Proceedings Of the First Agricultural
Conference, Malaya, Held At The
Chamber Of Commerce, Kuala
Lumpur, April 25th to 28th, 1917

PROCEEDINGS

f

OF THE

FIRST AGRICULTURAL CONFERENCE,
MALAYA,

HELD AT THE

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, KUALA LUMPUR,

April 25th to 28th, 1917

» 1 ? • • -

including the Papers Contributed to the Conference
and Reports of the Discussions

♦ ’ v ' ’

Edited by

L. LEWTON-BEAIN

AND

B, BUNTING-.

PRICE TWO DOLLARS.

KUALA LUMPUR:

PRINTED AT THE FEDERATED MALAY STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

1917.

LIBRARY

OF THE

BOTANIC GARDENS*

SINGAPORE.

Rack MrJR

Shelf % Mr .No.

&HS

PROCEEDINGS

6139

OF THE

FIRST AGRICULTURAL CONFERENCE,
MALAYA,

HELD AT THE

* CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, KUALA ' LUMPUR,
april *25th to 28th, 1917

Including the Papers Contributed to the Conference
and Reports of the Discussions

Edited by

L. LEWTON-BRAIN

AND

B. BUNTING.

KUALA LUMPUR:

PRINTED AT THE FEDERATED MALAY STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1917.

PREFACE.

/ f

rpHIS volume represents the official report of the
~ L Proceedings of the First Agricultural Conference
of Malay a, and includes the papers contributed to the
Conference, together with the discussions which followed
the reading of the papers. The discussions in most
cases were not so thorough as they might have been,
but, now that we are assured that the planting community
will support an Agricultural Conference, it is hoped to
arrange programmes for future Conferences which will
allow more time for discussion, and to appoint delegates
in different parts of the Peninsula who will come
prepared to discuss the papers submitted to these
Conferences.

The Conference Committee wish to place on record
their appreciation of the valuable service rendered by
the gentlemen who took part in the Conference.

S.5H3/3

FIRST

AGRICULTURAL CONFERENCE; MALAYA,

HELD IN KUALA LUMPUR,

April , 1917.

PRESIDENT;

L. LEWTON-BRAIN,

( Director of Agriculture, F.M.S.),

Vice-Presidents :

E. C. M. KINDERSLEY,

( Chairman , Planters' Association of Malaya').

R. W. MUNRO,

F. G. HARVEY.

Honorary Secretary :

B. BUNTING-,

( Assistant Agriculturist, F.M.8.).

w

COHTENTS.

Page.

Preface ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... in

Agricultural Conference, Malaya, 1917 1

Cultivation and Manuring. By A. P. N. Vesteedal... ... 3

Cultivation, Drainage and Manuring. By P. Gr. Spring,

n.d.a., f.l.s. ... 11

Tkinning«|Out, By T. J. Camming 20

Thinning Out, By E. W. King ... ... 23

Rubber Seed Selection. By A. H. Malbt ... ... ... 29

Rubber Seed Selection. By J. ... ... ... o6

\

Clean Clearing, Pests and Diseases, By W. R. Shelton- Agar 37

Diseases of the Leaves and Stem of Hevea Brasiliensis in the
Malay Peninsula. By R. M. Richards, a.r.c.sc. ... ... 44

Root Diseases of Hevea and Clean Clearing. By W. N. C.
Belgrave, b.a 55

Bsria/'t

VI.

Page.

The Diseases and Pests of the Coconut Palm. By E. M.
Richards, a.r.c.sc ,,, 64

The History and Present Position of White Ant Treatment in
Malaya. By P. B. Richards, a.r.c.sc 75

Application of the Agricultural Pests Enactment. By F. W.

South, b.a. ... 86

Rubber Manufacture and Factory Methods. By F. G, Souter 96

The Preparation of Plantation Para Rubber with Special
Reference to Future Considerations. By B. J. Eaton, f.i.c,,
p.c.s, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 106

Observations on Coconut Experiments. By G. E. Coombs,
b.sc., and W, S. Cookson ... ... ... ... ... 115

*

Health and Sanitation on Estates. By Dr. S. H. R. Lucy ... 123

The Food-Crops of the Malay Peninsula and Some Thoughts
Arising Out of a Review of Them. By I. H. Bukkill, m.a.,

~ - " ... 138

Food-Stuffs in Malaya. By F. G. Js^ng, n.d.a., f.l.s. ... 154

The Cultivation of Liberian Coffee. By R. W. Muuro ... 163

Minor Economic Products in Malaya. By F. G. Spring,

N.D.A,, F.L.S. ... ... ... 171

Closing of the Conference ... ... ... ... 177

AGRIC IT LTTJI T AL CONFE RE NOE,

MALAYA, 1917.

rpHE first Agricultural Conference of Malaya was held at Ivnala
^ Luripur on 25th to 28th April, 1017.

The . following Committee was appointed to make all arrange-
ments :

Chairman — Mr. L. Lewton-Brain, Director of Agriculture ;

Members — Mr. R. C. M. Kindersley ;

R, W. Munro ;

,, F. G. Harvey ;

„ L. Mooijaart ;

,, H. C. E. Zaeharias, Secretary, P.A.M. ;

Hon. Secretary — Mr. B. Bunting, Assistant Agriculturist.

The first session was held at the Chamber of Commerce, Kuala
Lumpur, on 25th April at 2.80 p.m., there being about 75 visitors
present.

The Director of Agriculture ( President of the Conference) was
in the Chair and in opening the Conference extended a hearty
welcome to the visitors to the Conference and said that he expected
that the papers to be read would prove of benefit to all. He hoped
t hat a great part of their value would be in eliciting* the opinions of
all those attending. Every opportunity would be given for discus-
sion and lie hoped that everybody would avail themselves of it freely.

The Chairman then introduced Dr. S. H. R, Lucy who read his
paper on “ Health and Sanitation on Estates.”

The next session consisted of a visit to the Offices of the
Department of Agriculture on 26th April at 8.80 a.m. The visitors,
of whom there were about 110, were first conducted round part of
the Experimental Plantation and shown a number of economic
products which were being grown on an experimental scale. At
9.30 a.m., a demonstration of the rubber vulcanizing and testing
station, acetic a£id plant, fibre and paper making machinery, etc.,
was given. Later, the visitois were shown the various laboratories
and inspected specimens of various diseases and pests, besides various
economic products grown at the Government Plantations.

The third and all subsequent sessions were' held at the Chamber
of Commerce, Kuala Lumpur.

2

At the third session Mr. R. \V. Munro (Vice-President) took the
Chair at 2.30 p.m., on the 26th April ; the audience numbered about
120. The following papers were read and discussed : “ Cultivation

and Manuring’ ” by Mr. A. P. X. Vesterdal, “ Cultivation, Drainage
and Manuring " by Mr. F. G. Spring, and “ Rubber Seed Selection ”
by Mr. A. H. Malet. A further paper on “ Seed Selection ” by
Mr. J. McNicol was taken as read.

The President again took the Chair at the fourth session (owing 1
to the absence through illness of Mr. It. C. M. Kindersley, Chairman
of the Planters’ Association of Malaya) at 9 a.m. on the 27th April,
the attendance numbered about 150. Tlie following paoers were
read : “ Leaf and Stem Diseases of Hevea ” by Mr. R, M. Richards,

and u Clean Clearing and Root Diseases ” by Mr. W. N. 0. Belgrave.
Owing to the absence of the writer through illness a paper on
“ Clean Clearing Pest and Diseases ” by Mr. W. R. Shelton- Agar
was taken as read.

At 11.30 a.m., the Conference adjourned for half an hour.
On resuming other papers were read as follow : “ Pests and

Diseases of Coconuts ” by Mr. H. M. Richards, “ Termites ” by
Mr. P. B. Richards, and “ Application of the Agricultural Pests
Enactment” by Mr. F. W. South.

Mr. F. G. Harvey ( Vice-President) took the Chair at the fifth
session, which started at 2.30 p.m. cm the 27th April ; the audience
numbering about the same as at the morning session. The following
papers wei’e read : “ Thinning Out ” by Mr. T. J. Gumming,

“Thinning Out” by Mr. E. W. King, “Factory Methods” by
Mr. F. G. Souter, and “ Preparation of Raw Rubber ” by
Mr. B. J. Eaton.

The final session was held at 9 a.m, on the 28th Apx’il with the
President in the Chair. The attendance was somewhat disappointing,
there being only about 50 present, which included several numbers
of the Agricultural Department. The following papers were read
and discussed : “ Foodstuffs in Malaya ” by Mr. F. G. Spring,

“ Cultivation of Liberian Coffee ” by Mr. R. W. Munro, “ Economic
Products in Malaya ” by Mr. F. G. Spring, and “ Observations on
Coconut Experiments ” by Mr. W. S. Cookson and Mr. G. E. Coombs,
while, in the absence of the writer, Mr. I. H, Burkill’s paper on
“ Food Crops in Malaya ” was taken as read.

In publishing tlie proceedings of the Conference the papers will
be grouped under the following headings:

( a ) Rubber Cultivation ;

( b ) Pests and Diseases;

(c) Rubber Preparation ; Coconuts ;

HEeVLTH and Sanitation;

( d ) Minor Economic Products,

o

o

RUBBER CULTIVATION.

CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

By A. P. N. Vesterdal,

( General Manager, Mount Austin* Estates, Johor e.)

ANY interesting articles on tillage of soil and various other

1 matters in connection with this question have from time to
time appeared in the Agricultural Bulletin, and what has been
mentioned in those articles 1 shall only touch lightly upon.

The general principles of cultivation will apply to most crops,
but of tropical agriculture I only know rubber, and what L have to
say will, therefore, refer only to rubber trees, and mostly to those
planted on poor undulating land. Trees planted on virgin land or
alluvial soil will continue for many years to grow well and to yield
well, and although I do not doubt that cultivation would increase the
crops anywhere, it is, for the present, not required here to the same
extent as it is on poor land.

All over the Peninsula large areas formerly cultivated with
pine-apples, gambier and tapioca have been planted with rubber.
The state of such land is well known, it is always up in lalang and
blnkar, and, generally speaking, it is exhausted ; firstly, on account of
the crops taken, and secondly, because of the frequent burnings of the
lalang.

Through fires some valuable foodstuff is always wasted, not
only what goes away in the air by the burning process itself, but
also what is afterwards washed away with the ashes by heavy rains
even on gently sloping bills.

Trees planted on this kind of land take a long time to reach
maturity, and (he result is often far below average. It will always
be below average, if nothing is done to help the trees along.

The usual method of clean weeding is not so satisfactory here as
it is on good flat land. It is certainly the cheapest, but in this
particular case the cheapest, in my opinion, is not the best, as it will
sooner or later lead to retarded growth of the trees. In some
instances the retardation is shown when the trees are from two to
three years old, and in other eases it is not noticeable until tapping
lias commenced.

It is always said that tapping does not hurt a tree, and it is true
that it does uot hurt those growing on first class soil, hub it hurts
weak trees. Whether the cause is removal of latex or removal of
bark, I do not know, but (lie fact remains, that trees in tapping do
not grow so quick as trees not in tapping. It is not unusual that

3 ./®

4

trees grow quite well up to the time tapping is started, and after
that tliej 7 almost cease putting on girth, even if they are only lightly
tapped.

On such trees improvement is a necessity. They are simply
starved, the bar’k-renewal is bad, and if they do not get some
nourishment it is only a question of time when the flow of latex will
cease, if not altogether, then anyhow to such an extent, that the
profit per acre will be very much reduced, which, of course, is the
wrong way to go.

There are thousands of acres with that sort of starved trees
in the Peninsula. As far as X have seen the south is Ci iderably
worse than further up country, but there are some every where, and
T think that something more could he done to resuscitate those trees
than has hitherto been the case.

To start manuring on a large scale before it has been properly
ascertained what the soil is lacking is not wise, and before g’oing
to such expense it would be the natural thing to try to improve
matters by cultivation.

When a young lully plantation on old lalang land has been kept
perfectly clean for some years big quantities of the top-soil have
been washed away, leaving the ground hard, and under such
conditions the trees are unable to get the full benefit from the more
or less scanty supply of plant food present.

The chief object of cultivation is to prepare the soil in such a
way that absorbable plant food can be formed and held until used
by the plants.

As a whole, the question of nutriment of plants is very extensive .
and complicated, and I shall, therefore, on this occasion, confine
myself to the mentioning of a. few facts.

It is common knowledge that all plants require, in order to live,
the following ten elements : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, iron and magnesium, or
what is easier to remember, four bases, potash, lime, magnesia and
iron dioxide and four acids, carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, nitric
acid and phosphoric acid.

The plants obtain their supply of carbon chiefly by assimilation
of carbonic acid through the leaves, and the leguminous and a few
other kinds of plants are able, aided by bacteria, to assimilate and
utilize the free nitrogen from the atmosphere, but otherwise all
plant food is taken from the ground, mostly dissolved in water, hut
in some instances dissolved by the acid exuded by the young rootlets.

A small amount of carbonic acid contained in the water is
assimilated by the roots of plants, but besides this carbonic acid is of
some use in the ground, mostly by bringing inorganic matter into
solution .

D

As fai as oxygen is concerned this element is of importance nut
only in the atmosphere, but also in the soil. Here it plays an
important part in the formation and transformation of most nutritive
compounds, and it is essential in the ground, because the roots of
plants breathe in the same way as the stems and branches breathe.
Oxygen is also required by many bacteria, which are important for
transforming certain foodstuffs into absorbable compounds, for
instance, transforming ammonia into nitric acid, in which form the
plants take most of their supply of nitrogen, and also for transform-
ing decaying matter into absorbable substances.

In a hard and compact soil the bacteria referred to do not thrive,
and their well-being is only ensured by cultivation.

If the ground is not properly ventilated suitable solutions cannot
be formed either for want of water or for want of air, and it is thus
obvious that a well aerated and permeable soil is of the greatest
importance to the plants.

On uncultivated land the water, which is the main factor in all
plant life, cannot penetrate properly. After heavy showers it just
runs off. and 1 believe that starvation of rubber trees is frequently
due to an insufficient supply of water.

Cultivation helps to retain the water, and between old trees it
also helps to retain fallen leaves, which are often washed away if
the surface is too smooth.

Cultivation is- mostly done by changkolling and amongst old
trees this cannot very well he done otherwise, but young clearings
can almost always be treated cheaper and better by the use of
agricultural implements, ploughs and harrows.

In the course of time several different kinds of harrows have
been tried on plantations, and at a certain period disc harrows
were much in favour. On the estate with which I am connected
we also tried some, but we did not find them satisfactory. In hard
soil the discs could not work, and where they worked they only
loosened a couple of inches of the soil, resulting in very bad wash.

About two and a half years ago we commenced ploughing, and
on one of our sections 2,200 acres out of 2,800 have been treated.

The first ploughing was done by a small one- handled American
plough, { * Luzon.” which did very good work, but since then a
bigger type of a two-handled Danish plough, “ Fraugde,” has
been introduced and is now used exclusively. It is quite au ordinary
plough, but so strongly made, that it does not break when
encountering the usual obstacles in the ground.

1 know that some planters have tried ploughing and given
it up on account of the difficulty of teaching the bullocks to drag the
plough, but I may say that we have never experienced any trouble

7

iii that respect, lu a few days any pair of bullocks will learn to
walk steadily if attended to by a good eooly. Bullocks walk better
when dragging the plough in a pole fixed to the shoulder harness
than when dragging by means of an ordinary rope.

When ploughing the first time with the small plough one pair
of bullocks with two coolies were only able to treat three-fourths of
an acre per day, but with the bigger plough at the second and
subsequent ploughing# they can do as much as one acre per day. It
should be mentioned here that the soil is very light, consisting
chiefly of a sandy loam.

The cost of ploughing with everything included, wages o coolies,
bullock food and depreciation on bullocks, and machinery comes to
abut §2.40 per acre. Harrowing is cheaper, as a team can treat
four acres per day. The harrow we use is divided into three parts,
each two feet wide, and this construction makes it possible to treat
undulating ground better than with a harrow in one piece. The
harrow is used partly for levelling the ground and partly for
checking grass in young clearings. In old clearings they are not
used.

Out of the 2,200 acres 12 teams usually plough about 300 acres
per month, and the ground can thus be treated about twice a year,

The ploughs, going to a depth of about live inches, turn the soil
so well that the ordinary small kinds of grasses are buried com-
pletely. On a we 11- cultivated soil such grasses do no harm, they
help to prevent wash, and they increase the humus iu the soil when
ploughed down.

When the talk is about toxins, 1 presume that these are formed
where the grass cover is kept more permanently, I said before that
clean weeding is the cheapest, hut the cost where ploughs are used
does not come to much more. The land must be gone over once a
mont h to remove obnoxious weeds and small bushes, but the expenses
incurred by this work, added to the cost of ploughing and harrowing,
average only about 80 cents per acre per month.

Where ploughing is commenced before the trees are three years
old the soil can be treated to within one and a half feet of the rows of the
trees. Later on it may not be safe to go quite so close, but 1 see no reason
why ploughing, when started early, should not be continued also
when the trees grow big, anyhow where thinning is carried out
judiciously.

The plough furrows should as far as feasible run across the
slopes on hills, as otherwise there is the danger that those left open
when the ploughing is finished will be acting as drains.

At the first ploughing, and also occasionally at the second, it
happens that fairly big roots are cut, but 1 have so far seen no bad
effect from this.

7

The damaged roots are perhaps more liable to attacks by Ponies
but the danger is not great because the frequent turning and airing
of the soil is sure to reduce the virulence of an}* mycelium in the
ground.

All roots cut by the ploughs throw out whole hunches of new
routs which, owing to the loose nature of the ground, have a tendency
to go deeper down. This is quite contrary to their habit on unculti-
vated soil, where the roots always lie near the surface, and where the
young rootlets sometimes even go above it. The young rootlets from
rubber trees often form one mass, and when the ground is ploughed
or changkolled these are all spoilt. But in a fortnight it will be
found that new rootlets are taking their place, and this lively action
of the roots can only be beneficial to the trees.

The cutting of the roots has been one of the points against
cultivation, and another is, that the uneven surface of the ground
causes too great a loss of moisture.

I do not think that the root-question need cause any alarm, and
in a climate like this where rain is so plentiful the loss of moisture
by evaporation from the ground cannot have serious consequences,
at least not where something is done to keep the water.

A loose top-soil is of vital importance, and rubber trees respond
very well to proper treatment in respect of cultivation, but it should
not be overlooked that retarded trees cannot suddenly throw out
sturdy shoots from weak branches, and the effect of cultivation is not
to be expected until after a year’s time. To judge the result by
measurement of the girth of the trees only is not sufficient. The
general appearance of the trees, the colour of the leaves and the
thickness of the shoots have all to be taken into consideration, and
if they are there is always a marked difference between trees on
cultivated and uncultivated land.

With a view to gaining some knowledge concerning the effect
of artificial manure on rubber trees many experiments have been
carried out with rather varying results. It has been said once
in a report that the good results of some experiments supposed
to he due to the manure, was really the effect of turning over the
soil when digging down the manure, and that view is probably
correct.

It is in any case difficult to arrive at anything like exact figures
as to the result of an experiment carried out on soil not cultivated
before.

We have had two experiments running for some time, one on
young trees and one on old trees, but as far as the latter is concerned
the result is not very encouraging.

Previous experiments have proved that young trees respond
very well to manure. We started our experiment on the three

8

years' old trees" mostly with a view to trying the effect of lime
together with artificial manure on light soil, and the various blocks
received different quantities of kainit, basic slag, bone-meal and
superphosphate with and without lime.

This experiment was started in April, 1915.

With the exception of the blocks receiving lime and kainit
separately and also those receiving the “two stuffs mixed, all the
blocks have gained on the check-blocks.

Lime, as a whole, seems to have done more harm than good, as all
the blocks to which manure only has been applied show better
results than those receiving lime as well.

Kainit does not seem to have had any effect at all and the
blocks manured with this stuff are losing on the check-blocks.

The best result is shown on the blocks receiving bone-meal
at the rate of 400 lbs. per acre, but the effect of the same quantity of
superphosphate is not far behind. The effect of basic slag and the
smaller quautites of manures is less apparent, but it is quite
satisfactory.

At the time the manure was applied the trees were very
retarded in growth. The improvement from them until now is very
marked, and some further effect from the slow-acting manures is
still to be expected.

Altogether, 50 plots of two acres each were experimented with.
5 Plots were kept as check ;

6

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

were manured with Lime, 1,200 lbs.

Basic slag, 400 lbs,.

„ 800 lbs.

Superphosphate, 400 lbs.

„ 800 lbs.

Bone-meal, 400 lbs.

„ 800 lbs.

Kainit, 1,000 lbs.

Basic slag 400 and lime 1,200 lhs.

„ 800 and „ 1,200 lbs.

Superphosphate 400 lbs. and lime

1,200 lbs.

,, 800 „ and lime

1,200 lbs.

Bone-meal 400 lbs. and lime 1,200 lbs.

„ 800 „ and „ 1,200 lbs.

Kainit 1,000 lbs. and lime 1.200 lbs.

The experiment on the old trees was carried out on decidedly
over-tapped and backward trees. It was commenced in November,
1915, with the double object of improving the growth of trees and
improving the yield.

Regarding the latter the result is so far disappointing. Out of
four plots, Nos. 1 and 3 were manured, No. 2 was ohangkolled only,
and No. 4 is kept as check.

A record was kept of the yield for seven months before the manure
was applied. During the succeeding 12 months the yield of
plots Nos. 1 and 3 rose by only 1 lb. and 0 lbs. per acre 1 per annum,
respectively, whereas the unmanured plots, Nos. 2 and 4, rose by
20 lbs. and 51 lbs., respectively.

During the last four months the yield of No. 1 has increased
considerably, but as there has been a general increase all over the
estate tv I as the check- block also shows an appreciable increase it is
hardly fair to attribute the whole increase of No. 1 to the effect of
the manure.

The check-block had the best trees, and we naturally reckoned
that a heavy dressing of manure would improve Nos. 1-3 to such
au extent that they would at least be just as good as the check-block,
and I am unable to explain why it did not.

The following quantities of manure were applied per acre :

Field No. I—

500 lbs. basic slag and bone-meal, mixed ;

600 „ lime ;

100 ,, superphosphate and muriate of potash, mixed.

Cost per acre, $36.77.

Field No. Ill—

500 lbs. basic slag and bone-meal, mixed ;

600 „ lime ;

100 ,, concentrated superphosphate.

Cost per acre, $36,32.

The manured trees look much better than those not manured
and this improvement is sure to tell upon the yield in future, but
that more than a year should elapse without any noteworthy increase
of the yield seems to indicate that the mixtures wei*e not the most
suitable for this particular soil.

Discussion.

The Chairman (Mr. R. W. Munro) : rising, after the applause
given to Mr. Vesterdal had subsided, said: The subject chosen by
Mr. Vesterdal is a very wide one and all of us will agree as to the
importance of cultivation and the manuring of soil. If this is the
first, as we hope it is, of .what will be a series of Agricultural
Conferences, 1 think that we shall find that the question of the
cultivation and manuring of soil is one that will have to receive
a very large degree of attention at our Conferences. Mr. Vesterdal
is in a position to tell us a great deal because he is in charge of

a very large area — some people might understand a large area
to mean about 50,000 acres, but I think 10,000 acres is a very large
area indeed. The experiments that Mr. Vesterdal has told us of
have been carried out over a large area which Mr. Vesterdal
controls, and 1 think, therefore, that we can rely on the information
given to us as being of extraordinary value. But I do not think
that Mr. Vesterdal, or anybody else for that matter, would like to
lay down any hard and fast rule, because I think that you will all
admit that cultivation of soil in this country is yet very much
in its infancy. 1 think that you will agree in reading through
the paper — which you will have an opportunity of doing, as all
of these papers are to be printed in book form — that it contains
a greater deal of information than you can possibly grasp in the
course of half an hour as this Conference will not be able to take
them up for discussion now. I had the opportunity of reading
through Mr. Vesterdal 1 s paper this morning before this meeting
and I have no doubt that it is a very important one.

As to artificial manuring, it is a matter that varies a great deal
with the soil, and we know that Mr. Vesterdal’s experiments were
made on poor soil which would necessarily show greater progress
than on soils that it is not necessary to treat in that way, Now,
we have not very much time to dwell on these questions long, but
1 must thank Mr. Vesterdal for coining from so far as Johore
to read this paper to ns, which 1 have no doubt will be extremely
valuable to us. (Applause.) 1 will now call upon Mr. Spring
to read bis paper.

CULTIVATION, DRAINAGE AND MANURING.

By F. Or. Spring, n.d.a., f.l.s.

(Agrie ulturisi , F. M. 8 . )

J N tlio past few years many changes and improvements have been
made in rubber planting* but this is only what would have been
expected considering the size and importance of the industry. It
cannot b claimed, however, that there has been any great advance-
ment in knowledge of soil culture and artificial fertilizers as applied
to rubber land. The varying conditions under which a rubber tree
can be grown are partly responsible for the somewhat slow progress.
Hilly and Hat lands should not be treated in all respects alike and the
same applies to heavy and light soils, deep and shallow.

The objects of tillage are to make the soil lighter, more porous
and permeable to roots, to enable vegetable and mineral matter to
decompose more rapidly, to promote oxidation and stimulate the
activity of nitrifying bacteria, to loosen the particles of soil and mix
them, to check the growth of weeds and reduce soil evaporation.

Sou- Cultivation and Drainage,

Tillage is of the utmost importance but it requires to be applied
to suit conditions. Heavy yields of rubber are obtained, in many
instances, on land which has never been tilled and which is com-
paratively poor in essential plant food constituents but in such cases
it is generally found that the mechanical condition or mixture of the
soil is excellent. Rich lands are sometimes very poor yielders and this
may lie owing to quite a variety of causes but a not uncommon one is
mixture of soil. The mechanical condition of a soil is of the greatest
importance in rubber growing, more so, perhaps, than its chemical.
Improvements can be effected in this direction by tillage and the
turning under of green manures, the latter opens up heavy soils and
renders light soils heavier, or in other words tends to establish an
equilibrium.

1 will deal in the first place with hill cultivation and then refer
to treatment of undulating and fiat lands. It is common knowledge
that tillage cannot be carried out on hill land without considerable
loss by surface wash, but several methods may be adopted to enable
one to cultivate a soil properly and yet reduce surface wash to a
minimum. A cover-crop on the land is a reliable preventative, but,
unfortunately, there is always a period of soil wash following tillage
even with a plant which rapidly reproduces itself.

Terracing has much in its favour but can only be recommended
provided it is done previous to planting. The terraces require to be

12

at the same elevation throughout otherwise the object aimed at is
lost. Any wash from the slopes is retained on the flat terraces and
this assists in the nourishment of the tree. Should the land be very
steep it is advisable to plant some cover-crop such as Centrosema
plumieri on the slopes and it may be desirable to establish
a strong growing plant, for instance, citronella or lemon grass,
along the edge of the terraces. The fiat terraces are maintained
clean weeded and tilled when required, i have seen remarkably
good results from rubber grown under such conditions and have no
hesitation in recommending it for hill land. One estate in Negri
Sembilan has a good area planted in this way and the writer was
much struck with the growth of rubber there as compared with that
of similar age in adjacent fields. Terracing cannot be recommended
for previously planted areas and in such cases circular plots may be
gradually constructed around the trees, this is best commenced
when the trees are quite young, the diameter of the circle being
increased as the tree ages. Should these plots be kept well tilled it
is surprising how rapid growth is and there is every prospect of an
excellent root system being developed.

With regard to drainage of hill laud I think it is generally
agreed that contour drains are unsatisfactory while perpendicular
ones are good examples of wliat not to do, I am doubtful if any type
of open drain, on hill land, serves its purpose in an efficient manner
and in. the majority of cases it is better to dispense with drains
altogether and adopt some such system as that referred to.

Jii the case of undulating land tillage can generally he effectively
carried out without any material loss. On the flat and gently undu-
lating country, cultivation is, I believe, more essential and beneficial
than on the hill, the obvious reasons being that flat land is, as a rule,
heavier in nature, and has not as good air circulation, consequently
responds better to cultivation. There are various forms of implements
of tillage, ploughs, cultivators and harrows which do excellent work
and may be used to great advantage on the flat and gently sloping
lands, provided the timber lias been cleared and estate drains do not
materially interfere with the work. Tillage should be commenced
at as early an age as is possible in order to compel surface roots
to grow at a greater depth in the soil and thus enable tillage to be
done, in later years, with a minimum injury.

The changkoll and fork are the most common implements of
tillage here, and I propose, therefore, to make a few remarks regard-
ing their efficiency. When used in young clearings it is, I believe, a
waste of labour to changkoll or fork all over the area. Should one
commence this type of tillage in circles around each tree, increasing
the diameter as the root area develops, it is probable that excellent
returns will be obtained when costs are considered. Ultimately, the
eircles would meet and tillage would then be conducted all over the
land, the greatest attention being given to culture in the middle of

the rows. As regards depth of tillage this will, of course, depend
on the nature of the soil, but generally speaking, the heavier the soil
the greater the depth required.

Cultivators aud harrows are more economical but, unfortunately,
they can only be used in certain cases. On Castleton Estate. Telok
Anson, harrows have been in operation for some considerable time,
where they have done good work at a small cost. The cost of tillage
of the first one or two applications is comparatively high but
decreases as the tilth improves.

With regard to drainage of flat land it is well known that this
is of the i most importance. Should a soil be water-logged, or the
water level near the surface, jt is impossible to have a good tap root
developed, tho absence of one being often evident by loss of trees
during wind and rain storms. Cultivation and manures will not
effect a remedy, in fact it is waste of money to adopt either until
drainage conditions are first improved.

There is some difference of opinion as to when tillage should be
done. Personally, T think the best results are likely to be obtained
when done towards the end of the wet season in order to conserve
the then abundant water for the dry period.

Soils which are more or less baked on the surface have lost, and
continue to lose, a good deal of water by soil evaporation. In some
instances the surface is like a brick and should this condition he
present on a slope the majority of rain water merely runs off the
land. It is obvious that to cultivate a soil during a dry season is
expensive but in addition to this you effect a remedy after consider-
able damage has already been done in loss of soil water. To
cultivate at the close of a wet period bears out the old saying :
“ Prevention is better than cure.” Tillage to a depth of two or three
inches will greatly assist in the conservation of water.

With regard to the cultivation of old clearings the soil of which
has not been previously turned over to any depth, one must use a
good deal of discretion. It could not be recommended to till this
soil in such a way as to destroy surface roots, both large and small,
in a drastic fashion. Light changkolling, in the first instance, should
be carefully done and all large roofs avoided. I do not think much
harm is done in cutting numbers of small surface roots, as a better
root system is, by cultivation, encouraged at a greater depth in the
soil. The depth of tillage may be gradually increased as time goes
on. There is little doubt that the best root system is developed when
tillage is commenced .while the trees are quite young, one must
devote attention to soil cultivation, at some time or other, if
maximum yields of rubber, good bark renewal and healthy trees are
to be maintained.

Dynamite has been considered, for some time past, in connection
with rubber growing and may possibly prove a valuable method of

14

soil culture particularly as a means of breaking up heavy sub-soils.
Experiments were conducted at Kuala Lumpur Government Planta-
tion with dynamite where good results were obtained as regards
girth increase of young rubber. The greatest objection would
appear to be that of cost.

Manuring.

The question of artificial fertilizers as applied to rubber is a
rather delicate one and requires to be carefully considered. As long
as good yields can be obtained by cultivation it is probably a mistake
to resort to manuring. At Castleton Estate, Telok Anson, an
extensive series of manuring tests are being conducted on good class
land and the results obtained so far would not appear to justify their
application, and many estates with rich soils would, in all probability,
behave in a similar way. There are, however, many cases where it
would appear that manuring is to be recommended and the man
with Jong practical experience can generally discover those areas.

A test was conducted in the Kuala Lumpur Gardens with young
rubber growing on poor l&terite soils with the following results :
In the first year, the trees in the manured plots, in every case, showed
a good excess in girth measurements over the trees in the
unmanured plots. In the second year, there was no manure applied,
and the average girth increases for this period were about equal to
that of the control plots, which goes to prove that the manures had
good effect for one year only. At the commencement of the third
year, a second application of similar manures was applied, and the
results for this year were also satisfactory but the excess was not as
large as that of the first year. In the fourth year, no fertilizers
were applied, and it was found that the manured plots had not given
as large an average girth increase as the control plots. In this
particular soil, the manures appear to have had a stimulating effect,
as regards growth, after each application, for about oue year but
afterwards there seemed to be a slight reaction. Over the four
years, however, the total girth increases of the manured plots in
every case considerably exceed that of the controls. At the close of
the four years tapping was commenced and it was found that the
control plots gave the poorest yields of rubber while the highest
yields were obtained from those manured plots which gave the
largest girth increases. This is the result for the first nine months of
tapping and it will be interesting to see how long the high yields are
obtained. In the ninth month of tapping the manured plots continue
to. give the proportionate excess of rubber over the unmanured plots,
and there se.ems no evidence at present of a declining superiority ;
rather the contrary. I have not the slightest doubt that the
fertilizers in this soil were beneficial, for we would appear to have
recovered the costs of application in the first nine months of
tapping. It should be remembered that increase of girth means a
corresponding increase in length of tapping cut.

15

(rood results from manuring might be expected from the
following : poor, light, laterite soils, soils deficient in one or more
essential plant food material, thinned out areas which are slow in
recovering from the effects of close planting and areas which have
been severely tapped in the past.

As regards the method of application this will depend on the
age of the trees. With young rubber, I believe, the best value is
obtained by spreading the manures' around each tree, the area
treated would naturally vary with small and large trees and
increase as the rubber ages. The manures are best turned under
to a depth of two or three inches, sufficient to prevent loss by surface
wash. With older rubber the manures may be broadcast all over
the land but more especially about the middle of the rows and then
turned under. I do not favour the placing of manures in trenches
around a tree as in this area the manures are too concentrated and for
a time limited to a small root feeding area.

I do not propose to deal with quantities of manures to be
applied, per acre, as this varies more or less with each fertilizer.
Information, however, can be obtained on application to the
Department of Agriculture.

With regard to the kinds of manures I might mention that
a complete fertilizer consisting of sulphate of ammonia, double
superphosphate, sulphate of potash with the addition of lime gave
the best results in the Kuala Lumpur Gardens. Comparatively
good returns have also been obtained from Perils guano, bone-meal
and basic slag.

Lime and its Application.

One of the chief effects of lime on a soil is to accelerate
nitrification and thus enable plants to draw upon the nitrogenous
and potash stores in the ground. It has a neutralizing action on
organic acids which helps _ to sweeten sour soils. Lime has a
beneficial action on clay soils by breaking them up, while sandy or
light soils are improved by binding the particles together. In
order to obtain the full benefits of artificial fertilizers I think it
is essential to apply a small dressing of lime beforehand, this should be
done several months previous to the spreading of the fertilizers on
the land. There are many soils in Malaya which would, I feel sure,
respond well to lime treatment. Quick lime is the best form of
application, the lumps being distributed throughout the field and
allowed to slake naturally. One night’s rain is sufficient for this
decomposition to take place but in dry weather it may take several
days. The result is a fine dry powder which is found easy to
distribute equally over the land. Slaking lime in this country in a
large heap and adding water does not appear to give such a fine dry
powder as the natural process and the cost of distribution is higher.

Before closing this address I would like to refer briefly to costs,

16

Costs of Tillage and Fertilizers.

Establishing Cover-crops .- — I will give in some detail the cost of
establishing Centrosema plnmieri as this is one of the most promising
cover plants for rubber clearings. The seed is dibbled in at distances
of three feet apart each way at a cost of $3 per acre, 3 pounds
of seed being required. The price of seed, at present, is from
25y to 50 cents per pound, which is somewhat high on account of the
limited areas planted. The cost of weeding until the plant is well
established amounts to about $3 per acre and if this sum is charged
to ordinary estate weeding it will be seen that the total costs amount
to from $4.25 to $5 per acre. The seed is sometimes broadcast at the
rate of ten pounds of seed per acre on a well-prepared surface, but
dibbling is preferable.

Canamlia ensiformis is best dibbled in three feet apart requiring
8 pounds of seed per acre or 15 pounds if broadcast. The cost of
weeding until Canamlia is established is higher than in the ease
of Centrosema, owing to the habit of the plant.

It may generally be taken that large seeds such as those
mentioned above give the best results when dibbled in, while small
seeds such as horse gram require to he broadcast. When broadcasting
is the method of sowing, the land is first changkolled or forked to a
depth of about three inches, sufficient to provide a good seed bed.
and this will cost from $2 to $3 per acre.

Horse gram ( Doliehos bifiorns) sown broadcast requires 12 pounds
of seed per acre, which can be obtained in the local markets at
six to seven cents per kati. The cost of broadcasting is 25 cents
per acre. Sarawak bean (Doliches Kosei ) is best established from
cuttings and this system of planting is slightly higher than dibbling
on account of additional cost of procuring and planting cuttings.

Terracing . — A six-foot- terrace made by three feet cutting and
three feet filling in costs 25 to 30 cents per 50 feet length, which
amounts to about $10 to $12 per acre allowing on an average 20 feet
between the terrace®. It might be mentioned that the cost of
maintaining well-made terraces is small, considerably less than upkeep
of drains.

Dynamite . — Sixteen cents per charge, inclusive of labour, is a
reasonable figure, one charge per tree is generally what is allowed
but with heavy clays more may be inquired.

Cultivation . — The following are the actual costs of various
methods of cultivation, conducted at Castleton Estate on a heavy
soil. Plot 1, three crops of horse gram were grown within a year,
at a cost of $17.45 per acre. In Plot 2, surface weeding was
conducted monthly at a cost of $10.71 per acre per annum. The
treatment in Plot 3, was monthly weeding and changkolled twice
per year to a depth of four inches which amounted to $18.27
per acre per annum. Plot 4 was changkolled once every three

17

months to a depth of four inches for $21.96 per acre per annum, while
in plot 5 the land was forked once in three months to a depth
of four inches ’at a cost of $21.21 per acre per annum. In Plot 6,
harrowing was conducted twice a month for $7.26 per acre per
annum. The harrows were first drawn by buffaloes hut Indian
bullocks were found to be very much cheaper. A couple of bullocks
can harrow five acres per day of eight hours. The above figures are
the results obtained in one year, but now the costs of changkolling,
forking and harrowing are very much less, in some cases about half,
while surface weeding remains more or less the same. It is usually
found that as deep tillage is continued the costs become less, for
a time, until a high class tilth is formed when charges remain about
the same.

Artificial fertilizers , — The cost of spreading artificial manures
varies somewhat according to the quantity applied. Two hundred
and fifty lbs. of a mixture can be broadcast and slightly covered for
$1.80 per acre.

The cost of applying 1,000 lbs. of lime spread around young trees
and turned under amounts to about $9 per acre, inclusive of labour,
while one ton broadcast all over the land, and turned under would cost,
approximately, $23 per acre. A complete mixture consisting of I lb.
per tree, sulphate of ammonia, 1| lbs. per tree, double super-
phosphate, 1 lb. per tree, sulphate of potash, and 1,000 lbs. lime per
acre was applied at a total cost of $28 per acre (November, 1911).

A dressing of four cwts. Perlis guano cost $8.50 per acre, while
three cwts. Bone-meal worked out at $13 per acre (November,
1911).

Discussion.

The Chairman (Mr. R. W. Munro) : Here again, gentlemen, we
see what an extraordinary amount of instructive knowledge we can
gain from these papers. I think you will all notice how very parti-
cularly the views of Mr. Spring agree with those of Mr. Vesterdal
on this subject. Both have, I think, dealt with the subject quite
independently of each other, and yet both of them agree on the main
points. One of the greatest points of interest 1 wish to invite
discussion on is the matter of drainage. We must thank Mr. Spring
very much indeed for the valuable information he has given us. I
invite you to discuss this subject for as long as we have time. I
think Mr. Prior will give us his views on the matter.

Mr. Prior said that he wished only to mention what had been
his experiment on Golden Hope Estate in manuring during the last
18 months, on what was known as “ peat land,” on a plantation
that had been planted in 1907 and first tapped in 1912. Three
portions of 10 acres each had been tried with basic*' slag, lime and
forking, respectively. In 1913 the wdiole field was forked over and
12 pikuls of lime per acre applied. All plots were tapped during the

B

18

first period of six months with two cuts on h tree, alternate days,
and then on one cut on § tree daily. The yields of No. 1 latex and
scrap rubber were recorded and the figures given below are the
weights of wet crepe, weighed 15 hours after machining.

Plot No. 1, 10 acres; 1,015 trees, 1 ton basic slag per acre and
forked 22nd to 30th July, 1915, cost $48,68 per acre. Crop for first
six mouths, 860 lbs., second six months 9S5 lbs. (showing an increase
of 125 lbs.) ; third period of six months 1,264 lbs., daily tapping
as previous period, increase of 404 lbs. over first period.

Plot No. 2, 10 acres, 1,017 trees, one ton lime, 10 tons crushed
limestone per acre, and forked, August, 1915, costing $131.50 per
acre : crop, first six months, 1,068 lbs. ; second six months, 1,134 lbs. ;
third six months, 1,416 lbs. ; increase over first period, 348 lbs.

No 3 plot, 10 acres, control plot, forked 1915, 1,460 trees : crop,
first six months, 1,439 lbs. ; second six months, 1,640 lbs. ; third six

months, 2,056 lbs. ;

increase over

first period

, 617 lbs.

Girth measurements of all

the trees

at three

feet from the

ground were taken

in February,

, May and

November, 1916. The

average girth of the trees in each plot on the different dates was as

follow's :

February,

May,

November,

Total increase,

1916. '

1916.

1916.

nine months.

inohes.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Plot No. 1

... 26.50 ...

27.14

.. 27.73

... 1.23

„ No. 2

... 26.63 ...

27.20 .

.. 28.32

... 1.69

„ No. 3

... 27.20 ...

27.89 ..

. 29.23

... 2.03

Mr. L. Mooijart said that as to manuring he once sent a sample
of soil to Ceylon and was advised to put down a large amount of a
certain mixture, and up to date he had not got much more from that
plot than from any other. (Laughter).

Mr. G. H. Bennett; May I ask how much per acre was used P
( Laugh ter).

Mr. Mooijart: I am sorry I have not come prepared to tell
you that.

The Chairman reminded the meeting that the time was short
and that they 'might go on discussing just for the time available.

Mr. Prior said that he understood Mr. Spring to deprecate the
idea of contour draining as against terracing. He wished to know
what system of contour draining he had in mind. Was it the old
Ceylon system ?

Mr. Spring : I meant hill land. \ do not know' the Ceylon system
but the one 1 referred to is 1 in 25.

Mr. Prior : The old system in Ceylon draining was on the scale
of 1 in 20, which carried a lot of water to the valley down below'.

19

Mr. Spring : And carrying lots of soil, too. (Laughter.)

Mr. Prior ; The system I have tided is one of short, blind drains
quite level. According to the contour of the hill it goes all round
and catches all the water. The trees grow well and there is no
wash. I have seen the old Ceylon system by which the whole
hill is washed away and there are tearing torrents, so that the hill
gets nothing of the water to be retained for the trees.

Mr. Spring : 1 have not tried that system you have practised,
but 1 think it is a very good system. It would have as much
beneficial effect as in the terracing system.

Mr. A. H. Malet next gave his experience of manuring on a
30-acre block. That was the only block on the estate that had
not a single case of pink disease that year. (Hear, hear.)

The Chairman : Have you got any analysis of the mixture you
tried P

Mr, Malet : Yes, I think so. A sample of the soil was sent to
Mr. Kelway Bamber (Agricultural Chemist, Ceylon), to be analysed,
and on the analysis of the soil the manure was made out.

Another planter said that in his experience he had found that
rubber trees really fed their roots on the surface. It seemed strange,
therefore, to find that both Mr. Vesterdal and Mr. Spring recom-
mended that the soil should be dug down and that the trees should
teed below. How could such an idea be reconciled with the views
expressed F

The Chairman : I think that you will take it from either
gentleman that what they intended to imply was that as the roots
get down to the more permanent manure you get better results.

Mr. Spring : The principal ideals in the matter of cultivation
are to get the roots to go down and stop too much evaporation of
moisture. If you get that done, I think it would be found beneficial
to get the roots down so that you can continue the cultivation.

1 ^

20

THINKING OUT,

By T. J. Gumming,

(Manager, Seafield Estate , Selangor, F.M.S .)

TN the early days of rubber planting few realized to what
* magnitude a tree 15 to 20 years old would attain, and most
planters made the mistake of planting too closely — some more,
some less — common distances being 10 ft, x 10 ft., 10 ft. x 15 ft.,
12ft. x 12 ft., 15 ft. x 20 ft., and so on.

Though these distances have since been found to be too close
there is a good deal of reason in the case of the early planter who
planted closely, as no one at that time could foretell the future of the
marketable product, and, while the price of rubber was booming at
10i*. to 12s,, there was a lot of profit to be made off an acre carrying
from 150 to 300 trees, and in the case of the private owner, lie
naturally wanted the maximum yield in the minimum time.

Then, too, labour was cheaper, and the profits were sufficiently
large to allow of little extravagances, or ratlier, what appear as
extravagances to-day, to be glossed over.

Need fob Thinning.

The slump in the price of rubber caused planters to look around
for ways and means of curtailing expeuses, and a point that was
quickly apparent was the fact that practically the same crop could be,
aud was, being got off an acre carrying 100 trees as off an acre with
double the number of trees, and the cost of tapping in the latter case
was naturally double the former.

There appeared also with the close planting the delay in bark
renewal, and this, of course, meant loss of money, as the longer the
period required for renewal the less the yield per acre over a period
of years. To commence with, a two years’ renewal was considered
sufficient,, and it appeared to be so until the next two years’ renewal
came to be operated on, when it was found the bark was not nearly
ready for tapping', and wounding and reduced yields were the result.

It was noticed that trees on the outside of the fields or near
roads where there was any extra space appeared to have a much
better bark renewal than those inside, and this probably first led one
to consider the necessity of light and air to procure good healthy
bark renewal in a reasonable period.

The Agricultural Department were at the same time working
on the subject of the rubber tree and it was pointed out in various
lectures and bulletins that latex was formed in the leaves of the tree,
and that without a good head of leaf the tree could yield but little
latex. Well, as everyone knows, with close planting all the lateral
branches get pushed or drawn up almost perpendicularly in order to

21

catch the little light there is at the top and instead of having a tree
with tine wide-spreading foliage, there is something closely resembling
a “ swizzle stick.”

if height was all that was wanted for tapping then close planting
would be the correct thing, but, as girth of stem and lots of leaf are
the main factors necessary to ensure profitable yields, close planting
undoubtedly fails.

Fear of loss of crop through thinning should not deter any one
from tackling a closely planted field as, if the thinning is done while
the trees are fairly young, the remaining trees will quickly respond
to the improved conditions and the crop will soon reach its normal
figure and pass it, while the longer thinning is delayed, the more
crop is to be lost.

Disease too is a factor which has had a lot to say in the necessity
for thinning out. As has been already stated, light and air are
absolutely necessary for the well-being of the tree and nothing
is more conducive to the spread of disease than closeness and damp.

Another advantage in wide planting is that after rain the surface
of widely planted trees dries much more quickly and allows tapping
to go on early, while sometimes with close planting tapping is
impossible for a few hours after a heavy shower.

There is also the saving in labour and utensils, and 1 need not
go into details to show this, as previous papers on the subject have
dealt very fully with this point. It is obvious that if an acre with
say 100 trees yields the same amount as an acre with 200 trees, there
is a considerable saving in labour and only half the number of cups,
spouts, etc., are required, while the percentages of output are bound
to be to the advantage of the wider planted area, as there is half the
number of trees, spouts and cups to give “ scrap.”

Methods of Thinning Out.

The difficult question for the planter to start with is whether to
thin out by selection or remove every alternate tree if his original
planting allows of this.

On one estate the original planting was 20 ft. x 20 ft. and in order
to get more trees to the acre this was interplanted with a quincunx,
thus ' ■ ; * ; giving double the number of trees to the acre and if it
were found necessary to thin out, the quincunx could be removed.

The necessity soon arose, and when it came to thinning out, the
ravages of Fomes, white ants, wind storms, etc., had been left out of
account and many quincunx trees had to be left in to make up blanks,
and it got so confusing in ■places that the original 20 x 20 line was
frequently mistaken for the quincunx.

The theory is all right as a theory.

In ordinary square planting the best method in my opinion is
by frequent selection. It takes much longer and seems to keep the

22

work of thinning ont drag’ging on for a long time, but there is less
crop lost this way, as each round the trees which are not paying
their way are removed, giving the advantage to the adjacent trees,
the yield per acre is not greatly reduced and the cost of tapping is
automatically reduced.

With present day planting thinning out should not present any
great difficulty as provision can he made for thinning out in
the early stages. The time for thinning out is just as soon as growth
is being hampered by branches interlocking, probably when the trees
are about four years old. If a clearing is planted 20 ft. x 20 ft. with a
view to thinning' out later to leave say 70 or 80 trees per re, the
trees to be removed could be marked after careful examination
and comparison with adjacent trees, and any branches interfering
with the development of the favoured trees could be removed
periodically as the necessity occurred. The marked trees could in
this way be tapped for a considerable time in the regular round,
enabling a fair return of latex to be obtained before they are finally
removed and leaving them with very few heavy branches to cause
damage while they were being felled. Of course} the ideal system
would be to allow each tree eventually the same space, but this, I
fear, would be impossible in practise, as weak unhealthy trees are
frequently found side by side and have to be removed, while good
trees have to be left near each other to make-up the number per acre.

There are various methods of removing the tree. Some recom-
mend pollarding the first stage, tapping the stump so long as it gives
latex, then removing it. This system I have found not at all
profitable. It is much more difficult to remove the pollard than it is
the whole tree, as in the latter case the head gives leverage when the
side roots are cut away, while the pollard has to be lifted bodily
from the ground. The pollards yield very little latex after the first
few tappings, and tappers are inclined to be careless with the tapping
of them, and this carelessness, like other diseases, soon spreads to the
good trees. The roots of the pollards too are still feeding and the
adjacent trees are not benefiting to the same extent as if the trees to
be cut out had been removed wholesale.

Another system is to cut off the tree about a foot above the
ground, but since the discovery of Udulina zonata I fancy this
system is not much in favour.

The most satisfactory way is to cut out the tree about two feet
below the level of the ground, removing as many of the side roots as
possible without interfering with the roots of the adjacent trees
which are to remain. The cut out trees and branches should be
burned, or otherwise removed as quickly as possible, to prevent an
invasion of borers and the spread of disease.

I have to thank the General Rubber Co., Sumatra, for the
privilege of seeing their report on thinning out and for permission to
use their recommendations.

23

THINNING OUT.

By E. W. King,

( Technical Manager , Soviet e Financier e cles Caoutchoucs , Selangor .)

J" have been asked to read a paper on “ Thinning Out,” paying

particular attention to points which are open to discussion-
I think I may take it as granted that everyone agrees with the
principle of thinning out and that the only points about which
controversy is probable are: (1) the time at which it should be
done ; and (2) the extent to which it should be done. 1 have,
therefore, divided this paper into two parts. The first part showing
the reasons for it and the second part giving the main lines on
which I consider it should be carried out.

PART I.

Eveiyone has seen the result of trees which have been left closely
planted. In some cases old nurseries have been left for several
years with the result that they have shot up into a number of
long poles with a few leaves at the top, from this to the case
of a tree planted in the open by itself you get the varying degrees
of malformation due to insufficient sunlight. The importance of
sunlight to the health of a plant cannot be too strongly insisted on.
The two sources of supply of material for the formation of plant
food are the root system and the leaf system or head. The root
system supplies water from the soil and soluble inorganic salts,
which are essential to the health of the tree. The leaves supply
the bulk of the material forming tlie tissues of the tree. They
absorb carbon dioxide from the air and by the aid of sunlight
transform it into starch and other substances needed in the tree’s
economy.

As young trees grow they soon fill up with the leaf system
all the space allotted them. At this period in their life history
if more space is not given them many consequences follow, the chief
of which is the reduction in the rate of the growth of the trunk and
hence in bark renewal. For, since the amount of plant food
manufactured by the tree is proportional to its leafage and root
growth, one of the first consequences of a limited growing space
is that the tree’s food supply does not increase but remains at the
same amount. It should, of course, gradually increase to correspond
to the constant demands made by the increased activities of the tree
as it ages.

No green plant deprived of light can produce the chemical changes
on which its proper supply of nutrition depends. Many planters, for
instance, will have noticed the better growth of clearings with an

24

eastern aspect. The first effect of close planting is noticeable in
the exaggerated upward growth of the trees, which, finding that their
branches if extended laterally meet with the branches of neighbouring
trees, attempt to overtop their neighbours with the result that their
branches are drawn upwards, giving the trees tlie appearance of
bundles of birch twigs.

Food that could be utilized in the thickening and rounding out
of the trunk is used to build up length of branches and trunk,
because, in the struggle for sunlight, each tree tries to overtop its
neighbour. In consequence, an activity of no profitable use to tlie
planter is induced. By giving the tree more space it s. ill grow
outward as well as upward and in a normal, evenly distributed
growth. Let it be emphasized that thinning out to be most
beneficial should be done before the “ drawing up ” stage lias set
in. Very little lateral branching will be induced in an old tree
whose early environment has been an overcrowded estate.

I do not think it necessary to say anything further regarding
the effect of sunlight on the branch growth. The effect on the depth
of bai'k is equally noticeable and although it does not follow that a
thin bark will necessarily yield less latex than a thicker bark it is
extremely probable that coolies in getting the latex will touch tlie
cambium and cause wounds over which the renewed bark will be
poorer still. We may, therefore, take it as granted that a tree which
has room for normal development as regards branch growth will
prove more healthy than that v'hich is retarded and that as a
corrollary the yield from such a tree should be greater and the
bark renewal better.

The second point is the great economy which is effected. The
urTit which is generally taken as a basis of all calculations is the
yield per acre. If you can get a high yield per acre from a compara-
tively small number of highly yielding trees it is obviously more
economical than if you got the same yield per acre from a closely
planted estate. I think I may take a yield of 450 lbs. per acre as one
likely to satisfy directors and shareholders, and to make every point
quite clear we will take a suppositional case of two estates of 500
acres, one of which is planted with 80 trees to the acre and one with
160 trees to the acre — other factors being the same — a reasonable task
being 400 trees per cooly. With a check-roll average of 40 cents
the cost of collecting will be :

A. 100 coolies x 350 days x 40 cents _ say, 6.2 cents per lb.

225,000 Labour only

B. 200 coolies x 350 days x 40 cents m . , .

_____ = Twice the above

It has often been argued that in a widely planted clearing coolies
would not be able to do the same task. In practise this is not the case,
the work of tapping and collecting takes up the time, not the distance

25

to walk between the trees. In addition to the cost of labour there
are the following' items : fewer cups, spouts, wire, etc., are required,
and a smaller labour force with its attendant expenses in line
accommodation, recruiting expenses and hospital charges. This
applies mainly to estates employing Indian labour. In the ease of
estates which employ Chinese labour it will generally be found
that the coolies work at a given rate per lb., this rate is governed by
the amount of rubber a cooly can reasonably be expected to collect.
To illustrate this we will suppose that a Chinese cooly expects to
get 70 cents per diem ; most planters have found that the number of
trees a cooly can tap well has its limitations, and though, of course,
every estate has its “star” tappers the capacity of the average
Chinese cooly is, say, 450 trees. If then the trees are yielding at the
rate of 6 lbs. dry per annum, a cooly tapping 450 trees can get a daily
average of 8 lbs. which at 9 cents per lb. will give him the required
wage ; if, however, the trees are yielding at the rate of 3 lbs. he would
have either to do twice the task or the rate would have to be
increased.

Both these cases are possibly exaggerated, but if allowance is
made for a slightly higher task in the case of closely planted trees
and also a slightly higher yield per tree it is still very obvious that
a closely planted estate is less economical to work.

Effect of Thinning Out on Disease.

Another point which most certainly should not be lost sight of
is the effect of thinning out on plant sanitation. This is so closely
connected with disease and pest work that I intend merely to call
your attention to it.

Diseases which are giving the most trouble at the present time
can be divided into three heads, the worst being (1) branch disease,
Corticium mlmonicolor , (2) stem disease, bark canker, and (3)
root disease, Poria hypolateritia, Ustulina zonata. It is obvious
that the stronger the plant the better its chances of recovery if
attacked, in cases of branch and stem diseases if given proper
treatment the effect of sunlight will greatly accelerate the cure. To
prevent root disease the destruction of all butts and roots of rubber
trees thinned out is essential and cannot be too strongly insisted
upon. With proper precautions the mortality in old clearings should
not be great, records from an estate with rubber about 12 years old
show a loss of ’8 per cent, during the past two years. We now
come to the debatable question of how it should be done.

PART II.

Young Clearings.

• The days of 10 ft. by 10 ft. planting have passed and most
estates are now planted 20 ft. by 20 ft., or avenue planting
14 ft. by 28 ft. or 15 ft, by 30 ft. Let us take a normal

n

26

clearing planted 20 ft. by 20 ft. or 108 trees per acre. This will,
as a rule, come into tapping at 44 years with an average number of
60 to 70 trees per acre, during the next year the number per acre
will be increased to, say, 90, leaving about 10 trees per acre, which are
still too small. I have made allowance for the loss of eight trees
from disease, wind or other causes. The spread of a normal five-year-
old tree on an up-country estate is. say, 18 to 20 ft., if then all trees
are of a uniform size and shape there is a superficial area to allow
for growth.

The remaining 10 trees have probably been stunted in growth
for one of the following reasons: (1) poor soil, (2) deformed roots,
(3) poor jat of tree. These trees will naturally grow at a slower
rate than their neighbours and if retained might possibly be
tapped in their sixth or seventh year, the yield from them will
probably be poorer, and 1 consider that, as a general rule, as soon as
90 per cent, of the trees in a clearing planted 20 ft. by 20 ft. are
tappable the balance might be dispensed with right away. It
is both easier and cheaper to cut them out while still small. After
this it should be the policy of the estate to take out trees by selection
each year. The following are the measurements showing the spread
of trees taken from clearings of normal growth at various ages :

6-year old ... ... ... 22 ft.

8 „ 27/29 ft.

10 „ 28/30 ft.

The number to be taken out yearly will depend on the average
growth of the estate and no rule can be laid down other than 'this - viz .,
that as soon as the natural development of the trees shows signs of
being checked, the number of trees per acre should be reduced. • The
first and most obvious signs are a large number of lower branches dying
off and an upward tendency on the branches in their attempts to get
sunlight.

The case of young clearings is comparatively simple and its
practical application clearly shown by the following records :

A 1 Clearing.

. No. of trees Yield Yield

Year. Area tapped. p er acre. per tree. per acre.

7th year 120 ... 121 ... 2.93 ... 355

8th „ ... 120 ... 86 ... 4.64 ... 401

9th „ ... 120 ... 77 ... 6.69 ... 533

It should be clearly understood that in the case of young
clearings thinned out or widely planted originally, the yield per acre
will not be as large as that on a closely planted estate. The effect
will probably not be felt before the third or fourth year of tapping
but it will endanger the health and yield of the estate in subsequent
years when the estate should normally be increasing in value.

27

Mr. E. B. Skinner mentions the following case :

“ On an area planted 10 ft. by 10 ft. when tapping was
started there were about 600 trees to the acre, these were first
reduced to 100 and afterwards gradually thinned out until the
number was about 60 to the acre. It is interesting to note that at its
best this area yielded as much as over 900 lbs. per acre, but after
reaching this point, the area rapidly showed the result of close
planting and before thinning out began the yield had dropped to
below 400 lbs. per acre.”

I might mention at this point that some of the enthusiastic
advocate of thinning out point to the immediate results as shown in
the increase of the average yielrl per tree. To some extent this is
misleading, as if the work has been done in an intelligent maimer
the poor yielding trees will have been removed, which automatically
increases the average yield of these remaining.

Old Clearings.

The case of old clearings is far more difficult and depends very
largely on the age of trees. In the ease of very closely planted
clearings of 12 to 14 years I should recommend the acquisition of new
land and planting at a reasonable distance. I 1 lie trees can undoubtedly
be improved, but it will of necessity be a long time before the
increased yield of the individual trees balances the loss in yield per
acre caused by the loss in numbers.

Clearings from Seven to Twelve Years of Age.

As a general rule, it will probably be found best to reduce the
number of trees per acre to one hundred during the first selection.
In this original selection it will probably he possible to pick trees
and at the same time pay attention to spacing. Deformed trees,
trees with forked stems, burrs, damaged heads, etc., will, of course,
be chosen, but at the same time it will be necessary to take out a
large number of trees which are perfectly healthy. After this the
trees should be taken by selection and it would be well to mark the
trees and keep them under observation for some time before cutting
them out. The following year they could probably be reduced by
twenty trees per acre and in the next year by ten.

Experience has shown that 60-67 trees per acre is sufficient in
the case of 11 to 12-year old rubber.

Method of Thinning Out.

Formerly it was customary to pollard trees which it was
intended to thin out at height of six to seven feet and tap them till
the trees ceased to yield. Experience lias shown that the rubber
so obtained scarcely paid for the cost of tapping in addition to the
danger of introducing a careless system of tapping. It is better,
therefore, to take the tree right out. The tap root and any large

28

laterals should be dug out and burnt as old rubber butts have
proved one of the most fruitful sources of Usttdina zonata and
other fungus growths.

My suggestions are based on the supposition that directors have
in view an average yield of say 450 lbs. dry per acre. Possibly
they may hope for 500 lbs., but it must be remembered that with,
say, 50 trees per acre this would mean an average yield of 10 lbs. per
tree. The highest yield which I have records of for a section of
over 100 acres is 8.33 lbs. per tree for a section of 110 acres of 13 to 14-
year old rubber This is still some way from the legend ascribed to
a well-known planter of a single tree per acre connected with the
factory by a pipe.

29

RUBBER SEED SELECTION.

By A. H. Malet,

(Manager, Trong Estate, Perak, F.M.8 . )

/ \NE of, if not the most important of the problems that faces the
rubber industry at the present moment is that of seed selection.
It is a grave reflection on those who are technically responsible for
the safe-guarding of millions of British capital that so far not the
slightest effort has yet been made to guard the industry from the
inevitable results of neglecting to provide for a supply of seeds from
wholesome vigorous stock.

It is, moreover, as far as the writer is aware, the only tropical
agricultural industry which is liable to this reproach. No sane
planter thinks of buying any but tested seed when opening up an
estate in tea, sugar, tobacco or cinchona, but hitherto almost any seed
has been considered good enough for rubber. Individual efforts are
made to secure seed from old trees, and certain well-known estates
have in the past made considerable sums from advertising “seeds
from well-known old trees,” etc., but the claims of these estates to
have more virtue in their seeds as prolific milkers and disease
resisters than seed from other less known properties rest on
a very shadowy foundation.

The question is not by any means an easy one to dispose of —
further, it is almost an impossible one for the practical planter to
undertake to solve. There are two main points at issue ; they are
the propagation of good caoutchouc-producing trees and the
re-vitalizing of the trees themselves ; of the two, the latter is certainly
the more iinportant.

The question then naturally arises, what is tne relation between
the vitality or disease-resisting power of a tree and latex production ?
Does it always follow that a strong healthy tree is a good milker
and vice versa ? As far as the latex production of individual trees
is concerned the whole industry, at present, is on an equal footing —
but this cannot be said of the disease-resisting qualities of all planted
areas and in the humble opinion of the writer what is mostly to be
feared is inter- breeding and consequent degeneration.

The flowers of the Hevea being uni-sexual, inter- breeding is
impossible to stop, and thus one of the most important laws of
Nature— namely, that vigorous growth and healthy life can only be
secured when cross-fertilization takes place, is counteracted by our
system of cultivation. In the jungles of the Amazon the law of
natural selection is allowed full play and only the fittest survive, but

30

8

in Malaya every kind of germinated seed that is planted out receives
a fostering care that is tending towards a state of things which may
lead to an outbreak of disease resulting in the extinction of the
industry much in the same way that Hemileia vastratrix disposed
of coffee in Ceylon.

Leaving theory on one side, is there any evidence to show that
degeneration is taking place ? Possibly some may be found in the
large number of trees, especially on the newer planted estates, whose
bark consists largely of “ stone ” cells, so difficult to tap, A railway
journey, say from Penang to Kuala Lumpur, reveals numbers of
trees whose bark is covered with an unhealthy looking green fungoid
growth. Neither of these conditions are natural, and although
unsuitable soil, bad drainage, etc., play their part in producing them,
there can be little doubt but that unhealthy stock in many cases is a
contributory cause. Again it must not be forgotten that these
degenerated specimens of Hevea produce flowers, the pollen from
which may be carried some distance and cross-fertilize with some
quite healthy tree, the seed from which may be being reserved for
stocking nurseries ; and so the game goes on.

Turning now to the question from a latex-producing point of
view, the writer, has been experimenting for some time with a view
to obtaining reliable figures from which some conclusions may be
drawn, Fortunately, the complete history of the trees experimented
with is known, and is stated below'.

Block A (trees now 17 years old) was planted with seeds
taken from five years old trees which in their turn were planted
from seed of the old trees originally brought to Perak by, 1
believe, Sir H. Lov r , so that they represented the third generation
of the seed brought over from the Amazon by Wickham. The block
was originally planted very closely and has been thinned down to
an average of 90 trees per acre. For nearly two years 85 trees
have been under constant observation, good, bad and indifferent
milkers been du booted. All diseased trees had been cut out aud
those that remain appear quite healthy. The latex from these 85
trees has been coagulated in the cups on various occasions, and the
dry rubber from each carefully weighed on a medical balance and
duty noted.

The result is that the average yield per tree was 155 grains per
day from all the various tappings, only 88 trees gave results above
the average, their average yield being 281 units per tree per day,
while the average yield from the 52 trees below the general average
is only 75 units.

Block B was planted up from seed taken from the trees on
Block A when they were five years old and the trees here are
consequently 12 years old. Fifty’ trees have been experimented on
(one was found to be suffering from white ants and was cut out).

31

The results of the tappings here show a much more marked
variation than those on Block A. The average of five days continuous
tappings with suitable intervals gave the following :

1st five days average from 49 trees, 146 units.
2nd „ „

3rd jj j)

■»)

During the third experiment the trees were in the middle of
wintering.

The average yield of the first two experiments gives 155 units as
in Block A, the average over 10 days of the best yielder was 771
units, and of the worst yielder only 31 units. Twenty-three trees
gave yields above the average and 26 below the average. The daily
yields of the best milker were as follows : 501, 858, 810, 901, 849,
754, 669, S30, 905 and 634. Daily yields of the lowest yielder were :
11, 26, 25, 7, 17, 10, 30, 52, 36, 89. ‘

It will be seen from these figures that the yields from both best
and worst milkers are fairly steady. Such variations as are shown
being easily accounted for by climatic conditions. In no instance
has it yet been found that a tree yields heavily one day and poorly
on another^ Assumiug that the seed had been properly selected from
the best milkers in Block A and that each tree gave a yield equal to
the average yield of the best 23 trees — i.e ., 252 units per tree, the
output per acre would be increased by over 60 per cent.

Even allowing that trees vary in their yields very considerably
during the course of a year, it is difficult to suppose that the
variation is as great as the differences between the best and worst
milkers.

It will be noticed that the averages in Block A of the best and
worst milkers are 281 and 75, respectively, against 252 and 73 of
those on Block B, or a slight reduction in the following generation.

While I am well aware that the figures quoted cannot by any
means be called conclusive, as the experiments have only been carried
on during a short period of time, 1 do think they are convincing
enough to call for a thorough investigation under strict scientific
control. I may also add that I am going to continue to lake records
of these trees for at least twelve months, when 1 hope to be able to
publish the results.

If a ease can be made yut to support the suggested degeneration
of our stock what is to be done in the matter ? T wo alternatives
seem to suggest themselves. Firstly, seed can be taken from trees
that have been proved good milkers through a sufficiently long
period of testing, and planted out in a clearing completely isolated
from any chance of cross-fertilization from outside trees. When
these trees are tappable, careful records of their milking capacity,
resistance to disease, etc., should be kept over another sufficiently

6139

■ •, y> < ■ '

■I

32

long time to enable all unsuitable trees being eliminated, and tbe
process again repeated until tbe whole stock could be guaranteed.
Instead of seeds, cuttings could be used to start with, or as an
alternative, but in either case the whole process of selection or
re-selection, would take at least 20 years before a final result could be
be attained. This, therefore, does not seem a very suitable procedure.

The other alternative is to introduce new stock from the
Amazon. The whole matter should be under Government control,
and seed in such quantities imported that a sufficient supply for the
needs of the whole Peninsula could be assured. I would also
suggest that a Mycologist be sent with the expedition to "tudy any
disease that might attack trees in their wild state. Experiments in
variation of yield might also be made on the spot.

The future of the rubber industry demands immediate action.
Such an expedition as suggested would naturally entail considerable
expenditure, but even .£50,000 or £100,000 would not be too much to
pay for the protection of the immense interests at stake.

The example of the Dutch Netherlands Indies Government in
taking control of all tobacco, sugar and cinchona seed distribution
should be a sufficient indication to our own Government of the
necessity of controlling an industry which is now rapidly becoming,
if it has not already become, their chief source of revenue.

Discussion,

The Chairman (Mr. R>. W. Munro) : We have heard something
extraordinarily interesting just now. We expected to have another
paper to-day on this subject, but I think we can take it as read, as it
will be duly published. But this from Mr. Malet is quite one of the
most interesting we have ever had. Any planter in any country
knows the position and knows it from the start. But the whole
question covers so much ground that, it is rather difficult to see how
we are going to start this very excellent proposition. In importing
seeds and trees tb^re are difficulties, but the seed which you wish to
have imported is the chief thing after all. The principle laid down
by Mr. Malet is, of course, sound. In giving my own opinion on the
matter I should certainly say that all of us planters entirely agree
with everything that Mr. Malet says. We are, I am sure, much
obliged to him for his very interesting paper.

38

RUBBER SEED SELECTION.

By J. McNicol,

(Manager j Kuala Pertang Estate , Kelantan.)

rpHE Rubber Industry has now reached a stage when it belioves
planters and others directly interested to consider the welfare
of their plantations.

There is no gainsaying the fact that luck has followed in the
footsteps of rubber planting, and no great credit for its success can
be claimed by any one in particular up to the present. Even to-day,
you can scarcely find two planters — or would-be experts — to agree
on the fundamental principles of the industry. The reason for this
divergence of opinion would seem to be, that individual planters
have not had the time, nor inclination, to make the necessary study
of the why and wherefore ; consequently, the industry from the
point of view of scientific cultivation is still in its infancy.

The majority of estates are now producing, and handsome
profits on their production are still obtainable. Therefore, the time
seems opportune for giving a little more consideration and study
to matters which may have an important bearing on the future
welfare of the industry, and may ensure it being established on a
sound business footing.

There are many points which require elucidation, but the writer
proposes to touch upon one only — viz., Seed Selection, which,
in his mind, is the paramount essential, requiring our most careful
study. The quality of the trees is best decided by direct experiment
in the field, and having in view ways and means of procuring
trees capable of giving the greatest latex yields combined with
longevity, it may be of interest to record here what is taking place
on the writer’s estate with regard to this vital problem of seed
selection, in the hope that it may encourage others to take up
the all important subject on a much larger scale.

The original trees from which seeds were selected had been
grown from seeds procured from some of the oldest estates in the
Federated Malay States. Careful note lias been kept of the
respective latex yields daily, over a period of not less than a year
— and still continue — from selected trees throughout the estate,
Notes are regularly made as to general growth and appearance,
and during the recognized seeding season, seeds from those trees
which have shown the best results were gathered by an European
personally, and not left to the discretion of ordinary coolies or
mandors, whose work is never so thorough or reliable. This matter
of gathering by a perfectly trustworthy person is all important,

c

84

because unless the data is absolutely correct, in records of experi-
ment, the whole is useless. I may here remark Jffiat as the
seed-pods burst, the seeds are scattered broadcast, and there would
appear to be some difficulty, in fact, an apparent impossibility,
in selecting the particular seeds of any one tree from the host of
others lying intermixed on the ground. With a little care and
close observation as to shape, colour and size, the task becomes
simple. Further, it may be pointed out that no two trees have
exactly the same seed formation. There is always some little
* peculiarity in the seeds of each tree, and the original pods which
contained the seeds vary. Should doubt still exist pull a pod
from the tree in question, open it and place a supposed seed in one
of the sections. The observer will at once see whether it fits or
otherwise, the outline of all seeds from the same tree being more or
less alike. Again, one known seed of any one tree is always kept for
comparison and from quite a large collection of mixed seeds we found
no difficulty in separating those known from the unknown.

Having now detailed the first course of procedure, the next
operation is to plant out the selected seeds as quickly as possible
after collection, otherwise they soon lose their vitality, in a specially
prepared nursery, each lot of seeds being kept entirely by itself :
thus providing a safe-guard against any chance of the lots being
inadvertently mixed when the seedlings are pulled for planting out.

While the seeds were germinating, an area of 15 acres of virgin
jungle, slightly undulating and naturally drained, had been cleared,
holed and made ready for planting out the young seedlings in the
month of November. That mouth is selected because it comes at a
time of yeai 1 when the wet-season is with us, and every other day is
dull or cloudy : thus ensuring a much better chance of successful
life to the young plants.

Each respective lot of seedlings was carefully drawn from the
nursery and planted out in the prepared holes in the formation of
squares, fifty to a hundred seedlings in each square, 20' x 20' distance
apart. Every square is numbered, aud on the original plan-sheet
all particulars of the parent tree are recorded ; also where situate on
the estate, so that when the young seedlings reach the age of
maturity comparison can be made.

Up to date, we can observe a great similarity to the parent tree
in so far as growth and general appearance goes, and we have every
reason to feel justified in thinking that the experiment well warrants
the time and trouble taken.

It is not our intention to tap those trees at an age when girth
might warrant it, as is usually done in the ordinary course. They
will be given every justice, with the sole idea of keeping them
purely for seed-selection in the future, should the experiment bear
out our anticipations.

35

Flaws may be found in the experiment, but nothing can be
accomplished without expenditure of labour and thought, and should
the only result be the gratification of one’s own curiosity or hobby,
it is surely a step in the right direction.

With reference to the question of seed selection the following
interesting note indicates what work is being done at the Botanic
Gardens, Singapore, with a view to obtaining high-yielding strains of
rubber frees by careful selection of seed. (Ed.)

In p letter to the Director of Agriculture, Federated Malay
States, Mr. Burkill observes :

“ When a block is tapped the good trees and the bad trees are
marked with crosses of red or green ; and out of them further
selecting will be' done. The indifferent trees are not marked. But
three trees have been particularly selected on account of their
well-established yield, and put out of tapping that they may furnish
the best possible seed. The first choice is tree No. 27 and not only
hafe it been put out of tapping but its neighbours have been cut back
that it may have more light. Seeds of it will be distributed to you
and others as soon as available.”

36

PESTS AND DISEASES.

Visit to Laboratories.

the occasion of the visit to the Offices of the Department of
Agriculture on the 26th April, an inspection was made of the
laboratories, a description of which is given below :

Mycological Laboratory.

A number of specimens of diseases had been prepared and
arranged by Mr. W. N. C. Belgrave (Acting Mycologist) and
Mr. F. de la Mare Norris (Assistant Agricultural Inspector) the
exhibits, in addition to specimens of parasitic fungi, included several
of the common saprophytes, e.g., several Xylaria sp., often found
on decaying timber.

Among the parasitic fungi, there were specimens of pink disease
in all its stages, die-back (Dijilodia), thread-blight, Ustulina zonata,
including all the different forms of fructification, Poria, Fomes,
including a very fine resupinate fructification, brown root disease,
Sphserostilhe repe?i8, and black stripe canker. Particularly interest-
ing was a specimen of an old tree attacked by “ black stripe ” into
which the disease had penetrated to a depth of six inches.

Visitors were also shown pure cultures of most of the above
fungi, and the method of making them.

Entomological Laboratory.

Exhibits prepared by Mr. P. B. Richards (Acting Entomologist)
and Mr. C. B. Holman-Hunt (Systematic Entomologist) illustrated
the common pests of cultivated plants in Malaya, the different stages
in the life histories of the more important insects being displayed.
The classification of the white ants was illustrated by a series of
microscope preparations, while the structure of the nest, the social
organization and the habits of the white ant of rubber, Termes
gestroi , were demonstrated in some detail.

From the general insect collection cases were prepared to
illustrate the classification of the Insecta, and considerable interest
was shown in an exhibit of curious and rare insects,

CLEAN CLEARING, PESTS AND DISEASES.

By W. R. Shelton -Agar,

(Manager, Kamuning Estate, Perak, F.M.8 . )

If I were asked to classify the various diseases and pests
according to their relative activity in regard to rubber plant life,
I should put disease into two classes —

(1) “ Those that are fatal ” ;

(2) “ Those that are amenable to treatment ” ;

and pests into both, viz, :

Fatal class (I).

All root diseases — such as
Fomes, Hymenochsete, Ustulina
and Poria.

Amenable class (II).

Stem and bark diseases — such
as pink disease, Dijplodia, thread
blight and cankers.

Pests — Termes gestroi and borers.

1. do not include vermin, as most wild animals, so far as rubber
is concerned, could be classed as such and measures to deal with
them, as a rule, are easily attended to.

As it will be impossible in a paper of this kind to deal
individually with them all, I shall merely offer, for discussion
categorically, four salient points :

Prevention ; Incidence and

Treatment ; Control.

Prevention of Disease.

So long as there is “ no cure ” for any fatal disease, obviously
the next best thing is prevention.

Now prevention in this case means eliminating causability, or, in
other words, having reference to all the fatal diseases and pests
of class one.

The argument in favour of “ clean clearing ” is not mere theory,
it has a practical side as well. Take those rubber estates that have
been developed out of old tobacco, tapioca and lalang lands, they
rarely give evidence of any appreciable trouble, and though we
have these practical illustrations, timber clearing has never yet
gained the whole-hearted support it merits. In some cases it is
undoubtedly a matter of £ s, d., but in others it is not so. Some
planters hold that by clearing timber much valuable humus matter
is lost,” and also that “ no immunity exists from pests and disease so
long as the roots and stumps of trees are allow ed to remain in the
ground.”

These are admittedly weighty views, and the arguments are
correct up to a point.

On the first point there is no doubt at all. One lias only to turn
over any old log, to see the countless feeding rubber rootlets that are
gormandizing on the available collection of vegetable humus matter.
Also memory still lives in regard to other agriculture, such as tea,
coffee, etc., in which the best fields were always those that were most
heavily timbered.

In. rubber, however, we have to remember that decomposing
or rotten timber is not only a hot-bed of infection but a nursery
as well for the spread of fungoid diseases. Poria and ZJstulina , for
instance, are among the principal agencies that cause decay.
Further, by leaving undestroyed timber and stumps of the “ leranti,”
“ merbau,” and “ kompas ” type, we are only offering homes for the
development of gestroi and borers.

What is the best way, then, of getting rid of one’s timber ?

1 think, when opening up new land, we should adopt a “ double-
felling” method, after the style of old Ceylon coffee planters, i.e.,
allow the clearing to grow, up again for a year after the first felling.
Then re-fell and burn off. The result of this operation ensures a
thoroughly clean burn and, in view of our present-day knowledge, it
seems to me that, in the case of rubber, this is essentially what
is required.

As regards the second contention, mere up-rooting of small
stumps does not present serious difficulty. Nor is it highly
expensive. But to pull out and root the boles of large trees is
costly and might run almost into any figure. In fact, to tackle
really big stuff is financially prohibitive.

What, then, is one to do ? In such cases, to my mind, there
is ouly one practical course of action, viz,, isolate the bole by
trenching (a distance of three feet is good enough) and if possible
“ run ” any big lateral.

As a rule, two years after the original burn will see most of the
soft woods in a state when they can be “ fired,” and in another two
to three years only the very hardest will remain. If then “firing”
operations are taken in hand at the times mentioned and steadily
kept up, no great initial expense should be incurred to secure
satisfactory destruction.

Now in regal’d to cost. Up to what point is one justified in
incurring expenditure P There is only one way to answer this, and
thht is to apply the “ will-it-pay ” test. Let us take the two
principal items of estate costs, i.e., weeding and tapping. In my
experience, there are few heavily- timbered fields that have cost less
than $1.05 per acre per month (average) to weed during the first
five years. Had they been free of timber, I should have put their
cost at an average of 80 cents or less. This represents a saving
of $15 per acre.

39

Then as regards tapping. The increase any tapper can do is at
least a T l ^th larger task on clean-cleared land. Put this into figures
over the first five years of tapping and another saving of §18 per
acre will be realized. That is, a total of §33 per acre on two items
only ; in the first five years of each period.

The following example should explain what is meant :

Weeding.

(A)

Cost per acre
per month.

(B)

Cost per acre
per month.

1st year average

§1.50

§1.25

2nd

1.25

1.00

3rd

.. * 1.00

.75

4th

.75

.50

5th „

.75

.50

Totals

§5.25

§4.00

Average

... § 1.05 ...

§ .80

Gross cost, five years

... 63.00 ...

48.00

Saving per acre in five years

15.00

Note. — (A) — Uncleared of timber.

(B) — Free of timber.

Tapping.

Task per cooly, 364 trees l/10th = 400 trees.

At 100 trees per acre labour required 1 ^ cooly — (4 acres) =
one cooly.

Cost.

At 40 cents wages (say

30 days)

§ 13.20 p.m.

.. § 12

792

720

Gross cost, five years . . .

"4"

•• ~T

Actual cost per acre . . .

198

. 180

Saving per acre in five

years

...

. 18

The above are obviously “arbitrary” figures, but are reasonably
arbitrary. They are not exaggerated instances.

This matter of saving could be still further carried down, i.e.,
saving in cooly labour, housing, medical, etc., but enough, I think,
has been said to show that from the financial stand point, a consider-
able sum of money can be outlaid profitably — profitably not only
in the sense of benefit to our production cost, but to the ultimate
benefit of the estate, by improved plant sanitation.

£

40

Treatment of Disease,

To be effective, treatment ought not to be merely a combative
measure. It should also be curative. On this principle 1 have
based my classification.

So far as the subject has reference to those diseases and pests
that I have classed as “amenable to treatment” I only intend to
touch on a few of the more important, i.e.,

(1) Phythopthora , because, to my thinking, canker is about

the nastiest thing we have to contend with ;

(2) Pink disease, because of the application of different

methods ;

(3) Gestroi , in regard to the use of pumps.

(1). Phythopthora. The ordinary planter knows it under three
headings :

(a) Black line or black thread canker ;

( b ) Bark rot (claret canker) ;

(c) Leaf and pod disease.

Whether these three are all one and the same matters little.
The fact remains, they ai’e so closely allied, that curative and
preventive operations (to be successful) should be worked conjunc-
tively and as part of the same scheme.

In regard to black thread canker : estates in Burma have
furnished ns with most experience, and from my knowledge of them
and from what 1 have seen there it is my opinion, that this disease
can be effectively dealt with, by adopting a combination of rules as
follows :

(1) No tapping on any very damp day ;

(2) Decrease frequency of tapping on a'ny field so attacked, as

progress of disease is checked on cessation of tapping

or by dry weather.

The more constant the opening of a wound the more suscept-
ible and receptive it becomes, as black thread canker is a wound
parasite and it attacks the delicate tissue exposed by tapping.

(3) The immediate painting of all diseased parts or wounds

with Jodelite, which gives a sort of protective covering

by systematic painting on a monthly round ;

(4) Sanitation firing, i.e., systematically burning all. leaves

and droppings ; and

(5) Above all things avoid cambium wounding, which means

no deep tapping.

Chiselling the disease out of a tree is not looked upon with any
favour in Burma, and I personally share this view, also shared by
H. C. Pratt. This does not refer to burr and nodule removal and if
the painting mentioned elsewhere is put in — Jodelite — any of them
will penetrate this and destroy it. If the disease is so bad as to

41

require the adoption of this method, the tree had better come out
altogether, for, in the majority of cases, a healthy tree will throw
off a slight attack.

This criticism I would also apply to bark rot or claret canker,
which, in nine cases out of ten, escapes notice until too far gone.

When leaf, pod or branch canker occurs cutting out or lopping
off and burning affected parts, followed by sanitation firing and
cliangkolling, offers to my mind the soundest treatment.

Another alternative is to lime and bury the fallen deposit.

In Ceylon, again, research work lays great stress on the value of
cultivation. And another recommendation, also from Ceylon, is to
make a thorough inspection and clean out all dead branches and parts,
etc., just after wintering is over. This, in my opinion, is very sound.

(2) Pink disease, — In the treatment of this disease, Federated
Malay States planters follow tw*o schools of thought. We have the
“ painters ” and the “ surgeons ” and each “ grinds an axe ” of
plausible argument.

Which method is correct ? Personally I lean to the surgical
operation and opine that the knife should be used in all but
exceptional cases. My observations are that where painting is the
vogue, such estates never seem to get free of the disease, whereas,
where the knife has been liberally used, conditions are nearly always
reversed even on estates in the same district.

(3) Gestroi. — Though machines for pumping and distributing
arsenical fumes for the destruction of gestroi are most useful and
efficacious, alone they do not constitute a cure — that is a cure
in the sense of ridding an estate of this pest. Termitariums
have to be searched out and destroyed, and as these are invariably
located in logs or stumps and a sine qua non to successful operation
is the removal of timber, etc. Where the pump is most useful is
in dealing with the rubber tree itself.

Any attacked tree that is “ pitted ” and shows “ tears of latex,”
means gestroi inside and also borers, but there is always a difference
which is easily ascertained. The latter’s droppings are always
visible. Therefore, use an “augur” on it. Bore a hole first and then
pump. Afterwards plug the hole with a bit of hard wood dipped in
Jod elite, cut off flush with the tree, and tar.

There is nothing difficult in the actual use of the machine, but
it is important to see :

(1) That the correct mixture is used;

(2) That a “ red ” fire is in the brazier ;

(3) That each tree or log gets a thorough drenching, giving

five minutes pumping to each dose of mixture put in
the brazier, and not less than five to six doses per tree ;

(4) Always carry an augur and don’t be afraid to use it.

AS

42

On peaty lands or soils that crack, pumps are useless. In such
cases there is no alternative but to apply Towgood’s system of
search for termitariums, vide H. C. Pratt’s “ Observations on Termes
Gestroi

The external application of sundry poisons or forking insecticides
into the ground at best only affords temporary relief.

In the matter of wound protection, my experience is that borers
have no regard for tar at all ; while on the other hand “ jodelited ”
wounds are nearly always immune from attack. The most successful
covering I have used is a combination of the two, i.e ., Jodelite as a
first coat and tar as the next.

Incidence of Disease.

If we could forecast accurately the incidence of development and
if we knew exactly when to expect the appearance of certain types of
disease, this would go a long way towards solving many planting
difficulties. For instance, we should know, the approximate period
of time available wherein to complete preventive measures and also
up to what point initiating a process of treatment would be valuable.
With greater knowledge on this point, each estate would have a
better chance of working out its own salvation. At present,
unfortunately, we have little to guide us other than individual
observation, which, of course, is unsatisfactory to base any working-
rule on. As a beginning I record below my own ideas on their
sequence and incidence.

(1) Hymenochate —

Generally occurs during 1st year. Occasionally also in 3rd
year, but not often.

(2) Fomes and Biplodia — -

Commence end of 2nd year and • seldom seen after 4tli year
(if treated). Greatest activity immediately after rainy
season. . Fomes development is rapid.

(3) Pink disease ■ —

Appears early 3rd year. There is a pink and black variety.
Both are inimical and are always constant. Activity is most
noticeable during rains immediately following dry weather.

(4) TJstulina and Poria —

Robber fatalities do not often occur under eight to ten years
old and, as a rule, trees are older. Both diseases are slow
in development. Attacked rubber yields well for several
years until the trees “ snuff out.”

(5) Black line canker or black thread disease —

May be looked for in the first year of tapping and is more
serious when tapping on renewed bark. Most active in
damp weather.

43

(6) Claret canker —

As a rule, found on trees 10 to 15 years old. ( See No. 5
remarks.)

(7) Leaf and pod disease —

Attacks rubber of any age and is most active after a spell of
rain. Irregular defoliation of young rubber, such as
“ double- wintering,” etc., is suggestive and should always be
carefully examined. *

Contbol of Disease.

Thi is where, I think, our planting system fails. Most
planters have a “ nodding ” acquaintance with the history and
treatment of the various disease and pests common to the country,
but, is this sufficient ? Take the generality of estates out here.
They rely almost entirely on the planting manager. He does his
best “according to the book,” but, is it satisfactory in reality?
Consider too, that each manager in turn relies on a working- cooly
gang very briefly supervised. Is it not possible that something
really essential has been missed or left undone ? Is a system
controlling scientific work based on such lines correct ? It is true,
our losses from all causes of pest and disease would probably never
total what we have had to thin out, but is that adequate insurance
against the futnre ?

“We planters are not 'rubber doctors.’” I have even heard it
said that we are only “ crude agriculturists,” which is probably true,
because the economic equation to" our training is the “ almighty cost,
per lb.” or “cost per acre” as the case may be. Therefore, if we are
Jto keep up with a science that daily claims a larger share in the ethics
of present-day planting methods, and if we are successfully to apply
these teachings, ought there not to be on every estate a co-ordinate
staff of some kind trained for field operations if not in actual control ?

We have already group hospitals and group doctors. Why not
mycologists ?

This is tli e most effective means of getting into close contact.
A man who is on the spot can devote his attention to things. A
visiting mycologist only touches the surface. This could be further
elaborated by kranis, overseers, and conductors, being taught a
certain amouut of practical work in technical schools. In India,
I believe, a great deal has been done and they turn out some very
good men. What we want are such men who would take up a
position in the working staff, correlative with doctors, dressers,
attendants, etc., in the medical line. This slap-dash, easy-going
method of ours is all wrong, and I believe the industry must waken
up sooner or later to this.

44

DISEASES OF THE LEAVES AND STEM OF HEVEA
BRASILIENSIS IN THE MALAY PENINSULA.

By R. M. Richards, a.r.c.sc.

(Mycologist, M.P.A. Association.)

TXITHERTO the tree from which plantation rubber is obtained
“ L " L has not suffered from any serious epidemic disease. Only a
purely parasitic fungus which would favour Hevea as a host is
likely to cause an epidemic disease and it is those parts of the tree
above ground which would be subject to infection. Root diseases
have been and are serious enough on some estates but it is a fact that
the various fungi, which cause diseases of the root system of Hevea
in this country are preventable — that is to say, by certain means,
whether they be considered impracticable or otherwise, it is possible
to create conditions which exclude the chance of infection.

It is quite another matter, however, to prevent air-borne spores
of a parasitic fungus from affecting parts of the tree above ground.
I do not wish to infer that it is not possible to prevent serious loss
from attacks of air-borne diseases for no unsurmoun table difficulty
has been encountered in dealing with the diseases of the leaves and
stem known to us up to the present time.

The Para rubber tree in this country has so far shown itself to
be a particularly healthy plant, but let it be realized that only b} r the
treatment of diseases as they appear can we hope to keep up to this*
standard. The planting of enormous tracts o£ contiguous areas with
the one kind of plant renders conditions ideal in this country for the
rapid propagation of disease and only by careful vigilance in the
treatment of disease and by the immediate adoption of remedial
measures can the rubber plantation industry keep its position of
security.

Where planted areas have suffered severe loss through disease
up to the present time, in the majority of cases this loss has been
due to carelessness or indifference, to the adoption of unsound
methods of plant sanitation owing, possibly, to false ideas of economy,
to the want of expert assistance at the time when the trouble arose
or to begrudging money for treating disease.

In Ceylon a species of Phyiophthora causes an abnormal leaf-
fail during the wet weather from J uly to September. The fungus is
said to spread from diseased fruit pods to the leaf stalk. The
attacks on the leaf stalk appear to cause the production of an
abscission layer at the base of the leaf stalk and so cause the fall of
the leaf. In wintering seasons the abscission layer is normally

45

produced to effect defoliation. So far this abnormal leaf-fail has not
been recorded, oi’ at any rate I have not seen any cases of it, in this
country.

The leaves of nursery plants are attacked by several fungi but
none of them are serious and I do not consider it necessary to
describe them in detail here.

Two fungi are commonly found on leaves which turn brown or
yellow at the edges, Gleosporium albo-ruhrum and Phyllosticta
ramicola. These will be referred to later in considering stem
diseases. They do not cause serious diseases of the leaves.

Cephaleuros sp.

This alga which is found commonly on the under sides of leaves
where it produces small brown spots has no economic importance.
The “ red rust ” of tea, a serious disease in India, is caused by a
similar Cephaleuros. It is worth noticing in passing that such
an alga has been found penetrating the leaf tissue of Hevea as most
diseases associated with the tea plant are also common to Hevea.

No leaf diseases have any economic importance. Fortunately,
no fungus belonging to the family TJredinese has been found on
Hevea leaves. It is to this ^family that Hemileia v astatrix, the
cause of the well-known coffee leaf disease which ruined the culti-
vation of coffee in Ceylon, belongs. It is quite possible that a
member of this family might adapt itself to the leaf of the rubber
tree and might even have equally devastating effects as Hemileia in
Ceylon but at the present time that does not seem probable.

The consideration of leaf diseases need not keep us any longer.
Owing to the particular nature of the leaf it is, perhaps, naturally
not particularly suitable as the host for parasitic fungi.

DISEASES OF THE STEM.

Of the stem diseases now recorded in this country the most
serious are those caused by Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease),
Phytophthora faberi (bark canker), Phytophthora species (causing
decay of the tapped surface) and Botryodiplodia tkeobromat (die-back).

Other fungi causing disease are Phyllosticta ramicola , Gleo-
sporium albo-ruhrum (forerunners of die-back), Cypliella hevefe
(thread blight) and the abnormal condition of the stem, which I
must include here, caused by burrs.

Pink Disease ( Corticium salmonicolor).

In Java and in this country this disease is exceedingly common.
The disease was very fully investigated in Java by Zimmerman
Zehnter and Rant, and in this country by Brooks and Sharpies.
The literature obtainable on this subject is considerable and in
compiling a summary for purposes of discussion I must point out
that this literature gives a very complete account of the disease.

46

South, the Agricultural Inspector, Federated Malay States, in
December, 1915, published a paper on the “Distribution and Field
Treatment of Pink Disease” in the Agricultural Bulletin. In this
paper we are told that the disease was then known to exist on 154
estates (of over 100 acres in extent) in Perak, Negri Sembilan,
Selangor, Pahang and Johore. I can add that the disease is not
unknown in Province Wellesley and Kedah. It is true that there
are certain limited areas where the disease is much more common
than in other parts of the country but since 1913 it has become much
more widely spread.

It is sometimes observed that when the main stem or large
branches are attacked the fungus apparently dies during a spell of
dry weather and the affected bark cracks and dries up and a lip or
callus forms on the healthy bark at the margin of the wound. In
some cases the disease is thrown off in this way but more often it
begins to develop again as more suitable conditions, rainy weather,
arise. The disease first appears sporadically, that is, isolated affected
trees are found here and there in the planted areas but unless
checked it soon begins to spread.

Various methods of treatment have been tried and among these
I have found only one which I consider successful. Spraying with
fungicides need not be discussed at all as it is quite impracticable as
a method of treatment of affected trees. If it were considered that
the disease might cause a serious epidemic then spraying might have
to be undertaken as a preventive measure.

Brooks and Sharpies considered that the best method of treat-
ment was the application of tar to the affected parts of the bark.
South in an article to which I have already referred (published
December, 1915) stated “ The year’s additional experience has,
however, shown all the officers of the Agricultural Department
connected with this work that the treatment originally recommended
by the Mycologists is not sufficiently vigorous and drastic. More
cutting and less tarring is generally advisable, while the pest gang
should be large enough to make one complete round each fortnight
or at the very longest every three weeks.*” Mr. South may have
changed his opinion since then but the conclusions which he arrived
at at this date do not appeal to me at all. 1 think the better
treatment is the covering of affected parts of branches with a
mixture of tar and crude. oil (80 per cent, tar to 20 per cent. oil).

The whole circumference of the bark well above and well
below the area affected should be covered with this mixture. If
the disease is found in its early stages the application of the
mixture checks its progress and actually in practice no further
treatment is necessary in a very large percentage of cases. Should
the treatment not be successful the branch may be cut off but only
after treatment.

47

The very drastic method of cutting away affected branches
which more often than not means cutting off the top of the tree
or a well developed branch affected by a spore-producing fungus
tends to accelerate the dissemination of the spores. If any .cutting
away has to be employed the tar and oil mixture should be
applied first.

The oil is mixed witli the tar to prevent drying and not
because this mixture has any more penetrative power than tar only.
After using this method of treatment for nearly two years I am
quite satisfied, and I am sure many planters who have adopted
the method will agree with me, that it is the only method of
treatment which is at all satisfactory.

I agree with Brooks and Sharpies in their statement in Bulletin
No. 21 of the Department of Agriculture that “where a considerable
amount of ‘ pink ’• disease is present one can scarcely expect to
eradicate it completely” but it is possible by treatment not only
to check the spread of the disease but also to effect a cure without
the loss of branches which are essential for the production of good
yields of rubber.

Individual estates can check the spread of the disease from
within but frequently there are neighbouring estates and kampongs
where the disease is not treated equally well and it is impossible
to check the disease to the extent one could wish.

I am of the opinion that the treatment of the disease in native
holdings and kampongs needs revision. Pink disease has increased
very considerably during the past three years and I think this is
mainly due to the fact that it is not under control in districts
where it is rife and I am one, among many, no doubt, who attribute
renewed outbreaks to fresh infectious from outside sources, chiefly
from native holdings.

It is absolutely essential to employ a pest gang constantly
on all plantations where pink disease has been discovered if any real
results in checking the disease in the country are to be obtained.

Die-Back ( Botryodiplodia theobromee).

The fungus which after pink disease has up to the present
caused the greatest amount of injury to the parts of the tree
above ground is the disease which, because of the way in which it
travels down the tree killing the branches and main stem in its
progress, has been called and is known as die-back.

Botryodiplodia theobromm may make its attack in a variety of
ways ; the commonest method, as far as my experience goes, is to
enter young shoots killed by two parasitic fungi, Phyllosticta
ramicola and Glwosporium albo-rubrum , or by one of these; but it
may enter a wound of any kind. The fungus appears to be"’

28 •

48

essentially a wound parasite whether the wound which affords the
place of entry is associated with the attack of another fungus such
as those just mentioned or Corticium or whether the wound be
caused by a dead twig or Iwoken branch. However the entry is
effected the hyphse begin to spread downwards in the tissue in the
young wood or young bark, that is near the position of the cambium,
killing the tree in a characteristic manner. It has generally been
my experience to find groups of trees affected together, usually
small groups.

On one estate I recall an occasion on which 150 trees of seven
years old were found affected in one group. A few of these trees,
not more than six, were killed but many of the others had to be cut
back below the fork. Usually one tree is found killed and a
group of trees in the immediate vicinity more or less seriously
affected.

The only method of treatment is to efit down all trees killed by
the disease and to remove all affected branches of trees which have
not suffered so severely. However slight the attack the affected
parts must be removed. All attacked parts of trees should be
destroyed by fire immediately. Tt is necessary to act immediately
when dealing with this disease as it develops and spreads down the
tree with great rapidity. Dead rubber trees and branches should
not be allowed to remain lying about in plantations. Any part of
a dead rubber tree affords a most suitable place for the development
of the fungus and indeed it can almost invariably be found on dead
rubber branches or stems.

During the time I have worked in Malaya I have not been able
to find the stage described by Bancroft as the ascus stage in the life
history of the fungus which he considered to be the higher stage of
Botryodiplodia and for this reason re-named the fungus Thyridaria
tarda. There is no confirmation of the existence of such a form and
until Bancroft’s work is confirmed Botryodiplodia theobromm as a
name has tlie prior claim.

Phyllosticta ramicola and Glceosporium albo-rubrum.

For the purposes of this paper these two fungi may be dealt
with together as they are frequently intimately mixed on the same
affected branch or twig. The two fungi are parasitic and usually
affect the uppermost twigs which still have a green epidermis or
skin — that is, where cork has not yet been formed.

Phyllosticta generally makes its attack at a point 6 to 18 inches
below the apex of the shoot. When first noticed a brown patch may
be observed which later spreads upwards and downwards killing the
twig. Usually the fungus spreads no further down than two to three
feet below the apex. Glceosporium has a similar mode of attack.
It is usually immediately after wintering when the leaves are just

49

unfolding that the attacks of these fungi occur most commonly. I
have seen several thousand trees affected on one estate within a few
weeks. Glceosporium is frequently the cause of the fall of tlie
young leaves before they are fully developed — an effect of not
uncommon occurrence.

As far as these two fungi are alone concerned the attacks
are not dangerous. Dead twigs killed by the fungi are often found
but the disease spreads no further. The real danger lies in the
fact that their attacks afford opportunity for the entrance of
Botryodiplodia and for this reason affected branches should be
removed and all diseased portions burned.

More often than not, especially in fiat lands, Botryodiplodia
makes its entrance after the attacks of these fungi and therefore
it is necessary that the utmost precautions should be taken to
prevent a serious local epidemic of die-back.

Thread-Blight.

The mycelial strands of this fungus appear like white threads
running along the small branches and twigs of affected trees
collecting and binding together leaves in bunches. Leaves are
frequently killed and sometimes small branches. The bunches of
dead leaves and leaf stalks found bound together by the threads
render the fungus conspicuous.

Dead leaves or collections of leaves may be broken off and
carried by wind or some other agency to other healthy trees where
the fungus may start developing again and so spread the disease.
Leaves of two trees may, so to speak, be sewn together by the
threads and this is another way of spreading the infection.

Fortunately, the disease is easily treated by cutting away
affected parts and as generally only small branches are attacked the
loss occasioned is insignificant.

On one plantation I found this fungus in fructification and sent
it to Kew for identification where Massee named it Cyphella heve&,
but this is a matter which required further evidence or confirmation
before we can be satisfied that the fungus belongs to this particular
geuus.

Phytophthora species.

Here I come to the most important part of my paper. In
Ceylon, South India, Burma, Java and Sumatra a disease known as
canker and proved to be caused by Phytophthora Faheri has been
known for several years. The disease was found in Ceylon in 1903.
In January last I heard that on a certain estate a disease had
appeared on the tapped surface. Through the courtesy of the
manager I was permitted to look round the estate and it was
obvious at once that the disease was extremely serious for in 500
acres of well-matured rubber tapping had ceased. I was not able to

D

iFi *

50

obtain any material to work on for all the affected trees had been
subjected to treatment. In February again, through the kind
permission of the manager, I was able to visit another estate
200 miles away from the first where apparently a disease of a similar
nature had occurred. Sharpies, the Government Mycologist, was
visiting this estate and he isolated the fungus Phytophthora from
the diseased bark. Within a day or two I visited an estate which it
is my privilege to visit regularly and there found a considerable
number of trees with this same disease. I have now isolated the
fungus from material collected. From evidence collected it appears
that the fungus is not Phytophthora Faberi. but another species of
the same genus.

The disease is undoubtedly the same as that known as “ bark
rot ” in Ceylon, “ black thread disease of Hevea” in Burma, and one
form of canker (vertical black line) in Java. Infection only takes
place on the most recently tapped sux*face and, therefore, the fungus
appears to be a wound parasite. Essentially the disease is a decay
of the tapped surface. The most recently tapped bark immediately
above the tapping cut shows vertical black lines varying in
length up to one inch or more, and these on removal of the bark
are shown to continue into the wood. This “ bark rot ” may spread
and several “lines” of decay may coalesce to form small
blackened or sometimes greyish, roughly rectangular areas of dead
bark. Further, as the fungus develops several areas may coalesce,
producing a decayed area of bark just above the tapping cut and
right across the tapped area. Superficially the lines often appear
as slits or vertical depressions some little distance above the tapping
cut, but frequently, at an early stage, the lines may only be
discovered by removing the thin outer-layer. As Dastur has pointed
out the depressions may be due to the collapse of the cell walls of
the outer tissues. Rutgers in Java, Dastur in Burma, and Macrae in
India have proved that the decay of the tapped surface or “ bark rot ”
is due to an infection of Phytophthora. That a species of this
fungus is the actual cause of the decay is beyond all doubt since
these three independent workers obtained positive results by infection
experiments. That work has also been done in this country by
Messrs. Belgrave and Norris in the Agricultural Department.

In Ceylon, Petch has shown that there are four diff extent diseases
caused by Phytophthora Faberi— namely, stem canker, “ bark rot ” of
the tapping surface, abnormal leaf fall and pod disease, but recent
evidence goes to show that more than one species of Phytophthora
is responsible for these diseases.

Until January last I had not seen any sign of a disease caused
by Phytophthora on any of the estates 1 visit regularly but I am
inclined to think that the “ bark rot ” of the tapping sxirface is now
extremely common in the country.

51

Bark canker. — The fungus causing this disease appears to be
Phytophthora Faberi ; there being then two distinct forms of disease
apparently caused by different species of the same genus. The
fungus was known to cause a canker on Hevea as long ago as
1903 in Ceylon. In this country, however, as far as I am aware the
disease has only recently been found.

Certainly on estates I visit I had not been able to attribute any
pathological condition to the fungus Phytophthora until March of
this year. The disease starts in patches usually on or near the
tapped bark but they may appear at a higher level. It is possible
that the first indication may be that the tree ceases to yield latex.
If undiscovered at an early stage the decaying tissue will attract
borers and the appearance of boring beetles may be the first visible
sign. In all cases when latex ceases to flow the bark should be
lightly scraped ; if a green layer is found the tree is healthy.
Sometimes, in the case of trees with a very scaly outer bark, the
green layer is not very obvious. If the tree is attacked by the
fungus Phytophthora. Faberi a black layer is found on lightly scraping
and the cortex beueath is variously coloured, greyish, brown or dirty
red or purple red according to the stage in the attack, i.e., it may be
greyish in the early stage or may be very dirty red which changes
to purple red on exposure in advanced cases.

The diseased patch usually has a well-defined dark border.
No latex will flow from patches of cankered bark but surrounding
bark may yield extraordinary quantities. It must be understood
that the colour of the bark only applies to the internal layers of
bark and that it can only be detected by scraping away outer layers.
Usually there is no external indication of the disease. The disease
is capable of spreading and may kill the whole bark from the point
of attack to the position of origin of first branches or higher or all
the bark of the main stem. Boring beetles are attracted by a
peculiar smell, which appears to be characteristic of the cankered
bark, and they may possibly cause more injury than the canker itself.

Treatment. — The red canker patches of bark canker must be
excised or scraped if patches can be found where the disease has not
affected the inner tissue to the cambium and the wounds so caused
painted with a 20 per cent, solution of brunolinum in water and soft
soap and later covered with coal tax*. It is useless trying to apply
any form of treatment in the case of badly affected trees where
boxing beetles have made their entiy into the wood. These ti’ees
should be cut out and burnt.

As regards the treatment of “ black thread disease 15 or the
“bark rot” of the tapping surface I will here indicate methods
advised by other economic mycologists in various countries.

Rutgers and Ai*ens in Java suggest that “ tapping be stopped
and the cuts treated every five days with a 20 per cent, solution of

52

carbolineum or some other disinfectant. After a few weeks tapping*
can be started again ; in some cases it 'is not necessary to stop
tapping.” As preventive measures they point out that free access of
air and light should be given to the trees in the plantation by
thinning out, that there should be a thorough system of drainage
and the use of water in tapping should be avoided,

Dastur, who did the work on the disease in Burma, suggests
cessation of tapping at the first appearance of the disease and the
collection and destruction of all diseased fruits.

In South India an effective method is said to be the ee-sation of
tappiug on affected trees and a mixture of tar and tallow smeared
over the diseased area of bark.

Fetch says “ When the tapped surface shows s'igns of decay it
should be brushed over twice a week for three weeks with a solution
(20 per cent.) of brunolinum (brunolinum one gallon, water four
gallons, soft soap one lb.) The canker patches must be cut out and
the diseased tissue burnt.”

I have not as yet been able to draw any very definite conclusions
from the experimental treatment adopted on the various estates
affected but hereunder I make suggestions which may be acted upon
at once should the disease be found on your estate.

Prior to making suggestions it is necessary to understand the
conditions which favour the growth and spread of the fungus.
All species of Phytophthora, the potato disease of Ireland caused by
Phytophthora infestnns is one example, need excessive humidity for
their development. Any particular cause which has the effect of
preventing the drying up of moisture on the tapping or tapped
surface should he eliminated if such elimination is possible. One
cannot prevent rainfall but it is possible by one or more of several
means to increase the rate at which the moisture on the bark will
evaporate.

It does not follow that because a method of treatment is
successful in one country it is necessarily a success in another
country or another part of the same country because conditions,
particularly atmospheric conditions, vary so considerably.

In Burma, for example, there is a distinct wet season and
it is. during this season that the disease is prevalent. In this
country again it seems to me that the fungus, for some unexplained
reason, penetrates more deeply into the tissues of the plant, to a
considerable depth in the wood, than, from the information obtain-
able, in other parts of the East, where Hevea is planted. It w*ould
appear then that what may be an unavoidably drastic measure in one
place could be extremely unnecessary in others even in the same
country.

53

In all probability the disease is worst on closely planted estates,
where, necessarily, the bark renewal of tapped surfaces is poor since
the increase in girth is slow.

■On estates where the spacing of the trees is adequate to allow
for good growth and rapid renewal it is possible that the trees are
able to throw off the disease.

If the rainfall is unusually excessive the spacing factor would
obviously not have tlie same significance.

Although pruning is not recommended at all in the ordinary
course of events as I consider it necessary to provide all possible leaf
area and not to deprive the tree of any branch if it can be avoided,
it may be necessary to prune in order to increase the distance
between soil and foliage to allow for access of light and air w r here
there are serious outbreaks of the fungus.

Water lying about on tbe surface soil would increase the
moisture content of the atmosphere about tbe level of the tapping
surface, preventing rapid drying and increasing the chances of
infection. Should such a condition exist remedial measures should
be adopted without delay.

It is not easy to give any definite reliable information on the
treatment of tlie disease at the present time for the reason, as I have
stated above, that sufficient time lias not passed to allow one to draw
any sound conclusions.

When trees are badly affected it would seem that superficial
treatment with disinfectants would not check the disease as it could
readily spread in the wood behind the cortex and bark could be
re-infected at a lower or higher level. It would, therefore, be
necessary to cut out tbe affected bark and possibly the superficial
layers of wood — in any case all dead bark should be removed.

The tapped surface of slightly affected trees may be painted
with a 50 per cent, solution of Jodelite (half Jodelite, half water)
or even a stronger solution or a 20 per cent, solution of brunolmum
twice a week for three weeks.

It may be necessary later on to cut out the diseased bark but
such drastic measures should not be taken unless the other method
fails, as the resulting wound is a serious matter.

Iu all cases tapping should cease on affected trees. I have not
seen any evidence to prove that the disease is carried by the tapping
knife but it is quite possible that that may happen. To be on the
safe side it may perhaps be advisable to sterilize the tapping knives
and for this purpose to use a 5 per cent, solution of formalin which
should be carried by tbe tappers in receptacles of some kind large
enough to hold the knife. After each tree is tapped the knife
should be. placed in tlie formalin solution.

54

Where the disease is serious it will be found necessary to apply
a disinfectant to the tapped surfaces of every tree in the area. The
infection takes place on the cut. That is on the thin bark most
recently tapped. It is at this position then that the disinfectant
must be applied. The most important questions are the frequency
of application, the best disinfectant to use and the method most
practicable in estate practice. From an article in the most recent
.♦ Agricultural Bulletin I gather that in Sumatra it is found that the

best results are obtained if the disinfectant is applied every day.
From figures given in the article, by H. C. Pratt, to which I refer,
it appears that this is the only satisfactory method. The disinfectant
may be .20 per cent, carbolineum as used in Sumatra or its substitute
20 per cent, brunolinum, 10 per cent. Xzal or a solution of sodium
bisulphite and formalin. The last question — the most practicable
method — ma} r well be left for the planter to decide.

Burrs.

These structures are too well-known to need any description.
Rutgers and Arens considered that they are produced as a result of
attacks of Phytophthora Faberi but there is no indication of the
presence of a fungus of any kind within the tissue of a burr or
nodule.

Burrs are formed round a portion of a latex vessel as a result of
alteration of the contents of a latex vessel. Whether that alteration
be disintegration, decomposition or coagulation, cortical cells sur-
rounding the latex vessel are stimulated to divide and form a
cambium which cuts off wood cells on its inner side forming a core of
wood tissue and bark cells on its outer side. The remains of
the latex vessel are easily discovered when sections are examined
microscopically. Similar nodules are produced as a result of latex
oozing out of a tube or occupying spaces between the cells (intercellular
spaces) or, occupying lesions in the cortex. Bryce divides these into
three types, he distinguishes yet another type which 1 have not
seen — namely, nodules which are formed round areas of cortex
from which latex may be entirely absent.

I have not been able to find any evidence whatever that this
pathological condition has any connection, directly or indirectly,
with the attack of any fungus disease or insect pest*.

Bryce suggests that “ the tendency to suffer alteration in the
latex vessel content appears to he confined to certain individual
trees which have a predisposition to develop this condition.”

I think myself that in a very large proportion of the number
of burred trees the original central point (round which the burr
develops) the factor which is the cause of the burr, is merely
accidental, due to local coagulation or alteration of the latex within
the tube or to the bursting of a tube allowing latex to occupy spaces
where it is foreign.

55

ROOT DISEASES OE HEVEA AND CLEAN CLEARING.

By W. N. C. Belgrave, b.a.

{Acting Mycologist , F.M.S.)

H^HE interest taken in root diseases, which had waned with the
control of Fames, has been revived in the last three years by the
discovery of Ustulina and Poria as common and destructive parasites
of Hevea ; and in some quarters something approaching a panic was
experienced.

Still more recently, root diseases have been again overshadowed
by bark cankers. Without minimizing the seriousness of the latter,
it is to be urged that root diseases be not neglected — especially now
that the policy of drastic thinning out has been widely adopted.

The fungus root diseases known to attack Hevea in Malaya are :

Fomes lignosus (semitostus ) .

S'phserostilbe repens.

TJstulina zonata. n

Poria hypolateritia.

Brown root disease . —Hymenorfuete noxia.

Of these, Fomes lignosus is the only one which regularly attacks
young rubber. Although described since 1854, it was not till 1904
that its parasitic nature was recognized — by Ridley. Bancroft fully
described the fungus and its mode of attack on Hevea in 1912. Like
all root diseases an attack of Fames is generally too far advanced
w T hen discovered, for the tree to be saved. The only signs of Fomes
attack which show above ground are drying up of latex, and
withering of leaves. The chief characteristic of Fomes is the
production of external mycelial strands on the diseased roots.
When young these are white, and much branched, becoming later
cord-like and brown yellow, or reddish ; and attaining a thickness
of as much as | inch. The mycelium under favourable conditions is
capable of growing for short distances though the soil independently
of roots. The most favourable conditions are moisture and acidity,
hence in heavy clay or peaty lands, much more unattached
mycelium will be found, than in looser drier soils. If the
source from which the mycelium has started be removed, the
hyphse soon die, and no mycelium can be found after a lapse of
a few days. It follows that once all the diseased wood has been
removed from an infected area, there need be no fear of the “ free ”
mycelium carrying on the disease.

The fructifications of Fomes are most frequently found on wet
low-lying land. They take the form of brackets which may be

56

single or fused, and are, when fresh, of a brittle woody nature. On
breaking across, the bracket is seen to consist of two layers, the
upper of which is white and composed of fibres which run parallel
to the surface, the lower bright orange coloured, and composed
of tubes vertically arranged. The upper surface is zoned with
alternate brown and pale yellow brown zones running parallel
to the margin, while narrow wavy lines or striae run at right angles
to the zones. The margin, especially in young fruits is yellow, aud
the under surface is bright orange, studded with very small pores —
the openings of the tubes mentioned above. The spores are borne on
the sides of the tubes, and are shed from the pores. It must be
mentioned, however, that the majority of the Fomes fructifications
examined in this country are found to be sterile, i.e., bear no
spores, and cannot assist in the spread of the fungus.

The fructification may be found in another form — as a plate
spread on the wood-— the exposed surface being orange coloured.
This form is known as “ resup mate ” and is not common.

The great majority of infections of Forties arise from contact, of
mycelial strands, or pieces of diseased wood, with healthy roots.
Artificial inoculations carried out by Bancroft to prove this point
were very successful, giving positive results in 10 out of 14 cases.

In the opinion of Bancroft, in Malaya the fungus occurs on all
kinds of jungle timber, bard and soft, white and red ; so the selective
clearing favoured in Ceylon is unsafe here.

Attacks by Fomes are usually first detected at 12-18 months,
and if properly treated, begin to diminish some time after the fourth
year, owing to the decay of the jungle hosts of fungus.

Sphserostilbe repens.

This fungus was first recorded as a parasite on Hevea in 1907,
in Ceylon ; when it was found to have killed three 25-year old trees.
Richards first recorded it in Malaya, and Brooks described it in the
Agricultural Bulletin of November, 1914. In Malaya the disease has
so far occurred on low-lying lands — Petch, however, states that in
Ceylon it is not, confined to low country.

Attacked roots are characterized by a blueish -purple colour and
an extremely unpleasant odour. There is no external mycelium, but
between the wood and bark run rhizomorphs — fiat mycelial strands,
red when young, turning black as they grow older. The disease
sometimes travels up into the stem, after which borers often enter.

The fructifications of this fungus are very minute and easily
overlooked. The form most frequently found is the conidial —
Stilbum stage — consisting of white or pink blobs about the size of a
pin’s head, home on stalks about fth inch long, and hairy when
young — spores are formed at the ends of the blobs.

.57

Brooks obtained pure cultures of tbe fungus, and carried out
inoculation experiments on the roots of healthy trees. These were
entirely unsuccessful and suggest that some condition adverse to
Hevea must exist before the fungus can enter living roots. This
condition may well be bad soil ventilation. Infection may be either
by spore infection on wounds (on exposed roots) or contact with
diseased jungle roots and precautions must be taken accordingly.

Ustulma zonata .

A disease first detected in Malaya in 1914 by Brooks — followed
by Shamles — the latte’r author attaches more importance to the
manife r ations of the fungus as a collar-rot than as a root disease ;
but root attacks and spread by contact should not be neglected.
Fetch attributes the prevalence of the disease in Ceylon on tea
to lateral root contact from stumps of Orevillea which had been
left in tbe ground. The characteristics of an Ustulina attack are
— a dry rot of the attacked wood, and the production of coarse
interlacing black lines in the wood. There is no external mycelium
and the wood must be cut into before the disease can be found. The
fructifications are of somewhat varied form — the most common being
a plate-like mass, adpressed to the collar of the tree — the colour of
which changes from yellowish- white, through grey — white and
greenish-grey to black. In the later stages, when splashed by mud,
tbe fruits easily escape observation.' More rarely other forms of
fruit body are found, e.g., a solitary stalked form ; stalked forms
aggregated to a plate ; and other lichen-like forms. All, except the
last, produce spores in abundance, which falling or being carried to
wounds or cuts propagate tbe fungus. It follows that the fruit
bodies of this fungus, like those of Sphserostilbe, should be destroyed
as soon as found.

Brown Boot Disease ( Hymmochsete noxia).

So far this disease has not been recorded to any great extent in
Malaya although Petch states that it is the commonest root disease
of Hevea in Ceylon. Characteristic of this fungus is the production
of hard, brittle, brown or black incrustation around infected roots —
composed of soil bound to the roots by the fungus mycelium.
Within tbe decayed roots are often found brown lines or plates of
fungus tissue. Diseased wood, at any rate in Malaya, remains hard,
but may become honeycombed. Fructifications are of very rare
occurrence and are of no practical importance.

So far as I know, no artificial inoculations have been attempted
with the fungus, but the disease can often be traced to a jungle
stump. Brown root disease has usually been considered as not
dangerous owing to its slow spread— the idea being that the attacked
tree dies, and is taken out before tlie roots of tbe surrounding trees
can be infected. This may he so, but it is better to be on the safe
side, and to treat the disease like all other contact root diseases.

33

58

Pona hypolateritia.

This fungus, causing a wet-rot of Hevea was the subject of an
article in the August Agricultural Bulletin for 1916. It appears
since, that the specific name hypolateritia there given was not correct,
and the fungus is nearer to one recently described by Petch in Ceylon
as Pona hypobrunnea. The matter has been referred to Kew, and
the final name will be settled by the authorities there. Whatever
the systematic name, there is no doubt of the presence of the fungus,
and of its characteristics, the chief of which is the wet rotting of
attacked roots. This may vary from a slight dampness of recently
attacked roots only discoverable on splitting, to the complete
disintegration of the root to a jelly-like mass.

A very delicate snow-white mycelium is sometimes produced on
the exterior, but no strands travelling through the soil have ever
been found. The exterior of the root is sometimes covered by a
very dark reddish skin of mycelium and bark tissues mixed ; this
skin is tough, and when freshly taken up can readily be detached
from the wood — serving to distinguish an attack of this fungus from
that of brown root disease ; in the latter case the external crust is
brittle and cannot be separated from the wood.

Brown lines or plates of hardened fungus tissue are often found.
They differ from those produced by Ustulina in colour and texture,
being much finer and less branched. Broad brown bands also
occur, formed by the deposition of a substance akin to wound-gum.
Attacks of Poria sometimes cause honeycombing of Hevea wood, but
the phenomenon is more common when hard jungle woods are
attacked. Like Fomes the fungus has been found both on hard and
soft woods, including mauy of the largest stumps such as are very
often left in otherwise cleared plantations.

Perfectly developed fructifications are very rare ; more commonly
on the under-side of exposed roots, small patches of an imperfect
fructification develop. The fungus belongs to the same group as
Fames — and the fructifications have the same form as the resupinate
form of Fomes , i.e., a plate perforated with many fine holes. The
colour is white when young, later becoming red-brown to black.
These fructifications are sterile, i.e., bear no spores, and cannot
spread the disease.

It was first thought that the disease might be confined to special
areas, particularly flat wet lands — but it has since been found to be
distributed through the Peninsula.

The mode of infection is by contact of lateral roots with jungle
stumps, or with other laterals ; and the peculiar danger of the disease
lies in its very slow rate of growth in living tissue, which makes it
possible for neighbouring trees to be infected — through laterals —
before the first infected tree is seen to be diseased. This insidious
method of attack is further aided by the partiality of the fungus to

59

heart wood, which has ceased to function, and to the fact that it
very seldom “ rings ” a tree but goes up to the collar on one side
only.

In one field of rubber, 30 percent, of the trees were affected by
the disease before its presence was even suspected. The disease is
usually discovered earlier on wet lands as owing to the poor develop-
ment of the root system, attacked trees blow over sooner.

So far only one estate has had its young rubber badly attacked
by Poria ; this is not because young trees are immune to attack, but
because the laterals take time to establish contact. Isolated cases
can of to.! be found on young rubber, and without doubt, many deaths
formerly attributed to Pomes or brown root disease, were due to the
then undescribed Poria.

Treatment.

With few exceptions treatment of individual trees is im-
practicable, as the diseases are never discovered till too late.

Attention must therefore be turned to prevention.

Prevention. — Is of two kinds : (a) Total prevention of attacks ;
(b) Prevention of spread from attacked areas.

It has been shown that all the root parasites of Hevea also live
on dead wood, i.e., can be saprophytes ; and that it is from dead
wood that infections arise. The obvious remedy is to remove all
dead timber and stumps both of jungle and Hevea trees, i.e., to
adopt clean clearing : if this be done, it is not too much to say that
immunity will be ensured from Brown root disease and Poria, while
infections of Fames, Spluerostilbe , and TJstuUna will be reduced
to those from spores blown or brought from neighbouring jungle
or plantations.

It is usual to find that saprophytic fungi, which become
parasites, can only do so by gaining an entry through a “ wound,”
and the results of inoculation experiments support this as applied
to Hevea root diseases. It might be argued that if wounds could be
avoided, i.e., by covering all laterals, the roots would be immune
from attacks. Unfortunately a “ wound ” in the technical sense,
includes any break in the protective covering of the plant. Such
breaks may arise in many ways, of which the deaths of very small
rootlets is one of the commonest. It follows that although exposed
wounds of animal origin should be avoided as far as possible, because
of the danger of spore infection, the root fungi cannot altogether be
prevented from entering by such precautions.

Before work was carried out on Poria and TJstuUna , it was
thought that clean clearing was not essential, the idea being, that
trees attacked by Fomes died in a relatively short time, so the
presence of the disease would be discovered, and the source removed
before neighbouring trees had time to establish contact. Also in the

60

early stages, losses could be made good by supplying, or out of the
excess number of trees planted. Bancroft states that this treatment
gave very satisfactory results, on areas badly attacked by Fames.
Unfortunately, Poria and Ustulina may go on for very many
years, sometimes tvfelve, -without being discovered, and the only
safe rule is to treat all timber as a possible source of infection.
The possibility of healthy looking trees being in reality diseased
is especially serious for existing plantations in view of the very
extensive thinning-out now in favour. When it is % intended
to reduce the number of trees to the acre to less than 80 on
plantations which were not clean cleared early, it will be found
advantageous to examine the collar and roots of each tree — the
expense should not be great. It is often pointed out that the various
root parasites cannot be widely distributed in the jungle as this would
soon die; it must be remembered, however, that although all these
fungi are of comparatively slow growth as parasites on healthy wood',
they are capable of very rapid growth on decaying wood, and will
spread rapidly once the trees are felled, both under the ground
(Fames, Poria ) and above it (Ustulina').

The ideal time for clean clearing is before planting up — but the
removal of large jungle stumps in an undecayed condition entails
prohibitive expense. It is, therefore, recommended that the smaller
stumps and roots be taken up, while the large stumps be trenched,
say with a trench of six feet radius and of a depth sufficient to sever
all laterals. Parts of that laterals outside the trenches should be
taken up aud no Hevea should be planted inside the trenches. As
long as the stumps remain the trenches must be kept open. When
somewhat decayed, e.g at the time of thinning out, the stumps may
be removed at much less cost.

Care must be taken as long as the stumps remain to examine them
for fungus fructifications which should be destroyed as soon as they
appear. In a field tlms cleared no rubber wood must be allowed to
remain. Although the certainty of immunity given by clean
clearing cannot be attained later, clearing of timber and stumps will
always be found beneficial, except in old plantations already badly
diseased (say more than 30 per cent, of trees) there the expenditure
could not be justified.

Prevention of spread . — Trenching is recommended for attacks by
all root diseases, except perhaps Ustulina, for which, according to
Sharpies, spores from fructifications produced on the surface timber
are the chief source of infection. Trenches must be deep enough to
sever all lateral roots, and wide enough to include all affected roots ;
to be on the safe side, another trench should be dug around the
neighbouring trees. The diseased trees are best cut out and burnt,
the area within the inner trench being dug over to get out all
diseased wood. Lime is of beneficial effect if supplying is
undertaken.

61

A careful watch should be kept both on timber and rubber trees
and stumps for the fructifications of the fungi mentioned, the most
dangerous being those of Ustulina, those should be destroyed as soon
as they appear. Rubber stumps left after thinning out often bear a
plentiful crop of Ustulina fruits — the practice of felling trees by
severing the laterals has mucli to recommend it, the roots left
behind soon decay, and there is no chance of harmful fungi being
harboured.

Admittedly the measures proposed above, involve an increase in
expenditure. When considering the benefits conferred by immunity
to disea n, it should be borne in mind that, given time, contact
diseases spread at what may be called “ compound interest, 1 ’ i.e., the
number of possible infections grows rapidly as the disease spreads
out from the centre of the infection.

No figures have been given for costs of clearing, etc., as
conditions vary too widely to make comparison reliable ; it is,
however, the emphatic opinion of the mycologists of the Department
that the measures outlined above will be found in every case to be
abundantly justified.

Discussion.

The Chairman (Mr. Lewton-Brain) invited discussion of the
papers read, and a series of questions was asked, these being subse-
quently replied to by each lecturer in turn.

Mr. Ellis, of Taiping, next gave his experience of diseases.
He was of opinion that if they were going to treat disease at all they
should do it thoroughly by cleaning the whole place out and doing
away with the whole disease. It was of no use going only half way.
Some managers on seeing pink disease appear on their estates
naturally said it must have come from the kampongs, but it was just
as likely that the kampongs got it from the estates. (Laughter.)
Besides that there was the jungle that was a source of infection.
When trees were seven or eight years old they were less liable to
infection than when they were younger. It was a great mistake to
take oft a pest gang when the disease was less virulent, and the gang
should be kept on always. He referred to bark canker and other
diseases that came within his experience, and gave the results of
treatment he had applied. He thought the black patch disease was
carried by the tapping knife and advised the disinfection of the
knife with a solution of 5 per cent, of formalin. The painting
with 20 per cent, solution of Izal in black stripe disease was good
in same cases, hut the point was to let in air and light, good
drainage, reasonable thinning out, and then painting with some
disinfecting substance.

Mi*. Jarvis said that Mr, Belgrave had advised clean clearing
before planting but had not made it clear whether he advised timber
to be cleared from old estates.

Bi-zW B.5

62

Mr. Belgrave said he would certainly advise such if the disease
in the place did not exist badly.

Mr. Jarvis then enquired whether burning of the timber did not
do more harm than good.

Mr. Belgrave suggested that burning of the timber in pits
be adopted as it had proved very successful on some estates.

Another question asked was did the cutting of roots when
clearing timber damage the trees.

Mr. Belcirave was of the opinion that the cutting of a few
laterals was not of great importance especially if tar was applied.

Mr. Pinching commenting on the carboliniiim solution of 20 per
cent, thought it did some damage and recommended not more than
10 per cent. In regard to Mr. Ellis’s remark that pink disease
should be caught up early enough, he said that that was the trouble,
as the disease was not seen until it was too late, and the bark was
dead by then. He hacl heard from the Mycologist in Ceylon that
black line canker was not known there, and he thought some
explanation was, therefore, necessary in regard to the allusion to
that disease being found in Ceylon.

Mr. Pinching also asked Mr. Belgrave as to what depth he
considered stumping should be carried out when thinning out.

Mr. Belgrave said that two feet should be sufficient.

Mr. Harrison asked whether timber in peat was liable to carry
infection.

Mr. Belgrave replied that one estate on peaty land had
suffered badly from root diseases.

Mr. Coombs called attention to flat land and hilly land in their
relation to disease. Leaf pruning in America and other countries
was not very much advocated.

Another member said that he had noticed trees of seven or eight
years old suffer from pink disease. On one occasion Mr. Sharpies
(the mycologist) and he had examined a large plantation of three-
and four-year old trees and found no cases of the disease, but three or
four years later he found the disease amongst the then young trees,
which seemed to show that the old trees got the disease first, there
having been no kampong within a mile of the place. If they said
that old rubber was less liable to attack it might make planters
neglect their old trees, and that would do more harm than good.

Mr. Richards, referring to Mr. Belgrave’s remarks regarding
Forties, said it was possible to cure a very large number of cases
by looking for the disease by clearing the soil from roots in the case
of trees one to five years old and painting with copper sulphate and
lime wash.

63

Mr. Pinching asked Mr. Richards to express his opinion as to
whether he does or does not consider that deep tapping encourages
infection by Phytophthom — “ black thread.”

Mi*. Richards replied that he had not sufficient experience of
the disease to offer an expression of opinion but that he thought deeply
tapped trees would not suffer any more severely than those lightly
tapped. He added that he hoped no planter present would seriously
consider it policy to commence shallow tapping because the question
had been raised.

Mr. Ellis advocated deeper tapping as liable to show disease
more easily, besides being more beneficial for latex.

Mr. Pinching said that Messrs. Harrisons and Crosfield had a
solution that was said to be exactly the same as used in Sumatra,
but what puzzled him was that they did not get the same results.

Mr. Richards said he had not tried it, and so could not say.

64

THE DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE COCONUT PALM.

By R, M, Richaeds, a.k.c.sc.

( Mycologist , M. P. A. Association).

TT is only in recent years that any real knowledge of this subject

has been attained. As recently as 1906 Prudbomme stated
that “the important enemies and parasites are animals,” but there
is little doubt that diseases caused by fungi and bacteria did exist
years before that date.

It is known that “ bud-rot ” existed in the West Indies long
before the disease attracted any general attention.

The coconut palm in various parts in the tropical world like
other plants producing economic products, but unlike the rubber
tree up to the present time, has been subject to diseases of an
epidemie nature. Climatic conditions in the tropics are so eminently
suitable for the rapid development and spread of a disease that
at any time any single cultivated plant grown in contiguous tracts
of land is susceptible to epidemics, and it is oniy by exercising the
utmost care in guarding against disease that the coconut industry
can be maintained.

Warnings such as this have been issued and published by so
many woidfcrs, in fact they appear in any work dealing with the
culti ration in general or with the diseases of any particular economic
and widely cultivated plant.

However, such warnings cannot be repeated too frequently and
are not to be treated lightly or with contempt ; they are not
emanations from pessimistic or alarmist minds.

In 1906 a severe epidemic of “ bud-rot ” occurred in the delta of
the Godaveri river, India, affecting palmyra, coconut and areea
(betel nut) palms; in the province of La Laguna in Lussar, an
epidemic of the same disease affecting coconut palms was reported
as having occurred in 1907 ; and serious attacks have been recorded
in the West Indies. Pestalozzia palmarum caused an epidemic
disease in Kempit in the Banjorwaugi Presidency in Java in 1905-6.
Either these or some other disease may possibly become epidemic in
the Malay Peninsula.

Diseases.

Theilaviojisis ethacetica. — Fetch described this fungus as the
cause of the “ Bleeding disease of the coconut stem in Ceylon.”
The following is the description of the disease as given by the Ceylon
Government Mycologist.

65

“ A brown liquid oozes out through the cracks in the cortex and
forms a rusty patch which usually turns brown afterwards. On
cutting into this patch, the internal tissues are found to be discoloured
and decaying; they are brownish and finally turn black. If the
diseased area is cut in wet weather, the liquids sometimes squirts out ;
in fact, it may in some stages be collected in a glass by simply
pressing on the diseased patch. After some time the black patches
appear on the trunk, usually on the same side. When this happens,
it will generally be found that this is not a new infection, but the
disease has worked up or down inside the stem, and the liquid has
found a new outlet. ... It is important to note that there is no
sign of the disease until the liquid oozes out, and when this occurs
the internal tissue is already decayed to some extent.”

On one estate in Perak I have made observations on palms
affected by tlie similar rusty and finally black patches from which
a brown liquid oozes. In every way the external and internal
appearances correspond with Fetch’s description but I have never
been able to isolate the fungus Theilaviopsis ethacetica from the
affected tissues.

It is quite possible that this effect is produced by the same
cause as in Ceylon but of course no definite statement as regards the
disease can be made until the fungus is isolated from diseased tissue
and infections are made from the cultures.

By cutting away the decayed or diseased parts of the stem and
covering the wound with a very liberal coating of tar it is possible
to prevent the patch from enlarging or spreading up eft* down the
tree to other parts. Petcli recommended that after cutting out the
diseased tissue the wound should be burnt with a torch and then
covered with hot coal tar. All diseased parts cut away are burnt,
and should it not be possible to apply this local treatment in
advanced cases the whole palm should be cut down and burnt.

Pestalozzia palmarum . — This fungus is the cause of a leaf
disease in this country as apparently in most parts of the tropics.

Bernard found this fungus to be the cause of a destructive
epidemic in the Banjorwangi Presidency, Java, in 1905-6.

In this country as far as my experience goes the disease is only
found among young plants either in nurseries or in plantations after
planting out. The fungus is extremely common as a saprophyte on
dead leaves and the withering lower leaves of healthy palms.

In the first stages little whitish transparent spots appear on the
leaves. The spots increase in size and coalesce, forming irregular
areas of dead tissue on the leaves. A brown ring surrounds each
area immediately outside which the tissue has a pale green or
yellowish colour indicating where the fungus is growing into the
healthy part of the leaf. The tips of leaflets and edges become

8

37

66

white or greyish in colour. When the effect of the- disease is serious
the whole leaf becomes yellow and all leaves are affected, and
eventually the yellow colour changes to a greyish white and the
leaves wither. Sometimes only the latest formed leaf, not yet fully
opened, may be seen green and unaffected but this eventually dies
and with it comes the decay of the growing point or heart and the
death of the palm.

Dead palms should be uprooted and all parts carefully burnt in
situ. Diseased leaves of affected palms may be cut away and burnt
and plants treated in this way should be carefully watched for
further signs of the disease.

Fungicides may be applied by spraying but this is only advised
wheu nurseries are affected, more as a preventive than a remedial
measure. Bordeaux mixture should be used as the fungicide.

Helminthosporium ftp. — This fungus has been found intermingled
with Pestalozzia and may contribute towards the general effect of
the disease. It is possible, also, tliat. this fungus itself is the cause
of a disease similar to that of Pestalozzia palmarum though I have
no records that such is the case.

Botryodiplodia sp. — In December of 1914 a disease was first
found in this country which I now attribute to a fungus, a species of
the genus Botryodiplodia. At one time I thought that this disease
was an exaggerated form of attack of Pestalozzia palmar um and in
a circular letter sent to members of the Association, dated 5th
February, 1*915, I described the effect of this attack, but in a note at
the end of the letter added that Diplodia among other fungi was
found with the Pestalozzia and that I could not then say which
fungus was responsible for the full effect of the disease. This letter
together with photographs is published in “A Practical Guide to
Coconut Planting” by R. W. Munro and L. 0. Brown. The first
noticeable sign of the disease is that distal end of a leaf withers and
droops, almost breaking away from the rest of the leaf at a point of
weakness, varying from one foot to three feet from the top, but
remaining attached, hangs directly downwards as a pendulous section.
These withered ends of the leaves on affected trees are most
characteristic in appearance. It is possible at first sight to mistake
these signs for attacks of brown beetles or leaf beetles but a cursory
examination will prove the presence or absence of the obvious signs
of the boring of the beetle. The dropping end of the leaf is at first
yellow but finally has the usual brown appearance of a withered
coconut leaf. The fungus spreads into the lower part of the leaf
travelling down the leaf-stalk and eventually the whole leaf becomes
yellow.

As the fungus affects the tissue of the leaf-stalk a brown mark
is produced and is especially noticeable on the “ lower ” or “ outer ”

67

surface. If affected trees are not treated at this stage the fungus
finds its way to other leaves and the spores quickly spread the disease
to other palms.

Soon, the fungus growing rapidly in the tissues after the first
stages, all the leaves are killed and hang down alongside the trunk,
the leaf -stalks being broken at all positions.

At this stage the youngest leaf is affected, the growing point
succumbs to the attack and the palm dies. Almost immediately a
bacterial decay sets in in the tissues at the apex of the stem resulting
in the production of an evil smelling mass. This is not to be confused
with “bud-rot” which is a distinct and specific disease and will be
described later. Remedial measures must take the form of cutting
away the affected parts of leaves at the earliest stages. It is
necessary to look for the brown mark on the leaf stalk mentioned
above in the description of the disease and cut away the diseased leaf
at a point at least one foot below the proximal end of this mark to
ensure cutting at a point beyond the limit of diseased tissue. In all
cases this method has proved eminently satisfactory. All diseased
leaves and dead palms must he burnt in situ and not carried away
through the fields to be destroyed in another place. The disease is
spread by means of spores which are air-borne. Unless great care
is taken in the treatment of the disease local epidemics are caused and
many palms may be killed.

It is interesting to note here that Fredholm in Trinidad decided
that the rot appeared in two forms : one caused by bacteria ; the
other following an initial attack by a fungus which he called
Diplodia. Copeland in The Coconut fully quotes Fredholm’s
paper. In many respects his account almost describes the effect of
Botryodiplodia on palms in this country but as 1 have already pointed
out “bud-rot” is an absolutely specific disease in this country.
Bacterial decay almost invariably takes places in the apex of the
coconut stem after a palm has been stuck by lightning ; when red
beetles have killed all the forming shoots or when the palm is affected
by any disease or pest the final stage is a rot of the apex.

I have stated above that Botryodiplodia is the fungus causing
the disease but I have no absolute proof that this is the case for
I have failed to obtain characteristic results after infection on leaves
of young palms. However, I have been able to obtain good cultures of
Botryodiplodia from portions of affected leaves where no other
fungus was present. On dead parts of the leaves many fungi are to
be found living saprophytically and among these Metasphasria
Cocoes and Pestalozzia ■ palmarmn predominate. Another difficulty
is that Botryodiplodia is usually a wound parasite and yet many
palms in a group may be attacked by this disease. It is possible that
there is another fungus associated which is perfectly parasitic in its
nature or there may be other agencies.

6i')S/38

68

A vigilant watch must be kept for outbreaks of the disease;
By careful work almost all loss can be prevented ; by carelessness all
affected palms, and perhaps very many in a group or groups, may
be lost. The treatment, mentioned above is quite reliable whatever
the causal fungus may prove to be.

Bud-rot . — Oases of this disease have been reported on several of
the estates visited regularly by me.

The characteristic feature of the disease is the rotting of the
terminal bud and surrounding soft tissues including the apex of the
stem. The first sign is the turning yellowish white of the young leaf
which has just opened ; following this the central unopened leaf
becomes discoloured and in a short time all the unopened leaves and
the growing point or apex of the stem decay and putrefy, the whole
“ cabbage ” being converted into a soft, foul smelling, putrid mass. In
tlie majority of cases which 1 have seen the older leaves appear
at the stage when the “ cabbage ” decays to be quite healthy.

There is no indication of any organism other than bacteria in
the affected parts of diseased palms in the Malay Peninsula.

Earle, Smith, Jonston, and Petcb all considered that the disease
was attributable to bacteria. Butler, the Imperial Mycologist in
India, described in 1906 a severe epidemic of disease among palmyra
and other palms in the Godaveri district, of the East Coast of India.
The disease was confined to a limited area in the delta of the
Godaveri river. The cause of the disease was stated, as a result of
field and microscopic examination, to be a fungus belonging to tlie
genus Pythinm, a description of which, under the name Pythium
potto arum, was published in 1907.

All these reports have been made within the last few years.
“The History and Cause of the Coconut Bud-rot” by Jonston,
published by the United States Department of Agriculture, gives
a very full account of the disease, and the author of that paper has
shown quite conclusively by repeated inoculation experiments that
the West Indian “ bud-rot ” is due to bacteria almost identical with
Bacillus coli.

It is believed that birds and insects are carriers of the disease.
Whether or not the wounds are necessary for the introduction of the
bacterial organisms, which are certainly pathogenic, into the tissue
of tlie plant I am unable to say, Rorer found that lie was able to
produce the disease by pouring a culture of Bacillus coli into the
crown of a healthy tree which apparently was unwounded.

When the apical growing point is affected there can be no
remedy. To save other palms it is necessary to cut down all dead
trees and destroy all affected parts with as little delay as possible.
It may not be possible to burn the infected material but every effort
should be made to get rid of it. By drenching with Bordeaux

69

mixture and burying the decayed and diseased tissues with a quantity
of lime I think one would apply the second best remedy. Whatever
the method, it is of the utmost importance to destroy infected
material and so prevent any possible transmission of the disease by
insects.

Root disease . — No root disease has been found in this country.
Stockdale regarded root disease in Trinidad as the most serious
of the three diseases he described — root disease, leaf disease and
“ bud-rot.” Palms exhibiting a wilted appearance with their leaves
turning yellow should be examined by an expert. This appearance
is not uncommon but 1 have invariably found that the effect is due
either to poor soil or in the cases of some young palms to some
unexplained condition.

Meliola palmarum . — A black fungus which causes the sooty
appearance is found frequently on leaves.

It has never been found necessary to adopt any remedial
measures as the fungus does not permanently damage the palms.

Insects Pests.

Oryctes rhinoceros . — This insect is the common “ brown beetle ”
of the Malay Peninsula or sometimes known as the black beetle.

I need not give any description of the beetle or its mode of
attack. Preventive measures are most important and they must
take the form of collecting the larvas of the beetles and destroying
possible breeding places. Debris of coconuts should not he allowed
to lie about but should be collected and destroyed periodically.
Traps have been used on some estates but not with any great success
as usually the beetles have a vast number of potential breeding
places to choose from. On a clean estate, scrupulously cleared of
all coconut debris, traps of the kind used in Samoa, where the beetle
was first discovered in 1910 and were supposed to have reached
Upolu Island in a shipment of rubber stumps from Ceylon in 1909
or 1910, may give good results and are worth a thorough trial.
Copeland gives an account of Freidericli’s traps in his book “ The
Coconut ” which is here quoted : “ For the making of a trap a hole
is dug in the ground from 9-12 feet square, and about 2 i feet deep.
Rotten coconut stumps, plantain stems and soil are put into it and
over the top large leaves such as coconut leaves and plantain leaves
are placed rising perhaps a foot above the surface of the soil. Into
these pits the female beetles penetrate to lay eggs and the male
beetles to find the females. What beyond digging the traps is
necessary is that they should be opened at regular and not too
distant periods (six weeks to two months), or that the beetles (and
larvee) in them may be killed in some way.”

The leaf beetle, Xylofowpes yideon, needs no description. Means
of preventing attacks must take the form of collecting the beetles.

70

Mhynchophorus ferruginous or R. Schach . — The palm weevil or
“ Red beetle” as it is known to planters is capable of doing much
more injury to the palm than the brown Oryctes. Unlike the latter
this insect passes through all the stages in its life history on the
host plant. The destructive stage in the life history is the larva,
not the mature beetle as in the case of Oryctes.

The insect is well known and need not be fully described.
Preventive measures must take the form of preventing egg-lying
and that of destroying the insects whether adult or in the larval
condition. All wounds should be tarred, no green leaves should be
pulled off as in this process wounds are obviously made, and the
burning or scorching of leaf bases and fibrous tissue at the bases of
leaves either intentionally or accidentally is particularly deprecated
as injuries so caused provide suitable means of entry for these beetles.

Brontispa frogatti (Sharp). — This little leaf -eating beetle of the
family Hispidx is quite commonly found on coconut plantations in
the Peninsula. It was described by Frogatt as the worst pest of the
Solomon Islands in young plantations. This was reported in 1903.
Both adult and larvae feed on the leaves of the coconuts.

Preuss states that it and two other species were known in 1911 in
New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, New Hebrides and the Celebes.
In New Guinea this beetle is known as the “ Heart-leaf beetle.”
It is a small beetle 7-10 mm. or ^ to f-inch long by 2 mm.
wide. The head is dark brown, the thorax and first legs orange in
colour and the rest of the body a shining blue-black,” The head is
very small, the eyes project in the sides, the front is produced into
a lancet-shaped point standing out between the basal joints of the
stout antennas.

The wing covers or elytra are covered with very fine and
regular pits arranged in parallel lines. These do not show except
under a lens.

The larva when full grown is as long as the adult. It is
flattened and usually found closely adpressed to the surface of the
leaf. £< The head is small, lobed, with short jaws on the under .side
of the head : the small legs are divided at the extremities, forming
two rounded feet. The abdominal segments, eight in number, are
furnished in the sides with a slender, rounded, fleshy tubercle ; and the
anal segment has the tips flattened and produced into a pair of short,
incurved, flat calliper-like processes, which curving inwards, form a
perfect crescent between them.” The beetles crawl into the folded
leaflets of young opening leaves and lay their eggs in this position.
The adults and larva) living in between the two halves of the close-
folded leaflets eat away the tissues, and as a result the leaf does not
open properly and when it does open partially it is malformed, the
leaflets have grey brown spots or in bad cases the whole leaf is a
dirty grey black and dried up and has much the same appearance as
it would have had had it been burnt prior to opening.

n

In the Solomon Islands tobacco and soap wash is shaken into the
still unfolded leaves.

Preuss recommends the use of nitrogenous fertilizers to help
trees to resist the attack. The only way, however, found successful
is the cutting away of all affected leaves and burning them together
with the insects. This method has been successfully employed on
several estates where the trees are periodically found affected.

Hid mi irava and JErionota thrax. — These two butterflies are the
coconut skippers of the family Hesperiidm.

They are very much alike both in appearance and their method
of attack. I shall not give any description.

The result of a bad attack, when very many caterpillars are
feeding, is that all the tissue of the leaflets, except the midrib and
perhaps patches of soft tissue here and there, is eaten away.
Almost all the green soft parts of hanging leaves, in fact all leaves
except those which are still erect, have been observed to be
thoroughly eaten until only a skeleton remained.

The life history of these butterflies is short, from six to eight
weeks. It appeal’s that the pests are quickly parasitized as 1 have no
record of a single instance of this pest remaining after the second brood.
The best remedial measures, when practicable, are the catching of
the butterflies and picking off and collecting the cocoons. Spraying
or any other remedial measures have not been found necessary.

Thosea cinereomarginata. — The larva of this moth is a green
slug-like caterpillar recognized by having along each side of the
body a row of spinous tubercles. Pupation takes place in a hard
oval cocoon which opens at one end in a distinct lid for the
emergence of the imago. These cocoons are commonly found
attached to the under side of leaves of palms.

The larvae of this pest eat the softer parts of leaflets until as in
the case of the skippers mentioned above only the midrib is left. I
have seen groups of palms temporarily seriously affected' but in this
case again I have never thought it necessary to apply remedial
measures,

Mahasena sp. — This moth is not a serious pest, and has not been
observed to attack more than four or five palms in a group. Only
young plants are affected, the larvae or caterpillars live in cases made
up of bits of leaves woven together with silk. The case is carried
about on the trees by the insect whose head only appears. Only the
male insect attains the perfect or imago stage. The female lays her
eggs in her case and gradually shrinks up, as the eggs fill the lower
half of the case. The eggs hatch and the larvae make their own
little cases. The old female cases must be carried by wind or other
agency to palms, but little appears to be known about his part of
the life history.

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72

Brackartona catomntka . — This moth is a serious pest of coconut
palms. The motli is very small, only measuring 16 mm. across tlie
expanded wings or a little less than f inch. The limited time at my
disposal does not permit a full description.

By the time the fourth generation lias hatched the insects have
multiplied so considerably that a local epidemic is formed. After
the fifth or sixth brood, but this varies according to the development
of the insects’ own enemies and only two broods may appear, the
pest disappears “ having become abundant enough to let its own
enemies or parasites multiply in excess.” The parasites of
Brackartona , among* which the most important is a fungus. Botrytis
sp., and second in importance a Phorid fly, die off when the pest is
nearly exterminated or suppressed and after three years (I have
evidence to show that three years, not two years, as stated elsewhere,
is the interval of time) Brackartona reappears as a pest in the same
locality. It appears that on eacli occasion of the reappearance of the
pest in one locality the enemies of Brackartona develop with
increased rapidity reducing the number of broods and therefore the
injury caused by the pest. It is early to be quite sure of the facts
in this connection but the evidence obtained so far points in this
direction. My experience had been that spraying with either
kerosene emulsion or London purple as advised by Pratt, or any
other insecticide besides being extremely expensive is of little or
no value in eradicating the pest.

The following remedial and preventive measures were adopted
on one plantation and had the desired result. All the lower leaves of
the palms which have been badly eaten,, and on which many
thousands of the insects were pupating (still in the chrysalis stage),
were cut off and burnt. The lowermost leaves of the trees
throughout the area in which the flight, had been observed were cut
off and piled in heaps for burning, this was done to destroy the eggs
laid by the moths. The’ leaves were cut away and destroyed to
decrease the numbers of the larvae which would have developed had
the lowermost leaves been left, the greatest number of eggs being
laid on the lower leaves.

As soon as the caterpillars (hatching out from the eggs)
appeared and commenced to feed a uumber of coolies were told off to
singe the leaves with torches. The torches were made of long* poles
with a portion of a coconut husk fixed to one end of each. The husk
was soaked in kerosene and lighted. passing the torches along the
under sides of the leaves the caterpillars were either killed by the
heat or they dropped to the ground. Immediately the caterpillars
fall they endeavour to make their way back to the leaves by crawling
along the ground and up the stems of the palms. A ring of tar and
grease was painted on the stems about a foot and a half above the
ground to catch the caterpillars, and prevent them from again reaching
the leaves. This was highly successful, thousands of caterpillars

73

being caught in this way on almost every tree. Besides the torches
we used long sticks for beating the leaves to knock off or shake off
the caterpillars. Brushes on long handles were also used for
sweeping the insects from the leaves.

All the insects were not destroyed, but that their numbers were
greatly reduced was obvious on the appearance of the next flight of
moths. Comparatively few moths developed. On the reappearance
of the caterpillars the same methods were again resorted to, the
whole area showing signs of having been affected being carefully and
systematically treated. Three months after my first visit the pest
had disappeared. Nets were also used for catching moths.

As regards the damage done to the palms by cutting away or by
singeing the leaves I do not think it is at all extensive and the palms
recover extremely well.

It should be added that under no conditions should any part of
the palms except the leaves be scorched. Copeland refers to the
risk of such treatment, if applied to the crown, on account of the
probable attacks of the red beetle.

Termites. — Ternies yestroi is said to be a serious pest of coconut
palms in certain districts in the Peninsula but on the plantations
visited regularly by me. the pest is little known and the injury caused
is correspondingly of small account.

1 have seen palms seriously injured by the insects boring into the
tissues of the stem. Generally the injury in itself, except in very
young palms or unless nothing but a mere shell of the stem is left,
need not have a serious effect. It has been advised that lands taken in
from virgin jungle and planted up with coconut palms be clean cleared
of all timber. Such measures may be necessary where the attacks of
while ants are considered serious but such measures are usually most
impracticable and there must be strong evidence that the attacks are
serious or are likely to have serious results before the planter will be
convinced that lie should adopt them. I have never had reason
to suggest the adoption of these measures and the usual treatment
with the exterminator pump has been quite satisfactory.

Scale bugs, — Scale bugs and mealy bugs are found commonly on
the leaves of the palm but none of the many species cause any
serious injury as far as 1 am aware and, therefore, they call for no
comment here. The sooty mould, Meliola palmarum, is associated
with several of the scale bugs parasitic on the leaves of the
palm.

Bats. — These animals are enemies of the coconut palm and have
caused serious loss in certain district in the country.

In February, 1914, Pratt wrote in the Agricultural Bulletin :

The position of priority as a really serious pest to young coconuts in

the Malay States must be given to rats. They have caused immense
damage in several districts, completely destroying as much as 2,000
acres in one locality. They are not constant in their attack.”

In the same article the author referred to these animals nibbling
the base of the palms and eventually eating out the heart, “ leaving
a hole 2| inches in diameter.”

As I have no experience in dealing with this pest, fortunately
none of the coconut plantations it is, my privilege to visit regularly
have suffered attacks of the pest, I think I can do no better than
quote from Pratt’s article.

Protection of young palms . — “ Out of a piece of zinc, 18 inches long
and 12 inches wide, an arch is cut at the middle of the longer edge,
measuring, approximately, seven inches wide at the base, and five
inches high. The nut itself tits into this arch and by drawing the tin
round the tree a cylinder about five inches in diameter is formed
enclosing the base of the young plant.

The base of the cylinder on either side of the arch is buried
about three inches in the ground thus enabling the top of the arch
to fit tightly over the upper part of the nut. No rat can harm
a young plant protected in this way, for if access is obtained by
burrowing there is no room for the rat to work within the enclosure.”

This method seems to have had successful results.

For older trees possibly an adequate measure might be to surround
the stem of each palm near the base with a piece of tin in the form
of a cylinder or “ with a collar of tin several inches wide and attached
so that it slants outwards and downwards from the tree.” Such a
method is too costly to put into practice unless the pest is causing
really serious injury.

THE HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION OF WHITE
ANT TREATMENT IN MALAYA.

By P. B. Richards," a.r.c.sc.

(Acting Government Entomologist, F.M.S .)

N considering wliat subject to select, of interest to both the

v ~' / rubber and coconut sections of the planting community, I
thought it might not be unprofitable to traverse the history of the
treatment of the major pest of plantation cultivation in Malaya,
namely Termes gestroi, to endeavour to trace the development of
knowledge of the pest and of efforts made to combat it, to see, if
possible, where the earlier workers went wrong, and perhaps to
extract some lesson applicable to the present.

It is probable that there are some here of long experience of
Malaya, and of long memory, who would be better able to discuss the
historical side than I. For the earlier material I have to depend
largely upon the Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and Federated
Malay States edited by Ridley. Of the last three years, during
which considerable advances towards the complete control of
Termes gestroi have been made, I venture to think I need make
no apology for drawing* upon my own experience.

The first printed record of white ants damaging crops is in an
article by Ridley in the Agricultural Bulletin of the Malay Peninsula
No. 4, January, 1895. He wrote : ‘‘One constantly hears of coffee and
other trees being destroyed by termites, and the informants seem to
think that the insects absolutely eat the roots and base of the stem of
the living tree, and so destroy it. I have great doubts of this.”
Ridley’s doubts were based upon several observations. He instanced
that on opening termite nests, by which he presumably meant
mounds or nests in the soil, undamaged roots of plants might be found
traversing the nest. He described how termites “ usually so induced
by a dead bough ” throw* up galleries along the trunk and attack the
bark, and so “ by letting the wood suffer from exposure, injure or
kill the tree.” “ But this,” he wrote, “ is rare and almost invariably
occurs in trees dying from other causes.” A young clove tree, the
death of which was at first ascribed to termites because galleries
were thrown up around the base of the tree under which the insects
had eaten a*way all the bark, was subsequently found to have been
attacked by a fungus. “ As soon as the fungus had practically killed
it the termites threw up their galleries and began to destroy the
dead part of the tree.” Similarly with two young Araucarias, the
primary cause of death being starvation through root competition,
with a contributing mechanical cause in the compact clay masses of

76

white ant nests beneath the trees. Ridley then generalized as follows :
“ Such action is what appears to be generally intended when it is
said that a tree is killed by termites, the real cause, being perhaps
obscure, is overlooked, and the termites who come to remove the dead
tissue are credited with the original injury.”

From this article it appears that the typical Termes gestroi
habit of attacking live trees was not then known. It follows that
in 1895 the insect was not a pest of major importance or such a sound
observer as Ridley could not have failed to have noted this fact.

It is unlikely that any of the termites obseiwed by Ridley in
Singapore up to this time were Te7'mes gestroi, and he was probably
quite correct in ascribing these particular attacks to diseased
conditions. But I think it very likely that his generalization based
upon observations of other species was subsequently taken by
planters to apply to Termes gestroi, and developed into the
pernicious idea that the trees lost through white ants would have
died anyway, or at best would have been of little use. This
fallacious theory of pre-disease has continued almost, if not quite,
dowu to the present.

In 1897, the Linnsean Society pnbljjfljed Haviland’s “ Observa-
tions on Termites, with descriptions of New Species.” This is the
standard scientific work on Malayan termites. Twenty species,
including Termes gestroi, were described from British Malaya and a
further considerable number from the Islands, but they were not
treated from the economic side. Termes gestroi , however, received
considerable attention because “ the species is one which deliberately
attacks and destroys live trees.” The soldier, upon which classifica-
tion is based, was described in detail, and shorter descriptions given
of the workers and nymphs — that is, the winged individuals which
develop into kings and queens. Unfortunately, Haviland did not
obtain the adult king or queen, and from his failure to find them
came to the conclusion that “ the same colony often possesses
several nests, only one of which is inhabited by fertile individuals
whose eggs and young are carried to the other nests.” My own
experience does not bear out the whole of this. Subsidiary nests are
made by Termes gestroi, in its feeding places but I have never seen
eggs in these. Always the parent nest alone contains the eggs,
and every nest containing eggs contains also the queen. Of the
habits of Termes gestyoi, Haviland wrote : tL This species is
remarkable for its habit of killing live trees. It encases tbe trunk
for a distance of eight feet from the ground, with a thick crust
of earth. Under cover of this crust it eats through weak spots
in the tree to the heart of the wood, which it excavates, forming
there a kind of nest built of wood fibre.”

Next in chronological order is a further article by Ridley in
May, 1900. A brief description of the soldier is followed by an

77

account of the attack upon frees which is almost identical with
Haviland’s account, stating, as he did, that the nest is formed of
wood fibre inside the attacked tree.

That Termes gestroi was increasing in importance as a pest
is evident from Ridley’s comments upon the failure of treatment,
consisting of scraping down the mud casings and treating the
injured surfaces with tar or substances injurious to the insects.
Ridley also observed that be had received from Selangor “ specimens
found destroying Para rubber trees.”

It should be noted that both Haviland and Ridley say nothing
of the whereabouts of the source of tine attack — that is, the parent
nest. The subsidiary nests described are obviously one of the
sequelae of the attack.

It is a great pity that the nesting habits of Termes gestroi
were not then determined as valuable years were lost before more
definite knowledge was published and applied. Had planters then
known where the parent nests were to be found, and bow
successfully the pest could be treated through these, Termes gestroi
might never have been giveu the opportunity to multiply and
establish itself as a pest of such enormous importance.

Nowhere is the copy book maxim “ prevention is better than
cure ” more truly applicable than in the province of economic
entomology and to no insect more aptly w than to Termes gestroi.
But for either it is essential to have an accurate and full knowledge
of the habits and life" history of the insect ; efforts ' at both
prevention and cure were shortly made, but without the essential
knowledge they were foredoomed to failure.

The unfortunate lack of information about Termes gestroi in the
early days is in my opinion one of the gravest misfortunes suffered,
by the Malayan Para Rubber Industry; not alone, or mainly,
because thousands of dollars were wasted, and trees lost, but because
fuller knowledge would have induced the employment* of sound
measures of timber treatment, and clean clearing, with all, its
accruing advantages might have become as much a sine qua non of
rubber cultivation as clean weeding-.

The next two publications threw little further light on the
subject. In October, 1901, W. W. Bailey contributed a report in
which be describes “ Termites ” as the worst enemy of his rubber,
eating out the heart of his healthiest and best rubber trees. Havyig
tried arsenic, sulphate of copper, phenyl, tuba, kerosene oil, etc.,
without success, he decided to set coolies on to digging out queens
and breaking up the mounds, although he says he had been told by
more than one scientist that the queen of the rubber termite was not
to be found, in mounds. The queens were taken from mounds one to
two feet high and each man averaged ten a day. “It may be said,”
he wrote * “ That they are not termites, and it may be true ; but one

*

78

thing! am certain of, and that is that they are identical with, the
creature that is destroying our rubber ti’ees ... X feel certain
that I shall almost exterminate these insects on my estates.”

In the light of present knowledge it is obvious that to whatever
else species the queens belonged which were dug out of the mounds,
they were not Termes gestroi, and that not by this method was
there any hope of protecting the rubber trees.

In November, 1901, Ridley, writing upon a recent visit to
Selangor, expressed his admiration of the splendid coffee and Para
rubber trees he saw, but “the drawback was the white ant pest,
and it waf truly grievous 'to see fine four-year old Para rubber
trees killed by their attacks.” Suspecting fungus disease in addition
to termites, several trees were pulled up and their roots examined.
On one a fungus was found and identified as Helicobasidium sp.
Ridley observed “ I am aware I am on debatable ground as to
whether the particular tree I examined which bad fungus at its roots
was killed by that fungus or by white ants or by both . . . My

own theory is that in this particular instance the fungus was the
cause.”

In a letter from Lanadron in December, 1901, Francis Pears
wrote : “ The age of my trees is from 2§ years downwards and as yet
I have not had a single established plant destroyed by white ants,
although certain portions of the estate contain numerous ant heaps
such as Mr. Bailey describes ; on one ten-acre block as many as two
hundred. This, Sir, may slightly bear out your theory that a fungus
is principally instrumental in destroying the trees in Selangor.”

I believe I am correct in saying that Lanadron was clean cleared
of timber before planting. What an epoch making letter that would
have been if Pears had deduced the true reason of his freedom from
white ant attack, that the absence of timber precluded the possibility
of attack by Termes gestroi.

E. V. Carey in March, 1902, gave wliat should have been the
death blow to the system of destroying queens from mounds. He
described how, having in the pre-rubber days paid out considerable
sums in rewards for queens because Termes gestroi was attacking
the coffee, he submitted some specimens to E, E. Green in Ceylon,
who, of course, told him that he was catching the wrong species.
Later, wheu Para, rambong, and coconut were attacked “ roots
ware bared and kept open to the air, painted with tar, washed
with Bordeaux mixture, solution of tuba z’oot yi sweet flag, Jeyes
disinfectant, etc.,” without success. Then Bailey of Lowlands tried
another method which had met with such “ unqualified success ”
that Carey ascribed to him the credit “of having put us all on the
right track.” The method was a thorough digging over of the whole
attacked area. Carey recommended a modification, contenting him-
self with digging from attacked trees, 2^ to 3 feet deep for a distance

79

of not less than 10 feet in every direction, and further following the
runways up to the nest. and destroying the queen. Even if the nest
were not found, the disorganization of the runways was held to be
sufficient to prevent the termites returning'to the same tree a second
time.

It could not be long before this method discovered its weakness.
The only effect upon the attack would be to drive it to fresh trees.
Moreover, many attacked trees would go untreated because, as
Robinson was soon to point out, in a considerable percentage of eases
there are no external signs of damage.

By far the most important thing in this article of C-hrey’s is the
following note in parenthesis : the nest “ is almost always found in a
log or the stump of an old tree.” It is amazing to me that not
until another six years had elapsed was this knowledge applied by
treating timber, and that a further six years was allowed to pass
before clean clearing as the only perfect treatment for Termes
gestroi was seriously supported l>y any of the men engaged in
agricultural research in this country.

The first serious attempt to investigate the pest was made by
Robinson, now Director of Museums, whose account is published in
the Bulletin in December, 1904. I can do little more than indicate
some of the more important features, and recommend you to re-read
the whole for yourselves. A simple key to the species commonly
found on estates is followed by a good account of the nests of the
mound- building species. The useful part played by these species in
converting timber into available plant food is pointed out, and the
futility of treating them insisted upon.

* Termes gestroi , Robinson remarked to be rare in Nature, and
ascribed its abundance on estates to the stimulus provided by unusual
quantities of suitable food in the form of rubber trees. The first
detailed account is given of the external attack under coyer of the mud
casing, under which, sooner or later, a non-resistent spot in the bark
is reached, through which “ the whole body of termites gains access
to the interior of the tree which is rapidly eaten out.” Robinson
also was the first to point out that a large percentage of attacks
are made below the soil level, no external signs of damage showing.
He opposed the theory of antecedent disease, but pointed out the
likelihood of Termes gestroi effecting entrance' through wounds.
The remedies of the time are discussed and dismissed as failures
with the exception of powdering the collar and roots thickly with
freshly slaked lime after scraping off the incrustation. For the
treatment of internally attacked trees an ingenious application
of CS 2 vapour is suggested. But there is not a word about
destroying the nesting sites. Robinson wrote : “ The nests are
contained within the trunks of the trees attacked, and are formed of
narrow labrynthirie chambers of woody and earthy matter , . ,

80

the whole of the interior of the tree being more or leas filled
up with this material.” Now, this is typical of the subsidiary
nests made in live trees where Termes gestroi is feeding, and it is
probably such nests that Robinson explored and described. Robinson
found one nest out of many investigated which contained eggs —
that is, a parent colony. Personally, I have never found a parent
nest in live rubber, although such do occasionally occur in old rubber
where surface timber has gradually rotted away. Always the
parent nest has been in a log or stump. One might search long in
attacked young rubber trees for a parent colony without success, but
if such were found it would only serve further to obscure the general
truth. Cai^y’s clue of the logs and stumps was not followed up, and
this otherwise valuable report is marred by the failure to provide
that most desirable of all information, the location of the main nest.

In April, 1906, E. P. Stebbing,- Forest Zoologist in India,
entered the discussion because of specimens sent from Mergui Estate.
Stebbing, who, of course, had no first hand knowledge of living Termes
gestroi , larged the need for procuring full information upon its life
history. Among points which he indicated as requiring elucidation,
there are two of vital importance — namely, “ Where do the termites
found in the nest in the crown of the root come from in the first
instance?” and “Are there any galleries radiating from the nest to
other parts of the plantation ? If so, where do they go ? ” Now this
is the first consideration of the problem by a trained Economic
Entomologist, and it is interesting to note that at once the true
line of investigation was suggested.

In May, 1908, Pratt supplied the material for answering
Stebbing’s questions in an interim report upon bis termite work.
Tracing back runways from 15 or 20 eight-year old rubber trees, all
of them terminated in a nest, about two feet in diameter, constructed
round a buried stump. In this nest was discovered the first
authentic queen. Runways ramified from the main nests, broaden-
ing out iu places to form large open spaces from which branch
burrows diverged, the larger of these leading to subsidiary nests
inside stumps, logs, and fallen trees. This was indeed an important
verification of Carey’s statement, and laid the foundation of a
rational method of treatment. Pratt pointed out that the age of the
rubber, and the nature of the. soil had little, if any, effect upon the
incidence of the attack, but what really mattered was the, presence of
timber. The supposed deadly effect of lalang upon Termes gestroi,
he rightly ascribed to the general absence of timber on old lalang
areas. Further promise of being on the right track at last was given
in the following passages : “ The most important point in connection

with the present abundance of Termes gestroi ... is that it
.attacks dead as well as living wood . . . The fact that it is among

the dead wood, and rapidly multiplying lias been ignored. It is only
when the rubber trees are being attacked that any measures are

81

taken against its ravages. 1 ’ Pratt then pointed out how useless it
was to treat individual trees while there was a constant supply of
termites from the nest-log or stump.

Unpublished correspondence of about this date shows that one
estate on old lalang land had never been troubled by Termes gestroi.
The inference would appear obvious, from the presence of Termes
gestroi in timber and its complete absence in timber-free land, that
clean clearing was the soundest treatment for the pest. Whether
this inference was made, and dismissed as impracticable for reasons
of expense, there is nothing to tell ns. Instead Pratt recommended
as “ preventive measures ” the piecemeal method of tracking down
the nest by following runways from attacked trees, and a selective
method of dealing with timber. Among native timbers known to
harbour Termes gestroi , kumpas, meranti and pulai were given the
place of honour. It was recommended that these should not be
destroyed at first, as “ they subsequently afford means of locating
Termes gestroi and should then be destroyed with the termites.

Now these methods predicate, before treatment) the establish-
ment of colonies in the timber, and probably serious attacks upon the
rubber trees. Surely this is not preventive treatment. Treatment
after attack may result in eradication, but preventive measures should
leave nothing to eradicate.

To Towgood, in March, 1909, belongs the credit of first
advocating the preventive destruction of all nesting places.

After pointing out that white ant timbers varied with locality,
he went on to describe methods applied successfully by himself. In
old rubber these consisted of collecting and destroying all surface
timber, and if then there were further attack, to follow the runways ,
down to its source, which was invariably in a buried log or stump,

• and to burn the whole nest.

One field of six years old Ram bong was interplanted with Hevea,
and white ant attack on both was particularly virulent. Five
months before writing Towgood bad cleared the field of all timber,
and no sign of the pest had since been seen.

In many young clearings, the timbers suitable to Termes gestroi
were sought for line by line, sawn through, and burnt if the pest
was present.

For future clearings, Towgood recommended felling the
favourite white ant trees first, and allowing them to dry prior to
felling and burning the rest of the jungle. In this way he hoped to
prevent Termes gestroi ever getting established.

Now these are all much sounder methods, but naturally they
entail greater immediate capital expenditure. Against tjiis Towgood
pointed out that in addition to the satisfaction of knowing that the

p

45

82

only troubles they feared — namely, white ants and Fomes, were
eradicated, there would be less subsequent expenditure in pest work,
supervision would be more efficient, weeding costs less, and all work
carried out in the clearing would be cheaper.

Towgood, then, advocated clean clearing old rubber, destroying
trees which contain Termes gestroi in young rubber, and selective
burning in future opening. The first was sound. The others were
dangerously incomplete even against Termes gestroi alone, not to
mention Fomes and the later discovered root diseases, Sph&rdstilbe,
Ustulina, and Poria, because any remaining suitable timber in the
young rubber might later become infected by Termes gestroi , and
in the new clearings there is a much greater variety of potential
gestroi timbers than Towgood suspected. A letter from Joliore in
December, 1909, lists a fui'ther 19 timbers harbouring Termes
gestroi, Terentang heading the list w r ith over a hundred nests
in 40 acres, but the other 18 equally capable of serving as a
nidus for Termes gestroi , if the favourite timber is absent. The only
sure guarantee against Termes gestroi attack is to remove, not only
every certain, but ever.y possible nesting site. Nevertheless, Towgood
was on the right track, and had his advice been followed, improve-
ments in details would have developed.

But. just now the sulphur arsenic fmnigator was being boomed
as a cheap and effective method of treatment. Everybody was
wanting a remedy easy of application, certain of result. A prize of
£5,000 was offered to the inventor of such. It was not awarded,
but public attention was focussed on patent methods, and the
universal exterminator was certainly the best of these. And so,
unfortunately for those estates now suffering from the many ills bred
of rotting timber, clean clearing was set back a further six years.

In October, 1908, Pratt was .transferred from the Medical to the
Agricultural Department, and devoted some time to the continuation
of his white ant work. You are all familiar with the results as
published in Bulletins, Nos. 1 and 3, of the Department of Agricul-
ture. The first was largely a revision of the report previously
considered. Bulletin No. 3, which deals mainly with treatment, is too
long for me to discuss in detail.

In blocks in which the jungle had been felled less than six
years, Pratt advocated isolating attacked areas by a four-foot drain,
digging over the soil to a depth of three feet, and burning all the
logs and stumps containing Termes gestroi. . He did not recommend
destroying all logs and stumps but said that the proportion which
needed removal was comparatively small. As an alternative method,
equally effective and cheaper, to be used whenever possible, he
strongly recommended fumigation with sulphur-arsenic fumes. The
nest having been located, presumably by inspection, a trench was to
be cut round it, left open for a few days to allow impair of the

83

runways, and then nest, runways and attacked trees were to be
thoroughly fumigated. “If a little care and interest are taken”
he wrote, “ and the treatment carried out as it should be, not only
would the cost be very small, but the trees within this area will
not again be troubled by gestroi.”

In older clearings, originally planted with rubber, Pratt
considered that in all except peaty soils, most of the timber would
have become too rotten to harbour Termes gestroi and the nests would
have been transferred to the rubber trees. All trees suspected of
being hollow were to be bored and fumigated, and any remaining
hardwood logs which contained nests were to be destroyed.

In peaty soils, which frequently contain much buried timber
and roots, fumigation was to be used wherever possible ; if it were
not successful recourse must be had to the isolating drain and deep
changkolling. Thus was the fumigator given official benediction as
the premier method against white ants, and clean clearing relegated
to the background with scarce even a nod of recognition.

This bulletin concludes with an exhortation to planters not to
be unduly alarmed for the future, inasmuch as, although it is wise
and profitable to treat the pest, “there must inevitably result a
steady diminution of gestroi , among the older rubber,” except on
peaty soils. Such a disparagement of the danger would in itself
have been enough to deter planters from recommending expenditure
on clean clearing.

Prom this time onwards more and more reliance was placed in
fumigating, generally with incomplete results. Those planters who
tired of the fumigator, usually fell back upon local applications of
poisons, witlr worse results. The pro-fumigants held that lack of
success was due to inefficient application of the method, and that
with trained gangs and competent supervision all would be well.
Late in 1914, I had my first experience of white ant work, and went
about an enthusiastic exponent of the fumigating school, but before
the middle of 1915 I was satisfied that fumigating, although the
best of the palliatives, was at best but a palliative. Perfectly
applied by perfect coolies, it might keep the attack down to a
minimum, but who possesses the perfect coolies ? Was there not
some other more effective remedy to be deduced from our fuller
knowledge of the life history of the insect ?

In nature, under jungle conditions, Termes gestroi is a rare insect
as compared with many other local termites. It is established in
certain dead or dying trees. At certain times there is a flight of
sexed individuals from the nest, any pair of which can found a new
colony, provided suitable conditions — namely, shelter and dead wood.
In the jungle such suitable conditions are seldom met, but on a
clearing with quantities of unburnt wood, suitable nest sites are
abundant, and even if one favourite type of timber is absent, another

84

can be made to serve. Hence from one mature colony, inside or
just outside a clearing, a considerable percentage of the logs and
stumps may be infected. Allow one or two years of undisturbed
development, and you have numbers of colonies at great strength,
ready to attack rubber or any other suitable material, or to spread
the infection by swarms of flying individuals to uninfected areas or
logs. Trenching, digging, poisoning, fumigating, tracing runways,
and numerous modifications and combinations of these had been tried
and found incapable of eradicating the pest. Deep changkolling
over attacked areas had been abandoned — if it was ever tried —
probably because of the cost. In some places the surface timber
was being hunted through for nests, the logs cut open and the
queen sought and killed. As it had been frequently stated that
Termes gestroi had not the power possessed by a lot of species of
elevating baby commoners to the position of temporary queen, this
looked likely at least to stop.any further development of those nests.
But this method had soon 'to be discarded also, as 1 found, in the
remnants of such colonies, substitution queens raised either from
undestroyed eggs or very young individuals. It was, therefore,
obvious that the whole nest must be destroyed so that no remnant
capable of raising substitution queens was left ; and not only the nest,
but the containing timber, lest later some members of a nuptial
swarm should find it a suitable place in which to settle and
recommence the trouble. But if in the remains of the nest log, why
not in other timber also. So long as suitable timber is left, even if
all the Termes gestroi in the clearing have been destroyed, the
conditpus approximate to those of an uninfected new clearing, and
in one night a nuptial swarm may reinfect the whole area.

I was thus driven to the conclusion that the only safe preventive
and remedial treatment for Termes gestroi was absolute clean
clearing.

During 1915 I was able to test the method on a peaty block
suffering from the heaviest pure Termes gestroi attack I have seen.
Surface timber was destroyed, stumps w r ere blasted and lifted, and
buried log’s were prospected for with probes, dug out, and burned.
The work was done thoroughly, and the result was excellent. One
or two small areas showed re-attacks which were traced to hidden
logs, but after these were taken out, no further white ant trouble
arose in the block although previously the mortality ranged^ up to 75
per cent, of the 18 months old rubber. The method, then, was
sound, but what of the expense P Would it really pay the average
estate to put up the necessary money P I had faith that it would,
considering the crop saved, and the reduction in working costs
effected, so thereafter, whenever called upon to advise on white ant
treatment, I insisted upon the fundamental importance of destroying-
timber. Some estates provided for the work — others carried on with
careful application of their previous methods. But during 1914-15

85

our knowledge of the mode of attack of certain fungi upon the x’oots
of rubber, and of their immense economic importance, was rapidly
advanced, and the responsibility fixed upon decaying timber. With
this extra, and even more important case against timber to support
the policy of clean clearing, it became possible to advocate as a
general estate method what previously might have been considered a
counsel of perfection.

In February of last year at a Planters’ Association lecture 1
first recommended the general adoption of this common-sense method.
The idea did not at once meet with unanimous approval, but the
progress it has made in little more than twelve months has been
eminently satisfactory.

Early in 1916, also, I had the opportunity to devote some time
to the consideration of coconut pests, and here too Termes gestroi
proved to be by far the most serious pest, warranting a very
considerable expenditure upon preventive treatment.

The same arguments for clean cleai'ing apply to coconut cultiva-
tion as to rubber, beetle grubs in the rotting wood replacing fungoid
diseases as the supporting reason.

That clean clearing is the only sure cure for Termes gestroi
attack, I am fully convinced. Of all other methods tried, including
the sulphur arsenic f umigator, it must be admitted that they have failed
to eradicate the pest. In areas wherein Termes gestroi has become *
established, particularly in old rubber, the fumigator is indispensable,
but only as an adjunct — not as the principal method. Within two,
or at the outside three years of felling, every available shelter for
Termes gestroi , and consequently every likely infection centre for
root diseases should have been destroyed.

That clean clearing is in general worth while from a financial
view point, I am satisfied also. But this is a matter upon which the
economist and not the scientist will decide.

To the practical planter belongs the solution of the problem, how
best and cheapest to get rid of the undesired timber ; whether by
double felling ; by single felling and clean clearing before planting ;
by single felling and clearing when the rubber is well up ; by
disposing of the wood for charcoal or firewood ; or what not ! The
sooner the cheapest and the most effective method is established,
the earlier will this, the most desirable of all plant sanitation
methods, become a piece of the established routine of estate opening.

7

86

APPLICATION OF THE AGRICULTURAL PESTS
ENACTMENT.

By F. W. South, b.a.

( Chief Agricultural Inspector, F.M.S.)

Introduction.

I CULTIVATED crops in any country are liable to two classes of
V " / ' diseases, those occurring in the country, and those introduced
from outside. In order to provide means of controlling these two
classes of disease in the Federated Malay States, the Agricultural
Pests Enactment was passed in 1913 and became law upon its
publication in the Gazette on 1st August of that year.

The Enactment.

The main provisions of the Enactment provide for the control
of diseases occurring in the country while powers under a certain
section enable the Chief Secretary to make rules for preventing the
introduction of pests into the Federated Malay States, by
prohibiting the landing from places outside the States of any plant
or animal likely to introduce a pest and by providing for the
treatment or destruction of any plant or animal which has been
landed and of the packages, cases, pots or covering in which the
same may be contained.

As the known diseases of rubber are common to practically all
rubber producing countries in the East, it has not been considered
necessary to ask the Chief Secretary to provide any rules in
connection with the importation of plants, especially as such
importations are not at present extensive in the Federated Malay
States.

The measures for the control of such diseases as already occur
or may arise in the future may be divided into two classes.

(a) Those requiring the treatment of specifically diseased
cultivated plants and

(&) Those requiring the removal of conditions suitable to the
introduction or spread of any pest.

The details of these measures are now well known and it is not
necessary here to enumerate them, suffice it to say that they involve
the employment of a special staff of European officers and Malay
subordinates who are invested with the necessary powers, including
powers of entry on cultivated land, of removing portions of infected
plants for examination and of serving legal notices requiring the
carrying out of definite instructions for the treatment or control

87

of any pest or for the removal of conditions liable to favour the
introduction or spread of any pest. Failure to comply with such
instructions may be dealt with in two ways :

The inspecting officer with the permission of the Director of
Agriculture may institute criminal proceedings involving a fine on
conviction ; he may also enter the land with assistants and carry out
the measures required, subsequently recovering their cost by civil suit.

A further measure in the case of emergency is that the Director
of Agriculture, with the approval of the Resident, may place in
quarantine any land or any part of land on which diseased plants
have been found, and so long as this land is in quarantine no plant
or part of a plant may he removed from it except with the permission
of an inspecting officer. The Enactment further contains special
clauses relating to locusts and the control of the beetle pests of
the coconut palm.

Staff.

The foundation of the necessary staff was already in existence
when the Enactment came into force as powers as inspecting officers
under the Enactment were given to the Assistant Inspectors and
Sub-Inspectors of Coconuts who had previously worked under the
Inspector of Coconut Plantations, Mr. L. C. Brown. On the
retirement of the latter his duties devolved on the Chief Agricultural
Inspector to whom control of his former staff was also given.

Certain additional European and subordinate officers were*
appointed and all subsequently had to be trained in that part of the
work relating to rubber for which purpose a certain amount of time
was, of course, necessary.

Inspection Woek in the Kampongs.

When work under the Enactment first commenced two out-
standing matters required attention — namely, the beetle pests of
coconuts and pink disease of rubber.

Coconut beetles — Owing to the enforcement of the Coconut Trees
Preservation Enactments which were in force previous to the passing
of the Agricultural Pests Enactment, the measures necessary for
the control of coconut beetles were well known to the majority
of the Malay subordinate staff and of the small holders in the
kampongs. The continuation of this work was, therefore, a matter
of routine, involving no particular difficulties. It had been insisted
on for some years and the small owners were accustomed to carry
out the simple measures required of them by the inspecting officers i
a certain number of prosecutions were, however, necessary in order
to maintain efficiency.

Owing to the rise in the price of rubber towards the end of 1915
and the continued high price during 1916, there was a general
tendency in both these years to cut out coconuts interplanted

2 a - \sj

88

among rubber tree® and even to clear land containing mature
coconuts for the purpose of planting rubber. These conditions
emphasized the importance of the coconut inspection work as the
coconut refuse, if left lying about, would have provided an
opportunity for a rapid increase in the number of the red beetles.
This was avoided by regularly insisting on the destruction by
burning or burial of the trees cut out. During 1915 a few serious
local outbreaks of black beetles, particularly at Kuan tan and
Seremban, called for special attention. No serious outbreaks were
recorded in 1916. At the present time the Seremban trees have
been free of beetles for over a year and have much improved in
appearance.

Pink disease — In contrast to the routine treatment of coconut
beetles that of this disease had to be commenced at the very
beginning. The disease was practically unknown to small owners
throughout the country and was of comparatively recent occurrence ;
moreover, it is not one which frequently results in the death of
a tree : for these reasons its importance was not generally recognized
by Asiatic owners, while at the same time the subordinate inspecting
staff, of whom the majority had only ’worked on coconuts and the
remainder were newly appointed, were not acquainted with its
various manifestations. It was decided, therefore, to allow' a period
of twelve months to elapse before taking legal action to insist on its
control. During this period the subordinate staff were taught the
symptoms and treatment, -small holdings were regularly visited and
their owners were shown how to recognize the disease and what
must be done to control it.

The actual method of treatment recommended was to cut
off the diseased branches well below the last signs of infection
and to burn the diseased portions immediately. Smooth cut surfaces
subsequently treated with tar were required. Owing to the cai*e
necessary when treating* this disease with tar, as is done on the
majority of estates, it was not considered a suitable method to
recommend for use in the kampongs.

At the beginning of 1915 it was thought that a sufficient period
of education had elapsed, and the measures previously recommended
for treatment of this disease w-ere subsequently insisted on by law.
The routine inspection work once commenced w r as carried on steadily
throughout 1915 and a large number of cases were taken in Court.
Owners were, on the whole, however, very slow in recognizing that it
was to their interest to carry out the instructions given and though
a considerable number of fines were inflicted there did not appear to
be much improvement in the way in which the work required was
actually done. Throughout 1916 the regular treatment of this
disease has been insisted upon, and, though an improvement is
noticeable in certain districts the disease lias undoubtedly spread,
and in other neighbourhoods there is practically no improvement In

89

the present condition of the kampongs. The Asiatic does not see
the necessity for treating a disease which does not often kill the tree
and which is not eradicated by the most careful and steadily
continued treatment. He regards the measures required of him as a
nuisance, since they involve work to which he is not inclined, and
also as being inefficient inasmuch as they do not result in the
disappearance of the disease from his plantation. As a result he
prefers paying a small fine of from $2 to $10 inflicted on him by the
magistrate to expending the same sum in carrying out the treatment
required.

The alternative course of action open to the inspecting officer—
namely, of carrying out the work in the small holdings and recovering
the cost would involve the employment of such a number of gangs of
trained coolies and trained mandors, as is at present entirely
beyond the resources in European supervision of this Department.
All that can be done at present is to use coolies to treat the disease
in such of the small holdings as are most seriously infected and
have been most consistently neglected.

The satisfactory treatment of pink disease in the kampongs in
general can, in the writer’s opinion, only be attained as a result of a
comparatively lengtlily educational process which will gradually
accustom the owners to do what is required of them and lead them to
recognize that the measures are for their own good. A state of
things ultimately should be obtained comparable to that which
exists in the routine control of coeonub beetles. Attempts to hasten
unduly the educative process necessary are certain to be without
effect, and only patient and continued efforts will have a lasting
result.

The degree of attention paid to instructions varies considerably
in different States. In Perak where the disease is most prevalent the
instructions receive but little attention. In the one badly infected
district of Selangor instructions are often obeyed fairly well
especially when a large fine is inflicted from time to time. In the
Negri Sembilan the disease is much less prevalent and often disappears
entirely for a portion of each year even in those districts which are
comparatively the more infected. The occasional cases ‘found have
mostly been treated as required. In Pahang work is being some-
what newly commenced and not much can be said about it at present.

Lalang . — Shortly after inspection work commenced, it became
evident that the lalang so often present on small holdings should be
removed, irrespective of whether these contained rubber or cocouuts,
more especially when they bordered on clean estates or other clean
holdings. In this case also it was decided to commence by giving
advice only, until the small owner should become more accustomed
to an idea which is entirely contrary to his usual liappy-go-lucky
methods.

4 <?

90

Legal action to enforce removal of Ialang, particularly from
holdings hordering on estates or other clean holdings, was commenced
in 1915 in the States of Perak and Selangor. During 1916 this
action was continued steadily and a certain number of cases were
instituted in Pahang ; in ”Negri Sembilan no legal action has
yet been inforced, reliance being placed entirely on the advice
of the inspecting officers, which is fairly frequently adopted
especially by Chinese. The process of educating the small holders
to realize the importance of doing the work necessary to keep his
land free from this serious pest, which not only itself damages the
rubber tree but is frequent source of almost entire loss though fire,
will be as slow as that of teaching him to treat pink disease and is
again .to be arrived at only by gradual and steady education.

These then are the three main lines of action which have been
followed during the years 1915 and 1916, and the number of court
cases which have been taken in connection with them are given in
the following table :

Coconuts.

State.

1915.

1916.

Total cases.

j Total fines.

Total cases.

Total fines.

$ G.

$ e.

Perak

146

484 50

139

826 00

Selangor

38

134 50

88

488 00

Negri Sembilan

56

406 50

39

151 00

Pahang

2

10 00

8

22 00

Pink

Disease.

$ e.

$ c.

Perak

225

1,717 50

348

3,979 50

Selangor

2

10 00

6

300 00

Negri Sembilan

, . «

...

1

10. 00

Pahang

1

5 00

...

...

L ALAN a.

$ c ■ |

$ c.

Perak

14

107 50

* 39

332 00

Selangor

1

5 00

16

59 00

Negri Sembilan

...

Pahang

■ ...

...

67

98 00

91

Tapping . — Almost from the beginning of the inspection work tlie
European officers have given advice to small holders all over the
country as to proper methods of tapping. During 1915 and 1916
steps were taken to train the subordinate inspecting officers in good
methods of tapping and advice as to reasonably conservative systems
of tapping allowing a satisfactory bark renewal has since been freely
given in all the kampongs by them. At the same time common errors
in tapping, resulting in waste of baik, and the serious damage done by
severe wounding, have been carefully pointed out. This advice was
most urgently required as, on the older holdings in particular, the
yield is often reduced to as little as 100 lbs. per acre per annum
owing to excessive tapping in the past which has left the trees with
a bark so thin that, properly speaking, it should not be tapped at
all. Again in many instances previous severe wounding has left the
surface of the bark so burred and rough that it is no longer tappable.
The advantage of this advice can be clearly seen in parts of Pahang
on small holdings which were opened in 1915 and 1916 under the
advice of the local sub-inspectors. These trees have not been
nearly so severely damaged as have those in some other parts of the
State where they are three or four years older. The matter of
giving advice as to tapping systems on small holdings is of very
great importance, especially in view of the very large area of young
rubber recently planted, which will be continuously coming into
bearing in the future especially in the years 1919 and 1920 when
the large plantings of the past two years will probably be opened.
It may be mentioned that two court cases were taken, one in Perak
and one in Selangor, during 1916 for failure to obey instructions to
improve tapping methods on certain holdings where the whole of
the bark had been removed practically down to the wood. It is
held that a large number of trees in this condition are exceptionally
liable to disease and might serve as a source for its rapid spread.
Elsewhere, however, advice on this subject has been fairly welcome
and has been followed fairly willingly.

Removal of Dead Rubber Wood . — The result of the Mycologist’s
work on Ustulina zonaia , the black line fungus, especially emphasized
the importance of removing from small holdings all dead rubber
wood, trunks or stumps, irrespective of whether their presence is
due to death from disease, damage by wind, or thinning out. Four
cases resulting in fines amounting to $30 were taken in Selangor in
1916 in this connection. This is a point which will receive further
attention during the coming year.

Black Stripe Disease . — The most recent disease found to require
attention in the kampongs is the “ black stripe ” disease of renewing
bark. This disease was known to occur on certain estates in Perak
and is now under investigation by the Mycologist who is also
conducting experiments to determine its control and treatment. Up
to the month of March last, the disease was not known definitely to

Bzr&f * 0

92

occur in kampongs anywhere, but during that month it was found
fairly commonly on kampongs in the Raub district of Pahang by the
Assistant Agricultural Inspector, Selangor, and the author. The
treatment of this disease in the kampongs will be a difficult matter
and can only be carried out by a trained gang or gangs of coolies
specially employed by the Department. Both the identification of
the disease and its treatment require more or less expert knowledge
and the Malay subordinate officers will have to be most carefully
trained before such work can safely be left to them.

Steps must, however, be taken early to decide the distribution of
the disease in the kampongs and measures must be devised for its
treatment.

Locust Work.

In Selangor and the Negri Sembilan the Assistant Agricultural
Inspectors have been responsible for supervising the work of des-
troying locusts, for which purpose a special stall was provided. The
work commenced in September, 1913, and continued in Selangor
until the end of 1915. A few locusts were present during 1916 and
a small staff was kept until the end of the year to watch them.
No eggs were, however, laid and the State is now practically free
from locusts ; unless there is still a small swarm rapidly dying out
at Sepang ; none are known to occur elsewhere. In the Negri
Sembilan work went on continually during the years 1913, 1914, and
1915 ; the staff was reduced in 1916 as the number of locusts became
less and only part of the subordinate staff was left under the direct
control of the Assistant Agricultural Inspector. Naturally the
locust work occupied much of his time in 1916. At present there
are no more locusts in the Negri Sembilan and very little more work
is expected there.

The Chief Agricultural Inspector has been in chief control of
this work throughout; besides general supervision of this work in
Selangor and the Negri Sembilan since August, 1913, he has also
had to supervise work on locust destruction in Jokore since October,
1914, and in Malacca since March, 1916, In both these States the
number of locusts is now much reduced.

Work on Estates.

The work of European inspecting officers on estates has been
almost entirely of an advisory nature. In two or three cases letters
requiring the treatment in accordance with the Enactment of one or
two diseases, usually pink disease, have been sent out, but in no
instance has a court case been necessary to enforce the measures
required.

As part of the routine work the distribution of pink disease by
mukims has been determined and practically every infected estate
is known in Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sembilan, in Pahang the

98

work is not yet complete. Practically all infected estates have been
visited at least once, often more frequently, and have been given
advice as to treatment of the disease.

The black line disease, Ustulina zonata, being comparatively
new, has given planters some trouble and many have asked the
inspecting officers to visit their estates and given advice about it.
It is now fairly well known and on many estates the removal of all
timber, especially thinned [out rubber stumps and trunks, is being
carried out on all the older fields. The question *is under
consideration as to whether the inspecting staff ought not to use
its powers to require the removal of at least all dead rubber wood
from all estates in the interest of the industry as a whole. This
treatment would apply also to the other root disease of older rubber,
Poria hypolaterita, about which advice is often asked.

White ants, Fomes , Sphterostilbe repens, die-back, drying up of
latex and various bark troubles all give rise to requests for advice
from time to time and inspecting officers are more and more
frequently asked to visit estates to advise on the treatment of one
disease or another.

Recently, that is from the middle of 1916 to date, much atten-
tion has been given to two bark diseases. The first is the “ black
stripe” also known in Perak as “cambium rot,” first found in
Perak North. The Assistant Agricultural Inspector, Perak North,
has, I believe, determined its distribution on estates fairly fully in his
portion of the State and is also assisting the Mycologist with experi-
ments to determine its treatment. This disease, occurring as it does
on renewing bark is a very important one, and work on its distribu-
tion in other States has been commenced. It is known to occur here
and there in Selangor in the districts of Kuala Selangor, Klang and
TJlu Langat and in the Raub and Kuantan districts of Pahang. So
far it has probably been recorded from the Negri Sembilan only on
one estate, as it seems preferable to considerable bark disease known
there on several other estates to be different, since it exhibits certain
differences in symptoms and may not be due to the same fungus.

The second bark disease referred to is this form found in the
Negri Sembilan. Its distribution on estates has been fairly fully
determined by the Assistant Agricultural Inspector, Selangor, and
the Assistant Agricultural Inspector, Negri Sembilan. On the
suggestion of the management tapping was stopped on one area in
which this disease occurred.

Census of Coconut Trees.

It may he mentioned in passing that a full census of coconut
trees on small holdings has been nearly completed by the inspecting
officers and that the advisability of making a census of rubber
holdings to show ages and trees is under consideration.

94

Conclusion.

It will be seen that the activities of the inspecting staff are
fairly numerous and show every prospect of increasing largely in the
future. Nearly all the lines of work* are of considerable importance,
as I think will be readily admitted, and new methods of dealing
with new diseases may become necessary as time passes and local
fungi become more and more adapted to rubber as a host plant. If
all these known and possible future diseases are to be kept well under
control, the inspecting officers will be kept busy, and in fact the
work that* is even now necessary bids fair to grow beyond the
capacities of the present subordinate staff, so that a scheme for
increasing it in the near future is being drawn up in order to keep
pace with the needs of small and large planters.

Even the short experience so far available seems to indicate the
real value of inspection work for disease control, though the full
results obtainable can only be arrived at slowly after many years of
careful and patient educative work.

Discussion.

Mr. Coombs asked Mr. R. M. Richards whether he had in his
experience met actual cases of death of coconut palms which could be
assigned to Pestalozzia and whether under conditions obtaining on the
best estates here it was not advisable to leave the palms to recover
from the disease themselves. Also if from the point of view of
general sanitation it would be advisable to remove the tree creeper
so common in old palms.

Mr. R. M. Richards replied that he had seen rare instances of
grown palms which had succumbed to Pestalozzia attacks. In cases
of attacks of this disease in nurseries it was not advisable to leave
matters to chance. In reply to the second question he did not
consider it necessary to clean up the creeper (a fern) from palms as
he had never found the creeper causing injury.

Mr. P. B. Richards asked Mr. R. M. Richards whether he had
tried spraying with contact poisons applied with a power sprayer,
for the destruction of Brachartona.

Mr. R. M. Richards said that he tried all forms of sprayers,
except a power sprayer,- and found that spraying was inefficient. He
stated that singeing and hand collecting was, in his opinion, the only
way of dealing with the pest.

Mr. Vaughan Smith asked Mr. South what steps had been taken
to control coconut beetles in the kampongs in the Bagan Uatoh
district.

Mr. South replied that the usual routine inspection had been
carried out throughout last year and a few cases had been taken
in court in most months of the year, but the results were not very
satisfactory and the Assistant Agricultural Inspector was intending
to give the matter his personal attention this year.

95

RUBBER PREPARATION.

Demonstration op Experimental Vulcanizing Plant, etc,

VISIT was paid on the 26th April to the experimental paper-
making factory and visitors were shown the plant employed
for the complete manufacture of paper from various raw products
and the methods of manufacture were explained briefly. The fibre-
making machinery for the manufacture of clean fibre from sisal,
agave, etc., which is housed in the same building was also inspected.
A complete unit of plant on a commercial scale for the extraction of
oil from oil seeds of all kind, including copra and Para rubber seed,
which is also erected in the same building, was shown and explained.

Visitors then inspected the experimental retort and condenser

for the distillation of crude acetic or pyroligneous acid from various

*

local woods, including rubber wood, which was being distilled at the
time.

Subsequently a detailed inspection of the experimental vulca-
nizing machinery and apparatus employed for the testing of
vulcanized rubber was made. A demonstration of the methods
employed was given, including the mixing, calendering and vulca-
nizing of the rubber and the subsequent testing of the vulcanized
product. Messrs. B. J. Eaton (Agricultural Chemist) and F. W. F.
Day (Assistant Agricultural Chemist) explained the processes to
visitors and the former gave a brief account of the nature of the
variability of plantation Para rubber and showed numerous
specimens of the raw rubber, which behaved differently during
vulcanization owing to the method of preparation. Numerous
questions were asked by members of the audience and replied to.
A very keen interest was taken in the demonstration, the plant and
methods of testing being quite new to many visitors who had not
visited the experimental vulcanizing factory before and had not seen
a rubber vulcanizing factory.

Finally visitors were shown the chemical laboratory and took a
keen interest in the chemical apparatus and methods employed for
the chemical examination of rubber, soils, oils, and other agricultural
products.

96

RUBBER MANUFACTURE AND FACTORY METHODS.

By F. Gf. Softer,

(Manager, Sandycroft Estate, Per ale, F.M.S.)

It is not proposed in this paper to deal with the subject matter
in a general way, and an attempt will be made to confine it to
routine work in a factory, as being better calculated to promote
discussion and be of practical help to any who require it.

The main object to be attained is the highest possible price for
an estate’s out-turn in eveiy grade of rubber, and as each grade
requires special treatment of its own, I will take them separately,
and give the methods adopted for each, on the estate under my
charge. No claim is put forward that these are incapable of
impi-ovement, but they are the product of many experiments, and
consistently high rates obtained for the estate’s output in Singapore
and London, appear to show that, under existing conditions, the right
lines have been chosen to work on, at least as far as this estate is
concerned. There are necessarily the elements of variability in
climatic conditions, systems of tapping, and types of machinery to be
reckoned with, which preclude any idea of uniformity in factory
work all over the Peninsula, but I will try to show how these
variations can be met to give the best possible results.

It must be assumed that a factory is making its entire crop,
including lower grades, and has a full equipment of machinery,
sufficient space for coagulating, and adequate smoking and drying
accommodation. These requirements are necessarily defined by the
quantity of rubber dealt with, and in what form the first latex is
turned out, but granted that we are prepared to make either smoked
sheet or pale crepe as occasion demands, to do justice to a crop
of anything up to 200,000 lbs., a full plant of machinery would be : — a
washer, macerating-roller, crepeing-roller, smooth-finisher, and two
hand or power sheetin^piach ines, with a 40 H.-P. engine to drive it.
A smoke-house capable of holding 12,000 lbs. of rubber would be
wanted, drying sheds with a capacity of 10,000 lbs. and a packing-room
conveniently near. These buildings should be entirely apart from the
factory, but access to them should be by a covered way, and transport
of wet rubber from the factory made as easy as possible by trolleys
on rails. The receiving-house for latex and coagulating-shed should
also be, either a separate building close to the factory, or an adjunct
of the latter with a partition to keep coolies other than factory
hands away from the machinery. For estates with a much larger
output, equipment would be on a larger scale though not necessarily
proportionately. Many estates are now putting in a duplicate plant
to make themselves safe against a break-clown of any essential, and,
for those in the happy position of being able to afford the cost, the
measure is a very commendable one. With so many high class
engineering firms specializing in rubber machinery a planter can get

97

any type or design of machine he wants, and any pattern of grooving
cut on heavy rollers and sheet-making machines. The plant on this
estate consists of a 50 B. H.-P. “ Mirrlees-Diesel” engine with a
40 B. H.-P. “ Crossley ” engine in reserve, a “ Universal ” washer,
three new type Shaw’s heavy machines, two Shaw’s hand or
power sheeting-machines, and three old type Shaw’s heavy
machines. Approximately, 300,000 lbs. are treated in the course of
a year and it will be seen that we are practically insured against a
stoppage caused by a break-down to any one engine or machine.

The floor of each building should be of good clean cement and
immediately under and near the rollers white tiles are an aid
to cleanliness.

PREPARATION OF RIBBED SMOKED SHEET.

I take this grade first as it seems to have finally established
itself as the most convenient form in which to turn out No. 1 latex,
and is made on nearly every estate. It is not essential to have
expensive machinery to deal with it, and small estates can make
smoked sheet with the bulk of their crop without a heavy capital
outlay. It thus justifies its position as first favourite with planters
generally. It is also the most interesting grade to make, as so much
depends on attention to detail, and neglect of any kind is very
apparent in the finished article, though it may possibly pass
unnoticed when the sheet leaves the marking-machine. Perfection
is more difficult to attain in smoked sheet than in any form of crepe,
because nothing can be done to rectify any mistake at any time
during the process of curing. You cannot tear out a piece of bark
or grit from a sheet in the same way as in pale crepe without
ruining the appearance of the sheet ; you cannot roll it smooth again
once it has got torn in the rollers without leaving an ugly mark ;
you cannot get rid of bubbles once the coagulation has set ; “ rust ”
remains for good after the first day’s drying, and no amount of
scrubbing and washing will rid you of dust o$ ash which has got on
to the sheet before it has a film of smoke over it.

These defects all have their value when the manufacturer’s
representative has a look at the rubber in the broker’s show-room,
and a penny a pound less than the best is a serious thing over a
year’s production from any estate. It is, roughly, $6,000 on a crop of
200,000 lbs. as much as the manager’s salary for the year probably.
Most of the well-found estates are now turning out smoked sheet of
a high standard, but one has only to look at the range of prices
quoted in the brokers’ sale reports to see that some estates at least
are not getting the best they can. I have been round show-rooms in
Singapore with some of the leading American buyers, and they are
very emphatic about their requirements in standard smoked sheet.
It must be clean, strong, thoroughly smoked, uniform in appearance,
and give the same results under vulcanization in the same time in

a

£>^- 13/53

98

every shipment, The last is the most important of all from the'
manufacturer’s point of view as it saves time and money in
experimenting with each shipment, and if he can rely on an 'estate’s
output giving the same results regularly he will buy that rubber and
pay full value for it. This serves to show that, having found the
light methods in the factory, a manager is ill-advised to alter any
part of his process, as any change may have a strong bearing on the
results given by his rubber under tests and put the buyers off for
some considerable time.

Straining of Latex.

The first important part of the making of smoked sheet is the
straining of the latex. This should be done through fine gauze, 60
mesh, and two sieves should *be used — one above the other. The
reason for this is that if the sieve gets clogged the cooly in charge
invariably rubs the gauze with a piece of rubber till the latex runs
freely through, and fine sand and dirt get pushed through with the
latex. The lower sieve catches anything of the kind, and no
rubbing of the gauze should be allowed on the lower sieve. If this
gets clogged it should be replaced by a clean sieve and used on fop,
the one formerly on top being removed and thoroughly washed to be
used again. A sufficient number of spares should be at hand to
change continuously.

Standardization.

I dilute with cup washings simultaneously with the straining of
the latex, both going together through the two sieves. No water is
put in the cups during tapping so that the latex is too rich in itself,
and the cup- washings increase the output of sheet by about 2 per
cent, without any harm being done, as dirt cannot pass through both
sieves. There is probably one gallon of cup- washings to two
gallons of pure latex in the mixture, and the out-turn on the total
gallonage for the last two years has been 1| lbs. of dry rubber per
gallon, variations from month to month being fractional, and
dependant ou weather conditions. Rain during collection upsets
most calculations, and ail attempt to preserve uniformity is made
during coagulation. In normal weather I can rely on standard latex
without the aid of a <£ Metrolac.” Owing to the fact that I have
contract tapping at varying rates I have to separate latex from trees
over 10 years old from that from young trees. In pan coagulation
7 of a gallon of water is put into each pan. If rain has fallen during
collection this is dispensed with and instead of a gallon of latex and
cup-washings being put into each pan the latexometer is brought
into the picture and sufficient latex and cup-washings put in to
equalize as nearly as possible a normal day’s size of sheet. 1
deprecate the use of the “ Metrolac ” more than is necessary. It
means nothing to the ordinary cooly, who, if he has been at the
job long enough is a very good judge of the density of latex by

99

*

simpler methods, and it is only the incident of rain upsetting the
normal state of tilings, and the varying rubber content of latex
during the wintering months that call for a reading of the instru-
ment. These methods are perhaps crude, but they are practical and
suited to the intelligence of the factory cooly, and the results have
been consistently good. Where tapping is done by coolies on daily
wage entirely, bulking the whole of the estate’s latex is of course the
surest method of ensuring standardization.

Coagulation.

Having bulked our latex and cup-waskiifgs the next step is to
add the acid necessary for coagulation. This is done before the
latex is put out into pans and a stock solution is kept ready in air-
tight jars. The solution is made up of 12 oz. acetic acid and | lb.
sodium bisulphite to one gallon of water-— one gallon of this being
sufficient for 80 gallons of latex and cup washings. I have tried
sulphuric acid on a small scale, but was not very successful with it,
and did not continue experiments, the main reason being that we
had buyers who relied on uniformity from the estate, and the
change of acid might have upset previous vulcanization tests and lost
the confidence of the buyers. Pans thoroughly washed are stacked
at hand to receive the latex, each containing j of a gallon of
water and one gallon of latex is poured into each pan with as little
delay as possible after the solution has been thoroughly stirred
into the bulk. Skimming is done at once with a strip of tin
almost as broad as the pan and the pans are placed on shelves
in cupboards screened all round by a drop-curtain of turkey-red
cloth. The pans used are 16" x 10" x 4" and produce a dry
sheet 25'' X 11" in the case of latex from old trees and one
slightly smaller from young rubber. Coagulation is usually finished
by 12.30 p.m. and this allows for latex being brought in carts from
outlying fields two miles from the factory. The pans are left
untouched overnight. The reason for the added water not being
put into the bulked latex is that I found bubbles resulted from
bad fusion of water and latex owing to insufficient stirring by coolies
when not watched, sheets from the same jar or tank varying
considerably. The method used leaves nothing to chance and is
therefore preferable. There is also economy in the number of jars
or tanks required for containing the bulk of latex before it is
put out into pans. In tank coagulation the solution of acid is
put into the latex after it has settled in the tanks aud before
the partitions are placed in their slots. The majority of tanks
I have seen do not give such good results as pans owing principally
to the fact that the partition laths are not perfectly water tight and
permit latex to ooze through from one division to another causing a
ragged edge on each sheet which is difficult to get rid of. Most
of them are also too big, without enough divisions to deal with
the ever varying gallonage. When an estate has tapping done by

100

several different contractors, whose rubber has to be kept separate,
the sub-division of a tank into small compartments is very necessary
to ensure an even quantity and equal density of latex in each, every
day.

I have been experimenting with a small tank made to contain
40 gallons and have had good results from it. It is light enough to
go on a small trolley and be moved about by one cot)ly up to the
receiving tank, and back, when filled, to the most convenient place
for dealing with the coagulation. It is made of acid-proof concrete
and is 30" x 68" x 9" and makes 34 sheets. The only disadvantage
is that the sheets turn out too narrow for economy in rolling, and I
am having a deeper one made by the designers, Messrs. It. Young
and Co., Penang, to remedy this. The small tanks on wheels seem
to me to have many advantages over the large tank on a fixed base.

Kneading and Rolling.

When the coagulated sheet is taken out of the pans in the
morning it is placed on a smooth heavy chengai board, and coolies
tread it out till it is a firm mass, ready for the smooth roller. This
saves rolling more than is necessary and, I believe, retains the
strength in the finished sheet. Kneading by hand, or rolling out
with a rolling pin, takes longer to get the sheet tough enough to go
through a roller without tearing, unless the first rolling is done
with the rollers very far apart, and several subsequent rolls are
wanted. Coolies soon become experts at treading sheets out evenly,
and reduce the thickness to the desired limit quicker than machines
can, without tearing. The sheets then go once through a heavy
smooth roller set at about T ’ ¥ of an inch, then through another, set
at of an inch, and then through the marking roller set just
hard up enough to miss grinding. The setting of the last two rollers
is never altered, the adjusting keys being removed entirely so that
the coolies in charge have no option in the matter. This ensures
uniformity in thickness. The sheeting-machines are 18" X 7" and
have speed revolutions at the rate of 11 per minute for the smooth
roller and 9 per minute for the marking roller. The grooving on
the latter are spirals, f of an inch apart, to give a small diamond, and
the estate name is lettered round the centre of one roller, the spirals
stopping where the lettering begins, and there is a blank space
without spirals on the other roller exactly opposite. The main
points to be observed in rolling are that sheets must go through
evenly without a pull in any direction, and the lettering must be
kept equi-distant from the edges of the sheet. If the rollers are set
evenly the sheets will go through correctly without any guidance, if
started evenly.

Economy in time is effected by having the sheets almost as
broad as the length of the rollers. It takes just as long for a sheet
30" x 9" to go through as for one 30" X 15", and the actual difference in

101

the weight of rubber between the two is considerable. There is no
point in having rollers 18" long unless you are to utilize as much of
this as possible.

Washing and Dripping.

After rolling, each sheet is washed and soaked in tepid water
to get rid of any protein which causes what is called “ rust ” in
sheet. I have found that without this washing in warm water,
sheets have a tendency to stretch “ rusty ” and it is consequently
worth doing properly. After washing, sheets are dripped till all water
has left them. They are hung on racks which «re thoroughly washed
each day, the racks being designed so that each tier hangs free
from the drip of the one above it. The stands are in the shape of
an inverted Y with round laths across to hang the sheets over.
Square timber laths are not good, as the sheets take any impression
very easily at this stage, and unsightly lines across the sheet
invariably result where square laths are used. The dripping racks
should be in a sheltered position where no dust can be blown on the
rubber. Rolling is usually finished by 11 a.m. and sheets are ready
for the smoke-house by 2 p.m.

Smoking.

•

Sheets should be put into the smoke-house as soon as possible
after the water has all dripped off, as they do not take in the smoke
so well if too dry. The only reason for not putting them in
immediately after rolling is that water would drip from wet sheets
on to finished or partly finished sheets that happened to be directly
underneath, and the introduction of too much moisture into the
building would retard drying bej’-ond reasonable limits. Racks
should be perfectly round and wiped over carefully before sheet
is hung on them, to avoid dust getting into the rubber which
will not wash off if it adheres before the sheets are fairly dry,
and will appear as a cloudy grey line across the finished sheet,
where it has come into contact with the dusty surface. Sheets
should be turned and moved so that a fresh part is over the racks
every day for the first four days of smoking, to ensure every part of
the sheet getting smoke through it. The size of a sheet when
it goes into the smoke-house is about 30" x 15" and it comes out
25" x 11" so that contraction reduces the square measurement of
a sheet by about 40 per cent. It is essential for good smoking
that this should not take place too rapidly, and for this reason I
believe in slow drying and smoking. Rapid drying closes ' the
sheet against a thorough permeation of smoke and I give 19 to 20
days slow smoking before I consider the sheet is finished, the
temperature being kept low and too much up-draft avoided. If a
building is of corrugated iron the smoke gets through the joints in
the roof quite fast enough, and there is no necessity to have funnels
to improve the current. My smoke house is a 60 feet by 30 feet

9

102

building of corrugated iron, with 4 furnaces, 6 feet by 3 feet, on
the ground-floor on trolleys, and two stories above for hanging.
It is divided across the centre into two divisions, 30 feet by 30 feet,
by a partition to facilitate cleaning up from time to time. The
full capacity of the building is never required, and by having
this partition the place can be kept clean without interruption
of the work. The smoke house is opened up from 12 noon to
3 p.m. only, when the atmosphere is driest, so that the entrance
of moisture is avoided as much as possible. If the roof has had
the sun on it for half a day there is less chance of condensation
of moisture inside, and creasote drip on to the sheets does not
take place. The fires are kept going for the rest of the 24 hours,
and only rubber trees cut up into short lengths are used. I have
tried coconut husks, but have not derived any beneficial results
from them. Rubber seeds give a thick smoke but there is too much
oil in it, which is easily apparent on the sheets, and the use of either
coconut husks or rubber seeds usually means extra expense which
has not shown itself to be justifiable. The lower floor is. 10 feet
above the ground and is covered with mosquito-proof wire netting
to prevent sparks and dust going up with the smoke. The
netting has to be brushed from time to time to keep it open
enough for smoke to get through,, and has to be renewed
every 18 months, approximately. The trolleys have a sheet of
corrugated iron on stays, four feet above the furnace, to deflect
direct heat and distribute smoke. During the three hours when
the fires are out and the smoke house is open, finished sheets
are taken down and the day’s make put in, and sheets of the
previous four days turned. It is a convenient time to do this as
coolies from the coagulating room are available in addition to those
in the drying-shed. To check weights and assist monthly adjustment
of stocks, a tally is kept of the number of sheets put in and sheets
taken out, and each day’s rubber is ticketed with the date. Rubber
in store can thus be checked after each consignment if necessary.

Final Washing.

Finished sheets are washed and dried before packing, scrubbed
with a horse brush dipped in clean water and hung on racks, the
same as those used for dripping, and sun-dried for about 20 minutes.
There is always a certain amount of dust which can be got rid of in
this way, and the appearance of the rubber is improved. The. sheets
must be taken in as soon as they are dry, as they would soon become
tacky in a hot sun.

Packing.

Before packing, sheets are picked over and any faulty ones
separated to be sold as No. 2 sheet. Absolute perfection in methods,
of course, precludes any possibility of spoilt sheets, but in practice it
will be found that there is always a small percentage that would have
a bad effect on a consignment, and it is better to sell these for a lower

103

price, and get full value for the bulk of the out-turn. Out of,
approximately, 200,000 lbs. of sheet sold in 1916 we had 672 lbs. or
four cases, of faulty sheets which fetched $3 per pikul less than the
best, so that the net loss from this cause was about $15, whereas, if
they had been mixed with the good sheets there might readily have
been a loss of $1 per pikul over the whole total sold, or approximately
$1,500.

Without the aid of a press, 168 lbs. of sheet go into one case. It
is a convenient quantity as it is 1| cwts. and 40 cases give three tons.
If sheets are made or cut into lengths to fit the cases a larger
quantity, up to 200 lbs., can be squeezed in. It always seems to
me that the expense of packing smoked sheet is so unnecessary, as
properly cured smoked sheet is impervious to damp for a considerable
time and it is reasonable to suppose that before long we shall
be baling our smoked sheet like wool, and avoiding the expense of
Momi and Venesta cases.

PREPARATION OP PALE CR^PE.

The mam points required in the grade are colour and texture,
and the attainment of either presents no great difficulties if uniform
treatment is accorded every day.

Coagulation.

The latex is usually coagulated in bulk and the addition of extra
water is of no moment as air bubbles are impossible in crepe. The
strength of acid is the same for this grade as for smoked sheet, but
double the quantity of sodium bisulphite is wanted unless the rubber
is to be rolled the same day. If the sodium bisulphite solution is
too weak, oxidation will set in to a certain extent during the
night, and the colour of the out-turn will suffer. I use 1 lb. of
sodium bisulphite to a gallon of water for 80 gallons of latex with
the usual 12 oz. of acid for latex to Be treated next morning.

9 Rolling.

x Strip coagulation in tanks is more economical than mass
coagulation as the strip will go easily through a macerator
without being cut up, rollers can be set fairly close for the
first roll, and once through the macerator brings the rubber to a
stage where the creper and smooth finisher can deal with it. The
macerator and creper should be hard chilled rollers with uneven
speeds, the number of teeth in the cogs being 21 for the front roller
and 18 for the back one. The smooth finisher should be of softer
metal and speeds of 20 and 18. It will he found in practice that a
smooth roller will not do such good work when new, as it will
when it has been working some months.

After the rubber has been through the macerater once and
twice through the creper it is a question of wliat style of drepe is
to be turned out, as to how many rolls are necessary in the finisher.

104

Blanket crepe has gone out of favour, and thin lace crepe is now the
fashionable form, and to get this of close texture at least four rolls
in the smooth finisher are necessary. The first one is done with a
single length of rubber as it comes from the creper, and the result
is a thin strip full of holes. This is divided into lengths and three
to four lengths put through together, making another thin strip with
still a few holes, but getting nearer the right texture. Two lengths
of this then go through evenly knitted together, and a final roll of
the resultant single length should be enough. The smooth finished
rollers are hard up during all four rolls. During the finishing
process any soiled or discoloured pieces should be torn off to go into
a lower grade.

The finished crepe is dripped till all water is off and x*emoved to
the drying shed to be bung after weighing. Fine crepe should be
ready for packing in six to seven days. It should be pure white
when it goes into the drying shed and should not darken beyond
a rich cream colour. The thinner the crepe is made, the lighter
will it show up in colour when finished, and if the sodium bisulphite
has been properly mixed into the latex the colour will be even.

Lower Crepe Grades.

For the treatment of lump and bark scrap, of course, no
coagulant is wanted, but sodium bisulphite plays a large part in the
resultant colour of these. The rolling required is the same as for
pale crepe, but the preliminary treatment consists of washing
mainly. It is important to deal with lump immediately it comes in
from the field as oxidation has started, which means discolouration
eventually, and the further oxidation has gone the worse the
discolouration becomes. Oxidized pieces should be picked out by
hand, and the lump put into the washer with hot water playing
on it. I do this for 10 minutes and the hot water checks oxidation.
A final washing of 10 minutes is given with the water turned off
above, and tlie outlet shut below, enough water being kept in to
come up to within an inch of the top of the rollers. A solution
of sodium bisulphite is added and gets thoroughly into the mass
during the washing process. The rubber is then rolled out in the
same way as pale crepe and should be very nearly equal in colour
and texture to the first latex grade.

Bark and tree-scrap are washed together as soon as possible
after arrival at the factory, and are treated in the same way as the
lump, except that 10 minutes’ longer washing is required to get rid

of all dirt before the sodium bisulphite solution is added.

/

Folding and Packing.

The lengths of crepe are taken down when dry and folded to fit
the cases. A rather ingenious folding rack has been in use on
Sandycroft Estate for a number of years. It consists of a frame

105

as long as the length of the case, and the lengths of cr6pe are flicked
over from side to side with round sticks — three on each side — two
being used by the cooly for turning over, the others for keeping the
crepe in place. The sticks are pulled out in turn from underneath
and used for flicking over the crepe into place. When the frame is
full the z’ubber is lifted out and pressed and retains its shape.

One hundred and twenty-five pounds go into each case without
the use of a press. Any discoloured or stained lengths are removed
to be made up again with an inferior grade before folding.

General.

It has been impossible in the limited time to deal fully with many
essential parts of factory work, and without practical demonstration
it is difficult to convey ideas, but I hope that this paper will be of
help to some of those attending this Conference. Most of it is
routine well known to most managers, but routine, particularly in
the case of smoked sheet, is a dull and dangerous business unless
constant attention is paid to every detail, and this, I consider, to be
the only way to ensure the maximum price for an estate’s production.

When a penny a pound on a jield of 360 lbs. per acre means
£\ 10s. per acre, extra profit, it is surely worth doing everything
possible to get it.

106

THE PREPARATION OF PLANTATION PARA RUBBER
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FUTURE
CONSIDERATIONS.

By B. J. Eaton, f.i.c., f.c.s.

( Agricultural Chemist, F.M.S .)

TT is proposed in this paper to submit very briefly the results of

the researches on raw rubber manufacture which have been con-
ducted for the past years at the Agricultural Department by the
writer and his assistants and to consider in what way these results
are likely to affect the future methods of preparation of the raw
product, having in view both the highest quality of rubber which
can be prepared and the manufacturers’ requirements, as far as we
have been able to obtain information in this respect.

As a starting point two axioms are propounded, with which I
think every planter and manufacturer is now in entire agreement.

They are (1) The highest grade of wild rubber, viz., Fine
Hard Para, which is the premier raw rubber among wild rubbers, so
called, on the market, is very uniform. (2) Plantation Para rubber
from the cultivated Hevea is very variable. Arising out of both of
these axioms we have now to consider : ( a ) In what respect is
plantation Para rubber variable and how can this variability be
remedied ? (6) What are the causes of the variability in the case of
the plantation product and what the reason of the uniformity of the
product from the uncultivated tree ?

I do not propose to enter into any details as to the researches
which have enabled us to elucidate to a considerable extent these
important problems, since much has already been published by the
writer and his collaborators and since confirmed by other indepen-
dent workers and in a month or two a special illustrated bulletin
will be published giving the details of these researches to date. It
is only necessary here to summarize the results obtained and, if
further information is required on any special point, this may be
probably obtained during the discussion of the paper.

Speaking historically, the remarks expressed by Mr. Williams,
Works Superintendent of the North British Rubber Company, one
of the leading and most advanced of our British rubber manufactur-
ing firms, especially in the organization of scientific research, will
form- a suitable text on which to hang this discourse. These remarks
which were made at the 4<th International Rubber and Allied Trades
Congress held in London in July, 1914, were as follows ;

107

“ My experience is that quite apart from all questions of
strength, the question of the vulcanizing properties of plantation
rubber is the greatest trouble the manufacturer has to face.
Without efficient control, faulty vulcanization undoubtedly will be
responsible for loss of time and money. These troubles, in factories
where scientific control is not thoroughly organized, may be sufficient
to condemn the use of this grade (that is plantation rubber, B. J. E.)
entirely.”

Since that date we have travelled far in our knowledge of the
vagaries of this wonderful substance and one can say it, with a
certain amount of pride, without being egotistical, that the
Agricultural Department of the Federated Malay States has had the
honour and good fortune of contributing the most important and
fundamental researches on the problem.

The above remarks by Mr. Williams constitute the first
intimation from the manufacturer of the nature of the variability of
plantation rubber. These remarks were confirmed at. the same
Congress by Dr. Schidrowitz in a paper entitled “ Variability ” in
which figures for numerous cases of such variability were published.
Independently, later in 1914, our early researches led to the same
conclusions ; since which we have been able to discover the cause or
causes of the variability and many of the contributing factors in
connection with estate factory practice which have an influence on
variability.

It can therefore in the first place be enunciated that the
principal defect of the plantation product is its variable behaviour
during vulcanization, or to put it in the technical terms used by the
rubber manufacturer, variability in rate of cure or speed of
vulcanization.

The remedy, i.e., the method of obtaining uniformity in this
respect, can only be attained after a realization of the cause, and the
great aim of scientific research is to connect cause and effect in the
world of nature. It may however be argued logically, assuming
that variability is due chiefly or entirely to methods of preparation
rather than to intrinsic differences in the latex on different estates
or from different areas or districts, that uniform methods of
preparation will ensure uniformity of product, but even so, we are at
much greater advantage if we possess a knowledge of the cause,
since it may then be essential only to adopt uniform methods in one
or two respects. Secondly a knowledge of the cause of variability
will enable us possibly to prepare an improved type of the raw
product, having realized that our existing methods are entirely
empirical and like “ Topsy ” have merely “ grown.”

Fortunately a knowledge of the cause of variability deduced
from our researches, enables us to state that variable methods of
preparation are chiefly, if not entirely responsible for variability of

108

the product, and this being so, we are more easily able to apply
a remedy which consists in uniformity of method of preparation.
Further the information derived from the elucidation of the cause of
variability has enabled us to realize the second problem, viz., the
preparation of an improved type of raw rubber and it is essentially
with this problem that I propose to deal.

Returning once more to the cause of variability, we have found
that variability in rate of cure of the raw product is brought about
by two factors : (1) the amount of an accelerator or catalyst produced
in the raw rubber from the nitrogenous constituents of the latex
by allowing the coagulum to mature for about six days before
machining, and (2) the amount of some accelerating substance in the
latex which is retained in the rubber by some process of preparation
in which all the serum is retained.

The first of these substances, which has the greatest influence,
especially in small quantities,* we have found to be some decomposition
product of. the nitrogenous constituents. The second substance
exists originally in the latex and is removed almost entirely when the
fresh coagulum is converted shortly after coagulation to thin crepe.

In dealing with the first of these factors, I propose only to
summarize the factors which will influence the amount of such
accelerator in the Rubber. They are as follows :

(1) Amount of moisture in the prepared rubber;

(2) Amount of serum retained ;

(8) Rate of drying ;

(4) Thickness of coagulum before and after machining ;

(5) Presence of antiseptics, e.g., formalin, sodium sulphite

and sodium bisulphite ;

(6) Influence of different coagulants ;

(7) Excess of coagulants, especially of certain coagulants ;

(8) Influence of smoking ;

(9) Influence of artificial methods of drying ;

(10) Action of various chemicals on the finished rubber in

retarding or accelerating rate of cure ;

(11) Concentration of latex ;

(12) Action of water as a solvent.

In dealing with the second accelerating factor the factors which
influence the amount present are :

(1) Concentration of latex ;

(2) Effect of w r ater as a solvent on the finished rubber.

Whether other factors, such as the nature of the coagulant,
or an excess of coagulant, antiseptics and other chemicals or
smoking, have an effect on rapidly curing rubber, the rapidity of
cure of which is due to some constituent of the latex normally

109

removed in the serum by the machining of fresh coagulum has
not yet been ascertained, but is probable. In support of this we
have the fact that Fine Hard Para which is comparatively slow
curing, contains all the serum constituents and should be rapidly
curing, but the vulcanization is retarded by the smoking process.

Dealing briefly with the factors involved in the variability
of the first type of rubber 'in which the vulcanization is accelerated
by the amount of some protein degradation product formed during
the maturing of the coagulum by natural biological processes, the
following factors accelerate rate of cure :

(X) W moisture content up to a certain limit ;

(2) Large amount of serum ;

(3) Thickness of coagulum up to a certain limit, which

affects the rate of drying ; '

(4) Slow drying ; •

(5) Concentration of latex ;

(6) Action of certain chemicals, especially the alkalis, soda

and potash and their carbonates.

The following factors retard the rate of vulcanization :

(1) Low moisture content in the prepared coagulum ;

(2) Removal of serum ;

(3) Rapid drying ;

(4) Thinness of coagulum which produces rapid drying and

is also responsible foj’ the removal of serum by
machining ;

(5) Presence of antiseptics, especially formalin, also boracic

acid and tannic acid ;

(6) Certain coagulants, e.g the mineral acids especially

hydrochloric, sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids and
certain salts especially the alums ;

(7) Excess of coagulant — the effect of excess of weak organic

acids, such as acetic, formic, citric, tartaric and oxalic
is not very marked, while excess of the mineral acids
has a marked retarding effect;

(8) Smoking ;

(9) Artificial methods of drying — not Very great in the ease

of thin crepe, which is the only type of rubber subjected
to artificial methods of drying ;

(10) Dilution of latex with water ;

(11) Action of water as a solvent.

With regard to the second factor responsible for variability in
rate of cure the influence of various factors in retarding the rate of
cure lias not yet been investigated, but it is probable that smoking,
mineral acid coagulants and alum and other antiseptics and chemicals
will retard vulcanization.

110

The Uniformity of Fine Hard Para.

In my opinion the sole reason for the uniformity of Fine Hard
Para is the law of averages. Each ball of Fine Hard Para probably
takes from one to two months to prepare and thus any daily variation
of the latex in concentration, etc., or any variation in the temperature
or other conditions of the smoking process employed, are averaged.
This indicates at once a method for rendering plantation rubber
more uniform in bulk, viz., the mixing together in each case, of
rubber prepared on different dates.

Having summarized the causes of variability in plantation Para
rubber and shown the principal factors which have an influence on
the problem and stated the probable reason for the uniformity of
Fine Hard Para, it can easily be seen what remedies should be
adopted to secure uniform results. It is obvious that the problem is
not excessively difficult on any one estate for one type of rubber, but
that considerable difficulties arise in the endeavour to make all
estates carry out a similar practice.

In considering the problem of variability we must at once
realize that uniformity can only strictly apply to one type of rubber.
Thus thin pale crepe is intrinsically distinct from smoked or plain
sheet and as long as there is a market demand for this grade, which
will probably be always, since this type of rubber has created its
own market for specific purposes for which no rubber of darker
colour could be employed, it is impossible for estates to make one
uniform product, since thin pale crepe, from its mode of preparation
will almost certainly always have a different rate of cure to smoked
sheet. It might be suggested that this type of rubber be made as
the sole first grade. The- answer to this is that thin pale crepe is
almost always inferior to smoked or plain sheet in tensile properties
and hence should not be used for articles in which strength rather
than colour is a desideratum.

It is thus evident that for present demands we must prepare at
least three and probably four grades of plantation rubber, that is
either two first grade and one second grade or two first grade and two
second grades. The probability is that four grades is the minimum,
since it does not seem desirable from our researches to combine all
lower grades. The best solution is probably the preparation of pale
crepe and one other first grade and the preparation of two lower
grades as follows : No. 1 lower grade crepe to consist of lump,
skimmings and picked scrap, and No, 2 lower grade crepe of bark
shavings plus earth scrap.

It is not proposed here, however, to deal with lower grades but
with first grades only, although in one respect, the question of
“ lump ” rubber or cup and bucket coagulations, is of interest, as
will be seen later.

Ill

The problem therefore with whieh we have to deal in connection
with the preparation of first grades, is whether we are going to be
content to produce pale crepe and smoked sheet as carried on at
present or to endeavour to substitute another and an improved type
of rubber in place of smoked sheet and it is this problem primarily
with which I propose to deal briefly, leaving the subject open for
discussion, after bringing forward the salient facts in support of a
new method of preparation.

It -would probably be preferable to state at once that the
proposed method of manufacture is that which we have styled
“ slab ” rubber, in lieu of sheet.

Our researches have shown that whereas smoked sheet cures in
about 2| to 2f hours under the conditions employed, “ slab ” rubber
cures in about If hours or less than half the time. Apart from this,
“ slab ” rubber is about 20 to 25 per cent, superior in tensile properties
to crepe and generally superior to smoked sheet. The advantages to
the rubber manufacturer of this type of rubber are therefore obvious.
Whether a manufacturer would be prepared to pay a premium for such
rubber however remains to be seen and for the present it is taken for
granted that such rubber would merely fetch the ordinary top market
prices obtained for smoked sheet. We, therefore, have to consider its
preparation entirely from the producer’s point of view (assuming of
course that it is not going to fetch a lower price on the market, as
it probably would do if judged by appearance only). What are the
advantages we must ask ourselves of any alteration of existing
methods. Some planters may be very, conservative in this respect
and prefer a laissez-faire policy, but I venture to suggest that,
especially at this time, we have no more right to adopt such a policy
in our commerce and industry than we have in the conduct of our
military affairs and I therefore assume that all planters are alive to
the necessity of a change if it can be shown that such a change will
produce an improved product.

We have now to consider the possible forms in which such a
type of rubber can be prepared, taking note of the advantages and
disadvantages of each method of preparation.

There are only three possible forms in which such rubber could
be prepared for the market, viz. (1) virgin “ slab ” containing about
20 per cent, of moisture, (2) in the form of crepe, (3) in the form of
dry block.

Of these forms the most suitable when everything is taken into
consideration, is the first. T'he only disadvantage of shipping virgin
“ slab ” is that extra freight has to be paid on about 20 per cent, of
water.

The pre-war freight on rubber was about \d. or say 2 cents
per lb., while the present rates are about Id. or say 4 cents per lb.

112

If rubber containing 20 per cent, or at a maximum, say, 25 per cent,
of water is shipped the actual amount of dry rubber sent for 2
cents at pre-war rates would be 80 or 75 per cent., respectively, that
is to say, each pound of actual rubber will cost 2| cents or 2f cents
at pre-war rates and 5 cents or 5^ cents at present rates of freight.
This represents an extra cost on freight of § to f cent at pre-war
rates and 1 to 1^ cents at present rates.

This extra cost has now to be compared from an economic point
of view with the cost of preparing, say, smoked sheet in estate
factories and this cost is represented when compared with “ slab,” by
the actual cost of machining, since acetic acid or some other
coagulant has to be used in the case of both “ slab ” and sheet.

The lowest factory costs for present first grades is probably
about 1.5 cents per lb . which includes oil for engines and acetic
acid, but does not allow for capital cost and depreciation of
machinery and factory. In the preparation of ‘‘slab” rubber, apart
from the machinery required to treat 20 to 30 per cent, of the
crop which is represented by lower grades, all machinery and
consequently a large factory is eliminated.

Leaving aside, however, the depreciation on factory and machinery,
the cost of preparation of first grades is probably not lower than the
above figure and in the preparation of virgin “slab” rubber the saving
effected in cost of preparation will at least compensate for the extra
freight even at present rates, while in most cases and at pre-war
freights the saving in cost of preparation will probably be from
1 to 2 cents per pound on many estates.

The above figures have demonstrated that virgin “ slab ” is
cheaper to prepare, requiring little care, apart from cleanliness, and
that the saving on cost of preparation more than compensates
for the extra freight charges on moisture.

Two other disadvantages may be mentioned, viz., difficulty of
fixing duty owing to a possible variable moisture content, and
secondly the introduction of a new type of rubber may cause
confusion among manufacturers. The first of these would be
capable of adjustment in a short time and presents no greater
difficulty than does Fine Hard Para while the second is not worth
taking into consideration, since the manufacturer would soon realize
the value of this type of rubber.

With regard to the shipping of “slab” rubber in the form
of crepe, there is no advantage to the producer, in fact possibly
a slight disadvantage in that the coagulum after maturing for
six days is very tough and therefore more difficult to machine. The
advantages* lie entirely with the manufacturer who is obtaining
a better type of rubber, which is clean and dry, and probably may
not, if properly packed, require rewashing.

ne

One disadvantage which has been suggested is the difficulty of
distinguishing such crepe from many specimens of ordinary slow
curing crepe, except from first latex pale crepe. This is easily
surmounted, however, by labelling boxes, as is done at present for
different grades and styling the rubber “ slab ” crepe or some other
fancy name. As a disadvantage it is not worth the consideration of
either scientific or practical men, to use a distinction to which
I object.

The third method, viz,, shipping in the form of dry block,
presents one or two advantages, especially from the producer’s point
of view. In the preparation of dry block, the rubber has to be
creped thin, wormed on a* special cutting machine, vacuum or hot
air dried in this form and then pressed into blocks. Assuming
we are leaving the coagulum for seven days, crepeing can be carried
out on the 8th day and the rubber prepared ready for shipping
on the 9th day. A great saving in factory space is thus effected and
also in packing space. It is recommended that the blocks ba made
about If to 2 inches thick. Rubber prepared in this manner has
been examined in our laboratories nearly two years ago and found to
give excellent results.

There is, of course, no improvement of quality in such block,
the question being entirely one of economics.

The disadvantages, of course, of preparing the rubber in this
form are very similar to those in the case of preparing and
shipping as thin crepe, except that drying space and packing space
is saved.

I trust that the facts stated above will, especially at the close of
the present war, when manufacturers are able to return to more
normal conditions and to carry out experiments, stimulate further
interest on the part both of the producer and manufacturer in a
problem which has not only proved very fascinating as a piece of
scientific research, but which is, in my opinion of supreme
importance.

It may be useful to state in conclusion that manufacturers have
expressed considerable interest in the results obtained and on all
sides have added confirmation to the results obtained at the
Agricultural Department.

One other fact, to which reference has been made before, in
connection with the advantage of preparing “slab” rubber, is that
lump or cup and bucket coagulation can be mixed with first latex
rubber, since this rubber if left for the maturation period before
crepeing is essentially “ slab ” rubber. This means, therefore, an
increase of first grade rubber, and should prove especially valuable
on those estates where natural coagulation is abnormally great.

H

114

Discussion.

Mr, Pinching "asked Mr. Souter what he meant by standard
latex,

Mr. Souter explained that he meant the standard that he was
accustomed to in his factory.

Mr. Eaton, in reply to Mr. Pinching, explained the need for
managers to carry out investigations into the latex standards of their
estates, and also replied to certain questions asked by Mr. Malet in
regard to the influence on rubber of dampness in the factory.

Mr. Irving said that, apart from the minor points raised so far,
Mr. Eaton’s paper was of prime importance in regard to the valuable
information he had given them regarding what he called “slab
rubber.” He asked whether any steps had been taken to ascertain
the views of manufacturers on the matter.

Mr. Eaton replied that they had taken no definite steps because
manufacturers at Home were at present very busy in regard to war
work and could not be induced to deal with matters of that kind till
after the war. But American manufacturers had always taken
interest in such things and a few of those engaged in the industry
here had even tried the method he had explained. He stated that
about half a ton of that rubber in the form of crepe had already been
forwarded to one of the best known rubber manufacturers in
America for their opinion but so far nothing had yet been heard in
reply. He also understood the American General Rubber Company
was seizing forward rubber of this kind to their own rubber
factories in America. A further point he wished to emphasize in
regard to his previous remarks in the paper was that, as the rubber
he had mentioned usually required rewashing, it could be packed in
gunny bags, which would mean an additional saving in cost.
According to experiments which he had recently carried out, the
best method of preparing “ virgin slab ” was to hot air dry it at about
120° to 130° F.

A member asked whether the General Rubber Company’s
product was in “ slab ” or crepe.

Mr. Eaton said he believed it was “ slabs ” f inch thick.

115

COCONUTS.

OBSERVATIONS ON COCOjNUT EXPERIMENTS.

By Gr. E. Coombs, b.sc,

(Economic Botanist , F.M.S.)

AND

W. S. Cookson,

(Manager, Bindings Coconut Estates , Bindings , 8.8.)

S a Conference subject this subject is almost ideal as heretofore

experiments in coconut culture have been laid down on any
but uniform lines, and an occasion of this nature provides opportunity
of indicating — for purposes of discussion — some of the guiding
principles which should direct the evolution of methods.

The experimenter in agricultural science and in particular the
experimenter in that part of the science which deals with crop
production, where experiment is directed to the causation and actual
measurement of increase of crop returns, has to approach his object
with extreme caution, for he is called upon to work with material of
widely varying natures and, if the extent of these variations is not
examined critically he is exceedingly likely to arrive at erroneous
results.

It is a point of fundamental importance that before judgment in
the sense of an expression of actual measured yield-effect, can be
passed on the values of different treatments given to any crop, the
facts of the variation in yield which blocks of the crop show under
as far as possible uniform conditions must be determined. With
this knowledge, logical interpretation may be placed on results
obtained. The method has been evolved to a high degree of
perfection in experiments with annual crops and in this case
accurate experiments can be carried out on land of small dimensions,
but the case of permanent crops, e.g., fruit trees, though amenable
to precisely similar methods, presents added pitfalls and difficulties.

The factors which determine production of fruit in any stand of
trees are :

(1) The constitutional natures of the trees. Any block of

them, unless they are of pure stock, may contain a
number of varieties or sub-varieties of varying pro-
ductive powers ; these varieties will contain individuals
of varying productive powers ; and this cumulatively
variable individuality, may be expressed by the presence
of very precocious bearers and those approaching
sterility.

116

(2) The factors which govern pollination and fertilization,

It will be seen that the more precise the method
of pollination, be it for example a case of unfailing
insect pollination the less will be the variations
expressed as a result of it.

(3) Various cultural factors such as soil, water supply,

climate, etc.

Of these three groups it will be evident that group (1) presents
great difficulties, and the effect of the individual in the fruit
production of any set of trees on a limited area may be very great
and almost of itself decide the dimensions of the experiment.

In experiments of the nature under discussion there are two
distinct problems, the one of patches of backward palms — palms
obviously “ not doing ” as shown by their general appearance — and
the other of the stand of good palms. This latter is again two fold
in its aspect that of the young and that of the old palm.

As concerns the former, the planter being aware of the cardinal
points of coconut culture, knows in a general way the physiological
requirements of the palm. He can often make a very shrewd
guess at the cause of the backwardness of any one pocket of
palms ; he knows the value of an extra drain here and of a little
cultivation there as means to improve their condition, and can
achieve much good by intelligent application of the knowledge
of husbandry which he possesses ; and though he is the first to
acknowledge that he is often quite unable to speak of his results
in terms expressing actual measurement, the fact that he actually
achieves good will not be denied even by the scientific purist.
But what may be spoken of as agriculture in its best sense
deals with issues far less clearly defined than these. It deals
with the detection of differences of much smaller magnitude.
This being so it must be acknowledged that personal judgment on the
best forms of cultivation, on the values of different leguminous cover
crops or different manures, or on the much disputed point of clean
weeding in an estate of uniform palms is but a flimsy deciding
factor j these, however, are the very points which the investigator in
his efforts to make a good stand of palms yield yet more, is called
upon to decide. The differences in nature of these two problems
have hitherto not been sufficiently appreciated. It is the latter
problem with which these observations deal. As mentioned above
the problem is a dual one. With respect to the problem of the
young palm it is a matter of recent history since the Department of
Agriculture was asked to undertake a comprehensive series of
experiments on young palms. The problems put forward for solution
were the values of different kinds of manures, of different leguminous
cover crops, of different forms of cultivation and of combinations of
each of these treatments, a large number of varied treatments being

117

gi-

involved. It may, therefore, he of advantage if the arguments which
prompted the demand for caution, and asked that a number of
preliminary records might be obtained prior to the formulation of
any actual scheme — avowedly theoretical though many of them
then were — are given,

Reference has already been made to the mixed natures of the
palms in any field of an estate, and the manner in which their
individual capabilities would affect yield has been indicated.

We have to add to this, however, the variation which will be
caused, the extent has as yet not been investigated, by the varying
periodic productions of the palms before they reach their periods
of stationary production.

Thus a quantity of palms will commence fructifying at a
particular period; these will show a definite incremental curve to
the attainment of a more or less stationary maximum production
which will be attained in a more or less definite time ; but for
each of the different sets which fructify at different subsequent
periods there will be an incremental curve possibly different from
the others, as there will be different periods up to their “ stationary
productive stages.” Add to these the variations which may be
attributed to chance pollination and it will be seen that the following
variables have to be considered ;

(1) Variety of palm,

(2) Individual palm,

(3) Time of initial flowering,

(4) Time of attainment of stationary yield,

(5) Lengths of periods between (3) and (4),

(6) Pollination,

(7) Culture,

and, in a crop such as this where the ultimate gain comes dowu
to “ oil content,”

(8) Copra and oil content at various stages in growth, i.e.,
physiological considerations.

Though as far as can be ascertained no work of analytical nature
has been done on the “ populations ” of palms in estates, and the
effect of many of these variables may ultimately prove to be of small
dimensions, it seems a moral certainty that the method of division of
a stand of young palms into blocks, giving different treatments to
some of the blocks and using others as “ controls,” even if a large
number of the latter are taken, will for the detections of small
differences due to culture be of very little, if any, utility. It appears
perfectly useless to speculate on blocks of palms averaging up ; it
seems a matter of pure chance to count on any sympathy being

/S2>

118

shown in the trend of the yield — curves of controls. The facts
have to be investigated. Results of utility could be possibly
procured after a number of years but on the lengths of the period it
is difficult to hazard a guess. i.

Some of the facts are being investigated on Tumbuk Estate
(Mr. F. H. Dale) and will, it is hoped, be communicated from time to
time but the difficulties of any manager in executing work of this kind
are very great.

The case of old coconuts presents a simpler issue. After a
period of years of bearing the palms reach a stationary maximum-
production-period which we may assume is a fairly long span ere
the loss of fruit due to oncoming senility supervenes. In the
absence of recoi’ds, it would perhaps be safe to assume, that Eifter
10 to 15 years, all the palms in any field of an estate would have
reached this stage or have so nearly approached it as to cause little
fluctuation, and now the disturbing factor so bafflingly difficult in
the young palm is excluded. Thus it becomes possible to procure
more comparable data of the yields of blocks of palms over a period
of time, the collection of which data constitutes the preliminary work
mentioned above as a basis on which to calculate the size of
experiments for the attainment of results of accuracy.

Without going into the long explanation as to the particular
method it may be stated that this has actually been done on Grapis
Estate where by taking preliminary records of yield over a period of
six months, it was possible to initiate experiments on eight blocks
of 100 trees each, using two as controls, and one pair each for
the trial of three manures, in the detection of differences over
15 per cent.

In Ceylon experiments have for some years been conducted on a
basis — not of absolute yield — but of proportionate increase in plot-
yields from period to period, that is, that each plot used has been
used largely as its own control. There is little doubt that this
method provides information of great utility. Manurial treatment
to permanent crops is a cumulative business and records over a
period of years on blocks of palms irrespective of control plots gives
very useful information. In the Chilaw experiments recently
published the yields from January to February in two consecutive
years were compared, the result of treatment being displayed in
proportionate increase in yield from January to February of one year
to January to February of the next year. The method given as in
vogue there is not without its utility in the detection of differences
of considerable magnitude, but there its utility (and in this
particular instance it is well illustrated) seems to end, for the yields
of the plots untreated show tremendous . variation and the causes of
these are quite unexplained. It seems impossible to put any general
interpretation to the results obtained.

119

Turning to methods in use in the West Indies we find an
extremely helpful article in the Agricultural News for May 1916.
Here the writer brings out very forcibly the value of uniformity of
method. Thus :

“ It is thought that were there more uniformity of methods
amongst investigators, there would in all probability be much better
agreement as regards results. There has been too strong a tendency
in the past to lay out manurial experiments according to personal
ideas rather than to scientific ideas.

“With present methods the truth about the effects of manures
on trees can be more usefully expressed in words than in numbers ? ”

This latter fact is as true as it is desirable that it be changed.
If investigation has not gone far enough to provide data sufficiently
precise on which to base actual yield experiments, then it is our task
to initiate work which will have that end in view. The way may be
long, but it will undoubtedly pay in the long run.

As concerns the method in use in Trinidad and Nevis, both of
which are outlined on the article quoted, to which attention is
strongly urged, it appears that they also cannot be expected to
produce accurate results. The two methods are given as follows :

(1) Trinidad—

Gain or loss = {(V 1 — V 2 ) — (C x — C 2 )} — m

Where V x = value of yield from manured plot,
say 1915-16.

V 2 = value of yield from manured plot,
say ... ... ... ... 1914-15.

Oj = value of average yield from two control
plots, say ... ... ... 1915-16.

C„ = value of average yield from two control
plots, say ... 1914-15.

m = cost manuring.

(2) Nevis —

Gain or loss = value of [{n + (n a — njj — c]— m

where n = average number of nuts per tree picked
between two annual applications of
manure.

n 1 = average number of nuts per tree picked at
beginning of experimental year.

n 2 — average number of nuts per tree picked
at end of experimental year.

c = the n + (n 2 — n x ) value of the control.

120

In the ease of the former, the value of the results seems
dependent on the uniformity of the yields of the two control plots
and their agreement with the yield of the plots now treated in the
years prior to their ti'eatment, while in the case of the latter the use
of the control is quite subordinated, one only being used, and no
indication of the range of variation or the causes of variations in the
plots under uniform tr3atment is obtainable.

As far as published results go, and certainly as far as theoretical
considerations direct experiment, the only rational way where
experiment is framed on yield estimation (there are numerous cases
where growth-record experiments may be used to advantage) seems
to be the utilization of the results of an initial investigation of yield-
differences over a large number of blocks of palms similarly treated,
and the value of controls as a check certainly seem to lie in the
detection of the range between their maximum and minimum values.

It is difficult in a paper of this nature and length, to indicate
clearly the interpretation which the experimenter will put to his
records, but the citation of the points above mentioned may not be
without interest in the light of what follows.

Taken together they lie at the basis of the problem which every
estate manager is confronted with, viz., estimates — the one concern-
ing which he thanks his good fortune if his figures of crops for any
period in advance approaches the figures of the actual crops
produced.

It has been mentioned previously in this paper, that experiments
are in hand to investigate the question of the incremental-crop produced
in young palms. Whatever values may be ultimately determined
by experimentation as being theoretically possible, there is the ever
present fact that the arrears in the number of ripe nuts obtained
under present conditions and methods are disproportionately great,
and here we approach the question of “ falling nuts.” So far, the
actual numbers have not been obtained for mature palms but it
is extremely probable that they are of high magnitude. In general
the nuts which fall may be placed into the following categories :

(a) Those which are unpollinated and therefore unfertilized ;

(b) Those which are pollinated but in which fertilization

does not eventuate ;

(c) Those which are pollinated and fertilized but which are

thrown off in the run of the physiology of the tree
for reasons of the trees’ inability to carry them.
Nutritional factors — water supply in particular — will
here play an important part, and may possibly largely
determine periodicity in crop production.

In young palms category (e) will probably account for a larger
number than has been previously supposed and similarly in the case

121

of old palms with defective nutrition but there seems little doubt
that by far the greatest number may be accounted for by actual
lack of fertilization and 'from the observations which it has been
possible to make, of these the over-whelming majority are those
in which pollination is never affected, viz. ( a ) above.

It is a fact of general observation that in tropical flowers, those
in which pollination is never effected predominate in very large
numbers over those in which it actually takes place.

Though the facts are not worked out and these arguments are
somewhat speculative (they are quoted merely for the purposes
of discussion), it seems safe to assume that “nuts” which actually
swell to the size of a man’s fist, have been fertilized. There may
however be, and probably is, swelling in the sense of growth taking
place, during the interval between actual pollination and fertili-
zation, but these facts are as yet undetermined.

Actual fair-average couuts made on three estates in the country
disclose the following figures for falling nuts in a year’s crop of
4-4f years old palms. Bindings 50-60 per ceut., Bagan Datoh 60-70
per cent, and Tumbuk 50-60 per cent. In discussing the magnitude
of the effect of the contributing causes the following observations on
the pollination of the flower may be of interest. The flower is
dependent for its pollination on insects or on wind. As an insect
flower it falls short of the general attractive mechanisms of scent
showiness, and produces only a very small quantity of nectar.
As a wind flower it lacks the generally present pendulous stamens,
the much expanded stigma and other characters, though it produces
a prodigious quantity of smooth pollen. Indeed, nature seems to
have provided a means anything but precipe for this particular palm,
and it seems fairly conclusive that this is the reason which may be
ascribed above all others to the cause of falling nuts. If this is the
case then it is very evident that variations in climate in this country
may have a less far reaching effect than has hitherto supposed in
deciding periodic production. The problem is full of interest and
it is here suggested as being of great importance. On one side
we hear the behest “ Keep bees, you will ensure a fuller crop ” but
the query raised by the other side as to where to find this actually
demonstrated is as yet un -answered. The matter should be worked
out by a botanist and entomologist in co-operation. At the moment
some experiments on hand-pollination are being executed. The field
is practically clear and there are a number of pressing problems.
These include the collection pf data on the productivity of varieties
and individuals carried out to the final oil-content factor, as a basis
of seed selection ; the productivity of hybrids on the lines of Henry’s
work, the causes of periodicity, the utility of the prevention of first
fruitings as an insurance for larger subsequent crops, the causes of
sterility, the question of toxicity of grass, the utility of leguminous
covers on various types of soil, etc. All of these open up other

122

issues to the worker on biology. Whether the work the results of
which can but he on the main a heritage for others is worthy of
execution will perhaps be decided by those ^ T hose immediate interests
are involved. These remarks, many of which the authors agree are
raised on matters uninvestigated or unproven will not be valueless
if they merely stimulate interest.

DU—.

Mr. R. W. Munro said : If I may make a passing reference
to the last paper, I wish to say that it is a most instructive as
well as a valuable contribution, for which both Mr. Coombs and
Mr. Cookson deserve our thanks. We know that Mr. Cookson is very
keen on this branch of agriculture — (hear, hear) but he is not in the
country at present, and we are sorry that we are not able to discuss
it now so much as we should wish to. We hope, however, to have it
printed and we can then study it. Some of the remarks that
Mr* Coombs read to us have an application to other products as well.

123

i

HEALTH AND SANITATION.

HEALTH AND SANITATION ON ESTATES.

By Dr. S, H. R, Lucy,

( Senior Health Officer, F.M.S.)

| N considering the problems connected with sanitation upon

estates in the Federated Malay States I propose in the first
instance to speak from the point of view of a sanitarian concerned
with the opening up of virgin jungle for cultivation and the
employment thereon of immigrant labour.

Site for Cooly Lines.

Much trouble and expense in the future may be saved by a
judicious choice of site for lines, it is within the experience of many
of you, for one reason or another, generally the occurrence of severe
malaria, that it has become necessary to abandon certain line sites,
much financial loss being thereby entailed, especially when the lines
and wells were built of permanent materials.

In the early days of coffee or rubber planting it was the common
practice to choose for a line site the edge of a ravine or swamp, the
main factors which determined this choice being the easy access
to water, a shallow hole in the ground provided a sufficiency, or the
unsuitability of the land for cultivation.

In the first stages of opening an estate it must often be
impossible to fix upon a permanent line site, it is however not
usually difficult to find a temporary site that has no obvious
disadvantages, the main points to be considered are accessibility,
configuration of the land, and its relative distance from ravines,
swamps, and alienated or unalienated land over which you will be
unable to exercise any control.

Accessibility.

A central site may be too remote to suit the convenience of your
coolies, but it renders more easy the work of your labour gangs and
a site which abuts upon a busy road or crowded village may present
many objections.

Within limits there can be no doubt that concentration of your
labour is desirable, where there are congregated large numbers
of coolies they are healthier and happier than when scattered about
the estate in small parties. Concentration facilitates supervision,
it used to be considered a danger in the case of an outbreak of

124

contagious or infectious disease, in practice this is not the case, the
permanent materials of which lines are now constructed are readily
disinfected. The line site should be flat, clean weeded, and free
of all cultivation. There should be not less than 50 feet between
each set of lines and at least 200 feet between the lines and the
cultivated area. If this allowance of open space is made it will
be found, that for sa / six sets of lines of 20 rooms each, about
six acres will be required for the line site. That is none too
much for the accommodation of nearly 500 persons but it is a
great deal more than is afforded upon the majority of estates
where the mistake has been made of planting up close to the
lines with the idea that the rubber can be cut back later on,
only too often the manager is unable to harden his heart when
it has come to cutting out rows of trees well grown and ready
for the knife. It must never be forgotten that the lines will,
as time goes on, become surrounded by a dense wall of cultivation
which in the case of rubber may be 40 feet high and unless that
wall is far removed from the lines the labourers will not get
sufficient light, air, and sunshine. Apart from a deficiency of
these three essentials to health there is in this country a special
danger from cultivation close to cooly lines for it means that
the ground adjoining the lines remains damp and in the rainy
seasons sodden, conditions eminently suitable for the propagation
of hook worm disease. In this connection it should be remembered
that the direct rays of the tropical sun have most powerful
sterilizing properties. Labourers will acquire no disease from
contact with &, clean weeded sunbaked line site, a grass grown site
may be more picturesque, but refuse rice and debris from the lines
will be deposited in the grass, flies will breed in it and become
a nuisance and a dangerous factor in the spread of diarrhoea,
dysentery or other intestinal complaint. There should be plenty
of light in the lines, unfortunately both coolies and anopheline
mosquitoes prefer darkness and gloom, light will not hurt your
coolies but anopheliues will and it is therefore well to insist that
light shall not be blocked out of the rooms. A further valuable
precaution is white- washing of the lines within and without at
frequent intervals. It has often been noticed that anophelines
are difficult to find in white-washed rooms whilst in adjoining rooms
that have not been white-washed they may be found in numbers.
In this country anophelines certainly avoid bright daylight and
sunlight. It is stated that in the Panama Zone anophelines will
remain hungry rather than fly three feet out into the sunlight to
bite a person standing in the sun. In the choice of a line site it is
important to avoid the proximity of ravines and swamps. Ravines
may afford a water supply, they will certainly produce malaria.
Swamps are less harmful, and it may be said that ravines and grass
grown ditches in which there is a trickle of clear water should be
looked upon with greater suspicion than permanent swamp or old

125

mine holes. Hill sites are unsuitable, there are usually ravines at
t the foot of the hills and in any case coolies don’t like hill tops, they

are too cold for them.

The boundaries of an estate should be given a wide berth for
whether your neighbours are the Government, another estate or
native holdings yon cannot control their actions, all your sanitary
measures may be in vain by reason of the omission of your
neighbours to adopt suitable precautions.

It is not possible to state at what distance from ravines or
swamps it is safe to house your labourers, we do not know what is
the diameter of the magic circle the centre of which the anoplieline
will fail to reach, but it is certain that the further your lines are
from their breeding grounds the less trouble will you get from
malarial fevers.

The management of an estate situated anywhere in broken
hilly country will be amply rewarded in the future for any amount
of trouble, taken in the earliest stages of development, to find a
spacious and flat area of land and to reserve it as a line site. The
disregard of this measure of prudence is common, it has been and
will continue to be a source of serious embarrassment and expense,
there are comparatively few estates the labour forces of which are
housed upon the best available site on the property.

A good deal of emphasis has been laid upon this matter of the
choice of sites for lines on account of the extremely important
bearing that it has upon the health of labourers and further for the
reason that, the immediate outlay entailed by the abandonment of
lines which have been put up on an ill chosen site and the erection
of new lines upon a fresh site which is generally under well grown
rubber is rarely faced. Estates go on year after year expending
money upon attempts to improve the sanitary surroundings of
their lines, all of which expense might have been avoided by the
exercise of foresight in the early days of development.

Cooly Lines.

Of the three common types of lines in use the plan to be
adopted is not generally of great importance. On those estates
where the level of the subsoil water is very high, raised lines are to
be preferred, this type admits of cooking operations under the lines
and the smoke from the wood fires has some deterrent effect upon
mosquitoes, coolies have been known to complain of the cold in these
raised lines, another complaint is that the height of the steps or
verandah is a danger to their children, a more common and real
disadvantage is the difficulty that there is to ensure that the space
under the lines is kept clear of obstructions and in a reasonable
sanitary condition, coolies will board up the space for the purpose of
keeping their cattle, goats or fowls and constant supervision is
required to prevent it.

)3 j &7

126

The ground floor type of lines seems more popular with coolies
and it has the advantage that it is readily supervised and kept clean.
Overcrowding of lines must be avoided, a minimum of 30 feet of
floor space for each person must be insisted upon. Regular
inspection by a responsible person is necessary, where this is
neglected the lines will become dirty and evil smelling, and what is
even more serious light and air spaces soon become blocked up by
boarding, sacking or other obstruction.

The question of sites for bungalows must next be considered,
the choice and maintenance of suitable sites for the European staff
is no less important than for the labourers, frequently too little
consideration is given to this matter. Many of the quarters of the
managers and assistants are unsuitably placed on sites which are
hemmed in at a few yards distance by dense and lofty cultivation.
Apart from a lack of sufficient ventilation upon such sites and the
increased nuisance and danger from mosquitoes which find a safe
harbour in the rubber around the house, the depression to mind and
body from living amidst these surroundings has a very adverse
influence upon the health, even the occasional visitor to estates
must have been struck sometimes at the sombre gloom of an old
rubber clearing. Europeans cannot live and thrive in such environ-
ment and to expect from them continuous good work and good
health is to expect the impossible. A large clearing should be
made round each bungalow, it is unnecessary to up-keep extensive
gardens but the wages of a one or more coolies to keep cut a few
acres of grass-land round the house should never be grudged.

Water Supply.

An ample supply of good water is a valuable asset and is worth
much trouble to secure. When coolies can get plenty of good water
for both cooking and bathing purposes at or near their lines they
are less likely to make use of ditches, ponds, or streams, when in the
field. Most of the rivers and streams in this country become highly
polluted soon after they have left the hills in which they rise,
it is therefore of very doubtful advantage to have a stream running
past the lines, nothing will stop the coolies from using it and its
purity must always be suspect. The best sources of supply are from
protected hill catchments, the water being brought to stand pipes at
the lines, the great value of such a supply is evident, it is usually
almost unlimited in quantity and its purity is generally above
suspicion. The initial outlay for construction of head works and
laying of pipes may be considerable but the expenses for upkeep are
small. Upon those estates where such installations exist the
management is relieved from much anxiety which is inevitable when
shallow wells of uncertain purity constitute the only source of supply
for a large labour force. Where a hill supply is impracticable wells
must be sunk and it is advisable to have bores put down in order that

127

an adequate supply at a good depth may be located. Water can be
found by digging a few feet below the surface almost anywhere
but these shallow pits, they cannot be called wells, do not afford
a safe supply and if dug during the wet season they are apt to fail in
the dry. All shallow wells, that is wells less than 50 feet in depth
require most careful protection against pollution by surface washings
or soakage from cess pits. For the lining of wills concrete cylinders
should be used rather than brickwork, concrete is less porous than
brick and the use of concrete cylinders renders any subsequent
deepening of the well more easy than if brickwork is put in
as a lining. The greater depth to which the concrete cylinders
are sunk the less likelihood will there be of contamination
from the surface. In no case should these cylinders be sunk for
less than 15 feet. It is not desirable that wells should he close to
the lines, freedom from contamination must be secured and the
nearer the well is placed to the lines the more difficult does that
become. Wells should be far removed from the outfall of line
drains, latrines, cattle sheds, and rubbish pits. The ground sur-
rounding the well should be guarded from gross pollution for several
hundred feet. A pump is a necessity and it is recommended to
procure it from a reliable firm and to pay a good price for it, cheap
pumps are quite unsuitable for estate use, they are rarely in work-
ing order for more than a few months. A light cover should be
placed over the well, this should not exclude air, it is intended to
prevent accidental or deliberate fouling of the water. The discharge
from the pump should be at a distance from the well and should be
provided with a concrete platform sloping to an impervious drain to
take away waste water.

Conservancy a.nd Rubbish Disposal.

Some system of night-soil disposal is a necessity, labourers must
not be permitted to fowl the ground by indiscriminate defsecation — a
habit to which they are accustomed but which they must be broken
of. This fouling of the soil is a real danger to health, it conduces
through the agency of house flies to the dissemination of dysentery,
diarrhoea, typhoid and other complaints. The repeated contamina-
tion of the soil by faecal matter inevitably tends to the propagation
of hook worm disease and that disease in conjunction with malaria is
a grave menace to the efficiency of a labour force. Latrines of what-
ever type adopted should not be far from the lines, the closer they
are placed the better, provided of course that where pits or trenches
are used they are outside the line reserve. Latrines should afford
plenty of accommodation, those for men and women should be
separated and sufficient shelter for decency’s sake should be provided
by the use of screens. Latrines must be roofed over to protect them
from rain, they should also have drains dug round them to keep out
storm water. A liberal supply of lime must be used to prevent the
breeding out of flies. Pit or trench latrines must be placed at a

128

good distance from the wells. When possible the well should be on
the upper slope and the latrines on the lower slope of the line site.
Cooly lines cannot be maintained in a proper sanitary condition
unless it is the special work of some one to keep them so, one or
more line sweepers must be employed whose daily duty it is to sweep
out the drains, collect all refuse, rubbish, tins and bottles from the
line site and its surroundings and dispose of it by burial or fire. It
is a good plan to have trenches dug between the rubber in which the
refuse is thrown and covered with earth each day. The line
sweepers must also attend to the upkeep and liming of the latrines,
if bucket latrines are in use they should bury the night-soil twice
daily at sites which have been selected for that purpose.

The Care of Labourers.

Whatever class of labour is recruited each batch should
be medically examined as soon as possible after arrival on the estate
and all coolies should be rejected who, in consequence of disease,
infirmity, or malformation, are found to be unfit for agricultural
labour. The prompt medical examination of locally recruited
coolies should never be neglected, these local coolies have often
drifted in from highly malarious districts and in that case they
are certain to be infected in a greater or less degree with malaria.
It may not be necessary to turn such coolies away but it is essential
that they shall receive special treatment with quinine if they are to
be absorbed into the estate labour, force. Hfew recruits from tlie
Coast are usually entirely ignorant of the art of food preparation,
many of them have eaten riee for the first time at the Coast
depot and still know nothing about cooking it, they are moreover
very susceptible to malaria and bowel diseases. It is therefore
a wise custom to supply them with cooked rations for not less than
six months after arrival, the requisite arrangements entail some
little trouble and supervision, but they do not involve any great
expense. It may prevent tlie serious disorganization of a labour
forcg which results from a high sick rate. A daily quinine
ration should be given to all new recruits for a similar period.
Upon estates where malaria is severe and quinine is given at the hour
of morning muster it is well worth while to provide a ration of hot
coffee or congee at the same time, large doses of quinine should not
be given on empty stomachs, they produce unpleasant consequences
and coolies are apt to evade their doses if it is so given. Unless the
management makes provision for a hot ration the quinine is
commonly taken either on an empty stomach or else on top of a
handful of stale and sour rice left over from the meal of the previous
day, in neither case can good results be expected. These preventive
measures may be thought to be needless for universal adoption in the
comparatively healthy Coast districts, but in the malarious country
near the foot hills they might with advantage be carried out as a
matter of routine by the estate management.

129

Malaria.

In its many phases malaria is unquestionably the most serious
adversary of the planting interests. It is the one disease which
permanently cripples a labour force. When it does not kill outright
it may so reduce the vitality and physique of the coolies that they
fall ready victims to intercurrent affections such as dysentery and
ankylostomiasis. Malaria is conveyed to man through the bites of
anoplieline mosquitoes, several species are known to be malarial
carriers. It is probable as our knowledge advances that other
species not at present known to carry infection will be found to be in
fact capable of so doing.

For practical purposes all anophelines must be taboo, no
effective measures for their extermination or reduction should be
neglected. We do nob know very much about tlie habits and
capabilities of anophelines and for that reason it is unwise to
dogmatize as to the best methods to be adopted to control them.
We do know that in Panama anophelines have been found to be swift
and strong on the wing and to cover great distances against or even
at right angles to the wind in order to obtain human blood. It seems
certain also that they avoid strong light, especially bright sunshine.

Conditions are so varied that no single system of anti-malarial
measures can be laid down as applicable to all estates. Apart from
a judicious choice of line sites, already referred to, there are three
principal measures that may be mentioned, these are quinine
prophylaxis, oiling, and piping. One or other measure may be all
that is necessary but it will commonly be found that a combination
of two at any rate is indicated.

The regular medication by quinine over a prolonged period to an
estate labour force is no easy matter. It can be relied upon to
be effective only when the distribution is under the direct supervision
of a manager or assistant. It is a common experience to be told
that all labourers get quinine daily and to find that actually only
those complaining of fever get quinine and that they get it only so
long as they are sick. Where malaria is prevalent the children are
certainly infected, it is therefore imperative that they and also the
“ dependants ” should be given the quinine ration.

The spraying of mosquito breeding grounds by means of an oil
vapour is becoming more popular, it is, when combined with the
clean weeding of streams and ravines, a very effective means for the
destruction of mosquito larvse. In addition it is a method which has
the advantage that it is easily extended at a small additional cost.
Oil spraying is certainly the most generally suitable measure of
mosquito reduction upon estates and rural areas.

The plan of conducting under ground all surface water is
without doubt the ideal one for the abolition of malaria. The
success of this system is, however, beset by many difficulties. It is at

I

130

present undetermined over what distance must pipes be laid in order
to free or produce a marked reduction in anophelines in a given area.
Serious “ washes out ” of the pipe lines may occur during floods, the
formation of pools and pot-holes by the scour of flood water entails
unremitting attention and upkeep. U nless these facts are thoroughly
understood and appreciated much disappointment will ensue and a
word of warning is necessary lest the management of estates should
rush into ill considered and expensive piping operations with the
conviction that the laying of a certain number of chains of
underground pipes is a. panacea for malaria and that all other sanitary
precautions may be neglected.

Although medication by quinine, oil spraying and piping have
been referred to as the principal measures of prevention against
malaria there are many others which cannot be neglected. Extensive
swampy areas may often be dried up or greatly reduced in size by
cutting a few drains through them. Natural water courses and
ditches should he canalized, trained and clean weeded, small
depressions and hollows which in stiff soils are apt to retain water
should be tilled or levelled. Agricultural drains will require
constant attention to avoid silting up and tbe formation of pot-holes
and back waters. Scrub and undergrowth must be cut down, for
these afford shelter for mosquitoes and favour the formation of small
pools and puddles by retarding evaporation. There is no one specific
remedy for malaria, only by an intelligent combination of methods
which have been proved to be of practical value will good results to
be attained.

Medical Supervision and Hospitals.

The prevention of sickness is the first and all important duty
of the medical adviser to an estate. In theory it should not be
necessary to make arrangements for the treatment of a number
of sick coolies. Apart from accidents which will occur in spite
of all laws and codes the Sanitation, of an estate should be so efficient
and complete that disease has no chance of a successful attack
upon the labour force. There are, however, few estates in this
fortunate plight. There are many on which the sick rate is extra-
ordinarily low, it is possible that the happy state of comparative
freedom from disease on some of these favoured estates may be
attributed to the natural salubrity of their surroundings rather
than to the perfection of the sanitary measures that are in force.
But we must take tilings as we find them and on the vast majority
of estates there exist conditions which may become inimical to a
continued high standard of health in the labourers employed. It is
the concern of the medical adviser to the estate to combat these
adverse influences and reduce the potential sources of sickness and
mortality to a minimum. The main business of an estate doctor
being the prevention nob the cure of disease, it is evident that this
object cannot be attained if the whole of his energy is directed to

131

the medical treatment of such eases as he sees upon occasional
visits to the estate hospital. It is of the greatest importance
that there should he a regular medical inspection of lines, drains,
latrines, water supply, any anti-malarial works that may he in
hand and all other sanitary arrangements. Of no less importance
is it that the coolies should from time to time be mustered
and inspected by the doctor. On estates v. here there is little
sickness a muster once a quarter is sufficient, but where there is
much malaria, in spite of the inconvenience inseparable from a
complete muster of the labourers, it is essential that the medical
adviser should see every cooly not less than once a month, by this
means alone is it possible for him to form an opinion as to the
general health of the labourers, the effectiveness of such preventive
sanitary measures as are in force or the necessity for further efforts.

In addition to regular visits from a medical practitioner it is
the custom on larger estates to employ a dresser, a reliable man
should be engaged for his duties are important. The dresser should
be present at all musters, he should attend to the minor ailments of
the coolies and supply them with simple remedies. If a quinine
ration is given he must keep a quinine check-roll in which should be
included tlie names of all labourers, dependents, and children.
He must visit the lines not less than once a day to see that
they and their surroundings are clean and that the line sweepers
keep the drains and latrines in good sanitary . condition. Not '
the least important duty of a dresser is to account each day
for all labourers, especially any who are absent without leave from
the morning muster or working parties. All rooms should be
searched for sick labourers or dependants and every case ot -sickness
immediately reported to an assistant or the manager. A highly
skilled dresser is not necessary, he will be apt to keep sick coolies on
the estate under his own treatment and report them to the manager
only when their condition is beyond his efforts and not improbably
also those of the hospital staff. The dresser should find all coolies
who through illness are unfit to work and report them to the *
manager, but the responsibility to obtain prompt hospital treatment
for the sick must rest upon the manager and cannot be shifted
to a dresser.

Hospitals.

It is obligatory upon all employers of native labour to make
suitable arrangements for the hospital accommodation of the sick.
In the tropics especially diseases are difficult of diagnosis and they
are usually rapid, in their progress, the treatment applied in the
first twenty -four hours frequently determines the issue of the case.
It is, therefore, essential from a humanitarian and not less so from an
economical standpoint that* prompt and skilful medical relief shall be
available for the sick. Where small hospitals are put up on each
estate they do not discharge these requirements, there can be no

132

question that the multiplication of separate estate hospitals is
from every point of view an unmitigated evil. These small hospitals
will be ill equipped and indifferently staffed, apart from an
occasional visit from a medical practitioner the patients will be at
mercy of men who are unfitted by education and experience to be in
sole charge of dangerous cases. To spend much thought, time, and
money on sanitary nmasures on an estate for the purpose of keeping
the labourers in good health and then to commit the unfortunates
who do fall ill to a hospital where they may have to wait a week
before receiving any expert medical treatment is neither good logic
nor good business. I cannot too strongly urge the creation of few
large and well equipped hospitals to serve the needs of groups of
estates, rather than a multitude of small hospitals which are
sucff only in name.

Personal Hygiene.

A planter’s chief concern is for his labourers and he is not
seldom careless of his own health. In addition to the necessity for
roomy quarters in a carefully chosen and extensive clearing and a
water supply that is above suspicion, it advisable that there should
lie a screened room in every bungalow, it should be not less than
14 feet square so that it can accommodate several chairs and a
table, it should be provided with a double swing-to door. The room
should be so placed that it is open on three sides, it should be provided
for when the bouse is planned, the small extempore mosquito proof
rooms commonly put up are fit only for meat safes, it is little
wonder that they can seldom be used for the purpose intended.
Malaria is the cause of at least 90 per cent, of the sickness and
invaliding among planters and no precautions against this disease
must be neglected in those districts where it is prevalent. Anopheles
bite chiefly in the dusk of evening and early dawn, spend these
dangerous hours when practicable in a protected room. Never sit
about in the open after sunset, especially after tennis or other
exercise. Protect the feet and ankles from mosquitoes during the
dinner hour by boots or other device. Never sit about in wet
clothes, a chill is the most common determining factor in the onset
of an attack of malaria. Do not consider the use of a punkah or fan
to be a luxury, they are valuable aids to health of mind and body,
any one who fails to make use of them is culpably negligent. Take
a dose of quinine daily, if you’ suspect you are suffering from
malaria do not rely on the thermometer but consult your doctor who
will make sure about it and give you the necessary treatment.

Labourers and Statistics.

In certain areas of intense malaria it lias at times been found
necessary to substitute Chinese for Indian labour. Chinese for
various reasons oppose a stout resistance to malaria and bowel
complaints, they can live and work and remain in comparatively
good health in places where Indians wilt and die. On the other

138

liand, it has been shown beyond question that vigorous, intelligent
and persistent anti-malarial measures carried out by a manager who
has a full knowledge of their value and belief for their necessity will
bring about so great a change on a highly malarious estate that not
only is it practicable to re-employ Indian labour but the sick rate and
mortality from malaria can be brought to very moderate dimensions.

The accompanying table sets out the deatn-rate among Indian

labourers in

the Federated Malay
Average number of

States during

the past six years

Year.

Indian estate
labourers.

No. of deaths.

Death-rate.

1911

... 110,000 ..

< 7,162 .

. 65 per mille

1912

... 122,000 ..

. 5,014 .

. 41 „

1913

... 133,000 ..

. 4,057 \

. 30 „

19T4

... 128,975

. 4,070 .

. 31 „

1915

... 120,107 ..

. 2,511 .

. 20 „

1916

... 130,840 ..

2,788 .

- 21 „

If we consider the figures for labourers of all nationalities,
Indians, Chinese, Javanese and Malays the reduction in mortality is
even more marked but the figures are not so reliable. The Indian
figures though they do not include the deaths of infants or dependants
are very encouraging. To bring about still further progress there
are three prominent measures to which special effort should in future
be directed. These are, an extension of anti-malarial works, a more
prompt removal of the sick to hospital and an increase in the
qualified medical staffs of estate hospitals. The marked reduction
in Indian mortality upon estates during the past six years is a great
tribute to the successful and earnest endeavours of managers,
assistants and their medical advisers, it will doubtless also serve as
a stimulus for further effort.

Discussion,

Dr. Lucy concluded his paper by inviting questions and specially
asked two members whom be knew had experimented with oil to
state their experience.

Mr. Harrison said that he had tried oil on Midlands Estate
with very satisfactory results.

During 1911 the death-rate was 25 per mille, but during the
past few years it had been greatly reduced by this means and now
amounted only to 1.5 (Hear, hear). That was not due entirely to
oiling, hut mainly to it, as other methods of subsoil drainage, etc.,
had also been tried. It was Dr. Watson, who had visited Panama,
who suggested oiling. They first tried crude kerosene. They now
had their place oiled once a week, costing from $500 to $700
a month for about half mile around. While they had had a
hospital admission rate of 50 per cent, previously it was now reduced
to 2 per cent.

134

Mr. Gilman, who had also tried oiling on Bukit Jelutong Estate,
said that, when he started, the death-rate on his estate in August,
1915, was 88 per mille, at the end of that year it came down to 69.
In 1916 the death-rate was 3 per mille. This year they had not had
a death yet. He had 159 coolies and only had one death, from
pneumonia, during the year.

Mr. Huson asked for more information about the method of
spraying.

Mr. Harrison explained that he employed four coolies in each
division with four sprayers, with a definite programme mapped out
for each. They used crude oil in 65-gallon drums which were
used for liquid fuel. One ordinary kerosene oil tin filled a spraying
machine. Every scraj) of water in the area was oiled, in fact they
even went across the road into the surrounding kampongs and oiled
the wells there. (Laughter,)

Mr. Jarvis thought the experience of Midlands, where half a
mile of oiling was sufficient, did not agree with the statement that in
Panama anophelines would fly a mile against wind, and asked
Dr. Lucy what he considered was the limit of a mosquito’s operations.

Dr. Lucy replied that as to mosquitoes travelling for over half a
mile, he could not say definitely, hut many estates which had tried
oiling found a radius of half a mile gave good results. It was
not possible to lay down a hard and fast rule as to what distance
anopheles travelled. In Panama experiments with painted anopheles
showed that some travelled as far as 6,000 feet.

Mr. Lawforb asked what was the safe margin around which
water should be oiled ?

Dr. Lucy said a great deal of enquiry was necessary before a
hard-and-fast rule could be laid down. Certainly half a mile was
the absolute minimum, and the further they went the better. Each
case must be taken on its merits. As to the habits of mosquitoes,
that- was a question they knew very little about, though the
anophelines preferred clear running water, and were seldom found in
dirty water. It was a question which required a good deal of
research, and he hoped a man would be appointed to enquire into
that in the future. He had seen anophelines in the overflow from
factories, but they didn’t like it.

Mr. Harrison said that he would like to know what Dr, Lucy
thought about mosquito-proof lines and the leaving of ravines in
blukar for the prevention of malaria.

Dr. Lucy replied that as regards mosquito-proof lines he knew
of two or three estates which had attempted it. Many years ago
mosquito-proof hospitals were started i^ Negri Sembilam There
was not the slightest doubt that it did some good, but there was
another side to the question. There was immense difficulty in

135

keeping the wire proofing in order as coolies threw' rubbish and dirt
at it and very quickly destroyed its efficiency. If they could keep a
set of lines mosquito-proof, there could be no doubt as to the good
results.

Experience gained in the Government hospitals and the gaols
where there was a large amount of supervision showed that the cells
and wards only became mosquito traps. He was, therefore, doubtful
whether it was a measure that could be recommended for universal
adoption.

Regarding ravines being allowed to lie in blukar, that was a
means of adding to their troubles above all others. Mosquitoes
multiplied a thousandfold in such places, particularly iu the deep
depressions caused by the footfall of man and beast, and in his
opinion it was the best means of propagating mosquitoes. Dr.
Strickland’s idea was to allow ravines to go back into virgin jungle,
and that would not happen in their time.

Mr. Hendrie said that he could not understand how six sets of
lines could accommodate 500 coolies. He also asked what was the
best pump iu Dr, Lucy’s opinion to prevent water wastage, etc. ?

Dr. Lucy replied that as regards Mr. Hendrie’s remarks about
line accommodation — what he meant was rooms of 12 feet by 12 feet.
As regards pumps, the old British village pump was easily
procurable. Its cost was between §150 and §300 but it had stood for
a hundred years and was yet the best principle.

Mr. Pinching asked whether domestic pets, such as fowls,
goats, etc., were detrimental to the health of the coolies. He also
asked what distance lines should be away from swamps.

Dr. Lucy said as to the breeding of fowls and live stock in the
cooly lines, he thought they should be absolutely excluded. As to
the distance lines should be away from swamps, he could only say as
far away as possible, though swamps were less harmful than ravines
with a running trickle of water.

Another member stated that as about 90 per cent, of coolies
from India suffered from hook worm was it not advisable to treat
them when in quarantine ?

Dr. Lucy said that with regard to the treatment of hook worm
in the quarantine Station, the cooly already had to undergo a
bewildering series of examinations, quarantine, vaccination,
quinine rationing, and many such ordeals, and whether it would be
wise to add book worm treatment was a matter of doubt. About
80 per cent, of the arrivals from India suffered from hook worm.
Some coolies had housed ,the worm for a long time and only when
coming to a malarious centre was their health seriously impaired by
it. The present treatment was short, but, he thought, rather

186

drastic, and it would not be wise to treat the coolies for hook worm
in the quarantine station, but it might be done as a routine measure
after their arrival on the estates.

Dr. Day said that they had no experiments to show the real
value of prophylaxis. When coolies got to hospital it was difficult
to diagnose the cases. He agreed that a big hospital had advantages,
such as more complete equipment, over the small hospital, but it was
to be remembered that cases did not come into hospitals until they
were really bad. The main question was to catch the patients
early. A man who got ill would never be sent off at once to a
hospital that was seven or eight miles away. He, therefore, thought
that there was, after all, a good deal to be said for the small hospital.

Dr. Lucy in reply said that there was no doubt that the
concensus of opinion was that where quinine prophylaxis was carried
out thoroughly and systematically they not only got less malaria, but
malaria was less virulent in type. He could not help thinking that
quinine prophylaxis had fallen into disrepute to a great extent
because quinine was not given as it should be. In nearly every case
where he had gone into the question closely he found there were
loopholes, a large number of coolies and dependents (including
children, who were particularly dangerous) having escaped the
quinine prophylaxis. As to the 'experiments suggested, one would
like to see them carried out. But he did maintain that the concensus
of opinion was in favour of continuing the quinine ration in areas
of infection.

As to grdup hospitals, on the question of discipline Dr. Lucy
did not think that an argument against them. That was a question
of administration. As to coolies a distance away not being willing
to go into hospital, it was not a question of coolies walking into
hospital hut of being sent there. That was for the manager to see to.

The Chairman (Mr. L. Lewtou-Brain) concluded the proceed-
ings by heartily thanking Dr. Lucy for his interesting paper.

187

MINOR ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.

Visit to Experimental Plantation.

W HBN a visit was paid to the Department of Agriculture on the
26th April an inspection was made ‘of the experimental
plantation and nurseries. The visitors were shown round part
of the grounds by Mr. F. G. Spring (Agriculturist) who gave
demonstrations on various plants of commercial value and it was
evident that a keen interest was taken in respect of many of the
crops. The visitors were first shown Patchouli ( Pogostemon
patchouli ) and in dealing with this plant it was remarked that there
was a fair demand, at present, for the dried leaf as a source of
Patchouli oil. Some time was then spent in a five-acre 1>lock of four
years old African oil palms ( Elseis guineensis ) just commencing to
fruit. The suitability of the palm and its culture in Malaya were
freely discussed. Its possibilities, as a plantation crop, were dealt
with and it was remarked that large areas might be planted without
affecting the market to any extent. A young rubber clearing, under
terraced conditions, was viewed and the benefits derived from this
system of planting, on hill land, were explained. Some interest was
shown in a number of medicinal plants such as Ipecacuanha,
Groton tiglium (croton oil), Erythroxylon coca (cocaine), Cinchona
ledgeriana and C. succirubra, Chenopodium, and Papaya as a source
of commercial Papain. Mr. Spring referred to the question of green
manuring and dealt with Centrosema plumieri and the Sarawak Bean
in particular. The following fibre plants were pointed out — Sisal,
Manila, Mauritius and Bowstring hemps. Plants yielding various
commercial products such as oils, dyes and spices were inspected as
well as fodder and other grasses, fruits, economic and ornamental
trees and plants.

On returning to the Offices the party was shown exhibits
of economic products, which were grown and prepared locally.
These consisted of — Tobacco, African Oil Palm fruits and a specimen
of the oil, Camphor oil, Chenopodium seed, Ipecacuanha root, Fibres,
Patchouli, Tuba root, Cinchona bark, Avocado pears, Indian corn,
Artichoke tubers. Seed of Centrosema plumieri, Canavalia ensi-
formis and Sarawak Bean ( Dolichos Btosei ) were also exhibited. A
collection of photographs consisting of a large variety of crops
grown on the experimental plantations was on view.

73

138

THE POOD-CROPS OP THE MALAY PENINSULA AND
SOME THOUGHTS ARISING OUT OF A REVIEW
OP THEM.

m

By I. H. Burkill, m.a., f.l.s.

( Director of Gardens, 8.8.).

According to trade statistics, the Malay Peninsula took from
abroad for feeding itself in the year 1915 :

Cereals, costing
Sugar, costing

Bean seed, and the like, costing
Vegetables, costing ...

Fruits, costing

Condiments of native food, costing...
paying the bills for these out of income from
tapioca, and ^pine-apples.

$23,471,049
5,789,951
1,439,278
1,352,128
1,274,163
1,227,455
rubber, copra,

sago,

1 intend to use the privilege of holding your attention by
speaking of these foods which we buy in such large quantities from
outside the Peninsula : I shall touch on cereals first, commencing
with rice.

Rice.

. The year 1915 saw nearly fifty-two million dollars worth of rice
enter our ports, and we kept twenty millions worth to feed ourselves.
It came from Rangoon, Saigon and Bangkok chiefly. That which
,eame from Rangoon was the overflow production of a population of
about one soul to an acre of paddy : it is a growing population,
and it has been calculated that in fifty years it will eat up
its own produce, or in less than fifty years if the accepted
plan of cropping shotild be changed. The same growth of.
population is occurring in Indo-China and Siam, and will have a
similar result. Java has already filled up in a wonderful way, and
has greatly changed its crops, with the result that it no longer sends
overseas rice in the same way as formerly. The Philippine Islands
have ceased to export and import. These changes are worth
. thinking over; and the more one thinks the more important does
rice growing appear to be in the Malay Peninsula.

Rice, unfortunately, pays comparatively poorly : so that officers
charged with the duty of insuring its extension are confronted with
great difficulties. Rice cultivation in the East is, at it were, the
handmaid of all other cultivation — without rice the others could
not exist — and it is paid in the manner of handmaids.

I propose to pass quickly ‘along the ends of the avenues leading
from the present position to greater profits, but merely glancing
down them.

*

139

Rice is, on the whole, the more uncertain in its return the less the
area grown : and being a crop of small cultivators there is a need of
securing co-operation in working the larger areas. The. great plains
of Rower Bengal have been worked for rice for ages and carry
such a population that the produce is only exported in the years
when the yield is considerable. In the course of time these
plains have acquired a peculiar flora and a peculiar fauna, in response
to the annual submerging of the surface of the land, which keeps
out the dry-land weeds of more than ephemeral duration, and
excludes by rendering homeless all ground- nesting animals or insects
which pass one stage of their life underground. Thus it has come
about that these Bengal plains are relatively without rats, and when
plague established itself in Calcutta the villages long enjoyed
immunity on account of their isolation. As they are relatively
without rats, so are they relatively without some other pests which
are known to do great damage here. The long ages of cultivation,
its persistence and its completeness have thus wrought changes
favourable to the crop in its relationship to other life. Rats in
Malaya are possibly the worst pests of small areas of rice, and birds
next : after them, come insects. As regards birds it is obvious that
the more cleared the land the freer it may be ; and the same also in
respect of elephants and wild pigs : so that the wide co-operative
area in a large way escapes these.

» Co-operation is wanted for irrigation.

It is most interesting to observe with the eye of an ethnologist
how in Malaya this needed co-operation has been obtained — how in
Java, for instance, much of the land is held by the village collectively
and parcelled out annually for rice-growing : how in the Malay
Peninsula religious ceremonies have been adopted as a means of
bringing the owners to work collectively. The fumigation of the
seed with benzoin, and the prayers in the mosque, and all tlie poetry
gathered about the soul of the rice is an equivalent for the
prosaic scrap of paper on which a District Officer is empowered to
write thou shalt repair thy runnels on this date and plant thy paddy
on that. Whatever our feelings may be in regard to the liberty of
the subject, I anticipate that no one will wish to contest the ~ argu-
ment that the sawab is an unit, and that it is wise to coerce tlie
cultivators of it just as they have been coerced in the past;
because the State is the better off for the complete cultivation of
any area of rice land.

The next matter is the extension of the rice lands.

Rice cultivation, bendang or wet rice cultivation and not ladang
or dry rice cultivation, has established for itself two vigorous centres
in the Peninsula, the one in the north, the other in -the neighbour-
hood of Malacca, To the north it came as an extension only. Great
and wonderfully settled kingdoms once existed from the Bay of
Bengal to the China Sea across the belt of land from Rangoon to

140

Saigon : they were very populous before their prosperity invited
attack from the north, and before the restless centuries came when
Shan, Burman and Siamese wasted each other’s lands and carried off
wholesale each other’s subjects, not for domestic slavery but to
maintain tbeir own wasted fields. The Kedah rice fields were the
southern f ringe of the cultivation of these kingdoms. On the other
hand, the Malacca rice lands came to be what they are out of an over-
flow from Palembang or Menangkabau in Sumatra, when “ the
egrets on flapping wings ” crossed the Straits to set up colonies on a
coast which undulated like their own home. Both extensions invited
European establishments in turn, Malacca first when the Portuguese
found trade possible and profitable, and the Kedah area next, when
Francis Light after living in it, built up the settlement of Penang
upon its edge, well chosen and not foodless like the decaying settle-
ment of Bencoolen.

There was something in the success of Malacca and Penang
which might have read a lesson thirty years ago in frhe opening up
of the Federated Malay States, to those who tried very earnestly to
settle small colonies of rice growers in various places. So many of
these colonies perished from their smallness. It had been easier
then to have built on to the edge of that which existed : and it
appears easier now to work at the extension of the Krian rice
area than to dissipate efforts in diverse directions. I look upon
Krian as the area for results in rice. But turning to Malacca, if?
must be noticed how limited, there, is the field for expansion,
and that the problem is the maintenance of the sawahs and the
getting of the landholders to rise to overriding those disadvantages
to which they have been put by the ^washing of silt from the
cleared uplands on to the paddy land.

Although rice grows in water, soil aeration is most important
to it. Stagnant water is very inimical. There needs to be a
movement over the surface ; and there must be a movement through
the soil. The best rice land is particularly open in texture. It is
the practice to grow in the Peninsula one rice crop only in the year
and to let the weeds riot on the land during the rest of the twelve
months. When sowing time is coming round these weeds are
ploughed iu and make valuable green manure. Such a practice is
by no means confined to the Peninsula but is very wide spread
where rice is grown : its working has been studied particularly in
Southern India, and it has been found what an important additional
part the ploughed-in weeds play in the aeration of the soil. Down
that avenue which points to greater profit from paddy by taking
a crop from off the land in the fallow we may only look, bearing in
mind the need ©f the fields of this green manuring which the second
crop would disturb.

There are various places in the East where a second rice crop
is grown in the fallow time, a quicker growing and less profitable

141

rice than the main crop ; and in Java, where for one place this
is done, the embankments are peeled of their turf that it may be
thrown tinder the plough, or in Travancore, branch- wood is collected
for the same purpose, or in Japan, special crops of the Leguminosse
are raised, all of which practices point unmistakably to the need
of the green manure which weeds give in this Peninsula. In
Travancore the system of cutting branch-wood became a danger
to the State, for the hills were being completely denuded ; and
control liad to be enforced. Under control it would be possible to
permit it in Malaya.

Two idee crops per annum means the broadcasting of one:
and broadcasting is very inferior to transplanting. Transplanting
of rice, twice repeated, is even beneficial, just as it is to some of
our garden annuals. But the second rice crop must forego the trans-
planting ; and it is also the less profitable on account of the larger
amount of seed that has to be used.

Crops, other than rice, which are used in the place of the fallow
are, in Java, generally beans, chillies, ground-nuts, sweet potatoes
yam- beans and yams : and each gives a certain amount of stems
useful for green manure. More rarely do the Javanese plant maize,
sorghum or the smaller millets. Maize is used as a rotation crop
in the Philippine Islands. Trials of some of these might be made
in the Malay "Peninsula, demonstration following success ; but to
bring about any general use seems most unlikely.

The American farmer cheapens his rice crop by the extensive
use of machinery, both for sowing and for reaping : and he is forced
to avoid the valuable transplanting. He has firm subsoif which
carries the machinery and moreover lie is protected by tariffs.

All through the East scientific officers are investigating the
races of rice for their Governments, seeking for the most profitable,
and finding out the conditions demanded by them. But the work to
be done is enormous. There is an Indian proverb which says that of
the races of rice and of Rajputs there is no end. And Nature
appears to intend to have none : for she crosses rices grown intermixed
to a small extent. Miller’s machinery, however, demands large
uniform grain ; and as the mill is by so mucli a more economical
institution than domestic husking, so it is to be encouraged : and
the growing of few races within the area served by a mill becomes
desirable. We have before us then the harmonising of the two needs,
the grower’s of a prolific return, and the miller’s of a suitable grain.
I do not know whether we have two hundred or three hundred races
of rice within our borders, — we certainly have many ; but 1 am
sure of this that the Malay’s methods of cultivation are not
consistent enough to tell us which of the races known to him are
the best: so that I think we have his races to test, as well as the
larger number that might be brought in from outside.

142

TheJMalay has a sound practice of taking liis seed-rice from the
best part of the field : but scientific selection by pure-line cultures
would do much more for the crops.

I have brought into view selection last : and 1 think that in point
of time it comes last as a means of improving the prospect on
growing rice. I think, hut I may be wrong, that the first results
should come from the work of ihe agricultural engineer, and
administrative measures taken to ensure protection against pests, not
animals only directly injurious but the worse evil — loss of plough-
cattle by disease. As to the work of the agricultural engineer, I
should like to refer to that practice in Java, whereby rice land is let
out for sugar growing, not to recommend its use here, but to call
attention to the improved irrigation and working of the soil which
the sugar mills apply to their crop and which exercises a beneficial
influence upon the rice crop following the cane.

In the Philippine Islands the knot of rice improvement has been
cut by tariff protection.

Maize.

Maize appears to demand the place of second cereal for the
Malay Peninsula : and a good sign for its adoption here is that Its
area has bad considerable extension lately in Java, where it has
become an article of export. Before maize reached Africa, sorghum
was the staple crop of the south, the bulrush -millet that of the
sub-tropics, and ragi that of the tropics themselves. Maize has
shown a tendency to oust them all. It does not show the same
tendency to oust rice, where that crop predominates, and I think
the reason of this to be that the housewife must cook maize for
twice as long as rice ; and where she is used to boiling rice, given
maize, she makes the household ill from serving up half cooked
porridge. When maize shall assert itself in India, it will be by
spreading down from the bills of the poor tribes who eat millet or
from the wheat-eating north-west. If its use ean be spread in the
Malay Peninsula, it might be forwarded through the planters
encouraging it.

Maize is a very wide-spread crop, and gives races suitable to
quite dissimilar climatic conditions. The races fall into groups, of
which the sugar-maizes are the most toothsome and are used as a
vegetable ; the flint-maizes are good for storing, and the soft maizes
are not. Various races have been introduced from time to time into
the Peninsula aud lost sight of again, because the market did not
exist for them : the two or three which we have left, persist as
garden plants. It is hard to find what races have been tried.

The crcp is not on the ground for long. Some races take only
two and a half months to mature, others take three, and up to or
beyond four mouths. With a crop of such short duration, it is not
difficult to find a season, having the last month relatively dry,

143

wherein it might be raised. Maize likes a good soil, but it does not
remove much from it ; and it permits cultivation to be continued
while it is growing,

Ragi.

The third cereal for Malaya is perhaps ragi — Eleusine coracana :
but after rice and maize none is worth much consideration.

Ragi is grown in India on poor lands, and in the Himalaya
largely fulfils the function of furnishing beer. Elsewhere in dry
seasons and over dry areas the quantity grown increases, a fact which
speaks against a wide use of it here. It is on the ground for six
months.

Sorghum.

Sorghum holds in India a very much higher place than ragi,
but for areas where there is no forest ; and in them at harvest-time
the air resounds with the din of boys acting as scarecrows, or the
incautious passer-by may find himself bombarded with clay pellets
intended for the flocks of small birds which demand such a large toll
out of the crops. In forested areas sorghum is rarely grown and
then in the less productive feathery panicled races in small quantity.

The smaller millets would only he grown here by Sakai s and
the like.

Sugar.

The second group of food-stuffs on which the Peninsula pays so
greatly is sugar. But sugar-making has unfortunately recently died
out for economic reasons, and it cannot be made to pay until labour
is again cheaper.

It is believed that there were Chinese cultivating sugar-cane in
the area, now Province Wellesley, before the founding of the
Settlement of Penang. And it is recorded that in 1800 labour bad
become too expensive for it to pay. Then again the situation
improved and in 1836 there were Chinese in the Province who, on
quite a considerable scale, made sugar either black or clayed
according to the state of tlie market which they watched very
closely. From Province Wellesley the industry spread into Krian:
but it never really developed so as to send its produce beyond the
local markets. And after one big effort at working with the best of
machinery sugar making died out.

The modern sugar industry is a wonderfully developed one :
efficiency to the last degree is needed : big central factories pay best
because of the economy in working : every advantage has to be
sought for; the cane must come to hand in steady and adequate
supplies, and the by-products must find a sale. Then again very
much of the sugar produced comes to the market with tariff
protection or artificial aid : and from all this I do not see any way of
reducing the sugar bill of the Peninsula. That cane which is grown
for eating seems eminently suited for the purpose, and the
introduction of new races is hardly called for at the moment.

144

Peas and Beans.

I pass to the third group of food-stuffs, namely, bean-seeds and
the like.

Rice-eaters cannot live on rice alone and always seek some food
which provides them with nitrogenous substances. Most of them
seek fish: but where -the caste system forbids fish too sternly and
beans are procurable, beans are used. It is very interesting to
observe the schism among the Brahmins of India whereby those
of Bengal, beans apparently not having been easily procurable, have
permitted themselves fish to save the race : and there are Brahmins
also in Kanara who have gone the same way. The Burmese in
a corresponding dilemma have developed a plea that he who takes
the life pays the penalty, but he who eats the fish is blameless.
The Malay free from the trammels of Buddhism or Brahminism,
balances his diet with fish. But failing fish or some sort of flesh,
beans are almost a necessity, and the demand of the Peninsula for
them will always be great. We get them from the side of India
and we get them from the side of China. We produce none.

One of the chief reasons why we do not raise any, and I think
the chief reason, is that bean crops are the produce of a more
advanced condition of agriculture than ours. Further it is certainly
to the Malay a more congenial occupation to fish thrCn to till his
rice land for a second crop.

Peas and beans are always rotational crops, sometimes of a
more complicated rotation, but generally merely alternating with
rice. Where they fall in the system depends on the climate. Thus
in Assam they are sown on the last rain of the wet season to be
watered afterwards by dew and an occasional storm. In drier places
they occupy the land in the rainy season. Here they would take the
place of the rice land fallow, as in Assam and as in Javaj but they
could also be a subordinate crop to maize, at another season.

The chief of the bean crops of Java is the soy bean — Glycine
soja . It returns, at 3-4 months, it is said, more or less 3,200 lbs.
per acre, which is more than the Manchurian soy bean usually
yields in Northern China. Let it be remembered that there is
considerable difference between the flat-seeded Java plant and the
round-seeded Manchurian plant: and that the unsatisfactory results
of experiments in the Malay Peninsula with Manchurian seed in no
degree prove the Javanese plant not worth growing.

Java, second to Glycine, grows in rice land various species of
Phaseohis, notably Phaseolus radio tun, the Mung of India, P. vulgaris ,
the French bean, and P. lunatus, the Lima bean: also there are
others. We know that we can grow these horticulturally in the
Peninsula : and though I have no knowledge of any agricultural
experiments, it is quite probable that success might attend them.

145

Success might also attend the growing of Phaseolus calcar atus,
P. Mungo and perhaps P. aconitifolius, all common in India, as well
as the Japanese P. anqularis. •

I anticipate no success with the chick pea, Cicer arietinum , and
the lentil, Lens esculenta ; as they favour a drier climate, and are
only to be found in Java at considerable elevations. The Field pea,
Piswn arvense, also, for our plains is out of the question.

Ground-nut cultivation has latterly been a source of large
profits on the sandy river banks of Burma. But it is grown for oil
and not for eating’, for which purpose there are distinct varieties
differing mucf in the chemical composition of the seed : and I prefer
to consider the ground-nut as an oil seed, and not as a food.

Voandzeia, the Bambarra ground-nut, is more ideally a food
crop, but it is of doubtful importance.

Vigna catiang and Cajcmus indicus both grow well here, and
are used as vegetables : but they furnish abroad seeds for eating.
The latter yields for three years if it be appropriately cut back ;
so that it is not a crop like the other beans and will not take a place
in alternation with rice. Vigna catiang, under the name of cow -pea,
takes a very important place in the agriculture of the United States
where the climate is not suited for clover ; but it is not grown there
for the seed, but for stock feeding and for green manure. Collection
of the seed-harvest is laborious as it has to be done by hand daily ;
and it is never large.

Two other leguminous crops may be mentioned, namely,
Canavalia, the sword bean, and Mncuna ' or Stizolobium, the velvet
bean. Sword beans are eaten somewhat extensively in Mysore and
some parts of the Bombay Presidency, and are grown a little in the
Malay Peninsula. The seeds are quite wholesome, but the pod is
generally consumed here unripe.

Condiments.

I turn to condiments, of native food. They are the last
group of the food-stuffs for which I gave you trade returns : but
I take them next as they are in such a l^irge measure sold dried, and
therefore like cereals and beans travel easily and are stored.
I consider* under the head of condiments such foods as onions, garlic,
chillies, ginger* and cardamoms, which are in general use for
flavouring and mixing with the more bulky substances that make up
native food.

Onions can, be grown in the Malay Peninsula, but perhaps
not commercially, as the damp climate is unsuited for the arrest of
leaf growth and the formation of a bulb. A few trials with them
are recorded but no attempt has ever been made to ascertain
exactly what can be done by seeking out the races (they exist)
which do best under damp tropical conditions. Onions are grown

K

77

146

at quite low elevations in Java, and quite widely through India near
towns : but it will be admitted that the drier north and north-west
ol ! that country is bettdh for them than the south. However, I would
remind you that an onion industry has spread downwards into
the West Indies from the north, by the choice of races appropriate
to the climate.

Garlic is more suited to the climate of the Malay Peninsula
than the onion : and considering how large are our importations,
experiment with it is desirable.

Chillies can and should be grown extensively through the
Peninsula. They can be raised easily and fruit from f?he age of four
months forward. Rain may cause some injury to the fruits by
encouraging the growth of a fungus and perhaps also by encouraging
the attack of the little fruit fly. Chillie drying is never to my
knowledge resorted to in the Peninsula.

Ginger cultivation is, I am glad to say, extending in Malacca,

1 where the climate is particularly suitable to it. The cultivators are
Chinese, who sell their produce green for distribution through the
country round. They grow it in ridges, in the accepted way : and
it is on the ground 8-9 months. What their yield is, I do not know,
but it should be 4,000 lbs. per acre. The Javanese grow ginger for
the supply of that island.

Cardamoms can equally well be grown : not the greater*
cardamom — Amomum mbnlatum — but the lesser cardamom —
Elettaria cardamomum . It was grown in the Botanic Gardens,
Singapore, in 1875, with the idea of turning it into a crop and it is
known to have fruited. It is cultivated in two varieties in Java.
It requires rich soil and the proper place for it would be stream
banks at the foot of hills. Twenty years ago the planters of Ceylon
took up its cultivation for export and soon flooded the limited
market. It is not for export that I suggest it, but to cancel our
import.

The Curcumas, G. longa, Turmeric,, and C. Zeodaria, Zeodary,
can be grown in the Peninsula without difficulty to the complete
meeting of the local demand. The first requires a little care, but
the second is absolutely at home. They requite similar treatment
to ginger.

The tamarind fruits most unsatisfactorily in the south of the
Peninsula ; and as to the north I have no data. But in Java it
fruits ; and a supply is available for export. As it is quite a good
roadside tree, it might be so planted with tlie chance of it being also
remunerative by fruiting.

Vegetables.

Vegetables may be divided roughly into greens and roots, with
this important difference that greens will not travel as ,a rule
and roots will. In consequence of the ability of roots to travel

147

we obtain a supply of them from overseas more easily than we
obtain a supply of greens : and therefore we are in a measure with
something corresponding to tariff protection- spread over the latter.

Foremost of roots is the potato, a truly great plant, which
originated in the Andes of South America, and was only spread
thence by the help of European voyagers because they were the first
travellers from its temperate home who crossed the too hot tropics to
other suitable temperate parts of the world. I have spoken of the
difficulty of arousing an interest in maize as being in the cooking. The
potato, despite its excellence, suffered on its arrival in Europe from
the same disadvantage of unfamiliarity: and it was a century and a
half before it really displaced the "wheat dumplings which were
the accompaniment to flesh when it first crossed the Atlantic.
After a time it was brought out to India, and in the north grown
as a cold weather crop, or in the hills in summer where it now
extends to 9,000 feet. It penetrated, at some date unknown to me,
to Java; and it is grown now at 5,000 to 7,200 feet. It is in the
Philippine Islands, and has become a very important article of food
among the mountain tribes of Luzon : but it cannot be grown
satisfactorily at low elevations and particularly in the Southern
Islands : so that at 3,000 feet in Mindanao the State has thought
it desirable to make an attempt to raise enough for the European
population.

The races of potato in the East are several and they ripen some
in as little as 80 days and others in as long as 150 days.

But even taking the quickest there appears to be no reasonable
hope of raising crops in the plains of Malaya, so that, as in Java, the
places from whence we could provide ourselves are on our hills :
and there would appear to be no difficulty in finding areas near
markets quite suitable. In 1896 a 70-day race was raised in Penang,
but was diseased. Excellent potatoes have been raised above Taiping.

For the lowlands there are available several substitutes for the
potato — e.g., the greater yam, Dioscorea alata, the African yams,
the tapioca plant, the taro, Alocasia, Colocasia , Amorphophallus
and the yautias ( Xanthosoma spp.). Most of them yield more
heavily than the potato, but they are on the ground for a much longer
time. The outturn of potatoes at fi ve to six months in England is
about 8,000 lbs. per acre, and in a few extremely favoured localities
up to 13,000 lbs. The outturn of Golocasia after as long a period is
about 6,400 Ibs.^ of Alocasia somewhat more, of Amorphophallus
8,000-16,000, of the Dioscoreas in nine to ten months 20,000 lbs., and
of tapioca up to 25,000 lbs. ; but the period of tapioca may run to
over a year.

The Malays eat a good deal of tapioca, and grow it for the
purpose, so that the cultivation needs no advertising and the
Peninsula takes no imports. But I mention the plant here because,
to the best of my knowledge, the trial of only a very few of the veiy

148

numerous existing races lias been undertaken. Generally, through
the East are 2-4 races : but Tra van core is said to have as many as 20,
and there are 40-50 in Brazil, with a still greater variety in the
mountain-valleys of Colombia. In 1886 and 1889 several were
introduced into the Botanic Gardens, Singapore, but what became of
them is not to be ascertained.

Many people, by confused thinking, blame the tapioca plant for
the lalang wastes, instead of the system of land tenure which
led to them. Tapioca has done right well for this country : and
it is such a robust plant, that exhaustion of the soil must follow
heavy cropping with it. Praise it for its robustness and protect the
land for future generations.

Golocasia antiquorum is quite a widely grown crop : it is a very
important crop so near Europe as Madeira. It is also wild in the
East : and from the inedible wild plant there runs a fairly complete
series of transitions to the edible cultivated plant, of which there
are several races, some specially suited for making into puddings,
others used as bread is used, and others boiled as a vegetable. The
Chinese call it Yu and rely very largely on it in their own country.
The natives of India also use it freely. Therefore if produced here,
it should hold a place in the market.

Alocasia indica is used through India like Colocasia : it is
cultivated sparingly in the Malay Peninsula, and apparently, rather
more so in Java. Alocasia macrorrhiza is like a large edition of the
last, more truly tropical in the climate which it prefers, and so a
little more cultivated in these parts than A. indica.

The Xanthosomas are American plants, not yet used as crops in
the East, though promising as far as their garden cultivation
goes. There are three well known — Xanthosoma sagitti folium,
X. atropurpureum, and X. violaceum. The Bureau of Agriculture
of the Philippine Islands is experimenting with them.

A morphopha Uus campanula, tus, the elephant’s foot 3 r am, furnishes
a food largely used in India, but not in the Malay Peninsula. An
ally, A. Konjac, is cultivated by the Chinese in their own country.

On Dioscoreas I have been busy experimenting for some time.
I know that I have got better races than those which appear in the
local markets. I know that they are easy to grow. But as with
maize, cooking is the local obstacle to their general adoption.

The Jerusalem artichoke can be raised easily in the Malay
Peninsula, but not with full vigour in the plains. Cantley used a
good expression as regards onion cultivation which applies to the
artichoke too, namely, “ it is more or less worth cultivating.”

Radishes develop too much pungency in the plains just as their
relatives the rapes do in India. Carrots have been made to produce
fleshy roots in the plains, but never to produce excellent ones.
Beetroot has been got to do fairly well.

149

All the last four, the artichoke, the salad onion, the carrot and
the beet, might be produced commercially on hills that are near to
some of the larger markets. The true spinach and that excellent
little cucurbit the cho-cho, might also be produced payingly in the
same places. Endive could be grown too.

In the genus Brassica, the Chinese cabbage is the only one
really suited to the plains : but it is inferior to the European
members, of which the cabbage, the brussels sprout, the knol-kohl,
the turnip and the kohl-rabi appear likely plants for the hills only.
But mustard and cress might be grown anywhere if the hills could
produce the needed seed.

There is no difficulty in raising lettuce, and watercress.

Tropical spin aches are easily found : and one, Basella alba,
might very well be common in estate gardens. Amaranls can also be
raised easily for spinach, and are better than the kangkong
(Ipomoea aquatica ) which the Chinese cooks serve up. Beet leaves
can also be used for spinach ; and there is a Javanese spinach,
Talinum verticillatum , which is not used in the Malay Peninsula.

I pass to those vegetables, which are at the same time fruits.

Peas cannot be expected to succeed on t^e plains, but do well in
the hills. There, and in the plains as well, French beans can be
raised. But better for the climate of the plains are Dolichos lablab,
Vigna catiang, Cajanus indicus , and Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. The
last named, I consider, at its right age, a most excellent vegetable.
The first named, in one of its best races, is a table vegetable
in France : b'ut its worst races are, about maturity, dangerous.

Of Cucurbits, 1 believe that all the following can be grown
if means be devised to protect the fruit from the little fruit fiies,
Benincasa cerifera, the wax gourd ; Oucumis sativus, the cucumber,
Cucurbita melo , the melon ; Cucurbita pepo, the pumpkin ; Cucurbita
maxima, the gourd ; Cucurbita moschata, the musk melon ; Citrullus
vulgaris , the water melon ; Luff a acutangula, the loufah ; Momor-
dica charantia ; Lagenaria vulgaris , the calabash ; and Trichosanthes
anguina , the snake-gourd. The Chinese raise some in paper bags
and those generally of inferior races with firm skins. Just as the
papaya protects its fruits by a milky juice, so may it be possible to
prevent the attacks of the fruit fly by chemical means.

The tomato and the brinjal can be so readily grown that no
more need be said of them.

Vegetables repay rich soil so well that the chief problem in
regard to them is manure. Near our larger towns every hollow of
good earth is likely to be given over to them, and a better use there
could not be. Pig fattening brings a certain supply of manure to
the market gardeners who till them : but manures generally ai’e
here costly ; so that a limit is put to our supplies by reason of the
difficulty of getting, and maintaining when got, the fertile soil

150

required. The difficulty is greater in the hills hut I believe
something could there be done on a small scale by means of
branch-wood manuring.

Fruits.

The treatment of fruit in the Malay Peninsula is disappointing.
Formerly when the plantations were fewer and isolation was
greater, the owners found time to plant fruit trees near their
houses : but until again quite newly there has been none of this
done. In the towns men come and men go, having acquired no
more knowledge of the fruits of the land than another alien — their
Chinese cook — imparts with a spice of his own interest. Fruit
growing is, I think, far behind what it should be.

. The typical fruit of the country is the duriau, borne on a tree of
forest size and armed against bats, birds and squirrels. Its counter-
part of the Amazon forest is the Brazil-nut, alike borne on a big tree
and heavily armoured. The durian can take care of itself : nor does
it need encouraging in the way that many other less gross fruits do.

The fruits suitable to the Peninsula are so many that I cannot
give time to them severally: I propose instead to give a list of them,
both those for the native and the European customer, and then to
end with remarks on a very few. I shall divide the list by the size
of the plant that bears the fruits.

(i) Trees of some size —

Aegle marmelos, the bel ;

A rtocarpus incisa, the bread-fruit or sukun ;

Artocarpus inteijrifolia, the jack ;

Artocarpus gomeziana, the tampang ;

Artocarpus lalcoocha, the tampang manis ;

. * Artocarpus polyphemia , the chempedak ;

Baccaurea motleyana, the rambai ;

Baccaurea parviflora, the setambon ;

Baccaurea malayana , the tampoi ;

Bertholletia excelsa, the Brazil-nut ;

Ganarium commune, the kenari ;

Diospiyros mabola, the mabolo ;

Eugenia aquea, the jambu ayer ;

Eugenia brdsiliensis, the Brazil cherry ;

Eugenia malaceensis, the jambu bol;

Mangifera foetida, the bachang ;

Mangifera indica , the mango ;

Mangifera odorata, the kuwini ;

Nephelvum lappaceum, the rambutan;

Nephelium malaiense, the mata kuching ;

Nephelium mutabile, the pulasan ;

Bandoricum indiemn , sentol ;

Sandorieum radiatmn, the kecliapi ;

Terminalia catappa, the Bengal almond.

151

(ii) Lesser trees —

Achras sapota, the chiku ;

Anacardium occidentals, the Cashew-nut ;

Anona muricata, the soursop ;

Anona reticulata, the custard-apple ;

Anona squamosa, the sugar-apple r
A verrhoa bilimbi, the blimbing ;

Averrhoa carambola , the carambol ;

Boaea macrophylla, the kundangan ;

Bouea microphylla , the ruminiya ;

Carisea carandas, the carounda ;

Citrus aurantium , the orange ;

Citrus acida , the lime ;

Citrus decumana , the pomelo ;

Citrus medica , the citron ;

Citrus limonum, the lemon ;

Eugenia uniflora, the pitangi ;

Ficus carica , the fig ;

Garcinia mangostana, the mangos teen ;

Lansium domesticmn , the duku ;

Psidium gujava, the guava ;

Psidium acre , the little guava ;

Persea gratissima, the avocado pear ;

Spondias dulcis, the Otaheiti apple ;

Spondias mangifera, the hog plum ;

Vitis vinifera, the grape ;

Zalacca edulis , the buah salak ;

Ziziphus jujuba, the jujube.

(in) Large sub-herbaceous plants —

Carica papaya , the papaya ;

Cyplio mandra betacea, the tree tomato ;

Musa spp., the plantain.

(iv) Climbers —

Passiflora edulis, the passion fruit ;

Passiflora laurifolia, the buah susu ;

Passiflora quadrangularis, the grenadilla.

(v) Herbs—

Ananassa sativa, the pineapple ;

Hibiscus sabdarifa, the rozelle.

The list includes dessert and stewing fruits. It includes two
plants suitable only for the hills, Cypliomandra betacea , the tree
tomato, and Passiflora edulis , the passion fruit.

It includes a few plants which cannot be jmoduced commercially,
notably tlie grape and the fig, but which can be grown as toys with
care. It includes several trees which are suited to places such
as Malacca and Kedah, but not to Singapore, and probably not
to Selangor. Out of the complete list some which are little

152

grown, but particularly recommendable, are the carounda, the
carambol, the ruminiya and the rozelle — all for stewing, and the
Brazil nut, Brazil cherry and Avocado pear for eating. Of many
of the trees, there are far better races than those commonly
grown, the rambutan is a case in point, and so is the duku.
Selection work on these is in hand at Singapore. The mabolo is
worth planting : but it is to be remembered that many trees are
male only.

For our horticultural establishments, lines of work of much
promise appear in the improvement of the fruits of the genus Citrus
and the genus Anona. It is desirable to experiment with stocks and
grafting : it is desirable to establish in the Peninsula recognized
races from grafted stock, a line of work hardly touched as yet. The
men able to help in this are pre-eminently the planters*

Concluding Remarks. '

My paper has been, of necessity, somewhat discursive ; and
therefore, in concluding it, I shall draw a few thoughts together
in order to give them prominence.

This country is a new one : and the newness brings disadvantages
as well as advantages. Compared with India it is, as I once heard
an eminent American scientist say, as fresh air to an overpopulated
house which wants airing. Though a house be overpopulated, it is
at any rate with the necessities of population in it. The variety of
produce in India comes from the long time that it has been lived in, and
the consequent artificial surroundings, the most obvious of which is
that field has been joined to field, and the woodland cleared. It is
generally accepted that this means a change of climate, which
makes the ripening of crops somewhat easier : from which comes
the deduction that without our forests, without our light airs and
frequent precipitations, many of the crops of India and many fruits
would perfect themselves better than now. But that gain would,
I think, involve a loss of considerable magnitude. Consider the
whole world ; and you find in it less land surface with the moist
calm air which rules here, than with the alternation of dry and wet
seasons. Should we then wish to enter the hurly-burly of the
heavier competition ? — not if there are enough paying crops suited
to the rarer condition. Our best, rubber, is one such ; tapioca
is another, and more could be quoted. I believe at present, that
the interest of the whole Peninsula lies in guarding the climate
jealously : and for that purpose our mountain forests are essential.
We do not want extensive planting over them as in Ceylon, nor the
clearing of them by grazing as on so many of the Indian mountains,
nor the wanton wandering cultivation that has made the grass lands
of tropical Africa. But for our own food supply it would be quite
well tio anticipate a certain amount of production upon them ;
and it is not waste to experiment with European vegetable
production in bill-gardens.

153

As to production on the plains, rice demands first attention, not
only as the most important, but because successful rice growing
draws other crops after it as members of potations. For its increase,
the north of the Peninsula appears to be the region of results.
And towards such an end State aid as regards irrigation and pest
suppression appears justified.

For fruit culture, Malacca has always appeared to me one place
where good might come of efforts expended. The country side
there is nearly full ; an approach to Indian conditions is being
realized : there is already an export trade : roads, if not for joy
rides, are abundant and transport backwards and forwards is easy
from all parts.

The vegetable proposition hangs too much on the need of good
soil, manure and near markets, to admit of particular localization.
It is for all parts of the Peninsula.

To reduce our bill for condiments appears a little more
difficult : and to reduee that for sugar impossible.

=s/ & f

I

154

FOOD-STUFFS IN MALAYA.

By F. G* Spring, n.d.a., f.l.s.

(Agriculturist, F.M.8 . )

^PHIS paper is written with one object and that is to endeavour to
stimulate interest generally in connection with the growing of
food -stuffs in Malaya. There are very large areas in cultivation,
here, but the part devoted to food supply is, in comparison, almost
conspicuous by its absence. The European planter does not appear
to have sei'iously considered the growing of such crops and it is
evident, that the Eastern races have, to some extent, ceased to
practise what was, but a few years ago, their livelihood. It is
surprising how few residents take an interest, in the subject, even
as far as a vegetable garden is concerned and food production on
estates, to a minor or any extent, for one’s own labour force is,
1 believe, unknown. The cooly is not the one to further the
growing of such crops. He may have his small plot of land but
further than that he cannot be expected to go. The smallholder,
particularly the padi planter, is the main support of what food
materials are produced in this country and it is desirable that he
should receive every encouragement. The larger planter has often
opportunities of growing quite a variety of crops which would be of
general benefit. Young rubber and coconut clearings, in the early
stages of development are suited, in some cases, for the growing of
food-yielding crops of short duration. I am fairly confident that a
new clearing can support one or perhaps more annual crops, which
take a matter of a few months to mature, without, to any appreciable
extent, injurious results to the permanent crop. The culture and
tilth required for the reception of a temporary crop, in many cases
the primary tillage of the land, would I believe, compensate for the
chemical constituents removed from the soil. In addition to this,
the refuse material will, on application to the land, improve the
mechanical condition of the soil which is of great importance,
particularly in the tropics. I do not wish it to be understood that I
favour the continued removal of one or a rotation of intercrops but I
do think that short lived catch-crops might with advantage be
grown, for a time, on first class land which is free, or comparatively
so, from timber.

Many uncultivated pieces of land in, or adjoining estate areas
might be profitably utilized for the growing of food-yielding plants
of a more permanent nature.

The labour required for the proper culture of such crops is
perhaps the most serious obstacle, for estates do not generally have a
superfluous stock of coolies. Annual crops of this nature require
more cultivation than is usual with rubber and coconut plantations.
A good deal of supervision, particularly during the planting and
harvesting seasons, is necessary.

\

a

155

The writer is well aware that this branch of agriculture is not
attractive to planters as a class, but this is, in all probability, due to
the all absorbing interest of rubber cultivation rather than to the
knowledge gained from practical experience, as to the possibilities of
such crops.

I now propose to deal briefly with a number of food-producing
plants which can be recommended if immediate production of food-
stuffs is required.

Maize-.

This cereal is of great value as an article of human food. The
ripe grain is used for the production of flour and meal. The green
cobs form an excellent vegetable. In rubber or coconut clearings,
not exceeding two years old, I see no special objection to the
cultivation of this cereal. Hickory King and a red grained Malay
variety have given fairly good results here, but I do not think it can
be expected that our yields will equal that of India or Ceylon.
Maize requires moderately rich soils and may be grown two or three
successive seasons on the same plot. In this country it probably
does best in land recently brought under cultivation which has a
good proportion of humus in the soil and is friable in nature. Poor-
soils, stiff clays and sour lands are undesirable. A thorough
preparation of the land is considered essential for the production
of large maize crops but with virgin land, as it would be

mostly grown on here, this is not. so necessary, at least for
the first few crops. The land may be changkolled or forked
to a depth of a few inches and the seed sown broadcast, after

rain, on a well prepared surface, at the rate of 10 to 15 lbs.

per acre, as a sole crop, and lightly turned under ; a fine

surface tilth is of primary importance. The seed may also be
dibbled in at distances of 6 inches in rows which are 3 feet apart
and thinned out, when the plants are well established, to 12 inches
in the row. Surface weeding is continued and care taken not to
disturb or break off any of the roots. Weeding might be done, during
the time the crop is on the land, slightly deeper than is usual,
in order to retard soil evaporation. The crop takes three to six
months to mature depending on the variety and the conditions under
which it is grown. If the cobs are required as a vegetable they are
pulled while green, otherwise the cobs are left until the leaves
surrounding them become shrivelled. Proper drying and storage of
the freshly harvested crop are of very great importance as the seeds
are most liable to weevil attacks.

In several respects maize lends itself as a catch-crop. In the
first place it is an annual, which occupies the land for a few months
only, and this is an important attribute as an intercrop with young
rubber. It is possible to continue the ordinary estate weeding and
permits of periodic deep cultivation if required. The remaining
stubble when changkolled into the land would improve considerably

156

the mechanical condition of both light and heavy soils and this
combined with the improved tilth should compensate for the material
removed in one or two harvests. This would apply to other cereal
crops but not to the same extent with root crops. The growing of
this cereal, or others mentioned below, might be seriously considered
by those who have the necessary requirements for their proper
culture. I might add that the Department of Agriculture will
be pleased to assist as regards procuring of seed and advice as
to planting.

Rice.

I do not propose to deal with this cereal as its importance
in Malaya is well known but I would like to mention that hill
padi and other native food crops, such as millet, Job’s tears, etc.,
open up more possibilities than has hitherto been supposed.

Job’s Teaks.

Thrives well in this country and is cultivated to some extent by
the Malays. The grain of the cultivated variety is said to be sweet
and wholesome and amenable to ordinary methods of milling.
Certain forms of the grain are roasted, then husked and eaten whole
and used to some extent as a substitute for rice.

Millet.

A fairly good crop from a small area of the common millet was
harvested at the Kuala Lumpur Government Plantation. The seed is
sown broadcast on prepared^ land and lightly covered. The crop
takes about four months to mature. The grain is considered
digestible and nutritious and is eaten whole, being cooked like rice.

Ground-nuts.

The Spanish pea-nut, small Japanese, Senegal, Mozambique
and Tambo ground-nuts have been experimented with at the Kuala
Lumpur Government Plantation at different times with varying
degrees of success. The time of sowing and harvesting are most
important factors as regards yields. Planting must be done during
a wet period hut at such a time that the plants reach maturity in
the dry season. I may safely say that a good yield will not be
obtained should the crop be lifted during the wet season, the seed at
such a time is not fully ripened and most subject to rot. Harvesting
in dry weather is essential. Previous to sowing, the land requires to
be lightly forked or ehangkolled, but not too deep, as the nuts would
then be liable to be formed at a greater depth and thus increase the
cost of lifting. The nuts are shelled and the seed sown at distances
of 18 inches apart each way. Personally I favour planting on ridges
as I think a more reliable and constant crop is obtained than on the
flat, the nuts are not so liable to rot and the cost of lifting is less.
Little after-cultivation is necessary beyond surface weeding but this
must be carefully done, so as not to interfere with the nuts which

✓

157

are developed at a small depth under the soil. Three to five
months, according to variety and nature of soil, are required to
produce a crop. A light friable soil is best suited. The nuts are
collected when the leaves begin to wither.' If the seed is to be kept
for any length of time it must be well dried in the sun 'before
being stored. The Bambara ground-nut, the fruit of which is
somewhat similar to the ordinary ground-nut yAraclds hypogsea), did
very well and is perhaps more suited to this country as it is not
affected to the same extent by seasons. Ground-nuts may con-
veniently he grown as an intercrop.

I will now refer to a number of root crops, the cultivation of
which is sadly neglected here. It is surprising that residents who
have in most cases every facility for growing them do not as a rule
produce such foods for their own tables, particularly those any
distance from a market.

Yams.

Some 20 varieties of yams were introduced from India,
Ceylon and Barbados and experimented with by the Department.
I have no hesitation in stating that they can be successfully grow T n
m Malaya; the weight of individual tubers compares favourably
with those of other countries and no special difficulty is experienced
in their culture. Suitable soils are sandy loams but deep cultivation
and good drainage are more important than quality of soil. The land
should be forked or changkolled to a good depth in orc^er to enable
the tubers to develop properly. The soil is then put up into ridges
3 to 4 feet apart and the seed tubers planted on the ridges at
distances of from 1| to 2-| feet depending on the variety. The
object of raising the ground is to ensure better drainage, to do
away to some extent with deep trenching and to make the conditions
for lifting the crop more easy. In this country planting could
be done at any time but the wet season might be taken advantage of.
Hear each plant is placed a stick for the creepers to grow upon.
The stick should be from 12 to 16 feet high. A common
practice is to plant up trees for support. It is not uncommon to
allow the plants to trail on the ground huh this method is supposed to
decrease the yield slightly. The crop takes from nine to eleven months
to mature. At the end of this time the leaves become brown
and drop, and the stem dies down ; this indicates that the tubers are
ready for lifting. The tubers should be lifted as inquired, as they do
not keep long when exposed to the atmosphere, but when left in the
ground they keep for quite a long period. The yields depend on the
variety grown, suitability of soil, cultivation, etc., but generally
speaking it varies from 4 to 10 tons per acre, approximately the same
as the yield of potatoes. In Malaya, yams are seldom if ever seen,
but in the West Indies, particularly, they form a standard diet both
for Europeans and natives, the latter living largely on this food.
Being more nutritious than the potato they form one of the most

158

important foods of the tropics. In several countries they take the
place of the potato and are considered by many people superior to it.
They have been frequently recommended for extended cultivation
in India in times of famine as they are not affected by long periods
of dry weather. In such countries as Malaya, where a large proportion
of the population is almost entirely dependent on the rice crop for
their food, yams might, when the price of rice is high, partly serve as
a substitute.

Sweet Potatoes.

These are often looked upon as yams but this is not the true use
of the word. The type of soil and the depth of cultivation required
are similar to those for the yam. They may be grown on flat ridges
3 feet apart. The stem cuttings are planted on top of the ridges
at distances of 1| feet, but when grown on the flat the cuttings are
placed 2 feet apart each way. The tubers may also be used for
propagation purposes but the former is the general method. The
crop is best lifted during dry weather.

Jerusalem Artichoke.

This root crop, which is easily grown, does exceedingly well
in Malaya and gives very good yields, probably as large as in any
country. The soil is deeply cultivated previous to planting and
maintained clean during the period the crop occupies the land.
The best time for planting is just as the young shoots are appearing
on the tubers and is done at distances of 2 feet. The crop takes
from three to four months to reach maturity. The tubers are ready
for the table when the leaves begin to wither and dry. The plants
thrive well in most situations but preference should be given to
reasonably rich soils.

Vigna Catjang.

This bean has for a number of years been successfully grown at
the Kuala Lumpur Government Plantation. There are several forms
of the plant, the one commonly grown in this country by Chinese
market gardeners has long pods and is often sold as a substitute for
French beans. The crop is ready for collecting in about two and a. half
months, It does well on light alluvial soils or loamy lands. When
cultivated on a small scale it is generally grown in prepared nursery
beds, the seed planted in rows 18 inches apart, the young plants
being trained to grow upon sticks, two or three plants to each stick.
In India the seed is sown broadcast on prepared land.

Tapioca.

Tapioca has been grown fairly extensively in Negri Sembilan
and Pahang in the past few years, the export from the former State
during the years 1914 and 1915, being 21,585 pikuls and 17,235
piktds, respectively. If grown for any length of time on the same
area, manuring will ultimately have to be resorted to as a means
of securing good yields and for this reason it is best grown as a sole

159

crop. In Pahang it is cultivated fairly extensively as a catch-crop
amongst young rubber but I am extremely doubtful if this is to be
recommended. Tapioca is propagated from stem cuttings, 6 inches
long, the cuttings being half buried in the soil in a sloping direction
at 4 feet distances. The crop takes about one year to reach maturity.

Sugar-Cane,

I merely wish to refer to this as a food substance which was
extensively grown in Province Wellesley at one time and to a smaller
extent in other parts of the country. The growing of sugar-cane as
a plantation crop here is now non-existent but it is cultivated to
a minor extent, especially by market gardeners. '

Sago Palm.

This palm is a native of Malaya and yields the sago of commerce.
It is found chiefly in swampy flat situations and is particularly
common in some parts of Perak and Negri Sembilan. There are
fairly Extensive areas where this palm wonld flourish and which
perhaps, with the exception of padi, are unsuited for other tropical
products.

Fruits.

Before closing this address I would like to refer briefly to the
question of fruit culture. This important branch of agriculture is
largely ignored by the European planter. There are a considerable
number of fruits which flourish here, but few private gardens
have anything like a representative collection. Suitable lands in the
neighbourhood of the larger towns might be profitably utilized for
the growing of fruit, trees for I feel sure that a ready market would
be secured.

The following fruits can be successfully grown in Malaya- —
custard-apple, bullock’s heart, soursop, cherimoyer, mangosteen,
roselle, durian, blimbing, carambola, pumelo, lime, citron orange,
langsair, duku, rambutan, pulassan, avocado pear, cliiku, Pamflom
lawnfolia and papaya. The following fruits show some promise —
Java almond, Cashew-nut, pomegranate and wood-apple.

Vegetables.

The following vegetables are worthy of extended cultivation —
lettuce, endive, kolil-rabi, snake, bollh and wax gourds, cucumber,
tomatoes, spinach, carrot (short horn varieties) Coleus tuberosus,
brinjal, yam-beans and arrowroot.

Discussion .

The Chairman (Mr. L. Lewton-Brain) offered a few remarks at
the close of the paper : After regretting the small attendance of
planters at a discussion of such importance, he pointed out that the
subject could be divided into two parts : first the growing of
vegetables by individuals for themselves and second the general '
food supply of the country. Far too few planters grew their own

160

vegetables or planted up fruit trees. It was perfectly easy to do so,
but it certainly required personal attention. The question of the
general food supply of the country is of great importance not only
to the Government but also to the planting community as large
employers of labour, which is dependent for its food on imported
supplies. Taking the staple food of the country, rice, approximately
three times as much is imported into the Federated Malay States
annually as is produced ; the figures are roughly 60 million gantangs
imported, against 20 millions produced. The Government is doing
a great deal to increase the food production by smallholders,
particularly by the bringing under irrigation schemes areas suitable
for the cultivation of padi. Experimental work now being carried
out by the Agricultural Department promises to lead to considerable
increases in yield from the areas at present under cultivation. These
efforts, however, could not. be expected to produce immediate results
and at the present time the difficulty was to maintain the area under
padi at its present level ; the cultivation of rubber has made the
smallholder so prosperous, that he is not anxious to undertake the
more laborious and less profitable work of growing padi. Could
not more be done on and by estates to increase the production
of food-stuffs F In all other countries, he had worked in, where
there was a resident labour force, on estates, the labourers
grew most of their own food-stuffs. In the West Indies, for
example, the negro labourer grows his own sweet potatoes and
yams, so that some fisli and a little pork occasionally is all
he needs to buy. In this country there is practically nothing of the
sort done at all and the estate labourer is entirely dependent on
imported food. As Mr. Spring has pointed out, there are many
kinds of food that can be grown here and probably in course of time
will be grown. It is, however, not a healthy state of affairs that an
agricultural community should be content to go on depending on
imported food to such an extent. He was hoping to-day to raise
a'discnssion that would show whether something could not be done
to improve matters on estates as regards food production, what the
difficulties were and how they could be dealt with. It was
regrettable that the small attendance would rob the discussion of
much of its value.

Mr. B. J. Eaton, Agricultural Chemist, said that the subject
was as interesting as it was important to them all. But in view of
the small attendance that morning he thought the question should
be raised whether some means could not be adopted by which a
greater interest could be aroused in the matter. He did not think
that, in view of the extent of the many estates they had, there would
be any very great difficulty in setting aside a small portion of land
on each estate for growing at least a proportion of food required for
the labour force on the estate. It was the planter who should take
an interest in the matter, and it was through liinl that they could
hope to interest others. He was aware that managers of estates

161

were unable to take action without the sanction of their directors.
Especially at this time the problem was a very important one, and
the time was very opportune to discuss it in the District Planters’
Associations. (Hear, hear.)

Mr. Berenger, of the Taiping Gardens, in supporting what
Mr. Eaton .had said, remarked that he had for a long time taken an
interest in the matter, not from the theoretical side alone, for he had
been 10 years on rubber estates and knew the conditions of things.
There was certainly a large number of products that could be grown.
The ordinary cooly, as they knew, had no idea of even looking after
himself, so that they should do these things for him. A small
portion of land might be set apart and the cooly would very soon
know what to do with it. Some assistance might, of course, be given
in the form of fertilizers. Such things like basic slag and other
chemical manures could not, of course, be got easily now, but there
were some b 3 r -products, like coconut poonac and ground-nut meal,
that would be very good.

The speaker described a certain experiment with this meal
on lalang-ridden land which gave surprising results. Cattle manure
in this country was not very rich, as it was usually exposed to the
weather, so that such elements as phosphoric acid, etc., were washed
away. He knew of some planters who said that they had even gone
to the extent of buying cattle for the sake of the manure, but the
results were not very encouraging. There was no reason why
it should not succeed if they did it properly. Some of the bigger
estates ought to go in for something in the nature of practical
farming and they would find that it did not cost very much, nor
would the labour required exert any great strain on their resources.

Mr. Pinching, after saying that there were several estates that
used cattle manure, remarked that in regard to the growing of
food-stuffs on estates he was afraid most planters would say that they
had enough on their hands with rubber. He believed that soine
estates had made efforts of one kind or another but had not met
with success. One estate even tried to grow rice but found that they
suffered a great loss.

Mr. A. G. G-. Ellis, Assistant Agricultural Inspector, spoke of
an estate in Perak where the manager gave his coolies small plots
and offered a prize for the best kept garden. The coolies became
quite interested and excellent results were ^achieved. He had
suggested the same thing to others, and he believed that it was
being taken up.

Mr. Coombs replying to the query as to the possibilities of
planters producing rice on estates stated that without wishing to in
any way disparage efforts in this direction be felt that it would be
of service to indicate the following points : (a) That dry land padi
is essentially a “ first crop ” from newly-felled jungle land or from

162

land which has had time to recover by fallow or rotation of crops.
(b) That it is not tolerant of shade, (c) That it must he planted in
fairly large areas to minimize the depredations of pests, (d) That
planting has to be timed to catch the rains. («) That the yield to be
obtained under. the best of conditions could be estimated at 300
gantangs of padi per acre — i.e ,, approximately, 150 gan tangs of rice,
which on the basis of six gantangs of rice per cooly per month
worked out to the index of one cooly consuming the produce of
half acre of land. He stated that he had an open mind about the
matter but that any success would he thought be largely dependent
on the extent of co-operative effort. Turning to the question of wet
rice he could not express optimism concerning the results to be
obtained from planting “ wet-rice ” in swamps. He stated that the
only way to make swamps produce a satisfactory crop was to make
conditions such that the land might be swamp no more. He showed
how certain areas in this country produced rice in quantity per acre
second only to Spain and indicated the ways by which production
could be still further increased.

Another speaker remarked that fruit cultivation on estates
was difficult, owing to the theft of fruits by coolies when tlie fruits
came to maturity.

The Chairman said that Mr. Spring’s paper was prepared in
order to get the views of planters as to whether it would be possible
to improve conditions, but as so few planters were present, he
did not think it was any use continuing the discussion. He would
therefore call upon Mr. R. W. Munro to read his paper on “ Liberian
Coffee.”

163

THE CULTIVATION OP LIBERIAN COFFEE.

By R. W. Mttnro,

(Managing Director, Morib Plantations , Selangor , F.M.S.).

paper is written principally with a view to encouraging

J other payable industries in this country (few other countries
having equal advantages) submitting that the policy of giving
general support to one product only cannot be based upon any sound
argument.

No statistics are available regarding the area at present under
cultivation, but the latest returns including all varieties give the
figure of 2,268 acres on estates ; this is probably interplanted
with rubber or coconuts.

Since rubber has pi*oved all along so attractive it is not
surprising that comparatively little attention has been paid to coffee,
but, if figures prove anything, the cultivation would seem hardly
to have received the recognition that it might have done.

At the time when a good deal of attention was being given to it,
and a very considerable amount of British capital invested, it was
more or less acknowledged that quite a useful return on the outlay
could be obtained with the price standing in Singapore at $22 to $25
a pikul (the cost of production being then about $12 to $15 per pikul).
It should be stated here that the value of the dollar was about 3s. Qd.
That the prices ruling during the boom from the years 1893 to about
1899 were 50 per cent, higher than the above, and also how it sud-
denly dropped to an unpayable figure have become matters of history,
and there was hardly a planter in the country who was not badly hit.
Prices rallied in the most unexpected manner later on, so that in the
year 1905 coffee was in great demand again in the local market at $30
a pikul.

The original decline in prices was supposed to be due to the
Santos valorisation scheme, and other causes unconnected in most
cases with the question of quality, or of the actual supply and
demand.

Planters got tired of being told that they were suffering
because they insisted on producing a low-grade article, especially
when it became known that whatever value was placed upon it as a
beverage decocted from the raw material it was looked upon as
being an absolute necessity to the commercial world for carrying out
the usual trade methods, mixing it with Arabian, and other grades,
and selling it as the finest “ Mocha.” Looking at the prices that
have been ruling for some years past (it is quoted to-day at $45
per pikul) the so-called low grade article appears to command a
considerable amount of respect.

gi-l-J & &

/

164

It must be realized that at the time mentioned above, when this
product was being exploited here, there was not a great deal of
knowledge at the disposal of the planters as regards its economical
cultivation. Most of the knowledge available was brought from
Ceylon, where. species other than “ Liberian ” had been in vogue, and
to which this country was entirely unsuited, and we realize now,
that a great many o f those who encouraged the planting of Liberian
coffee here, and who honestly believed in it, to the extent of risking,
in some cases, considerable fortunes, hardly possessed sufficient
knowledge either of the industry or the conditions necessaiy to make
a success of the venture ; they were at the same time attracted by
big figures in consular reports from Brazil and elsewhere.

Planters of the present day would, we think, soon doom to
comparative failure some of the propositions of those days when
land was so often chosen for coffee without regard to the
requirements of the tree itself. Land chosen in the Ulu containing,
as we know, not a vast depth of “ humus ” was rarely dealt with
in a manner calculated to conserve all its resources, and became,
from one reason and another (mostly by allowing the top soil
to be washed by heavy rains into the ravines) much impoverished,
and actually in many cases incapable of bearing average crops after
the first few years without the aid of artificial manure.

The best and steadiest crops were recorded from lands of a
peaty natui’e in the low country, where the only coffee worth looking
at still exists and is yielding a handsome profit to its owners.

It lias been the aim and object of a large proportion of planters,
since the rubber industry was started, to find something in the way
of a catch-crop that would prove to be an assistance in reducing the
cost of upkeep. Different varieties of coffee have been interplanted,
and in many instances a very considerable revenue obtained.

One well-known company paid quite a respectable dividend for
a few years waiting for the main product to mature, but generally
speaking the policy of introducing catch-crops with the above idea
cannot claim much support, and the scheme is for many reasons
a dangerous one. It might be assumed that the planter would
eliminate the catch-crop at any expense as soon as he is satisfied that
the main crop is suffering, but, in the face of concrete instances,
unfortunately no such assumption is warranted.

Again, the catch-crop as a rule receives little or no attention
in the way of cultivation, and cases are recorded where coffee as a
catch-crop with rubber has been condemned on account of the soil
being described as unsuitable when it might have yielded quite a
good return under conditions altogether dissimilar.

Under normal conditions a small crop may be looked for in the
third year from planting and the tree may be considered to be in full
bearing after the fifth or sixth year.

165

Dealing with the various works incidental to the actual
cultivation in this country there would appear a necessity for many
changes in methods that in former times were considered orthodox.

Planting Distance.

Planting distance in coffee, as in every other tropical product,
gives rise at the outset to a considerable amount of discussion, the
variety of opinions occasioned chiefly by the dissimilarity in soil
conditions, situation, etc.

At whatever height the tree be topped, or even if it be not
topped at all, the spread of the lower branches indicates the
inadvisability of anything like close planting. Diametrical
measurements of trees with specially vigorous growth have in
some instances been given from trees topped at 5f feet showing as
much as 20 feet across, but although under the most favourable
conditions such a result over a large area is highly improbable, still,
the adoption of a much wider distance than used to be considered
correct is to be recommended.

The undesirability of allowing the lower branches to overlap, or
even to meet, is very soon obvious when heavy blossoms and crops
begin to be visible, and when the cooly, whether he be engaged in
the works of weeding, cultivation, or gathering the crop, makes his
way down the lines not only with difficulty but at the serious
expense of the newly-set crop which is often destroyed in large
quantities.

Should the policy of 5^ feet topping be adopted, the distance for
planting may reasonably be given as 15 ft. x 15 ft. or 12 ft. x20 ft.,
the former giving nearly 200 trees to the acre, and the latter 180.

High coffee (untopped) has never been greatly in vogue in this
country, though in Java and Sumatra the system has many
supporters. It entails a great deal more expense in maintenance
such as pruning, etc., ladders also are required foi* picking the crop,
these are costly in manufacture and upkeep, and it is doubtful if
proportionate results are obtained.

Selection op Seel.

There is just as much to be said in favour of careful selection of
seed, as in other products ; and it is unnecessary to state that the
cherry should be perfectly ripe. In preparing for the nursery, care
must be taken after the process of separation from the pulp is

complete to mix well with dry ashes^ and spread out in a warm

place, not exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Deep planting in
the nursery is a very ordinary cause of failure in germination; the
seed need only be placed to a depth of 1 inch, but the nursery
requires top-dressing with fine soil after heavy rains. A safe

distance at which to place the seed is 5 to 6 inches apart, and

a heavy attap shade is a necessity. Plants taken from the

87

166

nursery with four pairs of leaves, including the fish-leaf, withstand
transplanting better, as a rule, than at a much later stage — i.e.,
provided that the shade over them in the nursery has been previously
lightened to allow of the necessary hardening.

In any event the process of transplanting is a delicate one,
.requiring much close supervision, especially to see that on a hot day
the plants put in are not left for any length of time without shade,
and the greatest care be taken to avoid a bent tap-root by cutting the
exposed portion with a sharp knife before it leaves the transplanter.

Some six to eight months from planting, the young trees under
normal conditions will require suckering, and also attention to the
selection of the one stem on which the tree is eventually to be brought
up. Seed at stake, if carefully bandied, will give excellent results,
and planting by this method is much to be recommended under
certain conditions.

The time from blossoms to crop may be counted roughly as ten
months and two heavy crops a year are as a rule reckoned on, May-
June and December- January, when the estate, unless supplied during
the year with more labour than is actually required, is sometimes hard
put to it to maintain itself in good order, and to harvest the crop at
the same time without loss. Pruning and handling. will, all the year-
round, take up a large amount of labour and superintendence. The
forcing climate makes it necessary to get in a round of pruning every
two months ; it should in reality be done every six weeks.

Shade Trees.

The prevalence of shade trees on nearly all the old coffee estates
in the Peninsula was the outcome of a firm belief brought from other
tropical countries where varieties of coffee other than Liberian were
found to thrive better under certain forms of shade.

Here the climatic conditions, and those generally under which
Liberian coffee is grown, do not appear tp call for the same treatment
and generally speaking the trees appear to do better without it,
especially as we have yet to find a leguminous shade tree (no other
varieties could in any case be recommended) that is not actually
harmful in some degree by its tendency to get out of control.

Time and space in this short treatise will not permit of going
into the various methods of curing and preparing the article for
the market any more than it will of entering into anything like
detail over cultivation, maintenance, soil conditions, and many other
vital questions connected with the industry, but a rough outline of
what is required for the treatment of the crop subsequent to the
picking will act as a guide for the present.

Needless to say, the factory site should be chosen at a spot
where an ample supply of water is available all the year round ;
the thorough washing of the beans after leaving the pulper playing

167

so important a part in the preparation for the market. First of all
the choice of a really efficient pulper is very essential, although,
at first it is not advisable to put down an expensive plant. The
capacity of a single cylinder “ Lidgerwood ” pulper is sufficient
to deal with crops from 100 acres, or more, and space should be
left in the factory for extension, when supplementary machines
can be manipulated by the same driving power. Selection of an
economical running engine capable of working pulper, huller, and
w r ater pump is a matter of no little importance.

The situation of washing and fermenting tanks also is a
question requiring careful deliberation. The practice of bringing
unripe cherry into the store must be condemned at the outset
because a crop in this form cannot be dealt with by any pulper
and the result is a dead loss. The pulped beans are run into a
fermenting tank, scuddled into a heap, covered with wet gunnies,
and kept there for about 60 hours. This is the system mostly
employed in Java at the present time.

If pulping takes place say -at 5 p.m., the heap, to prevent
over fermentation should be turned over the following day about
noon and again covered ; if this be repeated the following morning,
the coffee can be thrown into the washing tank the same evening
and remain soaking until the commencement of the washing process
on the morning after. When a very thorough washing has been
effected the coffee becomes what is known as “wet parchment,” and
is removed in bags or baskets to an open barbecue (or if artificial
heat is used, to the drying house), where it is kept constantly
turned over until the drying process is complete. The “dry
parchment” is then dealt with by a huller which turns out the
finished article, the only process remaining being the grading and
sizing of the beans according to market requirements.

Pests and Diseases.

The cultivation of the product under discussion having as is
well known, and as we have just remarked, gone almost entirely out
of favour for so long a period, it is not possible even to conjecture what
enemies are awaiting us should we once more decide to exploit it.

I think that we should at the outset assume the fact that while
having the opportunity of gathering an amount of useful informa-
tion regarding the industry in general from planters in Java who
know that we should not enter the field as serious competitors, soil
conditions preclude the possibility of its being carried on under
exactly similar conditions as those obtaining in that country.

We possess none of that volcanic soil on this side, and the
possibility presents itself that we might on this account be less
immune from diseases ; this is a question, however, for the scientist,
rather than the planter, but requires all the same, a reasonable
amount of deliberation.

168

In dealing with diseases of coffee we do know that leaf-disease
is so pronounced aud so universal that the plant is practically born
with it. Young plants in the nursery, existing under any but
congenial conditions will often suffer to an extent uncredited, and
failing to respond to the usual Bordeaux-mixture treatment,
wear a most distinctly worried look until isolated, as it were, in its
proper place in the field. It is encouraging however to know that
the plant, when once well established in the best surroundings,
carries on as if no sickness existed, because, unlike so many of its
relations, its constitution is strong enough to throw off the disease
without the aid of artificial remedies.

The functions of its tap-root are such as to be specially intolerant
of wet feet, so that it would be futile to engage in the industry at all
unless perfect drainage 6an be obtained. Unlike rubber, the coffee
tree, although possibly existing, can be of no use without its tap-root .
A tree planted with a twisted tap-root will inevitably succumb
to attacks of various sorts, as there is no provision apparently
in nature to enable it to bold its own by the aid of its lateral
roots only.

With the non-existence of the tap-root it matters little whether
Termea gestroi or Fomes get to work or not because the tree is
practically doomed.

Progress of science, and application of scientific methods have
disclosed a very much wider field in a comparatively short period,
and it is with this knowledge that I would advocate the necessity of
embarking upon (what 1 may be forgiven if I term) a new industry
with very different premises, and on lines of a broader nature than
the old coffee planters were taught to work upon. I would say that
clean-clearing of sub-soil timber will be a question for urgent
discussion, and should receive the consideration that it deserves.

Touching lightly upon pests, no one who saw, and has been
made aware of, the damage done to estates by the caterpillar of the
bee-hawk moth, would enter upon the cultivation with the idea
that, given good prices, all would be well.

Assuredly this pest will make its apperance again, but the
knowledge of remedial measures is more available now than it was,
and for safety and insurance against the spread of this devastating
pest I would strongly recommend that no large areas be planted
without dividing-belts.

Prom the foregoing I trust it will be clear that the writer is in
no way posing as an expert in the cultivation (I would say that with
only superficial knowledge at our disposal we have yet to find one)
but is actuated by the conviction that the prosperity of the country
means prosperity for the individual, and if ever there was a time in
the affairs of the Federated Malay States when everything should be
considered with a view to its permanent prosperity it is now. No

169

one can deny us when we say that the country is an agricultural
country and what possibilities ai’e contained therein we have yet to
discover.

Statistics of prices of Liberian coffee paid per pikul at Singapore
during 1912 to 1916:

1912

January to June

... nil.

»)

July to December

... $36.50

1913

January to June ...

... 39.00 to 42.00

99

July to December

... 39.00

1914

January to June ...

... 39.00 to 39.50

79

July to December

... 24.00 to 39.50

1915

January to June ...

... 28.00 to 40.00

99

July to December

... 28.00 to 37.00

1916

January to June ...

... 32.00 to 45.00

77

July to December

Dismission.

... 40.00 to 45.00

Mr. P. B. Richards asked Mr. R. W. Munro whether he did
not think coffee robusta would do equally well as Liberian ? He
mentioned a plantation he had seen in South Perak where robusta
was planted between the rubber over about 250 acres when the place
was being opened. The manager was so satisfied with the result of
this catch-crop that when opening up 250 acres more he interplanted
this also with robusta. He knew that other small-berried varieties
had been tried, but he was not able to say what success attended
these. He did know, however, that coffee robusta had given very
satisfactory results. Speaking of the diseases mentioned by Mr.
Munro in his paper, he was sure efficient spraying methods would
get them under.

Mr. Munro, in reply to Mr. Richard’s question, said he was not
prepared there to tell them much about coffe6 robusta, but he had
known cases where it had been a success. His remarks on soils
dealt with the question only from the point of the requirements of
Liberian coffee and he was not familiar with the other varieties
referred to. He had heard of a good variety which had been tried
with success in Java where robusta was also tried, but he believed
they were now giving preference to the Liberian variety there
because they believed it to give a sound and confirmed crop. As
regards the pest he had mentioned, he said it might shortly make
an appearance, and he suggested that remedial measures would be
adopted now, as the scientific methods now prevailing would make
it easy to deal with such pests.

Mr. P. B. Richards remarked that another point was that
Mr. Munro mentioned Libei lan coffee as thriving on rich alluvial
soils, whereas, the robusta crop mentioned was grown in the uplands,
on laterite soil, not especially abundant in humus. He wished to
emphasize that at least one grade of coffee would grow well on the
uplands.

170

Mr. Munro thought there was very little doubt that the
Liberian variety would grow in any soil provided it was good alluvial
soil.

+

Mr. Gr. E. Coombs thought that in regard to the present value
of coffee robusta people in Java had found that robusta gave best
results, the only drawback being that it required some form of kiln
drier to ensure the complece removal Of the “ silverskin.”

Mr. Munro said that he had no details at hand in regard to
coffee robusta but the prices of Liberian coffee per pilcul for the past
fire years were as follows : — In 1912 the highest price reached was
$36.50 ; in 1913, $42 ; in 1914 it ranged from $24 to 132 ; in 1915
from $24 to $40; in 1916 from $32 to $45.

Mr. Berenger remarked that they had a far readier market at
Home for robusta than. for Liberian coffee.

Mr. Munro spoke of planting seed at stake which, he said, had
given good results under certain conditions. But he himself was in
favour of young plants being put down. If they did plant seed at
stake they must have the same shade as in the case of plants.

171

MINOR ECONOMIC PRODUCTS IN MALAYA.

By F. G. Spuing, n.d.a., f.l.s.

(Agriculturist, F.M.S . )

^ CONSIDERING the very large profits derived from plantation
^ rubber, in the past few years, it is not surprising that other
crops, with the exception of coconuts, have l’eceived little or no
attention. A planter knows, approximately, what may be expected
from his rubber plantation and is, therefore, chary of growing a crop
about which there is any speculation. As long as rubber remains
about two shillings per pound or over, it is not to be expected that
general interest will be taken in other directions, but should the
price ever reach the neighbourhood of one shilling per pound, then
capitalists would, there is little doubt, be on the outlook for other
industries. It is satisfactory that many enquiries have been received,
for some time past, regarding the cultivation of a number of crops,
for it is greatly to be desired that other agricultural products be
developed in Malaya.

A large amount of work is required to be done before a crop
can, with any certainty of success, be recommended to the planting
world. One must first inquire as to suitability in respect of soil and
climate and then consider its possibilities on a financial basis. With
small areas it is possible to make accurate records of when plants
come into bearing, obtain yields, etc., in respect of each plant but it
is difficult to say from individual yields, or even crops obtained from
a few acres, bow they will behave when planted on a large scale and
to give costs of production, yields and probable profits with any
degree of certainty.

On the Government Plantations we have experimented with
many plants of economic importance, mostly on a small scale, but the
more promising on somewhat larger areas, and I now propose to
deal briefly with a number of the crops.

African Oil Palm. ( JElseis guineensis.)

This palm has long been grown in Malaya as an ornamental
plant, but it is only during the past few years that its financial
aspect has been considered in this part of the world. The palm
would appear, from its distribution in the Peninsula, to thrive on
most soils, but a rich humus, fairly damp but well drained, would
probably give the best results. Rainfall is an important factor but
Malaya is well adapted in that respect. In Africa, according to
some authorities, the palm comes into bearing in its sixth or seventh
year. At the Kuala Lumpur Experimental Plantation several acres
were planted up in December, 1912, and a number of the palms
began to form fruits towards the end of 1916. Further evidence of
early crop production, here, is also available from a number of

T

172

eight-year old plants which came into bearing in their fifth year.
Records of individual yields have been kept for the past three years
and these compare favourably with yields obtained in Africa, the
home of the industry. It is stated that full grown trees in the
Western Province of Southern Nigeria yield from two to twelve
bunches of nuts annually ; an average sized bunch contains at least
200 nuts and the weight of the latter varies from 7 to 21 lbs. The
pulp of palm fruits contain about 60 per cent, of palm oil while the
kernels yield, approximately, 48 per cent, of palm kernel oil.

The oil palm is propagated from seed. The nursery beds
should be raised, made of fairly rich humus soil and near a water
course if possible, to ensure the proper humidity of the soil. The
seed may be planted about 18 inches apart each way at a depth of
from 1 to 1| inches. The beds require to be artificially shaded
and in dry weather regularly watered. When the seedlings are
1 foot high they may he transplanted into their permanent quarters
which may be from 20 to 25 feet apart. Holing similar to
that of rubber planting is greatly beneficial and tillage around
the palm essential, if heavy crops are to be obtained. The .palms
require to be kept entirely free from other plant growth which is
frequently found, particularly on the older uncultivated plants.

In West Africa the oil palm trade is handicapped by transport
difficulties and lack of machinery. The industry is, more or less, in
the hands of natives and as long as it remains so it is unlikely that
there will be any rapid advancement. It has to be considered,
financially, how a well managed property in Malaya with good
transport facilities and modern machinery would compare with the
somewhat primitive methods of West Africa. It might be mentioned
that the world’s demand for this oil is very large.

Fibres.

A sample of fibre, wljich would appear to be Fwrcrma sp., grown
at the Kuala Lumpur Experimental Plantation and prepared by
hand labour, here, was forwarded to the Imperial Institute, London,
to bo examined and was reported on as follows : The length of
staple varied from 2 feet 8 inches to 6 feet, with an average of
4 feet 3 inches. The fibre was examined for tensile strength and
elongation in comparison with a standard sample of sisal hemp and
taking the East African sisal hemp as the standard, the ratios are as

follows :

Present-

sample,

Sisal hemp
from East
Africa.

Breaking stress ... ... 56 ... 100

Extension ... ... ... 225 ... 100

The above figures indicate that the present sample has only 56
per cent, of the strength of the East African sisal hemp but it is 2j
times as extensible as the latter. The fibre was submitted to a firm

173

of merchants who valued it at £25 per ton in London, with sisal
hemp at £26 per ton (December, 1913). It was further remarked
that fibre of this quality would be saleable in large quantities for
cordage manufacture and that a more valuable product could
probably be obtained by extracting the leaves with modern machinery
and brushing the fibre produced.

The following fibre plants, namely, Furcnea sp., Sisal hemp
( Agava rigida , var. sisalana ), and Manila hemp ( Mum textilis ) have
been grown here with a considerable amount of success.

Manila hemp is propagated from suckers which are planted out
at distances of about 8 feet. The first crop is collected when the
plants are two years old. Furcnea and Sisal are propagated by
suckers or bulbils, and may be planted out at distances of 10 feet
each way. The plants come into bearing in their third or fourth year.

These fibres should not be interplanted with anything which
provides heavy shade, but grown as sole crops in preference.

Ipecacuanha ( Psychotria Ipecacuanha.)

This plant requires a great deal of care and attention but can,
unquestionably, be successfully grown in Malaya. Specimens of
dried root grown at the Kuala Lumpur Experimental Plantation were
recently forwarded to London for sale and the under-mentioned note
was received regarding the sample. “ The result of the analysis, we
may say, compares favourably with other results which have been
reported to us. Prices for Ipecacuanha have fluctuated violently
during the war and at one time Joliore reached 17s. per lb. but high
prices attracted unusually large supplies of Brazilian and values have
fallen. The demand for this description was chiefly for Germany
and has entirely ceased. Present value is about 8s. per lb.” Propa-
gation is by root, stem and seed. Root cuttings are made about
y inch in length and planted in a horizontal position in boxes
containing 2/3 sand and rich jungle mould. The permanent distance
of planting is 18 inches. Ipecacuanha must have shade throughout
its period of growth. The plants are ready for lifting when two
to two and a half years old and yield from 2 to 3 ozs. of
marketable root per plant. The roots require to be carefully lifted,
thoroughly washed, sun-dried and all foreign matter removed before
being sold. Ipecacuanha can be grown as a catch-crop under
moderate shade.

Chenopomujm (G\ ambrosioides , var. cmthelmint icwrn . )

This plant produces wormseed oil which is becoming of
considerable importance on account of its use in the treatment of the
disease known as American hook worm, or ankylostomiasis, and
it is probable that there will be a fair demand in the near future.
Seed was i*eceived from Maryland, U.S.A., in the beginning
of 1916 and two crops have been harvested up to date. One lb.

174

of seed, mixed with 10 lbs. of fine sand, to facilitate ease
of spreading, is sown broadcast per acre, on a well prepared
surface. The plant reaches maturity when about three months
old. The weight of unhusked seed worked out at 650 lbs. per acre
per crop. It must be noted,, however, that this yield was obtained
as a sole crop, on good land. About one per cent, of oil is obtained
from the seed. The present price of the oil is 12s. 3d. per lb.
Chenopodium may be gx'own as a catch-crop as it is not affected by
partial shade.

Cinchona.

About twenty acres of quinine, Cinchona succirubra and C.
Ledgeriana were planted in March, 1914, on Gunong Angsi, Negri
Sembilan, at an elevation of 1,500 feet. The plants are very fine
healthy specimens and have shown excellent growth. Judging by
the present condition of the clearing there seems every prospect that
this valuable drug can be successfully grown on the hills in Malaya.

Croton Oil ( Croton Tigliwm.)

The nuts, obtained from this small tree, yield a medicinal oil
which may be administered as a violent purgative. No special care
is required in its cultivation. A small crop was harvested, here,
when the plants were one year old and there seems every prospect
of satisfactory yields being obtained when the plants are more
mature. This crop grows on the very poorest of soils ; it thrives
remarkably well on light laterite and many waste lands could be
profitably used in its cultivation.

There are many spices, drugs, oils, scent-producing plants, etc.,
which are receiving experimental notice but it is not possible to deal
with them in this paper. I would like it to be understood, however,
that a number of crops, other than those mentioned have shown some
pVomi.se and that the Department of Agriculture is only too pleased
to supply information regarding them and assist in any way possible
to further the cultivation of new products.

Discussion.

The Chairman (Mr. L. Lewton-Brain) said he thought he might
mention that recently the Penang Chamber of Commerce Committee
had passed a resolution asking the Government to consider the
question of establishing experimental farms throughout Malaya.
This resolution had been sent by the Colonial Secretary to the Chief
Secretary, who had submitted it to him (Director of Agriculture)
and he proposed to bring it forward at the next meeting of the
Advisory Committee of the Agricultural Department. He had been
instructed to bring the matter up for discussion at that Conference.
The matter fitted in well with what they had just heard, and he
might take the opportunity to mention what the Federated Malay
States Government had been, doing in the matter.

175

They had Experimental Plantations at Kuala Lumpur and Batu
Tiga in Selangor, and on Gunong Angsi, in the Negri Semin lan,
where, apart front rubber, many other crops were being tried,
including those mentioned in the resolution and many more. At
Kuala. Kangsar in Perak the Department, had taken over the
Government Plantation, though they were not doing much with it at
present apart from the rubber plot. Before they could get at work
on other experimental plots they required a good deal more of money
and, also, what was more difficult at present, men for supervision.

Then they had a plantation in Kuala Pilali for Malay agricul-
ture. The Kuala Kangsar Plantation was likely to be of very great
use when they could develop their work on other products. Then,
in Singapore, the Government of the Straits Settlements had the
Botanic Gardens.

All these wei’e very useful, and, indeed, indispensable to show
what would, and what would not, grow ; what diseases were to be
looked out for ; the conditions of growth ; and what yields might be
expected. But, if he might say so, all these were mainly of negative
usefulness to prevent unnecessary waste of money as on the results
of such small scale experiments they would he able definitely to
recommend not to. try this or that. But in the case of those products
where promising results were achieved they required fuller
information before recommending them commercially. They wished
to know, for instance, above all, wliat yields could he secured over a
given area, and what would be the actual cost of production to
secure that yield on a commercial scale. These points could only be
gnessed at from small plots.

As a matter of fact these matters had been on his mind for some
considerable time, and once they very nearly achieved definite results.
In 1914 Colonel Fox, Mr. E. Macfadyen, and he drew up a scheme
for a large scale experimental farm where* products which had done
well in a small way might be fried in blocks of 50 acres or 100 acres.
He felt that such a scheme would give extremely valuable results.
The scheme was submitted to Government and was approved in
principle, and even a reserve was set aside for the purpose to
the extent of about 2,000 acres, he believed. It was, however,
postponed at the time as it was not possible to carry it further and
since then it had not been possible to revive it.

He took it that now that the matter had come up in the form of
the resolution forwarded to Government they were asked to discuss
there whether they wanted more small scale experimental plantations
or one or more of the larger ones.

Mr. R. W. Munbo said : Those who have read (as most of you
doubtless have) the last annual report of the Planters’ Association
of Malaya will have noticed a paragraph submitting that “ a con-
tinuance of the country’s prosperity must at all times be the main

«

176

objective, and the policy of fostering sound enterprises other than
rubber should be an encouragement to those who realise the necessity
for such a policy.”

I believe it to be almost universally acknowledged that, apart
from any special consideration for the increased prosperity of the
country (which consideration, however, we know does exist secretly
in the hearts of ns all) other products, although not perhaps of so
attractive a nature as rubber, would be welcomed only too gladly,
could a satisfactory demonstration be given to the investor as to a
reasonable return on the capital outlay. And T am convinced that
hopes are more or less widely entertained by both planter and
investor regarding the discovery and ultimate commercial success of
some other propositions.

Now, perhaps one of the most interesting and astounding facts
connected with the exploitation of rubber, which, as a payable
industry, has now reached such vast proportions in this and many
other tropical countries, is that in its early life a very large number
of its supporters never pretended to claim any real belief at all in its
possibilities. The whole thing was started as a pure speculation, as
there were naturally no reliable figures to work upon.

The small point that you see I am trying to make is that we
need not of necessity veto a new enterprise merely for want of
figures as to its intrinsic merits. We will all, I think, agree that
every new enterprise must be attended by a very considerable
amount of risk, and I am quite prepared to believe that as time goes
on numbers of people will be found to take risks, as they did nearly
20 years ago, and by doing so enlarge the sphere of planting
possibilities, and continue to demonstrate what the resources of the
country really are. Personally, I say, may I be there to see.

Mr. Pinching wished to know whether, if the products
Mr. Spring had mentioned were taken up, a market could be found
for them. He knew of a planter in Sumatra who had tided ordinary
chillies and found that he got a good price for them. This induced
him to take up bis whole plantation and to put down chillies instead,
but the good price had attracted others and when the produce was
put out he found there was no market for it, (Laughter.) Such
minor products were therefore very doubtful.

Mr. Spring said he quite agreed with Mi*. Pinching about minor
products, but if it was taken up on a small scale the Department
would be able to know how much was planted up, and the knowledge
gained would enable the Department to give such planters a warning
note that they should not plant up any more.

Mr. Eaton believed that the proposal had been already accepted
regarding experimental coconut plantations. He agreed that they
did require larger areas in order to acquire information regarding

1 77

\

the commercial aspect of the question. As the attendance that
morning was so small they would do well in leaving it to the
Planters’ Associations to discuss,

Mr. Berenger said tjiat in regard to large experimental areas,
he hoped they would he placed in charge of different men, as one
man should not be given the charge of widely different products. It
was only by specializing that the best results could be gained.

The Chairman : As there are so few present, I suggest that
the Penang Chamber’s proposal be passed on for discussion by
the various Planters’ Associations.

Mr. Munro said that the matter was of such importance that he,
personally, was prepared to say that they might even go so far
as to say that they might ask the Government to give no more
first class land for rubber at all if that was going to be encouraged.
But it was no use discussing the matter in that way if the whole
thing was not going to be properly threshed out. He quite agreed
that it was a matter for the District Planters’ Associations now
to take up, and he hoped they would discuss it at a very early date.

Mr. Coombs said that the resolution of the Penang Chamber of
Commerce Committee showed a healthy sign of vitality in this
country with regard to the development of agriculture. He felt
that the subject should be properly taken up and discussed by
the various Planters’ Associations and that they should formulate
a constructive programme.

Closing of the Conference.

Mr. R. W. Munro, a Vice-President of the Conference, said:
We have now finished the last item of our programme and I would
like to make a few general remarks, as Mr. Kindersley, although
with us now, is still not well enough to be able to speak. It is
unfortunate that Mr, Kindersley has not been able to attend any of
the meetings we have had.

I think that I would like to say, on behalf of the planting
community, a few words regarding the success of the • Agricultural
Conference. X may remind you that this inauguration of an
Agricultural Conference, which is, we hope, to be an annual oue, was
not the result of a sudden “ brain wave ” at all. It is a scheme that
has been talked about for a very long time. It was certainly about
two years before the war started that Mr. Lewton- Brain approached
a large number of us about starting it. Of course, there were many
things that militated against it and rendered it quite impossible to
set on foot so desirable an idea.

That the Conference has been a very decided success was very
marked, I think, throughout. I think the interest taken in the
papers is difficult to imagine. I believe the small attendance this

1 78

morning may be due to the fact that members were, as I may say,
rather “fed up.” But at the same time we see that by co-operation
with the Government we have got to a certain point, and there is no
doubt that the result of this Conference has been that we shall not
only stand there but advance. (Applause.*)

If the fact of the Government not having given official recogni-
tion to all these meetings be remarked upon, we might at least
remember that it has been quite ready to help us up to a point.
The Government has supported ns and worked with us in a way that
has been of extraordinary value to us as planters. If it was not for
the Agricultural Department we would not have been able to
undertake this at all. But the only hope that I can express — and I
feel that I am also speaking for the planting community — is that 1
hope this is the first of a series of regular annual conferences. We
should much like to see an annual Conference established.

I may also say that there has been a certain amount of criticism
of the methods we have adopted. We have heard it said that it
was not long enough and that we should have given more time to
planters. But we may dismiss that straight away because what we
meant to do was to make the inaugural meeting a success, and
everything else did not matter so long as we got through that. I
think that this is due to the support and the success of the efforts of
the Director of Agriculture. We are very glad of the success of
this Conference.

The Chairman (Mr. Lewton-Brain) in conclusion, said : I must
thank you Mr. Munro very much for what you have said. It lias, I
may assure you, been a very great pleasure to inaugurate and help
on the work of this Conference. On behalf of the Committee I
should like to thank all the planters who have been here and
supported us so strongly. The interest they showed was far more
than 1 ventured to hope for. I am exceedingly gratified that the
Conference has gone on so well. 1 think that we may take it for
granted that it is wanted by the planters, and I hope to ask my
friend, the Chairman of the Planters’ Association, to nominate a
committee without further delay to arrange for the next Conference.

On behalf of myself I wish to thank the Committee and the
Hon. Secretary for the amount of assistance they have given me.
(Applause.)

The Conference was then declared closed.

Federated Malay States Government Press.