.

Mr, 0. F. Whitney : I would like to ask two questions. What
kind of a package do they use and what is the average life of a
tree up there?

Mr. Goff : We use the sixteen quart hallock crate for shipping.
We have begun to use a ventilated sixteen quart crate, which we
feel is superior. And in the future I think our production will be
marketed very largely in that kind of crate.

The average life of our sour cherry trees is still debatable. We
find the older orchards have become unprofitable at from twenty
to twenty-five years of age. The oldest orchards are still in exist-
ence, and are still producing a crop every year. And those grow-
ers have filled in the vacant spaces and in that way have maintained
their production from the land.

Mr. Sharp : What kind of stock do your cherries grow on ?

Mr. Goff : Grown most extensively on the Mahaleb ; although
we find in many orchards where the cultivators" have scratched the
roots that Mazzard sprouts come up. As a matter of fact, we have
many more Mazzards than we thought. Of course, we think that
was very satisfactory, because the Mazzard is a very good stock.

Mr. Ritchie : Can you tell us what sprayer is used most and
seems to be most satisfactory?

Mr. Goff : I would answer that question by merely telling you
what we are using. The Friend and the Hardie are perhaps most
used in the large sizes. In the small machines the Bean and the
Myers figure about equally with the Friend and the Hardie.

Mr. Davis: What do they net?

Mr. Goff: Our cherries for the past several years haye net the
grower from ten to ten and a half cents per pound. This year we

28

expect to pay out on the final cheek a balance that will produce
about eight cents a pound.

Mr. Bingham : What does your picking cost ?

Mr. Goff: Our picking costs 2I/2C to 2%c a quart, as a rule.
Some of the orchards pay more where they have to pay for the
supervision of the picking in addition, that is, bringing in people
to manage the pickers, chaperons and camp managers, etc. The
pickers get two and a half cents a quart. In some cases they pay
them an extra bonus for good picking, which brings it up to about
two and three-quarter cents for the good pickers. For this next
year it looks as though the price will be about two cents a quart.

Mr. Close : How many ounces in a quart ?

Mr. Goff: Our crates weigh net approximately twenty-five
pounds of cherries.

Mr. Davis: Why do they pay for picking by the quart? It
seems to me they should pay for picking by the pound. Why isn't
that done?

Mr. Goff: Picking by the quart has developed from the early
days when we shipped fruit out altogether and did not operate a
canning factory. We still ship considerable fruit, so that for our
convenience it is reduced to quarts there instead of pounds. Either
way, of course, would work.

Mr. Davis : Well, I know that in my part of the country they
pick a ten pound pail full and they think they have a gallon ; but
they haven't.

Mr. Goff: Well, we check our weights and keep our measures
full.

Mr. Simpson : Do you pull them with the stems on ?

Mr. Goff: We pull them with the stems entirely for the ship-
pers.

Mr. Davis: Which is the best way for the trees?

Mr. Goff : It is a great argument. We can say this : that trees
which have had the cherries pulled with the stems for periods of
years have shown no apparent decrease in production in compari-
son with other trees. Certainly, there is a loss of fruit spurs, but
apparently not great enough to cause a difference in the next year 's
crop.

29
THE SOUR CHERRY INDUSTRY IN MICHIGAN

Roy E. Marshall, East Lansing, Michigan

The commercial sour cherry industry of Michigan is chiefly developed
in the counties along Lake Michigan and extends from the Indiana line
to the Straits of Mackinaw. According to the last census, 70 per cent of
the sour cherry trees of the state are in these counties, which fact strongly
indicates that the lake shore counties contain from 90 to 95 per cent of
the commercial acreage of Michigan. Kent is the only inland county
producing cherries in large commercial quantities.

The Grand Traverse section, which is probably the best known cherry
section of Michigan, has about 30 per cent of the total bearing acreage in
the state and is the heaviest producing section. It consists for the most
part of Grand Traverse, Benzie and Leelanaw counties and centers about
Traverse City. This section is very rolling, in fact quite rugged in places,
and in addition to Lake Michigan bounding it on the west and north, it
has a number of other large bodies of water, such as Grand Traverse bay,
Crystal lake, Lake Leelanaw and' several smaller lakes. Though this sec-
tion is the best known, it is the youngest in the extensive development of
the commercial industry. Some commercial plantings existed thirty and
more years ago, but the bulk of them are under twelve or fourteen years
of age and the largest increase in acreage has taken place during the past
ten years.

Southward along Lake Michigan, Manistee, Mason and Oceana counties
comprise another section. Here the land is rolling, but not as rugged as
the Grand Traverse section and the soil is of a heavier type. The plant-
ings are rather young in Manistee county, but those in Oceana and Mason
counties indicate an older cherry industry. In fact, Mason county does
not have as large an acreage as it had ten years ago. Oceana county is
by far the largest producer of the three. The acreage in this section is
about half that of the Grand Traverse section.

The third important section extends from the Indiana line northward
along the lake shore for about 70 miles, crossing parts of Berrien, Van
Buren and Allegan counties. This is Michigan's most diversified fruit
section, and, of the tree fruits, cherries rank below apples, pears and
peaches in respect to acreage. Cherries have been grown commercially
in this section for several decades and the acreage has increased and
decreased several times, depending upon the relative profits derived from
the various fruit crops. This section has about 15 per cent of the state's
cherry acreage.

Grand Traverse has the largest acreage of any one county, amounting
to about 13 per cent of the bearing trees in the state. A comprehensive
idea of the geography of cherry growing in Michigan may be secured by

30

giving Grand Traverse county a weight of 100 and weighing the ten coun-
ties leading in acreage accordingly:

Grand Traverse 100 Van Buren 36

Benzie 73 Allegan : 32

Oceana 70 Manistee 27

Leelanaw 60 Kent 20

Berrien 50 Mason 20

"Why has there been a greater development of the sour cherry industry
in the Grand Traverse region (which is in about the same latitude as
Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, Ottawa, Canada, and Minneapolis, Minnesota,)
than in the sections 100 to 200 miles farther south along Lake Michigan?
Several factors must be considered. Much of the land in the vicinity of
Traverse City is not well suited to general farming operations because of
its topography, but it is satisfactory for orchard purposes. Earlier men-
tion has been made of the location with respect to bodies of water which
tends to provide a more equable temperature than would otherwise oh
tain. The average date of the last killing frost. May 10th, is the same
for the Grand Traverse region as it is for Berrien and intervening lake
shore counties, but the blossom buds are not as far advanced in the Grand
Traverse county on May 10th as they are in Berrien, Van Buren or even
Oceana counties, which accounts, in part, for the lesser amount of frost
damage. Furthermore, there is less winter injury to either wood or bud
in the northern section than in the others. These factors tend to sub-
stantiate the claim that the trees in the vicinity of Traverse City are
more productive over a period of years than those farther south. It
should also be stated that more successful market development has taken
place in the Grand Traverse section than in southwestern Michigan.
Cherries have been planted on low, flat lands of southwestern Michigan
as well as on the relatively higher ones, but growers in that section now
realize that cherry sites must be selected with fully as much care as peach
sites, in so far as freedom from frosts is concerned. Future plantings in
southwestern Michigan will, therefore, be made on more favorable sites
and should thus tend to increase the average annual production of that
section by avoiding much of the frost injury.

Michigan's greatest expansion in the sour cherry industry, in the im-
mediate future at least, will be in Grand Traverse and Leelanau coun-
ties. Mr. "W. A. McCool, manager of the Grand Traverse Packing Com-
pany, recently stated that the future expansion in that section would be
in sour cherries rather than in apples and that fully 75,000 cherry trees
would be planted in 1923. Thousands of acres of land, fully as good as
that now planted, are available for future plantings. Still another factor
is the difference of ten days in ripening between Traverse City and the
Cherry Homes plantings in the extreme northern end of the Leelanau
peninsula, thus providing a decidedly longer canning season than is avail-
able elsewhere in the state.

Montmorency is decidedly the most satisfactory variety for shipping
and for the canning factory. In southwestern Michigan 50 to 60 per cent
of the trees are of this variety and farther north it will make up 75 to

31

90 per cent of the production. It is larger and firmer, will hang on the
trees much longer, thus providing a longer picking, canning and shipping
season, than Early Richmond, and the trees are more productive. Early
Richmond is of second importance, and is grown because it ripens about
ten days ahead of Montmorency and thus provides a longer shipping and
canning season. Morello is about ten days later than Montmorency. It
is not grown extensively because the trees are too small and limited in
bearing capacity and because of their susceptibility to leaf spot. Since
Montmorency does not permit of extension of the canning season much
beyond two weeks, we are particularly anxious to find late and early
strains of this variety and believe that we will soon be successful in
getting a strain that ripens one to two weeks later. In fact, there are
several individual trees under observation at present that are later in
maturing their fruits.

Planting distances vary from 16 to 22 and even 24 feet, with the aver-
age about 18 feet. Many well informed growers insist that 18 feet is
not too close from the point of view of profits, but there is a general
tendency to increase the distances in new plantings. We suggest 22 feet
for Montmorency on the average soil type. Most of the cherry orchards
are given frequent cultivations until after harvest when some (too few)
of the growers sow cover crops of rye, oats, vetch, or, in southwestern
Michigan, crimson clover. In the Grand Traverse section, some growers
are putting their cherry orchards into sod because of the tendency of
the soil to wash badly on the steeper hillsides. During the past year or
two a few cherry growers have sown alfalfa in their orchards. This
looks promising as a method of preventing orchard erosion, adding humus
and cheapening production.

Cherries apparently do not respond to applications of quickly available
nitrogenous fertilizers as readily as apples or peaches, but the demon-
strations of the Michigan Agricultural College and the county agents
have shown some very striking results. Nitrogen is most effective in
increasing tree vigor and consequently yields, but we find it profitable
to supplement the nitrogen with phosphorus to encourage a better growth
of cover crop or grass mulch.. We therefore recommend the application
of two to three pounds of sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda and
about four or five pounds of acid phosphate per tree in orchards where
the annual growth is weak and the trees are apparently lacking in vigor.
These materials should be broadcasted about the time the buds show-
green.

Michigan cherry growers usually practice a thinning out of small wood
throughout the sides and tops of their bearing trees for the purpose of
invigorating these parts and more particularly to admit sunlight to the
interior and thus prevent the fruiting twigs in these parts from becoming
unproductive and dying. Other practices may be desirable, but until we
investigate further we are satisfied to continue this kind of pruning as
a general practice. However, where the trees have been defoliated by
leaf spot or where the annual growth is very short and all the fruit is
being produced from lateral buds rather than from spurs, rather severe
heading should accompany the thinning.

32

The cherry leaf spot is the most serious disease. It may completely
defoliate the trees before the fruit reaches maturity and thus prevent its
ripening. Cherry growers cannot recall a season when losses due to this
disease were as serious as they have been in 1922. . It was serious in all
parts of Michigan during the past season, but the northern sections suf-
fered the heaviest losses. It is estimated that 50 per cent of the leaves
dropped from trees in the Grand Traverse section and that the crop was
cut short fully 25 per cent. There were thousands of leafless trees at
harvest time. However, many cherry growers obtained absolute control
of the leaf spot by spraying with lime-sulfur or with bordeaux. Professor
W. C. Button of the department of horticulture at the college secured
absolute control with either materials in his experimental plots located
on the Grand Traverse peninsula. We prefer lime-sulfur because of the
lesser amount of trouble involved in mixing and because we have some
evidence that bordeaux reduces the size of the fruit more than life-sulfur.

Brown rot was quite serious in most sections during the past season.
Aided by a heavy rainfall at the beginning of the Montmorency harvest,
brown rot began to work rapidly in orchards which had not received late
sprayings. The growers became alarmed and in an attempt to get the
fruit off the trees before it rotted, piled it into the canneries faster than
it could be handled. As was to be expected, the fruit rotted rapidly in
the receiving rooms before the canners could take care of it. Some can-
ners found it necessary to inspect each load of fruit and to pay on the
basis of freedom from rot.

The spray schedule which the Michigan Agricultural College has rec-
ommended and which gave control in an epidemic year follows:

TIME OF APPLICATION MATEKIALS TO USE DISEASE OR INSECT

Just before blossoms Lime-sulfur or bordeaux Leaf spot; brown rot

open

Just after blossoms fall Same plus arsenate of Leaf spot; brown rot

lead curculio; slugs

10 days or 2 weeks later Same as above Same

Immediately after bar- Lime-sulfur or bordeaux Leaf spot

vest

Use lime-sulfur 1% gallons to 50 gallons of water; bordeaux, 4-5-50
formula. Powdered arsenate of lead, 1 pound to 50 gallons of water.

Growers have not experienced difficulty in getting their crops harvested.
They pay by the pound and the tourists from the cities form a consid-
erable portion of the help. Cherries for shipment are picked with the
stems intact, but for the canning factory the fruit is "milked" or pulled
from the stems.

In the southwestern part of the state there is probably as much fruit
shipped by boat and train and hauled out in auto trucks as is consumed
by the local canning factories. Most of the fruit in Oceana county is
sold to the canners, and fully 90 per cent of the crop in the Grand Trav-
erse section is canned.

During the past summer some of the cherries from Berrien county were
precooled before shipment, but it is doubtful if it would pay to build pre-

33

cooling plants for cherries alone unless they are intended primarily for
cooling the small fruits and peaches. If they are available, precooling
plants will undoubtedly aid in preventing market gluts and in making
possible a wider distribution. Frequently, the daily pickings are greater
than the market will absorb in one day without a reduction in price and
under such circumstances the precooling plants are used to hold the sur-
plus fruit off the market for a day or more.

According to a recent report of the State Canners Association, 18,170,000
pounds of sour cherries were put through the Michigan canning factories
during the past season, which is more than three times the pack of five
years ago. This amount probably represents about 75 per cent of the
commercial production of the state. It is equivalent to 860,033 cases of
the finished product, representing a value of $1,663,356. The average
price paid the cherry growers was 6 cents a pound at the canning fac-
tory. Several of the canners have considerable quantities of unsold cher-
ries in their warehouses, but they are moving out gradually. The canned
product is sold mostly in the Central Freight Association territory.

There is need of more cooperation between the canner and the grower.
The cherry producer must learn that he will profit in the long run by
bringing only sound fruit to the factory and delivering it no faster than
the canner is able to handle it properly. If the grower crowds the canner
with fruit that is likely to go down with brown rot, the canner must
stand the losses. Further.more, the product is seldom one that is a credit
to the locality. The canner, realizing that he must keep the good will of
the producers, hesitates to tell a grower that he must cease picking for
a day or two for fear that the grower will find another outlet for his
fruit. A closer understanding of each other's problems must come if a
locality is going to put out a product which will be a credit to grower
and canner and, at the same time, bring maximum returns to both orchard-
ist and canner.

Again, there is a great difference among canners as to what will not
be accepted for canning. S'ome are not careful enough about their pack.
They let a great many more brown rot cherries pass over the sorting
belts than other canners who are trying to build up a -reputation for the
section. I know of a case where immature cherries picked from trees
defoliated by leaf spot were accepted by one canner after they had been
turned down by a neighboring one. Furthermore, it is almost impossible
for pure food authorities to condemn such fruit because the fruit itself,
though its quality be poor, is not diseased— it grew on diseased trees.
The canners must work together to establish higher standards and to
make the pack of a section as uniform as possible.

The Grand Traverse Packing Company at Traverse City built a plant
to freeze cherries in 50 gallon barrels the past season and operated it to
capacity with apparently very satisfactory results. The cherries were
received at their branch plant in Benzie county where they were pitted
and run into the barrels and then shipped to Traverse City, where the
fiuit was frozen within a few hours. This product has been moving out
to pie bakers. Traverse growers are enthusiastic over the future outlook
for this manner of handling the crop.

34

Advertising has not been attempted so far, but plans are on foot in
the Grand Traverse section to launch a campaign to increase the con-
sumption of canned cherries.

It would be much more satisfactory if not only the Michigan organiza-
tions, but the Sturgeon Bay people as well, could unite in such an under-
taking7 because what will be of benefit to one will also benefit the other
and the money could be made to produce much better results if wisely
expended in such a manner.

By way of summary, it is evident that the so-called fruit belt of Michi-
gan will continue to be a big factor in the commercial production of both
fresh cherries and the canned product, and that the Grand Traverse sec-
tion may be expected to materially increase its output of canned cherries
and the frozen product in 50 gallon barrels. Furthermore, the selection
of sites freer from spring frosts for future plantings, the use of nitrog-
enous fertilizers and the adoption of better spraying practices will operate
to increase production. Steps must be taken to enlist the support of all
growers and canners in the improvement and standardization of the
cannery pack and to obtain greater and more thorough distribution of
both fresh fruit and the canned products.

35
THE PLUM IN THE EAST

Dr. U. P. Hedrick, New York Experiment Station, Geneva, New York

The plum with its many varieties and great adaptations is not receiv-
ing the attention it deserves in the fruit regions of eastern America.
There are two reas'ons for its neglect. California has taken the lead in
growing plums and puts on the markets of the country a great diversity
of handsome fruits, with which in appearance, at least, the products of
eastern orchards cannot compete. The second reason for the neglect of
this fruit in the east is the prevalence of curculio and brown rot, scourges
which take so great toll that the crop can be profitably grown only with
constant and expensive warfare. Well grown, there can be no doubt as
to the demand for plums in the east, as figures from western distributors
show that from seven to ten million dollars' worth of plums and prunes
are shipped east from the Pacific slope annually.

Four groups of plums are grown in America — the Domesticas, the In-
stitias or Damsons, the Trifloras or Japanese, and a very diverse group
of varieties evolved from several wild species native to the country. Of
these, but three groups are represented in the commercial orchards of
the east.

Domestica or European Plums

Domestica plums are represented in eastern America by several groups,
quite distinct in the characters which make them desirable for the pur-
poses to which plums are put, and in their adaptabilities to soil and cli-
mate. Attention is called to the fact that the plum does not hold in east-
ern America the relative importance that it does in Europe, since it is
here grown less than the apple, peach or cherry, while in Europe the
plum holds second or at least third place among tree fruits. The re-
stricted culture of this fruit in eastern America is due to the fact that
most of its varieties are not well adapted to the American environment.
Thus, in the region under consideration, Domestica plums are grown
well only in favored locations on the Atlantic seaboard, and in the Great
Lakes region.

Of the Domestica plums commonly grown in the east, in quality, at
least, the Reine Claudes are most notable. The dozen or more best sorts
in quality belong here. All of its varieties are sweet, but not too sweet,
and each has a distinctive sweetness; the flesh of all is rich and delicate;
all have an abundance of juice, and none are watery as are the fruits of
many native sorts; while not brilliant in color, at their best the fruits of
most of the varieties are attractive, the colors ranging through the greens
and yellows, usually marbled, with tints of white and crimson. In no
other group are the characters which please mingled in nicer proportions.
Reine Claude and Bavay are the two best varieties of the group. The
trees of both of these plums bear young, are productive, and when the
crop is thinned, the fruits are large and handsome. Unfortunately, the
trees are not hardy, robust, nor long-lived.

The prunes constitute the second group of Domesticas. The fruits of
the prunes are oval shaped, usually purple, with firm, long-keeping flesh,
which dries into a cured fruit. In eastern America prunes are repre-

36

sented in commercial orchards only by the Italian and German. The
prune flora of the east is much too meagre, and of the sorts known, Agen
and Imperial Epineuse, at least, should be added to the list as sorts worthy
of general cultivation. The German and Italian prunes are very popular
as culinary fruits, and are without question the best of all plums for
culinary purposes. Agen and Imperial Epineuse are, in the east at least,
dessert prunes, but are nearly as desirable for culinary purposes as Ital-
ian and German.

The Yellow Egg group is composed of varieties with large and handsome
plums. Out of a dozen or more of the Yellow Egg varieties only two,
Yellow Egg and Golden Drop, are grown in eastern America. Yellow
Egg is fit only for the kitchen and is none too good for culinary purposes.
Golden Drop produces large, handsome, well flavored fruits, but the trees
thrive in but few places; they lack vigor, are slow in coming in bearing,
and are subject to many ills. There is great opportunity to improve this
group of plums by crossing with sorts which will give better trees and
better quality in the fruit.

Diamond, Monarch, Grand Duke, Quakenboss and a few similar but less
important sorts constitute another group. The fruits of all these have
thick skin, heavy bloom, firm flesh, clinging stones, and all are poor in
quality. Their greatest asset is that they ship well, although the fruits
of all are attractive in appearance and the trees are hardy, thrifty, and
productive. All are largely grown in the east, and of all, Monarch is the
best; its rich purple color, fair quality, and excellent tree characters give
it a place among the best commercial sorts. Grand Duke is a favorite
shipping plum because of its large size, handsome color, and firm, meaty
flesh. The trees of Grand Duke are poor in the nursery, but make very
good orchard plants, as they bear regularly, abundantly and hold the crop
well. Arch Duke bears fruits nearly as large and of the same color as
those of Grand Duke, but they are higher in quality, the stone is freer
and they ripen earlier. Quackenboss does not equal the three sorts named
in fruit characters and the trees are unproductive. The fruits of Diamond
are attractive, but are wretchedly poor in quality, and the tree charac-
ters are none too good.

The Lombard group is best represented in the east by Lombard, Brad-
shaw, Pond, and Field. The fruits of this group differ from those of the
preceding one in being reddish or mottled, and are smaller in size. The
tree characters of varieties of Lombard-like plums are excellent, and
were the quality of the fruit better, they would be dominant in eastern
America. The quality of the fruits of all the plums in this group is very
poor. Lombard is the most grown of the several varieties named because
of hardiness, productiveness, regularity in bearing and freedom from
curculio. It would be the plum "for the millions" were the quality of the
fruit better. Bradshaw is most deserving of culture of all. The trees
are large, well-formed, bear regularly and heavily, are hardy, robust,
healthy and suffer little from San Jose scale. Field, offspring of Brad-
shaw, differs chiefly in being a little earlier. Pond is preeminent among
plums for the large size and attractive color of its fruits. It is, however,
a handsome humbug, as the fruits are far below the mark in quality.

37

The Damsons

The Damsons, or Insititia plums, are second in importance to the Do-
mesticas in eastern America. Shropshire is the best of the Damsons, and
its trees are hardly surpassed among all tree-fruits for productivity and
regularity in bearing. The fruits of the French surpass those of all
other Damsons in size, the flesh is nearly free from the stone, and the
quality is better than that of any other Damson. Commercially, the Dam-
sons are more important in eastern America now than ever before.

Closely related to the Damsons are the Mirabelles, a group of plums
hardly known in this country, but accorded first place among all plums
in many parts of Europe, where they are used, in the fresh state, for
prunes, preserves, jellies, jams, candies and marmalades. In size the
fruits of the Mirabelles are a little larger than those of the common Dam-
sons and not quite so large as those of the Green Gage plums. Several
varieties of the Mirabelles grow well on the grounds of the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station, and would thrive wherever Damsons
are grown in America. This group of plums is much neglected in the
new world. Experiment stations and plum growers should push its
culture.

Triflora or Japanese Plums

The Japanese plums have been overpraised and overplanted in eastern
America, and with the exception of a few varieties, are hardly worth
planting in this region. Some qualities, however, commend them to both
commercial and amateur growers. Thus, the Japanese plums have a
greater range of adaptability to soil and climate than other plums, the
trees are very productive, and most of the Japanese varieties are free
from black knot, leaf blight, and curculio. Their faults are as marked
as their merits, chief of which are: early blooming, susceptibility to
brown-rot, tenderness to cold, poor quality, clinging stones, and soft flesh,
by reason of which they never keep or ship well. Abundance and Burbank
are the two Japanese plums commonly planted in eastern orchards and
are the only sorts worth planting in commercial orchards. Red June and
October are esteemed for home orchards. Of the two commonly planted
sorts, Abundance is adapted to a greater diversity of soils, bears more
heavily and regularly, but the fruits do not keep as well, are more subject
to brown-rot, and mature more unevenly than do those of Burbank. On
the other hand, the fruits of Burbank are larger, of better quality, keep
and ship better, ripen a little earlier, and as has been. said, rot less. Bur-
bank should have the preference in most parts of eastern America.

Native Plums

Varieties of native plums have not made a conspicuous place for them-
selves in any part of eastern America. They ought to be more planted
because of hardiness to cold and heat, freedom from disease, and to ex-
tend the range of varieties and color and taste in this fruit. Native sorts
should have value in the east for sauces, jellies, plum butter, and all
culinary purposes.

38

Hybrid Plums

A great number of Hybrids between Triflora, Simonii, and the several
species of native plums are now offered by nurserymen, but as yet are
little planted in eastern America. Most of these hybrids produce attrac-
tive fruits, but nearly all show weaknesses in tree, and the fruits of few,
if any, can be called high in quality, all having a distinctive and peculiar
flesh to which one must become accustomed. The best of these plums,
nearly all from Luther Burbank, are Apple, America, Bartlett, Climax,
Golden, Juicy, Shiro, Wixon, Formosa and Santa Rosa. All of these are
growing under the writer's eyes at the New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, and all are disappointments in one way or another. Per-
haps the greatest disappointment is that one prepares his palate, in read-
ing the descriptions of the originators, for melting flesh, juice of nectar,
and flavor of ambrosia, but finds instead soft or stringy pulp, watery
juice and a foreign and often disagreeable taste.

Soils for Plums

My paper is to be concerned mostly with groups and varieties, but I
want to include some statements in regard to eastern plum culture, trite
as I know they will be to veteran fruit-growers. Plums are grown on
most soils suited to general farm products in eastern regions where the
climate permits plum-culture. From this it is seen that plums thrive on
a great diversity of soils, and one may make the general statement, that,
given good tillage, some sort of plum can be grown commercially in every
eastern fruit soil. Yet species of plums have very decided soil preferences.

The Domesticas and Damsons do best on clays and loams. On such
soils the trees are largest, most productive, and the fruits are best in
size, appearance and quality. The Japanese plums do best on light loams
or sands, and in general thrive wherever the peach is well grown. Some
variety of the several species of the native plum can probably be found
for every soil and climatic condition suitable for any sort of agriculture
in eastern America. Every owner of a farm and garden can grow a na-
tive plum if he chooses.

Stocks

A discussion of stocks naturally follows that of soils. The plum is well
grown in America on at least six stocks, and the practices of nurserymen
are diverse, depending on the cost of stocks, ease of budding, and the
adaptability of the tree to the stock. The New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station has most of the leading plums growing on six stocks in a
test of stocks. The experiment has been running eleven years. On the
grounds of this station Myrobalan is unquestionably the best general
stock for plums. It seems to suit nearly all varieties of all groups better
than any other stock. Fortunately, it is the cheapest and most commonly
used of all stocks. The St. Julien stock is second best, after which comes,
in order named, Mariana, the peach, Americana, and seedlings of Domes-
tica plums. The latter would have higher rank were it not for the fact
that they sucker so badly that proper cultivation is hardly possible on
this stock; moreover, some of the species will not take on the Domestica
stocks.

39

Top-Working Plums

In horticultural literature recommendations to top-work plums are
frequent, but in eastern attempts at top-working the failures are much
more conspicuous than the successes. If one attempts to top-work, prob-
ably Lombard is the best stock and probably he will find it better to bud
in late summer, although some recommend grafting in late spring. One
thing is certain, the earlier in the life of the trees the budding or graft-
ing is done, the better.

Sterility in Plums

Eastern growers find that some plums do not set fruit even though the
trees blossom abundantly. The cause of infertility is most often the im-
potency of pollen on the pistils of the same -variety. The remedy for such
self-sterility, as all know, is to plant in close proximity varieties that will
cross pollinate. Self-sterility is a matter of minor importance in eastern
America.

Culture

Perhaps a few general statements may be offered as to culture of the
plum in the east, although the care of the fruit differs so little from that
of tree-fruits in general that few fruit growers will be interested in cul-
tural notes.

Plums in the east are far too often set too close. The distance should
depend upon the soil and the variety. A rod or eighteen feet is the proper
distance in most parts of eastern America for all excepting the very wide-
spreading sorts. These distances would be too close were it not best to
cut down the trees when the orchard begins to decline, which in most
localities is at the age of from twenty to thirty years. In eastern America
plum trees are usually set two years from the bud; they are headed low
with the head composed of from four to five main branches, and a central
leader for the Domesticas, Damsons and natives ^ a vase shaped tree is
considered better for most of the Japanese sorts. Japanese plums, espe-
cially Burbank and Abundance, do best when heavily pruned; other sorts
require comparatively little pruning. Many plum growers head back
their trees every year; this procedure is of doubtful value.

In common with all tree-fruits, plums do best under tillage in this re-
gion. Tillage consists in plowing in the spring, followed by frequent cul-
tivation until August, at which time a cover crop of clover, oats
or barley, cowhorn turnips or a combination of some of these is
planted. Despite the fact that plums want a rich soil, it is to be feared
that most of the fertilizers used for this fruit are wasted. The writer
speaks, however, from experience on heavy soils where it is certain that
all fertilizers applied to plums are wasted. On light sandy soils it is
probable that nitrogen, at least, would benefit both tree and fruit. Thin-
ning the crop is a regular practice in growing the Domesticas and Japa-
nese sorts. The Damsons need no thinning. Packing, marketing, and
markets is another story and a long one.

40
PLUM GROWING IN THE CENTRAL STATES

Benjamin Wallace Douglass, Trevlao, Indiana

If we except a few favored locations, Central States plum growing has
been in the past largely a mixture of romance and superstition.

It would probably be difficult to trace the start of plum culture in this
section, but for my own purposes, and without knowing anything definite
about it, I have built up a little romance of my own concerning our first
plum trees. I have enjoyed thinking that the first plums that came into
the early settlements were brought here by that hardy group of pioneers,
the Jesuits. I like to think of some sturdy priest carrying his religion
and his trees in the same canoe down the long waterway of the Great
Lakes. It does not matter that his religion and his fruit were not the
varieties of those commodities that I would select for myself, but the
mere fact that he was a beginner, that he had a vision of a future nation,
has always appealed to me. In support of such a theory one may find
today certain very old plum trees growing at Mackinac Island and at
other settlements where the Jesuits made their first stand against the
wilderness. Each year as I return I look upon some of these old trees
in the full belief that they are at least descendants of those brought by
the first white men and I regard them with the same respect that I give
to the splendid bronze statue of Father Marquette standing guard before
old Fort Mackinaw. I have never too closely investigated the particular
variety of plums which these old trees bear. Doubtless my friend Taft
could tell me, but, lest he might shatter one of my pet romances, I have
never asked him. In many parts of the Central States the plum indus-
try, If we may dignify it by such a term, rests upon another romance —
one that we can investigate fearlessly. Hedrick, in his splendid mono-
graph on the plums of New York, records the following:

"About 1820, M. E. McChance, who lived near Nashville, Tennessee, shot
a wild goose on his farm; his wife, in dressing the goose, found a plum
seed in the craw, which, planted in the garden, produced the Wild Goose
tree."

During a rather extended study of the origin of the varieties of fruits,
I do not think that I ever found anything which compares with that for
pure romance. What a loss it would have been if that particular goose
had been shot by some city hunter who would have thrown the plum seed
in the ash can. At any rate, the variety which originated under such
unusual circumstances has played a prominent part in our Central West
horticulture.

I said at the beginning that superstition had played a part in plum de-
velopment. Most of our plum plantings in this section have not been sys-
tematic, but have been incidental attempts on the part of the farmer to
supply his family with fresh fruit. From somewhere, out of the air, or
the Black Forest, or Grimms' Fairy Tales, came the notion that plums
must always be planted in multiples of seven — the ideal plan being to
set out seven trees in a circle. Several farmer-fruit growers have told
me in confidence that they really did not think there was "anything in
it," but they did not like to take a chance. Another man once told
me that he had "good luck" with plums until one of the trees died, break-

41

Ing the magic circle. Since that time the remaining six trees had failed
miserably in the matter of crops. Doubtless the tree that died had been
the pollenizer for the whole outfit, but it was beyond my ability to ex-
plain such a situation to a grower of that ilk.

I was once accused of being superstitious about plums myself. While
visiting a fruit grower whose methods might serve as a horrible example
to anyone contemplating a horticultural career, I was invited to look at
his plum trees. These I found to be tocated in the hog lot. The method
of gathering them consisted in shaking them into the layer of lob-lolly
which covered the surface of the soil and then picking them out and
wiping them carefully on one's sleeve. I assured the grower that I did
not care for plums. "What's the matter," he said, "are you superstitious
about a little dirt?" I assured him that I was.

As a general thing, European plums have never been a commercial
success in the Middle West. It is true that some varieties, such as Lom-
bard, Bradshaw and Green Gage, will gi-ow and bear fruit with us, but,
as a rule, they are not dependable and often when they do bear fruit it
is of a quality that does not compare with that of similar sorts grown
in more favored localities.

As an exception to the above, I would say that in parts of Michigan
one will find plums of as fine quality as can be produced any place on
this earth. Perhaps I should say, any place in America, for there are
still several places on the earth where they grow plums that I have not
visited. Anyhow, the latter statement is strong enough, for we are not
likely to compete with foreign plums and if we should I am quite sure
that we could secure a tariff that would protect us.

I am indebted to Prof. L. R. Taft, of Lansing, Michigan, for the follow-
ing detailed statement of the plum industry in his state — and with him
it really is an industry:

"Of the Japanese varieties, Burbank is most generally grown and is
considered the most reliable, but in some sections Red June has proven
very profitable as an early sort. Abundance is still grown to some extent.

"Of the European sorts, Lombard is still most generally planted, and,
of course, it is a very productive variety, but owing to the fact that the
market is generally filled with peaches and with this and other varieties
of plums at the time it ripens, the price is generally lower than is se-
cured for other sorts.

"Bradshaw and Pond are grown to some extent, but both of these, as
well as the Lombard, are inclined to rot if weather conditions favor this
disease, and hence they are not very extensively planted, especially as
they are late in coming into bearing. Of the other early European sorts,
Guii is perhaps most extensively grown. It is generally quite productive,
and although the fruit is not of the highest quality, it answers well for
canning. In seasons when brown rot is prevalent very careful spraying
and dusting are required to save the crop.

"Our plum growers are really getting the most money from the large
late blue varieties. The Grand Duke, the Arch Duke and the Bl&ck Dia-
mond are held in high esteem. Monarch, in many respects, surpasses
these kinds, but the trees are not so hardy and it should only be grown
where conditions are quite favorable.

42

"Shropshire and French Damsons are very largely grown and usually
bring about twice as much per bushel as the common varieties. They are
little troubled by insects and fungi and can be grown with less care than
other sorts. The prunes each year receive more attention. The trees, as
a rule, are not very much troubled by brown rot, but the foliage is quite
subject to the attack of the leaf spot disease.

"Some of the varieties of American origin are grown in the north part
of the state where the climate is too severe for those of Japanese or Euro-
pean origin, but they are not planted to any great extent.

"At Eveline Orchards (Professor Taft's own orchard), we have about
fifty trees each of Red June and Burbank which seldom fail to give a
good crop and they have been quite profitable, as we have sold a large
part of the crop each year to resorters. Most of the Red June plums have
been taken as fast as they ripen at 25 cents per quart. We have had
very little trouble with curculio and other insects and have readily con-
trolled the leaf spot disease with commercial lime sulphur. Since we do
not have any scale insects in our section, we do not make a dormant ap-
plication, but use the commercial brands at the rate of one part to forty
or fifty parts of water and spray often enough to keep the trees covered
with the spray. We make the first application when the color begins to
show in the buds. In the first three sprays we add arsenate of lead as
an insecticide.

"The brown rot has seldom done much harm, but we did lose a few of
the Guii this year. We generally have to take off from one-half to three-
quarters of the crop to prevent the breaking down of the trees and, of
course, this thinning of the fruit aids us in thorough spraying. How-
ever, we have found it advisable to make one or two applications of sul-
phur dust between the time when it is necessary to stop applying the
spray and the harvesting of the fruit."

As a comparison between Michigan conditions and conditions as they
exist over the greater part of the area I am discussing, I am going to
tell you something of our experience with plums in our own orchards. I
am doing this, not because of any great success we have had with plums,
but simply because I think that our conditions will fit those of most other
Central West states outside of Michigan and perhaps some parts of Wis-
consin.

To start with, we have done but little with European sorts. Plums of
this class are sometimes grown in my state, Indiana, with good success,
but their general record is against them. Lombard and Green Gage are
more often tried than any others and I have both at Hickory Hill. Neither
of them is worth a whoop as a market plum — in fact, in ten years two
trees of each sort have never produced more than we could use at home.
Had we produced enough to sell they would not have found a ready mar-
ket, as they are inferior in quality. Damsons, on the other hand, are fairly
reliable, are of good quality and nearly always bring a fair price. Prob-
ably they should be more widely planted throughout our area.

Japanese sorts have been widely planted and it was on varieties of this
class that we pinned our faith when the first plum blocks were set at
Hickory Hill. Our faith has been fairly well justified, for they have been
moderately productive, though not always profitable.

43

Burbank grew vigorously and supported large crops of fruit whenever
the weather was kind to us — which was not always. Unfortunately, our
market does not care for the Burbank, and I must say that I do not
blame the market. For my own use I prefer the Abundance as a fruit to
eat right from the tree. While we harvest them slightly before they
have reached their best eating condition, I always manage to leave a tree
or two that I can visit at the end of the day for refreshment. When they
are at their best I not infrequently have business in that part of the
orchard at any and all times of the day.

Our one most profitable Japanese variety was the Red June. AVhile
we did not have the resort trade that pays so lavishly for Professor
Taft's plums, we did establish the record price of eight dollars a bushel
for this variety. I think the reason for this is that the Red June ripens
before any of the fine European sorts are on the market and at a time
when the public will pay almost any price for fancy fruit. Fruit that
brought that price was, of course, not packed in bushels, but in one peck
Climax baskets. I have intentionally used the past tense in connection
with our Red Junes, for they departed from us during the big spring
freeze in 1921. This freeze seemed to find the trees in a very tender
condition and they were all killed to the ground. A very few have
sprouted from the root, but almost none have grown from above the bud.

During the same season which killed the Red Junes we had a few plums
on trees of the America variety, a sort that should have more than pass-
ing notice. The America is one of Burbank's "creations," having been
grown from a seed of Robinson fertilized by Abundance. It has inherited
the vigor of its native parent, but the acid quality of the fruit has been
tempered by the Japanese blood. As a result, we have a variety that is
tremendously productive, healthy, good in quality for a plum of its class
and remarkably hardy. Combined with these qualities is a tendency to
bear good crops at an early age. Some of our trees produced as high as
a crate (24 quarts) of plums when the trees were three years old. Since
that time they have been consistent bearers and have seldom lost a crop
during a spring frost. To offset its good qualities we must remember
that it is almost strictly a culinary plum. Its eating" qualities are not
such as to make it compete with even the most ordinary European sorts.
Also, with us, it comes on the market at the same time that the old Wild
Goose arrives — and the Wild Goose comes in large flocks. Consequently,
the America has never been as profitable as it should be if its jelly mak-
ing quality were fully realized by the Central States housewife. The
Wild Goose variety has had a rather confusing history. Farmers have a
penchant for growing fruit from seed and many seedlings of the Wild
Goose have been grown in door-yards. A good portion of these resemble
the parent tree to a very great extent and have served to distribute many
distinct kinds under the one name. As a result, nearly all small red
plums that ripen early in summer reach the market under the title of
Wild Goose. Also, plums of this type are so universally successful under
conditions of neglect that they are grown by farmers who can npt grow
any other sort of fruit. This fact accounts for the general flooding of our
markets with a more or less mixed variety of red plums.

44

Gold, Mammoth Gold and Early Gold are sorts still on probation, with
a chance that one or more of them will prove very desirable.

OuF worst insect has been, of course, the curculio, which we control
either with dusting or by using arsenate of lead in the spray material.
Commercial lime sulphur has not been popular as a plum spray with us
and we still prefer to use the self-boiled lime sulphur. By applying three
sprays, one before the bloom and two after, we have held our brown rot
in check and have been but little troubled with the shot hole fungus.
Unfortunately, in the past two years we have suffered a great deal from
the bacterial leaf spot (Bacterium prun.). Whether this will ultimately
put us out of the plum business or whether it will yield to increased
doses of nitrate remains to be seen. Black knot has not been a serious
disease with us, probably because we have grown but few European varie-
ties. With a proper selection of varieties, there is no reason why more
plums should not be grown all through the Central States. Whether
these plums would find a market in the large cities is a doubtful question,
but certainly many more could be used in local markets.

There is no reason why the general farmer could not add a trifle to his
income by growing a few plum trees to supply his neighbors with fruit.
To be successful, of course, he must realize that plums, like corn, require
cultivation, that they must be sprayed and that enough varieties must
be planted together to insure pollenation. When he does realize these few
simple, scientific facts and forgets the element of superstition that has
shrouded plums in the past, we may expect more development of the
plum industry in our section. It may not be, and probably will not be, a
localized development, but, instead, will be diffused over the greater part
of our "good farming" country. If such a development comes, then the
general farmer will be able to share with the fruit grower one of the
keenest joys of spring. Even if he has no crop of fruit he will still re-
member a certain dewy morning in mid-April when a fragrant breeze
crept in at his open window and told him that the plum trees were in
bloom.

45 .
PRUNE GROWING ON THE PACIFIC COAST

By A. H. H'endrickson, Assistant Professor of Pomology, University of

California, Berkeley, California

The growing of prunes on the Pacific coast had its inception in 1856
near San Jose, California, when Louis Pellier, a French sailor, brought
to this country a bundle of scions of the Prune d'Agen, later known as
the French or Petite prune. The region proved to be adapted to this
product and the industry began to grow. It was not, however, until about
1870, shortly after the completion of the Central and Union Pacific rail-
roads, that it assumed commercial importance. Since that time each
decade has shown marked increase in production and in new plantings.
In the Pacific Northwest, Henry Miller is said to have planted the first
prune tree near Milwaukee, Oregon, about 1860. The first commercial
orchard in Oregon was planted near Portland by Dr. J. R. Caldwell about
1870. Dr. N. G. Blacklock planted an orchard of ten acres in southeastern
Washington in 1882.

Although many plums have the term "prune" included as a part of the
variety name, they are not prunes in the sense in which this term is
used on the Pacific coast. The term prune is used for those varieties of
plums belonging to the Domestica group which are capable of being dried
without fermentation at the pit. The flesh is firm, high in sugar content
and of fine texture and flavor. Other varieties of plums are too soft and
watery and when dried are little more than skin and pit; or, they are
lacking in sugar content and must be dried by cutting in halves as de-
scribed elsewhere in this paper. The principal varieties usually included
under the general designation of "prunes" are the French, Italian (Fe'-
Icnburg) Sugar, Imperial and Robe de Sergeant.

Perhaps nowhere does the prune suffer so little from severe or unfavor-
able climatic conditions as in the sheltered valleys of California, Oregon,
Washington and Idaho. The long, warm, clear summer months bring the
fruit to maturity with a high sugar content, and mild winters are favor-
able to long life and productiveness of the trees without serious damage
from the various forms of winter injury. The group. of Domestica plums
to which the prune belongs has not proven to be particularly hardy to
severe winter weather, nor resistant to various troubles which follow.
That the Pacific Coast states are adapted to this tree is evidenced by
scores of orchards having trees thirty to forty years old in prime condi-
tion of productiveness.

Principal Varieties Grown

Despite the introduction of varieties other than the Prune d'Agen, and
the efforts of individual growers who have discovered new and promising
sorts, the whole industry is largely developed around two varieties. These
are the Prune d'Agen, or French prune, in California and the Italian, or
Fellenburg, in the states to the north. The French prune is also grown
to some extent in these latter states. Perhaps the popularity of the
French prune in California is due to its cosmopolitan adaptability and
the high quality of the dried product. The tree is remarkable for its

• 46

regularity of bearing and the vigor of its growth.. By means of different
rootstocks, such as the myrobalan, the peach and the almond, it has been
adapted to a wide range of soils and to sections varying greatly in avail-
able water for irrigation. Again, its ease of handling in the drying yards
or evaporators has made it a favorite with all growers.

Other varieties may be mentioned as having challenged the supremacy
of the French prune. One of the chief among these is the Robe de Ser-
geant, which is another importation from France. Some confusion exists
as to the nomenclature of this variety. It was introduced as a prune
grown in the Agen district of France, but as grown in California it is a
distinct variety. The tree is not so hardy or vigorous as the French
prune; the foliage has a much darker green color and the fruit is dis-

Fig. 1 — For basin irrigation eacli tree is enclosed by ridges on four
sides. The ridger is usually pulled by a tractor and the gaps in the
cross-ridge filled by the small scraper all in one operation.

tinctly blue instead of purple. In the drying yards considerable diffi-
culty is sometimes experienced with this variety because of the tender-
ness of the skin and the rather soft texture of the flesh. When dried,
however, the product closely resembles the French prune and is sold as
such. The habit of shy bearing, noticeable in some orchards, has been
definitely traced to self-sterility. It is a variety of considerable impor-
tance and quite widely planted in certain districts in the Sacramento
valley of California.

The Imperial Epineuse or Clairac Mammoth, commonly called the Im-
perial, is another variety imported from France. It is chiefly notable for
its large size. Inasmuch as dried prunes are sold on a size basis, it was
thought this variety would supplant the French. The tree, however, is

47

not as strong or vigorous as the French and seems to enter a stage of
decline at a comparatively early age. Although it blossoms prolifically,
the resulting crops are often very meager. This fault being due to self-
sterility may be corrected to some extent by interplanting with either
the French or the Sugar varieties. However, other factors also undoubt-
edly influence the bearing of this variety. It seems to be very particu-
lar as regards the soil upon which it grows. The blossoms, furthermore,
are often seriously injured by the pear thrips (Euthrips pyri) when
neighboring French prunes are but little damaged. Only a comparatively
limited amount of new plantings of this variety are being set out.

Another variety of local origin has become of commercial importance
in the past decade. This is the Sugar prune introduced by Luther Bur-

Fig'. 2 — The winter rainfall is sometimes supplemented by irrigation
in early spring. This photograph shows one common method of apply-
ing the water.

bank in 1898. The S'ugar is known for its heavy production. The wood
of the tree, however, is very brittle and breaks easily under heavy loads,
which necessitates a system of severe pruning to reduce the loss from
breakage. Another disadvantage of this variety is its tendency to alter-
nate bearing in many sections. The fruit, however, matures early and
sun drying in regions of early rainfall is thereby facilitated. The char-
acter of the flesh in the dried product is inclined to be coarse and stringy
and in general not of the high quality of the French varieties.

Other varieties have been grown from time to time, but such factors as
erratic bearing and susceptibility to disease or insect injury have largely
caused them to be abandoned. Among these may be mentioned the Silver

48

prune. This variety is still growli to a limited extent. It is often sold
on the markets as a light colored prune. The yellow or golden polor of
the product is due to the sulphuring process before drying. Limited
amounts of dried plums are also marketed each year. In general, these
are usually cut In halves, the pit removed, and given a light sulphuring
before drying. The varieties mostly used for this purpose are the large
sorts, such as Grand Duke, Pond, Giant and President.

At the present time the only meritorious variety or strain or the typical
prune is a variety grown under various names, but commonly known as
the "Coates 1418." The variety is reputed to be a bud sport of the
French prune which was propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates
of Morgan Hill, California. However, there is some doubt as to the
authenticity of the origin of this variety, the original tree having died
before the variety was brought into prominence. The tree and fruit
characters are similar to the French prune, except that the fruit has a
large, rough pit. This variety is being propagated and set out rather
extensively at the present time.

Curiously enough, the French prune, which is so popular in California,
occupies a place of comparatively minor importance in the Pacific North-
west. This section is extending northward from the central part of
Oregon and including the principal fruit sections of Oregon, Washington
and Idaho seems to be best adapted to the Italian, or Fellenburg. This
variety under favorable conditions is a thrifty grower and a regular and
heavy producer. On uncongenial soils, however, poor crops may pre-
dominate. In addition to being grown for drying, a considerable portion
of the crop of this variety is shipped east as fresh fruit. The peculiar
combination of qualities which enable it to either be dried or shipped as
fresh fruit has added to its popularity to a considerable degree. The
dried product usually runs to large sizes of well-flavored prunes of excel-
lent appearance and texture and keeping quality. The flavor is some-
wnat more tart than the sweet prunes in California. The French prune,
or Petite as it is called in Oregon, is chiefly criticized in that section on
account of its small size.

The Italian prunes for shipping are produced chiefly in the eastern parts
of Oregon and Washington and in southern Idaho. In the western sec-
tions, notably the Willamette valley and parts of the Puget Sound region
of the first named states, the principal use of this fruit is for making
prunes.

Rootstocks

Prunes are grown on several kinds of rootstocks. The principal ones
now being used are the myrobalan, peach and almond, arranged in the
approximate order of importance. Occasionally orchards may be found
on other stocks, principally the Marianna, St. Julien and Mussel. The
native plums, as well as the Domestica stocks, were early discarded,
largely because of excessive sprouting from the roots. At the present
time myrobalan is chiefly favored in California, although there has been
some diflSculty in securing sufficient myrobalan seedlings for this purpose.
The peach and almond are still used to a considerable extent, but do not
predominate as they did twenty or thirty years ago. In the Northwest

49

the peach is used extensively as the rootstock for prunes. The myrobalan
is particularly adapted to moist or heavy soils, especially where there may
be too much water during a portion of the year. The peach and almond
are generally used on the shallow dry or gravelly soils. The almond
is avoided largely because- of its extreme susceptibility to crown gall.
Furthermore, the .peach has been found to be as satisfactory as the al-
mond for the shallow soils in some of the foothill areas. The fruit
after it is dried shows no differences due to the rootstock, but minor
differences may be seen in the trees. It has generally been observed that
prune trees on almond root eventually grows to a larger size than those
on either myrobalan or peach. The fruit is also held by some observers
to be larger on almond root than on either of the other two, but on this

_J_*-^ -4

Wti

¥.rf'h

Fig". 3 — Many prune growers rent bees and place them in orchard.'^
during the blooming season. Marked increases in crops have been
secured by this method.

point there is no clear evidence. Prune trees on peach root usually leaf
out earlier in the spring and the leaves maintain a lighter green color
throughout the season than do trees on the other stocks.

Culture

Clean cultivation with cover crops during the fall and winter is the
general practice employed in prune orchards, except in a few cases in the
irrigated districts of Washington and Idaho. The usual practice is to
plow in the spring and then cultivate at rather frequent intervals during
the growing months.

Irrigation is practiced in most sections except in parts of western Wash-
ington and Oregon where late spring rains make this practice unneces-

50

sary. The amount and time of application of irrigation water, where
used, varies so greatly it is impracticable to give the general practice
here. In general, it varies directly with the cost and ease of applying
the water. In some of the irrigated sections of Idaho and Washington
where water is supplied by gravity under a comparatively low cost the
practice is to irrigate in small furrows or corrugations every two or three
weeks. In California the practice is to irrigate in furrows or basins on an
average of from two to four times per season. In sections where cost of
water is high, as, for example, in -the ..Santa Clara valley of California,
one irrigation before picking and one immediately after picking is usually
considered sufficient. This gf^ctice, of course, is varied somewhat, ac-
cording to the winter rainfall. Experimental evidence shows that when
the winter rains have moistened the soil to a depth of from six to eight
feet, one irrigation late in June and another in late September are ample
to supply the needs of the tree, and to secure regular, profitable crops.
Many orchards, however, are grown entirely without irrigation. The
yield in these orchards is usually below the average and the trees often
suffer severely when the winter's rainfall is scanty.

Pollination

Growers on the Pacific coast are well aware of the importance of cross-
pollination where necessary, and particularly of the value of honey bees
in distributing pollen among the self-fertile varieties. Remarkable in-
creases in yield have been obtained by the use of one colony of bees to
the acre. It is an established practice in many sections in California to
rent bees and place them in the orchard during the blossoming season.
The principal varieties now being grown are self-fertile. Among these are
French, Italian and Sugar. The self-sterile varieties are the Robe de
Sergeant, Imperial and Silver.

Pruning Young Trees

The practice with young trees is to cut the newly set tree to about
twenty-six inches. From this whip three to five scaffold branches are
formed. No further cutting is necessary with the French variety, al-
though many growers prefer to head the scaffold branches of the Sugar,
Italian and Imperial at approximately four to five feet from the ground
so that the secondary branches may be formed at that point. After the
second summer but very little cutting is practiced except to thin out
branches to prevent crowding in later years.

The method used in harvesting prunes for drying has influenced the
type of pruning to a considerable extent. Except with Sugar prunes,
little or no thinning of the fruit is practiced. The bulk of the crop is
harvested by picking up the fruit from the ground where it falls at matur-
ity. As a consequence, but little hand work is necessary with prune
trees and no ladder work is required. The natural tendency has been to
neglect pruning or to restrict it to periodical treatment when the cutting
is apt to be entirely too severe. The fruit on prune trees is borne mostly
on spurs, and the character of these vary somewhat with the variety.
Under the system of pruning used, there is a tendency for the spurs to-

51

■4 • 'Y *

W44

Hi

1 ., '

i^? •

^-r.:.

i >

.-i,-_ . -»

•' >«-_r'*f

■ .^^-■:- f^f. -r-'^-'.- ^„^:-i*fefc^

Fig. 4— A typical orchard of French prunes in full blossom.

52

ward the inner part of the tree to die out, leaving the bearing area as a
comparatively thin umbrella shaped surface. Progressive growers are
now adopting a system which calls for a light pruning given annually.
This pruning consists in cutting out branches where too thick, removing
old spurs no longer fruitful and opening up the tree enough to admit sun-
light to the interior. This system, carefully followed out, has resulted in
a steady increase in production. Sugar prune trees, as mentioned before,
are usually cut back severely each year to reduce the amount of fruit
set and lessen the loss from breakage.

Rejuvenation of Old Trees

The rejuvenation of old prunes is influenced by so many factors that
no general rules can be given. In irrigated sections a drought of one or
two years due to lack of winter rainfall in the higher altitudes, a break in
the canal system or other causes will often so seriously set back a tree
that but little can be done to bring it back into profitable bearing. Sun-
burn, followed by flat-headed and shot-hole borers, make short work of a
drought-injured tree.

On the other hand, trees grown without irrigation may often be re-
invigorated and made to produce larger crops when irrigation water is
made available. One of the serious drawbacks to rejuvenation of old
prune orchards is the susceptibility of these trees to injury by the various
heart rot fungi. In practically every case where heavy pruning has been
practiced for rejuvenation these organisms have gained entrance through
the large wounds, in spite of protective covers as usually applied and the
trees have shown evidence of internal rotting after a few years.

An interesting method of forcing young trees which have been stunted
because of injury to the roots into a more rapid growth is by inarching
young seedlings into the main trunk. Strong growing myrobalan seed-
lings are planted close to a tree and when approximately a quarter of an
inch or larger in diameter are inarched into the trunk of the tree about
twelve or fifteen inches from the ground. Usually two or three seedlings
are used to each tree. The diameter of such trees so treated in one year's
time is often double that of similar trees untreated, and the spread of
branches is increased to a similar extent.

Diseases and Insects

Although the prune is grown with notable success on the Pacific slope,
it is not without Its insect pests and diseases. While it is true that it Is
not troubled with the curculio or the black knot so frequently found in
eastern plum orchards, there are other insects and diseases fully as se-
rious. It may be that the control of these troubles has been brought to a
higher state of perfection here than elsewhere. Prune orchards are
sprayed in a manner fully comparable with the practice in some of the
highly developed apple sections of the eastern states. Furthermore, the
equable climate, which tends to lengthen the life of the tree, also probably
decreases the mortality of certain insects so that control is entirely de-
pendent on preventive treatment rather than by natural causes. Among
the scale insects found upon prunes may be mentioned the Italian pear

53

scale (Epidiaspis piricola), brown apricot scale (Lecanium corni) and
the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus pcrniciosus), any one of which if left un-
checked would seriously affect the crop and even the trees themselves. In
addition, many districts are infested with peach borer (Aegeria opales-
cens). The red spider and the various caterpillars feeding on the foliage
are also very serious in some sections. In other districts the fruit is
often scarred or entirely prevented from setting by the work of a minute
sucking insect known as the pear thrip (Euthrips pyri).

Diseases are also prevalent. In some cases they seem to take a more
virulent form than found in eastern sections and, due to the compara-

Fig-. .5 — After di])piiig. the iniuiep are graded into two sizes, spread
on wooded trays and placed in the sun to dry.

lively high values of western orchard lands, seriously reduce the profits
from many orchards. One of the most serious of these is brown rot
(Sclerotinia cinerea). This disease not only attacks the ripening fruit,
but early in the season attacks and kills the fruiting spurs and twigs in
many sections like western Washington and the central coast region of
California. Heart rots are likewise prevalent in the same regions, and
materially reduce the income from the orchard. Another fungus particu-
larly difficult to control is one locally known under different names, such
as oak fungus and mushroom root rot, caused by the toadstool fungus
(Armillaria mellea). This disease works on the roots of stone fruits with
great rapidity. It spreads from root to root in an ever-increasing area
until in some orchards an acre or more may be affected. No cure seems
possible except a barrier of concrete or other material built around the

54

diseased area and placed deeply enough in the ground to prevent the
healthy roots from coming into contact with diseased ones. The French
pear and the California black walnut roots seem resistant and are being
planted in the diseased areas to replace the prune trees which have died
from the disease.

Spraying

In spraying the Pacific Coast states occupy a leading position. In spite
of the progress made, the western fruit grower is not satisfied to sit back
complacently, but is continually on the lookout for better spraying meth-
ods and materials. It is interesting to note the number of sprays first
used or at least brought to perfection in the western states. Among these
are the lime-sulphur solution, crude and miscible oil emulsions, neutral
arsenate of lead, wettable sulphur and lastly the newest material, nico-
dust. The use of all these new materials can mean but one thing and
that in many cases the old remedies were not effective under his condi-
tions. Are these new remedies necessary? Would not the old ones have
answered the purpose? Upon analyzing them it can readily be shown
that each new remedy is a necessity. Lime-sulphur, for example, first
used for San Jose scale, proved to be only moderately effective against the
brown apricot and Italian pear scales. One spraying of crude or miscible
oil, on the other hand, so effectively reduces this pest that only one
spraying of this material is necessary every two or three years. Neutral
arsenate of lead is used for summer spraying against caterpillars in the
coast region of California where the acid form seriously burns the foliage.
Wettable sulphurs were produced to aid in control of red spider where the
lime sulphur solution caused burning of the foliage. Nico-dust applied
with a duster was found to effectively control the thrips where the old
tobacco sprays were ineffective.

The western grower has also learned the value of making the applica-
tions at the correct time. The first appearance of such insects as aphis,
canker worm, thrips and red spider is carefully observed in order that
the spray may be applied before it is too late.

Harvesting and Curing

The harvesting of prunes for drying is a comparatively simple matter.
The fruit is allowed to ripen on the trees and fall of its own weight. If
picked sooner, experience has shown, it does not contain as much sugar
as that which falls naturally and the shrinkage in the curing process is
much greater. Picking the fruit from the ground is usually done on a
piece-work basis by families or groups of workers who contract to do the
picking at a stated price per ton.

The fruit is then dipped in a boiling solution of lye to remove the
bloom and check the skin to facilitate drying. The man who does the
dipping is usually experienced and knows how much lye to use to secure
the best results without making the fruit ragged. After dipping, the
fruit is roughly sized into two grades and spread on the trays. For sun
drying the trays are simply placed in the sun until the fruit is dry enough
to store. The length of time varies with the weather, but usually ten days
or two weeks is sufficient. The fruit is then sorted to remove the "bloat-
ers" or insufficiently dried prunes and placed in bins to sweat for several
weeks before delivery at the packing house.

55

Due to the impetus given dehydration of fruits and vegetables during
the war and a disastrous season in 1918 in California, the use of dehydra-
tors for curing prunes has become important. Many growers now use de-
hydrators instead of relying on sun-drying, even in sections where the
latter method is entirely practical and safe. The chief advantages are
the speed with which the crop can be handled and the independence of
unfavorable weather conditions during seasons when the fall rains begin
early. The dry yard space, usually consisting of approximately one acre
for twenty acres of orchard, is then utilized for planting more trees. On
the other hand, dehydration is usually somewhat more expensive than
sun-drying, because of the fuel required and the rather heavy investment
iu an efficient modern dehydrator. In spite of the cost, the fact that the
entire crop is quickly and safely cured regardless of any inclement
weather, is the consideration that is causing many growers to dehydrate
their fruit rather than to rely on the older methods of sun-drying.

In the dehydration process the dipped prunes are placed on trays on
cars which are run into the dehydrator. Forced air circulation is used
in most of the dehydrators now being built. The length of time for dry-
ing varies from twelve to seventy-two hours, but in most cases it is com-
plete in about twenty-four hours.- The best results are secured when th«
temperatures are not allowed to go above 165° F.

Upon delivery at the packing house the crop is carefully graded accord-
ing to the number of prunes to the pound. There is a 10-point difference
between grades, e. g., prunes between 80 and 90 to the pound are placed
in one grade; those between 70 and 80 are placed in another, and so on.
The larger sizes are more valuable than the smaller ones. The price is
usually based on the 80-90 size. For prunes smaller than this a lower
price is paid, usually amounting to one-half cent per grade. For the
larger sizes, a higher price is paid in the same proportion, except for the
very large, fancy prunes, which command a considerable premium. There
has always been a strong demand for medium sized prunes, or those
usually classed as 40-50's and 50-60's. These sizes sell very readily on
any market.

Before packing for sale the prunes are dipped for a few seconds in
boiling water and while still hot are pressed into tight wooden boxes.
This dipping serves to sterilize the fruit so it will keep and gives the
prunes an attractive glossy appearance.

Cooperative Marketing

During recent years the industry of growing prunes on the Pacific
coast has been on a remarkably stable foundation, largely due to two
factors of fundamental importance. The first factor is that of regular
and heavy production. Aside from insect pests and diseases which can
successfully be controlled by spraying, there have been but few calami-
ties, such as loss of the entire crop by frost, winter injury or excessive
rainfall in the ripening season. The second and more important factor
is that of cooperative marketing. The history of the Prune and Apricot
Growers Association in California, the Oregon Growers Cooperative Asso-
ciation in Oregon and the Association of Growers in Clarke county,

56

Washington, represent a splendid achievement in cooperative marketing.
When the crop was formerly marketed by independent packers the in-
dustry was on a highly speculative basis and the prices received by
growers was often ruinously low. The majority of the prune crop, in
some cases as high as 75 per cent of the acreage, is now being mar-
keted by these organizations. In addition to perfecting selling agencies,
these associations have been active in gathering information relative to
size and condition of the crop in other countries, increases in acreage
and all other data necessary in determining a fair and equitable sales
price.

Before the war Germany and other northern European countries were
heavy consumers of the small sized prunes, not much in demand in this

■if '•'^^^__

' ' ' • L.

-^-h

.i^^e^^ls. -

I. 1 (' 1
-.^^Sr-: 1 1

^v / -

: I

7 ' rj"

7 // J t

Hi

^»iMBii«MMBMHS*'''**^®"®^^ ■

Fig. 6 — Drying- prunes in California. The fruit on the trays is left
in the sun for about ten clays. The trays are then stacked as shown
in the background and the curing process completed in the shade.

country. With export for these sizes cut off an outlet was necessary for
this portion of the crop. By-products factories were established and
markets found for these new products. The number of uses to which
small prunes can be put is truly remarkable. Among them are: Prune
paste for use by bakers for making cake and pie filling; cooking syrup;
and bases for extracts for use at soda fountains and in the manufacture
of soda pop. From the kernels several kinds of oil are produced, and
what is left is used for cattle feed. The shells are used for the manu-
facture of charcoal and for wood-flour, which is a composition largely
used for the fancy work now found on many pieces of furniture.

Furthermore, large sums of money are being spent on advertising. The
California Prune and Apricot Growers annual appropriation for this pur-
pose is about $400,000, which is used largely in national magazines of
wide circulation. Available statistics show that the annual consumption
of prunes in the United States is approximately one and one-half pounds

57

per capita. If this consumption can be raised one-half pound per capita,
it means an additional market for 50,000,000 pounds, or the yield from
approximately 12,000 to 15,000 acres of prunes. The educational cam-
paign carried on by these associations has been a decided influence in
raising the lowly boarding house prune to the ranks of healthful fruit
foods where it rightfully belongs.

Extent of Industry

Statistics secured from growers' associations and from the United
States census give a fair idea of the extent of the industry. California,
with 90,000 acres of bearing and 60,000 acres of non-bearing trees, is first
in acreage. New plantings are coming into bearing at the rate of ap-
proximately 10,000 acres per year. Nearly all of the plantings are of the
French variety and the entire crop is dried. Oregon has 23,564 acres
bearing and 12,086 acres of non-bearing trees. Of this acreage it is esti-
mated that all are Fellenburg, except about 1,200 acres of bearing and
500 acres of non-bearing, which are French prunes. The entire crop, with
the exception of about 1,500 acres in eastern Oregon, is dried. Washing-
ton has a total of approximately 11,000 acres of bearing and 1,600 acres
of non-bearing plum and prune trees. In the western part of the state
the total planting is proba"bly composed of 95 per cent Fellenburg and 5
per cent mixed varieties. In the north central and eastern sections the
Fellenburg also predominates, with about 60 per cent of the planting,
with the remaining 40 per cent made up of Tragedy, German, Sugar and
several other varieties. In the western counties practically the entire
crop is dried from year to year according to the fresh fruit market. Idaho
has between 7,000 and 8,000 acres of prunes, practically all of the Italian
(Fellenburg) variety. For the most part the crop is shipped east as
fresh fruit.

The growing of prunes on the Pacific coast occupies a unique position
in the horticulture of the United States, and for many reasons the stabil-
ity of this industry seems to be assured. This fruit seems to be pre-
eminently adapted to this particular section, both from the standpoint of
long life of the orchard and regular production of the trees. At no time
has there been serious competition from other countries. The product is
one of excellent quality, and is available for consumption throughout the
year. Furthermore, with proper means of distribution and improved
methods of culture, the price can be kept low enough so that the great
mass of people can always secure this palatable fruit at a reasonable cost.

58

THE FRUIT GROWING INDUSTRY OF INDIANA

AND ILLINOIS

Prof. Laurenz Greene, Horticulturist, Lafayette, Indiana

Commercial fruit growing in the corn belt states of Illinois and Indiana
is essentially of two kinds. First, those isolated plantings of small or
moderate acreages whose owners sell the greater portion of their crops at
the orchards or in nearby cities and towns. Such fruit does not figure in
the car lot records and is difficult to accurately estimate as to quantity.
Second, those large and small acreages in districts of larger production
and smaller consumption whose owners must ship in car lots to the
larger consuming centers.

The first group of growers is largely found in the central and northern
sections of these states, while the car lot producers are largely confined
to the southern counties, although car lot producers are found here and
there in all parts of this district.

Soil types and the accompanying types of farming large determine
the extent of the apple industry, while climate is an additional factor that
defines the limits of commercial peach production.

In the black, more level lands of central Iowa, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio
corn and live stock are the principal farm enterprises. Fruit growing
on a large scale has never been developed in such communities, particu-
larly if the soil type adapted to corn growing is extensive in area. The
most probable explanation for the apparent incompatability of these
types of farming and fruit growing is that these richer soils have at-
tracted a class of citizen not interested in, nor possessing a knowledge of,
fruit growing and its possibilities. In addition, fruit growing was usually
first developed on the cheaper lands not adapted to grain crops. It should
be noted, however, that later developments are often located on the very
best and most highly productive soils, as is evidenced by the extensive
plantings in Knox county, Indiana, near Vincennes.

Another factor which has, to a large extent, eliminated the orchard in-
dustry from our richer farming communities, even though it may have
been more important a generation or two ago, has been the introduction
of destructive insects and diseases. The orchard, a side line on these
farms, in the latter part of the last century, fell a ready prey to these ene-
mies because the owner was not dependent upon it for his livelihood.
Other crops were easier to grow and the orchard was naturally allowed
to decline through neglect.

This very condition has meant a stable and profitable business to the
real fruit men in these communities by eliminating competing orchards.
Today his market comes to him by auto and truck, saving him all the
cost and worries of a car lot producer.

In Indiana and Illinois four principal kinds of fruits are produced in
car lot quantities. Apples lead, followed by peaches, pears and small
fruits, though the latter two are not important except in very restricted
areas.

The Bureau of Agricultural Economics, at Washington, has supplied
me with the following statement of the carlot movement of fruits from

59

these two states for the year 1922, including October shipments; the rec-
ord for peaches ends October 23.

Car Lot Shipments of Fruits From Illinois and Indiana — 1922

Illinois' Indiana

Peaches . . . -. 1,660 350 to Oct. 23

Apples 3,175 168 to Nov. 1

Strawberries 260 41 to Nov. 1

Pears 435 43 to Nov. 1

Apple production in Illinois is centralized in three general areas. The
first is located in south central Illinois in Clay and surrounding counties.
Clay county leads the state in apple acreage. Parts of nine counties sur-
rounding Clay make up this first district. This district produces about
300,000 barrels.

The second district includes the well known Calhoun county, two coun-
ties, Adam and Pike, and a part of Hancock to the north and bordering
on the Mississippi river and a portion of Green and Jasper counties to
the east of Calhoun. This is the largest producing district of the state
and is credited with 800,000 barrels. Much of this fruit is shipped to St.
Louis by boat. It is interesting to note that Calhoun county, the principal
county in this district, does not have a railroad within its borders.

Nearly 40% of the production in these two districts is Ben Davis. Scale
and blister canker, however, are rapidly reducing this percentage.

The third district is located in the thirteen counties of extreme south-
ern Illinois running from the Mississippi river to the Kentucky side of
the state. This district is noted for its summer apples and is one of the
principal summer apple producing centers of the United States. It is
credited with 200,000 barrels. According to Professor Brock of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, 65% of this acreage is planted to early varieties and
nearly 30% to Winesap.

Peaches in Illinois are also found in three distinct areas. The first two
are within the borders of the first apple section of south central Indiana.
The first peach section is found in Jackson, Jefferson, Washington and
surrounding counties and this year produced 500 cars of peaches. While
it is the smaller district, it produces the largest tonnage.

The second district lies to the eastward a few miles and centers about
OIney and Flora, principally in Richmond and Jasper counties, and pro-
duced this year about 300 cars.

The third district is the early apple district, centering principally in
Union and Johnson counties, and produced this year 300 cars.

Small fruits in car lot quantities are found in these same areas, cen-
tering in Pulaski, Union, Crawford and Fayette counties.

Apples are produced in car lot quantities in several counties of south-
ern Indiana, the principal shipping counties being Lawrence, Orange, and
Washington, known as the tri-county district, Knox, Brown, Morgan,
Green and Putnam. Along the Ohio river in Harrison and Crawford,
Perry and Warrick counties are found some car lot orchards. ' Much of
this latter fruit moves by boat to Louisville and Evansville.

Peaches are centered in the tri-counties and in Knox, Gibson, and Van-

60

derburg counties. This western region is by far the most important and
is well known for the quality of its product.

A small section of some importance, though not shipping many cars, is
found on the shore of Lake Michigan, principally in LaPorte county.

Small fruits are shipped in car lots from the Borden district in Floyd
and Clark counties on the Ohio river.

New commercial plantings of apples of these two states are not exten-
sive in most regions, though a good, healthy growth in the industry is
observed. Most plantings are being made by men who will take the best
care of them. In a few centers larger plantings are being made, as, for
instance, about Vincennes, in Indiana.

There is a peach planting boom on in these two states, limited largely
by the small supply of peach trees. Professor Brock informs me that
30,000 trees are being planted in Pope county, where hardly a commercial
orchard existed before.

According to the 1920 census figures, Illinois bearing fruit trees num-
bered 7,370,283, a reduction of 7,663,460 from the 1910 total of 15,033,743.
Of this total apples show the greatest loss.

Bearing apple trees, 1910 9,900,627

Bearing apple trees, 1920 5,113,063

Total reduction in number of bearing apple trees, 4,787,564, or 49%.

Peach trees show a loss of 64%, leaving only 1,011,000 trees of bearing
age. There were nearly 1,000,000 trees not yet in bearing in 1920 and
large plantings since would probably show as many bearing trees in 1923
as in 1910.

Other fruits show some loss, but peaches and apples are the important
fruits.

Indiana, according to census figures, lost 47% of her fruit trees be-
tween 1909 and 1919, the figures being 10,050,759 and 5,315,040, respec-
tively. Apples showed a loss of 40%, or 2,337,005 bearing trees. The
peach loss was about one and a quarter millions of trees, or 60%.

Other fruits of less importance made up the remainder of the five mil-
lion trees lost.

Small fruits in the two states show about 1,000 acres increase, Illinois
losing in acreage, while Indiana gained about 1,600 acres.

These census figures are of only incidental interest, as they have but
little significance in relation to the commercial fruit industry. Larger
losses occurred to farm orchards. The elimination of these trees naturally
reduces competition slightly, but this factor, on the average, is more
than offset by the increased production from the well cared for commercial
orchards. Our total annual production in the United States is increasing,
despite the loss of so many trees.

The commercial fruit growers of these two states are generally pro-
gressive and are using up-to-date and scientific methods in their orchard
practices.

Mulching the orchard is perhaps more generally practiced in this re-
gion than in any other. This is considered a real advantage in the sum-
mer apple regions of southern Illinois, where the mulch serves as a

61

cushion upon which the early fruit may fall and prevent bruising as well
as receive protection from the soil.

Cultivation and cover crops systems of soil management are found on
the more level areas and a generous use of nitrate fertilizerf, is found in
all sections.

A spray program sufficient to produce high grade fruit is generally
followed, some of the best growers applying six or seven sprays annually.

The most serious insect is doubtless San Jose scale, which in the south-
ern areas has proven more troublesome in recent years.

Apple blotch and blister canker are the two diseases of most concern to
the growers, but recent developments have been more encouraging in the
control of the former and more vigorous growth through better cultural
methods is decreasing the menace of the latter.

Some new plantings are being made, but these in general are, as has
been stated, the property of men who will give them the best of care. The
individual units or plantings are tending to larger acreages than averaged
a generation ago, but these plantings rarely reach the extreme found in
many development schemes in the west.

The future for the fruit specialist in these two states is bright, whether
he grows fruit for local or car lot markets. Cooperation as now being de-
veloped will take care of car lot shippers and the local market in most
instances has not yet been adequatelj' developed Good business judg-
ment in fruit growing will mean success for the f iture fruit growers of
Illinois and Indiana.

62
FRUIT GROWING IN WASHINGTON

M. L. Dean, Wenatchee, Washington

Fruit growing in the state of Washington dates back nearly one hun-
dred years to the time when the traders of the Hudson Bay Company
brought with them seeds and trees and planted them in different parts
of the state.

About that time the Jesuit missionaries planted orchards in the coast
territory in the Okanogan valley and at Kettle Falls on the Columbia
river. These were all "Johnny Apple Seeds" of those days and started
successful fruit growing in connection with their other activities. The
famous old apple tree at the government barracks at Vancouver is the
living monument of the Hudson Bay traders.

At Okanogan, in what is known as the Okanogan Smith Orchard, can
be found Bellflower, Baldwin, King and Greening apple trees in a per-
fect condition of health, bearing heavy crops of fruit annually. Some of
them reach a height of forty feet, having a stump diameter of nearly
three feet with a tree spread of over fifty feet.

At Kettle Falls in the orchard at the Catholic school is to be found a
collection of varieties almost identical with those found in the old or-
chards of the Atlantic coast.

In the coast territory or that part of the state lying west of the Cas-
cade range of mountains, is to be found apple, pear, and plum trees
which are as old as the traditions of the early traders and trappers' ac-
tivities.

In these orchards can be found the oldest varieties known in the United
States.

There are pear orchards in which can be found the same varieties as
exist in the oldest pear orchards at Monroe, Michigan, which were
brought direct from France by early French missionaries.

These tree seeds and scions were undoubtedly brought in by seafaring
people who were looking for homes and landed on the islands of the
Puget sound and the mainland of the northwestern part of the state.

The state is geographically divided into two distinct fruit sections,
the coast region, that part west of the Cascade range of mountains, and
the inland valleys.

The coast region has a very heavy annual rainfall and a uniform tem-
perature during the whole year.

The inland valleys east of the Cascades vary in altitude from two hun-
dred to twenty-five hundred feet, and have an annual precipitation of
from four to ten inches each year, hence the necessity of irrigation for
profitable production.

In these valleys is to be found a wide variation in their native horti-
culture.

In the Columbia and Snake river valleys are to be found climatic condi-
tions almost sub-tropical, and are ideal for the growing of Vinifera
grapes, while in other not far distant valleys only the most hardy varie-
ties of fruit can be successfully grown.

Commercial fruit growing in the state of Washington is covered by the

63

past two decades; the present decade includes the orchards of the great-
est development.

Many men can be found in each of the fruit sections who are classed
as the "old-timers," yet they planted and brought to bearing the orchards
they now own.

In 1895 John T. Blackburn, then president of the "Washington State
Board of Horticulture, said, "The cultivation of fruit in Washington is
attracting increased attention from all parts of the civilized world today."

In the same year T. Smith of Colfax wrote, "The fruit industry of the
state bids fair to become an important factor in its development and it
may yet furnish the best prepared prunes for commerce as well as the
best apples, pears, and cherries known in the markets."

Men are makers of history in fruit growing as well as in empire build-
ing. The whole history of fruit growing in the state of Washington is a
record of the heroism of such men as Blackburn-Smith, D. M. Jesse of
Walla Walla, Chat Knight of Vancouver, H. M. Gilbert of Yakima, W. T.
Clark of Wenatchee, and many others whose names should be in the
state horticultural gallery of fame.

The history is a record of obstacles, of prejudices broken down and
successes won by scores of such men as those mentioned.

Orchards have lived and perhaps have now passed their zenith where
the "oldtimer" said fruit could not be gi'own. The orchard regions of the
coast country, the wind-swept sage brush lands of the prairies and val-
leys, all now pay tribute to the vim and courage of the pioneer Washing-
ton fruit grower.

The Coast Region

The coast region, that territory which is west of the Cascades, is char-
acterized by its heavy rainfall and uniform climate. The results of this
even temperature and excessive moisture are luxuriant growth of all vege-
tation, and with it exists ideal conditions for the growth of fungus organ-
isms, such as apple scab, anthracnose and others. The predominating
commercial fruits in the coast territory are the prune, the cherry, bush
fruits, strawberries, and cranberries. Some varieties of apples and pears
are successfully grown, though it is difficult to produce them free from
scab. The principal prune grown is the Italian, although the French, the
Hungarian, the Silver, and the Petite are grown in considerable quanti-
ties. Clark county, in the southwestern part of the state, produces more
prunes than all other parts of the state combined.

The State Department of Agriculture Census of 1918 shows in this
county a total of 665,990 prune trees. There wer6 225 driers in the
county, having a daily capacity of 1,178 tons of dried prunes, and in 1919
this county put out 6,700 tons of the dried product. Walla Walla county
ranks next in production and shipped 270 cars of fresh prunes in 1920.
Yakima county takes third place and shipped 139 car loads in 1920. In
Clark county is the only section where the crop is dried. In the other
counties the crop is shipped as fresh fruit. The sweet cherry holds sec-
ond place as a commercial tree fruit in the coast region. The Bing, Lam-
bert, and Royal Ann are the principal varieties. The bulk of the Royal
Anns are used by canning factories in canning and processing for "Mar-

64

aschino" cherries. The Blacks are shipped fresh to eastern markets.
They have been placed upon the European markets in a number one con-
dition, which shows the carrying quality of this fruit. During the past
two years sour cherries, principally the Montmorency, have been exten-
sively planted in several localities tributary to the principal canning fac-
tories. The varieties of apples and pears found in the coast territory
are very similar to the Atlantic coast varieties, but with the moist cli-
mate, which is very conducive to fungus development, it is a difficult
matter to sufficiently control apple and pear scab so that the fruit is
marketable.

Small Fruits

The moist climate and the deep, rich soil make conditions very favor-
able for the growing of small fruits.

Vashon Island has been noted for its strawberry plantations for many
years. Extensive plantings can be found in many sections along the
entire coast country. A large part of the crop is consumed by the can-
ning factories. In some sections the berries are refrigerated for confec-
tionery uses.

Cranberry growing in the Ilwaco section. Pacific county, has become
one of the prominent small fruit enterprises. There are about 100' acres
of cultivated bogs in Pacific and Grays Harbor counties. The average
output is from 35,000 to 40,000 boxes annually. Near Detroit in Mason
county and at Bellevue, King county, grape growing is becoming a promi-
nent industry; the Island Belle, a large purple grape, is the one variety
which seems best adapted to this section.

The center of the small fruit industry is to be found in the Puyallup
valley, Pearce county, in the vicinity of Puyallup and Sumner. ' Rasp-
berries, blackberries and the loganberries are to be found here in exten-
sive commercial quantities. This valley is undoubtedly the most famous
valley in the world from the standpoint of intensive small fruit growing.
The canning factories consume immense quantities of the fruit, but under
the present refrigeration systems the berries are placed in the Twin City
markets in prime condition and under special care are sent as far as
Chicago and have been placed in the New York markets. In this county
alone in 1920 there were 1,694 acres of red raspberries, about half Cuth-
bert and half Antwerp, 684 acres of blackberries, 796 acres of strawber-
ries, 80 acres of loganberries, besides currants and gooseberries. The
canning factories of this county consumed 12,866 tons of berries and
about 200 car loads of fresh berries were shipped besides what were con-
sumed in the local markets of Seattle, Tacoma and the other cities.

Small fruit growing is rapidly increasing in many other counties. This
is also one of the important truck gardening sections. From two to five
hundred car loads of head lettuce are shipped to Chicago and other east-
ern markets each winter, besides vast quantities of truck which is dis-
tributed to the cities of the entire Northwest.

65

Bulb Growing

The U. S. Department of Agriculture has bulb testing gardens in
Whatcomb county, in which it has been demonstrated that lilies, gladioli,
crocuses, tulips, hyacinths and the other bulbs can be grown in that ter-
ritory equal to the Holland bulbs in many respects. This promises to
be an important industry in that section.

Seed Growing

Many kinds of garden seed are grown in commercial quantities in
Skagit and Snowhomish counties.

The bulk of the radish, cabbage and cauliflower seed of the United
States is grown in this section as well as large quantities of onion and
other seeds.

Nuts

The largest filbert growers in the Northwest are found in the vicinity
of Vancouver. Figs are also grown successfully here. The English and
Persian walnuts are to be found as scattering trees and in commercial
groves the entire length of the coast territory, from Vancouver to Blaine.
Almonds are successfully grown along the banks of the Columbia in
Klickitat county. The chief horticultural industries of the coast terri-
tory are, in the order of their prominence, prune growing, small fruits,
cherries, apples and pears, interspersed with truck gardening, garden
seed, bulb growing and nut production.

The Inland Valleys

The commercial fruit growing in the interior part of the state is con-
fined to the irrigated valleys of the Columbia, the Snake, the Yakima,
the Wenatchee, the Spokane, th^^Okanogan rivers and their tributaries.
The fruit producing districts as classified by the State Department of
Agriculture are known as Yakima, Wenatchee, Okanogan, Spokane, Walla
Walla.

The Yakima district includes the territory along the mountain benches
in Kititas county, the various valleys in Yakima county, and Benton
county, extending to the Columbia river.

The Wenatchee district includes the territory along the Columbia and
Wenatchee rivers in Chelan and Douglas counties, and bordering the Co-
lumbia in Grant county, and also the Okanogan valley.

This territory and the Yakima district are the two principal fruit pro-
ducing sections in the state. The main difference between them is that
Wenatchee is more intensely planted to apple orchards, while Yakima is
diversified with all tree fruits. These valleys have a normal altitude of
about 900 feet, yet in both of them along the Columbia can be found con-
ditions which are almost sub-tropical and many of the California grapes
are grown with success. The Spokane district is located on a higher
elevation which restricts its list of successful varieties somewhat. In
this district is located the Kettle Falls section on the Columbia.

The Walla Walla district is a tributary to the Snake river territory
and has a climate especially suited to the growing of prunes and other

66

soft fruits. This section ranks second in the state in the production of
truck garden crops. Each district has some outstanding feature. The
development of commercial fruit growing in this state has been phenom-
enal. Today it ranks third in the state from the standpoint of commer-
cial value.

In 1919 the total value of all crops in the state was 161,000,000 of dol-
lars, the value of the lumber cut was $100,000,000, and the value of the
fruit crop amount paid the growers was $61,535,064, $53,740,811 being for
fresh fruits and $7,7'94,253 for fruit products.

The growth of the industry can best be shown by comparisons. The
state of New York always comes to our mind in making any fruit com-
parisons, although it is but a few years ago that Missouri had more apple
trees than New York. The United States census of 190O gave New York
in round numbers 15,000,000 bearing apple trees, Missouri 20,000,000 and
the state of "Washington less than two and three-fourths millions. The
1910 census shows that New York dropped to eleven and one-fourth mil-
lions trees, producing 5,666,000 barrels, Missouri with 14,360,000 trees
produced less than one-half as many apples, 2,533,000 ' barrels, while
Washington, with her gain reaching three million, had an increase of 273,-
513 trees, which was a greater increase than was made by any state except
Minnesota, which gained 504,000 during the ten years. In 1910 Wash-
ington produced from the three million trees 1,933,000 barrels and ranked
sixteenth in importance as an apple producing state. Up to the year 1917
New York had always produced more apples for market than any other
state. That year the New York crop was only 2,300,000 barrels of com-
mercial apples and she ranked second to Washington, which produced
4,176,000 barrels for market, Missouri producing 1,155,000 barrels. This
gave Washington over one-half million barrels more than the combined
commercial crop of both New York and Missouri, jumping from sixteenth
place in 1910 to first place in eight years.

This fact must be recognized as a wonderful showing for a state that
has to ship its product from two to three thousand miles to the consum-
ing market.

The commercial value of the boxed apple that year was $19,886,000, to
which should be added the value of the canned and evaporated and other
fruit products of nearly 5,000,000 of dollars. In 1918 New York forced
Washington back to second place, but in 1919 Washington forged ahead
again, distancing all former competitors with 16,146,000 boxes, or 5,382,000
barrels. This was 650,000 barrels, more than twice the New York crop
of that year; it was more than the combined crops of New York, Mis-
souri and Virginia, the three leading apple producing states in the East.
It was 500,000 barrels in excess of the combined output of Idaho, Oregon,
California, Colorado, Utah, Montana, New Mexico and Arizona, the other
eight states west of the Rocky mountains which produce apples.

These figures show what has been done, and still apple production in
the state has only begun. The possibilities are beyond comprehension.

As a peach producing state Washington takes third place, Georgia
first, California second. In pear production California takes first place,
Washington second. With the numerous reclamation projects completed

67

which are now proposed, and with many substantial progress is being
made, it will bring under cultivation millions of acres of land, a large
part of which is as good fruit land as any which is planted at the pres-
ent time.

The Big Bend project, the Greater Wenatchee project, the Rim Rock
of Yakima, the Horse Heaven of Benton county, the Pipe Stone of the
Methow, and others are all being pushed as rapidly as conditions war-
rant. And when they are completed and water spread over them mil-
lions of acres now practically barren will blossom like a rose and will
become productive orchards, gardens, alfalfa fields, and happy homes
for a new population. When all of these vast areas are brought under
successful cultivation and we look at the wonderful possibilities of the
great future of this vast territory, of the fertile virgin soils, of the amaz-
ing horticultural and agricultural resources, our ever-increasing popula-
tion, and prosperity, one fully concurs in the opinion of Gladstone when
he said, "The American union has territory fitted to be the base of the
largest continuous empire ever established by man." And the state of
"Washington has one stretch of this territory in her inland empire.

Soils

"We should not pass without making some mention of the soil. It is
largely volcanic ash with a mixture of pulverized basalt and disin-
tegrated granite, a soil that when properly filled with humus is easy of
cultivation, holds moisture and responds readily to the addition of natural
or commercial fertilizers. Moisture is indispensable, and as the normal
precipitation is so limited, ample water from the irrigation systems is a
fundamental necessity.

The system of tillage in the most successful orchards is the "cover
crop," alfalfa being the predominating crop. Where sufficient moisture
is lacking other crops are substituted. The clean cultivated orchard is
becoming very rare. As is true in all new orchard sections, the original
plantings were not given sufficient space. Many trees were planted
eighteen feet apart, more twenty, and the majority were only given about
twenty-five foot space. Occasionally a man had sufficient foresight to
give his trees thirty to thirty-two foot space. One of the greatest prob-
lems today with the Washington orchardist is to remove a portion of his
trees to the best advantage so that they will have proper room. The trees
are interlocking, fruit is becoming small and lacking color. It is impos-
sible to spray properly for the best control of the pests, every operation
demanding more space and nothing supporting the theory of such close
planting. Younger plantings are being given thirty to thirty-two foot
space and some are stretching that, using fillers of various kinds. An-
nual pruning is being done.

One of the operations which is showing wonderful results is systematic
thinning of the fruit as soon as possible after the fruit is set. The best
growers thin the pears to eight to twelve inches and all apples from six to
twelve inches, depending upon variety and crop. Many growers pay
more money for thinning the crop than it costs to pick the fruit, but they
reduce the percentage of culls and grade, and increase the percentage of

68

extra fancy and fancy. Some crops run as high as 90% extra fancy from
the orchard.

Pests

Codling moth, San Jose scale, Green, Rosy and Wooly aphis, together
with Blister Mite, are the prevailing pests found in the Washington or-
chards. Pear blight and collar rot do a considerable annual damage,
although the fungus troubles are negligible in the interior sections.

Spraying

The spraying campaign starts with the dormant application of the lime
sulphur solution or oil emulsion for San Jose scale, blister mite, leaf
roller and similar pests. The apple powdery mildew is the one fungus
trouble demanding careful attention, some seasons. This is usually con-
trolled by early applications of weak lime sulphur sprays, supplemented
in extreme cases by the addition of the lime sulphur to the calyx spray.
The codling moth is the one bugbear to the apple grower and this season
she has seemed to rally all her forces to baffle the efforts of the growers,
taking an estimated toll of $2,000,000' from the crop. Yet there are many
growers in every section who with their systematic campaign of activities
have prevented anj^ appreciable commercial loss from wormy apples. To
give an idea of the amount of spraying done in the state the following
figures gathered show that in the year 1920 spray materials used in the
state were as follows:

Pounds of dry sulphur 550,795

Pounds of dry arsenate of lead 2,195,591

Barrels of concentrated lime sulphur solution 25,416

Pounds of paste arsenate of lead 287,995

Dormant oil, barrels 840

Distillate emulsion, barrels 153

Pounds of Black Leaf Forty 20,691

Harvesting

Up-to-date methods of harvesting, handling, packing and storing are
used in all sections of the state.

Selling

The crop is handled through various channels of trade. Cooperative
organizations of various kinds handle large tonnages, dealers of all kinds
each get their share and a few growers ship direct to the eastern trade.

Advertising

Washington growers and dealers believe in publicity. We feel that we
produce a good product and are anxious to have the world know it. All
sections advertise more or less, but the most extensive campaign is being
carried on by the North Central Washington and Wenatchee Valley
Growers in their "Eat Wenatchee apples" campaign. One million dollars
will be spent in the next three years on a basis of three cents per box.

69

More than sixty per cent of the acreage of the district is signed under
contract for three years to raise this fund. All dealers are supposed to
deduct the three cents per box from fruit handled and turn it to that
fund. They will spend about one million dollars in general publicity work
and we hope that you, each of you, will catch the idea, "Eat Wenatchee
apples." Washington probably stands second to California in publicity
expenditures.

Varieties

After all, if the proper varieties are not planted under favorable con-
ditions maximum results cannot be obtained. Many mistakes have been
made in all fruit sections and the question of elimination is one that
every grower is obliged to solve. To produce that variety which he can
grow to the highest state of perfection at a minimum cost is a vital eco-
nomic problem. In many of the older orchards can be found a conglom-
erate list of varieties, many of which are practically worthless for com-
mercial purposes. A list of ten varieties will include the most profitable
sorts for the state, and the most successful growers are reducing this
list by one-half. In the state as a whole the varieties range as follows
in the order of their popularity as shown by the 1918 orchard census by
the State Department of Agriculture.

Winesap 1,904,932

Jonathan 1,343,720

Rome Beauty 777,582

Delicious 555,064

Spitzenberg (Esopus) 449,426

Stayman 271,279

Newtoun 220,391

Winter Banana 75,184

Arkansas Black 64,021

White Winter Pearmain 47,085

Miscellaneous 668,731

Making- a total of 6,617-,785 apple trees

In pears, there were 822,514 trees; peaches, 538,286; prunes and plums,

879,485; apricots, 57,111; cherries, 162,893.
The average yield of apples per tree for a period of six years, 1914 to

1920, in the Yakima valley, all ages of trees, was 3.31 boxes, which

shows that the trees have not reached their zenith of production and

there is a big chance for improvement.

In the season of 1919 and 1920 from October 1, 1919, to March 1, 1920,

the average price per box received by the growers for all varieties in

Wenatchee was for:

Extra Fancy $2,816

Fancy 2.544

C Grade 2.153

Yakima :

Extra Fancy $2,674

Fancy 2.405

C Grade 2.153

70

The average for all grades, all varieties, was $2,234 per box. These
figures are compiled from the Reports of the U. S. Federal Bureau of
Markets.

In conclusion, in the state of Washington can be found a fruit pro-
ducing territory. It has the natural attributes, such as soil, moisture,
climatic and atmospheric conditions, for the production of high grade
fruit, but maximum results cannot be secured by the growers until all of
them adopt and practice the best up-to-date methods and three things
are provided — better transportation facilities, more up-to-date storage,
and more paved roads.

71

COMMERCIAL APPLE GROWING IN THE ANNAPOLIS

VALLEY, NOVIA SCOTIA

Prof. W. S. Blair, Experiment Station, Kentville, Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia is a peninsula on the extreme eastern side of Canada. It
extends into the Atlantic in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction,
and lies between the forty-third and forty-seventh parallels of north lati-
tude. The total area of the province is about 21,500 square miles, the
population is over 600,000. The surface is gently undulating, with no
very high hills, and with no part of the interior over thirty miles from the
sea. Because of the surrounding waters, the temperature is moderate,
there being no great extremes of heat or cold.

The leading horticultural industry is fruit growing. Its most impor-
tant division is apple culture. Pears, plums, cherries and small fruits
are successfully grown, principally only in sufficient quantities to meet
the demands of local markets. Apples, on the other hand, are shipped to
Great Britain and other foreign markets, where they compete success-
fully with those grown in other provinces of Canada and in other
countries.

The chief apple growing region of Nova Scotia is a small section of the
northwesterly part of the province, generally known as the Annapolis
valley, comprising one larger valley on the western and connected with
six smaller valleys in the eastern end. This Annapolis valley is sepa-
rated from the Bay of Fundy — that branch of the Atlantic that bounds
the northwestern part of the province — by a range of hills, some four or
five hundred feet in height, known as the North mountain, and conse-
quently is protected from the direct force of the northerly and westerly
winds. On the other side of the valley is a similar range of mountains
of about the same height, known as the South mountain. The valley is
about one hundred miles long and from six to eleven miles wide.

Practically all the exportable fruit of Nova Scotia is grown in the
three valley counties. Kings, Hants and Annapolis, and of these. Kings
county produces fully one-half of the total product. There are in Kings
county approximately eighteen thousand acres of apple orchard. The
five rivers draining this valley section are tidal streams for a consider-
able distance inland. Along these rivers are valuable dyked (hay)
areas protected from the tide by dykes ranging from three to eight feet
high. The difference between high and low tides at the mouth of these
rivers is, in some cases, as much as thirty feet. The orchard lands are
the rolling lands bordering these protected alluvial deposits, the higher
elevations along the center of the valley, and the slopes of the North and
South mountains.

The soil consists of sand, sandy loam, and clay loam overlaying largely
a sandstone formation. The subsoil generally permits of ready drainage,
this being particularly favorable for growing fruit trees. On the more
sandy areas the soil lacks humus and such lands require ample fertiliza-
tion in order to grow good trees and fruit. The sandy and clay loam
soils are more fertile and naturally produce good crops with very mod-
erate applications of fertilizer.

72

The climate of this valley country is, because of its situation, milder
and more equable than that of other parts of the province. Extremes
of heat and cold are not found. The mean average temperature for the
summer months (June, July and August), is about 62 degrees, and the
average mean temperature for the winter months (December, January
and February), is about 22 degrees. The temperature during winter sel-
dom goes below zero, and if it does, rarely remains there for more than
a day at a time. The first frost occurs toward the last of September, the
first severe frost about the 25th of October. The last frost occurs early
in May. The summer temperature seldom goes above 90 degrees and
averages 88 degrees as the highest. The rainfall during the summer
ranges from two to three inches per month and is fairly evenly distrib-
uted. The total precipitation during the year averages thirty-eight inches.
The snowfall, which approximates sixty inches, seldom is greater than
six inches, one fall being largely dissipated by southerly winds before
another takes place. Sleighing varies from three weeks to two months
during the winter. The bright sunshine during the year averages 1,750
hours. Hail storms are practically unknown, and lightning and very
heavy wind storms seldom occur.

The French Acadians, the first settlers, planted apple trees in their
early settlements. In 1761, when the New England settlers came to
occupy the lands of the deported French, they found apple trees in bear-
ing, many of which lived and bore fruit for over a century. One tree,
which was later grafted to Bishop Pippin (Bellflower), is still fruiting,
has a circumference of 12 feet and is said to be 152 years of age. An-
other one, stated to be 125 years of age, grafted with Gravenstein, from
which 28 barrels of packed fruit was harvested in one season, is still
producing abundantly.

A number of new varieties were introduced from England by these
New England settlers, among them the Nonpareil (Roxbury Russet)
about 1765, the Yellow Bellflower (renamed in the valley Bishop Pip-
pin) after its introducer. Dr. Inglis, the first bishop of Nova Scotia, in
1790, and the Ribston (Pippin) in 1814. Other varieties introduced early
were the Baldwin and the Rhode Island Greening in 1820, the Blenheim
in 1829, the Gravenstein and Alexander about 1835 and the Northern Spy
about 1852.

For a number of years, however, the cultivation of apples was consid-
ered only as a side line to general farming, and it was not until about
fifty years ago that the potential value of the industry was recognized.
The exportation of apples to England began in 1875, and has increased
steadily since that time. In 1896, the marketable crop, shipped chiefly
to Great Britain, was half a million (500,000) barrels. In 1912 the num-
ber of apples packed and sold was over one million barrels. In 1919,
1,600,000 with a total value of nearly ten million dollars ($9,989,680) ; in
1921, over two million barrels (2,036,065) valued at nearly thirteen mil-
lion five hundred thousand dollars ($13,478,750). About one-tenth of the
total output is sold in the maritime provinces of Canada; the balance is
shipped to Great Britain and other European countries, Newfoundland,
the Canadian West, the West Indies and South Africa. The varieties of

73

apples grown have been selected chiefly with reference to the English
market. Leading commercial sorts are: Gravenstein, Blenheim, Rib-
Bton, King, Bishop Pippin (Yellow Bellflower), Cox Orange, Wagener,
Baldwin, Stark, Spy, Golden Russet, Pallawater, Nonpareil (Roxbury
Russet) and Ben Davis. The Gravenstein, especially, reaches a very high
quality in this district. The leading winter varieties grown in other
parts of Canada and the United States also do well. Because of the
cooler summer the Jonathan, Delicious, Stayman Winesap, York Imperial
and Newtown Pippin do not reach the state of excellency of countries
having a higher summer temperature. However, these varieties are all
being grown to a considerable extent, but are often not as fully matured
at harvest time as they should be.

Orchard management is not greatly different from that of other fruit
growing sections. The rainfall is ample for all needs if proper cultiva-
tion methods are used. The practice followed almost exclusively is late
fall or early spring shallow plowing, followed by frequent harrowing,
using the disc or smoothing harrow every two weeks to keep the ground
well worked. This harrowing is done up to the middle of June or not
later than July 1st. Between these periods a cover crop is seeded, vetch
or buckwheat being used principally.- The growth from this seeding is
plowed under, usually in the fall. Commercial fertilizers are depended
upon almost entirely for enriching the soil. Nitrate of soda is used al-
most exclusively for nitrogen. Slag, or acid phosphate for phosphorus
and muriate of potash for potash. One hundred and fifty to two hundred
pounds of nitrate of soda, five hundred pounds of slag or acid phosphate
and one hundred pounds of muriate of potash per acre is the usual appli-
cation. This is applied in the early spring, generally towards the middle
of May. Apple trees are in bloom between the 25th of May and June 7th.
As a rule, the springs are cool and growth is not rapid until after June
1st. The harvesting of the fruit, except of some very early sorts, ex-
tends a little over one month, from September 5th to October 25th. After
this latter date there is danger of loss from fruit. In order to get good
color the fruit is left on the trees as late as possible. This makes a
great amount of fruit gathering in a very short space of time.

Because of the maritime situation the air is moist and so favors fun-
gus development. Of all our orchard diseases the apple spot or scab is
the one most troublesome. It is pretty well established that two spray-
ings before bloom thoroughly applied, the first just when the leaves are
hardly the size of a dime and again just before the blossoms open, and
two or three sprayings after the bloom, one just after petals fall, and
another one or two at intervals thereafter of ten days, will give good
control. Bordeaux mixture with an excess of lime over the old formula
(4 pounds copper sulphate, 8 pounds hydrated lime, and water to make
40 gallons), is being largely used. Lime sulphur is used somewhat, but
not nearly so extensively as a few years ago. It is because of injury to
fruit and foliage this is being discarded. The poison used principally is
arsenate of lime, although some growers still stick to dry arsenate of
lead as the best poison for liquid sprays. Sulphur arsenic dust (90 parts
superfine sulphur to ten parts dry arsenate of lead), and copper arsenic

74

dust (10 parts dehydratea copper sulphate, 5 parts calcium arsenate, and
85 parts hydrated lime), are being used almost exclusively by many
gi'owers. The heavy dews at night favor the use of dust, and for this
reason its general use is likely to prove more satisfactory than it is in
countries less favored in this particular. The dust is applied by power
dusters in the early morning when the air is calm, commencing about or
before daylight. The advantage of using dust is that very large areas
can be treated in a very short time. It takes about five hours to spray
an acre of mature orchard thoroughly, and a thorough job can be done
with a dusting outfit in an hour. Very many growers do an acre in much
less time. The cost of material is much greater when dusting, but this
is offset by lessened labor cost. Approximately two pounds of dust will
do a thorough job on a mature tree, as compared with six gallons of
spray for the same tree. The fact that larger blocks can be protected
by dust than would be possible if only spraying were done, is the princi-
pal reason why dusting has made such rapid development in Nova Scotia.
It is usually necessary to make five applications, and some make six,
during the season. Where the work has been thoroughly done the fruit
is as clean as it is where sprayed. Power dusting outfits are now largely
taking the place of the power spraying machines so generally used in
the past.

A system of frost-proof warehouses has come into existence during the
past twenty-five years, which are of great help in storing and packing
the crop. At the present time there are over 120 of these warehouses.
They are of sufficient size, about 40 by 100 feet on the average, to afford
room for the packing and storing of from five to ten thousand barrels.
Formerly the fruit grower packed his fruit at home and when a steamer
was ready to load at Halifax, hauled his apples to the station, and loaded
them into the waiting cars. Now, the apples are generally taken in bar-
rels directly from the orchard to the warehouse, where they are stored
until ready to be packed out for shipment. Under this system it is pos-
sible with very little delay to pack and place on the cars a steamer load
of apples. A railway haul of four or five hours brings the cars to the
side of the steamer, so that danger of frost, even in zero weather, is
largely avoided.

A further advance was made in the business of packing and marketing
apples when cooperative fruit companies were formed between 1907 and
1912. In the latter year, these companies, between thirty and forty in
number, were amalgamated into the United Fruit Companies of Nova
Scotia, Limited. This association controls over one-half of the apple
crop of the province. A uniform standard of grading is maintained, an
official of the central association inspecting the packing in all the ware-
houses of the affiliated companies, in addition to the inspectors provided
by the Federal Fruit Branch.

Cooperation in the marketing of apples was quickly followed by the
cooperative manufacture of barrels and the purchase of fertilizer, feed

1

75

and seeds. This aspect of the business is of no inconsiderable value, the
annual amount of fertilizers handled by the association in 1922 being:

1,500 tons of nitrate of soda;

1,500 tons of acid phosphate.

2,000 tons of basic slag;

1,500 tons of mixed fertilizers.

A cargo of 2,200 tons of nitrate of soda landed at Windsor was prac-
tically all used in the apple growing section of Nova Scotia. Spraying
and dusting materials handled by the United Fruit Companies in 1922
were:

Dry arsenate of lead 30 tons

Dry arsenate of lead paste 5

Arsenate of lime 50

Powdered bluestone 50

Dehydrated copper sulphate 30

Hydrated lime 800

Superfine dusting sulphur 45

Soluble sulphur 1 ton

The establishment of evaporators', canneries and vinegar factories
throughout the fruit district, some of them owned by the cooperative
companies, furnishes a good market for defective fruit. The barrel pack-
age is almost exclusively used for exporting apples in. The barrels are
manufactured from native spruce and cost approximately fifty cents de-
livered at the orchard. Box packing has been followed to some extent,
but net returns so far have generally favored the barrel package.

In 1911 an experimental station was established at Kentville by the
federal government at Ottawa, one of its objects being to aid the apple
growers of the valley in developing the industry to its fullest possibili-
ties. The Entomological Division of the Federal Department of Agricul-
ture have a staff of investigators conducting research work at different
points, their headquarters being at Annapolis Royal.

Considering the climatic conditions, the situation of the. valley near ex-
tensive forests of soft wood, suitable for barrels and boxes, and the fa-
cilities for reaching the large European markets, we feel safe in saying
that apples can be produced in Nova Scotia and placed on those markets
with as great a prospect of profitable returns as from any country.

76

APPLE BREEDING FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI

VALLEY

H. L. Lantz, Ames, Iowa

There is a vast rich agricultural region which for our purpose may be
called the upper Mississippi valley or the Great Plains region of the
Middle West. Roughly, this region is bounded on the south by the Platte
river down to where it flows into the Missouri a few miles below Omaha,
and by a line running eastward to the eastern boundary of Iowa, and
thence up to the most southern point of Lake Michigan. The region
north of this line is characterized by climatic conditions which have
made fruit growing in most of this section comparatively difficult. None
of the standard varieties of fruits have proven hardy enough to be re-
liably long-lived and productive under the climatic conditions which pre-
vail throughout most of this great area. There is a great demand
throughout this region for hardy red winter apples of good quality which
are vigorous and productive, and which will come into bearing earlier
than do most of the standard sorts now grown.

Bringing the question down to Iowa, we find that horticulturally the
state is naturally divided into the north and south halves by a line
which extends across the state a few miles north of Des Moines and
which turns upward slightly at the east and west boundaries as the Mis-
souri and Mississippi rivers are approached. The southern half of the
state lies in the northern extreme of the Ben Davis belt. Such varieties
as Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Ben Davis, Rome Beauty, Winesap, Deli-
cious and other standard winter sorts, can be grown more or less suc-
cessfully in this portion of the state. However, test winters periodically
exact a heavy toll, killing outright many trees and severely injuring many
others, so that it is very difficult to find anything like a perfect stand of
trees in any of the orchards of this region. In addition to this, the Cli-
mate is such that most of these varieties do not come into profitable
bearing until they are 12 to 15 years of age. Clearly, then, there is a
distinct need for new varieties in southern Iowa of the general charac-
ter of Jonathan, but with trees which come into bearing earlier and
which will be hardy enough to withstand the test winters which have in
the past been so disastrous.

The northern half of Iowa is characterized by winter conditions which
are much more severe than are found in southern Iowa; only the very
hardiest varieties are reliably productive and at all satisfactory. This
part of the state is in the southern part of the Wealthy belt and the va-
rieties which succeed in this region are practically all summer and fall
sorts, such as Yellow Transparent, Duchess of Oldenburg, Wealthy and
some of the Patten originations, such as Patten Greening, Eastman and
Brilliant. A few varieties, such as Malinda, Northwestern Greening and
a number of the Russian varieties, are hardy, but are lacking in general
quality. The whole northern half of the state is horticulturally charac-
terized by a lack of good red winter apples.

These conditions present, then, great opportunity for the develop-

77

ment of new varieties of standard market quality, which will be adapted
particularly to the northern part of the state and, in fact, to all parts of
Iowa, and for all of the upper Mississippi valley and the Great Plains
region.

The pioneer history of Iowa contains many interesting accounts of
the agriculture of this state which chronicles the repeated planting and
failure of practically all of the old standard eastern and European va-
rieties and kinds of fruits. These pioneer horticulturists soon came to
recognize the limitations which were imposed by the climatic conditions
of this region. Even as early as 1850' to 1860 we have some accounts of
horticulturists who planted apple seed quite extensively with the idea of
developing new varieties. This idea of originating new apples was con-
sistently and urgently recommended, notably by Professor J. L. Budd of
this institution and by C. G. Patten of Charles City, and others.

Apple breeding at the Iowa station was initiated by Budd in the 70's.
He planted a great many seeds of selected hardy fruits. Of much of
this material he knew only the seed parent.' His later breeding work
included actual crossing of many varieties. During the 80's he made
several trips to Russia and imported many varieties and kinds of fruits
which were distributed quite widely for testing. Most of these, however,
have failed to make a place for themselves as commercial varieties.
These Russian apples, however, have been a valuable contribution to
American horticulture and some of them have proved to be worthy of
serious attention for breeding purposes because they are so hardy and
productive. The Russian apples which we have used at the Iowa station
include Anisim, which is a very hardy and very productive red, sprightly
sub-acid apple of medium size and fair quality of August season; Long-
field, small, clear, yellow, good, tender, white-fleshed apple of August
season, very productive and hardy; Oldenburg, very hardy, productive —
one of the most generally known of the Russian varieties; Antonovka, a
clear-skinned, yellow, hardy, productive, sprightly sub-acid, August apple;
Hibernal, rated as among one of the very hardiest large fruited types,
productive, an excellent tree with large, medium red, sprightly sub-acid
fruit of poor quality.

In 1905, the late Professor S. A. Beach came to Iowa State College to
nead up the horticultural work of the institution. The problem of breed-
ing apples for the upper Mississippi valley at Ames was one of those
problems which appealed strongly to Professor Beach and induced him
to take up the work in Iowa. In 1906 and 1907, a great deal of crossing
work was done and out of this work came upwards of 5,000 cross-bred
seedlings of known parentage. Many of these have been fruiting for the
past four or five years. This lot of seedlings came from 43 mother par-
ents which were used in combination with 50 pollen parents in 120 com-
binations.

The apple breeding project, as outlined by Professor Beach, had for its
purpose, first, to determine what are the characters in the apple and
how are they transmitted; second, to learn which parents and combi-
nation of parents would produce desirable progeny. Incidentally, the
production of hardy, red winter apples has been and is an important

78

feature of this work. Wherever possible, the hardiest varieties grown
ill Iowa were combined with red varieties of good quality and late season.
In this connection it is of interest to note that a great many of the re-
sulting seedlings have been red winter apples of good quality, some of
which appear to be hardy, productive and are of considerable promise.
In this paper no attempt will be made to critically analyze the progeny
of the various parents and combinations of parents. We beg to present
certain features of the work and to make mention of the performance of
some of the parent varieties which have been used. Something like
2,000 seedlings have fruited and detailed descriptions have been made of
the fruit and comparisons made with the parents as to the various char-
acters and characteristics. Notes on the trees as to vigor, health, hardi-
ness and productivity have also been made in the field. This lot of seed-
ling material has now reached sufficient age to indicate pretty clearly
that certain parents and parent combinations are of little or no value in
breeding hardy red winter apples of good quality. Out of the 120' combi-
nations of parents 62 appear to fall in this category, 43 are placed in
the doubtful list. In this doubtful list, however, are many combinations
of which too few seedlings were grown to secure sufficient information
from which to draw accurate conclusions. Fifteen of the 120 combina-
tions have given us progeny of merit. Certain of the most promising
seedlings have been crossed back to the parents and with each other in
order to secure inbred second generation material from which we hope
to secure further information in regard to what are unit characters in
the apple and how these are transmitted.

Methods of Studying Apple Breeding Material

Apple breeding along scientific lines is a comparatively new field in
horticultural investigation. One of the first problems of the fruit breeder
is to learn how to breed apples and propagate them, and then to learn
how to observe and record results of his work. In our own work, which
covers 16 years in the practical phases of apple breeding, many angles
to the problem have become manifest. In fact, so many phases present
themselves that it is often very difficult to determine what factors are of
the most importance. With an extensive fruit breeding project involv-
ing thousands of trees and with a personnel inadequate to meet the de-
mands of the work, it has been necessary to limit our attention to only
those phases of the problem which appear to be of greatest significance.
We have, therefore, focussed most of our attention upon the various
seedling lots to determine, if possible, which parents and combination
of parents transmit to their progeny desirable characters in nursery and
orchard, together with desirable fruit characters. Practically the entire
list of apples which we have used as parents were chance seedlings
which can be properly termed "mongrels." It at once becomes apparent
that the laws of inheritance of characters as applied to apple breeding
are exceedingly difficult to interpret.

Those who hybridize grains or flies, as the case may be, which repre-
sent pure lines, can readily discover the fundamental laws of heredity.
The breeding of apples presents a vastly different problem. Varieties of

79

mongrel parentage are used for breeding purposes, the seeds are planted,
trees of known parentage are grown, and at the end of 10 or 15 years
there is available material from which may be determined some facts
concerning the vigor, health, productivity and hardiness of the trees,
and something about characters of fruits which are borne. The fruit
breeder is able to grow perhaps 10, or perhaps it is a thousand, seed-
lings from a single combination of parents. No two of these seedlings
are alike in this first generation. He finds a very great diversity in the
distribution of characters and in the amount of variation in both the
tree and fruit. By producing second generation material the fruit
breeder may be better able to determine where he is at. The difficulty
at this point is that it is almost impossible to self-breed the apple. We
are attempting to overcome this difficulty by inbreeding the progeny of
the same parentage.

Our apple breeding work has been carried far enough to indicate the
value of certain parents in transmitting hardy, vigorous, healthy, seed-
lings which produce fruit of good size, good color and good quality, and
late season. However, quality and hardiness do not seem to be corre-
lated very closely with the production of red late keeping apples of good
quality.

In our apple breeding studies the following lines of investigation have
appeared most profitable:

I. Propagation.

1. Germination of seed of various parent combinations.

2. Vigor of seedlings of various parent combinations.

3. Health of seedlings of various parent combinations.

4. Habit in nursery of various parent combinations.

5. Foliage in nursery of various parent combinations.

6. Hardiness in nursery of various parent combinations.

II. Seedlings in the Orchard.

1. Vigor, health and habit as an orchard tree.

2. Hardiness in tree and fruit bud.

3. Fruiting habit.

(a) Age.

(b) Productivity and regularity of bearing.

(c) Bearing habit as compared with parents.

(d) Persistance of fruit in hanging until mature.

(e) Length of season required to mature fruit.

80

III. Character of Seedling Fruit.
1. Physical characteristics.

(a) Size,

(b) Color and attractiveness.

(c) Form.

(d) Ability to withstand injury in handling.
2.

Flesh.

(a)

Color.

(b)

Texture

(c)

Flavor.

(d)

Quality,

Season.

3.

As we have studied the cross-bred seedlings particularly since they are
of fruiting age, it becomes quite apparent that accurate judgments in re-
gard to nearly every character, such as vigor, health, hardiness, produc-
tivity of trees, etc., must be formed slowly and only then when the op-
portunity to observe and study the trees has extended over three or four
years after the trees have reached bearing age. This is especially impor-
tant when hardiness, habit of bearing, health and vigor of the tree are
being studied. We have found, for instance, that young trees which are
vigorous and apparently hardy, often prove to be tender and "go out" the
winter following a heavy crop.

Seasonal conditions induce a great deal of variation year by year in
vigor, fruiting habit, productiveness and also in size, color and quality
of the fruit.

The extent of these seasonal variations cannot be measured. The
amount of rainfall and numerous other seasonal factors have a direct in-
fluence upon the vigor, health, and productiveness of the tree, and have
even a greater influence upon the size, color, quality and season of the
fruit. Conclusions, therefore, which are based on a single year's observa-
tion are not likely to be sound. We have endeavored to be conservative
and have gone slowly, feeling that each year would give us additional in-
formation.

We feel like emphasizing the point very strongly that one of the fruit
breeder's biggest problems is to learn how to study his material. This
comes by years of experience, together with a wide acquaintance with
named varieties so that proper comparisons may be made in order to
study to advantage the various factors involved.

If rapid progress in the development of worthy new apples is to be
made, it is desirable to learn as quickly as possible where to go among
the many varieties to secure parents which transmit desirable characters
of tree and of fruit. Our own work indicates that the characters which
are manifest in many of our standard varieties as to vigor, hardiness,
color, size and quality, is no indication that such characters are at all
freely transmitted when these varieties are used for breeding purposes.

Some obscure varieties have given us very satisfactory progeny, while
some of the leading standard varieties of high quality have been disap-
pointing when used as parents.

81

Following is a list of those parents which, according to our work, ap-
pear to be of little or no value in breeding hardy winter apples for Iowa:

Ben Davis, Black Annette, Roman S'tem, Walbridge, Scott, Utter, Patten
Greening, Grimes, Oldenburg, Mountain Beet, Gano, and Ralls.

It is not desirable at this time to go into a critical discussion of the
seedlings of the above parent varieties. Suffice it to say that lack of
quality is predominant, in the progeny of these parents. Furthermore, it
appears that these parents in those combinations which we have developed
do not transmit consistently in combination any of those desirable char-
acters which are deemed vital in the breeding of new apples. To this
list might be added a number of other varieties, but this shall not be done
until our present information is considerably amplified.

Some of the parent combinations which have given us desirable progeny
are as follows:

Allen Choice x Perry Russet: The trees are of good habit, vigorous;
fruit firm, of good quality, often with good, solid red color and very late
season. One of these seedlings has been named the Ames.

Colorado Orange x Allen CJioice: The progeny of this combination is
often vigorous and very productive; a high percentage of the seedlings
are of firm flesh, late keeping apples of good quality. The yellow color
of Colorado Orange predominates.

Colorado Orange x Jonathan: Trees rather variable in vigor, often
productive. Fruit varies from yellow to red and the flesh varies from
tender to rather tough; usually of good quality.

Hibernal x Delicious: Trees hardy, fruit often resembles Delicious in
many respects.

Mcintosh X Long field: Trees quite uniform, hardy, vigorous, produc-
tive; fruit variable in size, color and quality. White flesh predominates
throughout the series. Several very promising seedlings have developed
in this line of breeding, two of which have been named Maud and Sharon.

Northweste7-n Greening x Harrington : Trees vigorous and productive;
fruit firm, crisp and of late season.

Northwestern Greening x Wealthy: Trees very vigorous, productive,
excellent foliage; fruit large, intermediate in color; season varies from
that of "Wealthy to mid-winter. A very interesting line of breeding. One
of these has been named Macy.

Salome x Baltimore: Trees very productive; fruit rather tough, pretty
good quality and of late season.

Salome x Delavan: Some trees of this line are very hardy. The fruit
is variable in size, several are of large size and of late season and good
quality.

Salome x Jonathan: Trees variable in vigor from weak to moderately
strong. The Jonathan tree habit seems to predominate. Trees are pro-
ductive; the fruit runs from small to large size. Color ranges from that
of Salome to Jonathan are exhibited. About 25 per cent are sweet; all
are yellow fleshed and many are of good to very good quality. This line
of breeding represents perhaps one of the most interesting lines on ac-
count of the high percentage of apples of good quality and late season,
'iowever, on account of the tendency toward poor habit of growth which

•82

is often exhibited, this line of breeding is being used judiciously in com-
bination with other lines in order to combine vigor, hardiness, quality, and
late season.

Wealthy x Allen Choice: Trees healthy and productive with consider-
able variation as to size and season.

Wealthy x Baltimore: Trees healthy and productive; fruit often very
late in season.

Wealthy x Colorado Orange: Trees healthy and productive.

Wolf River x Harrington: Trees healthy, vigorous and productive;
fruit red, occasionally with strongly perfumed flavors. Season ranges
from that of Wolf River to late winter. Two of these have been named
Monona and Afton.

The progeny of some of the other parent varieties have exhibited val-
uable characters. These desirable characters, however, are often not co-
related with other valuable characters. From the standpoint of vigor,
health and productiveness, Malinda in combination with Anisim and with
Brilliant has given us uniformly a strong, vigorous and productive lot of
seedlings which appear to be very healthy and hardy. These seedlings
have produced fruit which is generally lacking in good quality. Many
seedlings of this parentage are coarse grained, rather tough, and decid-
edly insipid and lack character in every respect. A few rank fairly good
in quality.

However, such valuable considerations as that of vigor and hardiness
of the tree cannot be overlooked. Even though the fruit lacks many de-
sirable characters, it is believed that a line of breeding of this type is
valuable as foundation material, because vigor and hardiness appear to
be dominant characters.

Extensive apple breeding work at this station for the past six years
has been done in the light of previous experience. Many thousands of
seedlings are now standing in the orchard, nursery row and seed beds
which range from one to five years of age from the seed. Among these
are seedlings of second generation breeding and also large numbers of
outcrosses between hardy parentage and parentage of high standard
quality.

Summary

Scientific apple breeding is a comparatively new line of horticultural
endeavor.

The vast region of the upper Mississippi valley is devoid of hardy red
winter apples. It is believed that these can be originated by scientific
apple breeding.

Apple breeding by the pioneer horticulturists consisted largely in se-
lecting and planting seeds open to cross-pollination. Comparatively few
of these seedlings have made a place for themselves on the planters' list.

In developing new apples of standard quality, it is desirable to have
fundamental information as to what parents and parent combinations can
be relied upon to transmit in combination those characters which must
be brought together in order to produce new apples of value for this
region.

83

Characters in the apple are apparently quite diverse. Therefore, in
order to secure the right combinations it is necessary to produce many
thousands of seedlings from which to select.

The characters of hardiness, high quality and late season are appar-
ently very hard to bring together. In other vs^ords, hardiness of tree,
good quality and early season are apparently closely correlated.

84
APPLE BREEDING FOR THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY

Dr. C. S. Crandall, Urbana, Illinois

I am to tell you something of the plant breeding work that is in prog-
ress at the University of Illinois. We are just finishing up the fifteenth
year since the present line of breeding work was started. Our line of
work is somewhat different from the line of work that is carried on in
Iowa and, as far as I know, at any other station.

The main object is to study the manner of transmission of the char-
acters of apples and in order to do this I have wanted to use, in crossing,
apples having as diverse characters as could be obtained. In the winter
of 1907-1908, after correspondence with Dr. Sargent, of the Arnold Arbore-
tum, at which place they have the largest collection of forms of Malus
in the country, he sent me scions of fifty-seven different forms of the
genus; these came under thirty -two specific names, and the others under
variety names. Now, I am not prepared to say that I know anything
about what should be a species and what should not, but that most of
these forms that were sent were of hybrid origin I am quite well con-
vinced. The evidence upon which I would base that statement is that in
growing seedlings from these crab-like forms we get extreme variation.

Just to cite an illustration: We have one form of Malus prunifoUa,
which is one of the European species, and in growing something over
one hundred seedlings from this form we have plants producing fruits
that are no larger than marrowfat peas and some producing fruits that
are two inches in diameter. They are yellow, green, and red, and they
vary greatly in all of the characters that belong to apples. So that with
all of our breeding material we are working with things that we know
nothing about; that is, we know nothing about the ancestry. There is
not one of our standard varieties that we know anything about, so far as
its parentage is concerned. Of coarse there are certain varieties that are
seedlings of definite varieties, but in these cases we do not know the
male parent.

We began our work on an area of about two acres. This area has been
gradually enlarged until at the present time the plantings occupy one
hundred and sixty acres, and I am worrying the head of the department
much of the time calling for more land. What we are going to do this
coming spring, I do not know.

There are two or three different branches to the work, the main branch
being the production of hybrids; that is, hybridizing between standard
orchard varieties and these crab forms of which I have spoken, and oc-
casionally between the crab forms themselves. Another branch is this:
Is there anything in growing seedlings from fruits from selected trees?
We went into the southern part of the state and in certain orchards there
selected trees that were productive and that had a reputation for good
qualities. We took the whole crop of fruit to the university, and at that
time introduced a variation in procedure about the utility of which I do
not know. I divided the fruits into two groups, on the basis of size; a
group of small fruits, and a group of large fruits. Seeds of the two
groups were saved separately and each group planted by itself. The

85

seedlings were grown for two years in nursery and then there were
planted in orchard approximately four thousand seedlings. These repre-
sented seven varieties, as follows: Grimes, Jonathan, Winesap, Ben
Davis, Rhenish May, Minkler, and Arkansas Black. There was not an
equal division as to the number of seedlings from each variety. These
trees are now fourteen and fifteen years old and they have commenced
fruiting. Up to the present time we have fruited 27.55 per cent of the
seedlings that are living at this time. Of course we have lost some trees
in almost every year and the percentage of trees fruiting is based upon
the number now living, not upon the original number planted.

As the trees fruited descriptions of the fruit were taken and those that
apparently had good qualities were marked up to be preserved. Those
plainly of no value are marked for removal. There is one interesting
thing here as to the number of promising seedlings that have appeared in
the various lots; for example, there are one hundred and sixty-three
seedlings of Arkansas Black; twenty-two of these have fruited and twelve
of them are marked to be preserved. Of Ben Davis there are 2,370 seed-
lings and thus far fifteen are marked for propagation and preservation.
As to the other varieties, eleven seedlings of Smith Cider are to be pre-
served, seven of Winesap, two of Minkler, three of Rhenish May, one
Jonathan, and two of Grimes. We are propagating from all of these se-
lections and when the trees fruit it is altogether possible that many of
them will be disappointing, but we hope that some may be of suflBcient
excellence to warrant naming and introducing.

There are a number of things that we do not yet know about these
fruits. We have not accurate information as to season, nor do we know
the keeping quality, and there is a possibility that judgment regarding
flavor may be reversed. But from the fact that we have only a little
less than twenty-eight per cent thus far described, there are many yet to
come. But our chief interest has been in hybrid seedlings. We have
tried to make as many combinations of parents as possible and so far
have attempted between fourteen and fifteen hundred combinations. Of
course many of the combinations attempted failed and some that were
apparently successful did not produce seedlings with sufficient vitality
to live. However, at the present time we have a little more than 21,000
hybrid seedlings living, and of these, 3,755 are of the second generation.
Where crosses have been made between a large fruited parent and a small
parent, just as soon as the seedling comes into fruit our practice is to
pollinate back with the large fruited parent. Whether this is the right
policy or not I do not know. We will find that out later.

These second generation seedlings are the ones in which interest chiefly
centers. The first generation seedlings represent somewhere between six
and seven hundred different combinations of parents. We have had some
disappointments in our work; for example, we had some hopes that some
of our natives might prove good as breeders. There are the Soulard
crab, the Mercer County crab, the M. Coronaria, the crab of the east; the
M. loensis, the crab of the west; the Angustifolia, the crab of the south,
and M. fusca, the Oregon crab. We have done a little work with most of
these crabs and have been greatly disappointed.

86

I have some figures on the crossing that we have done with some of
them; taking, first, the Soulard. This crab produced an extremely healthy
tree. It is vigorous, strong, does not seem to be troubled by any disease
and the fruit is of fairly good size. Now, if we could put some quality
in the fruit and reduce the acidity, we might get something that might
be of some value. But this is what we have done with the Soulard:
About thirty crosses were attempted and only eight of them produced
fruits, so that most of the pollinations were not successful. However, we
have 19 seedlings, 4 and 5 years old, but they are so weak it is doubtful
if any live to fruiting.

87-

THE INVESTIGATIONAL WORK WITH PEARS AT THE
GEORGIA EXPERIMENTAL STATION

H. P. Stuckey, Director Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Georgia

Pear culture in the South received a great impetus following the early
seventies of the last century. This was due to the introduction of the Le
Conte variety, which, at the time, was thought to be blight resistant to
the pear blight. Commercial pear orchards sprang up as rapidly as
propagating stock could be secured, so that many hundreds of acres were
planted. These plantings center in southwest Georgia in the vicinity of
Thomasville, and for a time the outlook was very encouraging. As these
orchards reached maturity, however, they were ravaged by fire blight to
such an extent that they were practically annihilated. Many orchards
were promptly abandoned from the commercial standpoint and turned
out to sod. This sod and lack of culture, by reducing the plant food, en-
abled the surviving trees to struggle along, producing more or less infe-
rior crops, up to the present time, and remnants of these once great or-
chards can still be seen as reminders of what the pear industry could be
were there a variety resistant to fire blight.

In the early spring of 1912, a series of experiments was started at the
Georgia Experiment Station to test the relative resistance to blight, as
well as their general habits of growth, of several of the better known
varieties of pears. New varieties were added from time to time, to re-
place those dead from blight. The following notes represent the status
of this planting as recorded in 1922: From four to six trees each were
planted to the following varieties: B. d'Anjou (on quince), Kieffer (on
quince, Garber, Le Conte, La France, Japanese Golden Russet, Tyson,
Lincoln, Wilder, Lawrence, Koonce, B. d'Anjou, Blight Resistant (locally
known as Pineapple pear), Howell, Flemish Beauty, Buerre Diel, Bart-
lett, Seckel, Kieffer, Rosney, Sheldon.

Up to September, 1919, the field records of these varieties showed that
all the varieties, excepting the Garber, Tyson, Koonce, Seckel, Kieffer, and
Blight Resistant, were practically ruined by blight. At that time the
Garber, Tyson, Koonce, and Seckel showed more resistance than the Kief-
fer. The 1922 field records show that all these varieties, excepting the
Blight Resistant, locally known as Pineapple pear, have succumbed to
blight to such an extent as to eliminate them from commercial plantings.
A number of introductions, received from the Office of Foreign Seed and
Plant Introductions, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, have been
added to the collection since the original planting. These are yet too
young to afford anything like conclusive results, even though some are
showing considerable resistance.

The Pineapple, Blight Resistant, or Hybrid Sand Pear

From the standpoint of the experimenter, this pear has been the most
interesting of any in the collection. Its varietial name has not yet been
settled upon, but the name "Pineapple" has been proposed to the commit-
tee on nomenclature of this society. Thus, as a matter of convenience in
this discussion, we will designate it as such. The Georgia Experiment

88

Station received the scions of this pear and made grafts in 1910. The
scions were taken from a very large tree growing on the plantation of
Mrs. B. N. Stuckey, near Nesmith, South Carolina. This tree measures
slightly more than nine feet in circumference one foot above the ground,
and has a record of producing more than fifty bushels of fruit in a single
season. Its chief and most interesting characteristic, howiever, is that it
is highly resistant, almost to the extent of immunity, to pear blight.

The trees, as grown at the Georgia Experiment Station, have been sub-
jected to the most rigid trials for infection to fire blight. In addition to
being grown in a general variety collection where a large percentage of
the trees were annually dying from blight, a number of the trees were
inoculated with laboratory cultures, but no appreciable injury was ever
observed. Even where the inoculation would take effect the organism
did not spread enough to do the trees any appreciable damage. The in-
oculated twig would die back for a few inches, but the disease was not
able to spread to any other twig, and was soon overcome. In fact, the
variety is so highly resistant that the orchardist may plant the trees
without fear of blight. Ten-year-old trees now standing at the Georgia
Experiment Station show no signs of blight, even though they have had
every chance to become infected.

History of the Pineapple Pear

The exact history of this pear is unknown. However, its general botan-
ical characteristics indicate very clearly that it is a hybrid between
Pyrus serotina and Pyrus communis. Its exact parentage and time of
origin, however, will probably never be known. Some have suggested
that it is an immigrant from China or Japan. Mr. George D. Lowe, in-
vestigating this subject, says, in part: "In the winter of 1888, Dr. C. C.
Daniel, a prominent Liberty county, Georgia, physician, drove up to the
gate of the John W. DeLoach plantation, some forty miles south of the
LeConte place, and now in Long county, Georgia. He handed Mr. DeLoach
a pear switch with the remark that he had cut it from the finest pear
tree he had ever seen in his life down on the island (near Brunswick,
Georgia), advising Mr. DeLoach to set it immediately, which he did. It
was placed in a small orchard of blighting Le Contes and Kieffers and
grew off rapidly, as the pear always does in south Georgia. It came into
bearing the sixth year from the switch and showed quality and produc-
tivity beyond expectation."

* 4: ' « * * *

"It appears evident that the original Pineapple pear was given to a
planter in South Carolina by a relative who was an officer in Commodore
Perry's fleet which visited China and Japan in the middle fifties, and
brought the rooted pear from China when he returned. The tree now
stands still vigorous and in bearing, nine feet in circumference just above
the ground and with a tremendous spread of limbs. In its prime, several
yields of over one hundred bushels were harvested and last year it bore
some forty bushels. Undoubtedly the tree on the Georgia offshore inland
came from a cutting sent by some South Carolina relative of the owner.

89

The South Carolina specimen stands alone in its generation outside of
China, so far as close inquiry yet discloses."

A few trees of this pear, up to the present time, have been located in
widely scattered places in South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida and
Mississippi. However, no systematic effort has been made to chart its
distribution.

Usefulness of the Pear

This pear cannot be classed as a dessert variety. In quality of fruit
it would be classed along with the Le Conte and Garber. It is perceptibly
better than the Kieffer, though it could not be considered along with such
varieties as the Seckel or Bartlett. It is primarily a culinary pear and
can hardly be surpassed for preserving, baking, and canning purposes.
Canneries report that it brings a premium above the Kieffer when canned
and is in great demand by those who consume canned pears.

Description of the Pineapple Pear

Scientific name, Pyrus serotina x Pyrus communis.

Common name. Pineapple (proposed).

Fruit, very prolific.

Form, tapering towards both ends, round, often unequal.

Size, large. Dimensions, 3.1 inches by 3.4 inches.

Basin, deep, medium, broad, rounded.

Cavity, shallow, rounded.

Stem, persistent, short, stout, both ends enlarged.

Bloom, moderate amount.

Color, creamy yellow when ripe and greenish tinge when green; few
russet spots.

Dots, numerous and raised, russet.

Skin, thick, moderately tough.

Aroma, very pronounced and pleasing. Some find a resemblance of
pineapple.

Flesh, firm, crisp, moderately juicy, and coarse grain.

Color, white, translucent, uniform.

Flavor, moderately sweet, and agreeable.

Quality, excellent for canning, preserving, pickling, and for shipping,
but poor as a dessert.

Core, large and open.

Seed, large, prominent, chocolate colored, and very few in number.

Tree, upright, slender, branches; very vigorous.

Leaves, large, deep green color, and pointed at the end; finely serrated.

General: Season, ripens during the month of August. Where grown,
Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station. Soil, Cecil clay loam. Alti-
tude, 940 to 950 feet. Distinguishing character, blight resistant. Place,
Georgia Agricultural College.

90
NURSERY STOCK INVESTIGATIONS

L. B. Scott, Pomologist in Charge of Nursery Stock Investigations, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. President and Members of the American Pomological Society, I am
very glad of the privilege of presenting this brief report on the develop-
ment of the nursery stock investigations of the United States Department
of Agriculture and regret that it was not possible for me to appear and
present it in person.

The nursery stock investigations project may be said to be a direct
outgrowth of federal horticultural board quarantine order No. 37. This
order, which became effective several years ago, prohibits the introduction
of ornamentals into the United States except under certain restrictions.
As you are aware, a large percentage of our fruit tree stocks are raised
in France and Holland and many nurserymen were apprehensive that the
quarantine would sometime be extended to fruit tree seedlings. Whether
the quarantine could be extended or not, many prominent horticulturists
have long felt it was economically an unsound proposition to raise part
of the tree in Europe and perfect the finishing timber, so to speak, here.
Nurserymen appealed to the department of agriculture for assistance.
The department was asked why it did not take up some investigational
work with fruit tree stocks, some investigation of plant propagation.
The department oflBcials, while appreciating the need for such work, were
forced to reply that no funds were available. Then, as a result of the
activity of a few leading members of the American Association of Nur-
serymen, a special item of $20,000 for nursery stock investigations was
secured for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1920. The same amount has
been carried in the regular appropriation for the year beginning July 1,
1921, and July 1, 1922. The item reads as follows:

"For investigating, in cooperation with state or privately owned nur-
series, methods of propagating fruit trees, ornamental and other plants,
the study of stocks used in propagating such plants and methods of
growing stocks, for the purpose of providing American sources of stocks,
cuttings, or other propagating materials, $20,000."

Our nursery project is administered by the bureau of plant industry
through its office of horticulture and pomological investigations. This
oflBce is directed by Dr. L. C. Corbett, and during the summer and fall of
1920 the nursery stock investigations were directly handled by Dr. Cor-
bett. He made a survey of nursery practices in England, France and
Holland, giving particular attention to the fruit tree seedling industry.
The information secured by him on this trip has been of great value in
developing the nursery stock project.

The writer was brought back into the department in February, 1921,
and placed in charge of this project. The investigational work the first
year was conducted at Bell, Maryland, and this last season work was also
conducted at Diamond Springs, Virginia, and South Haven, Michigan. The
coming year some work will be carried on at Altadena and Shafter,
California.

At Bell, Maryland, approximately five acres are devoted to nursery
stock investigations; at South Haven, Michigan, about one-half acre is

91

devoted to nursery stock work, and at Diamond Springs, Virginia, about
one-fourth acre. At Bell, Maryland, the work is carried on on land leased
by the department of agriculture; at S'outh Haven, Michigan, the work is
developed in cooperation with Prof. V. R. Gardiner, head of the horticul-
tural department of the Michigan State Agricultural Experiment Station,
and at Diamond Springs, Virginia, in cooperation with Prof. T. C. John-
son, director of the Virginia Truck Experiment Station. At Altadena,
California, the work will be developed in cooperation with Mr. C. S. Milli-
ken, manager of the bud supply department of the Fruit Growers Supply
Company of the California Fruit Growers Exchange, and at Shafter, Cali-
fornia, in cooperation with Mr. W. B. Camp, agronomist in charge of the
United States experiment farm at that point.

Associated with the writer in the nursery stock project are: Mr. G. E.
Yerkes, assistant pomologist, who is in direct charge of the nurseries and
the experimental work in propagation; Mr. Charles Swingle, junior pomol-
ogist, who assists in the work at Bell and Diamond Springs; Mr. M. L.
Hancock, who is also located at Bell; Mr. Stanley Johnson, superintend-
ent of the branch station at South Haven, Michigan, who has charge of
the experimental work at that point, and Miss Clara Ballard, who is com-
piling notes on propagation from old files of the Florists Exchange, Gar-
deners Chronicle, and similar publications.

In addition to the investigational work, an attempt is made to main-
tain the closest cooperation with the nursery interests of the country.
During the last two years most of the important nurseries in the United
States have been visited by some member of the staff and their propaga-
tion methods studied.

The nurserymen are keenly interested in the department's work, and
in order to bring about a closer cooperation between the nursery inter-
ests and the department, the American Association of Nurserymen has a
standing advisory committee for our nursery stock work. The members
of this committee this year are:

Henry Chase, chairman. Chase, Alabama..
F. A. Wiggins, Toppenish, Washington.
H. Harold Hume, Glen St. Mary, Florida.
E. S. Welch, Stenandoah, Iowa.

The leading activities, or sub-projects, we are developing might be listed
as follows:

(1) The raising of fruit tree seedlings;

(2) The vegetative propagation of fruit tree stocks;

(3) Rose stock investigations;

(4) Propagation of ornamentals;

(5) Furnishing information regarding propagation.

As this society is primarily interested in fruits, we will confine our
report to a brief review of the work carried on under our first, second
and fifth sub-projects.

As pointed out before, a comprehensive study of practices used in
France and Holland by fruit tree seedling growers was made by Dr. Cor-

92

bett in 1920. This was supplemented by studies of American methods in
the Kaw valley of Kansas, in Washington, Iowa and Minnesota by the
writer and his associates in 1920 and 1921.

Blocks of apple seedlings grown from different sources of seed were
purchased in the spring of 1921 and lined out at Bell, Maryland. These
included:

(1) Imported French crab seedlings;

(2) Kansas-grown seedlings from Imported seeds;

(3) Minnesota-grown seedlings from Minnesota seeds;

(4) Pennsylvania-grown seedlings from Pennsylvania seeds;

(5) Kansas-grown seedlings from Vermont seeds;

(6) Iowa-grown seedlings from French seeds;

(7) Iowa-grown seedlings from Minnesota seeds;

(8) Iowa-grown seedlings from Vermont seeds.

Judged by their behavior in 1921 and also the behavior of smaller
blocks in 1922, the seedlings which appear to be the most vigorous and
make the best growth are:

(1) American-grown seedlings from American seed;

(2) Imported French seedlings;

(3) American-grown seedlings from French seed.

■ This year a smaller block of two-year-old seedlings was selected. These
were originally raised at Hamburg, Iowa, were in the general study block
at Bell last year and lined out in comparative rows this year. They
included:

(1) Iowa seedlings from French seed;

(2) Iowa seedlings from Minnesota seed;

(3) Iowa seedlings from Vermont seed.

These were budded about the first of May to the following varieties:

(1) Northern Spy;

(2) Baldwin;

(3) Jonathan;

(4) Stayman Winesap.

"When last observed by the writer, about September 10, the difference in
the rate of growth was very striking; all the varieties budded on the
seedlings raised from Minnesota and Vermont seeds were making a more
vigorous and better growth than those on the seedlings raised from
French crab seed.

In addition to these larger seedling blocks, open-pollinated seed of a
number of named commercial varieties has been secured and small blocks
of seedlings raised. Up to date, the two varieties which have been the
most outstanding as giving the highest percentage of clean, straight-
rooted seedlings are Tolman and Mcintosh. This work with seedlings of
named varieties Is being continued on a much larger scale this year.
Seedling plantings will be made at Bell, Maryland, and Shaffer, Califor-
nia, and will include seedlings of about twenty named varieties of French
cider apples and about twenty or twenty-five leading American varieties.

93

The work up to date has shown, as was to be expected, that there is a
marked variation in vigor, habit of growth and root development of open
pollinated seedlings of different named varieties.

It is at once apparent, that even with the prices which are now paid
for seedlings, it is practically impossible for the average seedling grower
to secure an adequate amount of seed of any one or two varieties. Be-
cause of this fact it was' felt that it was worth while to give considerable
time to the possibility of vegetatively propagating fruit tree stocks.

The propagation of certain pears in the southern states by hardwood
cuttings was a general practice a number of years ago. Apples have been
propagated in this way by different investigators, but with more or less
indifferent success. Softwood propagation is not only feasible for cer-
tain classes of plants, particularly some of the citrus hybrids, but has
been demonstrated by Dr. W. T. Swingle and Mr. T. R. Robinson, of the
office of crop physiology and breeding investigations, United States depart-
ment of agriculture, to be commercially practical. Layering has been prac-
ticed in many places as a method of direct propagation. All of these
methods were similar in one respect, that is, a part of the plant which
grew above the ground was used.

We have found that very good results can be secured by propagating
from root cuttings. From 5,000 Yakima apple seedlings root cuttings
were made this last season and in the neighborhood of 100,000 plants were
raised from these root cuttings. The cuttings from seedling roots which
appear to make the best growth are those about one-quarter inch in diam-
eter and three inches in length. The cuttings were made in February
and March and planted at Bell, Maryland, Diamond Springs, Virginia,
and South Haven, Michigan, in March and April. They were planted in
the open in nursery rows, in a vertical position and buried to a depth of
about an inch. Buds develop and shoots push through the ground in
three to four weeks' time. As these shoots develop earth is hilled up
around them. Roots form on the new growth and on the original cut-
tings. The shoots made a sufficient growth so they could be budded
about Sel)tember first and the rooted shoots containing the dormant buds
can be removed this fall and lined out next spring. The shoots which
were not used as budding stocks can be used for whole-root grafts this
winter. The original root cuttings are allowed to remain in the ground,
as it is found they send out even stronger shoots the second year than
the first. This method has proven equally as efficient with Mazzard,
Myrobalan, Almond, Sour Orange, Pyrus ussuriensis and Pyrus calleryana.
With the latter two species it seems to offer wonderful possibilities.
Prof. F. C. Reimer, superintendent of the Southern Oregon Experiment
Station, Talent, Oregon, has found in his work with both of these species
that there are certain seedlings which he has not been able to inoculate
with pear blight. In other work he has seedlings which for commercial
purposes may be said to be immune to blight. By propagating by root
cuttings these resistant individuals can be multiplied. We are develop-
ing our work in close cooperation with Professor Reimer and hope this
season and in the following years to arrange for an extensive propaga-
tion of his blight-resistant seedlings at our field nurseries.

94

It has been found in extensive observations made at nurseries In dif-
ferent locations that many grafted trees develop roots of the variety
above the graft union. At the present time own-rooted trees of approxi-
mately fifty named varieties of apple propagated by root cuttings are
being grown at Bell, South Haven and Diamond Springs,

In addition to these major projects, we are securing some readings on
the behavior of certain types of Prunus hortulana and Prunus mexicana
as stocks for peaches and plums. Through the courtesy of Mr. John Dun-
bar and Mr. B. H. Slavin, of the Rochester, New York, Park System,
there has been placed at our disposal their entire collection of these
species. In cooperation with Mr. H. E. Hamilton, of Tallahassee, Florida,
we are testing different types of Peento peaches as possible peach stocks
for the southern states.

WTien the project was first started, it was found there was no satis-
factory file of propagation notes available. The requests for information
regarding methods of propagating different plants are so varied that it
was decided it would be well worth while to gather together from old
papers, such as the Gardeners Chronicle, Florists Exchange and similar
publications, any notes which might have a bearing on plant propaga-
tion. This information is of particular value in answering requests on
the propagation of ornamentals. Short circulars dealing with the gen-
eral subjects of the raising of apple, pear, peach and plum seedlings have
been prepared. These are found to be a great aid in answering corre-
spondence.

In conclusion, may we say that in this paper we have attempted to
summarize a few of the things we are attempting to do in our nursery
stock investigations. The work is being developed in the closest cooper-
ation with the nursery interests of the country. The investigations are
still in their infancy, but we hope that from the lines of work now under
way something worth while may be learned.

95
THE QUESTION OF ROOTSTOCKS

W. L. Howard, Professor of Pomology, University of California,

Davis, California

In all countries where fruit growing has advanced beyond the seedling
state, the question of rpotstocks has been given more or less attention.
Taken as a whole, the United States has probably paid more attention to
rootstocks than any other country. This is because fruit growing is more
of a main business with us. In France, Italy and Spain — countries we
are apt to think of as great fruit producers — the growing of Iruit trees
is mostly a side line to general farming. The almond business of Spain
and Italy, and the walnut industry of a certain limited section of France,
come very near being what we would call on a business basis, in that
the trees are not only budded or grafted varieties and planted in orchard
form (that is, rows both ways), but the owners depend upon the produce
of their trees for a living. Even in the almond and walnut orchards
other crops are grown to a considerable extent, but here these inter-crops
are the side issue.

The vineyards of all western Europe occupy all the land on which they
are grown and no other returns are expected from the soil except the
produce of the vines. This makes the grape growers, then, about the
only honest-to-goodness fruit specialists of the continental part of the
old world. And these grape producers know a lot about the best stocks
for their vines, too.

There are two main reasons why people become interested in the kinds
of rootstocks they are using. The first of these is the extent to which
they are specializing and the second, and most important, is the cost of
the land. It makes a lot of difference whether the orchard land cost
twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre or five hundred to a thousand. High
priced land makes high-class farming a necessity. If a bearing orchard
is valued at $200 to $300 an acre, it may not be a vital matter if every
tree does not thrive and produce to full capacity, but where the orchard
is valued at $2,000 per acre and more, it is real tragedy for the owner
if a single tree is lost or a few fail to thrive.

In most parts of the United States the rootstock question is given but
little attention, chiefly because land values are relatively low, and be-
cause long experience has shown that the stocks chosen by the nursery-
men make trees that are as successful as their purchsers expected them
to be. In other words, the standards are rather low all around. Of
course it must not be forgotten in this connection that the apple and
peach^ — the principal fruits grown east of the Sierras — come nearer hav-
ing standardized rootstocks than any of the others, and come nearer to
doing well on these stocks in all localities and sections than any other
fruits, but even they may have their troubles that might be remedied by a
study of the rootstock question.

For instance, we have for decades and generations been securing the
major portion of our apple stocks from France. We have always called
this stock the "French crab" and knew in a general way that it came
from seedling apples grown for cider purposes. And we have always
thought that these cider apples, like all the apples we knew anything

96

about, were rather carefully selected for their purpose and therefore
fairly true to type. Also we thought they were grown on the hallowed
soils of France.

In the first place, the cider apple orchards • of any country consist of
trees that are very unlike in vigor, habit of growth and the kind of fruit
they produce. In general appearance the apple orchards of Normandy and
Brittany in northern France look much like the orchards of many of our
experiment stations where scores, if not hundreds, of varieties are being
tested and scarcely any two looking or behaving alike. The trees are not
only very different in appearance, but they bloom from early May until
July and the vari-colored and diversely shaped fruit ripens from June
until October.

Furthermore, much of the apple stock we have fondly believed came
from France did not grow in France at all, but came from Austria. How
much of it has come from Austria and how long it has been coming, I do
not know, but I do know a big Italian firm has been collecting both apple
and pear seeds from the province of Styria in Austria for years and sell-
ing them to French dealers who resold them to nurserymen and dealers
in the United States. Whether this stock is better or worse than the
French grown article, I cannot say, but from the standpoint of uniformity,
I am sure it cannot be any worse. When I was in Italy in the summer
of 1921, I wanted to go on into Austria to see the apple and pear orchards
from which the Italian firm I was visiting collected their seeds, but con-
ditions were very unfavorable for traveling in that country at the time,
so I did not go. However, my Italian friends declared they looked very
much like the French orchards and I had to let it go at that.

From what has been said,, does it not seem reasonable that there is a
real rootstock problem with apples for every part of the United States
wherever apples are grown if someone cares to take it up? And the
same is, no doubt, true of pears, but in less degree.

In California, the rootstock problem with stone fruits and pears has
been acute for some years, but it is only recently that the question has
been taken up for careful study. The California growers specialize to a
high degree and they all operate on high priced land. The pear stock
we need is one that is resistant to the pear woolly aphis, immune to the
root disease known as oak fungus (Armillaria mellea) ; blight resistant—
that is, will not permit the blight to pass from the tree into the roots
nor throw up sprouts to be attacked by blight; a stock that can stand a
wet soil; and, finally, which makes a good union with our principal va-
riety, the Bartlett.

The so-called French stock is practically immune to the oak fungus
disease, stands a wet soil and makes a strong union with the Bartlett,
but it is very suspectible to blight and is severely injured by the woolly
aphis. Our growers are now using as a substitute the so-called Japan
stock (Pyrus serotina), and while it seems to take the Bartlett graft
well and resists the woolly aphis to a marked degree, it is by no means
blight resistant, does not do as well as the French in wet soil, and last,
but not least, is subject to oak fungus attack. Professor Reimer of Ore-
gon is doing some good work in testing out several promising types and
species, including a number of Manchurian forms.

97

For peach stocks, Pacific coast nurserymen have long been using seeds
of the Salway and Muir varieties, but they are not agreed as to which is
the best. And now that the nematode, or eel-worm, is beginning to do so
much damage to peach roots in some sections, there is a grand rush to
find some other stock than the peach root that will resist the attacks of
this organism. The apricot is promising, as it is not attacked, but, un-
fortunately, does not always make a good union with the peach. To use
it may necessitate double-working with Almond, Myrobalan or Sugar
prune as the intermediate stock. The peach and all other stone fruit
rootstocks tried are very susceptible to oak fungus attack. The Myro-
balan is the most resistant of any tried, but it is far from being safe.

Our cherry rootstocks are far from satisfactory. Some think Mazzard
is the best for the sweet cherries and some — a small minority, favor the
Mahaleb. There is a tendency now in some quarters to use the Morello.
While in Europe last year I investigated the sources of our cherry seed
supply. The French dealers have not been sending us the wild Mazzard,
as we believed, but have been sending a miscellaneous collection of seeds
from cultivated varieties. The supply of wild Mazzard trees in Nor-
mandy is entirely too small and yields only a fraction of the seeds we
use. This may account for the great lack of uniformity in the behavior
of our trees on that stock.

The wild Mahaleb cherry trees of the Rhone valley in southwestern
France are used as hedges to subdivide the grain farms and there seems
to be enough of them to supply all our needs for a long time to come.
Where trees were allowed to grow without being headed back for hedge
purposes, they were from twenty to twenty-five feet tall and a foot in
diameter. Apparently they should not exert a serious dwarfing effect on
sweet cherries unless the Mahaleb growth is too slow. Neither the Maz-
zard nor Mahaleb is resistant to oak fungus and neither can stand a wet
soil. In a wild state the Mahaleb is able to thrive in very dry soils. I
have never seen a wild Mazzard growing in any but a deep, moist, but
well drained soil.

The Myrobalan or cherry plum is the chief rootstock for plums and
prunes everywhere and, on occasion, may serve for peach and apricot.
I found that practically all of the Myrobalan seed supply for both
Europe and America comes from a rather limited region about thirty
miles west of Venice in Italy. Nurserymen have known for a long time
that there is considerable variation among the Myrobalan seedlings, but
I was scarcely prepared to find seven or eight different types of fruit
ripening over a period of two months and twelve or fifteen different
types of seeds. The parent trees did not seem to exhibit any marked
differences in size or vigor, but this was hard to determine, as they were
always found growing in gardens among plums, prunes and other fruits
and always crowded so that every tree had to grow tall to get its share
of light.

The California Experiment Station has a comprehensive rootstock in-
vestigation under way which includes studies of all the questions men-
tioned in the foregoing pages and also many other problems, such as affini-
ties and adaptations of species and varieties to widely differing soil con-

98

ditions. So far the nortliern California black walnut, the black fig and
the French pear are the only stocks that successfully resist oak fungus
and the fig and Prunus Davidiana are to a high degree tolerant of alkali.
The latter is a good peach stock.

Pacific coast nurserymen are more and more inclined to grow their own
Myrobalan plum seed. All over California there are scattering Myroba-
lan trees that have been allowed to grow after some accident has hap-
pened to the prunes. They can always be depended upon to bear and as
seed collectors are bidding high for the fruit for seed purposes, the trees
are as profitable as prunes. However, it is realized if we are to grow our
own seed supply, it is very important to select only the best types from
every viewpoint. This is one of the lines of study now under way.

We are also making a wide study of wild forms of plums and cherry
species in the hopes of eventually finding something that will not be at-
tacked by oak fungus. Such a stock need not necessarily be satisfactory
in other respects, except that the graft union with the variety must be
reasonably strong. Now, when a stone fruit tree dies from oak fungus,
there is no recourse except to plant a pear, walnut or fig and the average
prune grower, for instance, does not want either of these trees in his or-
chard. Most of our growers would be perfectly willing to pay several
dollars, if necessary, for a tree, if they were assured they could safely
replant the prune or cherry tree in the holes where the others have
died. Therefore, to the Pacific coast grower, one of the most important
rootstock questions is to find something for the stone fruits that will re-
sist this dread disease. For the rest of the United States, perhaps the
question of hardiness, or ability to resist low temperature, would be the
greatest single factor of interest in connection with rootstocks.

99

THE DRIFT AND DEVELOPMENT OF SPRAY
PRACTICES IN AMERICA

Leroy Childs, Superintendent Hood River Experiment Station, Hood River,

Oregon

The subject that has been given to me, "The Drift and Development of
Spray Practices in America," is one that I sometimes feel is a little too
general to permit of comprehensive discussion on my part, as my investi-
gational work only covers a period of some ten years, confined entirely
to the problems of the extreme West and largely to spraying of apples
and pears.

If you will permit me to hark back to the first feeble attempts to con-
trol insect pests and plant diseases, we find that man has been combatting
insects and plant diseases as far back as we have records of plant culti-
vation. Available records show that these early attempts in fighting
these various "plagues" and "blights" were accompanied with varying
results. Up to 1860 the control of the enemies of cultivated plants was
dependent largely upon the ingenuity of the gardener or orchardist who
possessed no technical knowledge of the behavior or life history of the
pest to be controlled and ofttimes no very great knowledge of the be-
havior of the material with which he was using. These ancient entomolo-
gists and plant pathologists more often than not trusted in the material
with the most ill smelling odor for results. Often very startling results
in successful control were recorded and only by further trials were found
to be wholly lacking in their supposed powers of control. However, out
of this cut and try process, carried on over a period of many years, came
hjany important discoveries. The year 1860 appears to be an approximate
dividing line between what might be termed ancient and modern methods
of fighting plant pests. Up to this date materials were used which ap-
pealed largely to the senses. After this came the testing of many chem-
icals, regardless of odor. At this time sulphur was used extensively for
mildews and available insecticide of the times consisted of various forms
of soap, quassia chips, tobacco and carbolic acid.

The year 1880 saw a rapid expansion in the knowledge of insecticides
in America. The ravages brought on by the potato bug, codling moth and
other leaf eating insects made their control imperative, if the farmer and
horticulturist was to succeed. Well do I remember the late Dr. A. J.
Cook tell his first experiences in controlling calyx worms in apples with
Paris green. This was done in 1880 and the spray was applied with an
ordinary syringe, as up to this time spraying as we understand it was
not practiced. Insecticidal and fungicidal materials were "syringed"
upon the plants by using an instrument of construction similar
to the ordinary syringe. Other early methods of application consisted of
washing the plants with the liquid or by throwing it on to the surface
through the use of a sort of whisk broom. This latter method of appli-
cation was generally practiced largely by gardeners and greenhouse men.
Later an improved brush was developed, consisting of the ordinary brush
with a tube leading in at the top and fed by gravity from a tank of spray
liquid carried upon the operator's back. Watering cans with fine holes

100

through which the spray materials were sprinkled was also one of the
early methods employed in controlling pests on low growing plants. This
method of application, though quite successful . in destroying the pests,
was decidedly wasteful of materials.

The period of years, 1880 to 1895, was one of rapid development in
spraying equipment, both in Europe and America. The syringe was rap-
idly followed by Whitman's fountain pump, the "E'clair" knapsack
pump, "Galloway" knapsack pump, barrel pump, pneumatic pump and
the geared spray pump. The geared machine was the first to derive its
power other than by hand and dates back only 32 years. In 1894 the first
successful steam power sprayer was manufactured. It was possible to
develop an unheard of pressure, 125-200 pounds, with this outfit, but
owing to the fact that hose construction had not been improved, 100
pounds pressure was about all that could be satisfactorily used. In 1895,
or 27 years ago, an orchardist in California employed the first gas en-
gine successfully as power for applying spray. It is reported that this
machine developed 200 pounds pressure, employing bamboo spray rods,
and was in fact a machine very similar to that found in operation in many
orchards today. The one great step forward since this time has been the
development of the spray gun.

Similarly, we also find activity in the development of dusting methods,
hand bellows, powder guns and finally our up-to-date power duster.
Throughout this period much ingenuity was shown in the manufacture
of spraying nozzles, all contributing to the perfection that we have today.
No improvement of a fundamental nature occurred in the application
of spray until the appearance of the spray gun. In 1916 this new device
first came to the attention of horticulturists generally, and during the
year 1917 our station carried on its first work to determine the relative
merits of the spray gun used on various outfits of different capacities.
At the same time we were also carrying on parallel tests with different
combinations of dust and comparing therewith the results obtained,
where the old familiar method of spraying with the twelve foot rods was
used.

Before summarizing these results, it might be well to discuss briefiy
the condition under which these experiments were applied. Typical or-
chard conditions prevailed in a typical fruit growing section of the "West.
The tests were all carried on with standard equipment of various capaci-
ties and the materials used were those made by manufacturers of repute.
These are fundamentals which, I believe, are often overlooked by many in-
vestigators who working at some college or station outside a typical
fruit growing section are forced to draw conclusions based upon results
obtained from the use of inferior equipment. This condition of affairs ia
probably largely responsible for many unexplainable conclusions drawn.
If we glance over the literature published during the past 10 years on the
subject of spraying and dusting and correctly analyze the results obtained
and recommendations issued, we are impressed with the varying opinions
presented. The investigators' interpretations are those based upon the
results obtained with the particular outfit employed and under the exist-
ing conditions present, either favorable or unfavorable, typical, or irregu-

101

lar, and these conclusions may be far from what they would have been
had more nearly standard equipment been employed and more typical
orchard conditions been present in which to carry on the investigation.

Of course it is a recognized fact that conditions vary to such an extent
that recommendations workable in one section may not be so in another.
One of the more recent points of interest along this line, and one which
undoubtedly influences our spraying results, with lime sulphur in the
control of scab, has just been pointed out by Dorani, of New Hampshire,
following a careful study of the toxicity of lime sulphur to the apple
scab fungus. He has found that "Commercial lime sulphur solution at
dilutions of one part in forty parts of water or of one part in ten parts
of water does not prevent germination of the Conidia of Ventiiria inae-
qualis, when sulphides are absent." "Calcium polysulphide decomposes
most rapidly and decreases in fungicidal efficiency most rapidly when the
sprayed surface dries slowly." He also found that sulphur was toxic to
the Conidia of the apple scab fungus when the temperature remains at
26.0 degrees Centigrade for five hours. He concludes, then, in referring
to average temperatures "that results obtained in other sections of the
country, sulphur fungicides would be less effective in Nova Scotia than
in New Hampshire and less effective in New Hampshire than in Virginia."
We need much more investigational work of this type in order to clear
up the irregular results that are continually occurring. As I have men-
tioned before, some of the conclusions seem to be incorrect, due to the
fact that these results are based upon data that are not comparative or
are not sufficiently extensive to permit the drawing of conclusive results.
Thus, for example, we find some investigators reporting better worm con-
trol with the spray gun using a pressure of 100-125 pounds than with
high pressure. In analyzing their tests, we find that they do not have
available a sprayer which can be considered a high pressure outfit. The
conclusions are then drawn that the gun is more effective at low pres-
sure than at high pressure and brings about much confusion, particularly
in the minds of orchardists. We also find some very irregular results
presented from tests made with the various dust mixtures. Over-enthu-
siasm based upon incomplete evidence has resulted in the expenditures
and loss of much money. This, perhaps without probable ultimate good,
for it has stimulated much activity and interest in this particular method
of controlling plant pests and which probably would not have been under-
taken for many years without the incentive given.

, With the appearance of the'spray gun in 1917 and the a,lready expressed
interest on the part of the growers in the dusting method for controlling
the codling moth and apple scab, it became imperative that our station
find out the merits of these two methods of apple protection as compared
to the old established method of applying sprays with a three or three
and a half horse power outfit with twelve foot rods.

In view of the fact that there appears to be a question in the minds
at the present time of many growers, especially here in the Mid-West and
East, and I believe in the minds of some of our investigators, concetning

1 Laboratory Studies of the Toxicity of Some Sulphur Fungicides. Wm.
L. Doran. Tech. Bui. 19, New Hamp. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1922.

102

the practicability of the spray gun, it might be well to briefly discuss the
results of some of my work, even though some of this has already been
published. The work was conducted on an extensive scale, typical or-
chard conditions prevailing, and during much of the time over which the
tests ran ample infestation and infection occurred to permit the drawing
of definite conclusions. Assembled for the work was a l^/^ to 2 horse
power outfit, a S^/^ horse power outfit and a 10 horse power outfit. The
dusting work was conducted with two large power dusters of well known
make. The effectiveness of the gun on each of the sprayers was checked
against blocks in which dust sulphur and lead were used. After carrying
on these dusting tests three years, we are able to conclude that dust
properly applied would control codling moth at Hood River to a degree
comparable with spray properly applied from either a spray rod or gun;
and also that scab was controlled, though not as effectively as the codling
moth. Dust, pioperly applied, is a term that must not be misunderstood.
The trees during the period of investigation were dusted six and seven
times each season under absolutely favorable weather conditions. Nearby
growers were dusting the same years. Wind was disregarded by them.
Results in the experimental orchards showed worminess in the amount of
1.9% to 5.37%, depending upon the year of application and the orchard
in which the work was done, while the growers were losing from 25% to
35% of their fruit on account of worm infestation. Continuous winds
occurring during the spring over most of the Northwest make thorough
dusting impossible. The experimental work was actually done about 4
to 6 o'clock in the morning, at which time quiet prevailed. Dusting was
also found to be more expensive and its general utility limited because
of the presence of several pests that could not be controlled in this way.

The results obtained with the spray gun used under the conditions al-
ready mentioned permitted the drawing of many useful suggestions and
recommendations. We can state emphatically and without reservation
that the gun cannot be used on every spray outfit. The dissatisfaction
existing among growers today is probably due largely to the fact that
these growers have tried to use them under all sorts of conditions. It
appeals to them because of the ease of operation and the speed with
which spraying can be accomplished. In fact, many have followed the
lines of least resistance, have used the gun, disregarding entirely the
fundamental principles that must be present in order to obtain the bene-
fits that this instrument offers. For example, in looking over our results
in controlling the codling moth, we find that the gun operated on a l^/^
horse power outfit has been very poor. Our analysis of these results ob-
tained on trees so sprayed show that fair control was obtained in the lower
portions of the trees and very poor control in the tops. In one experi-
ment we found 3.5% damage in that portion of the tree from the ground
to twelve feet and 17.8% damage above this point. Generally speaking,
providing thorough, well timed spraying has been done, there are two
reasons, either one of which would bring about the above type of control.
The average l^/^ horse power outfits have a pumping capacity of not to
exceed 4 or 5 gallons of spray per minute and the pressure that it can
maintain is limited, probably not more than 200-225 pounds on the aver-

103

age, without killing the engine. The grower then follows one of two
courses, he either cuts down the size of the disc in his spray gun in order
to get a finely divided spray, or he uses a fairly coarse spray in order to
keep his engine running and in order to finish his job in a hurry. Both
of these combinations will bring about the degree of worminess cited
above. The reasons are these: where the fine disc is used and the fine
spray employed from a small outfit, the discharge is very limited — one to
three gallons per minute. The sprayer salesman says, "Sure, this rig will
hold 300 pressure and will operate two guns." However, if one will put
the nozzle in a milk can and measure the discharge it will be seen that
capacity and with it working radius has been sacrificed for the 300
pounds pressure. This set of conditions is productive of very poor re-
sults unless extreme care in spraying is practiced, an act not yet learned
by a large percentage of fruit growers in the country. I am firmly con-
vinced, after carrying on numerous tests and observing many growers
operating two guns on Zy2 horse power outfit, that herein lies their trou-
ble and a set of conditions which had not been favorable to the use of the
spray gun. To growers who must use this type of outfit my advice is,
use one gun only; employ a disc in the nozzle through which about 5
gallons of spray is discharged and try to keep the pressure as near 300
pounds as possible; go back to the rods if your sprayer cannot be made
to meet these conditions.

The spray gun was first made to be a part of a high powered outfit,
and there it rightfully belongs. Adoption to small outfits was not in the
minds of the originators of the spray gun and the orchardist who has
used it with poor success should, in all justice to the spray gun, shoulder
the blame. Our station began testing these new high pressure machines
for our various apple orchard ailments shortly after their first introduc-
tion. Right from the start the gun has given a good account of itself.
This larger outfit, taking into consideration its greater cost, can be op-
erated just as economically as the smaller rigs and at the same time cut-
ting the actual spraying time nearly in half, thus making available much
time for orchard work other than spraying. It has been found no more
wasteful of materials, in fact, we have much information that leads us
to believe that it is less wasteful of spray materials, than small outfits
when the spray is applied with experienced gun men. In our experimen-
tal work results in controlling codling moth have, in most cases, been su-
perior to that obtained with the spray rods. The control of other or-
chard troubles obtained by orchardists using high powered outfits has
been more complete with the gas than was obtainable with the rods. The
work has been more thorough and much more readily accomplished.

During the past summer, we carried on tests to determine the size of
openings in the discs that should be employed in the spray gun for best
all around results in applying spray. This, taking into consideration
both economy in the usage of material and also the speed and effective-
ness of the application, is a point of much importance to growers. Our
earlier observations have led us to believe that the right type of spray is
one that is very finely divided and ejected from the gun at a relatively
high pressure in order to obtain this particular division of spray; suffi-

104

cient volume must be thrown from the gun to enable the covering of the
higher portions of the trees. In order to obtain this, as w^ell as the fine-
ness of the spray, it is necessary to have a fairly large opening in the disc
of the nozzle and also a machine of sufficient capacity to maintain the
necessary pressure. After several years of observations and field tests,
we have found that 300 or 325 pounds is necessary to operate the spray
gun satisfactorily. We have also observed that the average operator can
handle five or six gallons a minute (provided the above conditions are
employed) economically.

Many growers, due to the fact that they have tried to adapt the spray
gun to their small outfits, have employed small openings in the discs of
their guns in order to develop a finely divided spray. In so doing, a
pressure of 300 pounds or such a matter is obtained, but due to the fact
that the opening in the nozzle is reduced so greatly, volume as well as
spraying radius is greatly reduced. The result has been that we have
found it not only takes a much longer time to spray, but also that this
practice has been responsible for the development of much worminess and
other troubles in the higher portions of the trees. Western apple growing
sections are inclined to be quite windy during the spraying season and as
a result a volume of this sort cannot be used and the upper portions of the
trees satisfactorily covered.

In order to find out the amount of spray that could be forced through
nozzle openings of different sizes, a series of tests was made. In doing
this work a Bean Super-Giant Junior sprayer was employed. Two fifty-
foot % inch hose were employed to which were connected Friend guns.
At the end of each hose a tee was placed in the coupling and a pressure
gauge was attached in order that the pressure could be determined for
each gun and checked up with the pressure gauge on the machine. These
were tested and found to read approximately the same as before the tests
were begun. The engine was run at a speed of about 800 revolutions and
the pressure regulator on the machine was set so that the gauge ranged
between 325-350 pounds pressure. The approximate pressure registered
at the end of the hose was found to be 300-325 pounds.

In determining the capacity, the guns were opened wide and the spray
discharged into a barrel. The material was measured out and the out-
put determined. Each test covered a period of five minutes. The follow-
ing openings in the discs were employed: 1/16 inch, 3/32, 7/64, 1/8, 9/64,
and 3/16. Two guns were used on the machine in all of these tests. It
was found that an overflow occurred in each case, with the exception of
that where two discs possessing 3/16 inch openings were placed on the
guns. In this case, the capacity of the machine was not sufficient to
maintain both of these.. A further test using one gun with 3/16 inch
opening was employed. It is interesting to note that though a pressure
of 300-325 occurred at the machine, but slightly over 250 pounds pressure
occurred at the nozzle. This was true, regardless of the fact that a
fairly good overflow occurred and the gun employed not more than 2/3
of the capacity of the outfit. It was found that the average discharge
from each gun where the 1/16 inch disc was employed was but 1.37 gal-
lons per minute. This was a very finely divided spray, but lacked the

105

carrying quality and volume whicli would make it a spray of any great
importance. An average of 3.1 was thrown from the disc with the 3/22
inch opening. This was also a very finely divided spray, but lacked the
volume to enable thorough spraying in the tops of large trees. The over-
flow in both of the above cases was very great and showed that it would
not be a good practice to operate a machine of this capacity and use so
little spray. In the case of the 7/16 inch disc, an average of 4.5 gallons
per minute occurred for each gun. This was a very good spray, with much
better volume than either of the above. The overflow, however, was much
more than was necessary as far as the economics of operation involved
was concerned. From the 1/8 inch disc an average of 5.72 gallons per
minute resulted, while the 9/64 inch disc averaged 6.62 gallons per min-
ute. In the case of the overflow of these two sizes, a fair discharge oc-
curred in the former, while in the case of the latter, the overflow was
slight. From the standpoint of economics of operation in the case of a
machine of this capacity, the results would indicate that the choice of a
disc should be between these two sizes in order to obtain the most eco-
nomical usage of the machine. Six gallons a minute is perhaps more
spray than the average man can handle judiciously. An active man, how-
ever, should be able to use 5 gallons very effectively and at the same
time with little waste. Of course it must be considered that these figures
are for continuous flow and the operator can not only cut off his spray
entirely, but can also reduce the use when spraying the lower portions
of the trees. There is need at times for a capacity of this amount and
when needed it should be available in order to hit the tops of the trees.
This is not the case, if the gun is throwing 3 or 4 gallons a minute or
less. The test shows that the capacity of the machine was 15.2 gallons
and that it was unable to operate two 3/16 discs at a 300 pounds pressure.
Where these were employed the pressure ranged between 200-225 pounds
at the machine and 150 pounds at the nozzle.

Generally speaking, my paper has discussed the past and present spray-
ing practices in a rather hurried fashion. What is there to be accom-
plished in the future, not only from the standpoint of the development of
new sprays, new methods of applications, but what I consider more im-
portant to the orchardist, carrying out what we already know so that
he may be more completely benefited by this knowledge. There are so
many growers who are so far away from immediate contact with reliable
information during the critical spraying season that it is no wonder they
experience much difficulty in producing clean fruit. Hood River is a
highly specialized apple growing district of no very great extent. The
apple district is closely and definitely defined. The growers for the most
part are eager to learn and take advice with reference to their spraying
practices. Along with my experimental work, I have made it a point
each year to work out the life history of the codling moth and study the
spore discharge of the apple scab fungus in order to make our spraying
programs adaptable to the yearly behavior of these pests. This direct
contact has been productive of much benefit. Regardless of the fact- that
our weather conditions are such as to make our insect and disease
control more difficult than many of the western apple districts the

106

persistent following of schedules has made possible the production of
a very high percentage of insect and disease free fruit. At the pres-
ent time much of the advice given to growers with reference to their
sprays and spraying problems come through the county agent. Usually
the agent is primarily not an entomologist or a plant pathologist and
in fact seldom can he be classified as a horticulturist. Though he
does the best he can for the fruit men, he lacks the fundamentals in
the subject of pest control and what is more important the necessary time
to give to this subject. It takes much time and work as well as
experience to correctly work out these problems. Based on the sev-.
eral years' observations that I have made in arranging spray dates
and schedules for fruit growers the more convinced I am of the im-
portance of this sort of work. If more complete application of our
present understanding of sprays and spraying practices is to put to
use in the greater part of the fruit growing sections of the country,
it will have to come largely through the activities of trained m,en
whose special duty it will be to know the seasonal activities of the dif-
ferent orchard pests and possess this information in sufficient time to
make it of value to the fruit growers. A man capable to handle such
a position can not be picked up every day. He must have much train-
ing and experience, not only in entomology, plant pathology, but in
horticulture as well. Many of you men who have not lived and worked
on the firing line with growers, perhaps do not realize the importance
of these qualifications. "We continually see young, untried men go to
the field and even though their training is of the best, they are unable
to meet the orchardist on the same plane. The resulting contact is
not one of permanence either to the investigator, the orchardist, or the
institution he represents. It should be the duty of teachers in our ag-
ricultural colleges to specially prepare men who can do work of this
sort. They should primarily be men originating from the farm. They
and they only for the great part, possess the farm instincts and be-
haviors making a contract possible. The average farmer and fruit
grower instinctively knows whether the man he is talking to knows
the game with its hardships and its ups and downs, or does not know
it. This will be the type of man who will carry out the information
and materially increase the orchard productivity of the country.

We, as investigators, have almost an unlimited field ahead of us.
We, like our predecessors, are for the most part ■ cutting and trying.
For reliable insecticides and fungicides we have a list of materials that
can be counted on the fingers of two hands; more commonly used
ones almost on the fingers of one hand. Our good entomological and
pathological investigators are not chemists. Our good chemists are
neither of the above. All too often plant physiology is a foreign sub-
ject for the most part to all three. The drift at the present time is
for closer team work with these three groups of workers and out of it
will come much improvement in our understanding of sprays and spray-
ing practices.

Question : What material do you use in the first dormant
spray in the first of March for scab?

Mr, Childs : Lime sulphur, one to twenty-five.

107

That is a point that we have been working on the last few
years. We started off using lime sulphur about one to fifteen.
But since then the work has indicated that we can materially cut
down that strength. Personally, I feel that one to forty would
be just as effective for scab as one to twenty-five. But, of course,
when you have scale, you have to use a dormant spray or increase
the strength in the delayed dormant spray.

Question: Why do you use one to twenty-five?

Mr. Childs : That hasn 't been determined. I personally use
one to forty. But I recommend one to twenty-five, because I am
not yet sure.

Member : I would like to know which you would prefer in. con-
trolling the scab in your own instance, the dust or the liquid?

Mr. Childs : I would take the liquid myself. I would apply it
with a spray gun on a big outfit. And I am sure that year in and
year out I would get better control.

Mr. Sharp : Is the lime sulphur as effective as bordeaux ?

Mr. Childs : Well, we discarded bordeaux because of rusting.
We are really confined to lime sulphur.

I might say that I consider lime sulphur the weakest spot in
our whole spray program at the present time. Lime sulphur is
a good fungicide, but it is a dangerous one. And I am looking
forward to the time when we will have a substitute for lime sul-
phur which will be much more safe. Under certain conditions
in Hood River, and I know it is true in other sections, we often get
a severe defoliation from its use, severe foliage burning.

The Chairman : Under just what conditions ?

Mr. Childs: Well, the combination under which lime sulphur
burns with us is during the period of cloudy, damp weather. In
bright, sunny weather things will come along fine, but, of course,
that is the condition when you don't need to spray so much. It is
the damp, cloudy weather during which the spores of scab are
being thrown off and are active.

Question: Does lime sulphur have any effect on causing drop?

Mr. Childs : It causes some drop. We have never had sufficient
drop to be really alarmed about that. But it will cause drop, and
for that reason I, personally, hate to recommend its use. But
being the only thing that we can use, we have to take it.

Mr. Chairman: Is there anything in prospect?

108

Mr. Childs : Not anything that has been tested sufficiently long
to draw any conclusions. I have tested out a number of the sul-
phur compounds. All of those have controlled scab. Soluble
sulphur will burn, however. Free sulphur, as far as I know, will
not cause this burning. And I think that the future development,
or rather that the spray of the future in the way of sulphur will
be through the use of some form of pure sulphur.

Mr, Lewis: Mr. Childs, have you seen any indication that the
sulphur working on apples, either foliage or fruit, has perhaps
the same effect that we begin to see on cherries and apricots where
it actually stunts the fruit? The indications on sour cherries
and also on apricots in California show that lime sulphur put on
at a certain stage will practically retard the proper development,
especially of the fruit. Fruit will never reach the normal size.
I wonder whether you have seen anything in connection with that
so-called sulphur shot along that line.

Mr. Childs : Well, we often call this burning sulphur shot, that
is, knocking it clear off the tree. I have never seen it stop the
growth of the fruit. But what we term sulphur shot with us is
the absolute removal of either the leaves or the fruit. That
often takes place.

Mr. Lewis: You haven't seen anything to check the ultimate
size of the fruit ?

Mr, Childs : No, not as far as I know — unless there is complete
defoliation. If you get that combination, then the material in-
fluences the size of your fruit.

Mr. Sharp : Is the late dormant spray the most important
spraying for scab?

Mr, Childs: Not necessarily. We base our control of scab —
well, I won't say base it, but we look upon it as being purely in-
surance. That is the first spray. We put on the late spray, re-
gardless of weather conditions. Then after that, if we are clean
up to that time of the year, it is almost a sure thing that we can
get through without any further application. But if we should
happen to miss one of those early sprays and get an infection,
then it is perhaps a fight all season and it will need perhaps two
more sprays to really effect control. Our observations point out
very clearly, as was demonstrated in a series of experiments,
that if you start and gain headway and keep the trees protected
that the chances of late infection are very slight. We insure

109

ourselves by putting in the first three sprays. And then if there
is any gambling done, we gamble later on in the season. But
to answer your question specifically, that depends on the weather
conditions. Now, if it failed to rain, your late dormant spray
would do no good, because there are no conditions there that
would bring about infection. That is why I say we must follow
a definite schedule to insure ourselves.

Mr. Sharp : Do you believe in spraying the ground around the
tree with soil there?

Mr. Childs: It will do you no good.

Mr. Ritchie : We get as much rusting from lime sulphur as we
do from bordeaux.

Mr. Childs: I have never seen a bit of rusting caused by the
spray gun. And I think Dr. Ruth has told me that he believed
it was due to the fact that an excessive amount of spray had
been put on. Under our conditions we have noted no injury from
the use of lime sulphur.

Mr. Garret : Do you use your lime sulphur when there is high
temperature ?

Mr. Childs : No, we don 't use much lime sulphur after the first
of June. If we do, we get absolute sulphur burn.

Mr. Garret: I have found in our work in Iowa that after you
get into the higher temperatures in the summer time that burning
is much more frequent with lime sulphur. In fact, our practice
now is to reduce the percentage of lime sulphur as soon as the
temperature goes above ninety.

Mr. Childs: Well, we can't do that with lime sulphur at all if
the temperature gets over ninety. That is due probably to the
fact that we get more sunshine there than you do here. I talked
to Dr. Waite of the United States department of agriculture on
that subject, and he said that they could use lime sulphur on
the Atlantic seaboard all summer, and he attributed that fact be-
cause the intensity of the light is not so great as it is out in the
far west.

Question : Would a ten horse-power engine do better work and
more efficient work than three and a half or four horse-power
engine on your spray machine?

Mr. Childs: I believe that very good work can be done with one
'gun on a three and a half or four horse-power outfit. But the

110

chances of doing better work favor the larger machine, because
it gives you that much more latitude for carelessness. I think a
very careful man can get good results with one gun on a three and
a half to four horse-power outfit.

The Chairman : That depends if he can get a three hundred
pound pressure.

Mr. Childs: He can get a three hundred pound pressure. I
have in my paper a little summary of some work that I did this
summer with reference to that.

Mr. Close: What length of hose did you use, and does the
length of hose make any special difference between the difference
of pressure at the pump and at the gauge?

Mr. Childs: I used five-eighths inch hose, and the pressure
was reduced from 350 to about 325 pounds at the end of the 50-foot
hose, a reduction of about twenty-five pounds.

Question: We want to find out here in Iowa if they have
ascertained what pressure is injurious to either the fruit or the
foliage.

Mr. Childs : I have used pretty nearly every kind of a pres-
sure that I have imagined and as far as I have been able to see
under our conditions, no fruit injury has occurred. We do get
more lime sulphur injury on foliage where we have over-sprayed
the lower parts of the trees. That is a thing I try to avoid.
And I think you will help yourselves if you do not over-spray.

Question: Which is the most economical pressure to use lo
get the most work done?

Mr. Childs: The right pressure for the spray gun is about 300 to
350 pounds, and to maintain that without any difficulty you have to have
a good rig. You had better go back to the rod if you are not going to
equip yourself with machinery that is going to do that.

The work that I am spending most of my time on at present is what
we call canker control in the west. It is a disease that is not present
here in the east, but very similar to your canker troubles here. , I am
trying to work out a combination spray that we can use in the spring
and give control needed in the fall. That is, the fungus does not be-
come active until the rain starts in the fall, and the growers do not
have time to spray after the fruit is harvested before infection takes
place. So that in order to cut out one spray, this late spray, I am mak-
ing a combination of bordeaux applied with this first oil spray that
we use for scale or leaf roller or anything of that sort. That is, we
apply as a spray in March, oil and bordeaux, which we hope will give
a good control late in the fall.

Ill

That is still in the experimental stage, but gives promise of giving
us some very good results. Along with this, we tested out a number
of bordeaux combinations and other sprays. And we have found, gen-
erally speaking, that a good home-made bordeaux is very persistent.
In fact, some of our chemical tests showed that from thirty to forty
per cent of that copper has remained clear through a whole year on a
tree, indicating remarkable persistence. This is not true of the pre-
pared sprays that you buy on the market. They very rapidly wash
from the trees. We have tested out three or four of them, but generally
speaking, we have observed that they do not possess persistence like the
home-made bordeaux.

112

DUSTING AND SPRAYING AS COMPLEMENTARY

PRACTICES

W. S. Brock, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

The revival time and again of the dusting question reminds us anew
that "hope springs eternal in the human breast."

This paper will deal only with the so-called sulfur-arsenate-of-lead
materials as applied during the growing season, or as these applications
are commonly called "summer sprays." Nothing has been done at any
time to show that dusting for the control of scale insects is of suf-
ficient value or importance to warrant any discussion of the method.
Up to this time also the writer has been unable to discover anything
in the use of copper dust materials which would make us seriously
consider these, either from the standpoint of efficiency or practicability.
In these latter there is the element of cost which would overshadow
the efficiency of the materials as fungicides and insecticides.

Materials

The best materials for dusting pome fruits are "superfine sulfur,"
or a product ground to a fineness, the grade of excellence being rated
in terms of percentages which will pass through a 400 mesh sieve.
Lead hydrogen arsenate of the "fluffy" type has been offered by many
manufacturers. Most of these materials are satisfactory for dusting
purposes. It is probably beside the point, but if sulfur could be made
economically as fine as lead arsenate we would have an altogether dif-
ferent story to tell concerning the practice of dusting.

Machinery

Dusting machinery is quite simple, consisting of a power unit con-
nected to a blower or enclosed fan of various sizes. For the sake of
economy, both in cost and weight, most machines have been too small
when used on mature apple trees. The largest machines offered have
been quite satisfactory on peach trees. It should be stated in this con-
nection that failures have generally been attributed to faulty applica-
tion. This is possibly true in mature northern orchards, but is un-
doubtedly not true in our low headed trees in the south.

There has been established the following principles in the use of the
dust method.

1. Dusting with now known materials cannot replace spraying.

2. Dusting is economical of time and, therefore, can be favorably com-
pared with spraying as regards the total cost of the two operations.

3. The limiting factor rests in the materials and not in the manner of
application.

4. Generally speaking diseases have not been satisfactorily controlled
on apple.

5. Insect control has been quite satisfactory especially of such insects
as the plum curculio.

6. Fairly satisfactory results have been reported in the use of nicotine
dust for the control of aphids.

7. A dust mixture must consist of active ingredients.

113

8. The greatest promise seems to lie in the dusting of peaches for
the control of curculio, brown rot or scab.

The use of figures in interpreting the relative value of dusting and
spraying is not profitable as has been shown in numerous cases. Some
very able men have from time to time proved by data that dusting
can be used to replace spraying. A long time ago, however, it was
stated by the manager of one of the large insecticide companies that
regardless of the figures the man who would ultimately settle the thing
would be the fruit grower. He has decided that dusting cannot re-
place spraying, and has not been convinced that it can even supplement
spraying.

Where Can Dust be Substituted?

A great many experiments have shown that lead hydrogen arsenate
exerts considerable fungicidal action; in many cases the control being
as great as 75%. This has lead to a practice of using only lead arsenate
and freshly slaked lump lime in water suspension on certain varieties
throughout the season. The results have been quite satisfactory on such
varieties as Grimes, Jonathan and others which are not susceptible to
either scab or blotch. Upon varieties which will permit, therefore, dust
might be used exclusively. Not much would be gained by this except
in orchards where such varieties had been planted in relatively large
blocks. Orchards planted with reference to cross pollination would
offer very little advantage to such a substitution, since many of the
other varieties would demand a more perfect fungicide. The same fact
above referred to seems to establish the truth of the statement that
greater fungicidal value is found in the lead arsenate than in the so-
called superfine sulfur. Experiments often demonstrated that the amount
of fungi on fruit sprayed with lime and lead arsenate tallied closely
with that recorded on fruit dusted with sulfur-arsenate-of-lead.

Where scab or blotch are important factors spraying must be relied
on. In fact, dusting has given practically no control of blotch in any
experiment or when used by commercial growers. This means that
with the exceptions noted it would be unwise to rely on dusting for any
application prior to seven weeks after petal fall south of the fortieth
parallel, where blotch would be found, and three weeks after petal
fall north of that point.

Second brood codling moth, where found in only moderate numbers,
can be satisfactorily controlled. Their numbers can more readily be pre-
dicted than can the amount of fungi in a given season so that a duster
might well become a part of an orchardist's equipment where second
brood codling moth are annually encountered and especially where a third
generation of worms is the rule and not the exception. There are in
nearly every season a few sections aflJicted by drouths. This was true
in southern Illinois this year in which many orchardists were unable
to get water for either the second or third brood codling moth sprays.
It was only because of an abnormally light crop of worms that there was
any marketable fruit. Dusting would have been of immense value under
such conditions.

Tho sizf" of orf^hards would to a considerable extent influence the de-

114

gree to which dusting might supplement spraying. For example, one
operating four to six hundred acres of mature trees could afford to in-
vest in dusting equipment and materials, while a twenty acre block would
certainly not warrant such expenditure. Just where the line should be
drawn cannot be stated because there is still another factor, viz., the
individual. Some men have the habit of "getting by" and others will
always fail.

Peaches

The peach grower can, it seems, consider dusting very seriously, not
only as supplementary but for all applications except the dormant. It
is to be hoped that more experimental work will be done along this line.
In Georgia dusting has shown up quite as well as spraying and in Illinois,
while our experiments have not been exhaustive, dusting has appeared
promising. On peaches hydrated lime must be used in combination with
arsenate of lead and superfine sulfur to prevent burning. The writer
is quite certain that the 10-10-80 dust mixture can be used for the first
application after petal fall and on Elberta, or any variety of similar re-
sistance to brown rot, probably throughout the season.

These remarks are not calculated to inspire confidence in the future
of dusting apples. It is certain that in the hands of a well informed,
careful orchardist dusting may have a place in all seasons, but the
limitations are so narrow that it is dangerous to attempt recommenda-
tions. Therefore, it would not appear that there is any probability of
an increase in dusting with present materials. Some one will eventually
perfect a cheap dust fungicide which will make dusting a reality, but
until that time comes "there isn't much to it."

Dusting for the control of peach pests has not received enough at-
tention. There is essentially very little difference between self-boiled
lime sulfur and superfine sulfur combined with hydrated lime. There
Is no difference between lead hydrogen arsenate applied either dry or
wet. Therefore, since the peach tree is relatively small and can more
readily be covered it follows that spraying peaches may give way con-
siderably to dusting.

The Chairman: Professor Brock, how large an acreage would
you say that a man could afford to have a dusting outfit on hand
to use in an emergency just like you referred to, in addition to the
liquid spray?

Mr. Brock: If you have forty acres or more, you could un-
doubtedly have a duster on hand and have each season enough
dust materials for one application and possibly two. With a
smaller acreage than that, you would need at least two power
spray liquid outfits. These should be satisfactory. And the con-
ditions which I described here now, where the water shortage
was acute, would happen very seldom, I should say.

Question: In the case where you would have to use nicotine,
it would be highly advisable to have a dust spray, wouldn't it?

115

Mr. Brock: I think so — although I haven't had enough per-
sonal experience with nicotine dust to know what it will do.

Question: Wouldn't it be cheaper to make the ponds bigger
than to get that dusting material?

Mr. Brock: Perhaps it would; they would have to be awfully
big, though, if we have 130 days without rain as we had last year
in some sections.

Question: I might add here that the fruit that took the sweep-
stakes, the gentleman from Minnesota that has the Delicious apples,
sprays entirely with a dust spray, and he is very jubilant about it.

Mr. Brock : I am going up there and find out how he does it.

The remarks that I have made concerning the dusting of apples
certainly are not calculated to give anybody definite information
insofar as dusting is concerned. So far as we are concerned, there
isn't anything to it, except within the limits I have already stated.
In a few seasons it may be done. Those years are so seldom that
it is almost placed in a class with the frost prevention by the
use of smudge-pots. We long ago decided that we couldn't af-
ford the overhead of keeping up this sort of equipment. We have
already decided in our own minds that for us the dusting is in
the same category.

As for peaches, we are very much inclined to think that we
haven't done nearly as much as we should along this line. There
really isn't anything essentially different between self boiled lime
sulphur and a superfine dust material. And when we add arsenate
of lead to it, it doesn't make a particle of difference whether you
put it on dry or whether you put it on wet, it will do the work.
Therefore, if we have materials which are prepared correctly I
can't see why we can't use it to control peach pe'sts. And in a
small way we have done it; only in the year when we might have
gotten the best results with the use of the dust material the sea-
son has been so dry that we developed no brown rot.

Everything that we have done seems to indicate that the peach
curculio could be successfully controlled by the use of dust ma-
terials; also the fact that in large acreages it takes a lot of equip-
ment to put the first curculio spray on at the time it should go on
makes it seem highly desirable to try to use the dust method.
The fact that the trees are smaller, and that therefore the pres-
ent equipment is satisfactory for applying the dust, seems to be
an additional argument in favor of attempting to use dust on our
peaches.

116

That (as I remarked in the beginning) was one of the bright
things in this dusting situation. And while it is apparent that in
some sections they are getting results, the fact is that we have
been working for nine years and have made practically no prog-
ress— and that makes it largely a local problem. If you are get-
ting results by all means, use it. The help problem, which is acute
in some cases, will be all right, because the men who have to use
it and know how to use it will not object to using the dust ma-
terial. That has been our experience with it.

Question : When would you apply the first spray on peaches ?

Mr. Brock : I would apply it just as soon as the petals fall,
using 10-10-80 dust — ten per cent of arsenate, ten per cent of lime,
eighty per cent of sulphur. Then I would wait till the shucks came
off before making the second application. We are doing just that
in our liquid spray, but find it pretty difiicult to get them on quick
enough.

Question : I would like to ask how you control the apple blotch.
We are troubled with it on Northwestern Greenings on the lower
limbs considerably.

Mr. Brock : You are certainly not thinking with reference to
dust material at all. Blotch can be controlled by the use of either
lime sulphur or bordeaux. Apply spray two, three, four and six
weeks after petal fall. I prefer lime sulphur, because its damage
to the fruit is less. The finish will be much better with lime sul-
phur, and after you have applied the blotch spray program for
four consecutive years, regardless of whether you have a crop or
not, you will successfully control it with lime sulphur.

Question : Is it any good when used in connection with arsenate
of lead?

Mr. Brock : Yes, always, because that increases the effect. The
principal thing is thoroughness of application, as Professor Childs
indicated, and in which we are heartily in accord. As to the time
of infection, I am sure that varies with the latitude.

Question : I am speaking of right here.

Mr. Brock : Well, I could not say, because I have not done any
experimental work on this same latitude in Illinois. But I am
almost sure that your maximum infection will occur about three
weeks after the petals fall. That means that you must keep your
fruit, foliage and twigs covered with a good fungicide from two
to seven weeks after the petals fall. The curve will decrease

117

rapidly at a point three weeks after the petals fall, until after
seven weeks after petals fall there will be practically no infection.
If you have blotch and have it badly, you will not control it the
first year you apply such a program.

Question : We have just a few.

Mr. Brock : Well, under those conditions the schedule which I
have just given you, I believe will give you approximately 100%
control the first year.

Question: Do you spray the peach at cluster bud time?

Mr. Brock: No; just after the petals fall. The old schedule,
in fact our experimental station publication, doesn't call for a
spray until after the shucks come off.

Question : How about cedars ?

Mr. Brock : Cut down the cedars. But a good spray program
will reduce the amount of infection.

Question : Can you control blotch ? We have controlled blotch
for two or three years on our apple trees ; then the blotch would
reappear. What is the latest on that point?

Mr. Brock: No, it doesn't disappear entirely, perhaps; but

by preventing the formation of cankers on the newly formed

twigs, we automatically cut down the amount of infection we have

and therefore make it easier to control. Formerly we were told

that after the blotch cankers were controlled for four years, they
are no longer a source of infection. But they still continue to

be a source of infection. However, we do know that after we have

followed the program which I mentioned to you here a moment

ago for four years, the control of the disease is relatively easy.

Mr. Sharp : Will a dormant spray of about one 'to five lime sul-
phur control blotch?

Mr. Brock: The application of no material in the dormant
season will control blotch. We experimented with several orchards
and after four years of very hard work grew ninety-eight and a
fraction per cent free of blotch. In the first year, with the most
careful program we could follow, we didn't get two per cent
that were free of blotch. Under the conditions of the first three
years, no one could tell whether we used lime sulphur one to four
or one to eight or any other solution. This year, for the first
time, we did see a pronounced smaller amount of blotch on those
trees, which had the application of lime sulphur at any strength.

Mr. Sharp : You never used the bordeaux lime ?

lis

Mr. Brock: Yes, we used the bordeaux and copper sulphate,
but they did not have any eifect at all. They had nothing to do
with the reduction in the percentage of blotch. But after we had
tried to control the disease for four years, there was evidence of
a slight reduction in the blotch infection from the dormant ap-
plication. We checked that up, but even so, it didn't control the
blotch. It amounted to some fifteen or twenty per cent, which
was appreciable, but you probably would not notice it, unless you
examined all of the fruits carefully.

Mr. Nichols: There is the difference in the proposition that we
faced and the proposition that probably a lot of people faced. I
have used dust exclusively this year, except in the dormant spray
of one orchard. I will be as brief as possib:e. My Jonathan
went ninety per cent; Grimes Golden the same; Bartlett pears
the same. And I had a full crop of those three varieties. It is
fair to say that they were on young trees. Now, never have I
used the liquid spray without burning my pear foliage to a cer-
tain degree. There are some varieties of apples that always burn
in foliage. We can't help it. There is a drip from the top of the
trees when you are thoroughly spraying it all over. That is char-
acteristic of our orchards with the liquid spray. We never burn
anything with the dust.

Now as far as spraying peaches in Michigan is concerned, I will
never spray my orchard again, unless things change rapidly. If
I have to omit dusting, I will omit spraying. I say let them go.
We are more liable to lose our peaches by spraying them with any
liquid than we are by any disease we are going to get.

I also want to call your attention to an experiment. The Michi-
gan Agricultural College dusted plums and peaches and sent them
down by express to Lansing. Now you can get the bulletins on
this, because I may not be exact; but on their arrival, in the or-
dinary course of time, both the plums and the peaches showed
brown rot from those trees that were not dusted, within about a
week or ten days before picking time; where dusted, they didn't
show any amount of brown rot within about ten days.

Now the railroad companies, knowing that, are not going to be
so willing to pay damages when brown rot shows up in transit.
And in our local board meeting of the association, knowing those
conditions, we notified the growers that there would be two pools
this morning — those that didn't dust their peaches and those that
did. Well, that was enough said. They dusted their peaches

119

just before picking time, about ten days. And I want to say that
we didn't have a single rejection of a car of peaches shipped from
our association this year ; so we have no claims against the railroads.
Now this is the American Pomological Society. Its members
cover a wide variety of conditions, and what is true in the dis-
trict Professor Brock represents might not be practical in the
district that I am in.

120

CORRELATION OF ORCHARD PRACTICE WITH
GROWTH AND PRODUCTION

R. H. Roberts, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin

It is common experience that use of the same cultural treatment does
not give the same yields of fruit. It is also commonly noted that the
most productive orchards are frequently treated quite alike. It was
this condition that led to the old controversy as to whether sod or
clean culture is better. More recently very contradictory results are re-
ported as to the effect of nitrogen fertilizers upon production. The
question arises then, as to how a grower may know what cultural prac-
tice is best in order to secure profitable production. In other words,
has the grower any clear index that tells how to care for his orchard?
"We propose that he has. "We believe the surest index is the tree itself
— the way in which it grows.

"We come to inquire, then, as to how the tree grows. For a purpose
v/hich will appear later, we will review what the plant or tree does
under unusual conditions. (1) Although light is necessary for normal
growth, a tree placed in shade will live for a long time. The type of
growth made is very much changed however. (2) The mineral salts
as nitrogen may be withheld from a tree yet it will live a long time
and may make some growth, of a certain type. (3) A tree which is
girdled often lives and may bear fruit for some seasons if the trunk
is kept from drying out so the top can not get moisture from the soil.
(4) Even a branch which has been cut off the tree and placed in water
under proper conditions will make considerable growth. These things
are mentioned to bring clearly to mind the fact that the tree has the
necessary materials (reserves) for considerable growth within itself.
In fact, it appears that all growth is directly related to the conditions
within the plant and only indirectly related to the external environ-
ment. That is, it is necessary for an external condition to first change
the internal conditions of the plant in order to bring about a change in
the growth made by the plant, and consequently, its fruitfulness.

"We will review, then, some of the important internal conditions, for
example, in an apple tree. Chemical analyses show that the vast bulk
of the dry matter in a tree is made up of the carbohydrates. These range
from the simpler forms as sugar and starch through cellulose and its
compounds to the more complex forms which compose the tissue and
some of the reserve materials. Another significant fact is this: when
there is much nitrogen present in the plant there is usually a relatively
smaller amount of carbohydrates, but much protein. In other words,
nitrogen largely affects the amount if not the form of the carbohydrates
present in the plant. Presumably the latter are used up to furnish tissue
materials for the large growth made by trees having much available
nitrogen in the nutrient.

The way in which this is related to production is through the fact
that carbohydrates appear to be necessary for the formation of blossom
buds. If these are mostly used up by the large growth of a very vege-
tative tree no blossom buds result. On the other hand, if there is too

121

little nitrogen present for needed growth, no blosson buds are formed,
although the tree is excessively high in carbohydrates. Thus, too little
or too much growth is correlated with an unfruitful condition. So, a
condition of balance between carbohydrates and nitrogen and likewise
a balance in growth conditions is correlated with fruitfulness. This
relation seems to prevail in general in orchards, trees, branches or spurs.
A notable exception rnay be in the case of growths with a smaller diam-
eter. Growths of average length but which are slender are usually
unfruitful. Likewise, long growths (even watersprouts) which are
gi'eatly thickened up (indicating an accumulation of carbohydrate ma-
terials) frequently are very fruitful.

Other tree characters as leaf color, bark color, and wood hardness
are used to indicate the general growth and fruiting condition of the
trees. It must be borne in mind, however, that these growth characters
do not determine fruitfulness, but are merely associated with internal
conditions which result in a fruitful or unfruitful tree.

The reserve materials in the tree greatly affect the response to any
cultural treatment, especially in delaying any apparent results. It fre-
quently, if not usually, happens that the previous season's treatment
of an orchard has more apparent effect upon its performance than the
treatment of the current season. This is especially true of the early
season development of the trees such as setting of the fruit. (Blossom
buds are, of course, formed in the early part of the previous summer.)
In one case under observation it was found that the reserve materials
in the trees greatly affected fertilization of the blossoms. It was noted
that it required from three to four days more time for the blossoms on
weakly vegetative trees to become fertilized than it did for those on
strongly vegetative trees. The relation of this fact to securing a crop
following a cold, damp blossoming season is evident.

It also appears that the first several inches of growth are largely
made from reserve materials. Thus, the amount and kind of spur growth
(short growths) is often more dependent upon past treatment than upon
that of the current season. This fact is especially important in con-
nection with producing regular bearing.

We shall now. consider the relation of some common cultural prac-
tices to fruitfulness, in view of the preceding discussion. Since trees
which grow too much as well as trees which grow too little are both
unfruitful it is evident that the same cultural practice should not be
used to induce bearing of all unfruitful orchards. Trees which need
invigorating will become more fruitful by the use of readily available
nitrogen fertilizers. On the contrary, trees which are growing too vig-
orously will be made less fruitful by using the same treatment. Some
orchards (especially older ones) need fertilizing; other orchards (es-
pecially younger ones) may need sod in order to get maximum results.
This is certain; the treatment that is best for the 8-10 year old orchard
can not be expected to give the best results in the same orchard when
it is 18-20 years of age.

Sometimes even poorly vegetative trees do not respond to fertilizer
treatments. Obviously no beneficial effects can be found. This- does
not necessarily mean that the trees in question do not need fertilizing

122

as is often concluded in such circumstances, but rather that some fac-
tors prevented the treatment from affecting the tree growth. One such
factor is frequently that of moisture, either too little or too much. Too
little moisture may limit the entrance of the salts into the tree; too
much may cause poor physical conditions of the soil which have a more
pronounced effect than the fertilizer additions. One case calls for better
cultivation, the other for drainage.

One cultural operation which has much to do with the production of
large yields of high grade fruit is that of pruning, especially as applied
to older bearing trees. This is because of the need which pruning can
so well fill, of keeping the wood about the top of the tree in a uniformly
vegetative condition. That is, keeping it all of the type which produces
the best fruit. As the responses to cutting are evident principally close
to where the cut is made it is apparent that pruning to rejuvenate older
run-out fruiting wood should be of a type employing the use of many
small cuts instead of a few large cuts. The importance of keeping the
top uniformly vegetative can be illustrated by the following fact: Ob-
servation of the growth conditions of annual bearing. Wealthy trees
showed that all such trees had 20 per cent or over of their terminals
(on the main and lateral branches) over 10 inches in length. If the per-
centage of terminals which were over 10 inches long was less than
about 20 per cent the trees were biennial in habit. This varied some-
what with the density of the top, the open topped trees fruiting bet-
ter than the dense topped ones. This was because of the better light
conditions and consequently better opportunity for blossom buds to form
(a condition associated with the accumulation of carbohydrates in the
case of strongly vegetative trees.)

It is proposed that fruitfulness is correlated with growth conditions.
These in turn appear to depend upon the internal conditions of the
tree which are the result of the sum of external environment. It is evi-
dent that the tree conditions will vary with differences in soil, moisture,
age of tree and also variety. It follows, then, that a given cultural
practice which is profitable under one set of conditions should not be
expected to produce the same growth and fruiting responses under
another set of conditions. Practically, then, the use of fixed cultural
or fertilizer treatments does not work.

We suggest instead, that the cultural treatment be based upon the
way the trees grow. Note how the heavily producing trees and branches
grow. Use such practices as will induce all the trees and branches to
grow in this way. This method has been successfully used to give
large crops of high quality fruit.

Mr. R. E. Hinds : I would like to ask one question. If one
makes a mistake trying to get this particular critical result and
he makes an excess application of soluble nitrate, could there be
such a case in a dry year of the moisture going back from the
tree to the soil and therefore wilt your tree?

Mr. Roberts: It is extremely rare that you would have to
worry about that. As a matter of fact, we do not know much, if

123

anything, about the passage of salts from the plant back into the
soil, insofar as apple trees go. It is pretty clear that there is some
such passage, not necessarily limited to dry seasons. But that
thing will not worry many of us. There is no general answer to
give to that, that I know of.

Mr, Roberts : There is one thing particularly that you want to
keep in mind : Older trees tend to load up with a mass of so-
called run-out wood about the bottom. Treatment of this condi-
tion involves pruning. In a section where canker is bad, maybe
you can't prune. But the point that I want to make is this:
Since the vegetative condition of the tree goes along with large
red apples, you want the tree to be uniformly vegetative. This
means pruning to invigorate- the older run-out wood about the
bottom.

Question : I would like to ask if you expect a larger growth on
young trees than you do on older ones. Have you tried to stimu-
late the older tree to make as much growth as you would on a
young tree before it gets into fruiting? And another thing:
About what would you expect in growth?

Mr. Roberts : A young tree generally makes more growth. The
old tree generally makes much too little growth. I will cite these
figures: We have been much interested, as you may know, in the
biennial bearing tree. I am getting more interested in the annual
bearing tree, and I find this with our Wealthy. The annual bear-
ing tree is one which has over twenty per cent of its terminals
over ten inches long. That means not only a good growth and
probably a growth of eighteen inches in the main branches, but it
means a uniformly vegetative top. If the terminal growth is less
than that length the tree does not bear regularly. Regular growth
does not make regular production, but is just one of the things
correlated with the inside conditions in the tree, as blossom bud
formation is correlated. The growth varies with varieties ; but
in general the so-called regular bearing varieties are those which
naturally make the stronger growth. That is, with a given cul-
tural treatment, the annual bearing trees will grow more than the
others, in general.

Question : Have you any experimental work on this question ?
Mr. Roberts : We have field plats in Wisconsin and also in
Maryland, in co-operation with the Maryland station.

Our plats in Maryland are laid out to give conditions ranging

124

all the way from sod without culture and without pruning clear
through to high culture combined with heavy fertilization and
heavy pruning. We are measuring the fruitfulness of the trees,
if we can, as we go along, by such things as the percentage of
spurs that form blossom buds and the vegetative condition of the
spurs that don't, so that we will know whether the tree is over
or under vegetative. When we get through we hope to have
something of a story, for York, as to the conditions under which
it is fruitful, and at the same time, something of the cultural treat-
ment which for that section gives the growth that we want.

Now one trouble is this, in cultural experimental work : On a
soil like you have here (as I saw in Professor Maney's plats this
morning near Council Bluffs), you can't hardly keep a tree from
growing well, except in blue grass sod. But on a soil like some
of the other locations of experimental plats, you can hardly make
them grow at all well. How, then, are culture or nitrogen or
cover crop tests going to answer the question of why a tree fruits,
except for local purposes?

Now about sod, unless you have abundant moisture this system
of culture is out of the question. We have found a combination of
clover sod with commercial fertilizers to be a very successful sys-
tem for growing apples where moisture is not a limiting factor.

We have demonstrated, I believe, that nitrogen is accumulated
as a reserve in a tree just as definitely as are the carbohydrates.
VVorking with trees under controlled conditions, which are poorly
vegetative and over vegetative, some just bearly able to form blos-
som buds, others just forming them (that is, if they were more
vegetative, they would not form them), we found this: At tem-
peratures such as ordinarily prevail at the blossoming period, the
blossoms of vegetative trees would become fertilized in a three to
four day shorter period than do the poorer vegetative trees.

This may have an important relation to the setting of fruit in
the so-called rainy seasons, where the temperatures are very low
and pollen tube growth and fertilization is retarded by several
days. From this viewpoint it is particularly important to have a
strongly vegetative condition of the wood all over the tree.

Mr. Garret: Just one question, Professor. You spoke of main-
taining the balance of the tree by pruning. I would like to ask
whether there is really anything in the old story about pruning
in the winter time for wood and in the summer time for fruit.

125

Mr. Roberts : Sometimes summer pruning works ; other times
it doesn't. It depends on the condition that the plant is in when
you start working on it, and upon the type of pruning, etc.

Question : Would the tree growth A'ary in different sections of
the country?

Mr. Roberts : It must, certainly.

Question: Well, then, how would you determine which way to
go, what to do, if you had that growth and got results over there,
and some other section of the country didn't get them?

Mr. Roberts : In general, the growth relation to fruiting is a
pretty constant thing. See what kind of growth the highly pro-
ducing trees are making, rather than repeat the culture that a
successful grower is giving. Look at the kind of growth that the
trees are makmg. That will tell you the story. As near as I can
get at it, this is really the basis for our cultural practices — ^what
the tree is doing. As Professor Lewis told you in his magazine
some two or three months ago — -"Listen when the trees talk to
you."

126

THE EFFECT OF CERTAIN CULTURAL PRACTICES
ON THE GROWTH OF APPLES

T. J, Maney, Pomology Section, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station,

Ames, Iowa

The data set forth in this paper are intended to be suggestive rather
than conclusive. They are taken from a block of Northwestern Green-
ing apple trees now 30 years old which are growing in the Iowa State
Experimental Orchard, Council Bluffs, Iowa.

The orchard in question was leased by the state in the spring of 1910
for the purpose of carrying on soil cultural experiments, the object
being to vary the humus content in the soil by different systems of
soil management and to measure its effect on tree growth and pro-
ductiveness.

For the purpose of the experiment the orchard was laid off into
six plots. The tree rows run east and west and the plots run north
and south. Beginning at the east side of the orchard the plots are
as follows:

1. Clover sod.

2. Clean cultivation with cover crop.

3. Clean cultivation.

4. Blue grass sod.

5. Clean cultivation with cover crop.

6. Clover sod.

The soil on which this orchard is located is known as the Missouri
Loess, a supposedly wind blown formation. The physical condition is
extremely uniform, sometimes to a depth of a hundred feet in this par-
ticular section.

The varieties under observation in the orchard have been Jonathan,
Grimes, Northwestern Greening, Winesap and Sheriff. The North-
western Greening has been selected for this particular report because
it is the only variety which has withstood uniformly the conditions of
the experiment. The other varieties were rather severely injured by
the severe winter of 1917-18. During this winter practically all the Grimes
trees killed out on the clean cultivated and the cover crop plots, and
the Jonathan and Winesap were also severely injured. The North-
western Greening at the time apparently was uninjured but within the
last year the trees on the cultivated and cover crop plots have begun
to show signs of weakness, particularly in the growth, foliage and size
of fruit produced. This may be due to winter Injury or it may be due
to a complication of causes brought about by the cultural system.

The Council Bluffs section supposedly is on the southern limit of the
extreme cold belt of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Yet whenever test
winters, common to the colder regions to the north occur, fruit planta-
tions in this region usually suffer. Especially is this true when the fall
preceding has been an extremely dry one.

The behavior of the Northwestern Greening trees growing under dif-
ferent conditions is given in the following table:

127

NORTHWESTERN GREENING

Plot

No.
Trees

Av. Prod. Bu. Per A.

per yr. 55 trees

per A.— 1912-21

Bushels

Circ. Increase

inches 1910-

1921

Av. Twig

Growth

psr year

inches

1909-21 ■

Av. Wt.
psr leaf
Grams

19.5-1921

Clover '.

73
83
23
23

473.4
456.4
425.3

298.5

15.53
15.22
14.57
11.89

5.93
6.17
5.42
4.53

79

Cover Crop

76

Clean Cultivation

74

Blue Grass

68

The striking feature of the table Is the fact that the trees on the blue
grass sod have produced practically three bushels per tree per year
less than those growing under the other systems of culture. The trees
on both of the clover sod plots have been the high producers, and with
this high production also there seems to be a correlation in growth in
circumference, twig and leaf. A critical examination of the trees on the
blue grass sod which have been consistently off year bearers shows
that the terminal growth even where it does have the same length
dimensions as that found on trees in the other plots, is invariably de-
void of leaves except for a terminal whorl. The lateral leaves on this
growth start with the terminal ones but early in the season the lateral
leaves drop off and the buds at their base fail to develop and remain
permanently blind.

In other observations it has been noted that fruit is borne on true
terminal shoots, on lateral fruit spurs which arise as side growths from
the buds formed in the axil of leaves on terminal growth, and also on
the well known old fruit spurs scattered throughout the tree. About
one-third of the fruit crop is borne on each of these types respectively.
Further study has shown that the typical old fruit spurs produce fruit
once in three or four years; whereas the terminal and lateral fruiting
types may produce annually provided they are given a proper chance
for growth development. In a way this seems to give a visible in-
dicator as to why the trees on the blue grass sod have been low pro-
ducers; viz., poor terminal growth, lack of lateral fruit spurs on two
to four year old wood, and dependence on old fruit spurs which are very
irregular in bearing to produce the crop. Of course it is recognized that
the growth condition is dependent upon the soil condition. It may be
that the blue grass sod influences the soil moisture, physical, chemical
or bacteriological conditions in such a way as to withhold the amount
of plant food required by the tree to produce proper growth.

Careful soil analyses have been run throughout the experiment on
the different plots. It is interesting to note that very little difference
has been found in the analysis of the soil on the different plots. Where
such differences have occurred, just as large differences occurred in the
analysis on the same plots. In other words soil analysis has not given
any indication as to the difference which has taken place in growth and
production of the tree.

The Northwestern Greening trees in all the plots came into the sea-
son of 1922 apparently in excellent condition. The severe "freeze out"

128

early in the season of 1921 completely ruined all prospects for a crop
ou that year and consequently the trees had a complete rest and a chance
to store up food for the production of the crop of 1922. Shortly be-
fore the buds began to swell in the spring of 1922, five pounds of nitrate
of soda was applied to each of six trees in the blue grass plot in order
to note what affect its application would have on a set of fruit and
ultimate production of these trees. Following is the average produc-
tion per acre of the trees for 1922 on the different plots:

Blue Grass Sod 688 bu. per acre

Blue Grass Sod plus 5 lbs. Nitrate of Soda applied

3 weeks before bloom 763 bu. per acre

Clean Cultivation plus Cover Crop 583 bu. per acre

Clean Cultivated 525 bu. per acre

Clover Sod 851 bu. per acre

Apparently the nitrate of soda had a very marked affect as shown by
the high production of trees so treated. This increase was due largely
to the very uniform set of fruit and also to the size of the fruit pro-
duced. Late in the summer it was noted that the fruit on the clean
cultivated and cover crop plots was not making size as it should. This
was not due to lack of moisture. It may be attributed either to the
chemical and physical conditions of the soil or else to the fact that the
trees in these plots were just showing up the effects of winter injury
which occurred in former years from insufficient soil cover. Winter pro-
tection for the roots is an important consideration for the fruit grower
of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Long years of practice and observa-
tion have shown that it is dangerous for the trees growing in this sec-
tion to go through the winter without proper soil protection either in
the form of a natural ground cover, artificial mulch, or a high moisture
content in the soil. In general, cover crops following cultivation have
not been a success in old orchards where shade is a factor. Also our
late summers are not favorable for a rapid growth of young plants.

The fruit on the trees of the blue grass sod which were unfertilized
was very comparable in size to the fruit on the trees in the clean cul-
tivated and cover crop plots. To get exact records along this line the
fruit was run over a Cutler Fruit Grader which is used to obtain the
size records for all the plots. The following table gives the size records:

SK'Up

%

%

2>.''-3'
%

2>2"—
%

Blue Grass

10

32

1

5

29

6

47
19
44
43

73
19
63
46
27

11

Blue Grass dIus Nitrate Soda

2

Clean Cultivated

17

5

Clover Sod

1

The desirable market size for the Northwestern Greening apple is
three inches and above. Apples of this variety running below thres
inches can hardly be packed successfully in straight sizes. They re-
quire the larger apples to "sweeten" up the pack when they are put in
barrels.

129

In packing the fruit from the different plots the poor size of the fruit
from the cultivated, cover crop plots and blue grass sod, was noted.
Several times the packing of the fruit on these plots had to be delayed
until fruit from the clover sod plots was brought into the packing house
in order to break up the uniformity of small sized apples. The similarity
of fruit size in the clover sod plot and in the blue grass plot which re-
ceived the nitrate of soda, seems to suggest that the available nitrates
play a very large part in giving uniformity to the set of fruit and size
to the fruit set. Whatever was the condition in the blue grass sod plot
which had caused low production and poor size evidently was cor-
rected by the application of a few pounds of nitrate. Of course it is
recognized that the data secured are based on observations for one
year and therefore are only indicative as to what might really occur
over a series of years. These same results may not occur under dif-
ferent soil conditions from those described here, but to the grower who
has trees which are non-productive there may be a suggestion of a
means for changing the condition.

In practically every orchard there are conditions which tend to lower
production. These are not always recognized by the grower and can
only be recognized where individual tree records are kept. An illus-
tration of this is strikingly shown in the bloek of the Northwestern
Greening trees already described. This block of trees consists of five
rows, running east and west across the orchard. Originally the trees
were planted 28 feet apart and now at 30 years of age they are pretty
badly crowded and sunlight is restricted to the middle rows. The south
row of Northwestern Greening is planted next to a row of Sheriff apples.
The Sheriff is a rather low growing tree. This fact gives the south row
of Northwestern Greening an excellent sunlight exposure on the south
side of the tree. As a matter of interest the production of the trees
in the south row was figured and compared to the production of the
third row of Greening trees from the south side which are quite badly
shaded.

The following table gives the production and circumference growth
record of these two rows:

Exposure

No.
Trees

Av. Total Prod
per tree— lbs.
1912-1920

Av. Total increase

Circ. growth per tree

inches 1912-1920

Sunlight

35
46

4.483.2
2,899.9

16.22

Shade

13.57

It is appreciated that in this data the factor of sunlight is not the
only one involved. However, to one familiar with conditions it is ap-
parent that it is one of the principle ones which has restricted growth
and production. The remedy, of course, for such a condition goes back
to the planting of the trees at wider distances.

The data obtained from soil cultural experiments in different parts
of the country show a general disagreement in the results obtained

130

from the same system of culture. The reason for this difference per-
haps is due to the fact that the trees under observation were in dif-
ferent conditions of growth and production when the experiment was
started and consequently have responded differently. The modern fruit
grower, if he is to be successful, must study carefully the conditions
which exist in his own orchard. Production evidently is quite closely
correlated with the type of growth which the tree is producing. In
general good, strong, terminal growth, 10 to 12 inches in length, is al-
most necessary for approximate annual production. Where the growth
is short or weak, the lateral buds on the same growth are blind and
there is a preponderance of old gnarled fruit spurs, it is an indication
that the system of culture or other orchard practices should be changed
in order to break up an undesirable condition existing within the tree.

131
THE HANDLING OF APPLES IN STORAGE

J. R. Magness, Plant Physiologist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological
Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The proper storage of fruits is of vital interest, not only to the com-
mercial fruit industry, but also to the ultimate consumer — to the man
or woman who wishes apples to eat throughout the year, who wishes
grapefruit through the summer months or who wishes pears at Christ-
mas time. Statistics show that approximately 20 to 25 per cent of all
apples produced in the United States move into artificial cold storage,
while even a higher percentage are held for varying lengths of time in
common storages, farm cellars, etc. It is not an exaggeration to say
that the quality of any fruit when it is finally eaten will depend in
greater measure upon when it is picked and how it is handled from
picking time on until it is consumed than upon any factors of orchard
management that precede picking.

In order to gain a comprehensive grasp of fruit storage it is essential
that the history of the fruit development be considered before picking,
as well as following removal from the tree. The life history of an apple
i3 continuous from the inception of . the flower parts in the bud until
consumption or decay of the fruit marks the end. In this history pick-
ing marks a milestone second only to the setting of the fruit in im-
portance, for it marks the end of certain processes, and the beginning
of others that result in the ultimate breakdown of the fruit. The time
of picking exerts a great influence upon the later history of the fruit.

As the fruit approaches maturity on the tree there are certain well
defined developments. There is a marked increase in sugars and total
carbohydrate and a gradual decrease in the acid content of the fruit.
There is also a gradual softening of the fruit, probably due to the calcium
pectate, which cements the cells together in the green fruit, changing
to soluble pectin materials, and thus allowing the cells to break apart
readily. As the fruit approaches maturity there is one other highly
important change that occurs. The skin becomes suberized, or waxed
over, becoming less permeable to water and gases. The le'nticels become
corked over. These changes are associated to a certain extent with
color development, for the blushed side of fruit shows a thicker and
less permeable skin than does the unblushed side, while highly colored
apples show a more highly suberized skin than do poorly colored fruits.
As the red and yellow pigments develop there is a corresponding de-
crease in green chlorophyll. The principal changes occurring in the
fruit before it is picked, then, may be summarized as follows: (1) In-
creasing carbohydrate content, most of which is sugar; (2) decreasing
acidity; (3) pectin changes, leading to a softening of the fruit; (4)
skin changes, leading to a covering that is more impervious to water
loss. With these are, of course, associated a continuing increase in size
unless picking is delayed until very late.

When the fruit is separated from the tree, certain of these changes
stop, and certain others continue. There is, of course, no further In-
crease in size, after picking. The color also remains constant so far
as the amount of red is concerned, though the green progressively

132

changes to yellow. We do not know whether or not any further skin
suberlzation occurs after the apple is removed from the tree, although
it seems probable that there is a change in the skin during the first few
days after the fruit is picked, during the time that apples go through
the "sweat" immediately after picking.

The total carbohydrate supply, including starch, sugars, pectin ma-
terials, etc., is at its highest at picking time. After picking the starch
changes to sugar fairly quickly, so that there is a pronounced initial
increase in sugar content. This change is completed within a few
weeks, even in fruit held in cold storage. After that time there is prob-
ably a small amount of sugar added to the fruit by the hydrolysis of
pectin material, and a small amount consumed by respiratory processes,
so that the total change in amount of sugar is practically negligible.

The pectin change, with the associated softening of the fruit, proceeds
even more rapidly following picking than while the fruit is on the tree,
provided it is held at the same temperature. Likewise, the loss in
acidity proceeds more rapidly following picking than while the fruit is
on the tree. Fruit picked and held in the orchard or in the packing
houses at orchard temperature softens much more rapidly and ripens
more quickly than similar fruit remaining on the tree.

Time of Picking

From the foregoing discussion of the changes associated with ripening
it is apparent that the time of picking is of tremendous importance in
fruit for storage. Fruit picked too soon is of smaller size, poorer color,
lower in sugar content, and because of lack of suberlzation of the skin,
prone to wilt in storage. Fruit picked too green also has a tendency
to develop storage scald, the name applied to the browning and blacken-
ing of the skin of apples while in storage or upon withdrawal from
storage.

On the other hand, it is easily possible to leave the fruit on the trees
too long for best storage holding. The fruit may become soft on the
tree, or become infected with fungus diseases that earlier picking would
have avoided. What is more likely to happen is excessive loss from
■dropping.

Most varieties of apples may safely be picked when the ground color
changes from green to a light yellowish green. This is a fairly reliable
test for most of the red or blushed varieties. There is considerable
variation in color in various varieties, however, so along with the ground
color must be considered ease of picking, high or red color, softness
of the fruit, etc. It is an entirely safe assumption to say that a far
greater percentage of apples is picked too green for best storage fruit
than is allowed to become too ripe.

Care in Handling

It is unnecessary in discussing storage before the American Pomologi-
cal Society to emphasize care in handling during the picking, packing,
and storing operations. Suffice to say that only fruit with Intact skins
should be stored, for it is impossible under any storage condition that

133

will not freeze the fruit to prevent growth of rots and molds if unsound
fruit is placed in the storage rooms.

Let us now consider the actual storing of the fruit and see what in-
fluences the factors that it is possible to control in storage rooms,
namely, temperature, humidity, and ventilation, have upon the keeping
quality and the dessert quality of the fruit.

Temperature of Storage

First let us consider temperature, for it is by far the most important
element in proper handling of fruit. The lower the temperature, the
more slowly all the changes associated with ripening of the fruit occur.
Softening takes place very slowly under low temperatures and the acidity
decrease is very gradual. Mechanical tests of the rate of softening of
the fruit have shown that such varieties as Jonathan, Delicious and
Rome Beauty will actually soften more in two weeks at 60° F. than
they will in four months at 30 to 32° F. Such varieties cannot be
handled from the tree to cold storage too quickly, and common storage
or cellars can be employed successfully only if the fruit is to be held
short periods. Such varieties as Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis
and Yellow Newtown soften somewhat more slowly, regardless of tem-
perature, than do the early winter varieties, but even with these •
varieties a month at 50 to 60° will soften the fruit more than five or six
months at 30°.

Not only does fruit soften more rapidly and retain its acidity better
at low temperature, hut it is also far less susceptible to fungus attack,
because of the exceedingly slow rate of growth of most fungi at 30 to
32° F.

To summarize, the effect of temperature on apples in storage then,
it may be said that the lower the temperature, down to 30° F., the
harder and juicier the fruit will be when removed from storage, also
the more spritely it will be because of higher acidity, and the less loss
there will be from storage decay. In this connection the great im-
portance of moving the fruit to storage quickly can not be over em-
phasized. It is not an exaggeration to say that 75 per cent of the
Delicious apples grown in the northwest are really past their prime
when they are ultimately consumed in the eastern markets, because of
delay in getting the fruit chilled down, high temperatures in transit,
and delay in eastern fruit stands.

Humidity of Storage

The amount of moisture in the air which results in best storage con-
ditions for apples will vary greatly with the type of container in which
the fruit is stored. A storage for barrels may be fairly dry, as the
atmosphere inside the barrel is rather moist in any event, due to the
fact that moisture given off by the fruit escapes from the barrel very
slowly. On the other hand, for fruit stored in crates, open hampers
or baskets, it is necessary that the storage air be kept fairly moist to
prevent wilting and shrivelling. Cellars and common storages are par-

134

ticularly likely to become too dry unless moisture is added during the
cold winter season and during times of heavy ventilation.

The principal influence of storage moisture is in preventing shrivel-
ling, with a resulting crisper and better appearing fruit. It has no
direct effect on the rate of softening, on acidity change, or on flavor
or aroma. There is strong evidence that low humidity decreases scald,
but it does so at the expense of a bright, turgid fruit. Under too high
humidity conditions mold growth will develop on the fruit. The best
humidity for apple storage is around 85% saturated, with permissible
variation being below this for barrels and slightly above for open con-
tainers.

I

Influence of Ventilation on Apple Storage

The role of ventilation in apple storage has been widely discussed, an
great claims have been made concerning the value of ventilation in'
preserving the flavor of fruit in storage. For that reason it is particularly
important that the question be considered carefully.

It is important to distinguish between ventilation for the sake of cool'
ing, as we use it in common and cellar storage houses, and ventilation
for the sake of air renewal, as has been recommended for cold storages.
In the former case, large volumes of air must be used, since a very
great quantity of air must be used to cool a relatively small quantity
of fruit. Let us assume, for example, that air at 40° was passing over
a barrel of apples and leaving at 50°. Considering the fruit at 60° to
begin with, over 6,000 cubic feet of air would be required to cool the
fruit to 50°. This represents a volume of air of over 1,000 times the
volume of the fruit package. These figures emphasize the absolute neces-
sity of large ventilation openings and provisions for air circulation about
the fruit in cellars and common storage where cold outside air is de-
pended upon to cool the fruit. Briefly, the air inlet openings for such a
storage should total not less than 1% of the total area of the floor space
and preferably considerably more, with outlet openings through the ceil-
ing of about half the area. It should be remembered, however, that this
recommendation is to secure temperature, rather than ventilation as
such.

As for ventilation of cold storages, where temperature control is
secured by refrigeration equipment, much has been claimed, but little
established. It has been claimed that such ventilation will greatly
improve the quality and appearance of fruit at the end of the storage
term, and the fruit held under ventilation will be of the same high
quality when removed from storage that it was upon going into the
storage rooms. Carefully conducted tests have shown, however, that
there is no improvement in aroma, or flavor of fruit held under ventila-
tion. The acidity decrease is as rapid, and the fruit softens as fast
under continuous ventilation as under non-ventilated conditions. In so
fai* as ventilation is associated with drying and wilting of the fruit,
it will apparently be of some help in controlling scald, though the
efficacy of ventilation control of scald in apples stored in barrels or
wrapped boxes in commercial cold storage is extremely doubtful. Air

135

circulation within the rooms to avoid pockets and give a uniform tem-
perature is highly desirable, but the value of passing outside air con-
tinuously into cold storage rooms has never been established.

The Aroma of Fruit

Equally important with flavor in making up quality is the aroma of
the fruit. It is exceedingly important that the aroma be preserved to
the greatest possible degree in the storage of fruits.

Apparently aroma in fruit is developed in greatest degree only at
relatively high temperatures. If a room is filled with apples and held
at 60° or thereabouts, the odor is very strong. It is a well established
fact that fruits held in common storage ripen with a much more marked
aroma than fruit held in cold storage for a long period.

While it is impossible to measure aroma chemically, careful observa-
tions have been made upon the effect of various storage conditions on
its development. Temperature of 60 to 70° F. are essential to highest aroma
development, and fruit well ripened on the tree, held at 60° until soft
ripe, will develop the strongest possible aroma. Immature fruit de-
I velops far less aroma than similar fruit left on the trees until well
L ripened.

Fruit held in cold storage gradually loses not only its aroma but the
possibility of its developing aroma when removed from storage For
example, Winesap apples held two months at 30 to 32° and then re-
moved to 60° will develop almost as high odor as if never placed in
storage. After four months the aroma is less pronounced. After six
" and eight months fruit taken from cold storage shows still less aroma.
The highest aroma in any variety may be secured, however, by holding
! the fruit in storage at a low temperature, then by removing it from
cold storage and allowing it to soften at temperatures of 60 to 70°.

To summarize, then, the factors that govern the successful holding
of apples in storage, we must first of all emphasize picking at the right
time and handling in the right way before the fruit moves into storage.
Long keeping, high flavor and high aroma can never be attained in
immature fruit. Then we must emphasize low temperature as the one
vital necessity for successful holding. A continuous temperature of 30
to 32° in cold storage and the nearest approach it is possible for the
cellar or common storage man to make to this tells the story of suc-
cessful apple holding. The rate of cooling in common storage will de-
pend upon outside temperatures and upon ventilation, and upon the
rate of cooling will depend success or failure in fruit storage.

Humidity control is important, particularly when fruit in common
storage is being ventilated heavily, and may be secured by sprinkling,
water sprays, etc. Humidity control will prevent wilting, but tempera-
ture control, through its influence on the fundamental life processes in
the fruit, determines more than all other factors combined the storage
life of the fruit.

Mr. R. E. Hinds: Will fruit freeze more quickly in the boxes
off the tree than on the tree?

136

Mr. Magness: If you have your fruit in boxes, if it is a ques-
tion of frost protection during the time when you are in danger
of freezing, you will get freezing a little more quickly on the tree
than off. Your fruit in the box, a fairly large body, won't freeze
as quickly through the box as your single apples will freeze on
the tree. It takes a fairly heavy freeze, however, to really seri-
ously damage the fruit on the tree. A pretty heavy frost usually
won't do any harm. But, of course, if it is getting late enough
so that you are liable to run into a real freeze, you'd better get it
off and under a shed.

Mr. F. 0. Harrington: If the apples on the tree freeze en-
tirely so that your core is frozen, it will always turn black and
it injures the fruit in that case.

Mr. Magness: Yes, if it freezes and you get temperatures
lower than twenty-six degrees. It takes about twenty-six degrees
to do any particular injury.

The Chairman: How long?

Mr. Magness : Fruit will stand about twenty -six degrees up
to twenty-four hours without appreciable injury. But if you go
below that you are going to get solid freezing through and through.

I might say in that connection that a great many fruit handlers
have the idea that fruit will freeze at thirty -two or a little below
thirty-two. As a matter of fact, it takes from twenty-six to twenty-
seven degrees to freeze apples, due to the fact that an apple isn't
just water. It is water imbedded in the flesh of the apple and
with a lot of sugar, etc., in it, and you won't get freezing in apples
until you get down to about twenty-six degrees. Some other
fruits will freeze at somewhat higher temperatures than that.

Question : Even if your apples are frozen solid and thaw very
gradually, you will not find injury in that case, would you?

Mr. Magness : It will depend on the degree of freezing. I might
say this (it is getting into a rather technical discussion) : The
amount of freezing that you get will depend on the temperature,
because as the fruit freezes it draws the water out of the cells
and there are certain air spaces in between the cells, and that is
really where the ice formation takes place, AVell, now, if you
have a temperature of, say, just twenty-six, there will be just a
very slight ice formation taking place there. If you have a tem-
perature of twenty-four there will be a little more ice formation.

I

137

And if you get twenty-two there will be still more ice formation.
So that it depends on the amount of ice formation. If you get
a freeze down to twenty degrees it is going to do damage, re-
gardless of how slowly it thaws, I think. But it is simply a
question of how hard the fruit is frozen, how long it has been
exposed to the temperatures, and how low the temperatures are
that it has been exposed to.

Mr. F. 0. Harrington : Do you think the slowness of thawing
out makes no difference as to the result following the freeze?

Mr. Magness: That is a question that has been very much
discussed and very much disputed. Some people who have in-
vestigated it have said that it makes no difference. Others have
claimed that it does make a real difference. I think the safe
thing to do is, if you know your fruit is frozen, thaw it as slowly as
you can. That is the safe thing.

Now I wouldn't want to be quoted as saying that it does make
very much of a difference ; but as long as there is a difference
of opinion we had better play safe. As I say, there have been
some people who have made careful studies and they have said
that it did make a difference, and some have said that it does not.
So until it is definitely known one way or the other, the safe thing
for the grower is to thaw slowly if possible.

Question : Aren 't there some varieties that freeze more quickly ?

Mr. Magness: There is a slight varietal difference. Some
varieties will freeze just a little bit more quickly than others, and,
of course, some will go to pieces much more quickly than others
will. I have had this experience, for instance, w-ith Bartlett
pears: I have seen Bartlett pears that were frozen pretty hard
while they were still green, frozen in storage, taken out and
ripened, and if you didn't know they were frozen you could never
detect it. The same thing is true with apples if they are not
frozen too hard. But if they are frozen too hard practically any
variety will go to pieces and blacken.

Question : In storing down in Missouri we pick our Jonathan
and Grimes Golden apples sometimes at ninety-five and ninety-
six degrees during the day. Those apples are hot. Now then,
we may be delayed a day or two in getting a refrigerator car.
I noticed this year especially that many of the Illinois growers
advertise pre-cooled apples. Now could you give us some light
on that? Is there an advantage to pre-cool those apples right
away, enough to justify the extra expense in the orchard?

138

Mr. Magness: There are a lot of economic questions that come
in there as to whether a man can afford a pre-cooling plant or
not. Certainly, the individual grower cannot do it. If you have
a sufficient amount of stuff to move and you are moving, particu-
larly, a lot of varieties like Jonathan and Grimes and Wealthy,
and you do have difficulty in getting them immediately into cars,
it is, of course, a tremendous asset to be able to move them into
cold storage or into some kind of cooled storage. However, a pre-
cooling plant for apples, unless you have need for the storage
throughout the year, is rather a questionable undertaking, be-
cause your overhead is very high — that is, expensive equipment
and the building costs are very high. But if you have a sufficient
amount of fruit to store that you can maintain a storage plant
throughout the year, it is a different question. I would say, how-
ever, unless you do have need for a storage plant and can fill a
reasonably sized storage for winter holding, that it is questionable
whether you; can afford a pre-cooling plant for apples. You
simply have to take your chances under those conditions.

Temperature, low temperature, is the one thing that will slow
down all of these ripening processes in the apple. It will retard
the softening. It will prevent the loss of acidity and juiciness.
It will keep the fruit sprightly. It is the one thing that will slow
down the ripening processes of the fruit without greatly injuring
the flavor and the appearance of the fruit. For that reason, I say
that 95 per cent of the success in apple storage is a question of
the temperatures that you can maintain. And it doesn't make
any difference whether those temperatures are maintained by
artificial refrigeration or whether they are maintained by an air-
cooled storage or what not. The length of time that your fruit
is going to hold is going to depend practically entirely upon the
temperatures that you can maintain in your storage house. And
if you can get thirty-two degrees, thirty to thirty-two degrees,
the fruit is going to hold just that much longer than if you get
thirty-five degrees; and if you get thirty-five degrees it is going
to hold just that much longer than if you get forty degrees or
fifty degrees or sixty degrees.

The experimental work on fruit storage, backed by all com-
mercial experience, has shown that around thirty to thirty-two
degrees is a safe temperature for storage and is the temperature
which will preserve the fruit in the best manner.

In moving the fruit into storage, of course, it is very important

139

that it move in quickly. Most of you have probably seen the
little exhibit of the Iowa State College over at the exposition,
showing the influence of delaying storage of Grimes apples week
by week. There are a number of boxes picked on the same day,
some of which went into cold storage immediately, some delayed
one week, some two weeks, and so on. Apples that were delayed
two weeks are now dead ripe; and those apples that were moved
at once into cold storage are not yet ripe enough for eating.

Aside from its influence on the fruit itself in keeping the fruit
hard and maintaining the flavor, low temperatures have another
very important factor in keeping away decay in the fruit to a
very large extent. Rots in fruit are practically all caused by
fungus organisms, which grow very slowly at cold storage tem-
peratures. Most of them, however will grow even at the lowest
temperatures it is possible to maintain in storage without freez-
ing the fruit. And if it is stored down to thirty degrees, if you
have rot specks in the fruit or broken skins in the fruit where rots
can start, you will get a certain amount of decay. But the growth
of these diseases, we can say, is less than one-tenth as fast in
cold storage than it is at higher temperatures. So that is a real
factor in preserving the fruit in cold storage.

Now, there are some other things which we can control in
storage and which are quite important, very important under
certain conditions. One of these is humidity. This is particularly
important in common storage. It is less so in cold storage, par-
ticularly if the fruit is being stored in barrels. Fruit stored in
barrels is in such a tight package that there is going to be very
little wilting of the fruit in any event, even if the storage rooms
are very dry; also, it doesn't make so much difference because
the fruit inside the barrel is almost under constant moisture
conditions, regardless of what the moisture in the air outside of
the barrel may be. But if the fruit is being stored in bushel
baskets or in ventilated crates or in open boxes, it is important
that the humidity be kept fairly high. And this is particularly
true in common storage, where a lot of air movement must be
maintained in order to keep the fruit cooled out.

Under those conditions it is necessary that the floors be sprinkled
down or that some provision be made for keeping up the mois-
ture supply in the rooms. There is little danger of getting too
much moisture, so long as you are ventilating and getting air
movement. At the time, however, that the outside temperatures

140

become so cold that it is necessary to close up the building and
keep it pretty tight, it is also time to cut down a little bit on the
sprinkling, in order that you won't get mold growth on the fruit.

For the maintaining of proper humidity it is necessary to take
readings with apparatus which the weather bureau has used.
That is, the so-called sling-psychrometer. However, for most
growers the humidity can be maintained fairly well by watching
the condition of the fruit; if there is any evidence of wilting keep
the floor sprinkled down, and if there is any evidence of mold
growth on the boxes or on the surface of the fruit stop your
sprinkling and air out your houses, ventilating them thoroughly,
which will tend to dry off the surface.

The function of humidity is entirely to prevent wilting of the
fruit. Even if the fruit is not picked until it is in the right
condition and if it is exposed to continuous movement of dry air,
you will get rather excessive wilting ; and this can be handled only
by taking some means of adding moisture to the air.

The question of ventilation in apple storage is the thing that we

want to discuss quite freely, because it is a question that is very

much alive at the present time. Exactly what will ventilation do

and what it will not do in both cold and common storage? And
in order to discuss this we must separate ventilation in common

storage, where we are using the air for cooling, from ventilation
in cold storage, where the cooling is secured by other means and
where the value of ventilation, if any, is in maintaining the con-
dition of the fruit.

First, in common storage or in the air-cooled type of storages,
cellars and above ground common storages, it is absolutely es-
sential that the air be moved through the storage in large volumes
in order to effect the cooling of the fruit.

You are all familiar with the principle of these houses where
the houses are opened up whenever the outside temperature con-
ditions are such that the fruit will be cooled. In other words,
whenever the outside air is cooler than the air inside the house,
the vents are opened up and an air movement is maintained
through the fruit until such time as the outside temperature gets
higher than that inside the cellar or storage house; then the
vents are closed until the outside temperature gets low again. In
other words, whenever it is cool outside, everything is opened up
and the air moves through for the purpose of cooling the fruit.

Now a mistake that has been made in a lot of houses that are

141

constructed on this principle is that the vents have not been large
enough to allow as much air movement through the houses as is
essential for the most rapid cooling of the fruit. Air will warm
or cool very quickly, and if the heat is to be carried out of the
fruit it can only be done by a great volume of air moving through.

We figured what the theoretical quantity of air would be that
would be required to cool one barrel of apples down ten degrees.
We assumed that the air was coming in at forty and the fruit was
at sixty when the air struck it. It is a surprising figure. To
cool a single barrel of apples, using forty degree air and cooling
that barrel down ten degrees and the air leaving at fifty degrees
would require six thousand cubic feet of air. In other words, six
thousand cubic feet would be storage space for more than one
thousand barrels of apples ; and yet that volume of air would have
to move over the barrel in order to cool it down. That seems
like an almost impossible figure. But, of course, that air move-
ment is fairly rapid and if your vents are of good size it doesn't
take very long for that amount of air to move through a build-
ing. In other words, the volume of air that moves through must
be about one thousand times the volume of the fruit ; or it will
take one thousand air changes in a cellar to cool the fruit down.

Question: Has it been demonstrated that wrapping with oil
paper prevents scalding?

Mr. Magness : That has been fairly definitely demonstrated,
provided the paper carries a sufficiently high percentage of oil.
In the first recommendations that were made of oil paper, un-'
fortunately, the amount of oil that was required was not specified,
and a great deal of commercial paper was put out carrying oil
up to four or five per cent by weight. That small" an amount of
oil will not control scald. However, it has been found that if
the paper contains up to fifteen per cent by weight of oil that it
is very efficient in the control of scald; not absolutely one hun-
dred per cent, but pretty close to it.

The Chairman: What are the recommendations that the de-
partment is giving on that subject now — on scald and on the
wrapping?

Mr. Magness: The recommendations are to wrap in oil paper
carrying fifteen per cent oil.

Mr. Chairman : Are you really advising the growers to do that ?

Mr. Magness: Yes, that is being advised and is being done.

142

It is really, we might say, in the status of a commercial trial at
the present time. There are quite a few of the western boxed
apples this year that have been wrapped in paper carrying fifteen
per cent oil. Last year there were a large number of western
apples wrapped in paper carrying smaller amounts of oil, and the
scald control was not good. In fact, while it was perhaps a slight
improvement over the ordinary paper, it was not sufficient to
give conclusive results. So that it is important in scald control
that the paper carry at least fifteen per cent oil.

Mr. R. E. Hinds : Is that a mineral oil ?

Mr. Magness: That is a neutral mineral oil, yes. That paper
is being made at the present time by a number of paper companies,
and most any of the oil paper they are putting out is all right,
so far as the oil that is used is concerned. Practically any mineral
oil is satisfactory. The particular precaution is to get a definite
statement of the amount of oil that the paper carries.

Question: In the matter of paper, gentlemen, we had charge
of the Missouri Fruit Exhibit at California. My business was to
go down to the cold storage every week and examine the fruit.
Our Missouri fruit was wrapped in oil paper and also with tissue
paper. We found that the York Imperial and the Mammoth
Black Twig were scalded so badly that we could not put any
of those two varieties on the table during the exposition at the
Panama Exposition. Now this gentleman speaks here of ventila-
tion. Did I understand him to say that if they should have been
put in baskets that were open, that it would have carried better
than in barrels?

Mr. Magness: It would have carried better, so far as scald
is concerned.

Question: But that was our experience at the cold storage in
San Francisco, that we just simply lost out entirely on the York
Imperial and on the Mammoth Black Twig. The other apples all
passed the scalding trouble, and we didn't have any trouble with
them.

Mr. Magness : ' I might say in that connection that York Im-
perial is one of the very worst varieties for scalding, and ab-
solutely the limiting factor in the time that York Imperials can
be held in storage is scald. For that reason, where York Imperials
are an important commercial variety (which is particularly true

143

in Pennsylvania and in the Virginias) they figure on moving
them out of storage by the first of March; whereas, except for
scald, they would hold in good condition for a couple of months
longer.

Question: Is it to be recommended with susceptible varieties
in barrels that you would chop staves or bore holes in those bar-
rels to give them better ventilation?

Mr. Magness: That is a thing that has been recommended.
As a matter of fact, it will probably help a little bit; but it won't
effect control. The openings that it is possible to make without
weakening the barrel are hardly sufficient to give really satis-
factory ventilation.

Apparently the influence from ventilation from the studies
that we have made is this : that it is really a drying action rather
than a ventilation action. Low humidity will be advantageous in
preventing scald. But if you run your humidity low to prevent
scald, if you control your scald by low humidity, you are going
to get excessive wilting. And that is the practical difficulty of
using that method in scald control. In other words, of the two
evils, excessive wilting is just as bad as a certain amount of scald.

Question: Have you got any figures of where it ceases to be
profitable to operate your cold storage? We have a cold storage
filled, say, this time of the year, and we get to fifty per cent of
the capacity. Have you studied that phase at all?

Mr. Magness: That is purely an economic question, which we
can 't give any off-hand answer to, for this reason : It would de-
pend on the size of your storage, and any man who is operating
a storage and knows his storage costs, his operation costs, should
be able to answer that question. But it will depend so much on
questions of size of storage and power cost and that sort of thing,
that it wouldn't be possible to make any general answer.

Question: That is a very important thing for a farmers' or-
ganization. Of course, you can get the figures of the big city cold
storage plants.

Mr. Magness: I might say in that connection that the figures
of city cold storage plants are a questionable application to farm-
ers' organizations, for this reason: The American Warehouse-
men's Association a few years ago investigated this question, as

144

to what was the smallest profitable unit of cold storage. Basing
it on city conditions, they came to the conclusion that anything
less than one million cubic feet was not feasible.

"Well, we know that there are many cold storages being operated
through the country by farmers' organizations and by individuals
in the country where the land costs and overhead are not so high,
where they are storing well down to fifty thousand barrels, which
would not be a fifth of the capacity that the Warehousemen's
Association say is the smallest feasible amount, and yet which are
paying very good dividends on their investment. I know per-
sonally of one box storage which stores only about 120,000 boxes
a year, which would be the equivalent of 40,000 barrels, which
has been paying very big dividends. Their construction costs are
not high and their operating costs are not high. So that it de-
pends so much on local conditions, that we can't make general
answers.

Mr. Gould : Would the selling price of the fruit also be a
factor, so that the cost in the storage house, whether it was fifty
per cent or full, might vary from season to season, depending on
the selling price for food?

Mr. Magness: I think the way you would have to get at that
question is this: If you have a farmers' organization and you
know what your total amount of fruit is going to be, and if you
were going to put that fruit into cold storage and hire your stor-
age if you didn't own it yourself, you could easily determine
whether you could afford to run your plant for ten thousand bar-
rels or whether you ought to pay storage on ten thousand barrels
in somebody else's plant. That would really be a point that
would have to be decided.

Question: This is a mighty important question. We have cer-
tain growers who have a production of 40,000 barrels a year. We
are not so situated that we can sell any other items. As a matter
of fact, it is a question of whether or not it pays to operate on
apples alone or to cut down the overhead. Now I don't suppose
there is any single question in regard to storage that is as important
as this one. Will it pay me or will it not, when I have the pro-
duction, to build a storage or have one built for a group of men
that can only be operated for the storing of apples and no other
products ?

Mr. Magness: I might say in regard to that, that there are a
number of storages of about that unit that have been successful.

145

If you have good storage facilities available, whereby you can
move your fruit quickly into cold storage and pay the storage
charges, apparently from what study we have made of that, around
fifty to sixty thousand barrels is about the minimum unit that it
would pay to construct rather than to hire storage space. How-
ever, one very vital question there is whether or not your stor-
age is available and as quickly available at the time you want it.
That is, if you have to ship for several hundred miles or for quite
a distance, it is a difficult proposition. It is always an advantage
to have your storage where you can move the fruit in quickly.
And I would say that roughly around 50,000 barrels is about the
figure that you can use as a minimum to carry the overhead ex-
penses of your storage plant and your management.

Question : There is another question that we have come up
against very often, and that is to what degree is the keeping
quality of fruit interfered with by holding in a period of cold
storage? That is, for example, on sales made January or Feb-
ruary, where the stuff had been in cold storage for a couple of
months, would it have been worse if it hadn't been put in cold
storage at all?

Mr. Magness: That question will depend entirely on the con-
dition of the fruit. The fact that it has been in cold storage in
itself usually will not hasten its breaking down. However, we
must remember this : that the fruit is always ripening a little bit
in cold storage. "We can't absolutely check those ripening pro-
cesses at any temperature above freezing. If the fruit is in fairly
good condition when it goes into storage and then has been in stor-
age for a number of months, during that time the frUit is gradually
going down, it is gradually getting riper and getting softer, and
when it comes out of storage the number of days that it will hold
up is going to be decreased in proportion to the time it has been
in storage ; not because of the fact that it has been exposed to low
temperatures, but because of the fact that it is riper when it comes
out than it was when it went in. I think that is the whole question
there. We have never been able to see that the actual cooling of
the fruit or chilling of the fruit had any particular influence on
causing breakdown after it came out of storage.

Question : AVe often thought with fruits like cherries that there
was no effect there, possibly on short distances, where it was bet-
ter without refrigeration than with refrigeration and then taking
it out. It is merely a supposition. We haven't any data on it.

146

Mr. Magness: Here is one thing you would have to bear in
mind on that: In shipping short distances, if you ship under ice,
your fruit is going to be pretty nearly at the destination before
it is cooled out anyway, and it is undergoing very rapid ripening
during that time. The ripening processes are not delayed until
the fruit itself is cooled; and it takes quite a long time for a box
of fruit to cool out, even when the air surrounding the box is
chilled. Even with such a thing as sweet cherries, ten pound
flats as the western shippers use, small boxes with the fruit packed
in about two inches deep, they will require about ten hours to
cool out when put in a cold storage plant. That means, if it is
a question of a twenty-four hour shipment in a car and the fruit
is piled in solid masses (it has got to be to prevent shiftng), the
fruit inside those packages hasn't cooled a great lot, even by the
time it reaches destination. And I think that you would find in
that your explanation, rather than in the fact that the actual
cooling had resulted in more rapid deterioration.

Question: Have you any data on the comparison of storage
between the western fruit and the middle-west and the north?
Has there been any data kept on that — whether there is a dif-
ference in the keeping qualities in storing between western fruits
and our middle-west fruit?

Mr. Magness: That is more largely a question of varieties than
anything else. For instance, the western Winesap or the western
Yellow Newtown will hold up in storage remarkably well. On
the other hand, some of the eastern varieties will hold up just as
well. It is more a question of the temperatures that are main-
tained than the variety. Certain varieties, of course, are short
storing apples and certain other varieties are long storing. It
is true that on certain fruits there is an influence in the climatic
conditions. We have found in the case of the Bartlett pear, for
example, that the pears need very warm growing conditions to
give the longest keeping quality after picking. That seems like a
peculiar statement; but it is true that the pears from the hottest
district, for instance of California, the pears that are grown right
out practically on the desserts will hold up better after picking
than pears that are grown under more cool and humid climatic
conditions.

Question: That was my question in regard to the apple propo-
sition.

147

Mr. Magness: In regard to the apples, we haven't noticed any
outstanding variation; and due to the fact that the apples are
so different, it would be hard to say. For instance, we can't
compare a New York Baldwin with a Hood River Yellow New-
town in keeping quality, any more than we could compare a
Jonathan. But apparently the main problem in apples is to get
them cooled promptly.

I might say this: that this year, for example, the western
Jonathan and Delicious shippers have been up against a problem
along these very lines that is rather discouraging. In some of
those districts they have a car shortage right at the height of their
Jonathan and Delicious shipping season. The fruits sat around
the packing houses until it was practically dead ripe before it went
into the car. That fruit is arriving on the market, of course, in
fully ripe condition and not suitable for storing. They had figured
on loading most of those two varieties into ice cars and shipping
at once. They have had their troubles there as well as some sec-
tions in the east on the car situation.

Question: Will heavy fertilizing of apples cause premature
breaking down in storage of apples from those trees?

Mr, Magness: Apparently it will, if the nitrogen fertilizer is
put on sufficiently heavy, so that you get over-sized and poorly
colored fruit. Very large fruit has never as good keeping quality
as medium-sized, more compact fruit; and also highly colored
fruit is practically always better storing fruit than green colored
fruit. So that if you put on sufficient nitrogen, that you get very
large size and have sufficient foliage that you don't get color de-
velopment in your fruit, it won't be as good fruit as though you
had applied nitrogen and not put on so much.

Question : It depends, then, on the size at maturity ?

Mr. Magness : Yes. But, on the other hand, there are certain
cases where application of nitrogen will improve the storage of the
fruit. By moderate applications in conditions where the fruit is
of very small size and tending to pit badly, you will get really
a better storing fruit. In other words, it comes back to the con-
dition of your tree. A tree of moderate vigor producing a moder-
ate sized fruit will give the best fruit for storage.

148

ADVERTISING AS A FACTOR IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE

C. I. Lewis, Managing Editor, American Fruit Grower Magazine, Chicago, 111.

Advertising as a business practice is centuries old, but during the
past fifteen years there has been a remarltable development. As yet,
advertising has not reached the point where we can say the last word
has been said. Advertising pays. If it did not the biggest business
concerns in the country would cease to advertise. Advertising is sales-
manship and good salesmanship means advertising.

There are many evidences that advertising pays. You can subject
yourself to two or three simple tests, which will prove conclusively
that advertising has had a marked influence on you. Recently I wrote
down on a piece of paper the names of best known products that I could
think of and when I had completed my list, this is what I found I had
written down:

If you think of soap, you say Ivory; soup, Campbells; pickles, Heinz;
oranges, Sunkist; raisins, Sunmaid; canned goods, Del Monte; beverages,
Coca Cola; coffee substitute, Postum; gelatine, Jello; loganberry juiCQ,
Phez; walnuts, Blue Diamond; dried peaches. Blue Ribbon; cheesy
Kraft; condensed milk. Carnation; watches, Elgin; oil heater, Perfea
tion; parafRne, Parowax; aluminum. Wear Ever; safety razor, Gilletta

Then I began to think of slogans which are used in connection witit
advertising. In two or three minutes I found I could write sheets oi
these slogans. Here are a few which you could write just as easily
as I did:

Grapenuts — "There's a reason."

Paint and varnish — "Save the surface and you save all."
Royal typewriters — "Compare the work."
Sunkist oranges — "Uniformly good."
Blue Diamond walnuts — "The crackin' good."
Ivory soap — "It floats and 99.44% pure."
Mistland prunes — "Tartsweet."
H. C. McCann— "The truth well told."
The new Edison — "The phonograph with a soul."
Packers Tar Soap— "Pure as the Pines."
Nonesuch Mincemeat — "Like mother used to make."
Bon Ami — "Hasn't scratched yet."
Victrola — "iHis master's voice."
Skookum apples — "Every bite a delight."
Paul's Jams — "From the Valley of the Mountain."
Automobile — "The good Maxwell."

Likewise, I am quite sure you are familiar with official designs which
are connected with advertising. Here are some which are very common:
Skookum — Is the Indian head.
Deerfield oranges and grapefruit — the stamp.
Heinz — Fifty seven.
Hupmobile— The "H."

Peter Henderson— An old man wheeling a barrow full of vegetables.
Bon Ami — The little yellow chicken.
Victrola — The dog, His Master's Voice.

149

The best known foods today are the advertised foods, such as Uneeda
Nabisco, Heinz, Crisco, Postum, Grapenuts, Toasties, Libby's, Kellogg's,
Sunshine, Qualier, Campbell's, None-such, Jello.

Some of these products have been on the market a great many years.
Other products have become popular with the American public in a
relatively few weeks or months. Some which were not known a few
years ago, but which are very well known today, are Jiffy Jell, Lvtx,
Grapelade and Life Savers. These were made popular largely through
the mediums of the American newspapers, coupled with posters and
railroad and elevated advertising.

Possibly Jiffy Jell is the best known gelatine product today and yet
it is just plain gelatine. Life Savers were developed through adver-
tising to a point that within a few months the owner refused to sell the
rights to manufacture this confection for $1,000,000.

A few years ago an old man in Boston, who was foot weary, went
down to a basement cobbler shop and got the man to put some rubber
on his heels. He was so delighted with the result that he told friends
and soon scores of them were going to the same cobbler. A bright ad-
vertising man saw that here was a good idea. He talked to the cob-
bler about it and wanted him to advertise on the elevated lines of New
York and in the newspapers of that city. The amount necessary scared
the old gentleman, but when he was told that he need not pay for the
advertising at all unless it brought remarkable results, he consented,
and within two or three years he had a patent which he sold for $250,000.
This is the interesting story of the O'Sullivan heel.

Heinz and his famous 57 varieties are known to practically every
school boy in the country today; yet, it was not so many years ago that
Mr. Heinz did not believe in advertising. He did just a little on the
street cars of Pittsburgh. Later he was induced to put a special booth
on the boardwalk in Atlantic City. This brought remarkable results.
He then tried advertising in the city of New York, putting attractive
posters on subway and elevated lines. Soon he jumped into the na-
tional field and he has found that advertising pays. When there "was
a slump in our industry a year or two ago he increased his advertising
fund as he said that was the time to advertise all the more.

Coca Cola is the most popular drink in the country today, because
that concern has placed a drink on the market and has advertised it
in a way that everybody knows it. They spend probably over a mil-
lion dollars yearly and sell six million drinks a day.

Quaker Oats was probably the first food ever advertised to the pub-
■ lie in the United States in a national way and this food is one of the
best known today because three million dollars are spent annually in
keeping this product before the American public.

In 1911 Ward's bread was put on the market and bake shops were
established which would handle 900,000 loaves a day. Ward began to
advertise in New York, putting very attractive posters along the elevated
lines. In nine months he had passed the capacity of his output and
had to build large, new bakeries.
Recently Fleischman's yeast took hold of the idea of vitamin'es and

150

in fourteen and one-half days were able to introduce that product into
3,000 soda fountains in the east. This was done through newspaper and
car cards.

In 18'95 C. W. Post, of Battlecreek, started in to manufacture Postum
Cereal. He had very little money with which to start. In 1897 he
brought out grapenuts and in 1906 he developed a cornflakes product
known as Post Toasties, and it now takes 15,000 bushels of shelled
corn a day to suppy this demand. Post found that advertising pays.
His results were so gratifying that he became very enthusiastic and
the total amount of money spent by this firm today has passed the
thirty million dollar mark.

Everyone in the United States has been attracted by the very beau-
tiful poster which the Palmolive people have placed in every city of
the United States. A short time ago this concern was spending $5,000
in one state of the Union. The results were so gratifying, however,
that they immediately enlarged their program to include $1,000,000 an-
nually for posters alone.

One would think that cigarettes would not need advertising as nearly
every man uses cigarettes and yet, the Camel Cigarette Company alone
spends $3,000,000 in billboard posters.

Del Monte, the best known canned goods by far in the United States
today, spends a sum annually in excess of $1,000,000. They advertise
in women's magazines, newspapers, elevated lines and posters.

By far the best known soup in the United States today is Campbell's
soup. This is a high-grade soup but the manufacturer spent $1,000,000
introducing it to the American public and has been a consistent adver-
tiser. Last winter, while visiting a big jobber in a Texas city, he showed
me the large stock of Campbell's soup which he carried. He turned
around and showed me a smaller stock of a brand which he said was
just as good but he said, "You know the women in Texas have been
sold on Campbell's and they won't take anything else." He then showed
me two piles of breakfast foods. One was very large, the other was
small. The large one was Post Toasties and he said, "That small pile
is fully as good, perhaps better, but Texas women don't think so be-
cause they have been entirely sold on Post Toasties."

This is not an exceptional case. You can go into any city of the United
States and find men who will talk to you in just the same way. The
advertised foods are the ones which people are calling for. The big
meat packers have spent huge sums. A firm like Armour & Company
of Chicago, with their "Veribest" brand of meats and groceries, have
been in the habit of spending three or four million dollars annually
and as a result their products have become nationally known and are
in big demand.

Up to comparatively recently food advertising, we see, has been con-
fined largely to concerns who manufacture food products, such as meat,
fruit, canned goods, milk, fruit juices, cereals, beans, etc. Beginning
with 1907, however, we find that the producers started to enter the field
of advertising. Some thirty years ago the orange growers in California
found that an organization was necessary in the development of their
industry. They had reached the point where 2,000,000 boxes of oranges

151

were more than the country would seemingly consume. By 1904 the
crop had reached 10,000,000 boxes and was ever on the increase. In ad-
dition there were many lemons coming on, the Valencias or summer
oranges were being planted, and there were imports and considerable
competition from Florida. The California Fruit Growers Exchange spent
$15,000 in 1907 in the middle western states. They have increased that
sum until now it is probably at least $1,000,000 annually and the crop
of 1920-21 consisted of 22,000,000 boxes of oranges, or about 40,000 car-
loads, and enough lemons and grapefruit to bring the total tonnage up
to 60,000 cars, worth $66,000,000. Even this year there are 35,000 cars
of oranges and probably ten or eleven thousand cars of lemons, and
Florida expects to handle at least 15,000,000 boxes of oranges; yet, there
is no decline in the orange market. They are being distributed and
advertised and will be sold at a profit to the growers. They are not
worrying very much about financial conditions in the country, low trad-
ing conditions, etc., — their product is advertised and it is moving.

California found that up to 1909 people did not east oranges In the
summer time, that they were having great difficulty in getting rid of
their summer oranges or Valencia, which at that time consisted of a
third of the crop. By advertising and hard work they got the consum-
ing public to buy at least half of their tonnage of oranges in the sum-
mer time and today the Valencias represent about half the tonnage of
the oranges in California.

Lemons used to be almost entirely sold in the summer time, or per-
haps during some epidemic. Now lemons are bought practically every
day of the year and California supplies 83 per cent of the lemons con-
sumed, in this country.

What greater tribute do you want for advertising than this great
triumph of the California Citrus growers?

Only a few years ago the California walnut growers were in a very
bad way. They organized, got out a good brand, the Diamond brand,
and advertised it as a "Crackin' Good Walnut." They put up vacuum
packs, they graded them skillfully, but they began to advertise until
they got their budget up to about half a million dollars annually. Their
crops have been ever increasing. The crops between the years 1917-19
were practically double those of previous years. Yet, through their ad-
vertising and skillful merchandising they are handling the ever increas-
ing crop. This year was one of the largest in their history and yet
it is being sold at a big profit to the growers.

Up to 1907 walnuts were largely imported in this country. By 1920,
out of 56,000,000 pounds consumed, 39,000,000 came from California. In
1921, out of 87,000,000 pounds eaten in this country, 41,000,000 came
from California. These were sold practically under one brand, were
nationally advertised and a bigger business is being developed annually.

The raisin story is an intensely interesting one. Up to 1913 raisins
were in a very bad way as far as the grocers were concerned. At times
raisins were down to a fourth or half a cent a pound and it costs three
and one-half cents to handle them in the field. In 1913, the year the
California Raisin Growers were organized, the crop was 132,000,000

152

pounds and there were some 20 to 30 million pounds carried over.
You know what that means — dumping these raisins on the market and
at the time the new crop comes on it demoralizes the business. They
concluded they would try advertising. A budget of $119,000 was used
in that year. They made investigation of the bake-shops in the United
States and they found they were using only 700 tons of raisins a year.
They introduced raisin bread, raisin pie, and in four years they increased
the consumption of raisins in the wholesale bake-shops from 700 tons
to 45,000 tons. Now, in the year 1920, we find that they produced
347,000,000 pounds of raisins and had no carry over. The crop annually
now is at least 250,000,000 tons and next year there will be a remarkable
increase, at least 150,000 tons. The per capita consumption of raisins
in the United States since 1913 has been increased from 1.1 pounds to
3.28 pounds. We are all eating raisin pie, raisin bread, raisins in our
cereals, and we are all asking ourselves if we have had our iron today.

A large sum of money is now being spent in Canada and $300,000 in
Great Britain. The total budget of this organization today is two mil-
lion and one-half, spent annually for advertising. A remarkable develop-
ment. On July 17, 1921, they produced the little red nickel package
of raisins. Many pooh-poohed the idea and thought it would be a failure,
but by the middle of October they sold 17,000 tons, or two and one-
half million cases, being 331,000,000 packages for sixteen and one-half
million dollars. By March of the next year the sales had reached a
total of 660,000,000 packages. One of the most remarkable merchandising
stunts that was ever pulled off by any concern in America and it wag
done through advertising.

You are perhaps wondering what all I have said has to do with the
marketing of apples, peaches, plums, as you are growers of these kinds
of fruits. I will show you that there is a very close connection. In
1899 we were handling, at point of origin, about four and one-half
million tons of fruit and produce. At the present time this has grown
and we are handling now from 16 to 19 million tons, or an increase of
about 300 per cent. This means that there are about a million cars
of fruits, vegetables and canned goods handled at point of origin in this
country annually. We find that the banana, orange, raisin, prune, wal-
nut and almond have increased their tonnage remarkably from year
to year, and with the exception of the first group, they are all handled
cooperatively. The banana is handled by a private concern but handled
very efficiently indeed, 45 to 50 million bunches odd annually. We find
that berries have been in a profitable condition because during the
war we allowed the acreage to decline tremendously and we have not
as yet quite the acreage we had in pre-war days. The grape is in a
very healthy condition owing to the remarkable demand for both Cali-
fornia and Eastern grapes, due to prohibition.

We do not find, however, that peaches, apples, plums, and similar
fruit have kept pace with the advertised, standardized fruits. The pear
is in a very fair condition because the tonnage of fall pears is rela-
tively light. The Bartlett pear is very largely canned and the fresh
market has been very intelligently handled through a good advertising

153

effort of the California Pear Growers Association. They are spending
a large sum of money in our large centers like Boston, New York and
Chicago, and they are increasing the consumption and they are keep-
ing the market in as reasonably good condition as one could hope for.

With apples there has been only a limited amount of advertising.
The Skookum people have done probably the best apple advertising
in America and their, apple is the best known. They have used elevated
lines, newspapers and magazines. The Hood River people have done
some very intelligent advertising in some of their principal centers of
distribution, using large billboards. Now the Wenatchee Valley has
gotten together and they are spending $175,000 this year in two or three
magazines and newspapers and elevated lines and they are going to put
the thing across. In Chicago where I live Wenatchee apples are being
very cleverly and intelligently advertised and it is going to help the
Northwest boxed apple out tremendously, and especially Wenatchee.
You will find in Australia that they have raised a budget of one cent a
box and they advertise Australian apples in England; but on the whole,
this is only a drop in the bucket. Very little money is being spent on
apples, peaches, plums and similar fruits. Such products are being
very largely dumped onto the market. There is very little warning as
far as the consumer is concerned. .The fruit is allowed to pass through
far too many hands, not intelligently distributed and not advertised at
all. We have practically, under our present methods of handling these
fruits, reached the saturation point, that is, when we produce more than
25,000,000 barrels of apples annually and more than 40,000,000 bushels
of peaches annually, we reach the point where the grower cannot sell
them at a profit. If he holds them he has to do so at a sacrifice. This
condition is wrong. We should consume two or three times this tonnage
in a country such as ours.

Now, you will say that you cannot organize the apple like the orange.
That may be true and while it would be highly desirable if we could
have the apples of the United States in relatively few hands, which
would mean better distribution and advertising, still this may be Im-
practical and it is not necessary. We find that in business entire in-
dustries advertise regardless of the firm or brand. Look at the adver-
tising the national canners are carrying on, the White Pine Lumber
Manufacturers, the brick manufacturers, paint manufacturers. In Chi-
cago I recently found that sauerkraut manufacturers are all getting
together. The Hawaiian pineapple has been advertised nationally, re-
gardless of brand, and now the Chicago wholesale grocers are advertis-
ing eggs and butter and no brand name is mentioned.,

Industry finds that it pays to advertise manufactured products, that
the individual manufacturer always gains business from a national cam-
paign even though his name is never mentioned. It would be wise
enough to supplement this campaign with a little advertising of his own
and reap a big benefit. Apples could be organized in a certain way by
getting districts together like the Pacific Northwest, or the apple district
of the Michigan apple growers and some of the money could be raised
to advertise apples and peaches so as to give the consumer a Warning
of crops, of varieties, and get them prepared to buy. We must get

154

the consumer rapidly out of the idea of thinking that fruit is a medi-
cine on the one hand or a luxury on the other. While some work has
been done in showing that fruit contains vitamines and iron and by
the old slogan that "An apple a day keeps the doctor away," still such
advertising is only a drop in the bucket. We must show the American
public that fruit is a palatable, healthful, economical food, that it pays
to buy it from a dollar point of view. If the deciduous fruit growers
will get together in a way so as to advertise apples, peaches, and plums,
and similar fruits, in the same way that manufactured foods are ad-
vertised, or the orange and raisin are being advertised, there is no
reason why an equally good response should not be received, but as long
as we simply grow fruit, dump in four or five big centers, neglect the
educating of the American public through good literature in magazines
and papers which they read, and through intelligent advertising, we
must in the future expect to reap just what we are getting at present.
The solution of these problems of the fruit grower is in your hands.
There is going to be no Moses to come from the bullrushes and lead
you around and guide you across the deserts to the land of prosperity.
The trail has been blazed. You can see the handwriting on the wall.
Wherever others have gone, you can follow. The future of American
apple, peach and plum growing is in the hands of the grower. If he is
intelligent in organizing, marketing, distribution and advertising, he
will reap a great reward. If he refuses to take these steps he must
accept the penalty.

Question: Why are a great many hotels and restaurants
charging as high as twenty-five cents for baked apples and get-
ting away with it ? If something could be done to inake the price
of apples more reasonable there would be more consumed,
wouldn't there?

Mr. Lewis: Yes.

Question: And that might do more good than to spend sev-
eral hundred thousand dollars in newspapers.

Mr. Lewis: What are you doing to start that?

Question: Nothing in particular.

Mr. Lewis : That is it. You are doing nothing in particular.
Who is?

Question: The man who grows the fruit.

Mr. Lewis: Well, assume that you are a fruit grower. You
are doing nothing to stop that. And if I ask the average fruit
grower in the United States, his answer would be the same, "I
am doing nothing to stop it, but it should be stopped."

Let me illustrate : There was a car of lemons sold in Chicago.
I was down at the auction when this car came in. It reached
the market in pretty good shape. The fellow who sold it to the

155

other man made $2,200 profit. And I am willing to bet that the
man who grew those lemons lost money on it. Now if that man
had been selling a car of Sunkist lemons, how many cars would
he get for the remainder of his life? He would never get one.
That would be the last car he would ever get.

Referring to these same pears that I told you about before —
when they started their campaign they went to the retailer and
said, "You can't sell your pears from California in the way you
have been selling them, charging five, six and seven cents apiece.
You can't do it. But look here: If you sell so many boxes a
day you may make a certain margin of profit on that and you get
a quick turn-over and you make more money, and you have no
breakdown." And they put that campaign over. And that is
why they sold about twice as many pears in Chicago as they
ever did before.

The point I want to make, in answer to your question, is that
while some restaurants and hotels charge too much for baked
apples, that is only a drop in the bucket. But we will not cor-
rect it just sitting here. The conditions can only be corrected
by working in big business masses. You can't speculate with
bananas. If you try to speculate with bananas in Council Bluffs,
you would go broke in two weeks. You can't speculate in Sun-
kist oranges, you can't speculate in raisins, in prunes or in wal-
nuts in Iowa. Let me ask you, why should you speculate with
a food product? No man in the United States should have a
right to speculate on a food product. (Applause).

Question: Very few people buy oranges at that price.

Mr. Lewis : Let me tell you something. The' wholesale price
of oranges this summer was $8.50 to $11.00 a box, and they sold
every box; but peaches are going begging.

Question: Wasn't the crop reduced?

Mr. Lewis: The crop was reduced, but they wouldn't let
Chicago have one box that they couldn't use, and they advertised
it in the papers there. They had 35,000 cars of them. You for-
get, possibly, that when you went into the grocery store and
bought those oranges for sixty and seventy-five cents a dozen,
they were very large.

Question : Whatever happened to the plan that the society
started two or three years ago down at Columbus to organize the
apple industry and put on a selling campaign?

156

The Chairman: The marketing proposition?

Question : Yes.

The Chairman: We will hear more about that right away.
Somebody else can answer that. That was brought up and was
seriously considered, and about that time a movement was started
by the American Fai^m Bureau, which appointed a committee of
twenty-one representatives from all over the country. We were
told they were working at that marketing end of the problem.
Temporarily, until we found out what they were going to do,
we held up further work. And as a result they have gone ahead
and have had a number of meetings and they have organized
the Federated Fruit and Vegetable Growers. The manager of
the concern, Mr. A. R. Rule, was to appear, but he was un-
avoidably detained, and Mr. Nicol, of the Board of Managers of
the Federated Fruit and Vegetable Growers, will now give you
an address, and I think he can answer that question. Mr. Nicol.
(Applause).

157

THE FEDERATED FRUIT AND VEGETABLE
GROWERS' INC.

James Nicol, South Haven, Michigan

They say in this world that ther.e is no loss without some gain. Your
misfortune today is not having Mr. Rule here to address you. My good
fortune is being here in his place, listening to this splendid educational
program, meeting old friends, and I hope making new ones.

In making a report to you of the activities to date of the National
Fruit and Vegetable Association, I feel a good deal like I am report-
ing to headquarters. It was largely through the activity and help of the
members of this society that we have proceeded as far as we have in
the organization process. There are a great many men in this room
today who have given us active assistance. So far all we have done
has been to outline the plan that we expect to follow. We commence
active operations on the first day of next January, and the outstanding
feature of our organization is that it is to be owned and operated by
the growers.

Now I don't mean by that that the growers as going to turn in and
directly sell their own products. But no director of the association
would be elected that doesn't represent the growers' interests. No
member of the directors or executive committee will be anything but
a grower. Furthermore, no member of the directorate or no member of
the executive committee will receive a salary. The salaried man will
be the man that sells the goods, that advertises the goods, that shows
us the way to profitable distribution.

The first meeting of this committee of twenty-one was held last
November. Several meetings have been held since then. The com-
mittee was gradually reduced, until a board of directors, composed of
fifteen members, were planning the incorporation. They were finally
ordered to incorporate, which was done within the last sixty days. We
are incorporated in the state of Delaware, because Delaware offers a
broader charter than the average state. Different laws in different
states make it necessary for us to have a charter that can be adapted
to the different laws of every state.

Any cooperative association desiring to become a member is welcome.
Their application will be referred to the executive committee, and there
is nothing to prevent them from becoming a member; only that we
would like to know what they represent, as it is absolutely important
that grades be standardized, that somebody be back of them.

Now it is possible that some individual grower cannot be served by
a cooperative association. That being the case, if he has got a stand-
ardized product, a quantity sufficient to demand the services of this
association, there is no reason why he can't be admitted. On the other
hand, if it is one of those men that never can cooperate with any-
body, where he has a good chance to work through a cooperative as-
sociation, he will not be admitted to the service of the national or-
ganization, unless the local cooperative association which he should
belong to gives its consent.

158

This isn't to tear down any organization. Now we find those men
(they are a great minority, but we find them) in almost every district
in the United States.

The manner of electing those different directors is somewhat like
this: If there were in this state an apple association, we would pre-
fer that those co-operatives here meet annually and elect one member
to represent the apple interests of the state of Iowa. The potato man
would have the same right. So would the grape man. They would be
the directors. Now that would apply all over the United States. Citrus
men, potato men in Wisconsin, Michigan, New York and Maine would
each elect a director. The grape men would elect a director. The tree
fruit men, the small fruit men, etc., onions and celery — because these
men will represent those interests especially.

Now this directorate will naturally be a large body, and each direc-
tor's expenses are met by the association that sends him to the an-
nual meeting. There probably won't be any necessity for more than
one meeting per annum of this directorate. This directorate elects
the president, the vice-president and executive committee of five to
manage the business of the association.

In addition to that, there is an advisory committee. Now the advisory
committee would consist for every different commodity of the repre-
sentatives of that commodity. In other words, the Irish potato men
would be the advisory committee on anything pertaining to potatoes;
the sweet potato men would have their advisory committee. That ad-
visory committee can get together whenever they think their interests
demand it. They can be called together by the manager. When they
are called together by the manager, their expenses will be paid out of
the tonnage. When they call themselves together, their individual as-
sociations will pay the expenses of the delegates.

Now after they have decided on a policy or a problem that confronts
that special committee, they report it to the executive committee, and
their instructions are followed. That makes it grower-owned and con-
trolled. The grower is telling how he wants his product handled, and
that commodity is taking care of their own expenses.

The executive committee, as chosen by the board of directors, at pres-
ent represents one gentleman who lives in New York, another in New
Jersey, another in Florida, another in Illinois and one in Michigan. I
think the idea of the directorate in picking out that committee was the
fact that all those directors were within a night's run of New York and
Chicago and could be called together in less than one business day
when necessary.

The president of the organization belongs to the California fruit ex-
change. And I think he was a wise choice, because he comes from the
outstanding cooperative organization in the United States. The benefit
of their experience can't help but be of a great deal of advantage to this
new organization.

Now how is this organization going to be financed? I might state or
ought to state that we have purchased the North American Fruit Ex-
change. A committee of growers, consisting of Mr. Edwards of Cali-
fornia, and Mr. Peet, assisted by an attorney, examined the books and

159

the properties and decided on a price. That price couldn't be exactly
determined, because the bank balance of this organization on the last
day of this year has to be taken into consideration; also if they have
any outstanding debts at fhat time, they have to be deducted.

Any property, such as advances to different organizations, packing
houses, etc., that ar-e owned by the North American fruit exchange,
this organization does not buy. It doesn't buy packing houses. The
North American fruit exchange can liquidate that; or, better still, they
can sell them to the local organizations as soon as they are able to pay
for them. In some parts of the United States those packing houses
are a necessity. And at present the local growers there could not finance
a purchasing agreement. And we don't want those packing houses to
fall into the hands of unfriendly interests. That was the reason that
it was decided to leave them with the North American fruit exchange
until such time as they could be liquidated into friendly hands.

Now, how are we going to pay for this property that we have bought?
We have bought a going concern and it takes quite a lot of money to
pay for it. We make no payment until a year from next December.
We have five years or more to pay for that property. And it is going to
be paid for on a tonnage basis, using the revolving fund. There will be
a charge made for every car handled. It may be a dollar or it may be
two dollars per car. If we handle 40,000 cars next year, that might be
$80,000 that we collect on this two dollar charge that is put into this
revolving fund. Now that is not a reserve fund. It is a revolving fund.
In addition to paying for this property that we have bought, we want to
establish a capital. I don't know what the capital or the amount ought
to be. You are just as good a judge as I am. It might be a quarter of
a million dollars, it might be a million, it might be five million; and
it will be, before you get through; but that is a good many years hence.

If we had a moderate sum of $80,000, it would pay for this organ-
ization in a good deal less than five years and put up a very respectable
capital. But we will say, for argument, that we take five years and we
take $2.00 a car. Now if our business didn't increase we would have to
take as much the first year as we did the second year. Perhaps by
business Increasing, we don't need as much per car. Then again, if
we took as much per car we would pay for it just that much sooner. So
perhaps it will be just as well to have that same charge of $2.00 a
car, we will say. I can't say what that charge would be.

Well, after we have paid for this, after we have our capital, what
happens then? We still take the same amount — $2.00 a car — and we
return that. We will say that this is the sixth year. We return that
to the cooperative associations or individuals that furnish the first
money — that $2.00 per car the first year. On the seventh year we would
return it to the second, the eighth year to the third, etc., making just
what it is called — a revolving fund.

Do you ever stop to think of the community work that has been done
in cooperative associations by everybody that has ever been interested
in the community, for which you get absolutely nothing, very often not
a thing? You pass away and your interest in some of those member
organizations passes away with you. If your son wants to succeed you

160

in the business, he has to join as a new member. It is just like some-
body standing back and saying, "Well, when this is a going concern
and everything is going fine, I am with you; but I won't start with you."

Now this revolving fund makes that man start' just where you started.
He pays just exactly what you pay. I think it is the fairest way of
starting a cooperative organization that ever was worked out. We are
largely indebted to the California Fruit Exchange for some of those
ideas. The men that are doing the business will pay the expenses of
running that organization every year that it operates.

There is an initial charge for membership which practically amounts
to nothing. That is ten cents a car. I think the attorney said, "We
will call that an entrance fee, but we will make it an annual fee."

Now in a cooperative association in this neighborhood, I don't imagine
you would have in fruit more than one or two or three hundred cars.
What would it amount to — ten cents a car? In the aggregate it amounts
to a lot. Just the entrance fee for the California Fruit Exchange,
whether they ever sold a car or not, would be $5,000 on their average
year's business, just their membership dues. And I want to tell you
that those California people say well and good. They suggested it
themselves. They will carry a large part of the burden of the initial
expense on just that ten cents a car entrance fee. On an old asso-
ciation, it is figured on your last year's business; on a new association,
merely on an estimated tonnage.

We will be glad to have applications for membership sent to the sec-
retary's office, either at Chicago or the New York office. They will be
of equal importance.

The great problem that we have before us today is to get the men that
can furnish the ability to advertise our fruits, as outlined by Mr. Lewis,
to help in the organization of different cooperative associations where
they have none, and most of all in the distribution and sales of our
products. For you men that represent the educational institutions of
our country, there is a field that we want you to put your best talent
back of. Educate some of those young men in the selling and market-
ing, advertising of our products. We have got to have them. There is
a crop that hasn't been grown. We, have applications from co-operative
associations today that will pay good salaries for good service. In fact,
I was at a cooperative meeting inside of a year where a manager was
offered $1,000 a month salary by a local cooperative selling association.
And what do you suppose he told me? He was frank with me. He said,
"I can make more money buying your fruit than selling the fruit for
you." And he told the truth, and he turned down that salary. Now
we don't want that man. He didn't have the cooperative idea in selling
the fruit. He told us the brutal truth that we knew, and we thanked
him for it. But when we are ready to pay such prices as that, isn't
there a demand for that service?

We haven't got our organization man appointed yet. We want a man
of the type of Mr. Harold Powell. Where is he? We are taking time.
We hope to get some man. We will get a man, but you can't get him
on short notice.

In regard to the business that we are going to do, we aim to start

161

in a moderate way. A good many of our farm propositions have been
overwhelming. There is a demand for the services there, but we are
not ready to render that service. We have got a going concern, and we
have employed Mr. Rule as general manager. But Mr. Rule has not
employed all the men in the North American employ at the present time.
That is up to him. He can pick out the men that he has got there. He
can get better men, if such a thing is possible.

We hope next year that our tonnage will not exceed 40,000 cars.
We want to test this organization. We want to test out the men in our
employ. Now, 40,000 cars is a very moderate amount compared to the
tonnage of perishables. We have got in sight at the present time
30,000 cars. So we have only got to get 10,000 cars more before harvest
to have our 40,000 cars. We don't expect that an old organization like
the California Fruit Exchange is going to come right in and say, "Take
all our stuff and sell it." They have a fine selling organization. But
we do expect confidently that the California Fruit Exchange is going
to help us and divide the expense in a great many instances with us
in the distributing center. That is to say, if they had an office in Coun-
cil Bluffs or Omaha, that same office, the same office force could be
used by both the California Fruit Exchange and by the Federated.
The day will come (I know that the California people confidently ex-
pect it) when the auction sales in the large cities will be owned by the
growers jointly. They are with us in that. Instead of having them
private concerns, they will be owned and operated by the growers.
That is a point on which we can get together with the California Fruit
Exchange just as soon as we are ready and have sufficient tonnage to
operate in an economical way.

We need help. We have come here asking that. They say it was
the largest proposition in cooperative marketing that ever was at-
tempted in the world. But that is no reason why we shouldn't succeed.
And I might say right here that we started simply as the National Fruit
Organization, and we were very diffident about adding that word "Vege-
table." But Wisconsin and New Jersey made a strong plea, coming
from the potato interests in those states. The motion was made by a
potato man in Wisconsin that the word "Vegetables" be added. That
is the reason that it is now the Fruit and Vegetable Organization. The
arguments were all in favor. A man that sells fruits can just as well
sell vegetables.

I would like to show you the tonnage map of the 30,000 cars that we
have practically secured. It goes up to a peak in September and October
and runs moderately the balance of the year. Now by putting in the
potatoes in the early months of the year, we will reduce the overhead.
If we can put in the citrus fruits from now until the strawberries be-
gm to move, that will greatly reduce the overhead. We have got quite
a proportion of the citrus fruits in Florida that will be handled through
this new organization. In California we are offered 5,000 cars of oranges.
But it doesn't come from the California Fruit Exchange.

Now we are co-operators and we say to those men in Florida, "What
is the matter with the California Fruit Exchange? Why can't you come

162

in as a state? We are not there to try and start a rival organization."
Our advice to them is, "Go and use the organized co-operative exchange
of California. Come in together."

How that matter is going to be settled I don't know. But I don't
think that they would object if we take that tonnage. We are not there
to try to tear down co-operative organizations. We are there to build
them up.

I was very much interested in a question that a gentleman here asked
about the cost of buying an orange. You have got an apple show, as
fine a display of apples as I ever saw. I was there last night, and, of
course, I got apple hungry. I bought an apple. I know what I paid for
that apple. I would pay $45.00 a barrel if I bought them on the cost basis
for that one apple. I know just how many apples there are in a barrel.

That is one of the problems that we are going to try to help solve.
As Mr. Lewis, in that remarkable paper pointed out to you, you see
apples advertised — Wenatchee, Hood River, Skookum. You have got
apple experts in this room, a large proportion of them. I will ven-
ture to say, if I brought you in Jonathan apples from Illinois, Michigan,
New York, Wenatchee, and asked you to tell where it came from you
couldn't tell; that is, the majority of you couldn't. There might be
one or two that could tell. -The advertising that those gentlemen are
doing is helping the whole apple industry where it is presented. And
it is unfair. Why shouldn't the advertising of the apples of the United
States be carried by the apple men of the United States? It is up to
you as an industry, whether you choose to eat an Iowa apple, a Michigan
apple or a Washington apple, to do that. But if you get into the habit
of eating apples you won't stop because the supply is exhausted in
one state.

Now we would like as an advertising problem (this is just a few of
the suggestions that have been talked over) in such an exhibit as you
have in your city, to present everybody every time they come in there
with an apple, if they will eat it or take it home and make somebody
eat it. (Applause).

Now it isn't fair to ask the Iowa Horticultural Society to carry the
burden. That is a burden of the apple men of the United States. That
is co-operation — doing the same thing at New York, doing the same thing
in every other state, getting people into the habit of doing it. ||

Supposing on a Tuesday we should commence in an industrial plant
or in a large office building in a big city and at 10 o'clock we should
have a score of boys go in and hand everybody an apple that was
suitable to eat at that date. Say, we keep that up for a week. At 10
o'clock every day they would get an apple. Then on the following
Wednesday we would go over there with apples again and tell them
that the doctor has said that the man who was doing this was in
danger of dying, enlargement of the heart, and it was a business sug-
gestion, and today we would have to charge them a fair price for that
apple. Don't you believe that fifty per cent of those men will have had
the apple habit by that time? If it came to 10 o'clock, they would have
missed it if you didn't present them with an apple.

I wander if you have ever thought where the apple consumption of

163

the United States is. Mr. Lewis told you that all refrigerated perish-
able fruits in the United States amounted to something like one mil-
lion cars. If everybody in the United States consumed one apple a day,
it would take 565,000 cars to fill that demand. That is just one apple
a day. (Applause). Why, we haven't scratched the surface of the
consumption of fruits.

I am just talking about apples, because we have got into the habit
and we have an apple show here; but that same thing applies to all
other fruits.

Now in some districts a man will say, "Well, it is all right. I am
doing fairly well. I don't need any cooperative association." That is
the greatest mistake a fruit grower can make. You can establish the
finest local or distant trade for your commodity, but there is a limit
to fill in that demand, according to your acreage. Now, if you are
going to advertise, if you are going to build up a trade, when you get
a return on it, if you can't fill that, you are practically out of business,
you are forgotten before your next crop comes along. No man can
stand alone in marketing his crops successfully.

I can say this, for I haven't sold a pound of fruit, relatively speaking,
oif my farm in the past twelve years. And nothing pleases me better
than when I hear a man going by the place and saying, "There is no use
stopping at that old geezer's farm. You couldn't buy his fruit on a
bet." And he can't. The salesman sells my fruit. Why should a buyer
drive out to my farm and pass by the co-operative association? There
is only one reason in the world — because he thinks he can do better
buying from me than he can from the co-operative association. It costs
him money to travel.

Now, in closing, I just want to ask for the support of every man that
represents the educational (if you will allow me to call it so) feature
of agriculture, for the support of every man that represents the mar-
ket. We are not going to do it as individuals. We are going to do it
in a national way. Perhaps, you will remember in our school books,
they used to tell us of the glories of ancient Rome, as -McCaulley used
to describe it, when none stood out for a body but all for the state.
That is the spirit. We want to go into this co-operative work and
hope confidently for success.

164
THE FRUIT CROP OF 1922 '

Verne H. Church. Agricultural Statistician for Michigan, Lansing, Michigai

It is certainly an honor and a pleasure to meet with an organization
such as is in session here; one that is interested in an industry that
requires a very high type of scientific skill on the part of those engaged
in it; one that is fostering a highly intensified type of agriculture; one
that is interested in the production of the most beautiful, healthful and
useful class of Nature's products; and one whose members have seen
the fruit and fruit products of a single season reach the enormous
valuation of $754,000,000. This occurred in 1919, the crop of 1920 having
a slightly less value, and that of 1921 an estimated value of $525,100,000.
This decrease was mainly due to the light crop of orchard fruits in 1921.
The above figures represent about five per cent of the total value of all
farm crops, and those relating to the 1919 crop show an increase of 230
per cent over the corresponding value in 1909. The only other crops
exceeding this valuation are corn, wheat, oats, hay and cotton.

The apple, the fruit that is adapted to a greater variety of uses than
any other, and which can be made available in its fresh state through-
out all of the months of the year, is grown in every state and nearly
every locality where agriculture is possible. Therefore, it will be my
aim to dwell more fully on the statistics relating to it than to any
of the other fruits.

The federal census of January, 1920, showed 115,309,165 bearing trees
in the United States, or 24 per cent less than shown by the census
of 1910. The number of trees not of bearing age was reported in 1920
to be 36,195,085, a decrease of 45 per cent since the previous census,
indicating that the loss of 24 per cent in bearing acreage already sus-
tained between 1910 and 1920 would probably be still greater during
ithe next few years because of the reduced plantings. However, it is in-
teresting to note that the average annual production for the last five
years, 161 million bushels in round numbers, is greater by seven mil-
lions than it was for the same period ten years ago. This leads to the
conclusion that the average yield per tree is considerably greater now
than it has ever been in the past, that the process of evolution or sur-
vival of the fittest is actually at work in the apple industry, and that
advancing scientific methods are literally bearing fruit. Included in this
five-year average of 161,000,000 annual production was the exceptionally
light crop of 1921 when only 98,097,000 bushels were harvested, the
lightest since 1890, when our population was only 60 per cent of what
it is now. In contrast to this extremely light crop, which was 40 per
cent short of normal, we have just harvested a crop estimated at
205,539,000 bushels, or nearly 28 per cent above normal. These figures
refer to' the total agricultural crop whereas every fruit grower is primarily
interested in the commercial portion only.

This portion normally is about one-half of the total production but
varies widely from year to year according to the size of the crop, the
percentage being highest in years of light production and lowest in years
of heavy production. In other words, the commercial production is far

165

more stable in volume than the agricultural. It is, indeed, unfortunate
that figures on the commercial crop are not available for more than a
few years back. During the years of the World War, when emergency
funds were available, a special reporting service on commercial fruits
was inaugurated by what was then the Bureau of Crop Estimates. Fruit
specialists made surveys of the commercial areas and monthly reports
on condition. These reports proved to be extremely valuable but, with
the cutting off of the special funds for this purpose at the close of
the war, it was necessary to discontinue the work and the services of
these men. Since that time only feeble efforts at estimating the com-
mercial side of the crop could be attempted, although it would seem
that a few thousands of dollars spent along this line would be of untold
value to the fruit producers of this country. However, it does not
appear to be possible to secure such an appropriation from congress un-
less concerted action is taken in that direction by those who would be
directly benefitted.

Between 25,000,000 and 26,000,000 barrels is the average annual com-
mercial production for the last five years. Last year it dropped to
20,098,000 and this year it promises to reach 31,901,000 barrels. In 1920,
it reached 34,000,000. In that year, 31 states of the Union produced 97 per
cent of the apple crop, none of which had a total production of less than
1,000,000 bushels. Among these states are eleven that are producing 68
per cent of the total crop and 77 per cent of the commercial crop this
year, none of which had a total of less than 6,000,000 bushels. These
eleven states are: New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia,
Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Washington, Oregon and California.
There are other states that outrank some on this list in occasional years
so that it is not, strictly speaking, a list of leading states.

The October 1 condition in this group shows a percentage of 71 or
better in seven states, Pennsylvania reported 63, and the states of
Virginia, West Virginia and Ohio were 50 per cent or below. These
last three, together with portions of Pennsylvania and other states in the
same region, suffered severely from a late spring freeze "that materially
reduced the setting of fruit on the trees.

The quality in all parts of the country is generally up to the average
or better. The only exception was reported from Idaho where a great
variety of troubles occurred rather than any particular prevailing one.
A report on September 1, by the New York State Horticultural Society,
states that 58 per cent of the crop would pack "A" grade as compared
with 59 per cent last year and 70 per cent in 1920. The State Horti-
culturist of North Carolina estimates a loss of 40 per cent, due to in-
sect pests and diseases. It may be of interest at this point to mention
the results of the bureau's investigations of the causes of losses to the
apple crop. For the years 1912 to 1920, inclusive, the average losses
amounted to 39.5 per cent, divided as follows: climatic, 25.6; plant
disease, 3.9; insect pests, 3.3; animal pests, 0.1. Of the climatic losses,
4.9 per cent were from deficient moisture, 1.7 from excessive moisture,
15.7 from frost and freezing, 0.8 from hail, 0.2 from floods, 0.5 from
hot winds, and 0.9 from storms.

166

Our statisticians report that the car shortage has not been a serious
factor this year, although there was some local difficulty in getting
cars spotted in heavy producing sections at times, and some losses
through delay in getting cars to handle early varieties. There is also
difficulty in securing cars for the late crop in some of the far western
states. Through fear of transportation troubles, buyers have been timid
and as a result prices have been materially affected. The results of a
questionnaire addressed to statisticians in the leading apple states in-
indicate that from 85 to 90 per cent of the movement is by rail, in car
lots, the remaining ten to fifteen per cent being by truck and rail ship-
ments in less than car lots. Of the rail movement, as high as 90 per
cent is estimated as being shipped in refrigerator cars from some of
the southern states, while in the northern states it is only about ten
per cent. From 70 to 75 per cent of the crop east of the Rockies is
shipped in barrels. Bulk shipments comprise about ten per cent, and
the greater part of early varieties moves in baskets. West of the
Rockies, the box is the favorite package, and is probably used for
90 per cent of the shipments. Bulk shipments are seldom made from
that section of the country except locally for by-products and storage.

From the extremely short crop of 1921, 95,837 cars were shipped.
From the large crop of 1920, 102,962 cars were shipped. The 1920 pro-
duction was 130 per cent greater than the 1921, but the total shipments
were only eight per cent more. The wastage and losses coincident with
large crops, and the remarkable utilization of small ones is well illus-
trated by these figures and often causes doubts and suspicions in the
minds of some as to the reliability and accuracy of the estimates. We
also should not lose sight of the fact that in years of large production
the natural distribution of the crop is much better and greatly reduces
the need for car lot shipments, especially in sections where trucking
is a considerable factor.

As to the prevailing market situation, early varieties brought only fair
prices. From sections that were far removed from consuming markets,
high freight rates reduced the returns to a very small figure. In the
far northern states, where early varieties come into competition with
later and better ones from central and southern states, considerable
quantities gave almost no net returns and a portion of ,the crop was
not harvested. No attempt was made to handle the inferior grades.
For fall and winter varieties the market has been sluggish, buyers
were slow in making their appearance and timid in their offers. Many
individual growers sought and found their own markets or have placed
their crop in storage. Most of the states report unusually large stor-
age holdings.

It is not my province to attempt any predictions as to the future mar-
ket nor am I a specialist in marketing, but there are some really hope-
ful signs. A low price at the beginning of the market season is a
stimulant to large consumption and acts as a tonic to prices later in
the marketing period. The crop is not as large as that of 1920, yet
labor is much more fully employed and therefore enjoying a greater
buying capacity. High freight rates, low prices, and weak demand will

167

largely eliminate the lower grades. Through this elimination, the total
quantity to be consumed is not only materially reduced but the public
appetite is improved, a factor which should not be forgotten. A peck
of poor apples will last my family longer than a bushel of good ones,
and the interval between the time the peck is finished and the next
purchase is apt to be many times longer than between the end of the
good bushel and the beginning of the next one.

Peaches

The peach industry in the United States shows a greater percentage of
shrinkage in volume than the apple. The number of bearing trees in
1910 was 94,506,657 and in 1920, 65,646,101, a reduction of slightly more
than 30 per cent. The number of trees not in bearing in 1910 was
42,266,243 and in 1920, 21,617,862, a loss of nearly 49 per cent. This
decline in the industry has been due to heavy losses of trees by freez-
ing, small and unprofitable crops in too frequent succession, and the
greater profits obtained from other fruits produced in the same localities.
The number of bearing trees in California in 1920 was more than 1,000,-
000 greater than in 1910, but the number not in bearing was more than
3,000,000 less. The statistician for that state estimates a probable in-
crease in bearing capacity since 1919 of about five per cent. While
the census shows a decrease of about 2,000,000 bearing trees in Georgia
during the same decade, this is offset by nearly as large an increase in
young trees. The tendency is to increase the acreage because of the
decline in the cotton industry, due to the ravages of the boll weevil
in northern Georgia. New York increased its number of bearing trees
but has not planted as heavily of late and has but few young trees
coming into bearing. Michigan lost nearly one-third of its bearing
acreage and has turned largely to cherries rather than re-setting peaches.
Missouri lost nearly two-thirds of its bearing acreage and had only one-
half as many trees coming into bearing in 1920 as in 1910.

There are seventeen states that produced more than 1,000,000 bushels
each of peaches in 1922, and may be classed as important producing
states. They produced about 85 per cent of the crop this year, and are:
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Georgia, Ohio,
Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Texas, Oklahoma,
Arkansas, Utah, Washington and California. California alone produced
about 30 per cent of the total estimated crop of 56,125,000 bushels for
the United States. This is the largest crop produced since 1915 and the
largest with that exception since quantitive estimates began, which was
in 1899. Estimates on the strictly commercial portion of the crop are
not available. The 1922 crop was approximately 70 per cent larger
than that of 1921. The crop was very good in nearly all of the important
states, except Georgia with 59 per cent, Pennsylvania with 65 per cent,
Texas with 40 per cent, Arkansas with 68 per cent and Oklahoma with
69 per cent of a full crop.

The quality was generally above the average, except that some &f the
fruit was small in size in localities where the trees were too heavily
loaded and not properly thinned.

168

The total movement for the past season, as reported up to October V,
was 35,519 cars, as compared with 27,066 cars in 1921, and 26,967 in 1920.
The 1920 crop exceeded the 1921 crop by 39 per cent but the total re-
ported shipments were 99 cars less.

The leading variety for shipping purposes is the Elberta, it being es-
timated that 90 per cent or more of the total shipments were of this
variety. In California, from 25 to 35 per cent of the crop is utilized for
drying purposes for which the Muir and Lowell varieties are the most
popular, and 60 to 65 per cent for canning for which Phillips cling and
Tustin cling are the two leading varieties.

While there was no serious car shortage in any section, the fear of
transportation difficulties in August, due to the strike then prevailing in
car shops, caused buyers to be timorous and low prices to prevail.
Weather conditions were most favorable and as the season advanced con-
fidence improved and prices steadily advanced in the northern states.
The amount of wastage was relatively small and less than anticipated.

Pears

While there was a slight loss for the country as a whole in the num-
ber of pear trees during the ten years between the 1910 and 1920 census
enumerations, there was a net gain of approximately 2,500,000 trees in
the commercial regions. There was a marked increase in each of the
three Pacific states, a loss of over 600,000 in New York and a slight loss
in Michigan. These five states constitute the commercial area and had
a total of 7,708,220 bearing trees in 1920. The total number of bearing
trees in the United States at that time was 14,647,412. The estimated
production for this year is 17,772,000 bushels of which nearly 11,000,000
bushels are credited to the above five states. The total production
last year was 10,705,000 bushels and in 1920, 16,805,000 bushels.

The Bartlett and Kieffer are leading varieties. The New York statis-
tician reports the former as comprising 47 per cent and the latter 40
per cent of the crop in his state this year. So far as known, similar
figures are not available for the other states.

The October condition figures were as follows: New York, 93 per
cent of normal; Michigan, 89; Washington, 80; Oregon, 77; and Cali-
fornia, 82. The number of carloads moved in 1921 was 12,442 and in
1920, 14,950; this year up to November 4, 18,267. A considerable quan-
tity is usually placed in storage for later marketing.

The quality was generally good and the principal waste occurred in
sections isolated from markets. Fair prices prevailed in comparison
with values of other farm products and the relatively large crop pro-
duced.

Plums and Prunes

The total number of bearing trees as reported in the census of 1920
was 20,452,293, which was about 3,000,000 less than in 1910. The num-
ber of trees not in bearing was 9,375,268, or nearly 2,500,000 more than
in 1910. Of the total bearing acreage, a little over 60 per cent is lo-
cated in the three Pacific states. California has 8,768,436 trees, or more

169

than 40' per cent of the total for the United States. Oregon has about
3,000,000 trees. The other leading states are: New York, Pennsylvania,
Missouri and Idaho, each having between 400,000 and 750,000 trees.

The crop was large this year and there was much wastage in the north
central states, due to. the lack of demand and to prices that were too
low to cover the cost of harvesting, packing, marketing and transporta-
tion charges. As the bureau of agricultural economics makes no official
estimates on this crop, statistical information concerning the volume is
not available except for the census years. In 1919, the crop amounted
to 19,083,942 bushels, of which 13,200,805 bushels were produced in Cali-
fornia. The quality was very good, except that the fruit averaged small
in size in many sections where the trees were over-loaded.

Cherries

Cherries are extensively grown in western New York, northern Ohio,
western Michigan, northwestern Wisconsin, California, and in local areas
elsewhere. Those grown in the far west are chiefly of the sweet varieties
such as Bing, Tartarian, Royal Anne and others. In the Lake region,
probably 90 per cent of the acreage is devoted to the sour varieties,
the Montmorency being the leading commercial variety. The Early
Richmond is extensively grown as an early variety and the English
Morello as the principal late variety. The plantings in California dur-
ing the last few years have only been about equal to the number of trees
that have died. In the Lake states the plantings have been heavy.
Growers have found this fruit more certain in yield and of greater profit
than peaches, hence, following the heavy losses of peach trees from
severe winters, replacements have been of cherries. The net increase
in Michigan amounted to more than 40 per cent during the decade
ended with the year 1920. The advance census bulletin does not con-
tain any figures on cherries, so that it is impossible to make compari-
sons between the different states regarding this crop. Neither is it
possible to give production figures.

The bulk of the western crop was handled this year through a co-
operative association of cherry growers and better prices were ob-
tained than usual. The quality was good and there was very little
wastage. In the Lake region, shot-hole fungus was prevalent and in-
jured the fruit in many orchards, especially the later varieties. In
many unsprayed orchards there was a total loss. The canning plants
were literally swamped because of the heavy marketings of this off-
grade fruit, and considerable quantities had to be rejected because of
low quality and inability of canning factories to handle it as fast as
necessary. Prices ruled lower than for several years. The leading
packages in the east for shipping purposes are the 16 and 24 quart
cases; in the west, it is the ten-pound box.

Apricots

This crop is mainly confined to the state of California, and very few
figures are available. The crop last year was estimated at 105,000 tons,
which represented 55 per cent of a normal production. This year the
condition on September 1 was 68 per cent of normal.

170

Grapes

About 92.5 per cent of the bearing grape viijes are in the states of
California, New York, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Ohio, each rank,
ing in the order named. Nearly 70 per cent of the total are in California.
It is estimated that the total acreage of both bearing and non-bearing
in that state is 600,000, of which about one-fourth was non-bearing this
year. About two-thirds of the bearing acreage consists of raisin grapes,
two-ninths of wine grapes, and the remaining ninth of table varieties.
Plantings in that state have been heavy in recent years. In the other
states, the 1920 census showed a slight decrease in the industry since
1910, but considerable planting has been done during the last three
years. A report from Arkansas mentions the great increase in plant-
ings there. While the census reported 607,240 vines, it is estimated
that the number today is 2,160,000. Forty carloads were shipped from
there this year, and probably three or four times that amount will be
handled next year.

The California statistician estimates the total production of raisin
grapes this year to be about 950,000 tons; wine grapes, 400,000 tons;
and table grapes, 175,000 tons. Car shortage interfered with the move-
ment to some extent and it is probable that another 50,000 tons would
have moved as fresh grapes if transportation companies could have
handled them. Because of this condition, they were dried either as
raisins or dried grapes.

There was a large crop in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michi-
gan. Except for small local areas affected with rot or presence of the
berry moth, the volume of the crop was only limited by the system of
pruning and the capacity of the vines to carry the load. While there
was some frost injury in the spring, the vines made a vigorous growth
and the increased bearing surface permitted the setting of a full crop.
The October 1 conditions for the United States as a whole was 95.4
per cent as compared with a ten-year average of 81 per cent. California
reported a condition of 96 per cent; New Yark, 98; Pennsylvania and
Ohio, 90; Michigan, 93. The leading varieties in the eastern states are
the Concord, Moores Early, Niagara, Delaware and Catawba. In Cali-
fornia the principal varieties of raisin grapes are: The Muscat, Thomp-
son and Sultana; of table grapes, Malagas, Tokays, Emperors and
Cornichons; while wine grapes are of too many varieties to mention.

Small Fruits

Strawberries : More than 119,000 acres were devoted to this crop in
1919. Since that time there has been a decided increase in a number of
states. Arkansas reports more than double the 1919 acreage. The quality
was good in most of the commercial areas, and the total shipments this
year amounted to 18,500 carloads which was 75 per cent greater than
in 1921. The state of Tennessee shipped more than 3,700 carloads, which
was more than double the amount shipped by any other state in the Union.
The season's movement for the United States amounted to 166.500,000
quarts, which does not include the large quantity consumed on farms and
in local markets.

171

Blackberries: The published data is insufficient as a basis for an
intelligent report.

Cran'berries: The November 1 estimate is for a total crop in the
United States of 561,000 barrels against 373,000 last year. The Massa-
chusetts crop was placed at 290,000 barrels, the New Jersey at 207,000,
and the Wisconsin crop at 59,000. Oregon contributes about 3,000 and
Washington, 5,000 barrels. The crop was of good quality.

Subtropical Fruits

Only brief mention is made of this class of fruits, as the interest in
them is more localized and the writer's knowledge of them is extremely
limited.

The orange crop for each of the last three named years has exceeded
$60,000,000 in value. The crop in California for the year ended Novem-
ber 1, based on the October 1 estimate, is 58 per cent of normal, the small
crop having been due to the severe freeze that occurred in that state
last January. The crop in Florida was not affected by the freeze and
reached SO' per cent of a normal yield.

The lemon crop in California was also light, the November condition
being only 55 per cent as compared- with 86 per cent one year ago.

The Florida lime crop was placed at 85 per cent as compared with 78
per cent one year ago, and the grapefruit production at 88 per cent as
against 78 per cent last year.

California reports 80 per cent of a normal crop of prunes, 90 per cent
of figs and 48 per cent of olives. The report of that state for almonds
and walnuts is 76 per cent, respectively.

It has been possible to briefly touch upon the situation in regard to
the different fruit and to point out the principal statistical features in
connection with the 1922 crop. In conclusion, I merely wish to add that
these statistics indicate that even in years of large production, con-
sumption of fruit must be woefully light in a large percentage of the
homes of this country. If every person were to eat, on the average,
one apple each day of the year and our production was double that of
the season just ended, there would be no apples left for pies, cider,
canning or other purposes. We are making a poor start toward secur-
ing a greater consumption when in the height of the shipping season
we are unable to obtain fresh home-grown fruits in hotels and restaurants
even when located in the heart of important fruit areas and in cities
and towns that are leading fruit shipping points. I fear this situation
is altogether too prevalent.

As I view the situation from a statistical basis, the most important
effort should be to stimulate consumption. Just as you have built up
production and improved the quality of your products, so should the
public be educated to utilize your products, and their appetites whetted
for your fruit as they have been for the tropical and subtropical kinds.

172

THE FOREIGN TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES IN

FRUITS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO EXPORT

MARKETS FOR AMERICAN APPLES

C. L. Luedtke, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural

Economics, Washington, D. C.

Introduction

The United States is the greatest producer and consumer of fruit in
the world. While importing large quantities of fresh and dried fruii
annually from foreign countries, the United States is at the same time
developing an export market for the fruit of which she produces a surplus.

Marketing for export is not essentially different from supplying the
home market. To be sure, there are certain special requirements and
preferences of the various foreign markets but these will also be found
in the domestic markets. The problem of proper care and handling in
transit is also one that perhaps deserves special attention. The purpose
of this report, however, is merely to point out some of the peculiar
characteristics of foreign markets and their special preferences, methods
of sale, etc., and in general to summarize briefly some of the chief
problems that must be solved by those who engage in the marketing of
fruit for export.

No attempt has been made in this report to discuss in detail the method
of preparation, packing, and grading of fruit for export. For more com-
plete information on these subjects the reader is referred to the many
special reports that have been published by the United States Department
of Agriculture, and which are described in the bibliography that will be
found in the Appendix of this report.

The total value of the fresh and dried fruits imported into the United
States during 1921 was $44,385,886, as against $68,326,274, representing
the value of our exports of fresh and dried fruits during that year. The
quantity and value of the principal imported fruits were: Bananas, 43,-
365,763 bunches, valued at $19,385,174; currants, 57,063,528 pounds, valued
at $4,481,942; figs, 38,715,943 pounds, valued at $3,251,192; dates, 48,504,-
355 pounds, valued at $2,321,150; raisins, 16,879,933 pounds, valued at
$2,422,765.

On the export side apples head the list with 1,936,224 barrels, valued at
$13,981,865, exported in 1921, compared with 1,797,711 barrels, with a de-
clared value of $14,088,733, exported in 1920. Other exports of fresh fruits
in 1921 include 2,331,075 boxes of oranges, valued at $8,374,735; and 304,-
313 boxes of lemons valued at $1,295,923. Approximately, 55 per cent of
the total value of our fruit exports in 1921 represented dried and pre-
served fruits, which consisted chiefly of dried prunes, raisins, apricots
and dried apples. Of this amount, $9,280,298 represented the value of
117,933;740 pounds of dried prunes; $4,110,404, the value of 21,575,149
pounds of dried apricots; $5,516,806, the value of 32,968,664 pounds of
raisins and other dried grapes; and $2,206,843, the value of 19,962,306
pounds of dried apples.

173

Export Markets for American Apples

Principal Foreign Markets

During the past decade varying quantities of apples, seldom exceeding
2,000,000 barrels, have been exported annually from the United States.
The United Kingdom has always been the best customer and in 1921 took
over 1,498,839 barre.ls. Canada is the next best customer, taking 166,410
barrels in 1921. Next in order was Norway, which took 80,233 barrels
in 1921 and 67,434 barrels in 1920. Before the war Germany was the
second largest importer of American apples. As soon as the rate of
exchange and general economic conditions in that country reach a more
stable level, Germany should again become an important market for
American apples. Sweden and other North European countries consume
American apples in lesser quantities. The Netherlands is normally a
large apple exporting country and the demand for imported apples is
therefore limited. "When it is possible once more to resume business with
Germany, Rotterdam will be in a position to distribute both box and bar-
rel apples in considerable quantities to the Rhine provinces and to South-
ern Germany, which are only four and a half hours away by rail and
nearer to Rotterdam than they are to Hamburg, Rotterdam's apple dis-
tributing rival. Rotterdam is also a distributing center for the Scan-
dinavian countries.

Export Varieties and Preferences

The great bulk of the apples exported from the United States during
the past few years have been prepared for shipment without much regard
as to the special preferences and demands of the foreign customers. This
has been true more particularly of barreled apples. To create a demand
for his fruit the American exporter should therefore give special atten-
tion to the preferences in the several foreign markets. The need for
grading and the importance of proper packing of apples are discussed
elsewhere in this report.

The following varieties have proved generally satisfactory for the
export trade:

Barreled Boxed

Baldwins Yellow Newtowns

Yellow Newtowns Winesaps

York Imperials Jonathans

Ben Davis

Rhode Island Greenings

Ganos

Spitzenbergs

Yellow Newtowns, York Imperials, and Baldwins have up to the present
time been the favorite export varieties.

In England a certain preference is shown for the yellow varieties,
while in the Scandinavian countries the red varieties command the best
price; Baldwins, Kings and Ben Davis packed in barrels being special
favorites. Practically no demand exists for green or cooking Ripples in
Sweden. In the box packs, the varieties especially desired are Jonathans,

174

Spitzeribergs, Winesaps, and Arkansas Blacks. Rome Beautys and Yel-
low Newtowns are good sellers, but less popular than more highly colored
varieties.

A strong preference exists throughout Scandinavia for the western box-
pack. As business is transacted on a cash basis, it has been found more
economical to deal in box apples than in barrel apples, and for this
reason it is difficult to interest the trade in the direct handling of the
latter. The preference for box-packed apples may also be attributed to
the fact that they can be shipped more safely and are also more likely
to arrive in a satisfactory condition. Boxed apples are furthermore bet-
ter adapted to handling and inland transportation.

Packing and Grading

The importance of proper packing and grading and the sending of first-
class fruit to foreign markets can not be over-emphasized. While pack-
ing and grading of fruit in the United States has greatly improved during
recent years the change has not been so noticeable in the export trade.
The demand for American apples has at times suffered considerably be-
cause of the large volume of "C" grade and jumble-pack stock that has
been shipped to foreign markets. The old and so-called Slavonian-Cali-
fornia pack was one of the worst packs that came into the London mar-
ket. It always brought less than other packs, qualities being equal, be-
cause it was not trustworthy.

American exporters must therefore keep in mind that if they expect
to develop and retain their hold on markets in foreign countries they
must send sound fruit, properly packed and graded. The dumping of
inferior fruit should be stopped. American apples in most foreign coun-
tries are a luxury and only good fruit is wanted. Strict export grading
would be a great help for that would exclude much inferior stock. Such
stock not only brings little more than the freight but depresses the price
of better class fruit.

Recent reports from abroad indicate a general improvement in the con-
dition of American fruit which arrived in the British markets during the
past year. The fruit was well graded and a marked improvement was
noted in the California pack. Boxed apples were much more in evidence
on the British market during the 1921-22 season than during the previous
years. As we have already pointed out, however, the box is a more pop-
ular container than the barrel in the British markets, although bar-
reled apples have on some occasions brought higher prices than equal
weights of boxed apples. In practically all of these cases the condition
of the fruit was the determining factor. In England, a particularly
heavy pack is desired. There is also a decided preference in most markets
for apples wrapped in paper. In the British markets paper is a distinct
mark of quality and where it is lacking the best prices can not be
expected. In Germany, however, apples wrapped in paper are regarded as
luxury fruit and the regulation against the wrapping of apples is merely a
rough and ready method of distinguishing between low and high class
fruit.

In order to insure the safe arrival of boxed apples on the other side,

r

175

the boxes should be securely wired or strapped. If the cases are made of
slightly heavier material than the cases used in domestic shipments they
will stand up much better under the trying conditions of transportation
and handling on the steamship docks, vessels, and railroads on the
other side.

Transportation and Freight Rates

Condition and quality are two important factors that determine the
price of apples on the foreign market. Since so much depends upon the
conditions under which apples are shipped and handled from the time
they leave the orchard until they reach the foreign market, the need for
proper care and handling in transit can not be emphasized too strongly.
Although shipments made in ordinary stowage in the past have arrived
in a satisfactory condition, shipments so made can not be expected to bring
as good price as apples shipped in cooled air refrigeration. It is well,
therefore, when apples are shipped on consignment to insist that ship-
ments be made in this manner.

Ocean freight rates have been materially reduced during the past two
years. The present rate (November 4, 1922) from the North Atlantic
ports of the United States to the United Kingdom on barreled apples in
ordinary stowage is $1.00 per barrel, while the rate on shipments in
cooled air refrigeration is $1.50 per barrel. Two years ago these rates
were $2.50 and $3.00 a barrel, respectively, or just about double the rates
now in effect. The present ocean freight rate on boxed apples from the
North Atlantic seaboard to the United Kingdom is 35 cents a box, in
ordinary stowage, and 55 cents a box in cooled air refrigeration. These
rates also show a marked reduction from those in effect two seasons
ago when the rates where 60 and 75 cents a box respectively. Boxes must
be strapped or wired, or guarantee given. The minimum bill of lading
charge is $10. In other words, the rates given above apply only to ship-
ments on which the total freight rate exceeds $10. The rate on boxed
apples in refrigeration from the Pacific coast to the United Kingdom is
$1 a box.

On shipments to Argentina the rate on barreled apples is 75 cents a
cubic foot, while the rate on boxed apples is $1 a cubic foot. This
would make the rate per barrel approximately $5.82, based on an allow-
ance of 7.75 cubic feet of space for one barrel. On the basis of $1 a
cubic foot on boxed apples the rate per box would be from $1.80 to
$2.01, depending on the size of the box, which varies from 1.80 to 2.01
cubic feet. An average of these two is 1.90 cubic feet per box, or an
average rate of $1.90 per box.

The shipment of fruit from Pacific coast ports to the United King-
dom, via the Panama canal, is a new development in fruit transportation
and is made possible by expert methods of handling, packing, storage,
and refrigeration. In spite of the long journey of more than 8,600 miles,
a shipment of over 30,000 boxes showed less than 180 slight breakages.
These breakages were so slight that they were easily remedied by put-
ting in a few extra nails.

176

Method of Exporting Apples

Unless the grower has had some experience in foreign marketing and
is in a position to make shipments regularly throughout the season he
will probably find it to his advantage to ship his apples on consignment
through some reliable export commissioil merchant in the United States.
In the English market, as we have already seen, the general practice
has grown up of shipping fruit to firms in that country who then dis-
pose of and distribute it in the best and most advantageous method
possible. In fact, this is the only way of transacting business with many
foreign countries where the actual importers prefer to do business through
resident agents on a commission basis. Once a grower has established his
connections he can study the foreign price quotations which are received
by cable from some of the European markets and as soon as he feels
that he thoroughly understands all of the factors entering into foreign
marketing, he can make a venture on his own account, provided he feels
that he can get better returns that way. ■

At the present time many of the importers in the Scandinavian coun-
tries obtain their apples from the auctions in Great Britain and other
nearby countries. Direct trade relations, therefore, between exporters
in the United States and Scandinavian importers should prove mutually
advantageous.

It may be well to point out in this connection that it is impossible to
control sales at a distance of 3,000 miles from the market. The condition
of the apples, as is so frequently the case, is a very important factor in
the situation and the shipper must rely upon the judgment and integrity
of the importer, always of course reserving the right of transferring his
business if the results of a number of consecutive transactions prove un-_^
satisfactory. Shippers who have their own representative in the foreign
market must also allow his full power over sales. The man on the spot,
if he is competent, is bound to know best and if he is incompetent it is
useless to attempt to guide him from a distance. Spanish fruit exporters
are practically all represented on the British markets and a number of
their agents are present at every sale, where their influence is con-
stantly manifested in the interests of their employers.

The method of handling American fruit for export needs reorganiza-
tion, which must begin at home. There must be more complete and
thorough organization and cooperation between the producer and his
marketing agents. The legitimate needs of each market should be sup-
plied and steps should be taken to prevent continued slumps such as have
occurred in the British markets, the cost of which is always borne by
the producer and the exporter. Exporters should be fully informed at
all times concerning the movements of fruit and the probable demands
of the markets to which fruits are being exported. There should be co-
operation between fruit shipping agencies to avoid overstocking the
market. No one gains anything when the market is flooded by a lot of
fruit that rots before it can be consumed. Cooperative producing and
marketing agencies may find it to their advantage to employ jointly
agents at ports of embarkation and also agents in the principal foreign

177

markets. The Department of Agriculture can assist fruit exporters by
furnishing them information regarding market conditions at foreign
points and the inspection service of the department also may be used to
standardize the grade and quality of fruit shipments destined for export.

Market Reporting Service

Prompt and reliable information regarding receipts in the various for-
eign markets, the prices at which American apples are selling and the
general trend of supply and demand is just as important a factor in export
marketing as in the sale of apples for the home market.

Most of the larger exporters receive such market reports direct from
their own connections abroad. However, many of the smaller growers
and exporters do not have this advantage. To meet the needs of these
smaller growers and exporters and also as a check against reports re-
ceived from various private sources, the United States Department of
Agriculture has developed a special market reporting service for the
principal markets in the United Kingdom, to which the bulk of American
apples are shipped. One of the features of this service Is a weekly cable
report from the Agricultural Commissioner of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture in London, giving the origin and price of the dif-
ferent varieties of American apples sold in the British market.

A more detailed review of the British apple market is also received
each week by mail during the apple season. These reports are published
regularly in "Weather, Crops and Markets," the official marketing publica-
tion of the United States Department of Agriculture. The price quota-
tions received by cable are also included in the special weekly market
review of the Fruits and Vegetables Division of the Bureau of Agricultural
Economics, which is sent out from the Washington office by telegraph to
the various district offices of that division.

Cooperation for Export

The successful marketing of fresh fruit for export demands a high
degree of specialized training and knowledge of fore.ign markets and
marketing methods. As specialists in production, growers have neither
the time nor the personal contact with market conditions, both of which
are essential to secure satisfactory results, to study the foreign markets
and to look after the innumerable details which export marketing in-
volves. Moreover, export marketing in order to be profitable must be
conducted on a sufficiently large scale to provide a continuous supply
of fruit to the foreign market through the season. It is obvious, there-
fore, that by cooperation the grower is in a position to do what he could
never hope to do for himself in developing foreign markets for his prod-
ucts.

One of the most important results that can be attained through coopera-
tion is the establishment of uniform grades, whereby all of the fruit grown
by the members can be marketed according to clearly defined standards.
Several cooperative organizations have conducted comprehensive foreign
investigations for the purpose of ascertaining the trade demands and
making reliable trade connections.

178

Cooperative organization is more highly developed in the west than
elsevsrhere in the United States. More than 50 per cent of lue apples and
other deciduous fruits of the northwest and middle Rockies and the
larger portion of California fruits are distributed and marketed by
cooperative organizations of the growers. In the Middle Western, South-
ern and Eastern States many special products, such as strawberries,
peaches, apples, grapes, onions, potatoes, and other vegetables are dis-
tributed cooperatively in a large way. There are individual organiza-
tions that do an annual business in the millions.

England Our Chief Market

England is our biggest and best market and should be intelligently
cultivated. Some idea of the importance of the British market for
American apples may be gained from our export statistics which show
that of our total exports of apples in 1921, amounting to 1,936,224 barrels,
the United Kingdom took 1,498,839 barrels, or 77.4 per cent. The British
market presents many interesting features. Criticism is often made
of British methods, but a study of the markets during the past three
seasons indicates that much of the criticism was not justified. There is
no essential difference in the character of the British and the American
trade. In both countries there are many firms that can be trusted and
unfortunately others that may be looked upon with suspicion.

The American apple season in Great Britain begins some time in the
month of September, contingent upon the scarcity in the British market
of home supplies and supplies from the continent of Europe, and ends
around the beginning of April. Supplies from Australia and New Zea-
land then come upon the market in great quantities. At the most we have
a season which runs for only six months and usually less, making it im-
practicable for American houses to handle their own stock in Great
Britain.

One of the difficulties in connection with the exportation of apples to
British markets is the decision as to what system to follow in regard
to the necessary sales force for handling and disposing of the fruit on
arrival in the United Kingdom. This question is aggravated by the fact
that American apples on British markets have a season of but from four
to six months during which to be marketed.

Method of Handling American Fruit

The practice has therefore been evolved of shipping American fruit to
firms in the United Kingdom who then dispose of and distribute it in
the best and most advantageous method possible. American apple ex-
porters have found that the British auctions serve their purposes satis-
factorily. The opinion has been expressed, however, that American
enterprise and cooperation would not only greatly improve conditions
and facilitate distribution but it would also bring about an increase in
consumption.

One of the thoughts that the American fruit exporter must bear in
mind when attempting to establish a market for his commodity in the
United Kingdom is that by the time the fruit reaches the foreign port it

179

has passed through conditions that are very unfavorable to its keeping
qualities. There has probably been a storage period in the northwest or
in the east, or long railroad shipments, considerable handling in New
York, an ocean trip during the roughest part of the year and finally con-
siderable exposure to weather conditions while being handled in England.
It is quite evident that all of these conditions militate against the keep-
ing qualities of the fruit. The general experience in the markets of
the United Kingdom has shown, therefore, that the best thing to do with
American fruit is to place it on sale immediately upon arrival regardless
of the condition of the market. Although fruit is frequently kept one or
two weeks during a severe slump, the general opinion of the British trade
is adverse to a longer period of storage.

Opposition to Re-Conditioning

There are no available cold storages in the United Kingdom for overseas
fruit. Whenever apples are stored, they are stored in the ordinary cellars
of the dealers. There is also a great disinclination on the part of the
trade to recondition fruit. The general practice is to place the fruit on
the market regardless of its condition. There are two reasons for this
course of procedure. (1) The lack of space and the shortage and high
cost of labor necessary to re-condition fruit. (2) The strong prejudice
of the trade against re-conditioned fruit.

It is quite impossible to sell re-conditioned fruit to the trade in Great
Britain. This experiment was tried with oranges but with poor results.
In the case of apples, however, it is a prejudice that is somewhat un-
founded. One of the leading fruit operators in Copenhagen makes a
practice of re-conditioning fruit with much success. He has, of course,
a large plant and the available space and labor to do the work. More-
over, there is no prejudice in the Scandinavian trade against the practice.
In fact, re-conditioning when needed is quite general in the fruit trade of
Scandinavian countries.

Knowledge of Market Essential

The factors which give rise to our main difficulties in the British rhar-
ket, however, are not so much the handling of fruit on its arrival as the
quantities and regularity with which it comes forward. There is a great
need of a more thorough knowledge of British supplies and market con-
ditions. The practice has been common in the past of dumping surplus
supplies from New York on the British markets regardless of the sup-
plies on hand. This naturally leads to disastrous results. Whenever the
New York and other Atlantic markets become overcrowded with fruit
from the northwest and other growing centers, the supplies are at once
dumped on the British markets. Rather than let the American market
break, these heavy shipments are at once diverted to England, regardless
of conditions in that market.

Shipments of this nature are usually made by speculators. Having
been hurriedly loaded on the first available boat without careful examina-
tion to ascertain their keeping qualities, they arrive in British markets
in every possible condition. Their arrival, of course, completely - disar-

180

ranges the plans of local dealers who have been importing about what
they considered the trade would be able to carry under normal conditions.
The result is a slump all around and the flooding of the markets with
cheap fruit. Regardless of what profits have been made on the New
York markets, no one in England makes a profit except those who accept
the fruit and handle it on commission. The local dealers, of course,
always get their commission, but are forced to make returns that show
little profit to the shipper and in turn to the producer. As long as the
market is handled in this manner, shipping fruit to England is going to
be a gamble, showing excellent profits at one time and huge losses at-
another.

This is the most important problem of the British markets and it must
be solved in the United States. The history of the past years, last year
excepted because during that year supplies were short, has been the his-
tory of successive slumps and shortages. The first shipments from the
United States are usually welcomed and bring high prices because the
British supplies are exhausted. Numerous shipments then follow so
that the markets soon become glutted. The inevitable result is that
prices at once fall. The losses experienced on subsequent shipments
are sometimes very large. Exporting then stops for a period and in
one or two weeks the market is practically bare. Prices then again reach
high levels and exports are resumed with renewed vigor until the market
is once more glutted. This again results in a slump and a shortage and
so on ad infinitum.

Auctions Supply the British Apple Consuming Public

The British apple consuming public is supplied through the auctions
and through importers who maintain wholesale houses where fruit is
sold at private sale. It is not our purpose to discuss at length the question
of the advantage or disadvantages of the sale of fruit by private sale and
by auctions. Suffice it to say that conditions are such in Great Britain
that there would be no American apple market except for the auctions.
Heavy supplies are dumped on these auctions throughout the year by the
American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and Tasmanian apple
growers, by the Spanish and Jewish orange growers (naval oranges from
the Holy Land, Jaffa, are a feature), and by the growers of mush
fruits in Continental Europe. The British merchants look to the auction
houses for their supplies the year round. When our turn comes and the
English fruit is out of the way, we take our place and hold it until we
give way to the Australians and Tasmanians when their crops are ready,
around the beginning of April. There is little overlapping in the seasons,
however, as the Australian crop arrives just as we are through.

Market Price of Apples Set by Auctions

The market price for apples in the United Kingdom set by the auctions
and the operations and prices of any one auction are known to the
operators on all of the other auctions. Thus a Liverpool auction firm will
know at all times exactly what is going on at London and Glasgow. It
must not, however, be inferred that the auction is a fool-proof arrange-

181

ment and that one is safe to pick out any firm and snip at random for
sale on the auction.

As already noted, the trade in England is just like the trade at home —
there are gilt-edge firms that have been in business, whose word is as
good as their bond and who are really anxious to secure the largest
possible return for the producer and shipper. They are, as In the United
States, in the majority and one is perfectly safe in dealing with them.
They know the markets and their advice is often much better than the
advice that comes from commercial sources in the United States. They
are on the ground and can see what is going on. Unfortunately, there
are however other firms whose carelessness in picking samples for the
auction, in putting the fruit up for sale when conditions of the market
do not warrant it, in throwing the produce on any market so that they
can pocket their commission, and even in making private sales at their
own convenience, is often the cause of heavy losses. There is under the
present system no way of checking these dishonest firms since they can
easily say that the fruit arrived out of condition and that the prices
obtained were due to that cause.

Again, fruit is quite often thrown on one market in a period of depres-
sion v/hen it really should have been reconsigned to another. Thus the
Glasgow market will be up and thB London market down. The London
dealer, however, will throw the produce on the London market at a low
price and get his commission, rather than tranship and get a good price
for the shipper in Glasgow and get no commission. The answer to com-
plaints is that the goods were shipped to London and should be sold
there. These are but a few of the conditions and practices of which
American exporters have at times to complain. Although these things do
not happen to the customers of reputable firms, they have happened in
the past and may happen in the future to firms in the United States ship-
ping to firms in the United Kingdom with whom they are unacquainted.

Handling of Fruit by Private Sale

While the auctions dispose of the greater part of the American apples,
there are efficient and ably-handled houses that import for private sale.
These houses "have their customers throughout the country whom they
supply throughout the season. These firms are regarded as being more
safe than the auctions, for they handle only the best fruit and must
stand behind all their sales. Some of these firms buy direct from the
producers, but by far the greater tonnage is on the consignment basis.
This is a very creditable method of disposing of fruit, especially of the
finest qualities.

The prices obtained are based mostly on the auction prices. Better
prices are often realized, however, due to the fact that the trade in the
country is saved the inconvenience of a trip to London or to the other
large market centers. There is another advantage in that the trade
is always protected against loss through defective condition. It is not
generally considered as good a method of disposing of fruit, however,
and it is not nearly so efficient when it is a case of disposing of fruit
that has gone slightly off condition in transit. In such cases the fruit is

182

generally handed over to the auctions. These houses, depending as they
do on the high class country trade, want only the most carefully graded
and packed fruit, and are the great steadying influence in the fruit trade.
They must stand behind every case they send out and there is no element
of chance in their business.

Like the auctions, these houses hold a definite position in the trade
and progress without them would be impossible. They are particularly
valuable to firms which have brands of especially choice fruit to export
and who want to build up a steady trade year after year. These firms get
to be known for the superiority of their pack and can be trusted to be the
same year after year. Country and continental firms, who have often lost
money by reason of inferior brands, get to know that certain houses carry
superior brands, and patronize these houses in spite of the fact that their
prices may be higher. This point has recently been exemplified by the
action of two Scandinavian houses, one in Copenhagen and the other in
Stockholm. A certain house in Hull had all the business of these two
firms, who refused lower prices both in London and in New York because
they felt sure of getting the brand of apples they wanted from their
firm in Hull, since this firm always saw that the fruit was in good con-
dition. This helps to eliminate loss by deterioration in transit across the
Atlantic.

These houses are of course both good and bad, the good houses by far
predominating. Care must be exercised, however, in the selection of the
house with which the exporter deals. One can not too often repeat and
insist on greater care in the selection of English agents by American
exporters. The American Agricultural Commissioner in London has on
several occasions in the past year been asked to look up firms to whom
carload lots have been consigned, and has found that they had no plant
at all — just a back room and a desk. They obtained consignments and
threw them on the first auction handy. The dishonest dealer is the excep-
tion, however, and not the rule, and it is generally a man's own fault
if he loses on his deals in the British markets.

There is practically no American supervision of the American trade in
Europe after the fruit leaves New York. There is one firm established
in London which makes a specialty of handling consignments in all the
markets of the United Kingdom and the continent. Fruit consigned to
this firm is placed in the market which the head of the firm considers the
best at the time the fruit arrives. Thus, if the fruit arrives at Liverpool
and the Glasgow market is higher than the Liverpool market, the fruit is
reconsigned to Glasgow. Often the continental or Scandinavian markets
are bare and the prices better, so the fruit is consigned to those mar-
kets. This firm also takes care that the samples are representative of the
lots placed on the auctions and generally looks after the shipper's interest.

A sketch of the British markets would be incomplete without a word
or two about the street peddler who on his barrow disposes of a very
important part of the apple surplus and deals at times in first class fruit.
He is present at all auctions and carries off the fruit that the big mer-
chants will not take, and, when fruit is scarce, he is at times a competitor
for the finer fruit of the storekeeper. He pays cash for his fruit, takes it

183

home and reconditions it, and, in the course of a few hours, has it on his
barrow on sale on every street corner in the poorer parts of all the larger
cities. The store trade looks to him for help when the market is glutted
and they do not look in vain. His barrow, drawn either by himself and
wife or by a diminutive donkey, is one of the ordinary sights of every
English city.

The South American Market

Direct trade with South America may be said to have begun about
twelve years ago. Prior to that time supplies had been secured prin-
cipally from England and Australia, apples from the United States fre-
quently going to these markets through the hands of English traders.
Direct sales to South American markets were small in the first year and
they were made subject to acceptance upon arrival, the shipper paying
all freight and insurance charges and collecting through the medium of
English banks by sight draft attached to the documents.

The shipments from New York direct to South America increased
approximately 400' per cent in the first four years after direct trade
began. No consignments were attempted without previous sale until the
fall of 1913, when an exporter shipped 13,000 boxes to Buenos Aires via
New York and, a little later, 9,000 boxes via the Straits of Magellan.

The largest quantity of apples shipped to Argentina during any one year
was in 1917, when exports to that country from the United States
amounted to 58,435 barrels, while the exports to Brazil during the same
year amounted to 25,297 barrels. However, in 1921 the combined exports
to these two countries amounted to only 23,589 barrels, less than half of
the exports of these countries in 1920, when Argentina took 32,688 bar-
rels and Brazil, 24,656 barrels. Several years ago a New York firm of
distributors sent a representative to study the South American markets
and make trade connections for direct handling. Several months were
spent in South America, but the representative met with considerable
difficulty in interesting the importors who, it appeared, were very well
pleased with their trade connections in the United States. Contracts for
the sale of limited quantities were eventually secured and agents ap-
pointed in Buenos Aires. Sales were arranged upon easy terms but when
deliveries were made only part of the shipment was accepted, the balance
being sold by the commission agent. After that regular consignments to
these markets were made for the purpose of supplying the demand inde-
pendently of the importers who formerly had controlled the handling of
this commodity.

It is not known just what the future results of these experiments
may be. It is thought by those who have had the longest experience with
South American importers that these markets can be developed best by
handling the business in a manner most acceptable to the dealers. Atten-
tion is called to the fact that the importers have been accustomed to
supply their markets by placing orders judiciously and receiving only
such stock as has been bought previously. The consignment of, apples,
therefore, is severely discouraged by them, and it would appear from
the experience of the past two years that those shippers who have en-

184

deavored to secure this trade by over-stepping Latin customs hav€
not been entirely successful in their ventures.

The ocean freight rate from New York to Argentina amounts to about
$5.82 a barrel. The facilities for safe transportation have been greatly
improved during recent years owing to the importation of fresh meat
from Argentina. Refrigeration is necessary for meat transportation, and
the cold chambers are well suited to the transportation of apples on the
return journey. If trade in meat products between South America and
the United States continues to increase, the facilities for handling large
quantities of apples are expected so to improve that space will be suf-
ficiently available to justify lower rates. When the cost of transportation
and the usual trade margins are combined, it will be seen that the selling
price of apples in South America of necessity must prohibit heavy con-
sumption. If transportation facilities can be improved so as to decrease
the rates and the risk of deterioration in transit, it is believed that
trade margins may be decreased reasonably and that the result in price
to the consumer will be such as to encourage a large increase in ship-
ments.

In order to assure the safe transportation of apples to South America
it is necessary that the fruit be carefully selected, graded, and packed by
hand, special care being exercised to eliminate everything that can not be
classed as "Fancy" or "Extra Fancy." The box package is preferred for
the reason that the fruit arrives in much better condition than when
packed in barrels. To illustrate the need of care in this respect, the
experience of an eastern fruit growers' association may be given.
Through its foreign agent the sale of several carloads was made to a
South American importer at 12 shillings per barrel, delivered on board
the steamer at New York City. Delivery was made and the money col-
lected, but the future patronage of the buyer and probably the prospect
of future sales in his market apparently have been lost, because the
fruit was not properly graded and packed at the time it was shipped
from the producing area. An investigation has shown that this fruit had
been packed without inspection on the part of the organization and that
the packing was done some days in advance of shipment. Only a few
barrels in each lot were inspected when the fruit was loaded on the cars.

Imports of Foreign Fruits

The imports of foreign fresh fruits into the United States consist
chiefly of bananas from Central and South America; pineapples from
Cuba and the Straits Settlements; lemons from Italy, and grapes from
Spain and Canada. The principal imports of dried fruits include cur-
rants and figs from Greece, raisins from Spain, and dates from Tur-
key and India.

Climate, soil and other natural conditions determine the localization
of the various kinds of fruits grown in different parts of the world. On
the other hand, seasonal differences, general economic conditions, and
the personal preferences of the consumer are responsible to a large
extent for the international trade in fruit. One or more of these
factors will explain why in 1921 the United States imported 16,879,933

185

pounds of raisins, while at the same time our exports of raisins during
that year amounted to 32,968,664 pounds — nearly double the amount
of our imports. Nearly one-half the value of our total imports of fruit
in 1921, amounting to $44,422,706, represented bananas and pineapples.
Bananas are essentially a product of the Tropics and are not grown
commercially in continental United States. The value of bananas and
pineapples imported in 1921 was $19,385,174 and $1,592,803, respectively.

Much interest has recently been displayed in the increased importa-
tion of fresh fruit from Chile, Argentina, and Brazil. The fruit seasons
of the countries south of the Equator are just the reverse of those in
the United States, which has suggested the possibility of making ship-
ments of fruits to this country at a season of the year when they would
meet with no direct competition of their own kind in our markets.
Grapes and peaches are the principal South American fruits for which
it is hoped to find a market in the United States.

The first effort to ship Argentine grapes to the United States dates
from 1911. The shipment made in that year, like many shipments
in subsequent years, was more or less experimental in character. In 1921
the total imports of grapes from Argentina amounted to only 391 cubic
feet. In 1922, however, during the five months' period, February to
June, imports of grapes from Argentina amounted to 20,748 cubic feet.
The imports from Chile during the three months, March, April and May,
1922, amounted to 21,520 cubic feet.

The Argentine shipments of fruits which arrived in February of this
year consisted of 900 packages, comprising peaches, plums, and grapes
and met with fairly gcod demand from the jobbing trade which pur-
chased them in small lots at rather high prices. The peaches were in
small boxes containing from 70 to 90 each, and the quality was only
fair, the fruit showing very little color. They sold from $2.50 to $5.00
per box, according to size and quality. The grapes were of the Muscat
variety, four boxes of uniform size being strapped together. The net
weight of the contents was about 32 pounds, and they ranged from
$7.00 to $8.00. The plums, a red variety, sold best, at a range of from
$4.50 to $5.50, mostly $5.00, and were packed in the same size boxes as
the peaches. Another shipment of five tons of fresh Argentine fruits,
consisting of select grapes, peaches, plums, and melons from the
Province of Mendoza, arrived at New York during the middle of March
on the Steamship Aeolus.

The trial shipment of fruit from Chile which arrived in New York
early in March, 1922, consisted of 13,400 boxes of peaches and about
180 boxes of Santa Claus melons. The peaches arrived generally in
good condition although a little decay was in evidence due probably
to the fact that they were not packed well and the motion of the
ship caused bruising and skinning of the surfaces. They were of
good size, ranging from 2i/^ to 2% inches in diameter. They were in
different types of containers, the majority of them being in flat lug
boxes containing 32 peaches. The package and contents weighed 12i/^
to 13 pounds. The packages were rather slack, about four to six- more

186

peaches could have been packed in the boxes. They were wrapped in
paper similar to the manner in which California peaches are wrapped.
These sold in private sales from $1.25 to $2.00 per box. The melons
were packed in slat crates containing from two to six, principally three
melons each, and sold slowly from $4.50 to $5.00 per crate. Appar-
ently there was very little variation in the temperature maintained
during this shipment and the fruit on arrival indicated that con-
siderable care was taken to see that no needless injury would take place.
There are still many problems that must be solved before South
American countries can hope to export fruit to the United States on a
large scale. The distance from our markets is one obstacle, but that
can be readily overcome by improved methods of packing, shipping under
refrigeration and the exercise of proper care in the handling of the
fruit in transit. Improved ocean steamship service between South
American ports and the United States with a lower scale of freight
rates are also essential to make such export shipments to the United
States a profitable undertaking for the South American grower.

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187

FRUIT INVESTIGATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATIONS

W. H. Alderman, Horticulturist, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota

When the Secretary of the American Pomological Society wrote me
requesting a paper to be presented at this meeting, he indicated that
a subject showing what the experiment stations of the United States
and Canada are doing to aid the fruit grower would be a very desirable
topic. It was with some misgiving that I promised to review and report
the experimental work in fruit growing, for to one who is at all in
touch with experiment station activities it is clear that there is a vast
amount of work under way which, if treated satisfactory, would fill a
paper far longer than could be properly offered in such a program as
this. As the material for the report was collected it was first found
necessary to limit the discussion to projects having to do with fruit
growing alone. Many experiment stations, through their horticultural
departments, are doing a large amount of work with vegetable produc-
tion, floriculture, landscape gardening, etc., all of which is interesting
to the average horticulturist, but all of which must be omitted from
this paper for lack of time. It was further found necessary to eliminate
from the discussion all of the horticultural experimental work con-
ducted by departments other than horticultural departments, as for
instance, the spraying investigations carried on through the departments
of entomology and plant pathology. Nearly all of the special investiga-
tions regarding insects and diseases are conducted in these depart-
ments. A great deal of the work dealing with soil fertility in orchards
is conducted by the departments of soils or agricultural chemistry or
bacteriology. In some cases the departments of botany, through their
plant physiologists, are conducting very fundamental researches bear-
ing on fruit crops. All of these are ignored in the present paper. It
has further been found necessary to omit a discussion of the vast
amount of work being accomplished by the United States Department
of Agriculture through its several bureaus and oflices.. To review this
work alone in anything like an adequate way would reqiiire all the
time that I might have at my disposal. I can only say in passing
that the United States Department of Agriculture is covering a tre-
mendously wide field, and is collecting data that in many cases can-
not be collected by individual experiment stations. I am thinking in
this connection of their studies of cost of production of fruit and
sxirveys of fruit districts over the United States. A close analysis of
their work would show that the ramifications of the Department of
Agriculture extend into the horticulture of every region and nearly
every state in the Union and extend all the way from the establish-
ment of a blueberry industry in New Jersey to a study of marketing
problems of citrus fruit growers in California and involve questions of
culture, nutrition, varieties, root stocks, fruit storage, and many others
which lie within their province. Hence this paper covers in reality only
a portion of the work of research men in the United States and Canada
dealing with the problems of the fruit grower in these two countries.

188

In discussing the problems under investigation it has been necessary
to group them into rather broad and inclusive divisions and to mention
only the more outstanding features of the studies and results of studies
in each group. In order to secure, as far as possible, the latest informa-
tion from the several stations a circular letter was sent out, asking
each horticulturist to report the work under way in his department.
Over fifty replies to this letter were received from the stations In the
United States and Canada and it is from these replies, together with
available published information, that this report has been compiled.

Variety Tests

Nearly every experiment station is conducting some work on the
study of varieties. This represents one of the oldest lines of experi-
ment station activity. The value of variety tests for any given locality
increases in inverse ratio to the development of the fruit industry in
that region. That is, districts which would be represented by the states
of the upper Mississippi Valley or by Canadian provinces of Manitoba,
Saskatchewan and others have the most keen interest in the testing
of hardy varieties to discover sorts that will be hardy enough to extend
the fruit belt farther within their domains or to enable them to develop
to a high degree the incipient commercial industry which has already
been established. There are, however, many interesting and valuable
tests of varieties which are being conducted in older established regions.
The Ohio Experiment Station, for instance, has for a number of years
been attempting to classify the varieties of currants. It is quite com-
mon knowledge that currant varieties are badly mixed and that their
nomenclature is in serious need of correction. As a result of this
long time study the Ohio station is now prepared, not only to publish
a report correcting the nomenclature of varieties and a description of
authentic sorts, but is also preparing to distribute propagating wood of
varieties which it can certify are correctly named so that nurserymen
may start afresh in the propagation of these sorts with the definite
knowledge that they are dealing with the correct variety.

Another interesting development of the varietal studies is the result
of the work of Dr. Shaw in Massachusetts. A careful study and
analysis of characters in varieties as exhibited in the nursery has
brought out the fact that many varieties of apples can be positively
identified in the nursery row and in Massachusetts today as a result
of a movement fostered by fruit growers and the experiment station
nursery stock is being certified as being true to name, the certification
being made official by means of a small metal tag attached through
a small hole drilled in a branch of each tree sent out.

Fruit Breeding

One of the most striking and spectacular lines of investigation has
to do with the breeding and development of new fruits and the improve-
ment of existing varieties. No less than twenty experiment stations are
definitely engaged in efforts along this line. Among those who are
working most extensively are the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa,

I

189

Canada, and its various affiliated stations throughout the Dominion, the
Ontario station at Vineland, the New York Experiment Station at
Geneva, the Illinois Experiment Station, the Iowa Experiment Station,
the South Dakota Experiment Station and the Minnesota Experiment
Station. At the last two named stations, where work has been under
way for some time, a considerable amount of equipment in the shape
of fruit breeding greenhouses and land for growing seedlings is available.
As a result of the work in these two states alone two score of varieties
of hardy fruits have been introduced into the upper Mississippi valley
and fruits of improved sorts have been made available to the citizens
of this region. Many of their productions have proven of such extreme
hardiness that they are promising to be of value in the Canadian prov-
inces. Tests of such fruits as the Latham raspberry and a few of the
hybrid plums produced at the Minnesota Fruit Breeding Farm have
shown that they possess enough of merit to make them promising
varieties in older established fruit regions of the country. It is quite
possible that the Triflora-Americana and Triflora-Nigra hybrid plums
may supplant the Japanese plum in Southern and Eastern United States.
The work of the Canadian fruit breeders outside of the provincial sta-
tion at Vineland has resulted in the introduction of about thirty varieties
of fruit, the value of which to Canadian fruit growers has been esti-
mated at around $3,000,000. Resulting from the fruit breeding work of
experiment stations there are now available to fruit growers apples of
the Mcintosh flavor extending throughout the entire apple season. The
Elberta type of peach can be secured throughout the entire peach
season. Blight resistant pears are practically assured as are also pears
hardy enough to carry the pear belt some 250 or 300 miles northward
in the upper Mississippi valley.

Closely associated with the production of new varieties is the study
of bud and cion selection in an attempt to improve varieties by this
means. Several stations have projects of this nature. In general,
outside of citrus fruits, the attempt to improve varieties by bud selec-
tion has been unsuccessful. The only exception to this comes from the
Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, Canada, where they have taken
production records of Wealthy trees for 21 years. They have been able
to propagate successfully both high and low yielding strains of Wealthy
apples from parent stock, the production record of which has been known
for 21 years. There seems in this case to be a close connection between
tree vigor and productiveness for the low yielding tree in the case of
both parents and progeny are weak growing individuals.

A very interesting development along the same line comes from
Maine, where after a careful study and analysis of a Ben Davis orchard,
it was found that differences in yield could not be attributed to genetic
differences among the trees, but rather to other factors, such as soil
differences, influence of stock, etc. In connection with their studies
they found that a small nursery tree produced ordinarily a small orchard
tree and that the production of the tree in the orchard was in direct rela-
tion to its size, so that on the basis of this discovery they are recom-
mending that growers plant only vigorous growing nursery trees.

190

A number of stations in connection with their fruit breeding -work
are attempting to establish on a scientific basis the method of inherit-
ance of fruit characters. If this can be successfully accomplished, it
will reduce fruit breeding to an exact science and will increase the
efficiency of breeding operations many fold.

Fertilizer and Nutrition Experiments

About one-third of the experiment stations are seriously engaged in a
study of the nutritional problems connected with orchards and small
fruits. In addition to these stations, which have major projects dealing
with this phase of the work, nearly all other stations are more or less
casually studying the same or similar problems. Furthermore, they
have been studying the questions of orchard fertility for the past quarter
century and more. The question of nutrition has proven to be one of
the most involved of the projects with which experiment stations are
dealing and has resulted in a smaller amount of definite, conclusive
knowledge in proportion to the energy and time put into it than has
almost any other line of experimentation. A few things, however,
stand out clearly.

First, in nearly every instance of malnutrition nitrogen is the limit-
ing factor. That is to say, in practically all cases where the orchard
plants indicate a lack of growth and vitality and unfruitfulness, the
condition can usually be benefited by the application of some form of
readily available nitrogen. It has been conclusively shown that orchards
in sod frequently become devitalized and almost invariably these
orchards respond to nitrogen treatment. As a result of experimentation
in this line vast quantities of nitrogen fertilizers have been used, not-
ably in the peach region of Maryland and Delaware, and in the great sod
mulch apple region of southern Ohio, which from the very verge of
extermination, was re-established as an important fruit region by the
use of nitrogen fertilizers. The prune and apple growers of Oregon and
nearby states rescued their starving orchards by utilizing the informa-
tion secured by experiment stations and applying nitrogen treatments.
In most cases the growers are following still further advices from their
experiment station men, as a result of which they are now many of
them to a large extent growing their own nitrogen through the use of
leguminous cover crops.

Much has been done to clarify the question of nutrition by the work
of Kraus and Kraybill at the Oregon Station. These workers demon-
strated that the question of nutrition was linked closely, not only with
soil treatment, but with pruning methods, spraying practices, and in fact
any orchard practices which would influence the growth of the plant.
Their conception of the theoretcial relationship within the tree of
nitrates and carbohydrates has done much to aid in the understanding
of nutritional problems.

Several stations at the present time are working on the question of
the influence of one crop upon another when the two are grown in
proximity. It is as yet too soon to prophesy whether or not the work
of Pickering at the English Experiment Station at Woburn will be veri-

191

fled in America. Whatever the findings of American investigators may
prove to be, it will be of tremendous importance to know whether the
ill effects of grass upon fruit trees is caused from toxic poisoning or
from some other condition.

Pruning Studies

About ten or twelve years ago a number of experiment stations began
rather elaborate studies of the effect of pruning on the apple and other
fruit trees. Up until that time much of the teaching and writing relative
to pruning was based solely upon rather casual observation and investi.
gations. The results of these experiments, as far as they have been
published, show clearly the error of some of the earlier beliefs. Par-
ticularly did it appear that continuous heavy pruning did not stimulate
growth, but on the contrary exerted a dwarfing effect. Such pruning
also greatly retarded the bearing period in young trees. Summer prun-
ing, contrary to the usual expectation, was shown not to increase
fruitfulness, but on the contrary, did diminish tree vigor to an extent
that made its practice a serious menace in many regions. As a result
of the investigations to date there is a tendency among Pacific Coast
fruit growers to practice "long pruning" in place of the former heading
back and to quite an extent have they discarded summer pruning.
Among eastern growers the former rather erratic heavy pruning has
given place to a minimum amount of pruning on normal trees, heading
back being practiced only during the first three or four years of a
tree's life. In most regions some form of the modified central leader
tree is displacing the former open-headed tree as far as apples are
concerned. The grape industry of Iowa was almost entirely revolu-
tionized through the pruning studies of the Iowa Experiment Station.
Experiments in Minnesota have shown that pruning may be practiced
at any time during the dormant season with equally satisfactory results.

Pollination and Sterility

It has long been recognized that some species of fruits are con-
spicuously self-sterile while others are more or less self-fertile. Recent
work in such widely separated states as West Virginia, Maine, Minne-
sota, California and Oregon has shown very definitely that, even in
species that are normally self-fertile, such as the peach and apricot,
the yield is considerably increased by cross pollination and that, with
the apple, which is only partially self-fertile, the matter of pollination is
very important. In the case of the plum particularly, which is to a
large degree self-sterile, provision for cross pollination is absolutely
essential to the most successful production. It has been estimated
that the pollination studies of the California station alone have added
many millions of dollars annually to the income of California fruit
growers. Oregon at the present time may succeed in establishing a
filbert industry as a result of pollination and sterility studies on that
plant. The value of the honey bee as a pollenizer has been especially
demonstrated by work in California and West Virginia. Much work has
yet to be done concerning the mutual affinity of fruit varieties but ex.

192

haustive technical studies of the processes of pollination and fertilization
which are now under way promise results of inestimable value to the
fruit industry of this country.

Propagation Studies

A surprisingly large number of experiment stations are working upon
some problems connected with the propagation of fruit trees. These
problems involve questions of suitable stock for various varieties, rela-
tionship between stock and cion, germination of fruit seeds, proper age
for orchard planting and similar questions. The solution of these prob-
lems will be of equal interest to nurserymen and fruit grower. Con-
siderable interest is displayed in the question of securing root stock
which may be propagated by cuttings, layerage, or some other asexual
means to insure this uniformity.

V/ith uniform roots and with the knowledge of varieties which suc-
ceed best on certain root stocks, there is likelihood of a considerable
improvement in the uniformity of the behavior of individual trees in an
orchard. The northern districts are especially interested in and are
devoting considerable attention to the development of hardier stocks
than are at present obtainable, in some cases making use of cion
rooted trees to accomplish this end.

Winter-Killing and Hardiness Studies

The study of hardiness is not one which interests alone the northern
experiment stations but on the contrary is almost equally important
in such states as Missouri, New York and Minnesota, although some-
what different phases of the same general problems are involved in
each case. At least eight or more important stations of the continent
are engaged in the study of this problem. Without going into details it
is sufficient to say that the problem is one that involves many difficulties
and that, with a few exceptions so far, the experiments have not pro-
gressed far enough to warrant many general deductions and conclusions
of immediate practical value. It has, however, been amply demon-
strated at the Canadian Central Experimental Farm and at the Minne-
sota Experiment Station that topgrafting with tender varieties on hardy
stock is of no avail and that the tender cion growth is readily killed
back as far as the union with the hardy stock. Involved in the general
question of hardiness is the question of breeding to secure hardier vari-
eties, which in turn involves a study of the inheritability of hardiness
as a character. It also involves the question of the production of late
blooming varieties or varieties which maintain a dormant condition more
tenaciously than present sorts. It apparently involves the question of
nutrition as both the Missouri and the Massachusetts stations hav^
some evidences to indicate that this is the case.

Spraying

A few horticultural departments are engaged in a study of spraying
problems, but in far the greater number of states the responsibility of
this line of investigation is delegated to other departments. However,

193

the contributions of the horticultural departments of Illinois, Iowa, In-
diana and others have been of great value in working out satisfactory
orchard practices. In a few cases a study of the control of special
diseases and insect pests have been made through horticultural depart-
ments. As instances, at the present time California is engaged in a very
extensive study of fire blight control involving a large number of treat-
ments. Cornell is studying the causes of such obscure diseases as
"water core" and "bitter pit." Indiana is working on "apple blotch"
control and in Iowa the study of "crown gall" and its control in nurseries
is being successfully worked upon by the horticultural department. In
the latter case they report a reduction of crown gall in nursery rows
of 15 to 20' per cent by dipping the grafts in bordeaux.

The Development of New Fruit Industries

The experiment stations of several states are figuring conspicuously
in attempts to develop new fruit industries. Prominent among these is
the work of the Georgia Experiment Station in the introduction and
naturalization of the 'tig wasp', which is necessary for the successful
production of high grade figs. Massachusetts is attempting the improve-
ment of the highbush cranberry. Minnesota is attempting to domesti-
cate the native blueberry, and add this fruit to the list of cultivated
northern species. Closely connected with this type of work is the intro-
'duction of new varieties from foreign countries. While this is largely
a federal project, it is also being carried on to a lesser degree by
individual states and provinces, particularly those that are interested
in the development of hardy varieties.

Small Fruit Problems

Small fruit culture is common throughout the United States and
Canada, but the amount of research work which has been devoted to
small fruits is comparatively small as compared to that which has been
given to tree fruits. Nearly every experiment station is more or less
casually working with small fruits, at least to the extent of carrying
on variety studies, but only a few are paying especial attention to
problems of nutrition, pruning and cultural systems. There would seem
to be an especially promising field for investigators in this line. Until a
strawberry has been developed which will compare favorably in its
spring crop with any variety now in existence and then will go ahead
and produce a fall crop of equal value, there is plenty of work for small
fruit breeders.

Orchard Economics

Some stations have contributed greatly to our knowledge of the fruit
business through their studies of the cost of production of various fruits.
Prominent among these is the New York Experiment Station at Geneva,
the Iowa and Minnesota Experiment Stations. It has been felt by many
growers that cultural problems are rapidly becoming less important than
those dealing with the economic handling and marketing of their prod-
ucts. The studies which these stations and the Department of Agri-
culture have made bear on the cost of production. Closely related to

194

these studies have been a large number of orchard surveys made by
various states which have dealt not only with the study of incomes
but also with the study of methods under which the fruit has been
produced.

Nut Culture

About half a dozen stations are investigating some phases of nucicul-
tural problems. In the southern states the pecan and Persian walnut
have been particularly studied. Questions of the effect of fertilizers
on the yield and development of a kernel in pecans are under way in
Mississippi, while in North Carolina the whole question of soil adaptabil-
ity of pecans, together with yield studies of individual trees, have been
under way for 16 years. In Minnesota an effort is being made to intro-
duce the black walnut and hickory nut to regions north of their natural
range and an attempt is also being made to secure through hybridization
a satisfactory hardy type of English walnut.

Harvesting and Storage Problems

At least six stations are carrying on more or less elaborate investiga-
tions into the cold storage of fruits. Iowa, with a fine equipment of cold
storage chambers, has studied the development of scald, Jonathan spot,
etc., under storage conditions and finds that the Jonathan spot can be
greatly reduced by harvesting and storing the fruit at an early stage
of maturity. At Cornell the physiological changes which fruit under-
goes during its period of storage are being studied. In Washington
the relation between the conditions under which fruit is grown and its
keeping quality in storage have been studied for a number of years. It
has been found that soil moisture has little effect and summer tempera-
tures, whether low or high, are of little importance. Size of the
individual fruits, however, does have a bearing on the problem, the
larger fruits being the first to break down. In California and Oregon
the question of ripening of the pear and plum under storage conditions
have been carefully studied, with the result that in Oregon they have
been able to determine the correct time for harvesting pears by a
mechanical pressure test and the Californians have carried their studies
so far that they are now able to ripen both the pear and plum so natur-
ally in storage that, as they themselves admit, they can carry the
"California flavor" over the mountains.

Fruit Thinning

Thinning of fruits on overladen trees has been studied for some time.
Only a few stations are now actively engaged in this study, but recent
work has clearly shown that thinning a crop is of great value in the
development of the present crop and has no value whatever in its influ-
ence on a succeeding crop. Annual bearing cannot be secured through
thinning.

Fruit Bud Formation

Closely associated with the thinning studies are those relating to the
formation of fruit buds. The conditions governing fruit buds and their

I

195

response to various treatments is being studied in several states. It
has been shown by work in Wisconsin, Iowa, New Hampshire and West
Virginia and other places that the formation of fruit buds is directly
related to the whole question of tree growth and nutrition. The Wis-
consin station has been able to so diagnose the condition of their trees
through a study of spur and twig growth that they have gone far in an
effort to procure uniform annual setting of fruit buds.

By-Products

Only a few experiment stations are equipped to make a study of the
manufactured products of the orchard. Prominent among these is
Oregon. With a well equipped by-products laboratory which has been in
operation but a comparatively short time, they have developed a new
method of dehydration of fruits and vegetables. This process, which
involves a readjustment of the relative humidity, temperature and air
movement has speeded up the processes so that prunes may be dried
in half the former time at two-thirds the expense and a product of much
improved quality has resulted.

Technical Studies

A number of horticultural departments have included in their corps
of workers highly trained, technical men, such as plant physiologists,
ecologists, morphologists, bacteriologists and chemists. These men,
some of whom have little or no horticultural background in their train-
ing, working together with the horticulturists, are making a number of
purely technical studies which perhaps are of little practical value to
the fruit grower and yet which are driving at the solution of funda-
mental problems which must be worked out before some of the practical
problems can be carried much nearer to solution than they are at
present.

This leads to a concluding statement which I am moved to make
after a careful study of the work which has already been discussed. One
is impressed after such a study with the fact that the development
of fruit growing, today has reached a point where its problems are far
more difficult than they were a quarter of a century ago and the solu-
tion of these problems is consequently more difficult and usually calls
for a more highly trained investigator and for longer periods of time in
carrying an investigation to a conclusion.

Be not impatient if somewhat critical problems in your state seem
to be slowly dealt with. Few indeed are the problems that can be
solved in a season, or even satisfactorily worked out in two or three
seasons, while many are the problems which require a dec? 'e of time to
mark definite steps of progress or to reach conclusions. Tl;e only feel-
ing that one can have, after an intelligent study o' .he progress that
has been made by horticultural research men in the past 25 years, is
one of wonder that the problems have been solved as rapidly as they
have been and that, with comparatively meager financial backing, they
have been able to make the progress they have.

196

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON WILDER MEDALS

The Committee on Wilder medals has made the following
awards :

To the Iowa State College a silver medal for the splendid ex-
hibit of seedling apples of known parentage.

To the Washmgton Nursery Company, Toppenish, Washington,
a silver medal for the exhibit of Rainier apples.

To the New Hampshire State Horticultural Society a bronze
medal for an unusually fine exhibit of apples.

To the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station and
Extension Service, a bronze medal for a very attractive exhibit
of high grade apples and pecans.

To the Nova Scotia Experiment Station, a bronze medal for a
remarkably instructive exhibit of more than one hundred varieties
of apples.

To the George C. Roeding Company, Niles, California, honor-
able mention for a fine exhibit of Persian walnuts, chestnuts, al-
monds, filberts, pears and dried prunes.

To the office of Seed and Plant Introduction of the United States
Department of Agriculture, honorable mention for a good display
of persimmons, pomegranates, quinces, jujubes, feyoas, pistachios,
almonds, chestnuts and haws.

The committee did not feel justified in taking any action on the
so-called Coates 1418 prune which has not yet been given a real
name, but is being sold under two or more temporary names by
western nurserymen. This prune has real merit and no doubt
will be entered again for Wilder medal next year.

Action was also not taken on the so-called Red Northern Spy
apple.

C. P. Close,
C. I. Lewis,
L. Greene,

Committee.

AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S
COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS

The American Pomological Society in regular session at Council
Bluffs, Iowa, wishes to express its appreciation of the hearty co-
operation, the accommodations and the entertainment afforded for
this annual session of our organization to the officers of the Mid-
West Horticultural Exposition, the State Horticultural Society
and affiliated organizations, and especially to Prof. R. H. Herrick
for his untiring efforts which contributed so largely to the success
of this meeting.

We also herewith express our appreciation for the work which
has been done and the opportunities afforded for the expansion
of American Pomology through the efforts of the Federated Fruit
and Vegetable Growers' Association, incorporated.

197

Your committee regrets having to report the death of four of
its members and active supporters, Dr. J. C. Whitten and Mr.
G. Harold Powell of California, Prof. S. A. Beach of Iowa, and
Prof. J. P. Stewart of Pennsylvania. By the loss of these four
men of national and international reputation in the field of horti-
culture and especially in that of pomology, there is left a gap in
our ranks which can never be filled. These men were not only
authorities in their respective fields and their scientific papers
greatly valued by us, but it was through the inspiration and kindly
help of such men that this society finally took hold of the big prob-
lems of developing pomology to its present high state of perfec-
tion. Your committee, therefore, recommends that the secretary
of this society convey to the immediate family of these departed
friends our deep sympathy and high appreciation for the work
which they have done in their respective fields.
Signed by your committee,

J. C. Blaib,
Frederic Cranepield,
H. L. Lantz.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SLOGAN

Your committee on a "fruit slogan" submits the following prog-
ress report.

The adoption of a slogan is of sufficient importance to warrant
careful deliberation, and consequently we do not feel at this time
enough progress has been made to justify the adoption of any of
the suggestions. There are two things to consider; first, shall the
slogan represent the fruit industry collectively, and secondly, shall
it be representative of the deciduous fruits. If only the latter, a
slogan might refer to our representative fruit which is procurable
throughout the 365 days in the year in fresh form, namely, apples.

The following suggestions have been made which might be con-
sidered. A great many others have been suggested which are not
incorporated in this report, because of lack of merit.

''If You Would Be Well, Eat Fruit."

"Let No Day Be Fruitless."

"Measure Life by Its Fruits."

"Health Is a Fruit Product."

"Fruit Is Health."

"Fruit Is the Health Food."

"If You Like Health, Eat Fruit."

"Eat Fruit Daily — It's the Cheapest Health Insurance."

"Health's Best Way — Eat Apples Every Day."

"Nature's Own Medicine — Pleasant to Take."

"Buy a Barrel of Apples."

"Apples Are Loaded With Sunshine."

"Eat Fruit."

''Use It With Fruit."

198

"Give It With Fruit."
''Do It With Fruit."
"Eat More Fruit."

"Fruit for Health."

< <

If You Would Be Well, Eat Fruit."
Moved that the committee be given further time. Carried.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NEW FRUITS FOR 1922

C. p. Close, Chairman

The same plan of assembling and reporting on fruit varieties is
being followed in this report as in the reports for" 1920 and 1921
to which the reader is referred. Some of the varieties listed are
not strictly new, but they are included in order to complete a
check list of all varieties ever introduced into American fruit
growing. Miss Magdalene R. Newman of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture has again rendered most valuable aid in
assembling this information.

The chairman wishes it understood that he is reporting the
names and descriptions of varieties just as they come to him with-
out changes and without any recommendations. Some of the
names will need to be revised to comply with the St. Louis Code
of Nomenclature which the society has adopted as official.

APPLES

Adel (Ames 419): Unknown parentage. Originated by the Iowa Experi-
ment Station. Fruit medium size, greenish yellow or yellow
striped and mottled with lively red, resembles Gravenstein; flesh
crisp, very juicy, tender, sprightly subacid, pleasant, good to very
good; October to January. Tree vigorous, productive.

Afton (Ames 459): Wolf River x Harrington. Originated by the Iowa
Experiment Station. Fruit good size, attractive, bright red, sym-
metrical, flesh fine grained, tender, pleasant, sprightly subacid,
good. Tree vigorous, upright to spreading, productive.

Ames (Ames 480): Allen Choice x Perry Russet. Originated by the
Iowa Experiment Station. Fruit good commercial size, roundish-
oblate, smooth, often broadly ribbed; skin dark red, sometimes en-
tirely covered with solid dark red; flesh very firm, yellowish, crisp,
moderately juicy, sprightly subacid, good to very good. Keeps un-
til April or May or later. Tree upright spreading, vigorous, ap-
pears to be an annual cropper.

Ascot: "Originated by Archer S. Davis, New York. First fruited 1919.
Fruit resembles Lady Blush, is the size of Greening, has a tart,
pleasant flavor like Winter Banana and is a good keeper." — Ameri-
can Fruit Grower; March, 1922.

Bingo: Jewell Nursery Co., Lake City, Minn. "Hardy in central Minne-
sota. Fruit large, color green streaked with red; excellent qual-
ity; stem short and thick; fruit hangs to the tree in a remarkable
manner. Keeps until April."

Boomer: Noble Nursery, Noble, Okla. Not described.

Chattahootchee Greening: Fruits furnished by E. R. Minhinette, Cove
Springs, Georgia, in December, 1917. Originated on the banks of
the Chattahootchee River. Fruit small to medium, round-conic
to short cylindrical-conic; pale yellow with very thin pink blush;
dots small, numerous, some indented, russet green or pink; stem

199

one inch long, slender; cavity small, abrupt, russeted, moderately-
deep; basin narrow, shallow, wrinkled; calyx very small, lobes
small; flesh tinged yellow, rather tough, crisp, coarse, moderately
juicy, mild but rather rich subacid, fairly good; core medium size,
long conic; seeds medium, plump.

Colville: Brought from Paris, France, by H. M. Gilbert, Yakima, Wash-
ington. Fruit said to be large, yellow; flavor spicy; good keeper,
until May in common storage. The Fruitman's Guide, September
9, 1922.

Earlham (Ames 475): Colorado Orange x Allen Choice. Originated by
the Iowa Experiment station. Fruit large, yellowish green, often
with pink blush; flesh firm, rather tough, moderately juicy, nearly
sweet. Tree vigorous. Subject to bitter pit.

Edgewood (Ames 479) : Salome x Jonathan. Originated by the Iowa Ex-
periment Station. Fruit larger than Jonathan, but of about the
same color, flavor and much the same quality; keeps to March or
April. Tree vigorous.

Haralson (Minn., No. 90): Malinda seedling. Originated by the Minne-
sota Experiment Station. "An early bearing variety with a tree
of moderate size, vigorous, upright in growth, hardy; fruit medium
to large in size, roundish to slightly flattened, well colored, with
an even red over the entire surface; flesh flne-grained, tender,
juicy, subacid; quality good. Keeps in common storage until early
spring."

Hawkeye Greening (Ames 414) : Vermont Seedling. Originated by the
Iowa Experiment Station. Fruit large, yellow or greenish yellow;
flesh flne grained, juicy, tender, sprightly subacid, good to very
good for dessert or culinary use; October to March. Tree vigorous,
productive, apparently hardy.

Idella: Originated with 0. L. Henry & Son, Pennsburg, Montgomery
County, Pennsylvania, in 1912. First fruited in 1917 and was in-
troduced by 0. L. Henry & Son in 1922. Fruit medium to large,
shaped like Delicious without knobs; yellow with many red
stripes; flesh yellowish, very juicy, aromatic, subacid, good. Sea-
son same as Wealthy. Said to be extremely hardy and an annual
bearer.

Enepper: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal. A seed-
ling originating near San Martin, Santa Clara County, California.
Fruit very large, roundish conic, irregular; color waxen yellow;
flesh very firm, crisp; season late winter.

Lawfam: Seedling of Lawver x Fameuse, originated by -the Central Ex-
perimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, and named in 1921. Fruit me-
dium size, roundish to oblate-conic; cavity open, medium depth,
russeted at base; stem medium length, moderately stout; basin
medium depth and width, wrinkled; calyx op.en; color yellow,
washed with deep attractive crimson, dots obscure, flesh yellowish
tinted red, crisp, moderately juicy, subacid, pleasant, good; core
medium to small, open; season late December to March.

Lobo: Seedling of Mcintosh, originated by the Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Fruit above medium, roundish-conic; cav-
ity medium depth, open, sometimes russeted; stem short to me-
dium, stout; basin deep, narrow, almost smooth; calyx open; skin
thick, tough, pale yellow, almost white, washed with bright crim-
son; dots gray, indistinct; bloom little if any; flesh white with
traces of red, fine grained, tender, juicy, subacid, sprightly, pleas-
ant, good; season October. (Description first published in 1910.)

Lowbeth: Seedling of Liveland x Bethel, originated by the Central Ex-
perimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, and named in 1921. Fruit
medium size or above, roundish-conic, red; cavity open, medium
depth, wrinkled; stem medium to long, moderately stout; basin
medium depth, medium width, wrinkled; calyx closed, skin mod-

200

erately thick, tender, pale yellow, washed and splashed with orange
red; dots obscure or russeted; flesh dull white, faintly tinged red,
tender, juicy, subacid, pleasant, good; core large, open; season mid-
August to October. Attractive in appearance and as good as or
better than Llveland.

Mason (Ames 474): Northwestern Greening x Wealthy. Originated by
the Iowa Experiment Station. Fruit large, handsome, pale green
or yellow, blushed and mottled with red; flesh pleasant, sprightly
subacid about like Wealthy; October to January. Tree vigorous,
upright-spreading, very productive.

Maud (Ames 487): Mcintosh x Longfield. Originated by the Iowa Ex-
periment Station. Fruit larger than Red June, very attractive
bright red, follows Red June in season; flesh white, tender, juicy,
sprightly pleasant subacid. Tree vigorous, healthy, productive.

Miltosh: Seedling of Milwaukee x Mcintosh, originated by the Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, named in 1921. Fruit me-
dium or above, roundish, slightly ribbed; cavity narrow, medium
depth; stem short, stout; basin open, medium depth; to deep,
wrinkled; calyx partly open; skin moderately thick, moderately
tough, yellow washed and splashed with crimson; flesh dull white
or yellowish, firm, crisp, juicy, subacid, pleasant, quality medium
to good. Season December to March or later. Resembles Fameuse
considerably in shape and color.

Monona (Ames 473): Wolf River x Harrington. Originated by the Iowa
Experiment Station. Fruit large, red, attractive; flesh tender,
smooth, juicy, pleasant mild subacid, somewhat perfumed, good
to very good. Tree vigorous, productive, holds fruit well.

Napoleon: Seedling of Northern Spy. Originated by the Central Ex-
perimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Fruit medium size, roundish;
predominant color crimson; flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy; flavor
briskly subacid, pleasant; quality good; season December to late
winter. Resembles Northern Spy somewhat in flesh and flavor.

Ohio Beauty: Woodlawn Nurseries, Rochester, N. Y. Fruit very large,
roundish-oblong; skin smooth, yellow, blushed and striped with
red; flesh tinged with yellow, crisp, tender, aromatic, juicy, sub-
acid, fine for dessert and cooking. December to April.

Oklahoma Keeper: Noble Nursery, Noble, Okla. Not described.

River's Peach: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cali-
fornia. "Very fine dessert apple, midseason."

Rosalie: Seedling of Northern Spy. Originated by the Central Experi-
mental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Fruit above medium to large,
roundish-conical; predominant color crimson; flesh yellowish with
traces of red, tender, moderately juicy; flavor subacid, sprightly,
spicy, pleasant; quality good; December to late winter. Resembles
Northern Spy considerably in outward appearance, flesh and flavor.

Secor (Ames 445): Salome x Jonathan. Originated by the Iowa Experi-
ment Station. Fruit medium size; uniform, smooth, bright red,
attractive; flesh crisp, juicy, rich subacid, very good quality; Jan-
uary to March. Tree vigorous.

Sharon (Ames 472): Mcintosh x Longfield. Originated by the Iowa Ex-
periment Station. Fruit attractive, red striped; flesh rich, aro-
matic, mild subacid, very good; September to midwinter or later.
Tree productive, healthy.

Sparts: Seedling of Northern Spy. Originated by the Central Experi-
mental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Fruit medium to large, roundish
to oblate; predominant color crimson; flesh yellowish with traces
of red, crisp, tender juicy; flavor subacid, pleasant; quality good;
November to middle of February or later. Resembles Northern
Spy a little in outward appearance, flesh and flavor.

Winter Blush: Seedling of Northern Spy. Originated by the Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Fruit above medium size.

201

roundish; predominant color dull carmine; flesh white, crisp, ten-
der, juicy; flavor subacid, sprightly, spicy, pleasant; quality good;
season late November probably through the winter. Somewhat
like Northern Spy in character of flesh and flavor.

CRAB APPLE

Hardin: Jewell Nursery Co., Lake City, Minn. "November; large; green
tinged with red; subacid, good quality."

Kola: Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Hybrid of a native
Minnesota crab with Oldenburg. Fruit 2 inches in diameter, flat,
green. Fruit cooks up into an acceptable sauce.

Linda Sioeet: Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Seedling
of Malinda probably by Sweet Russet crab. Fruit large, much rus-
seted, mild subacid, sweet, apparently a late winter variety.

Lora: Seedling of Progress. Originated by the Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa, Canada. "Fruit crab-like but rather large for a
crab."

Maga: Seedling of Mcintosh probably by Virginia crab. Originated by
N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Fruit large, flattened, bright red
stripes; flesh of same type as Mcintosh; season evidently late.

Printosh: Prince x Mcintosh. Originated by the Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa, Canada. "Rather large; good flavor."

Rosilda: Prince x Mcintosh. Originated by the Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Resembles Mcintosh in color, though
brighter, large.

Shoko: Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Hybrid of a na-
tive Minnesota crab with Alexander. Fruit nearly 2 inches in
diameter, green, acid, cooks into acceptable sauce,

Tipi: Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Hybrid of a native
Minnesota crab with Oldenburg. Fruit and tree resemble Kolo
crab.

Zapta: Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Hybrid of a na-
tive Minnesota crab with Bismarck. Fruit 2% inches in diameter,
green, acid and acerb, cooks into sauce readily.

PEAR

Cayuga: Seedling of Seckel, originated by the Agricultural Experiment
Station, Geneva, N. Y. Fruit nearly as large as Bartlett, greenish
yellow with blush; quality very good; season last of September.

Chamness: The Clingman Nursery, Keithville, La. "The fruit is of
medium size, beautiful golden yellow, smooth, well shaped and
ripens thoroughly to the core, flesh melting and juicy, tender and
sweet. Ripens last of August. Said to be superior to Kieffer and
tree resembles Kieffer."

Chinese Imperial: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Very rare; from Im-
perial Gardens of Pekin, China. Good size, sweet, sugary and very
fragrant."

Climax: Clingman Nursery, Keithville, La. "Very large, rather round,
good flavor, flesh brittle, valuable. August."

Fragrant Chinese: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Medium and with a
peculiar, delicious flavor. Very fragrant. Used by Chinese to per-
fume their houses. Tree very large. September."

Mendel: Originated by W. Pfaender, Jr., New Ulm, Minn. "The fruit is
as large as or larger than Bartlett, golden yellow in color when
fully ripe, and good flavor. Claimed to be especially adapted for
the Northwest. It has proven itself blight proof when named
varieties standing near have died from blight." National Nursery-
man, May, 1922, page 140.

Pineapple: The original tree in this country is said to have been
brought as a rooted tree from China in the fifties by an officer in
Commander Perry's fleet. This tree is said to be still living in

202

South Carolina. It has produced as much as 100 bushels of fruit
in one crop and is about 3 feet in diameter. Fruit medium to
large, resembles Kieffer in coiji ai.d shape, is fine for canning, pre-
serving and for marmalades. Supposed to be practically blight
proof. The Florida Grower, November 25, 1922.

San Juan: Leonard Coates Nursery Co., Morganhill, Cal. Not described.

Southern Hybrid: Clingman Nursery, Keithville, La. "Large, melting,
rich, juicy; tree vigorous, productive. September."

Southland: Griffing Nurseries, Beaumont. Texas. "An excellent pre-
serving or canning pear. As an eating pear it is fine when fruit
is picked when nearly full grown and ripened in a cool, dark
place."

Tangli (S. P. I. No. 55550): From Talifu, Yunnan, China. Fruit oblong,
russet-brown, slightly acid, but sometimes sweet; it is better
cooked than fresh. Ripens from April to August in China,

Wu pa li (S. P. I. No. 55497): From vicinity of Talifu, Yunnan, China.
Fruit very large, skin thin, light yellow with red hue; flesh yellow,
edible.

QUINCE

Antiquera: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Recently introduced from
Granada, Spain. The finest of quinces; pure yellow; medium size,
melting and exquisite flavor. August."

Prolific: Allegan Nursery, Allegan, Mich. Not described.

PEACHES

Adams Cling: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "There is no cling better
than this new variety originating near Acampo. Very large, clear
yellow to pit; extra firm, round, sweet and fine flavor. August
and September."

Barry (of Arkansas) : A chance seedling originating with W. T. Barry,
Fayetteville, Ark. "A large white peach with red blush similar to
the Chinese Cling, and we think a better bearer and equal to if
not better in flavor." Arkansas Nursery Company, Fayetteville,
Ark.

Dainty: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal. Not de-
scribed.

Early ColumMa: Fancher Creek Nurseries, Fresno. Cal. Introduced in
Oregon. Large; skin white and blushed; flesh white. Valuable
for shipping. Early May.

Fair's Beauty: Texas Pecan Nursery, Arp, Texas. Said to ripen 20 to
30 days earlier than Elberta. Fruit large, yellow with beautiful
red cheeks; stone semi-cling.

Fei: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal. Not described.

Goodman's Choice (S. P. I. No. 55549): Prom Eastwood, New South
Wales. Fruit said to be medium size, yellow with rich red blush;
flesh yellow, excellent for canning, clingstone. Tree productive.

Hartley: The Cumberland Nurseries, Winchester, Tenn. Not described.

Henderson's Extra Early: LaFayette Nursery, LaFayette, Ga. Said to
be earlier than Mayflower, though not so highly colored but better
in quality. Fruit medium size, cream colored splashed with red;
freestone.

Kirkman's Early: Tribble Nurseries. Elk Grove, Cal. Clingstone, Not
described.

Late Champion (S. P. I. No. 43129): From Auckland, New Zealand.
Fruit very pretty, almost red, flavor very agreeable; freestone.
Season May in Alabama.

May: Tribble Nursery, Elk Grove, Cal. Semi-cling, Not described.

203

Mammoth White Heath: Tribble Nurseries, Lo(ii,.Cal. "One-third larger
than the White Heath. Skin creamy yellow, covered with a rich
blush; flesh clear white to pit. September."

Money Maker: Foster Nurseries, Denton. Texas. "Large, deep red and
orange; flesh red; cling. September 1."

Mowry's Straivherry Cling: Fancher-Creek Nursery Co., Fresno, Cal.
"Large, yellowish white splashed with red; flesh firm, flavor ex-
cellent. A splendid shipper and a particularly fine home canning
sort. September."

Murphy: Durant Nursery Company, Durant, Okla. "Clean, yellow. Sep-
tember."

Osprey Imiiroved (S. P. I. No. 43134): From Avondale, Auckland, New
Zealand. Fruit large, greenish with bright red check; fiesh soft,
fiavor delicious. Freestone.

Pomona Improved (S. P. I. No. 55487): From San Diego, Chile. Fruit
very large, deep yellow, clingstone, excellent for canning.

Red King: Champion Nurseries, Perry, Ohio. Fruit medium to large,
deep red; fiesh deep red, quality excellent, said to be fine for pre-
serving and canning. Retains its red color when canned. Said
to be hardy.

Ruben: A chance seedling, found in a thick wood in August, 1904, in
Sebastian County, Ark. "Fruit of large size and excellent quality;
clingstone; ripens in August. Desirable for canning and shipping.
Very hardy." Arkansas Nursery Company, Fayetteville, Ark,

Sabichi Winter: Armstrong Nurseries, Ontario, Cal. "Medium size;
very late; fiesh white, juicy, sweet and mellow, of excellent fiavor,
clings slightly to the pit, ripens as late as December."

Sage: German Nurseries, Beatrice, Neb. A chance seedling originating
in Beatrice, Neb. Fruit the size of Elberta, dark yellow with deep
crimson blush, very attractive; fiesh yellow, very firm, juicy and
of excellent quality; freestone. Tree vigorous, healthy, very hardy,
productive. September and early October.

Sunshine: Foster Nurseries, Denton, Texas. "Large, yellow with red
blush, firm, juicy and fine flavor. September 16. Introduced
by us."

Sutter Creek (S. P. I. No. 36125): A peach of large size and good qual-
ity; ripens a little later than Elberta which it resembles. Original
tree on grounds of F. E. Downs, Sutter Creek, Hamador County,
California.

Yainqueur (S. P. I. No. 33219): From Granada, Spain. Fruit medium
to large, yellowish tinged with pink; flesh greenish-white or pink,
quality fair; season very early.

Winner: Chase Brothers Company, Rochester, N. Y. "Ripens about a
week earier than Elberta; otherwise the same or a trifle better
quality."

Wooster: Champion Nurseries, Perry, Ohio. Originated on the fruit
farm of Mr. Wooster about 20 miles from Pittsburgh. Fruit large,
yellow with red cheek; high quality; freestone, last of September
in northern Ohio.

Zickler: "Originated on the E. H. Zickler place, near Buena, Washing-
ton. Colors earlier than the Elberta, has less fuzz in its skin, the
fuzz being more like sandpaper, stands up well; fine fiavor." The
Packer; Oct. 7, 1922.

PEACHMOND

Peachmond: Said to be a hybrid between the peach and almond and waf»
produced by Dr. Juan Balme, plant breeder of the Mexican Horu-
cultural Department, Mexico City. This is a result of pollinating
a peach blossom with pollen of the edible almond. The flTesh of
this new fruit is sweet and juicy and the kernel is of the size,
consistency and taste of the edible almond. Farm and Ranch,
November 25, 1922.

204

NECTARINES

Darwin: The P. E. Conine Nursery Co., Stratford, Conn. "An orange

nectarine, handsome and delicious."
Davis: American Nurseryman, October, 1922. Original tree a seedling

in the yard of a Mr. Davis, Austin, Texas. Six-year old tree has

borne four crops. Ripens late in June.
Dryden: The F. C. Conine Nursery Co., Stratford, Conn. "Large, fine

flavored, deep red."
Large Red (Tribble) : Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "A seedling orig-
inating on our Elk Grove place. Very large; skin deep marble

red; very firm; productive and superb quality."
Milton: The F. C. Conine Nursery Co., Stratford, Conn. "Very large,

deep red, finely flavored."
New Boy (S. P. I. No. 43144): From Auckland, New Zealand. Fruit

said to be of very flne quality and ripens August 10 at Sacramento,

Cal.
Quetta: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Recently introduced from Quetta,

British India. Very large, beautiful color, rare rich flavor; heavy

bearer. August."
Sharpens: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "A wonderful new nectarine

from Vacaville. Has all the good qualities for canning, drying

and shipping."

PLUMS

Bolshevick: Melba Nursery, Melba, Iowa. Not described.

Chinese Red: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "New importation; better
than Burbank for all purposes, but not quite as large. Late June."

Delicious: Originator, John Stevens, Webster City, Iowa. About the
size of a walnut. Freestone. American Nurseryman, October,
1922.

Early Funk: Foster Nurseries, Denton, Texas. Fruit medium size, light
red, very attractive; flesh yellow streaked with red, good quality,
very early. May 1 to 10 in Texas.

Extra Early Cherry: Originated in the nursery of the California Nur-
sery Company, Niles, Cal., catalog 1920. "Of the Myrobolan type;
about one inch in diameter; bright red with yellow flesh; flavor
brisk and agreeable; has ripened here May 26 and will be even
earlier in most sections of California. A sure and heavy bearer
with us." California Nursery Company.

Extra Early Satsuma: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill,
Cal. Not described.

Golden Rod (Minn. No. 120): "A seedling of Shirox Howard Yellow
originated by the Minnesota Experiment Station. Tree is tall, vig-
orous, upright in form, hardy, productive; fruit medium to large
in size, round, clear yellow; flesh flrm, moderately juicy, mod-
erately sweet; fair to good in quality, stone medium in size, cling;
season last of August. Very promising as a market plum,"

Hennepin (Minn. No. 132): "A seedling of Satsuma x Americana orig-
inated by the Minnesota Experiment Station. Tree is vigorous,
medium in size, hardy, produces a round head; fruits medium to
large in size, deep dark red; flesh dark red, firm, juicy, sweet,
sprightly; quality very good; stone medium size, semi-cling; ripens
mid-season. A valuable variety for home and market use. Espe-
cially recommended for preserving."

Herald (Prune): Fruit oblong, bright red, with blue bloom; dots white,
very numerous; flesh sweet, yellow, juicy, melting but clings tena-
ciously to pit. Fruit hangs on the tree a long time after maturity
and dries easily either on or off the trees. Not very promising as
a dried prune. Original tree owned by W. F. Marshall, Raleigh,
N. C. Information supplied by Prof. L. R. Detjen, Newark, Del.

r

205

La Crescent (Minn. No. 109): "A seedling of Shiro x Howard Yellow,
originated by the Minnesota Experiment Station. Tree extremely-
vigorous, very large, upright, oval head; medium to heavily produc-
tive; fruit medium in size, slightly oval, clear yellow, sometimes
with delicate blush; very tender, fine-grained flesh, juicy, sweet; of
highest quality; stone medium in size, semi-free; season very early.
A very promising variety for home use because of its high dessert
and cooking qualities, probably not firm enough for a good shipping
variety."

Leighton (Improved Italian) : Not described. Said to be superior to the
ordinary Italian.

Moloney (Prune) : Maloney Bros. & Wells Company, Dansville, N. Y.
"Fruit large, color dark blue; flesh yellow and delicious; freestone;
heavy annual bearer. Season September 15 until freezing weather,
quality of Fellenburg and size of York State prune."

Manitou (Minn. No. 7): "A seedling of Siberian Almond (Amygdalus
Nana) x Bokhara Peach. This variety is a vigorous shrub-like tree
of medium size and very hardy. It is especially attractive because
of the great mass of pinkish-white flowers put out in the early
spring. The foliage remains healthy throughout the season. The
flowers are sterile and plant unfruitful."

May's Victory: May Seed & Nursery Company, Shenandoah, Iowa. "It
combines hardiness, immense size, delicious quality, long keeping,
beautiful color, small pit and early bearing. Hardy anywhere in
the northwest."

Newport (Minn. No. 116): "A seedling of Omaha x Prunus Pissardi
originated by the Minnesota Experiment Station. A plum tree of
striking appearance; moderately vigorous, upright growing, hardy,
foliage of a deep reddish-purple color, retaining its color through-
out the season; fruit is small to medium in size, of very poor qual-
ity and of little value. The tree is valuable for its striking foliage
color."

Sacramento: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal. Not
described.

Santa Barbara (Prune) : Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill,
Cal. Not described.

Sharkey: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal. Not de-
scribed.

Soviet: Melba Nursery, Melba, Iowa. Not described.

St. Anthony (Minn. No. 134) : "Parentage lost but a sand cherry hybrid
of a breeding similar to the Zumbra. Tree is vigorous, productive,
hardy, small size, slightly larger than Zumbra; fruit small to me-
dium, round, dark, purplish black; flesh moderately flrm, juicy;
of good quality when fully ripe, excellent for preserving; season
late August."

Tulsa: Minnesota Horticulturist, October, 1922. Not described.

Waconia (Minn. No. 10): "A seedling of Burbank x Wolf originated by
the Minnesota Experiment Station. Tree is large, vigorous, spread-
ing grower, productive, hardy; fruit is medium to large in size,
roundish-conic, red; flesh firm, moderately juicy; quality good;
mid-season; stone medium in size, cling; a promising commercial
variety."

Yellow Russian: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "New; peculiar flavor;
bright yellow; good size; sweet and good. Introduced from
Russia."

CHERRIES

Bass ford: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Claimed to have been orig-
inated by H. A. Bassford of Vacaville, and to be- a Lambert seed-
ling. The fruit is very large, many of them packing 8 row. Very
similar, if not identical with the Bing."

206

Chinese Cherry: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal.
Not described.

Early Chinese: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Tlie earliest of all cher-
ries; pink color; fairly firm, very productive; not subject to gum
disease; very hardy. Ripens first of April."

Moulton Sweet: Noble Nursery, Noble, Okla. "Either a new variety or
an unidentified European variety growing at Moulton Fruit Farm,
west of Oklahoma City. Fruit large, meaty, light red; mid-season,
high quality."

Royal Queen: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "One of the finest Bing
types we have seen. Will pack nine, eight or seven row. Ripens
with Bing."

Talley's Favorite: Hardy-Field Nursery & Seed Company, Kansas City,
Mo. "Original trees received from Ireland (?) by a Mr. Talley of
Winchester, Tenn. Resembles Montmorency, but a little larger
and not so sour. Productive."

APRICOTS

Beni Kaga (S. P. I. No. 54709): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan. An
early flowering variety, blossoms white, medium size; fruits me-
dium size.

Beni 8ashi (S. P. I. No. 54710): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan.
Blossoms small, white, open early; fruit small, red.

Bungo (S. P. I. No. 54711): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan. A late
flowering variety with large light red blossoms. Fruits large.

Colorado: Stark Bros. Nurseries, Louisiana, Mo. From the Grand
Valley, Colorado. Fruit said to be very large, tree very productive,
and said to freeze back less than other varieties there.

Cral): Pawnee Rock Nurseries, Pawnee Rock, Kans. Not described.

Dallas: Enterprise Nurseries, East Prospect, York County, Pennsylvania.
Not described.

Darhy Early Royal: Van Dusen Nurseries, Geneva, N. Y. Probably a
seedling of Montgamet. Hardy; regular-bearer.

Every-Year: Kirkman Nurseries, Fresno, Cal. Identical with the Royal
in size, color, flavor and texture. June 1st to 10th.

Haiia Kami (S. P. I. No. 54712) : From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan.
Blossoms small, light red; fruit medium size, light brown; mid-
season.

Inkyo (S. P. I. No. 54713): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan. Blos-
soms medium size, white, open early; fruits large.

Joshu (S. P. I. No. 54714): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan. Blos-
soms light red, small, double; fruits large, mid-season.

Ka Mume (S. P. I. No. 54716) : Blossoms small, white; fruits very small,
mid-season.

Kichirobei (S. P. I. No. 54715): Blossoms white, medium size; fruits
large; mid-season.

Koshu (S. P, I. No. 54717): Blossoms small, white, rather late; fruits
very small.

Losse: Kirkman Nurseries, Fresno, Cal. Originated in the Santa Clara
Valley. Not described.

Masui (S. P. I. No. 54718): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan. A late
blooming variety with small white blooms; fruits large.

Rinshu (S. P. I. No. 54719): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan. Blos-
soms medium size, light red, double; fruits large.

Shidare (S. P. I. No. 54721) : From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan. Blossoms
white, small, branches drooping, fruit small, mid-season.

Shira Kaga (S. P. I. No. 54722): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan.
Blossoms medium size, white, late blooming, fruits, large.

Stella: Stark Bros. Nurseries, Louisiana, Mo. Originated in Nebraska
by the late Theo. Williams. "Unsurpassed for productiveness, size,

207

color and quality. Strong grower, large beautiful foliage, entirely-
hardy in Nebraska where very few apricots will stand."

Tama Mume (S. P. I. No. 54723): From Okitsu, Shiznokaken, Japan.
Blossoms medium size, white, fruits rather large, clear green, mid- '
season.

Yoro (S. P. I. No. 54725): From Okitsu, Shizokaken, Japan. Blossoms
small, light red, fruit medium size.

RASPBERRIES

T Cayuga: Seedling of June x Cuthbert, originated by the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Plants very vigorous and very
productive; berry large, roundish-conic; drupes medium, strongly
coherent, medium red, slightly glossy, juicy, firm but tender,
sprightly, aromatic, very good. Berry resembles Cuthbert in ap-
pearance and is nearly equal to Cuthbert in flavor.

Fewthorn: Hybrid between Minnetonka Ironclad and a wild red rasp-
berry from the Black Hills, originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings,
S. D. Berry about % inch in diameter, dark red, firm, good keeper.
Canes almost thornless except for a few weak bristles near the
ground.

Gold Dollar (of Townsend) : Introduced by E. F. Townsend & Son, Salis-
bury, Md. Large, productive, sweet, juicy, rich golden yellow.

Greek: Minnesota Horticulturist, April, 1920. "Black."

Moonbeam: Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Hybrid be-
tween the wild red raspberry of Cavalier, N. D., with a hybrid be-
tween the Black Hills red • raspberry and Shaffer. Berry large,
firm, late. Plant has few thorns and is dwarf in habit of growth.

Owasco: Seedling of June x Cuthbert, originated by the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Geneva, N. Y. This variety is not as strong a
grower as Cayuga and Seneca. Berry very large, long conic, me-
dium to dark red, juicy, firm, tender with Cuthbert flavor.

Panhandle: Clarendon Nursery Company, Clarendon, Texas. "Orig-
inated by A. L. Bruce in our trial grounds here."

Seneca: Seedling of June x Cuthbert, originated by the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Geneva, N. Y. This new variety is very similar
to Cayuga except the drupes average slightly larger, berry slightly
more conic and flavor slightly more sprightly and the season is a
few days later.

Smooth Cane: Hybrid between wild red raspberry of the Black Hills
and Minnetonka Ironclad, originated by N. E. Hanson, Brookings,
S. D. Berry % inch in diameter, quite firm; plant strong and
stocky; cane thornless.

Spineless: A hybrid of the wild red raspberry from Cavalier, N. D. x
Loudon. Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Berry
about three-fourths inch in diameter of extra good flavor. Canes
thornless.

Starlight: Originated with N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Hybrid be-
tween the wild raspberry from Cavalier, N. D., with Minnetonka
Ironclad. Canes have few thorns. Fruit somewhat larger than
Ohta and equally bright in color,

Todd Perfection: King Bros. Nurseries, Dansville, N. Y. Said to be an
extra early red variety of great merit, coming from the Hudson
River fruit section. Said to be a good early shipper. Canes very
vigorous.

Twilight: Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S, D. Berry larger
than King in S. D., clear light red, quality good. Canes strong and
stocky with few thorns.

Watson's Prolific: T. S. Hubbard Company, Fredonia, N. Y. "New
blackcap raspberry of large size; exceedingly productive, high qual-
ity; plant strong and vigorous grower."

208

BLACKBERRIES

llhro: L. J. Farmer, Pulaski, N. Y. Originated by Mr. Albro of Cort-
land County, New York, and introduced by J. L. Farmer. Berry
very large, larger than Snyder and same shape; flavor excellent;
plant very hardy.

Bruce: Clarendon Nursery Company, Clarendon, Texas. Not described.

Bushel: Shady Lawn Nurseries, Hammonton, N. Y. Hardy. Productive.
In growth like the Black diamond. Berry large, fine flavor.

Texas Evergreen (Texas Everbearing) : J. T. Lovett, Little Silver, N. J.
Said to have been brought from South Africa by a Mr. Texas.
"Described as having canes of upright habit, similar to the old
Lawton or the Eldorado and to be everbearing in habit; berries
jet black, sweet, juicy, without core and as large as English wal-
nuts."

BLUEBERRIES

Adams: Introduced by Joseph J. White, Inc., New Lisbon, N. J. Earliest
of the Whitesbog Blueberries. Do not often exceed an inch in
diameter. Uniform in size, of excellent flavor, very productive,
medium blue, tendency to pear-shape.

Cabot (Coville hybrid 834-A): Introduced by Joseph J. White, Inc., New
Lisbon, N. J. Early, very large and of attractive appearance.
Flavor a delightful combination of sweetness and subacidity,

Dunfee: Introduced by Joseph J. White, Inc., New Lisbon, N. J. Pro-
ductive. Berries large, dark.

Grover: Introduced by Joseph J. White, Inc., New Lisbon, N. J. Among
the largest of the Whitesbog group. Almost as late as Rubel.
Bushes strong and vigorous.

Katharine (Coville hybrid 830C): Introduced by Joseph J. White, Inc.,
New Lisbon, N. J. Same parentage as Pioneer. Berries a week
to ten days later than Pioneer; they average larger and are ex-
ceedingly beautiful.

Pioneer (Coville hybrid 620-A): Introduced by Joseph J. White, Inc.,
New Lisbon, N. J, The first seedling from the government trial
grounds selected for propagation. Productive. Berries large, light
blue, sometimes slightly streaked, of good flavor.

Ralph: Introduced by Joseph J, White, Inc., New Lisbon, N. J. But few
berries surpass half inch in diameter, uniform in size, early, of
good flavor; beautiful light blue.

CURRANTS

Siberian Black: Collected by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S, D., in the
Tomsk Province of Siberia. Fruit of good size and plant perfectly
hardy.

Thohurn: Noble Nursery, Noble, Okla. "Collected from Western Okla-
homa and Colorado by former Secretary of Agriculture, J. B. Tho-
burn. The bushes resemble those of the wild black currant ■. . .
are just as hardy here and much more prolific. Instead of black
they bear dull red, bright yellow, yellow with red stripe, and
greenish amber colored fruits of good quality, highly prized for
pies, jellies and preserves."

GOOSEBERRY

Poorman's Delight: J. T. Lovett, Little Silver, N. J. Berries large,
bright red. Plants of strong, upright habit, with attractive glossy
leaves.

STRAWBERRIES

Bayside: S. C. Atherton, Greenwood, Delaware. Originated at Bridge-
ville, Del. Berry nearly as large as Gandy, very smooth and round;
flesh firm, dark red; mid-season.

i

209

Beacon (Per.): Seedling of President x Marshall, originated by the Agri-
cultural Expermient Station, Geneva, N. Y. Plants vigorous and
productive; fruit ripens early, is large, blunt wedge to blunt conic,
medium to dark red, glossy; flesh red to center, juicy, firm, sub-
acid, good, holds up size well. In five out of six years it has
ranked among the best grown at Geneva.

Big Late (of Townsend) (Imper.): E. W. Townsend & Son, Salisbury,
Md. Plants tall and robust; fruit large, bright red, shiny, of high-
est aromatic flavor, firm; medium late.

Bliss (Per.): Seedling of Chesapeake x Atkins Continuity, originated by
the Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Plants vig-
orous and productive; fruit medium to large, blunt-conic to blunt
wedge, medium red, very glossy; fresh medium, firm, very juicy,
mild, sweet or pleasantly sprightly, highly fiavored, good to very
good; ripens in late mid-season. Bliss has ranked among the best
for five years at Geneva.

Bouquet (Fer.): Seedling of Chesapeage x Pan-American. Originated by
the Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Plants vig-
orous and productive; fruit medium to large, blunt-conic to blunt
wedge, medium to light red, glossy; flesh well colored to center,
juicy, very firm, subacid, good; fruit ripens in early mid-season.

Champion (of Whitten) (Per.): C. E. Whitten & Son, Bridgeman, Mich.
"Champion is a heavy, prolific bearer, yielding generous crops from
early June until after killing frosts occur in late autumn. It was
first introduced by Mr. B. L. Lubke of this state (Michigan)."
Said to be larger and more productive than Progressive and equally
good in flavor and quality.

Chaska: Not described. Minnesota Horticulturist, August, 1922, page
236.

Cooper (of Emlong) : Stevensville Nurseries, Stevensville, Mich. A
chance seedling disicovered by B. A. Cooper, Cassopolis, Mich.
Fruit said to be very large and beautiful, sweet and lucious. Plants
said to be very productive. Introduced by the Stevensville Nur-
series in 1921.

Early Charley: Central Nurseries, St. Catherine, Ontario. "The earliest
strawberry grown."

Everbearing Surprise: Bruns Seed Company, Washington, Iowa. Said
to be a special strain of Progressive.

Glen Saint Mary (Per.) : Originated by W. M. Ventling, Glen Saint Mary,
Florida. Klondyke x Nick Ohmer. Introduced by the Glen Saint
Mary Nurseries Company. Very uniform in shape and size, broadly
conical, deep rich red; flesh firm, deeply colored throughout, flavor
and quality good; mid-season.

Gold Coin: Chance seedling, discovered by A. B. Katkamier, Macedon,
N. Y. "Everbearing." American Nurseryman, October, 1922.

Harlan: Joseph Bancroft & Son, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Not described.

Kellogg' s Delicious (S.): R. M. Kellogg Company, Three Rivers, Mich.
Introduced in 1922 by the R. M. Kellogg Company. Plant vigorous
and healthy, enormously productive; berry large, short-conic, dark
red; flesh dark red throughout. Quality delicious; berries pro-
duced in large clusters on strong sturdy fruit stems; mid-season.

Kellogg' s Marvel (S.) : R. M. Kellogg Company, Three Rivers, Mich.
Supposed to be a cross between Dunlap and Warfield. Plant vig-
orous; berry longer and firmer than Dunlap or Warfield; flesh deep
red throughout, quality excellent; season late.

Parker (Imper.): The Cassell Nursery, Mantua, Ohio. "Fruit extra
large to the last picking, ripens early to mid-season; color a bright
crimson. Will produce more quarts than Warfield and average
twice the size of Dunlap. Plant is a vigorous, thrifty grower."

Philadelphia Beauty: The Moore Seed Company, Philadelphia, Pa. "This

y

210

is the largest strawberry in existence. Plant is strong and healthy;
berry conic and regular in shape; quality unsurpassed and the
size unequaled, some attaining the enormous size of 3 inches in
diameter. Color bright red, is firm, a good keeper and will ship
well, has perfect blossoms and holds its .size through the season
and remains in bearing a full month."

Rockhill: R. M. Kellogg Company, Three Rivers, Mich. No complete de-
scription given. Berry said to be bright red with a flavor superior
to any other strawberry, earlier than Premier, and very productive.
This is the Everbearing variety for which the R. M. Kellogg Com-
pany is reported to have paid $50,000.00. Originated as a cross of
Progressive x Early Jersey Giant by Harlow Rockhill, Conrad,
Iowa.

Skeena Wonder: British Columbia Department of Agriculture, Circular
No. 58, January, 1922. A seedling originating with Mechaud Broth-
ers, Terrace District, B. C. Supposed to be a seedling of Magoon x
Premier, Has the foliage of Magoon and the size, color and smooth-
ness of Premier.

The Allegan Gentlemen (Per.): The Allegan Nursery, Allegan, Mich.
Originated with the Allegan Nursery. "The berries resemble Chesa-
peake, perhaps not quite so dark in color, but a much heavier
yielder. They are large and symmetrical and of a decidedly new
and pleasant flavor. Its foliage resembles that of Sample yet it is
of a little more robust and stalkier habit. Medium to very late in
season."

Van Sant: British Columbia Department of Agriculture, Circular No. 58,
January, 1922. "A good shipper and of good quality."

Waits Perfection: A. B. Katkamier, Macedon, N, Y. "It is of the Superb
type but a flrmer and more productive variety." Everbearing.

GRAPES

Brocton: Seedling of Brighton x (Winchell x Diamond), originated by
the Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Clusters long
and shouldered; berry medium to above in size, oval, yellowish
green; flesh tender, sweet, aromatic, vinous, very good; ripens with
or before Niagara.

Champagne: Shady Lawn Nurseries, Hammonton, N. J. "Berries very
large; color a coppery red. An immense producer, very strong
grower, 15 to 20 feet or more a season being common. Has never
been known to winter kill."

Desmond: Swan River Nursery, Patchogue, N. Y, A white variety, not
described.

Dunkirk: Seedling of Brighton x Jefferson, originated by the Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Cluster medium size,
compact; berry medium size, roundish oval, red, juicy, tender,
slightly meaty, good to very good.

Fresno Beauty: Kirkman Nurseries, Inc., Fresno, Cal. This is the old
variety, Gros Guillaume, renamed.

Ideal (of Hulbert) : J. T. Lovett, Little Silver, N. J. Originated with
James Hulbert of Ohio. "Vine vigorous, hardy, prolific; clusters
compact, seldom shouldered, of good size. Berries medium size,
jet black with a heavy blue bloom, and with a thin, tough skin.
Texture tender, melting, vinous, flavor brisk, sprightly and of al-
most honey sweetness; season quite early."

Kandihar: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "A Persian variety of immense
size; beautiful creamy amber color; flrm flesh and a splendid
variety."

Knight: Fruitland Nurseries, Augusta, Ga. Originated at Savannah, Ga.

211

Bunch compact, berry medium, blue-black; very prolific; vigorous
grower. Commences to ripen last of July and fruit matures through
a long period.

Malpay (Synonym of Red Malga) : Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal.

Molinera Gordo (Synonym of Castiza) : Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal.

Pontiac: Seedling of Herbert x Worden, originated by the Agricultural
Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Cluster above medium size;
berry medium to large, roundish oval, black with blue bloom; flesh
slightly tough, very sweet, good. Pontiac is self-sterile, but will be
distributed for the home garden on account of its good quality.

Sheridan: Seedling of Herbert x Worden, originated by the Agricultural
Experiment Station, Geneva, N, Y. Cluster large, compact; berry
medium to large, black; skin thick and tough; pulp medium tough,
sweet, slightly foxy, good to very good; good keeper, ripens about
one week later than Pontiac and Concord; blossoms self-fertile.

Urbana: Seedling of Ross x Mills, originated by the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Cluster large, compact; berry small
to large, oval, dark red; flesh crisp, meaty, sweet, vinous, very
good; season late; recommended for localities with a long season.

Virginia Dare: Fitzgerald's Nursery, Stevensville, Texas. Said to be a
most vigorous grower. Grapes large, dark red, juice red. "This
grape is related to the Mustang grape but all the hot burny taste
has been bred out of it and we have left one of the most delicious
of all grapes." Vines very productive, especially valuable for arbor
planting.

PERSIMMONS

Delicious: Fancher Creek Nurseries, Fresno, Cal. "Fruit large, juicy,

sweet."
Leona: The Austin Nursery, Austin, Texas. "Origin Texas; very fine;

seedless. Ripens September and October."

Pang Shang : Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Very rare; fruit flat; red
color; fine quality; large; heavy bearer."

Tald jat soa: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Immensely large, flat,
orange red, good quality; found growing in great orchards in
Pautingfau valleys, China."

Ta shi tse: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Large, flat, averaging about

iy2 inches in diameter. Red color and very highly prized by the
Chinese."

TrihMe's Seedling: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. Seedling of Tanenashi.
Fruit large, tomato shaped, free from astringency when hard and
can be peeled and eaten like an apple. Early.

ORANGES

Algerian Satsuma: R. M. Teague Citrus Nurseries, San Dimas, Cal. Not
described.

Avon Everhear: Everbear Nurseries Company, Inc., Lakeland, Fla. Fruit
of Valencia type, large, high color, very juicy, full flavored, little
rag, few seeds, original tree said to have been in almost continuous
bud, blossom and fruit bearing for eight years before knowledge
of it became general.

Capuchin (S. P. I. 54651): Brought from Chile by Mr. Wilson Popenoe.
Fruit small l^^ to 2 inches in diameter, round, deep orange -color
and thin skin; flesh juicy, flavor much like Washington Navel and
of about the same season. Trees dwarf in size, very productive.

»

212

£^lopine: Florida Grower, May 20, 1922. Originated at Bartow, Fla.
"The fruit of the parent tree averages 176 or less to the box and
is perfectly round. Rind medium in thickness and texture. Said
to be much deeper in color than the usual Florida orange. Mid-
season, flavor said to be splendid."

Long's Everbearing : Florida Grower, May 20, 1922. Originated at Lake
Helen about 1892. "A true everbearing orange."

Moonshine: Florida Grower, May 20, 1922. Originated at Parrish, Fla.
"A late orange, to be marketed from May to July and is said to
have a splendid flavor with very few seeds to none at all."

Thanksgiving : Florida Grower, May 20, 1922. Originated at Mt. Dora,
Fla., from the seed of the "Clementine," a member of the tangerine
family which the Federal Government imported from Algiers in
Africa. "The fruit averages a little smaller than a tangerine and
the rind is not quite so deep a red, but is very thin. The tree is
said to be a little hardier as regards cold and drought than the
round orange, to be prolific and the fruit to be delicious. It is
ripe and perfectly colored by November 1st and will hang on, it
is claimed, until February."

Ward's Early: Florida Grower, May 20, 1922. Originated at Orlando,
Fla. "An early orange reported to be superior to the Parson Brown
in appearance, early coloring and flavor."

LIME

Russell River (S. P. I. No. 55447): From Brisbane, Queensland; native
to the Bellenden-Ker region of North Queensland. Tree resembles
the orange, having the same dark green foliage; flowers very small,
white, odorless; fruits oval or oblong, about 2^/^ inches long,
ribbed; pulp with sharp but agreeable flavor.

AVOCADOES

Benik (No. 21) S. P. I. 44626: Parent tree was growing in Antigua,
Guatemala, but is probably dead now. Fruit very large weighing
20 ounces, broad pyriform to obovoid; skin rather thin, fairly
pliable but coarsely granular in texture, purplish maroon color;
flesh rich creamy yellow, firm, rich, excellent; seed medium, tight
in cavity. Season February to May.

Billingsley: Parent tree owned by Ray Billingsley, Villa Park, Orange
County, Cal. Fruit pear shape or oval, light yellowish green,
weighs from ten to sixteen ounces; flesh clear bright yellow, only
a trace of fiber, quality excellent with a good rich and agreeably
distinctive flavor. California Cultivator, June 10, 1922, page 628.

Chabil (No. 36): S. P. I. No. 45564: Parent tree owned by Ignacio
Hernandez, San Lorenzo del Cubo, Guatemala. Fruit nearly round,
below medium size, weighs 9 ounces; skin thick, very coarsely
granular, hard and woody, nearly smooth, deep full purple with
few large yellowish dots; flesh cream yellow with few fibers, rich
and nutty, good; seed medium size, tight in cavity. Season Novem-
ber to March.

Chisoy (No. 11) S. P. I. 43935: Parent tree owned by Senor Don Eusebio
de la Cruz, San Cristobal, Guatemala. Fruit large, weighing 20 to
24 ounces, spherical to oblate; skin rather thick, rough, yellowish
green; flesh deep yellow, firm and rather dry without discoloration,
richest possible flavor; seed small to nearly large, tight in cavity.
Season February to April.

Glower: Tree owned by Mr. Shedden, Monrovia, Cal. "It has fruited for
several years and produces fruit of good quality and mild agreeable
flavor." California Cultivator, June 10, 1922, page 628.

213

Colan (No. 8) S. P. I. 43932: Parent tree owned by Filadelfo Pineda
Coban, Guatemala. Fruit medium size, pear shaped, weighing 15

(ounces; surface slightly rough, deep green; skin moderately thick,
hard, woody, flesh very deep yellow, quite free from discoloration,
smooth and oily, unusually rich flavor; seed small, tight in cavity.
Season February and March.

Del Rosa: Bishop's Alta Vista Nursery, Highland, Gal. Fruit about size
and shape of taft. excepting that it is dark purple when ripe.
Season January to September. Tree very productive.

Dickey: Fruit medium to large, weighs from 12 to 16 ounces, pear
shaped, red turning to reddish purple; flesh yellow, free from
fiber, quality and flavor very best; pit very small. Galifornia Cul-
tivator, June 10, 1922, page 628.

Dorothea: Originated from a seed of Miller by A. W. Miller, Hollywood,
Gal. Supposed to be crossed with a Mexican avocado. Fruit me-
dium to large weighing 8 to 12 ounces; skin leathery, light green
with many yellow dots; flesh clear, attractive yellow, no fiber, ex-
cellent flavor. Season December to January. California Cultiva-
tor, June 10, 1922, page 628.

Dutton: Fruit pyriform, very large, weighing 14 ounces; skin dark ma-
roon with many warts of a lighter color; flesh cream colored or
light green, smooth with trace of fiber, very rich. Season early
spring. California Cultivator, June 10, 1922, page 628.

Fernandez: Introduced from Santa Marta, Columbia, by Wilson Popenoe.
■ West Indiana race, not described. Florida Grower, July 1, 1922.

Ishim, (No. 34) S. P. I. No. 45562: Parent tree owned by Ignacio Her-
nandez, San Lorenzo del Cubo, Guatemala. Fruit obovate to pyri-
form, below medium size, weighs 10 to 12 ounces; skin very thin,
soft, tender, almost smooth, sometimes pitted, dark maroon purple
with many light maroon dots; flesh fine grained, buttery, creamy
yellow, sometimes with fiber discolorations, moderately rich and
nutty, good; seed large, tight in cavity. Season October to De-
cember.

Ishlcal (No. 7) S. P. I. 43602: Parent tree in Callejon Manchen No. 4,
Guatemala. Fruit small, spherical to obovoid, weighs 6 to 8
ounces; surface rough, deep purple, few large yellowish dots; skin
moderately thick, coarsely granular and woody; flesh deep yellow,
very rich and pleasant, quality excellent, free from fiber discolora-
tion; seed large, tight in seed cavity. Season January to June.

Kanan (No. 35) S. P. I. No. 45563: Parent tree owned- by Ignacio Gon-
zales, San del Lorenzo Cubo, Guatemala. Fruit nearly spherical,
medium to very large, weighs 16 to 20 ounces; skin moderately
thick, coarsely granular, woody, brittle, pebbled, bright green with
few large yellowish dots; flesh cream color, free from flber or dis-
coloration, rich and pleasant, very good; seed rather small, tight
in cavity. Season December and later. Resembles Trapp as grown
in Florida.

Kanola (No. 6) S. P. I. 43560: Parent tree owned by Victor Garcia near
Antigua, Guatemala. Fruit small, weighing 6 to 10 ounces, round,
attractive glossy purple; flesh yellow, free from fiber, rich oily
flavor, excellent quality; seed small, oblate, tight in seed cavity.
Tree exceedingly productive. Season very early, October.

Kashlan (No. 10) S. P. I. 43934: Parent tree owned by Diego Muus, San
Cristobal, Guatemala. Fruit broadly oval, slightly oblique, large,
weighing 20 to 22 ounces; skin thick, smooth, hard, brittle, green;
flesh deep yellow, smooth, free from fiber, very rich and pleasant;
seed unusually small, fits tightly in cavity. Season early.

214

Kayah (No. 25) S. P. I. No. 44681: Tree owned by Francisco Muus, San
Cristobal, Guatemala. Fruit medium to very large, round, weighs
14 to 20 ounces; skin moderately thick, hard and woody, rough,
deep green to yellowish green, many small russet or yellowish dots;
flesh cream yellow, firm, dry, without flbei* or discoloration, very
rich, excellent; seed medium size, tight in cavity. Season February
to May. Resembles Trapp as grown in Florida.

Kekchi (No. 22) S. P. I. No. 44679: Parent tree owned by Santiago Men-
doza, Purula, Guatemala. Fruit small, pear-shaped or obovoid,
weighs about 6 ounces; skin thick, woody, somewhat rough, ma-
roon; flesh rich creamy yellow, somewhat fibrous, buttery, very
rich and agreeable, very good; seed small to medium, tight in
cavity. Season early. December and later. Tree very productive.

Lamat (No. 3) S. P. I. No. 43476: Originated by Angel Samayoa, Amatit-
lan, Guatemala. Fruit oval, above medium to large, weighing 14
to 18 ounces; stem stout, inserted obliquely without depression;
apex rounded; surface nearly smooth, deep green, few large yel-
lowish green dots; skin thick, coarsely granular, brittle; flesh
cream color, fairly rich flavor, very good, free from fiber or dis-
coloration; seed small, almost spherical, tight in cavity.

Linscott: Fruit round, rough, medium to large, weighs about a pound.
A Guatemalan seedling. California Cultivator, November 11, 1922,
page 499.

Manik (No. 26) S. P. I. No. 45560: Parent tree is growing in Antigua,
Guatemala. Fruit medium size, weighs 8 to 12 ounces, oval to
elliptic-pyriform; skin thin, hard and coarsely granular, somewhat
rough, bright green with few small yellowish dots ; flesh creamy
yellow, free from fiber or discoloration, firm and unusually dry,
rich and pleasant, very good; seed medium size, tight in cavity.
Season February to June. Tree productive.

Mayapan (No. 23) S. P. I. No. 44680: Parent tree owned by Arcadio
Saguirre, Purula, Guatemala. Fruit round, weighing nearly a
pound, medium size or larger; skin very thick, coarsely granular,
woody, decidedly rough, greenish purple to dull purple; flesh rich
creamy yellow, no fiber discoloration, firm, meaty, rich and pleas-
ant, excellent; seed medium size, tight in cavity. Season March
to July.

Nabal (No. 15) S. P. I. No. 44439: Parent tree accidentally destroyed in
June, 1917, it stood in Antigua, Guatemala. Fruit almost spherical,
below medium size weighing 10 ounces; skin thick, smooth, bright
green; flesh rich yellow, free from fiber or discoloration, firm,
smooth texture, rich excellent; seed rather small, tight in cavity.
Season February and March or later.

Wimlioh (No. 17) S. P. I. No. 44440: Parent tree owned by Trinidad
Hernandez, Antigua, Guatemala. Fruit extremely large, broadly
oval, weighing 36 to 45 ounces; skin thick, woody, rather rough,
deep green with numerous irregular large yellowish dots; flesh
firm, oily, smooth, rich creamy yellow, free from fiber or discolora-
tion, very rich, pleasant, excellent; seed medium size, tight in
cavity. Season February and March.

Panclioy (No. 18) S. P. I. No. 44625: Fruit above medium to large,
weighing 15 to 18 ounces, broadly obovoid; skin thick, woody, very
brittle, yellowish green with many small yellow dots; flesh firm,
smooth, rich yellow without fiber or discoloration, very rich and
pleasant, excellent; seed medium size, tight in cavity. Season Jan-
uary to April.

Pankay (No. 12) S. P. I. No. 44785: Parent tree owned by Jesusa v. de
Camey, Totonicapam, Guatemala. Fruit medium size, pyriform,

»

215

weighing 12 ounces; skin moderately thick, woody, brittle, smooth,
light green with numerous yellow dots; flesh deep cream color, free
from fiber, very rich flavor, excellent; seed rather small, conical,
tight in cavity. Season September to January.

Prince: Original tree owned by E. W. Dickey, Hollywood, Cal. Fruit
pyriform, very large, weighs 21 ounces; skin dark green with
brown spots; flesh with trace of fiber showing dark color, smooth
texture, good flavor, good keeping quality. Season October to De-
cember. California Cultivator, June 10, 1922, page 628.

Robertson: Armstrong Nurseries, Ontario, Cal. Catalog 1922. "Thin
skinned; fruit round, medium size; tree a very fast grower and
has proven a good bearer; September and October."

Tamayo (S. P. I. No. 54270): From the Chota Valley of Northern
Ecuador in 1921. It is either an unusually large fruited Mexican
or a hybrid between the Mexican and West Indian races. Fruit
of excellent quality, weight about 18 ounces; flesh rich creamy
yellow, smooth, flavor delicious; seed rather small; promising for
avocado growers in California and Florida.

Terton (No. 30) S. P. I. No. 44856: Parent tree owned by Leandro Cas-
tillo, Mixco, Guatemala. Fruit oblong to slender pyriform, ex-
tremely large, weighs 28 to 48 ounces; skin moderately thick,
coarsely granular and woody, nearly smooth, deep dull purple with
russet dots and patches; flesh creamy yellow, free from flber or
discoloration, flne texture, rich and pleasant, excellent; seed very
small, tight in cavity. Season February to April.

Tiger: Original tree growing at Highland, Cal. Fruit pear-shaped, large,
weighs 12 ounces; skin thick, purple, attractive; flavor of flesh
agreeable but not high. Tree uright, productive, season latter part
of winter. California Cultivator, June 3, 1922, page 591.

Victory: Originated with Mrs. L. M. Chaffey, Sherman, Cal. Fruit large,
round, weighs 18 ounces; skin light green turning to brown as it
ripens; flesh yellow shading to light green, flavor and quality good.
California Cultivator, June 10, 1922, page 628.

Ward: Originated with Irving N. Ward, Sierra Madre, Cal. Fruit large,
weighs 12 to 16 ounces, pyriform; skin dark red or purple, shading
to black; flesh creamy yellow to pronounced green, texture smooth,
flavor good. California Cultivator, June 10, 1922, page 628.

Wilder (S. P. I. No. 55625): From Honolulu, Hawaii. Fruit nearly
round, large, weighs about a pound; color light olive green; flesh
yellow shading into light green near the skin, oily, rich and nutty;
October to January in Honolulu.

Winter Mexican: Indiana River Nurseries, West Palm Beach, Florida.
"Pure Mexican seedling which ripens its crop in January. This
will be very valuable for Central Florida as it is the only known
Mexican which matures in the winter."

MANGO

Brooks: American Nurseryman, October, 1922. Originated by Hezekiah
Brooks, Miami, Florida. Similar to the Mulgoba in appearance and
texture but is declared to be superior to that variety in flavor.
November to January.

CH'ERIMOYAS

Booth: Originated by Mr. Booth, Hollywood, Cal. "Fruit large, elongated
in shape; skin rough; flesh light yellow, exceedingly delicious and
rich in flavor. February to April." Armstrong Nurseries, Ontario,
Cal., 1922 catalog.

216

Mammillaris: Originated at Altadena, Cal. Fruit medium size, weighs
up to one pound, conical; cavity shallow, broad, flaring; apex
rather pointed; stem short and very stout; surface covered with
conical protuberances; color dull green; skin thick and very
rough; flesh clear white, soft, fine grained; seeds rather short and
blunt, plump, not numerous; flavor very aromatic and rich,
strongly resembling the pineapple, quality excellent; season Febru-
ary and March. Tree upright, moderately vigorous, productive.
The Pomona Journal of Economic Botany, May, 1912.

Golden Russet: Received from London. England, by Mr. Burgess, Villa
Park, Cal. Fruit medium large, weighs up to a pound and a half,
usually oblong-conical; cavity deep, rather narrow, rounded; apex
rounded, broad; stem short and stout; color light green, usually
shaded with golden russet; skin rather thick, tender; flesh white,
of good texture; seeds oblong, slightly compressed, not very nu-
merous; flavor resembles pineaple somewhat, quality good; season
February to April. Tree upright vigorous, broad-topped, fairly
productive. Pomona College Journal of Economic Botany, May,
1912.

FIGS

Black Durro: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "The largest fig known.
Dark purple; fine flesh; bears two heavy crops and brings highest
price as fresh fruit."

Figue de Chios (S. P. I. No. 8506). From the Island of Chios, Greece.
Said to be a very excellent variety, ripening in August in Savan-
nah, Georgia.

Goodale Black: Kirkman Nurseries, Inc., Fresno, Cal. Trees fruiting
on the property of the Honora Realty Company, Lemon Cove, Cal.
Said to bear larger fruit than California Black Mission, which it
resembles.

Placer Smyrna (S. P. I. 2182): Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "A seed-
ling from the Maslin orchard and seems to be a close rival for the
Calimyrna. Fig very large, flat, skin light brown, pulp light amber,
syrupy and very sweet. The finest fresh fig we have ever eaten.
Requires Capri figs."

White Seedless: Bishop's Alta Vista Nursery, Highland, Cal. Fruit
large, yellowish white with pink pulp, very mild fiavor; skin firm;
usually seedless.

LOQUATS

Golden Nugget: Bishop's Alta Vista Nursery, Highland, Cal. Fruit said
to be very large, some weighing five ounces; flavor mild.

Large Fruited: California Nursery Company, Inc., Niles, Cal. "An im-
proved variety; bears when quite young; fruit shaped like a crab
apple; flesh white; seeds small; flavor rich, pleasant and sweet."

Victor: California Nursery Company, Inc., Niles, Cal. Not described.

SAPOTE

Oakley: Theodore Payne, Los Angeles, Cal. "A large, rich flavored
variety."

CAROBS

Amele (S. P. I. No. 55727): From Barl, Italy. Not described.
Habathi (S. P. I. No. 55448) : The tree is productive but the crop is of
poor quality.

217

Matalafera (S. P. I. No. 54977 : Tree of medium size with smooth
straight branches; leaves comparatively large, very dark green;
pods deep chestnut bordering on black, large, wide, 8 inches long.
Grown extensively near "Valencia, Spain.

Roches (S. P. I. No. 54978) : Pods very sweet, but tree not as productive
as Matalafera.

Sandalawi (S. P. I. No. 55449) : This variety is of good quality.

Schehabi (S. P. I. No. 55450): Only medium in quality and productive-
ness.

ALMOND

Toreams: Originated with T. 0. Reams, near Suisun, Cal. Introduced
by Fancher Creek Nurseries, Fresno, Cal. "Later bloomer; heavy,
regular producer. Nuts above average in size; rich in flavor; ker-
nels much larger than I. X. L.; hulls very freely."

PECANS

Aurora: U. S. Dept. Agr, B. P. I. Bulletin 251. From Mobile County,
Ala. Nut large; shell rather thick; partitions rather corky; ker-
nel fairly plump, flavor good to very good.

Banquet: West Texas Pecan Nursery, San Saba, Texas. Texas Prolific x
Atwater. Very large; immensely prolific; a week earlier than
either parent and retains that bright coloring characteristic of
both.

Beene: Originated near Marquez, Robertson County, Texas, on the
grounds of Mr. W. E. Beene. Nut large, shell thin, meat full, good
cracker. Bulletin No. 73, Texas Department of Agriculture, 1922.

Bend: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not described.

Boggus: "From Gordon, Texas. Sent in by Claude Boles. One among
the superior named sorts. History not given." Bulletin 73, Texas
Department of Agriculture, 1922.

Brown: From Throckmorton County, Texas, not described. Bulletin No.
73, Texas Department of Agriculture, 1922.

P Church Hill: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not
described.

Deavers: From near Temple, Bell County, Texas. Classed with San
Saba. Not described. Bulletin No. 73, Texas Department of Agri-
culture, 1922.

Dependable: A seedling of Jewett x Success. Originated by C. Forkert,
Ocean Spring, Miss. This was originally named Williams. Nut
medium large to large, oblong, cylindrical, bas_e rounded, apex
blunt; color dull, marked with dark splashes of purplish black;
shell rather thin; kernel plump, quality very good. Tree vigorous.

Dercherd: Nut medium size, shell thin, splendid cracker. Originated at
Junction, Texas. Bulletin No. 73, Texas Department of Agricul-
ture, 1922.

Fort Clark: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Frazier: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Gladys: Originated with J. C. Hallford, Llano, Texas. Slightly inferior
to Hallford. Bulletin No. 73, Texas Department of Agriculture,
1922.

Goveirtt: Originated near Seguim, Texas. Said to be in a class with
Schley but is larger and more prolific. Considered the best of all
Texas varieties. Bulletin 73, Texas Department of Agriculture,
1922.

Hallford: Originated along the Colorado River near Kingsland in Llano
County, Texas. Tree owned by Mr. J. C. Hallford, Llano, Texas.
Nut medium size, thin shell, splendid cracker, equal to Halbert but
larger. Bulletin No. 73, Texas Department of Agriculture, 1922.

I

218

Harrell: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Keith: Originated near Breckinridge, Stephens County, Texas. Nut
small, shell very thin, kernel plump, flayor delicious, especially
good for home use. Bulletin No. 73, Texas Department of Agricul-
ture, 1922..

Liberty: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Lilly: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not described.

McCulliim: Texas Department of Agriculture No. 73, Not described.

McDaniel Prolific: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No, 73.
Not described.

Marquardt: Originated 20 miles north of Burlington, Iowa. Introduced
by J. F. Jones, Lancaster, Pa. "Large as the Indiana varieties,
with a thin shell and full kernel of excellent quality."

Matsler: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Merge: From North Llano, Texas. Not described. Bulletin 73, Texas
Department of Agriculture, 1922.

Meyers (of Texas): Originated twenty miles northwest of Austin,
Texas. Introduced by F. T. Ramsey, Austin, Texas. Nut above
medium size, very attractive, meat solid, sweet and firm. Bulletin
No. 73, Texas Department of Agriculture, 1922.

Millican: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Ogleshy: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Onliwon: Originated in the West Texas Pecan Nursery, San Saba, Texas.
Medium early. Meat plump and full; well flavored. Annual
fruiter.

Papershell: Not described. Bulletin 73, Texas Department of Agricul-
ture, 1922.

Roth-Dewitt: The tree is on the Roth place, between Cuero and Yoakum,
Texas. Not described. American Nut Journal, May, 1920, page 60.

Schweitzer: Nut resembles Delmas in every particular except it is about
10 per cent smaller. Said to be very prolific and regular in bear-
ing. Apparently originated at Hocheim, Texas. Bulletin No. 73,
Texas Department of Agriculture, 1922.

Slaughter: Originated with R. C. Slaughter, Stephensville, Texas. Nut
medium in size with shell about like Stuart. Bulletin No. 73, Texas
Department of Agriculture, 1922.

Squirrel's Delight: Originated in the West Texas Pecan Nursery, San
Saba, Texas. Not described.

Sutton: Originated on Indian Creek, Brown County, Texas. Nut small,
shell thin, superior to Stuart which it resembles. Bulletin No. 73,
Texas Department of Agriculture, 1922.

Uvalda: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

Waukcenah (Probably same as Waukena) : U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, B. P. I., Bulletin No. 251. From Jefferson County, Florida.
Nut small; shell of average thickness; kernels generally shrunken;
quality below medium; flavor poor. Tree productive. Season very
early.

Weisinger: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Illus-
trated but not described.

Welty: Nut resembles Dercherd except that shell is thinner. Appar-
ently originated at Gordon, Texas. Bulletin No. 73, Texas Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 1922.

219

Willis: Texas Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 73. Illustrated
but not described.

Wisdom: Texas Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 73. Not de-
scribed.

PERSIAN WALNUTS

Bacon: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "A fine walnut originating from
seed sent out by Mr. G. P. Rixford as premium with the San Fran-
cisco Bulletin. Bears very heavy crops of fine walnuts of the
Parisienne type. Said not to sunburn or blight. Blooms fairly
late."

French: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal. Not de-
scribed.

Henneman: Discovered by H. A. Henneman, former president of the
"Western Nut Growers^ Association, on a city lot in Portland, Ore.
Propagated by Richard H. Turk, Washougal, Wash. "Excels in
quality the time-honored Franquette." American Nut Journal,
April, 1922.

Knapp: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal, "A beautiful, large, smooth wal-
nut of the Mayette type; heavy bearer; does not burn or blight.
Well filled, white pellicle and a very worthy walnut. Blooms
late."

LeiVs Mayette: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "A very large, fine wal-
nut, pretty smooth shell, well filled and blooms late."

Manchuria: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, CaL "A variety from the moun-
tains of Manchuria, and should stand more cold than most va-
rieties. Nut large, well filled and blooms late."

Mautner: Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, Cal. Not de-
scribed.

Tribble, or Kerr Mayette: Tribble Nursery, Elk Grove, Cal. Not de-
scribed.

Westfall: Trbible Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "From Mr. J. C. Westfall, of
Colusa County who has a tree that produced 28 pounds of walnuts
four years from planting. Nut very large, beautiful white shell,
well filled, white pellicle and a very promising variety. Blooms
1st of April."

Wheeler Franquette: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, CaL "An abnormally
large type of the Vrooman Franquette with all the good qualities
of that variety. Blooms April 15."

Woodland: Tribble Nurseries, Lodi, Cal. "Very similar to the Westfall,
except that it is larger and more pointed at the apex. Very heavy
bearer."

BLACK WALNUT

Benze: Native of Texas. Introduced by the Texas Nursery Company,
Sherman, Texas. Not described. Bulletin 73, Texas Department
of Agriculture, 1922.

HICKORY NUT

McGee: Not described. Bulletin 73, Texas Departmeht of Agriculture,
1922

HYBRID WALNUT

Orundel: "A hybrid walnut of exceptional size produced near Oakdale,
Stanislaus County, California." California Cultivator, January 26,
1923, page 4.

220

REPORT OF THE TREASURER

1921

Dec. 10 Balance on hand $ 129.36

1922

Nov. 10 To Cash 76 Annual memberships at $2.00 $ 152.00

169 Annual memberships at $5.00 845.00

." " 3 Life memberships 150.00

" " 37 Collegiate memberships 37.00

" " Society memberships 105.40

Contributions 312.50

Reports sold 49.00

Miscellaneous 7.25

" Interest on bonds 200.00

1921

Dec.

13

28

31

1922

Jan.

7

11

23

Feb.

2

$1,987.51

By Cash D. L. Auld Co., medals for judging contest.. $ 67.20
F. J. Heer Printing Co., printing letterheads,

envelopes, proclamations, folders, etc.... 119.75

" " Frances Carlisle, December salary 40.00

" " Celia McDaniels, stenographic service $ 15.00

" " R. B. Cruickshank, office expense 75.00

" " Celia McDaniels, stenographic expense 5.00

" " Frederic Cranefield, travel expense 29.09

" " Frances Carlisle, January salary 40.00

" " F. E. Dillan, stenographic services at annual

meeting 147.55

" " Dorothea Skinner, stenographic services.... 25.00

" " R. B. Cruickshank, office expense 4.47

" " R. B. Powers, printing ribbons 2.20

4 " " W. S. Perrine, travel expense 21.22

13 " " R. B. Cruickshank, salary account 100.00

Mar. 1 " " Frances Carlisle, February salary 40.00

F. J. Heer Printing Co., letterheads 17.00

2 " " W. W. Farnsworth, travel expense 28.54

8 " " F. J. Heer Printing Co., circulars, envelopes 27.50

16 " " F. J. Heer Printing Co., envelopes, folders.. 77.50

17 " " F. J. Heer Printing Co., president's address. 45.00
Apr. 2 " " Frances Carlisle, March salary 40.00

29 " " R. B. Cruickshank, office expense 100.00

" Fj-ances Carlisle, April salary 40.00

May 8 " " F. J. Heer Printing Co., envelopes 50.00

June 5 " " Frances Carlisle, May salary 40.00

14 " " F. J. Heer Printing Co., envelopes 25.00

July 12 " " Frances Carlisle, June salary 40.00

Simons Bros. Co., Wilder medals 67.50

25 " " R. B. Cruickshank, office expense 65.20

Aug. 11 " " Frances Carlisle, July salary 40.00

Sept. 2 " " Frances Carlisle, August salary 40.00

16 " " Trafford Tallmadge Co., premium on bond.. 27.68

17 " " F. J. Heer Printing Co., envelopes 50.00

29 " " Frances Carlisle, September salary 40.00

Nov. 1 " " Frances Carlisle, October salary 40.00

2 " " Trafford-Tallmadge Co., balance on premium 6.31

9 " " W. W. Farnsworth, travel expense 87.07

F. J. Heer Printing Co., printing 246.00

Total $1,971.94

Cash to balance 15.57

$1,987.51

221

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

During the past year, the American Pomological Society by adoption
of the recommendations in the presidential address of Dr. L. H. Bailey
at the Toledo convention and through the action of the Executive Com-
mittee began to operate on a new, definite, widespreading program for
the advancement of pomology. It is necessary at this time to give an
accounting of the work done.

The Annual Report has been published and distributed. This, together
with the Pomological Annual, comprise a book of over 400 pages and
contains much material of value to fruit growers.

One bulletin was issued. This included Dr. Bailey's presidential ad-
dress last year and was of historical interest. It was mailed not only to
members, but to all agi'icultural colleges and experiment stations and
to state horticultural societies. Lack of sufficient funds prevented the
publication of other prospective bulletins.

Mimeographed letters were sent out at frequent intei'vals which con-
tained information relative to the society, reports on the size, condition
and prices of the fruit crops, matters of general interest in the fruit in-
dustry and suggestions of cultural practices. These letters fell far short
of their possibilities, but with a gradually better organization, they can
be made of large value to members, alone much above the cost of mem-
bership.

Letters were sent out to all agricultural colleges, experiment stations
and departments of agriculture asking them to issue at least one publi-
cation during the year on the health and food value of fruit. This should
be reported and a check made of the material distributed. There is a
large field for development of this work through many agencies, a large
part of which would be free service. The Society is planning on extend-
ing its efforts in this connection during the coming year. A committee
will report at this meeting on a fruit slogan. Nothing was attempted
this year with reference to the export trade.

Fifteen state, provincial, and local horticultural societies are now af-
filiated with the American Pomological Society. A large increase in in-
terest has developed, much con-espondence has passed between them
and us and we have been able to send them considerable information
which has been of value to them in the way of organization, program
making and current interest. The secretaries of many state and pro-
vincial societies have assisted in carrying out the work and development
of the American Pomological Society. This meeting and exhibit is an
indication of the spirit of cooperation being manifested. In this field,
the future lies in a close working arrangement between the parent society
and the state, provincial, district and local societies for -mutual benefit.

A committee met with a committee from the Federated Fruit and
Vegetable Growers, Inc., and in conference agreed that the fields of
the two organizations were separate and that they could be of mutual
benefit to each other. Their work is purely marketing, chiefly through
cooperative associations; ours is largely educational and promotional
and our membership is mostly individuals.

The American Pomological Society has always interested itself in the
development and testing of new varieties. It maintains committees on
new, tropical and on foreign fruits.

At the last meeting three silver Wilder medals, and two bronze Wilder
medals and eleven ribbons of merit were awarded. A silver cup was
given to the apple judging team from Massachusetts and medals were
awarded to the two highest score contestants. A committee is now at
work preparing regulations to govern more definitely the various awards
of the Society.

Several new books and bulletins touching on fruit growing were re-
viewed in the circular letters to members.

The code of nomenclature was revised during the year and will be re-
ported on at this meeting. The report of the committee on new fruits

222

occupies seventy pages in the annual report. The committee on nomen-
clature cooperated during the year in the preparation of the report of
the national committee on horticultural nomenclature. This will be a
valuable publication.

An active interest was taken in pressing the passage of a uniform pack-
age law. This has passed the House of Representatives, but has not yet
been acted on by the Senate.

Correspondence has been had with the Secretary of Agriculture and a
statement of his interest in further cost-of-production studies received.

During the year between sixty thousand and seventy thousand pieces
of printed or typed mail have been sent out from the Secretary's office.
Cooperation from the agricultural editors has meant that the society has
had mention one or more times in practically every farm paper in this
country. All this publicity is serving to bring the Society to a public at-
tention which it has never before had.

The membership now stands as follows: Life, 134; Annual, 318; Col-
legiate, 73; Society, 14; Institutional, 65, making a total of 604. This is
nearly 100 more than last year.

The following deaths have been reported: Mr. G. Harold Powell and
Dr. J. C. Whitten of California, both serving as members of our Executive
Committee; Prof. John C. Stewart of Pennsylvania, a life member and
former executive committeeman, and Prof. S. A. Beach of Iowa.

Your Secretary feels that considerable progress has been made during
the year in developing the American Pomological Society again into an
active functioning and useful organization, in bringing to it a recogni-
tion of its field of endeavor and position of authority in pomological
matters, and in making it known to thousands of fruit growers who
have not heard of it before.

This has been possible through the enthusiastic work of a set of offi-
cers and executive committee men who have given liberally of their
time and effort and through the interest of fruit growers in many states
and their willingness to enlist.

Respectfully submitted,

R. B. CRUICKSHANK,

Secretary.

223

MEMBERS

Life

Alexander, M. D • Address unknown

Alwood, Wm. B Greenwood, Va.

Ash, John Pomfret Center, Ct.

Atkins, Chas. G ■ Bucksport, Me.

Austin, C. F Herradura, Cuba

Babcock, J. Lyman Norfolk, Va

Bailey, L. H Ithaca, N. Y.

Berryhill, J. G 304 New Call Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Black, Chas Hightstown, N. J.

Blackmore, John C

11 Ayr St., Lower Riccarton, Christ Church, Canterbury, N. Z.

Blair, J. C Urbana, 111.

Briggs, G. R Plymouth, Mass.

Bunyard, E. A Allington, Maidstone, Eng.

Chase, Howard, A Commonwealth Bldg., Mount Pocono, Pa.

Cane, Mrs. Moses H Blowing Rock, N. C.

Cook, David C Elgin, 111.

Crandall, C. S Urbana, 111.

Coe, Asher M North Olmstead, O.

Chase Bros. Co Rochester Nurseries, Rochester, N. Y.

Cruickshank, R. B O. S. U., Columbus, O.

Darrow, Geo. M U. S. D. A., Washington, D, C-

Dean, M. L Department of Agriculture, Boise, Idaho

Dearing, Chas U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C.

Devitt, Wm Georgetown, Del.

Devol, Wm. Stowe Address unknown

Dewey, Geo. W Address unknown

Dreer, W. F Philadelphia, Pa.

Dumas, J. L Pomona Ranch, Dayton, Wash.

Durell, E. H Woodbury, N. J.

De Cou, Howard F Moorestown, N. J.

Egbert, Knott C Route 7, Tiffin, O.

Fay, Jesse B 1021 Society for Savings Bldg., Cleveland, O.

Fletcher, W. F Address unknown

Fraser, Samuel '. . Geneseo, N. Y.

Fugazzi, John F Cincinnati, O.

Gammon, C. W 67 7th Ave., New York City

Gardiner, Robt. H Gardiner, Me.

Garfield, Chas. W Grand Rapids, Mich.

Gay, Leslie F Station A, Los Angeles, Cal.

Gerrish, O. K Lakeville, Mass.

Gillett, M. E Tampa, Fla.

Greening, Chas. E Monroe, Mich.

Green, E. C 1101 W. Green St., Urbana, 111.

Guilford, W. S Orland, Cal.

Hansen, N. E Brookings, S. D.

Harrison, Orlando Berlin, Md.

Hart, W. S Hawks Park, Fla.

Hartevelt, A : Ryswick, by den Haag, Holland

Hodge, C. F Clark University, Worcester,, Mass.

Hume, H. Harold Glen St., Mary, Fla.

Hunnewell, Walter 87 Milk St., Boston, Mass.

Husmann, Fred L Second and Seminary Sts., Napa, Cal.

224

Husman, Geo. C U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C.

Herff, B. Von Eden Hotel, Zuerich, Switzerland

Ilgenf ritz, Chas. A Monroe, Mich.

Irish, H. C Route 6, Webster Grove, Mo.

Kains, M. G Pomona, N. Y.

Kidder, N. T Milton, Mass.

Kirkpatrick, T. J 1603 High St., Springfield, O.

Lake, E. R 2033 Park Road, N. W., Washington, D. C.

Lauman, G. N Ithaca, N. Y.

Lehenbauer, P. A University of Nevada, Reno, Nev.

Leslie, W. R Dominion Experiment Farm, Morden, Manitoba, Can.

Lewis, K. B , Red Hook, N. Y.

Lysle, Addison Address unknown

Magid, Louis B Tallulah Park, Ga.

Mann, Chas. W U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C.

Marshall, Geo. A Arlington, Neb.

Mayer, Dr. H. J Willowstreet, Pa.

Meneray, F. W 715 First St., Council Bluffs, lov/a

Miller, H. W Paw Paw, W. Va.

Minott, C. W 964 Main St., Melrose Highlands, Mass.

Morris, O. M Pullman, Wash.

Munson, D. O Address unknown

Myers, Wm. S 25 Madison St., New York City

McAfee, H. B Adress unknown

McLaughlin, Henry Bangor, Me.

Neame, F. Ivo Macknade, Faversham, Eng.

Niagara Sprayer Co Middleport, N. Y,

Perrine, W. S Centralia, 111.

Phillips, J. L Linden, Va,

Price, H. L Blacksburg, Va.

Pershing, Thed Pineville, Pa.

Pease, J. L Apartado Postal No. 2843, Mexico City, Mex.

Pratt, B. G. Co 50 Church St., New York City

Quaintance, A. L U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C.

Reom, J. A Paradise, Butte County, Cal.

Richardson, Chas. E Address unknown

Roeding, Geo. C Fresno, Cal.

Rogers, A. J Beulah, Mich.

Rowe, Geo. E Address unknown

Rust, David 606 Finance Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.

Riehl, B. A Godfrey, 111.

Reed, W. C. & Son Vincennes, Ind.

Sadler, Dr. O. W Bradentown, Fla.

Sampson, F. G Quincy, Fla.

Schenck, A. A 1731 Columbia Road, Washington. D. C.

Smith, Wm. Elliot Alton, III.

Smith, Geo. W Hartford, Conn.

Smith, Erwin F 1457 Stoughton St., Washington, D. C.

Smith, John D., Jr Tipton, Ind.

Smith, Wing R 226 Wieting Bldg., Syracuse, N. Y.

Stark, Wm. H 30 Wayne Ave., White Plains, N. Y

Starr, Robt. W Wolfville, N. S., Canada

Streator, Geo. J 854 Seaside Ave., Santa Cruz, Cal.

Swineford, Howard 617 Mutual Bldg., Richmond, Va.

225

Swingle, W. F U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C.

Smith, J. E Wysor Bldg., Muncie, Ind.

Taber, G. L Glen St., Mary, Fla.

Taylor, F. W 3939 W. 7th St., Los Angeles, Cal.

Taylor, Wm. A 1315 Gallatin St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

Temple, W. C Winter Park, Fla.

Thomas, Mrs. Anna V. G Kingston, R. I.

Thompson, J. B Guam, Guam

Trelease, Wm University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.

Templin, M. B Canfield, O.

Toledo Rex Spray Co Toledo, O.

Ward, C. W .Box 48, Eureka, Cal.

Warren, J. R.. Marathon 23, Seymour Gr., Camberwell, Victoria, Australia

Watson, B. M Plymouth, Mass.

Weber, Frank A Nursery, St. Louis, Mo.

Wister, P. J Manilla, P. I.

Whitworth, J. A 527 Crescent Ave., Grand Rapids, Mich.

Wickersham, Robt. A Benderville, Pa.

Wilder, Edward B Dorchester, Mass.

Wilder, H. J U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C.

Williams, J. L Address unknown

Wilson, Silas Nampa, Idaho

Wister, John C Germantown, Pa.

Annual

Albyn, H. A The Orchards, Bennington, Vt.

Archbold & Co Waterport, N. Y.

Adams, Herbert 131 W. 11th St., New York City

Alderman, W. H University Farm, St. Paul, Minn.

Anthony, R. D State College, Pa.

Adams, W. B Route 2, Worthington, O.

Anderson, F. W 2525 Tulane St., Fresno, Cal.

Buchannan, H. L Route 10, Logansport, Ind.

Bingham, C. A 404 Erie Bldg., Cleveland, O.

Berckmans, L. A Herald Bldg.. Augusta, Ga.

Blessing, David S Box 1175, Harrisburg, Pa.

Brown, C. H Swedesboro, N. J.

Babcock, E. B College of Agriculture, Berkeley, Cal.

Bioletti, F. F. University of Californta, Berkeley, Cal.

Brill, G. D Jamesburg, N. J.

Benson, E. F Care N. P. Ry., St. Paul, Minn.

Bangher, H. G Aspers, Pa.

Bonner, R. E Lenox, Mass.

Buxton, B. C Middletown Springs, Vt.

Bolster, Wilfred 40 Babcock St., Brookline 47, Mass.

Beauman, Guy Tunnel Hill, 111.

Brimble-Combe, Wm., M. D Carmi, 111.

Bailey, J. S Ames, Iowa

Barker, C. W Exeter, N. H.

Brazelton, Meek Troy, Kan.

Blaisdell, A. L Winterport, Me.

Beal, Dr. E. L Republic, Mo.

Brown, H. L Waterport, N. Y.

Bryant, A. W Princeton, 111.

Bureau of Plant Industry Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg, Pa.

Buchanan, A. L Logansport, Ind.

Billingsley, B. L Greenwood, Ind.

Bailey, Claude Burnt Hills, N. Y.

226

Barr, Jas. W Keswick, Va.

Burrage, C. H 33 Broadway, Asheville, N. C.

Baird, W. C Ashtabula, O.

Byers, E. E Flora, 111.

Brown, F. C .' Westervllle, O.

Bechtel, Theo Ocean Springs, Miss.

Bowman, M. L Route 2, Box 71, N. Baltimore, O.

Browne, M. W 3103 Coleman Road, Kansas City, Mo.

Bullard, T. E Schuylerville, N. Y.

Cannaday, Dr. J. E

407 Kanawha Banking & Trust Bldg., Charleston, W. Va.

Colby, A. S. .Horticultural Department, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.

Clark, R. M Apple Grove Orchard, Des Moines, Iowa

Crawford, Wm Orange County, Monroe, N. Y.

demons, C. F. L Route 7, Davenport, Iowa

Cecil, M. A 8018 Grace Ave., S. W., Cleveland, O.

Close, C. P College Park, Md.

Caha, Wm Wahoo, Neb

Clarke, M. D Green St., Starkville, Miss.

Chilcott, A. H Vienna, Va.

Cort, J. Elliot 1880 Linda Vista Ave., Pasadena, Cal.

Crofts, John McD Linlithgo, N. Y.

Dawson, W. P Aurelia, Iowa

Doyle, E. F 175 Franklin St., New York City

Douglas, B. W Hickory Hill, Trevlac, Ind.

Durst, C. E Arlington Heights, 111.

Dickinson, Dr. B. M 5634 Stanton Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Dunlap, H. M Savoy, 111.

Dyer, John N McKinney Farms, Vincennes, Ind.

Downing, Jas Andover, Mass.

Dexter, C. 0 115 Orchard St., New Bedford, Mass.

Dow, H. H Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Mich.

Day, L. O , West Liberty, 111.

Dutton, C. A Galesville, Wis.

Daeumler, Pastor Chr 715 Atlanta Ave., Webster Grove, Mo.

Dickson, W. M Woodside, Del.

Etherton, Jas. M Carbondale, 111.

Endicott, R. B Villa Ridge, 111.

Eckert, A. O Bellville, 111.

Ellston, J. C Exeter, Mo.

Elder, G. K Lewiston, Me.

Etter, A. F Ettersburg, Cal.

Eames, H. F Egg Harbor, Wis.

Farnsworth, W. W Waterville, O.

Finley, Milton A R. 1, Rochester, N. Y.

Forkert, C Ocean Springs, Miss.

Freeborn, Mrs. Mary Proctor, Vt.

Farrand, T. A M. A. C, E. Lansing, Mich.

Foster, H. S North Calais, Vt.

Ford, A. E 1408 Callowhill St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Felter, H. L Washta, la.

Fullerton, H. B Medford, Long Island, N. Y.

Farley, J. N Hutchison, Kan.

Fiebing, J. H 238 Reed St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Funk, H. W Normal, 111.

Feldman, J. J Kahoka, Mo.

Fancher, E. S Middletown, N. Y.

Faxon, Richard Div. of Plant Industry, Columbus, Ohio.

227

Flohr, L. B Vienna, Va.

Fairchild, David Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C.

Fuson, R R. 1. Box 41, Boguechitto, Miss.

Gould, H. P U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C.

Gordon, Silvanus Sergeantsville, N. J.

Goff , M. B Sturgeon Bay, Wis.

Green, F. M ' B. 374, Hood River, Ore.

Good, E. H B. 322, Peru, Neb.

Gill, R. A R. 3, Port Clinton.

Garrett, F. B. & Sons Burns City, Ind.

Goodale, G. D 258 Beacon St., Boston, Mass.

Grasselli Chem. Co Cleveland, Ohio.

Gage, J. P Vineland, N. J.

i

Hoddy, E. J L. & N. R. R., Knoxville, Tenn.

Harris, Walter B Worton, Md.

Hubbard, T. S. Co Fredonia, N. Y.

Hinds, Rollin E Hedrick, la.

Holbrook, F. C Scott Farm, Brattleboro, Vt.

Hall, A. I Rochester, N. H.

Hulett, G. A West St., Antrim, N. H.

Harrington, F. O Williamsburg, Iowa.

Holland, C. S Agl. Ext., Ames, Iowa.

Hinkley, H. O Alma, 111.

Hathaway, H. W Portsmouth, R. I.

Holt, Austin Wilton, N. H.

Hyland, J. H B. 312, Attleboro, Mass.

Hatch, L. M Alberton, Wash.

Hale, R. H Omaha, 111.

Hommel, R. S Care Daniel Briscol Co., Knoxville, Tenn.

HoUstein, Geo R. 2, Amherst, Ohio.

Hellenmeyer, L. E Lexington, Ky.

Houghton, D. D Dalton, Ohio.

Higgins, C. W 1819 E. 6th St., Duluth, Minn.

Hitchcock, a W .1308 Williamson Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.

Hale, J. O Byfield, Mass.

Howard, Hickory Co Hickory, N. C.

Hoffman, Max R. 2., St. Joseph, Mich.

Haines, Robt. B 130 Main St., Moorestown, N. J.

Ivins, M. H . . . "... Langhorne, Pa.

Ink, J Canton, Ohio.

Ivorys, Limited B. 834, Christchurch, New Zealand.

James, Carl B Montgomery, Ala.

Johnson, Dr. B. & Son Mooresville, Ind.

Kluever, E 420 Columbia Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.

Kluck, N. A Lena, 111.

Kipp, R. H R. A. Watson Orchard, Valley, 111.

Kent, L. E Poway, Cal.

Kent, E. W 202 Boulevard Ave., Mexico, Mo.

Kleiderver, C. F Henderson, Ky.

Kinsella, A. J 2613 Ashland St., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Ledoux, Wm. H Grand Isle, Vt.

Lawlor, P. J B. 127, Pittsford, N. Y.

Locklin, H. D B. 637, Grand Junction, Colo.

Leeson, J. R 91 South St., Boston, Mass.

Lewis, S. R Mountainville, N. Y.

228

Lodge, W. F Monticello, 111.

Lewis, C. 1 53 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111.

Latimer, L. P Univ. of Cal., Berkeley, Cal.

Leonard Coates Nursery Co Morganhill, Cal.

Lovett, L. C .Little Silver, N. J.

Livingston, P. I R. 1, Lowell, Mass.

Longanecker, E. L Canfield, Ohio.

Mount Arbor Nurseries Shenandoah, Iowa.

Mayer, Guy S Willowstreet, Pa.

Meder, O. P B. 8, R. 1, Westwood, N. J.

Miles, H. C. C Milford, Ct.

Moses, Arthur Unionville, Ct.

Minor, Don. E 400 4th Natl. Bank Bldg., Grand Rapids, Mich.

Merrill, A Mulberry Grove, 111.

Mottaz, R. W 725 Wainwright Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Myers, W. S 25 Madison Ave., N. Y. City.

Maplehurst Fruit Farm Pittsfleld, N. H.

Meissner, Henry Leighton, Iowa.

Mathews, C. W 660 S. Limestone St., Lexington, Ky.

Munson Nurseries Denison, Texas.

Mason, A. F State Agri. College, New Brunswick, N. J.

Marken, R. L Gays Mills, Wis.

Main, E. L 126 W. Winter St., Delaware, Ohio.

Mathews, C. N Chillicothe, Mo.

Morse, A. A Williamson, N. Y.

Marble Laboratory, Inc Rockgirt Orchards, Canton, Pa.

Mechling, E. A Moorestown, N. J.

McKinney, G. F Tymor Farm, La Grangeville, N. Y.

McKinstry, David Kankakee, 111.

MacGregor, G. R. D Franklin, Mass.

McPike, E. F 135 E. 11th PI., Chicago, 111.

Newberry, W. F 233 Broadway, N. Y. City.,

Niles, Ben E., Secy Ky. State Hort. Society, Henderson, Ky.

Nicol, Jas South Haven, Mich.

Niles, P. A Missouri Valley, la.

Namikawa, Dr. Isawo

. . .Care Japanese Consulate Gen., 1 Broad St. PI., London, E. C, Eng.
Neosho Nurseries Co Neosho, Mo.

Odell, F. I Cannelton, Ind.

Ordway, C. D 207 S. Union St., Burlington, Vt.

Otis, G. T Bangor, Mich.

Piatt, Norman S 395 Whalley Ave., New Haven, Ct.

Palmer, D. B Milton, N. Y.

Parrish, C. A 316 W. Morrell St., Jackson, Mich.

Perry, Margaret Hancock, N. H.

Porter, C. R Rome, Ga.

Peacock, N. D Univ. of Tenn., Knoxville, Tenn.

Peters, R. B Devore, Cal.

Parker, H. B Fiskdale, Mass.

Paddock, W O. S. H., Columbus

Prairie Nurseries, Ltd Estevan, Sask., Canada.

Phillips, R. G 522 Mercantile Bldg., Rochester, N. Y.

Quak-Al-Nunk Orchards R. 3, Delta, Pa.

Reed, W. C. & Sons Vincennes, Ind.

Roesch, Lewis Fredonia, N. Y.

Richie, ^. L Riverton, N. J.

229

Ringhausen, Chris Hardin, 111.

Robertson, John Hot Springs, S. D.

Roberts, R. H Madison, Wis.

Ralph, D. A North Attleboro, Mass.

Rodgers, R. W Lockland, Ohio.

Russel, Robbins Thermal, Cal.

Reeves, E. M Waverly, la.

Reed, C. L • West Newbury, Mass.

Robertson, R. R Norwalk, Ohio.

Ring, M. A Conneaut, Ohio.

Roberts, Emmor Moorestown, N. J.

Rubicon Realty Co 226 S. Ludlow St., Dayton, Ohio.

Stafford, Irving B 848 Ackerman Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.

Simpson Orchard Co Vincennes, Ind.

Shattuck, F. E Princeton, Ky.

Stanton, J. W Richview, 111.

Schwartz, Frank Tilford ;& Schwartz, Salem, 111.

Stark, P. C Louisiana, Mo.

Schwietert, H. J 135 E. 11th PI., Chicago.

Sharp, James Council Grove, Kan.

Stites, Wm. H Henderson, Ky.

Snyder, S. W Center Point, la.

Spaulding, R. L Villa Ridge, 111.

Stevensville Nurseries Stevensville, Mich.

Smith, G. L

Mid-W. Landscape & Orch. Serv., Crandall Transfer Bldg, Moline, 111.

Swaim, H. H Ind. Hort. Society, Lafayette, Ind.

Stephens, E. F B. 147, Nampa, Ida.

Simpson, F. H Flora, 111.

Shook, W. R Rittman, Ohio.

Shaw, R. N 18 Oliver St., Boston, Mass.

Seabrook & Sons, W. Ltd Chelmsford, Can.

Sharp, M Vaccaville, Cal.

Storrs & Harrison Co Painesville, Ohio.

Smith, I. C 1210 Ellis Ave., Ashland, Wis.

Sandsten, E. P Dept. Hort. Colo. Agr. College, Ft. Collins, Colo.

Smith, G. E 28 Piatt St., Albion, N. Y.

Schauber, G. R Ballston Lake, N. Y.

Schroeder, H. J Barclay Hts., Saugertus, N. Y.

Schultz, E. B Laurel, Ind.

Scarff, H. F New Carlisle, Ohio.

Thew, M. E Arthursburg, N. Y.

Thayer, John E .George Hill Rd., Lancaster, Mass.

Tyrrell, J. B 14 Walmer Rd., Toronto, Can.

Thornburg, T. E Ashland, Ohio

Underwood, D. B Harveysburg, Ohio.

Underdown, W. E Ann Arbor, Mich.

Van Cleve, A. D R. 5, Lockport, N. Y.

Voris, L. K Neoga, 111.

Van Antwerp, H Farmers, Ky.

Veeder, L. B Baldwin, Ga.

Wite-Adler Fruit Farms 955 Harvard St., Rochester, N. Y.

Whisker, A. L Grass Valley, Cal.

Westcourt, F. W John Tarleton Agr. Col., Stephensville, Texas

Wilson, F. M Williamstown, Mass.

Wlllhite, Jas. Jr R. 1, Temperance, Mich.

Weinberg Bros Galesburg, 111.

230

Williams, L. C Manhattan, Kan.

West, E. H Dorset, Vt.

Wertz, D. M Grant and King Sts., Waynesboro, Pa.

Wickersham, R. A 528 N. Marengo Ave., Pasadena, Cal.

Wood, E. M North Madison, Wis.

Warner, J. H Hampton Farms, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.

Waite, J. W B. 307, Normandy, Tenn.

Weicksel, Dr. Amelia R. 1, Perkasie, Pa.

Washington Nurseries Co Toppenish, Wash.

Wood, A. L 891 Garson Ave., Rochester, N. Y.

Wright, J. B Cairo, Ga.

Willis Nurseries 5th St., Ottawa, Kan.

Wadsworth, Mrs. W. A Geneseo, N. Y.

Young, W. E Waterville, Ohio.

Zimmerman, F. S Chelan, Wash.

Collegiate.

New Hampshire.

Warren Whitcomb Durham

A. N. Laurence "

H. A. Rollins

A. L. French

SOCIETY.

Ohio State Hort. Society, Secy., R. B. Cruickshank, O. S. U., Columbus.

New Jersey State Hort. Society, Mount Holly, N. J.

Northern Nut Growers' Assn., 607 Main St., Hartford, Conn.

S. W. Iowa Hort. Society, Secy., A. E. Rapp, R. 1, Council Bluffs, Iowa.

New York Hort. Society, Exeter, N. H.

New York State Hort. Society, LeRoy, N. Y.

Northumberland & Durham Apple Association, Brighton, Ontario, Canada.

30-Year Institutional.

Alabama Polytechnic Institute, 1904-1934, Auburn, Ala.

Luther Burbank Press, 1912-1942, Santa Rosa, Cal.

California State Univ. Libr., 1913-1943, Berkeley, Cal.

Central Exp. Farms, 1899-1929, Ottawa, Canada.

Citrus Experiment Station. 1912-1942, Riverside, Cal.

Colorado State Agr. Library, 1904-1934, Ft. Collins, Colo.

Crerar Library, The John, 1909-1939, Chicago, 111.

Detroit Public Library (1921-1950), Detroit, Mich.

Georgia State College of Agr. Library (1915-1945), Athens, Ga. .

Georgia State Univ. Library (1911-1941), Athens, Ga.

Hardie Co., H. H., 1921-1951, Hudson, Mich.

Illinois State Univ., Hort. Dept, 1908-1938, Urbana, 111.

Iowa State College Library, 1902-1932, Ames, Iowa.

Kansas State Hort. Society, 1897-1927, Topeka, Kansas.

Kansas Agr. College Library, 1914-1944.

Maine State Exp. Sta. Library, 1906-1936, Orono, Me.

Maine State Univ. Library, Orono, Me., 1909-1939.

Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. Library, 1905-1935, College Park, Md.

Massachusetts Agr. College Library, 1910-1940, Amherst, Mass.

Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Assn. Library, 1914-1940, Marlboro, Mass.

Michigan Agr. College Library, 1872, East Lansing, Mich.

Minnesota Agr. Exp. Sta. Library, 1899-1929, St. Anthony Park, Minn.

Mississippi State Agr. College Library, 1900-1930, Agri. College, Miss.

231

Missouri Fruit Exp. Sta., 1901-1931, Mountain Grove, Mo.

Missouri State Hort. Society, 1897-1927, Columbia, Mo.

Missouri State Univ. Library, 1898-1928, Columbia, Mo.

Montana State Board of Hort., 1911-1941, Missoula, Mont.

Montana Exp. Sta. Library, 1904-1934, Bozeman, Mont.

Nebraska State Univ. Library, 1914-1944, Lincoln, Neb.

New Hampshire State Library, 1901-1931, Concord, N. H.

New Mexico A. & M. College Library, 1904-1934, Mesilla Park, N. M.

New York State Exp. Sta. Library, 1900-1930, Geneva, N. Y.

New York State Library, 1900-1930, Albany, N. Y.

North Carolina College of Agr., 1908-1938, West Raleigh, N. C.

Stark Orchards & Nursery Co., 1921-1951, Louisiana, Mo.

North Carolina Dept, of Agr., 1907-1937, Raleigh, N. C.

Ohio State Univ. Library, 1912-1942, Columbus, Ohio.

Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., 1889.

Ontario Agr. College Library, 1902-1932, Guelph, Ontario, Can.

Oregon Agr. Exp. Sta., 1907-1937, Corvallis, Ore.

Oregon State Agr. Exp. Sta., 1912-1942, Talent, Ore.

Package Sales Corp., 1922-1952, South Bend, Ind.

Purdue Univ. Library, Lafayette, Ind., 1912-1942.

Purdue Univ. Exp. Sta., Lafayette, Ind., 1912-1942.

Rhode Island Exp. Sta. Library, Kingston, R. I.

Riverside Public Library, 1915-1945, Riverside, Cal.

Sapporo Agr. College, 1904-1934, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Y. Hoshino. Japan.

Stark Orchards & Nursery Co., 1921-1951, Louisiana, Mo.

Texas Agr. College Library, 1906-1936, College Station, Texas.

Toledo Rex Spray Co., Toledo, 1922-19?2.

Library, Univ. of State of New York, 1920-1950, Albany, N. Y.

Univ. of Cal. Agr. Library, 1913-1943, Berkeley, Cal.

Vermont Agr. Exp. Sta., 1906-1936, Burlington, Vt.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1907-1937, Blacksburg, Va.

Washington Agr. College Library, 1907-1937, Pullman, Wash.

West Virginia Univ. Library, Morgantown, W. Va., 1913-1943.

West Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta., 1913-1943, Morgantown, W. Va.

Wild & Bros., James B., 1904-1934, Sarcoxie, Mo.

Wisconsin State Univ. Library, 1904-1934, Madison, Wis.

Worcester County Hort. Society, 1911-1941, Worcester, Mass.

Wyoming State Univ. Library, 1899-1929 (extended 1 year), Laramie, Wyo.

State Univ. Library, Lincoln, Neb., 1913-1943.

The Blight-Proof Pineapple Pear

Get your Pineapple Pear Trees from the ORIGINAL INTRODUCERS
of this variety. This is where the Variety originated, as well as the
NAME, an.d the old parent tree, now forty-three years old, and in a
healthy and flourishing condition, producing heavy crops annually,
stands just a few miles from here. Our wood comes from this tree
and its descendants.

THE ALTAMAHA NURSERIES, PROPAGATORS

LUDOWICI. GEORGIA

The home of the original Pineapple Pear
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The Deming Company

Salem, Ohio

Established 1880

Why Do Stark Bros. Spray
Their $5000 Original Golden
Delicious Tree With Scalecide
Every Year?

This is perhaps the most valuable and best known apple tree in the
world — the mother of all Golden Delicious. It is so precious that it is
enclosed in a burglar-alarm cage for protection against man or beast.
But to protect it against scale and other pests controlled by dormant
sprays, Scalecide is applied every year.

Can a higher recommendation of Scalecide be given? Can there
be a more expert endorsement?

Let Scalecide be your dormant spray. Then you will know that
you have done all that can be done at that particular time by any
dormant spray or combination of sprays.

B. G. PRATT COMPANY

50 CHURCH ST., NEW YORK, N. Y.

Above photo — three-year-old Stark's Golden Delicious tree bearing 147
apples in A. Johnson's orchard, Rogue River Valley, Ore.

The Variety Honored by
American Pomological Society

In its action in bestowing the Wilder Silver Medal on Stark's Golden
Delicious, the Society helped American fruit growers realize the out-
standing merit of this truly splendid long-keeping yellow apple.

In their repeated expressions of appreciation and their kind sugges-
tions for propagating this variety, most of the leading State Horticul-
turists and Pomologists have placed us under a lasting debt of grati-
tude.

This generous aid has enabled us to introduce this variety in every
state of the Union — and it is our pleasure to report that its growers
are as warmly praising it as are the Scientists of Horticulture.

STARK BRO'S

At Louisiana, IVlo. for over 107 years.

Orlando Harrison
Manager Nurseries

Henry L. Harrison
Manager Orchards

G. Hale Harrison
Mgr. Sales & Treas.

HARRISONS'
FRUIT TREES

Apple, Peach, Pear, Plum,
Cherry, Quince, Apricot for
Orchard Planting.

HARRISONS' ORNAMENTALS

Shade Trees, Evergreens,
Flowering Shrubs, Hedge Plants,
Vines, Roses, and Peonies for
Improving Home Grounds.

HARRISONS' SMALL FRUITS

Grapes, Strawberries, Black-
berries, Raspberries, Dewber-
ries, Currants, Gooseberries.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOG FREE

"Largest Growers of Fruit Trees
in the World"

HARRISONS'
NURSERIES

Nurserymen — Orchard ists
BERLIN, MARYLAND

Nitrate
of

Soda

applied at the rate of five
pounds to ten pounds per
tree in the spring, before
blossom time usually repre-
sents the difference between
a proMable crop of

Marketable
Apples

and a poor crop of culls.

Reports of experiment sta-
tions and practical horticul-
turists all over the United
States bear out this state-
ment.

If you have never used Ni-
trate of Soda it will pay you
to do so.

Meantime send for my free
Bulletin Service which is full
of practical information on
growing of all crops.

DR. WILLIAM S. MYERS,

Chilean Nitrate Coininittee

25 Madison Avenue

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In designing this machine, particular care has been paid to the gentle
handling of fruit. Bruising is prevented by carefully placed padding.
Graded on this machine, your fruit will bring you an increase in profits
which will soon take care of the purchase price.

Write for complete information regarding
Apple and Peach Packing Machinery

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World's Largest Manufacturers of Fruit and Vegetable Packing

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Dept. A. P. S.

''Dow'' Spr^y Materials for
Orchard, Garden and Farm

"Dow" Powdered Lime Sulphur
The Modern Lime Sulphur Spray

Dow Powdered Lime Sulphur is first made in
the well-known form of Dow Lime Sulphur
Solution. Then the "DOW" Chemists use a
specially designed apparatus to remove the
water, leaving the Dry Lime Sulphur in ef-
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sures even working of the sprayer. The
physical and chemical properties of Dow
Powdered Lime Sulphur are guaranteed by
the "DOW" Trademark. Be sure to look
for it.

Insecticides and Fungicides

Dow Powdered Lime Sulphur. A genuine
Lime Sulphur in powder form as effective as
soUition, but easier to handle and more satis-
factory to tise and store.

Dow Powdered Lead Arsenate. The stand-
ard poisonous spray for killing external leaf-
eating and chewing insects, bugs, worms, etc.,
on foliage of trees, vines, shrubs and veg-
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Dowco. A double-purpose combined insecti-

cide and fungicide where one spray is used
for both bugs and blights.

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cotton and for vegetable and plant dusting.
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in control of various blights and fungus.

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mDOWCHmi(M.COMFANY<^w>^Ay^//m

X;-

Rainier Apple

The Apple

to Plant

for Profit

Awarded

Wilder Silver MedaJ

1922

American

.Pomological

Society

Write for full par-
ticulars about (his
great apple.

In our sincere judgment this is the finest
dessert apple thus far developed. It has
all the mild qualities of the DeliciouS;
which commends it to the taste of those
who cannot eat the more acid apples, and,
in addition, it has a decidedly spicy flavor,
will keep firm in ordinary storage for
weeks without becoming mealy, and in
cold storage the RAINIER keeps per-
fectly for a year.

UNCLE SAM'S VERDICT— "The keeping qualities
of the RAINIER APPLE are unsurpassed by those
of any other variety of the Pacific Northwest that has
yet come to the attention of the U. S. Deparment of
Agriculture. Its ability to retain its firmness, bright-
ness and quality with almost no decay or skin blemish,
places it above even the Arkansas Black, Winesap and
Yellow Newtown. In 32 degrees Fahr. cold storage
it keeps in prime condition into May or later, and
instances are known where large numbers of boxes
have been held in excellent condition into September
of the following year." — Bulletin No. 587, United
States Department of Agriculture, Page 28.

\A^e offer first class RAINIER trees for
spring planting. Also other standard
apples, peaches, pears, plums, prunes,
apricots, etc., small fruits, shade trees,
shrubbery and roses.

M^hington Nursery Co>

LARCEIST IN THE WEST

Dept.

Toppenlsh, Washington

'What is the Difference?

Grasselli
Grade

Arsenate of
Lead

Calcium
Arsenate

Lime Sulphur
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Bordeaux
Mixture

Dry Lime
Sulphur

Sulphate of
Nicotine

To many growers Insecticides
and Fungicides are just "Spray-
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is in the price.

Quality is the determining factor
and because it insures effective re-
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end — don't forget that.

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backed by 8 years of dominant repu-
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against disappointment at harvest
time.

See that GRASSELLI GRADE
is on the spray material you order.
At conveniently-located dealers and
distributors in every fruit and farm-
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The Grasselli Chemical Co.

Founded in 1839
Cleveland

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St. Paul
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Detroit
St. Louis

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Wew Haven

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r;RASSELLi grade

^-J INSECTICIDES and FUNGICIDES

NuREXFORM

(DRY LEAD ARSENATE)

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ITS POUND FOR POUND VALUE EX-
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LEAD ARSENATE.

REX LIME SULPHUR SOLUTION is the

original concentrated product and is the stand-
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Nu REXO (Bordo-Lead Arsenate) This is the
balanced product having exactly correct propor-
tionate parts for control of fungi and insects.

REX BORDO MIXTURE (Dry) a rich blue
perfected product which does not lose its
strength.

REX SPRAYS are "Leaders in Quality" and
so recognized everywhere.

The Toledo Rex Spray

Company

TOLEDO, OHIO

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Address of Welcome ( Dawson ) 3

Advertising as a Factor in Development of American Horticulture,

(Leviris) 148

American Pomological Society's Committee on Resolutions 196

Apple Breeding for the Upper Mississippi Valley (Lantz) 76

Apple Breeding for the Mississippi Valley (Crandall) 84

Collegiate 230

Commercial Apple Growing in Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia (Blair) 71
Correlation of Orchard Practice, Growth and Production (Roberts)... 120

Drift and Development of Spray Practices in America (Childs) 99

Dusting and Spraying as Complementary Practices (Brock) 112

Effect of Cultural Practices on Growth of Apples (Maney) 126

Federated Fruit and Vegetable Growers' Inc. (Nicol) 157

Foreign Trade of U. S. in Fruits with Reference to Export Markets

for American Apples (Luedthe) 172

Fruit Growing Industry of Indiana and Illinois (Greene) 58

Fruit Growing in Washington (Dean) 62

Fruit Investigations in Agricultural Experiment Station (Alderman) . 187

Geography of Apple Growing in America (Gould) 11

Investigational Work with Pears, Georgia Experiment Station

(Stuckey) • 87

Members :

Life 223

Annual 225

Nursery Stock Investigations (Scott) 90

Past Year's Work and Future of Pomological Society (Stark) 8

Plum Growing in the Central States (Douglass) 40

Prune Growing on the Pacific Coast (Hendrickson) 45

Report of Committee on Wilder Medals 196

Report of Committee on Slogan 197

Report of Committee on New Fruits for 1922 198

Report of the Secretary (221

Report of the Treasurer 220

Society 230

The Question of Rootstocks (Howard) 95

The Handling of Apples in Storage (Magness) 131

The Fruit Crop of 1922 (Church) 164

The Cherry Industry in Wisconsin (Goff ) 21

The Sour Cherry Industry in Michigan (Marshall) 29

The Plum in the East (Hendrick) 35

Thirty Year Institutional 230

Two Sides of Pomology (Bailey) 4