ite ood ig Pai oJ; ars eG Aa) ee , iL¥ =") - es a PROCEEDINGS of the Florida Academy of Sciences for 1936 Published by the Academy 1937 PROCEEDINGS of the Florida Academy H of Sciences. for 1936 | - VOL. I Published by the Academy 1937 THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES are issued annually under the direction of the Council of the Academy acting through the Editor, the Business Manager and the Committee on Publications. For this volume these officers are: Editor T. OH. MoSeELe Business Manager R.S. JOHNSON THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS T. H. HusBBE tL (University of Florida) Chairman, ex officio R. I. ALLEN (John B. Stetson University) J. F. Bass, Jr. (Bass Biological Laboratories) H. W. CHANDLER (University of Florida) HERMAN GUNTER (State Board of Conservation) HERMAN Kurz (Florida State College for Women) B. P. ReErnscH (Florida Southern College) THE PROCEEDINGS are sent to all members of the Academy and are available for exchange. The price of this volume, paper bound, is $1.00. Orders and correspondence are handled by the Secretary, J. H. Kusner, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. CONTENTS The Academy During 1936.—J. H. Kusner, Secretary The Achievement Medal RE SRP ENOO RC eS Re eM a ut Mae a eu ts Program of the Inaugural Meeting at Gainesville Program of the First Annual Meeting at DeLand 7971 6)@) ene) a) se |#] mt) ee) eo «wu 1s 8/0 «10/16 © 1a 6 0/6) ©).0) 6 © [e100 6 «eva ‘ele 'e © 6 © \« 2) 2 Ce ROR O GOTO Goce OO eh Oe, Or PAPERS Opportunities for Research in Florida. Address of Dr. HERMAN Kurz, Retiring (DEINE 5 a oo) 256 Let CE Be The Nature of Scientific Papers.—R. F. BELLAMY Smee Otel 5+; ——GRAY SINGLETON. 2.060.520.0005 dees teense dees eeeeres Some Consequences of Pseudo-Mathematics and Quasi-Measurement in Psy- chometrics, Education and the Social Sciences.—CHRISTIAN P. HEINLEIN. . Recent Advances in the Field of Vitamin Chemistry.—L. L. Rusorr Cohering Keels in Amaryllids and Related Plants—H. H. Hume............. Growth-Ring Studies of Trees of Northern Florida.—W. L. MacGowan....... Studies on the Life Zones of Marine Waters Adjacent to Miami, I. The Distribu- pom of the Oplivuroidea—Jay F. W. PEARSON..........5.-5-.000--00005 A Key to the Fresh-Water Fishes of Peninsular Florida.—A. F. Carr, JR eaeGulIsland Cottonmouths.—A. F. Carr, JR.... 2.2.22... see eee eee An Annotated List of the Birds of Alachua County, Florida—R. C. McCiana- anaes) la" aie ley ial aiehe fails) e|jeie) v! 0) *) = (el s)\le) {ele ecort et eee ee eee erseee Ae Melis ie a) sm) ese © s; «\\e)\s = © © 6 6 © ¢ © © 0 @ © © © 6 © © © 6 \6 8 @ © @ 6 © © 0 6 6 « @ 6 © s 2 © @ 60 6 6 0 © The Analysis of Plant Ash in the Light of the Law of Definite Proportions: An Apparently Forgotten Principle in Chemical Analysis—L. W. GADDUM... Cellulose of Spanish Moss.—Louts E. WIsE and A. MEER Asstracts: Application of Helley’s Theorem to Sequences of Jordan Curves, by DONALD FAULKNER; The Methods of Multiple Factor Analysis, by CHARLES I, MostEr; A Quantitative Method for the Determination of Minute Quan- tities of Copper in Biological Materials, by L. L. Rusorr and L. W. Gappum; Results of Some Further Studies of the Spectrographic Determination of Zinc, by L. H. Rocrrs and O. E. Gat; Absorption Spectrophotometry and its Applications, by L. H. Rocrrs; An Application of Infra-Red Spectros- copy to Rubber Chemistry, by DupLey WitttamMs; Raman Spectra of Acetone, by R. C. Witttamson; Some Recent Developments in High- Fidelity Sound Reproduction, by Rospert I. ALLEN; The Interrelation of Motor Abilities, by P. F. Finner; Effect of a Lack of Vitamin A on the Blood Picture of Rats and Adult Humans, by O. D. Axnzport and C. F. AnMANN; The Effect of Certain Environmental Factors on the Develop- ment of Cotton Seed, Germinating Ability, and Resultant Yield of Cotton, iii www iv e 102 128 131 iv PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES by W. A. Carver; Organography of Sixteen Millimeter Ameiurus, by NELLE CAMPBELL; Inheritance of Rest Period in Peanut Seeds, by FrEp H. Hov11; Genetics in the Taxonomy of Arachis hypogaea L., by Frep H. Hutt; Non-effective Gene Frequencies, by FRED H. Hutz; Some Florida Craw- fishes and their Habitat Distribution, by H. H. Hopgs; Two Larval Crane- fly Members of the Neuston Fauna, by J. SPEED RocErs; The Past and Present Status of Some Rare and Threatened Florida Birds, by ALDEN H. HapiLEy; Comments on the Mammals of Florida, by E. V. Komarex; Effects of X-rays on Corn, by A. A. Biess; The Place of Mathematics in Modern Socialized Education, by BarBara Davis; Proverbs in Browning’s The Ring and the Book, by CORNELIA M. SMITH... 2. 72 12 Jae eee List of Officers and Members..............-.--. PE Gon Le tA la Charter and By-Laws. .....)1./4 J 2 ecto eie ces sie rr HERMAN KURZ First PRESIDENT OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE ACADEMY DURING 1936 In JANUARY of 1936, after some informal discussion, the following eleven individuals constituted themselves an organization committee to take steps toward the formation of a Florida Academy of Sciences: A. A. Bless (Physics), C. F. Byers (Biology), L. W. Gaddum (Biochemistry), T. H. Hubbell (Biology), F. H. Hull (Genetics), J. H. Kusner (Mathematics and Astronomy), J. S. Rogers (Biology), H. B. Sherman (Biology), J. R. Watson (Entomology), R. C. William- son (Physics), all at the University of Florida, and H. Kurz (Botany), Florida State College for Women. After studying the form of organization of other Academies, the committee prepared a proposed constitution and set of by-laws, and issued a call for an organization meeting, inviting such other workers in the sciences as were known by the members of the committee to be interested in establishing an Academy. The meeting was held at the University of Florida in Gainesville on February 6, 1936, there being about thirty workers in the sciences from various parts of the state present. A constitution and a set of by-laws were adopted and an application for a charter as a non-profit corporation under the laws of Florida was signed by those present. Officers to function until the first annual meeting were elected as follows: President—Dr. Herman Kurz (Botany), Florida State College for Women. Vice-President—Dr. R. C. Williamson (Physics), University of Florida. Secretary—Dr. J. H. Kusner (Mathematics and Astronomy), Uni- versity of Florida. Treasurer—Dr. J. F. W. Pearson (Zoology), University of Miami. On February 24, 1936, the charter application, containing 92 sig- natures of science workers from all parts of Florida, was filed with the Circuit Court at Gainesville, and the charter was granted. In April, 1936, the Council of the Academy authorized the forma- tion of a Physical Sciences Section, electing Herman Gunter, State Geologist, as chairman, and a Biological Sciences Section, electing Dr. H. H. Hume (Botany), University of Florida, as chairman. Also, Dr. T. H. Hubbell (Biology), University of Florida was elected Editor of the PROCEEDINGS. | 1 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES On May 8 and 9, 1936, the Inaugural Meeting of the Academy was held at the University of Florida, with about 100 members in at- tendance. In two general sessions, 21 papers were presented by mem- bers of the Academy. At the banquet held in connection with the meeting, the Inaugural Address, Academies of Science and the Coopera- tive Spirit in Scientific Research* was delivered by Dr. C. A. Browne, Supervisor of Research, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, as the official representative of both the Department of Agriculture and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. An address of welcome was made by Dr. Jno. J. Tigert, President of the University of Florida, and a response was made by Dr. H. H. Hume for the Academy. In October of 1936, the Academy was granted affiliation with the. American Association for the Advancement of Science. The Annual Meeting was held at Stetson University in DeLand, on November 20 and 21, 1936, with about 125 members present. Papers were presented as follows: in the Biological Sciences Section— 8 papers; in the Physical Sciences Section—S5 papers; in two general sessions—14 papers. At the banquet, Dr. W. S. Allen, President of Stetson University, delivered an address of welcome, and Dr. Herman Kurz presented his retiring presidential address Opportunities for Re- search in Florida.t ' The Nominating Committee, consisting of Dr. Cornelia Smith (Stetson) Chairman; J. F. Bass, Jr. (Bass Biological Laboratories) ; Dr. R. F. Bellamy (Florida State College for Women); Prof. J. H. Clouse (Miami); Dean W. E. DeMelt (Southern); Dr. J. S. Rogers (University of Florida); Prof. R. F. Webb (Tampa); Prof. E. F. Wein- berg (Rollins); reported nominations which resulted in the election of the following officers for 1937: President—Dr. H. H. Hume (Botany), University of Florida. Vice-President—Dr. Jennie Tilt (Home Economics), Florida State College for Women. Secretary—Dr. J. H. Kusner (Mathematics and Astronomy), University of Florida. Treasurer—Dr. J. F. W. Pearson (Zoology), University of Miami. Chairman, Biol. Sci. Section—E. P. St. John, Floral City. Chairman, Phys. Sci. Section—Prof. J. A. Spurr, Rollins College. Subsequently, the Council voted to hold the 1937 Annual Meeting at the University of Miami on November 19 and 20. —J. H. Kusner, Secretary * Subsequently published in Science, July 3, 1936, Vol. 84, No. 2166, pp. 1-7. + See pages 7 to 16 of this volume. THE ACHIEVEMENT MEDAL In SEPTEMBER of 1936, Phipps and Bird, Inc. of Richmond, Virginia generously offered to give the Academy a gold medal every year to be awarded to a member of the Acad- emy for the presentation of a noteworthy paper at the annual meeting. Similar medals have been presented by the same company to other Academies in the Southeast. The Council accepted this kind offer and the medal was subsequently named ‘“The Achieve- ment Medal of the Florida Academy of Sciences.” A committee was appointed to make the award for the 1936 Annual Meeting. It consisted of Prof. J. H. Clouse (Physics) University of Miami; Mr. J. F. Bass, Jr. (Zoology) Bass Biological Laboratories, Englewood; Dr. R. F. Bellamy (Anthropology) Florida State College for Women; Dr. L. W. Gaddum (Biochemistry) University of Florida; Dr. Herman Kurz (Botany) Florida State College for Women. The Achievement Medal for 1936 was awarded to Dr. H. H. Hume (Botany) Uni- versity of Florida, for his paper: ‘‘Cohering Keels in Amaryllids and Related Plants.” TREASURER’S REPORT Receipts from dues, etc. to November 16, 1936................22022005 $356.00 Disbursements for printing, postage, etc. to November 16, 1936.......... 53.00 eemmetiaa November 16, 1936...... 222... enc eee eee cece eee $303 .00 —J. F. W. Pearson, Treasurer PROGRAM OF THE INAUGURAL MEETING AFTERNOON SESSION, FRIDAY, MAY 8, 1936 PRESENTATION OF PAPERS: President Herman Kurz presiding. 1. The Nature of Scientific Papers.—R. F. Bellamy, Florida State College for Women. 2. The Present Status of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. —C. W. Stiles, Rollins College. 3. Inheritance of Rest Period in Peanut Seeds.—F. H. Hull, University of Florida. 4. The Effect of X-rays upon the Growth of Seeds.—A. A. Bless, University of Florida. 5. Comments on Problems in the Mammals of Florida, and: Comments on the Recent Mammals of Florida—E. V. Komarek, Thomasville, Ga. 6. Concerning the Migration of Bats in the Region of Gainesville, Florida——H. B. Sherman, University of Florida. 7. A Quantitative Method for the Determination of Minute Amounts of Copper in Biological Materials.—L. L. Rusoff and L. W. Gaddum, University of Florida. © 3 +: PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 8. The Requirements of an Accredited School of Forestry.—H. S. Newins, University of Florida. 9. The Gulf-Island Cottonmouths.—A. F. Carr, University of Florida. 10. The Interrelation of Motor Abilities—P. F. Finner, Florida State College for Women. 11. Spectroscopic Sidelights on Molecular Structure.—R. C. Williamson, University of | Florida. 12. Some Florida Crawfishes and their Habitat Distribution —H. H. Hobbs, Univer- sity of Florida. 13. A Limnological Reconnaissance of some Lakes, Ponds and Streams of Northern Florida.—J. Speed Rogers, University of Florida. . BANQUET AT THE HOTEL THOMAS Toastmaster: Herman Kurz, President of the Academy. Address of Welcome: Jno. J. Tigert, President, University of Florida. Response and Introduction of Inaugural Speaker: H. H. Hume, Assistant Director, Research, Experiment Station, University of Florida. Guest Speaker, as Official Representative of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science: C. A. Browne, Supervisor of Research, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Inaugural Address: Academies of Science and the Cooperative Spirit in Scientific Research. SATURDAY, MAY 9, 1936 PRESENTATION OF PAPERS: President Herman Kurz presiding. 1. The Habits and Distribution of a Rare Florida Dragonfly.—C. F. Byers, University of Florida. 2. The Food and Feeding Habits of two Florida Frogs.—J. D. Kilby, University of Florida. 3. A Geological Explanation of the Distribution of Tropical Ferns in Florida.—E. P. St. John, Floral City. 4. Results of Some Further Studies of the Spectrographic Determination of Zinc.— L. H. Rogers and O. E. Gall, University of Florida. 5. The Crystal Structure of Calcium Chromate.—J. H. Clouse, University of Miami. 6. Growth Behavior of Plants as Affected by Cultural Practices ——W. A. Leukel, Uni- versity of Florida. 7. The Analysis of Plant Ash in the Light of the Law of Definite Proportions: An Apparently Forgotten Principle in Chemical Analysis.—L. W. Gaddum, Univer- sity of Florida. PROGRAM OF THE FIRST ANNUAL MEETING 5 8. A Peculiar Spider, Cyclocosmia truncata (Hentz), in Florida——H. K. Wallace, University of Florida. TRANSACTION OF BUSINESS—11:30 to 12 noon. PROGRAM OF THE FIRST ANNUAL MEETING FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 1936 GENERAL SESSION PRESENTATION OF PAPERS: President Herman Kurz presiding 1. The Past and Present Status of Some Rare and Threatened Florida Birds—Alden H. Hadley, Gainesville, Florida. 2. Effect of a Lack of Vitamin A on the Blood Picture of Rats and Adult Humans— O. D. Abbott and C. F. Ahmann, University of Florida. 3. Growth-Ring Studies of Trees of Northern Florida—W. L. MacGowan, Lee High School, Jacksonville. 4. The Methods of Multiple Factor Analysis—Charles I. Mosier, “Gaivetty of Florida. 5. Recent Progress in High-Fidelity Sound Reproduction—Robert I. Allen, Stetson University. (Demonstrations by Clifford Ryerson.) 6. Non-Effective Gene Frequencies—Fred H. Hull, University of Florida. 7. Absorption Spectrophotometry and Its Applications—L. H. Rogers, University of Florida. 8. Recent Advances in the Field of Vitamin Chemistry—L. L. Rusoff, University of Florida. 9. Proverbs in Browning’s The Ring and the Book. The Scientific Method Applied to a Problem in English Literature—Cornelia M. Smith, Stetson University. 10. Damage to Citrus by Freeze of December, 1934—Gray Singleton, Federal Land Bank, Columbia, S. C. BANQUET Toastmaster: R. C. Williamson, Vice-President of the Academy. Address of Welcome: W. S. Allen, President, John B. Stetson University. Retiring Address: } Herman Kurz, President of the Academy. SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 21 GENERAL SESSION PRESENTATION OF Papers: Present Herman Kurz presiding 1. The Effect of Certain Environmental Factors on the Development of Cotton Seed, Germinating Ability, and Resultant Yield of Cotton—W. A. Carver, Vanna of Florida. 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 2. Some Consequences of Pseudo-Mathematics and Quasi-Measurement in Psycho- metrics, Education and the Social Sciences—Christian P. Heinlein, Florida State College for Women. 3. Effects of X-rays on Corn—A. A. Bless, University of Florida. 4. Has the Study of Mathematics a Place in Modern Socialized Education?—Barbara Davis, Stetson University. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION PRESENTATION OF PAPERS: H. H. Hume, Section Chairman, presiding 1. Two Larval Crane-fly Members of the Neuston Fauna—J. Speed Rogers, University of Florida. 2. Studies on the Life Zones of Marine Waters Adjacent to Miami: I. The Distribution of the Ophiuroidea—Jay F. W. Pearson, University of Miami. 3. Organography of Sixteen Millimeter Ameiurus—Nelle Campbell, Stetson Univer- sity. 4. Cohering Keels in Amaryllids and Related Plants—H. H. Hume, University of Florida. 5. List of the Recent Land Mammals of Florida—H. B. Sherman, University of Florida. 6. Genetics in the Taxonomy of Arachis Hypogaea, L.—Fred H. Hull, University of - Florida. 7, A Key to the Freshwater Fishes of Peninsular Florida—A. F. Carr, Jr., University of Florida. By Title. 8. An Annotated List of the Birds of Alachua County—R. C. McClanahan, Pensacola High School. By Title. PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION PRESENTATION OF Papers: Herman Gunter, Section Chairman, presiding 1. The Solution of A. C. Problems by Means of Complex Numbers—Jess Armstrong, Landon High School, Jacksonville. 2. Raman Spectra of Acetone—Water Solutions—R. C. Williamson, University of Florida. 3. Cellulose of Spanish Moss—Louis E. Wise, Rollins College, and A. Meer, Rollins College. 4. An Application of Infrared Spectroscopy to Rubber Chemistry—Dudley Williams, University of Florida. 5. Application of Helley’s Theorem to Sequences of Jordan Curves—Donald Faulkner, Stetson University. By Title. BUSINESS SESSION OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH IN FLORIDA Address by HERMAN KURZ, Retiring President By-PrRopuctTs OF RESEARCH ACTIVITY A GOOD MANY of us present are primarily teachers. For our benefit and as an introduction I want to point out at once that an instructor’s development should not stop with the attainment of his higher degree. This development should be a continual process. Most of our in- spiring teachers are creative scholars. Someone has said that they in- spire their students because they bring nuggets fresh from the mines. Doing research, even in a modest way, develops an open-minded- ness, a desire for caution, and a humility that we seldom see on the part of those who have taught from the books, and only from the books, all their lives. Discussions with critical colleagues or appearing before an informed audience will no doubt improve the quality of our creative efforts. Pertinent and searching questions on the part of experts in the same field will tend to produce a more cautious or sounder view of our problems or fields. To one accustomed to appear only before under- graduate students and whose word is there unquestioned, there is nothing so helpful as a doubt or contradiction expressed on the part of an informed fellow scientist. In the modern day when even high schools are demanding M.A. and Ph.D. degrees it becomes almost imperative that college teachers be trained in research methods. The modern tendency even in the grammar school is to teach by the project or the research method. Procurement in itself of a Master’s or a Doctor’s degree hardly suffices to give adequate training for those who intend to train for the higher degree. In present day college training, a mastery of English is being more and more emphasized. Proper marshalling and treatment of facts is one of the very essences of good English. Ironically enough, many college teachers themselves are unable to write a thesis that will stand unshaken by the pen of a critical editor. I believe I can say with- out contradiction that creative writing is conducive to good writing; and, researches in the sciences offer excellent opportunities for pro- ductive writing. One director of research recently said to me that he could spend a month laying out research problems awaiting solution in Florida. In this discourse I shall attempt therefore to indicate merely some of the opportunities and demands for research in the State. 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES To begin with, I believe that it must be perfectly apparent to every- body that problems essentially sociological or involving racial con- siderations should be studied by investigators who through birth and rearing as well as training are familiar with the local or regional tra- ditions and background. We can hardly expect those brought up and trained in other sections of the country to make a cursory trip into Florida, spend a few weeks or months, and then on the basis of this — brief study be able to make any real or great contribution on prob- lems involving race, creed, or traditions. LOcAL FLORAS AND FAUNAS Florida has 3500 species of seed plants alone, to say nothing of salt and fresh water algae, mosses, liverworts, ferns, lichens, and fungi. - The State has an even more prodigious Fauna, there being something like 25,000 to 50,000 species of insects, spiders, reptiles, frogs, and birds. From such a colossal aggregate of species it becomes readily apparent that we need local or regional ‘‘floras” and “faunas” by which naturalists can readily and with certainty identify species of particular interest. It is to be lamented that herbaria and museums of Washington and New York, for instance, possess more complete specimens and records representing Florida present and past life than Florida itself. A few years ago a specialist came to Florida locating and collecting various species of our many native leguminous plants in the hope of finding one rich in crotonin, a principle very powerful as an in- secticide. No doubt not all is known about the other organic com- pounds or therapeutic properties of native plants in the State. We need to know more about plant and animal distribution. Small’s 1933 Manual of the Southeastern United States, to cite two exam- ples, records dogtooth violet, Erythronium Americanum, and skunk cabbage, Arisiaema foetida for Florida. Who has seen them? Florida has a number of what might be called floristic islands. These islands harbor a strange ensemble of local, endemic, and disjunctive species of plants. At the Apalachicola River bluffs, for example, the endemic Torreya hobnobs with the northern leatherwood and at the same time and place with southern palms. There are accounts listing the species and offering speculative explanations. But what we really need are biological, geological, physical, and chemical quantitative data about the environmental factors of this and other floristic islands in the State. Somewhere in the State and certainly among the lower plants unknown species await discovery. And species already familiar will still surprise the explorer by looming up in new localities and situa- tions. Painstaking scrutiny close to the substratum is sure to result in new facts and revelations. OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH IN FLORIDA 9 EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES Geologically speaking, peninsular Florida is not nearly so old as the Piedmont. Indeed the extreme southern Peninsula dates from Pleistocene times, a matter of only 10,000 to 25,000 years ago. Ac- cording to entomologists, therefore, the comparatively young physio- graphic and geological peninsular Florida is characterized by little races of insects, groups which as yet have not reached a species rank or status. Due to present and ancient barriers and isolation, many endemic species are also to be found here. For these reasons then in- sects of southern Florida offer admirable material and facts for evolu- tionary studies. ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH Plant succession is one of the most important ecological concepts; and yet, when one reviews the literature or the texts, he gains the impression that this process operates only in the North and West. Florida is in sad need of detailed successional studies. Very little is known about the aggregate of species that make up our many types of climax forests. In Europe and the North, plant ecologists or plant sociologists are making statistical and quantitative studies of plant communities. Such objective studies will enable ecologists to observe trends or development in plant communities that take place over a period of years. This modern objective method of describing plant associations also presents ecologists of other regions with a much more accurate and comparable picture than the rather outmoded sub- jective descriptions. We know very little about fresh water algae in relation to their environment. We do not even have a treatise of the species to be found in Florida. And this, despite the fact that these lower plants consti- tute the primary food supply of most aquatic plants and animals (fresh water fish and game, if you please). Ecological knowledge applicable in the North falls short in the extreme Southeast. Most data pertaining to life conditions of ponds and lakes have been collected from bodies of water which freeze annually. Florida’s warm growing season is much longer, its cold season shorter and less extreme, and its waters never freeze; the bodies of water are nearly all shallower; light rays are more nearly vertical. The sum total of all these peculiarities causes different light, tempera- ture, carbon dioxide, and oxygen conditions. It will be readily ap- parent that local studies are needed to determine how our aquatic flora and fauna react to such regionally different environmental factors. Our days are never as long nor as short as in northern latitudes. Length of day governs reproduction in many plants; there is, I 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES believe, even evidence that reproduction in some animals is also influenced thereby. Here is an open field for work. In the North many mosses and liverworts go through their reproductive period in the spring and early summer. In the extreme Southeast, reproduction on the part of these same plants begins in autumn and continues through the winter and early spring. For the Bryophytes, summer seems to - be the period of quiescence. These at least are the indications; but we have no scientific or orderly records. The evidence points to the fact that many fresh water algae from a reproductive point of view are also most active during the cool autumn and winter months. However, here too, there is a paucity of systematized data. WILD LIFE BALANCES Ignorance and commercialism are gradually but inevitably ex- terminating our reptile life. If that is wise, I have no objection. However, as yet I question the wisdom. It is doubtful whether we shall in the near future be able to offset or cancel such philosophy, “T kill all snakes on general principles,” or “T kill all snakes because I hate them.” Only research and a subsequent dissemination of thorough knowledge of the life histories and interrelation of reptiles with other wild life can offer hope. Alligators are vanishing at a rapid rate. Who knows whether they should go the way of the bison and the heath hen? It is said that they destroy the eggs of the turtle that feeds on eggs of bass. Right here arises a number of questions: Does the alligator really feed extensively on eggs of turtles? Does the turtle actually destroy too many fish eggs? Does the alligator also feed on them? Does he prey upon fish? Can the alligator really catch a healthy fish? Which species, alligator or turtle is the worst offender? And so on. More research should enable us to make a more intelligent de- cision or campaign regarding the status of the alligator and other reptiles. A mammalogist says that we have only a limited knowledge of the food habits of our most common native mammals. According to him apparently little is known about the diseases of our wild animals and their relationship to domestic stock and man. Neither is there a life history study of any Florida mammal that might be considered complete. When it comes to the more recent fields of science, such as Ecology, we find many blank pages or gaps; to fill them with de- pendable information requires years, not weeks or months. Modern naturalists interested in research pertaining to conserva- tion no longer take a benign “let nature alone” attitude. Specialists trained in Ecology are studying natural balances and taking steps to manipulate factors that swing the balance between wild organisms one way or the other according to particular objectives sought. It must OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH IN FLORIDA 11 be perfectly patent that the more contributions there are pertaining to delicately adjusted interrelations and balances among competitive species the more successful will be wild life management. NATURAL RESOURCES It is essential that the potential natural resources of Florida, geological, botanical, and zoological, be investigated. Not only do we need a knowledge of our total potential resources but we also need to know how far we dare or dare not to go with the modification, utilization, and exploitation of these resources. Here I would also include some of the resources of anthropological or even esthetic interest. If some or a part of these resources must be sacrificed at the altar of progress, then the least we can do is to create accurate pic- tures and records of what has been. Some of our native animals and plants together with their natural setting are at least leaning, if not actually going, toward annihilation; Indian mounds are going like- wise; even natural wonders like sinkholes with their concommitant, peculiar life are choked with fenders, cans, and stoves of yesteryear. We should study, record, and map what still remains in primeval state. Florida ought not to leave its fate in the laps of geologists, zoolo- gists, botanists, naturalists, foresters, or engineers, no matter how great their wisdom concerning the flora, fauna, or geology of other regions or lands, unless the experts in question have been on the ground long enough to be thoroughly familiar with all the aspects of the problem or problems. Major modifications of Florida land or water involving wild fauna and flora should not be permitted without the sanctions and counsel of thoroughly trained scientists fortified with years of local study. Fundamental research of Florida clays is needed in order to deter- mine more fully their merits in the manufacture of high grade ceramic ware. At present we really do not know whether Florida clay is in- ferior, equal, or superior to English kaolins which are still imported because of their alleged superiority. Moreover, basic investigation would greatly aid in finding new non-ceramic outlets for our white clays; for example, cosmetics, fillers, cleaners, and so on. Diatomaceous earth is another raw material offering problems awaiting solution. This earth representing really the hulls of ancient diatoms is of a high quality. It can be used for polishing and dessicat- ing purposes. The latest salt shakers are equipped with diatomaceous tops to keep the salt within dry and “‘pourable.”’ Exploratory work will probably find more efficient means of mining this product and developing new uses and markets for it. Still another example: at present, California and other states are 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES modifying bentonitic clays chemically and producing an earth that competes with Florida’s fuller’s earth as a refining medium of crude oils. Florida should be explored for possible bentonitic deposits with the view of creating a new industry. Also, the adaptability of Florida’s fuller’s earth toward new uses should be considered. SoIL RESEARCH Florida needs basic research on soils. There is much to be learned about factors that make for good soils for citrus, truck, or field crops. Yes, many of us would like to know more about soils in order to pro- duce bigger and better roses, dahlias, azalias. We should also like to know how to avoid the periodic failures that every flower grower encounters in certain years. By the recent delicate and precise spectro- graphic methods trace elements not detectible by ordinary chemical methods can be determined quantitatively when as little as one part in a million is present. Members of the Academy* have detected the presence of at least seventeen elements not included in Hopkins’ famous ‘‘CaFe.”’ Just how these elements and others still to be dis- covered function in plant growth is still unknown. Naturally enough, the whole consideration of elements expands into mineral-nutritional problems of animals and humans. Maybe juvenile spinach mutineers are several laps ahead of us when they question the nutritional value or the presence of iron in spinach. The same species or subspecies of grasses found in Texas and Florida have a different mineral content. In the realm of elements lies a multitude of problems for plant and human physiologists, biochemists, nutritional experts of plants, animals, and man. Very few institutions and no scientist can afford the luxury of spec- trographic instruments and accessories. Still, would not some of us ecologists like to have this beautiful technique applied to vexing prob- lems of plant or animal distribution! PLANT DISEASES Much work needs to be done in the field of plant pathology. A good many organisms that cause disease of cultivated plants spend part of their life on native wild host plants. In the North, the American barberry, for example, is a wild host species that harbors wheat rust over winter. Eradication of this wild host has helped to control wheat rust. In Florida, leaf mosaic of peppers, to cite merely one example, is a disease causing great economic loss. To date, the alternate host * Gaddum, L. W., and Rogers, L. H., A Study of Some Trace Elements in Fertilizer Materials, Bul. 290 Univ. of Fla., Agri. Exp. Station, 1936. OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH IN FLORIDA 13 species, if there is one, of the filterable virus that causes mosaic of pepper has not been discovered. Before many of our plant diseases can be finally understood and controlled, the native alternate host plants must be found and the conditions under which they thrive or fail in nature be fully investigated. HEALTH RESEARCH The medical profession informs me that even from the standpoint of human health, local research is essential. Certain diseases and their symptoms vary considerably according to climate. For example, the joint symptoms of acute rheumatic fever are much milder and fre- quently absent in the South. Damage to the heart valves may there- fore often occur with little or no preceding evidence of this disease. In this connection, it is to be noted that there is relatively little rheu- matic fever in the South. Yet there is considerable in Miami. The following question arises: Why rheumatism in sunny Miami when sunshine is supposed to be a curative agent? Has rheumatism been conveyed down there from New England where it is more common? Is rheumatic fever mildly infectious? Again, the fact that plant species and varieties vary according to geographical regions makes pollen sensitization problems essentially individual and sectional. What might be called a multiple way correlative problem is sug- gested by one physician who points out that a thorough study and survey is needed in order to determine the relations, if any, between endogenous asthma, climatic conditions, native pollen producing plants and even yeasts and fungi. Biochemists and physiologists use the term basal metabolism to designate the rate of energy metabolism or low heat production of the body when at complete rest. It is determined by measuring the amount of carbon dioxide he produces in the same interval of time. The rate of basal metabolism like and along with other physiological tests as X-rays, blood counts, and various other analyses is furnishing valuable information in diagnostic work. The basal metabolic rate for young people of the South is below the accepted normal stand- ards.* Tables of basal metabolism prepared in the other sections and from subjects elsewhere are therefore not wholly applicable to our climate and region. Why does this variation exist? Climate may be responsible. In any event it is plain that local standards taking into account geographic variation should be worked out. - Cason, T. Z., The Progress of Medical Research in the South, American College of Physicians, New Orleans, La., 1928. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CORRELATIVE STUDIES OF HEALTH CONDITIONS In 1933, a physician* and a geologist, utilizing malaria mortality statistics and existing geological knowledge showed that there is a marked correlation between malarial incidence or mortality and Tertiary limestone sinkhole topography of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas. It also appears that there is a correlation between types of sinks or basins and reaction of the water. Basins with accumu- lating vegetative matter are acid and favorite habitats of Anopheles crucians, whereas bodies of water influenced by limestone are alkaline and inhabited by Anopheles quadrimaculaius. However, it is not known whether or not more extensive work would all be confirmatory. A quantitative study of the chemical, physical, and biological proper- ties favorable to malarial mosquitoes would be a contribution. ; Fluorine attacks the enamel of the teeth, especially of children, and causes an unsightly mottling as well as eventual decay. A chem- ist? has found and determined quantitatively this element in certain Florida waters. Moreover, this chemist and a geologist working cooperatively, have found that there is correlation between certain geological strata and fluorine content of well water, furnished by such formations. Research is needed and going forward with the anticipation that water supplies may be tapped with a full knowledge ‘of what to expect in reference to this particular and deleterious ele- ment. At present, no nullifying remedy is known. The overwhelming necessity of studying means of counter-attacking the ravages of fluorine containing waters must be obvious. The indications are that magnesium and calcium content favor renal calculus. If that is so, here is a need of correlating medicine, chemistry, and geology. The latter field is to help in ascertaining what geological formations carry magnesium and calcium in such propor- tions as to favor renal calculus. SCIENTIFIC TEAM WORK In 1899, John M. Coulter published Plants. This was a book con- sisting of 348 pages. It covered the general field, including plant ecology, fairly well. In 1936, thirty-seven years later, there appeared a general botany text by Hill, Overholts and Popp of 672 pages. In this book, scant if any, treatment is accorded such branches as physiology, pathology, and ecology. By the present time, these babes of 1900 have waxed so lusty that we now must consult special texts for information regarding them. Early in Coulter’s era, there was no * Boyd, M. F., and Ponton, G., The Recent Distribution of Malaria in The South- eastern United States, Am. Journ. Trop. Med. 13: 2. 1933. } Black, A. P., Stearns, J. H., McClane, J. H., McClane, T. K., Fluorine in Florida Waters, Fla. Section Am. Waterwork Assoc., 1935. OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH 'IN FLORIDA 15 plant physiology text, nor one on ecology. Cowles’ general Ecology of 479 pages did not appear until 1910; only six pages were devoted to Succession. By 1916 there appeared Clement’s 512-page Succession, a text larger than Cowles’ general works covering the whole subject of ecology. Even the venerable science of Physics has sprouted tremendously new and lush growth since those calm “‘all is finished”’ days of 1895 just before R6ntgen did his signal work with X-rays. In 1908, Milli- kan and Mills published a fairly comprehensive textbook of 389 pages on Electricity, Sound and Light. Today we have Compton and Allison’s 828 page X-rays of 1935, Morecroft’s 1084 page Principles of Radio Communication, and Wood’s 519 page text on Sound. My, what a cathedral that simple orderly house of 1890 has become! Anthropology says that the human brain has not increased its ac- tivity or capacity for mental pursuits in the last 20,000 years. No man may therefore hope to master any of the basic sciences; and in certain cases not even a narrow strip within the specialty. Physical scientists or biologists may and do scratch or poke around the shore or bank but between these two broad and many braided streams of the physical and biological sciences lie forgotten and unexplored islands, where mathematicians, geologists, physiologists, physicians, physicists, botanists, chemists, zoologists, and psychologists and the specialists within these fields must meet to solve basic two, three, or even multiple-way and interlocking problems. In connection with certain pine forest studies foresters have al- most reached an impasse. A study of burned plots has shown that burning concentrates such elements as calcium and potassium in the surface layer. Concentrating these minerals in the surface soils seems to be an advantage. But on the other hand, it is not known how such burning affects important organisms and life processes in the soil. Here is where the soil biologists, familiar with local soils, should step in and help to crowd back farther the unknown. Other scientific teams active in Florida may be mentioned. We have, for instance, teams of physicians, and geologists; or chemists, dentists, and geologists. Their work has already been indicated. An- other hook-up consists of a scientific utility man in this instance func- tioning as a botanist and, aided by a physicist, determining trace elements in plants and soils by spectrographic methods. Then we have a physicist and a geneticist determining the effect of X-rays on germination of corn and its subsequent development. I am sure that just about now mathematicians, if there are any present, must feel like unnecessary orphans. Let them not become de- spondent; some pure mathematicians will be needed soon to help some plant ecologist to comprehend Bickford’s Simple Accurate 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Method of Computing Basal Area of Forest Stands.* The term “basal area”? has reference to the cross-sectional areas of tree trunks. A glimpse at the chart will show the extreme simplicity which only a dull biologist can fail to understand. CONCLUSION Corporations, like Bell Telephone, Dupont, Eastman Kodak, Ford Motor Company, General Electric, General Motors, and the United States Steel Corporation, have on their scientific staffs certain men who are permitted to investigate within reason any problem or any phase of a problem that they wish to. Nothing is said or asked about the immediate application of such scientific data or discoveries. Their superiors feel that any basic information will some day be use- ful in some way. In support of the foregoing, I give the substance of a paragraph from a communication of Dr. Hawkins, Executive Engineer of General Electric Company. He states that although a study of oil films on water contributed to the flotation process in mining, opened up a new branch of chemistry and earned a Nobel prize, this oil film study brought nothing of direct consequence or utility to the Gen- eral Electric Company. ‘‘However,”’ he concludes, ‘“‘we are not wor- ried.”’ So these men investigate fundamentals in a field out of sheer scientific curiosity. To the speaker it appears that institutions of learning in the State might encourage similar attacks on problems of a fundamental nature. A reasonable amount of work devoted to such problems would help to make more effective teachers and at the same time to blaze the trial for and be of assistance to the practical scientist who is expected to show results that can be measured in dollars. Problems of the type I have surveyed, have been made by scholars from other parts of the United States; visiting geologists, anthro- pologists, zoologists, botanists, ornithologists, and naturalists, have come, made discoveries, and incidentally taken away forever many valuable specimens and deposited them in museums far removed - from here. There is nothing unethical in our accepting and using the contributions of outsiders. It is, however, to be regretted that we have not in turn been able to produce a more nearly commensurate amount of native research. Not only is it desirable, but from an ethical point of view, imperative that Florida reciprocate on a large scale in ad- vancing the productive front of scientific investigation. Men con- cerned with fundamental scientific researches and those interested in industry and natural resources expect the institutions of learning of the State to participate, yes, even to lead in creative scholarship. * Bickford, C. A., A Simple Accurate Method of Computing Basal Area of Forest Stands, Journal of Agriculture Research, 1935. THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC’ PAPERS 17 THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS RAYMOND F. BELLAMY Florida State College for Women SCIENTIFIC PAPERS generally fall into two classes. It is relatively safe to predict that the papers which will be presented throughout the coming years at this newly organized Florida Academy of Sciences will conform to this familiar pattern. The first class will consist of short specific papers on particular points or bits of new information. These will be of little or no interest to any one except those who pre- sent them and it often will be difficult to think of any particular value which they might have. The second class will be composed of papers which wiil be longer, more argumentative in nature, and concerned with more or less funda- mental theories. When a scientist writes such a paper for publication or to be read before some group, in all probability he will follow a prescribed formula. He will start with an apology and then proceed to show up some topic in a new light or at least from a new angle. In the course of the discussion, occasion will arise for pointing out how other treatments of the subject have been scholarly and valuable, of course, but, after all, fragmentary and partial, and lacking the clear insight which the paper under discussion shows. In fact, very much scientific material consists in showing how very wrong the other fellow is. To the undergraduate student and to the man on the street this is often confusing. Yes, it is frequently painful. The world at large is looking to science today, hoping almost prayerfully for information and assistance. When the behavior of the scientist, as described above, is noted, it causes bewilderment. It gives the impression that there is nothing fixed or definite in science. The younger students almost universally become uncertain of their own thoughts, frequently even of their own sanity, and experience a stage of misery. The man on the street, and the one who reads his newspapers becomes a skeptic or a scoffer. The matter is made all the worse by the fact that those who are old at the game apparently like this very situation. They spend many hours wrangling over some such minute point as to whether tweedle- dum is more or less in evidence than tweedledee. Give a teacher or a scientist an opportunity to speak or write and he will at once proceed to show how somebody, or perhaps everybody, else is entirely wrong about some hitherto commonly accepted point. However if this seem- ingly cocksure writer or speaker is asked to prophesy the future of his theory he is apt to say with great composure that in a few years it will be dead—entirely dead and buried. The attitude of the average 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES scientist may be summed up as follows:—“On this point everybody else is terribly wrong; here for the first time is complete truth; in a few years it also will be wrong.”’ Since teachers and scholars (perhaps mutually exclusive terms) are just naturally constituted this way, there is apparently nothing which we can do about it. But it may not be an altogether unforgiv- able sin if we depart from the usual routine, for at least this one time, and attempt to show how some of these folks may possibly be right; if, instead of showing how different they are, we attempt to show some points of agreement. When we do this, we find that very often the differences are quite insignificant. There is a large body of material about which there is agreement—not approximate agree- ment, but complete agreement. There is a vast body of material. which has been tested, tortured, discussed, modified, and accepted— and then promptly forgotten. We do not think of these commonly accepted facts any more than we remember that there is a law against cannibalism. We see this everywhere. Not long ago I happened to speak to a physician about the work being done on the ductless glands. He answered me at once, “‘Oh, we really do not know anything at all about them.’’ I could not help thinking of the way thyroxin is used to cure that dreadful form of idiocy called cretinism; of how so many thousands are alive and relatively well today who would have been dead long ago except for insulin; of how adrenalin applied locally will prevent bleeding, or used in other ways become a powerful stimulant and will even bring to life a dead heart; of the way other glandular products are used in childbirth, to control disordered growth, to pre- vent excessive menstruation, and even to do such everyday things as to prevent baldness. All these practices are commonly known by even us laymen. The doctor to whom I was talking proceeded to tell me a dozen or so more abstruse discoveries centering around these glands. But he insisted that we really know nothing about them. What is really known, we forget that we know. Instead of keeping our eyes on our established body of knowledge, we quarrel and theorize over minute points which are usually quite insignificant. Furthermore, even those bitter, deadly, unforgiving quarrels between the “true” scientists on the one hand, and those whom they call the “pseudo” scientists (psychologists, sociologists, etc.) on the other hand are usually over terribly important points which do not exist. A case in point is the quarrel between certain psychologists and equally certain physicists over the relation of the different colors to each other. But the Helmholtz theory which so many physicists THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS 19 stubbornly retain rests on the mixing of pigments. The Hering theory, on the other hand, seeks to explain what happens in the retina of the eye. The two are not at all hopelessly antagonistic. This, then, is the first point to keep in mind, namely that there is a vast field of information upon which there is general agreement. To be sure, some of our commonly accepted theories are later proven to be fallacious. This is true in all experiences of life. But the occasions on which it is a fundamental destruction of the old theories are very rare. Nearly always it is a mere modification or an elaboration of the old theory which has occurred. To illustrate this we may take the case of Darwin. During the last few years it has become a popular indoor sport to show how Darwin was wrong. Scholars, investigators, teach- ers, and beginning students all alike assume a knowing and some- what condescending air and say, “Oh, of course, nobody holds to Darwin’s theory nowadays.” Quite true. Yet the fundamentals of Darwin’s theory are more firmly established, more undisputed, and more highly respected today than ever before. It is only the details which have changed. That which is true of Darwin’s theory is also true of many others. Even such theories as those of Mendel, Weismann, and DeVries are at most only somewhat dented and are not at all pulverized by the powerful blows of Jennings and other contemporary geneticists. In fact, there is much which has come down to us substantially un- changed from the days of antiquity. At Dr. William H. Burnham’s seminar I once heard a student give a review of a very popular new book on educational theory. But Dr. Burnham remarked that with the exception of the expression ‘‘conditioned reflex”’ there was nothing in it which had not been said by Comenius. And Comenius had de- scribed even the conditioned reflex under another name. Turning to Plato and Aristotle, it is nothing short of amazing to see how ac- curately and clearly they stated quite modern theories and principles. Thus it appears that in contrast with the pessimistic views of the beginning student and the man on the street, there is a vast field of scientific information and belief which has remained substantially unchanged not only for years and generations but for centuries. We forget what the old scholars said and say it over—sometimes better and sometimes not so well, but always in somewhat different terms. | Perhaps it is saying about the same thing when we call attention to the fact that much of the quarreling and disagreement between scholars is in fact a quarrel over terms and definitions. Usually this is not realized by those who are furnishing the entertainment since each has so vividly in mind the specific point which he is trying to 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES establish that he can see nothing else. In actuality the seemingly most remote theories are often all but identical. This can be illustrated in any field. In sociology let us glance at the concept of Social Forces. Ward said they were the emotions, Small makes them the six interests, Thomas conceives of them as four wishes, Ross says they are instincts and interests, the educational sociologists conceive of them as the institutions, and numerous other writers have apparently attempted to conceal their true theories by their involved and ambiguous terms. But we can boldly and un- hesitatingly say that an analysis shows that they are all trying to say the same thing. They are all in substantial agreement, even in- cluding Hayes who says that there are no social forces. All that Hayes means is that the emotional reactions are experienced by in- dividuals and not by any abstraction of a group, and every one of our writers knows that. As expressed by Ole Reliable, the Mississippi darkey, when he de- scribed the natives of southern Egypt, “They ain’t a dime’s wo’th o’ difference twixt these niggers and the ones back home.” In psychology the same is true. Even the remarkable lengths to which modern psychologists go can be shown to lack some of the terrifying connotations which they seem to have. Perhaps Sigmund Freud is considered about as extreme as any. The Freudian theory is generally looked upon as something of a cross between a case of delirium tremens and hog chlorea. But Freud is not so bad. As Mark Twain said about Wagner’s music, he is not so bad as he sounds. The modern psychologists have concluded that Freud was completely and absolutely wrong, but have accepted substantially everything which he ever said, only under a bit different set of names. I am told that Knight Dunlap of Johns Hopkins would probably die of apoplexy if he should be told that he agrees with Freud. Yet I make bold to state that fundamentally even he says the same thing. Of course, Freud has suffered greatly from mistranslation, and this is the most confusing factor in the case. Another somewhat spectacular quarrel that is raging at present is concerned with the use of statistics, especially in educational measurements. To listen to some of these quarrels we are reminded of the story about giants sitting on grave stones cracking peanuts with sledge hammers. One enthusiast will insist on the value of statis- tical tests of ability, intelligence, achievement, or whatever we may be trying to measure. A second will speak up and exclaim that such tests are wholly unreliable as far as proving anything about the indi- vidual is concerned. (There are some of us who knew this all the time.) If our loud disputants could just for a moment try to get together instead of trying to demolish each other, they would quickly agree THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS 21 that such tests are valuable as a rough practical means of selec- tion and are probably superior to any other means which we could use. The biologists have their copious quarrels over exact terminology and infinitely minute points of difference also. We have already mentioned their fights over questions of heredity. But the stock raisers, horticulturists, farmers, and fanciers keep right on securing splendid results in the applications of the principles which have been given them, regardless of all these wordy quarrels. As it is with heredity, so it is with almost every biological question. The methods of evolution, of selection, of adaptation, of species differentiation, and numerous other points are all substantially agreed upon by our bio- logical friends. But they would not acknowledge it for worlds. The controversies in chemistry and physics are equally evident, especially within the sanctum of their own group. The wave of what might be called scientific hysteria that has swept over this country since Einstein began making his utterances shows this. The work that is being done on the structure of the molecule and the atom and the corresponding behavior of the electrons adds much scientifically inflammable fuel to the hysterical fire. Ask such a scientist a leading question today and he is sure to begin his answer by saying that all the old fields of scientific belief and all the old axioms and funda- mental postulates are completely destroyed and the entire founda- tions of his science are demolished. Yet all this has not affected the building of bridges and cathedrals nor the construction of engines and rifles in the least. But it has provided a splendid field for endless dis- cussion and disputation. I understand that we are now called upon to give up the old belief in the existence of the luminiferous ether. We had formerly thought of it as a scientific abstraction, filling all space and existing only as a concept to furnish a basis of explanation for various natural phe- nomena. But now we are told that it does not exist at all and that light, etc. travel by some other medium which is likewise just an abstraction and which we must think of as existing only as a concept which fills all space. We are reminded at this point of the researches carried out by our friends the classical scholars. They finally con- cluded that the Odyssey and the Iliad were not written by Homer but by another man of the same name. In every field, the situation is the same. There are endless quarrels about the different ways in which the same thing should be said. It is true, of course, that we can not explain away all the differences be- tween the theories and beliefs of the various writers. There are some differences which are quite real and very great. But such genuine fundamental differences are not found as often as is generally sup- posed. 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Shall we say then that these quarrels, discussions, controversies, arguments, and differences of opinion are destructive and worthless? Shall we conclude that scientific investigation of such minute points is a waste of time? Not at all. In spite of all that we have said, there is no question but that they are exceedingly and immeasurably valu- able. We must remember that the scientist is not interested in talking about the established facts and principles. His interest is in the field which is not yet established. We would get nowhere if we spent our time discussing established facts. We may say that the scientist who does not reach out and attack those questions about which there is still no agreement is like Lot’s wife—destined inevitably to turn to lifeless, inanimate matter. In other words, he soon petrifies. There is no other way beside that of painstaking study and endless experi- ment by which we may attain progress. In no other way can the be- ginning student or the veteran secure stimulation. To be sure it gives the superficial impression of a great boggy, miry, unstable field. But in reality we are looking only on the foremost outposts of the advanc- ing line. The next generation will have passed on to new positions and we shall have established a bit here and there, be they ever so small. This is well put by Lester F. Ward, the pioneer American sociolo- gist. ‘‘The progress of science is no even straight-forward march. It is in the highest degree irregular and fitful. .. . Whatever the field may be, the general method of all earnest scientific research is the same. Every investigator chooses some special line and pushes his researches forward along that line as far as his facilities and his power will permit. .. . He observes and experiments and records the results. .. . If the results are at all novel or startling, others working along similar lines immediately take them up, criticize them and make every effort to disprove them... . Part of them will probably stand the fire and after repeated verification be admitted by all. These represent the permanent advance made in that particular science... . Nothing is established until it has passed through this ordeal of gen- eral criticism and repeated verification from the most adverse points of view.” We may compare this advance of science to the flow of a river. Standing on the bank, we may notice twigs and leaves floating up- stream, eddying round and round, moving transversely, or being washed up on the shore and left. But always and all the time the main current of the stream is flowing steadily in one direction. Little driblets—little insignificant definitions or infinitesimal points of dis- covery or interpretation constitute the scientist’s stock in trade. Over these pitiably little bits do we quarrel and contend and learnedly and profoundly come to conclusions or disagree with those who do. THE FREEZE OF 1934 23 But tiny particles of dust eventually buried the cities of Chaldea and Babylon and minute bits of silt at last built the delta of the Mis- sissippi. Were it not for our attention to these bits of theory and dis- covery and if they were not beaten out in the heat of controversy, stagnation is the only thing which could happen to us. Small fear is there of that! Scientists just will be scientists. We may confidently expect to continue to hear the same old fashioned type of scientific papers. And thereby the world will advance. THE FREEZE OF 1934 GRAY SINGLETON Horticulturist, Federal Land Bank, Columbia, S.C. On DECEMBER 12 and 13, 1934, Florida experienced the most severe damage from cold since the winter of 1894-1895. Comparison of weather bureau records shows that the temperature did not go as low in 1934 as in either the freeze of December 27, 28 and 29, 1894, or the freeze of February 7, 8 and 9, 1895. The following table gives com- parative data. The reporting stations are arranged in the order of their latitude from north to south. Minimum TEMPERATURES (FAHRENHEIT) RECORDED DURING THE FREEZES OF 1886, 1894-95 anp 1934 Jane 122 Dee.29 Keb. 8. Dec: 12, Dec.13, Place Latitude 1886 1894 1895 1934 1934 Jacksonville 30 193 15 14 14 23 33 St. Augustine 29 534 17 16 16 23 28 Federal Point 29 45 — 17 16 26 20 De Land 29 004 17 16 17 23 20 Eustis 28 514 18 16 16 24 — Sanford 28 48 21 18 18 25 = Titusville 28 36 — 18 19 23 26 Orlando 28 32, °° 1920 *« 18 19 22 24 Merritts Isl. 28 224 — 22 22 27 32 Melbourne 28 053 — De, — = == Tampa 27 ae — 19 22 4H | 34 Avon Park 27 365 — 21 23 26 21 Manatee 27 30 — 19 23 28 25 Jupiter 26 564 — 24 eA = == West Palm Beach 26 43 32 25 29 31 = Myers 26 39 — 24 30 29 33 Hypoluxo 26 355 26 32 31 34 Key West 24 383 41-43 at 49 45 48 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES We are indebted to Dr. Herbert J. Webber, of the United States Department of Agriculture, for an excellent account of conditions during and following the two freezes of 1894-1895. The first three columns of the preceding table were prepared by Dr. Webber. The last two were furnished the writer by the Weather Bureau. Dr. Webber’s report was written November 1, 1895, and by making reference to it we get an interesting and comparative picture of conditions as they existed then and after the freeze of 1934. In Dr. Webber’s report w find this statement: ! The injuries to the fruit industries were very great, orange, lemon and many tropical trees being generally killed to the ground in all parts of the State except in the extreme southern portion and on the keys. Certain well protected localities in the central part of the peninsula also escaped without serious damage, but on the whole, latitude was the only modifying influence of any importance. As the blizzards swept southward their severity gradually decreased. Judging from reliable temperature records and from the effects of the cold on vegetation, the isothermal lines in both freezes ran almost directly east and west across the State. Dr. Webber refers to his table showing temperatures at various latitudes as follows: From a comparison of the locations given in the preceding table it will be seen that in any given latitude practically the same temperature prevailed in localities whether in the western part of the State, in the interior, or on the east coast. The Manatee region, protected on the north by the broad Manatee River and Tampa Bay, shows almost the same temperature as Avon Park, in about the same latitude, in the interior, and Melbourne on the east coast. Again, Myers, on the west coast protected on the north by the broad Caloosahatchee River, and West Palm Beach, on the east coast, protected on the west by the waters of the Everglades, show nearly the same tem- perature. This was not the condition which existed during the freeze of 1934, as may be seen by reference to the temperature records, particularly on the morning of December 13, when the temperature was 33 at Jacksonville and 26 at Homestead. Using stations of near the same latitude we find Bradenton, on the west coast, with 25 degrees; Avon Park, in the interior, with 21; and Ft. Pierce, on the east coast, with 33 degrees. We also find Ft. Myers, on the west coast with 33 degrees; Moore Haven, in the interior, with 24, and Hypoluxo, on the east coast with 34. Going farther north and using points not greatly differing in latitude we find St. Petersburg, on the west coast with 40 degrees; Tampa, on Tampa Bay with 34; Plant City, in the interior with 22, and Merritts Island, on the east coast, with 32. On the morning of December 12, 1934, the temperatures corre- sponded more closely with the latitude but we still find the interior points colder, as a rule, than stations on the east or west coast. On THE FREEZE OF 1934 25 this date we find Cedar Keys, on the west coast, with 24 degrees; Gainesville, in the interior, with 16, and Daytona Beach, on the east coast, with 25. Going farther south we find Ft. Myers, on the west coast, with 29 degrees; Moore Haven, in the interior, with 23, and Hypoluxo, on the east coast with 31. From a study of temperature records of the Weather Bureau, and from our observation of damage to vegetation, it is evident that the TA ROSA JOKALOOSA | WALTON |HOLMES / JACKSON 7 18 1s zx GADSBEN LEON Let Se - NASSAU 23 25 2 18 NE “Sy NP fs gh [HAMS f zat RAN BAY SSS DSS ESNS A Z - ) a wx, 25 =a ¢ : . Vy, | wa C Rau \ Xr 4p pees es, => Fic. 2. Temperatures (F.) morning of December 13, 1934. Dotted lines show air flow as indicated by damage to vegetation. The writer made trips over Florida following the minor freezes of 1917 and 1927. In each of these years the damage to vegetation was most severe in the same areas where serious freezing occurred in 1934. For instance, in Hillsborough County the area extending north and south through Valrico and Thonotosassa was seriously damaged while groves in comparable topographical locations at Lutz, in the same county, were not hurt. In fact after each of these freezes the damage to vegetation indicated that a river of cold air flowed down the west-central part of the State and followed practically the same THE FREEZE OF 1934 27 course each time. In general this stream of cold air seemed to follow what is known as the flat woods area, but this was not always the case. At Valrico a row of eucalyptus trees, along the Hopewell-Tampa road on top of a considerable hill, showed a distinct freezing line which extended some twenty feet above the top of the hill. Below this level they showed marked damage while above it they were unhurt. Similar areas are located a few miles northwest of Leesburg and northwest of Orlando. The Peace River Valley from Bartow south, seems to have furnished a channel for the flow of cold air. In these areas the flow of cold air could be definitely followed by the damage to vegeta- tion after each of the three freezes. There were also indications that the major stream of cold air split in Marion County, probably where part of the cold wave crossed the ridge through the Ocklawaha River Valley. One branch of this stream flowed south over Citrus, Hernando and Pasco Counties, while the other followed the west side of the St. Johns River, flowing into Volusia County, across the western side of Seminole County, across parts of Orange County. and into Osceola County. In other words, it appears from a study of the dam- age to vegetation, that the hills and lakes of the ridge section, starting in northern Lake County around Eustis, form a wedge which tends to split the cold wave. This ridge section, from Eustis to Lake Placid, showed only minor damage in low spots following each of the three freezes mentioned, while serious damage occurred on both sides of the ridge. Apparently the damage was caused by a great mass of cold air moving into Florida from the northwest. The greater portion of this mass of cold air seemed to flow to the western side of the ridge with- out crossing. This may account for the absence of damage in the area from Cocoa to Ft. Lauderdale. Should a cold wave move into Florida from the northeast the west coast might get similar protection from the ridge. From a study of Dr. Webber’s report of the two freezes of 1894— 1895 it appears that the cold wave, in both instances, moved into the State from the north rather than from the northwest. This would account for his statement that the isothermal lines were practically east and west throughout the State. A study of temperature records and damage to vegetation follow- ing the freeze of 1934 indicates that the ridge section along the east side of the St. Johns River gave similar protection to the upper east coast as did the central Florida ridge to the area from Cocoa to Ft. Lauderdale. It would also explain why Titusville was colder and suf- fered more damage than either New Smyrna or Cocoa. A map pre- cedes which shows the probable flow of cold as indicated by tem- perature records and damage to vegetation. During 1933 and 1934 the Federal Land Bank of Columbia, for 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES itself and as agent of the Land Bank Commissioner, loaned more than $10,000,000 in Florida, on mortgages secured by citrus groves. In order to determine the damage to groves securing these loans and asa guide to a future lending policy, it was decided to make a careful sur- vey of each of the 2326 groves on which loans had been made. By reference to the attached table it will be noted that these groves are located in thirty-three counties, embracing all of those in which citrus fruits are grown commercially, except the Satsuma district of West Florida. This survey was started on February 15, 1935, and was completed in about six weeks. The work was done by trained Land Bank Appraisers and Citrus Loan Service Agents all of whom were throughly familiar with citrus conditions in Florida. It was under the direction of the writer as Senior Citrus Loan Service Agent that the work was done. Each grove was visited and a careful estimate made of the damage to wood and fruit, by groups having similar characteristics. By groups is meant oranges, grapefruit and tan- gerines, since no attempt was made to determine the relative damage to different varieties of oranges. Neither was there any differentiation between seeded and seedless grapefruit or between the different varie- ties of tangerines. The estimate of wood damage was based on all wood except the trunk of the tree. Fruit was considered damaged -where it showed ten percent or more of dry cells. The presence of specks of crystallized naringin and hesperidin was not considered evidence of damage if the fruit was firm. Soft fruit was considered damaged even though showing no dry cells, because it was found that it could not be shipped without rotting in transit. As near as possible the estimate of damaged fruit was made on the basis of what could not be marketed commercially. With the exception of the area from Cocoa to Ft. Lauderdale, on the east coast, and protected spots on the west coast such as Terra Ceia Island, there was very little fruit in the State that did not show specks of crystallized glucosides on the membranes. These specks may be considered as evidence that the fruit has been frozen. As each grove was inspected a detailed report was made on forms provided for the purpose. These reports were sent to district super- visors who checked enough of them to be sure that the work was properly done and they were then sent to the Bank at Columbia where statisticians tabulated the results by counties. The table (page 32) is a composite picture of what was found. The first point noted was that, in this freeze, latitude had very little influence on the amount of damage done by the cold. At South Jacksonville, south of the St. Johns River, there were small plantings that showed little or no damage and from Palatka to Crescent City, on the east side of the same river, there were found large commercial THE FREEZE OF 1934 29 plantings that were practically unharmed. On the other hand, in Lee County some three hundred miles further south, all groves were seriously hurt where no large body of water was present to afford protection. Putnam County, in the northern part of the State, showed 7.9, 8.1 and 7.7 percent damage to the wood of oranges, grapefruit and tangerines, while Lee County in the south showed damage to wood of 29.9, 23.5 and 26.4 on oranges, grapefruit and tangerines; with fruit damage of 82.1, 75.3 and 85.7 respectively. It should be noted in this connection that most of the groves in Putnam County are on hills and are protected by the St. Johns River and by lakes, while groves in Lee County are on practically level land and many of them are too far from large bodies of water to receive any benefit. In making this survey it soon become apparent that two factors had much more influence than latitude. They were large bodies of water and elevation. Elevation may be divided into two classifica- tions—relative elevation and absolute elevation. By relative elevation is meant elevation with respect to the immediate surrounding terrain and by absolute elevation is meant height above sea level. Absolute elevation seemed to afford little protection, while the importance of relative elevation cannot be too strongly emphasized. Trees planted in a small depression on top of a hill were found to be seriously hurt while trees planted on the sides of the hill, at lower absolute elevation, were unharmed. Cold air seemed to flow like water and settle in low places. There also seems to be a concentrated effect of cold air where it flows from a large elevated area into the lowlands. This was evident in many places, particularly east of Ft. Meade where the cold air flowed off of the Lake Hendry hills, and at Mammoth Grove where the cold air poured down from the hills around Mountain Lake. Groves located near the foot of the hills were hurt much worse than those farther back in the lowlands. Many peculiar effects of the cold were noted. In certain areas the cold air seemed to settle to a definite level. The branches of the trees below this level were all killed while those above it were unharmed, and when the dead branches were pruned out the trees were left in the shape of umbrellas, which would indicate that the damage was done after the wind stopped blowing. Another noticeable feature in many groves was the fact that more damage was sustained on the southeast side of the tree than on the other sides. This was thought by some to be due to the exposure to the direct rays of the sun before thawing. It was clearly demonstrated in many instances that water pro- tection is most effective to the south and east. On the Manatee River, at Bradenton, and on the Caloosahatchee River, at Ft. Myers, the mangroves were killed on the north side of the rivers while they 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES remained green on the south sides. At Lake Weir groves on the west and north sides of the lake were hurt while those on the south and east escaped injury. The same condition existed at most large lakes. However, those groves having good elevation and air drainage were not seriously damaged, even where there was no water protection. In most areas, except the east coast, the fruit was damaged or showed evidence of freezing where there was no water protection, even though the air drainage was good. Following the freeze several growers abandoned properties on which loans had been made by the Federal Land Bank and three methods of bringing these groves back into production were tried. First—pruning back into green wood as soon as the limit of injury could be determined and painting all wounds with antiseptic paint. . Second—pruning back into green wood as soon as the limit of injury could be determined but no paint applied to the wounds. Third— Waiting for several months before doing any pruning. The first method seemed to give the best results. Vigorous growth resulted and there was very little dying back after pruning. In cases where no paint was applied there was considerable dying back, some- times three feet from where the first cut was made. This was accom- panied by gum spots on the bark and may have been due to diplodia _ or other infection at the cut. These trees had to be pruned again. The third method did not give good results. Melanose was very bad on the new growth and much of it was killed, the green limbs dying back slowly until about the first of June. There was some gumming along the branches as they died and the dying back did not stop entirely until the trees were pruned and wounds painted which was done in June and July of 1935. As this is written, November 1, 1936, the trees pruned in June and July, 1935, show much less re- covery and top development than trees in the same grove and the same rows that were pruned in March of that year. These observations do not agree with the report of Dr. Webber, following the freeze of 1894-1895. He found little difference in the trees pruned early in 1895 and those pruned late in the year. Possibly melanose and diplo- dia were not then as prevalent in the citrus groves of Florida as they are now. As this is written, November 1, 1936, there is very little in the appearance of most of the groves to remind one of the freeze. In a few of the coldest spots the gaunt, unpruned skeletons of abandoned groves still stand as mute evidence of the disaster. With these few exceptions the citrus industry of the State is back to normal. In fact, the crop of this season is estimated to be above the average, both as to quality and quantity. This is quite a contrast to the crop set in the THE FREEZE OF 1934 31 spring of 1935, following the freeze. The crop bloomed late, was of poor shape and texture, and was badly infected with melanose from dead wood left by the freeze. The recuperative capacity of the citrus tree is amazing when given proper care. Groves that seemed a total loss shortly after the freeze have, in two years, grown new tops and have this year put on commercial crops of fruit. Florida has been visited by severe cold at more or less regular intervals in the past and probably will be in the future. In Dr. Webber’s report we find the following statement: It is known that severe freezes occurred in the winters of 1747, 1766, 1799, 1828, 1835, 1850, 1857, 1880, 1884 and 1886, and many lesser freezes are also known to have taken place. Those which were remarkably severe, however, and which are spoken of as “the great freezes” occurred on February 7 and 8, 1835, and January 12, 1886. In the former, the only one which in severity and destructiveness compares with those of last winter, the thermometer, it is said, fell to 8 d. at Jacksonville. When freezes come the grower should not feel that his property is gone until he has given the grove a chance to come back. Unless the damage is exceedingly severe the grove will return to commercial production in a remarkably short time. However, this should not en- courage the selection of a grove site in a known cold area. Most of our cold waves come from the same direction and affect the same areas and it should be borne in mind that relative altitude, air drainage and water protection have offered a measure of protection in the past and probably will in the future. Should we have a recur- rence of conditions such as existed during the freezes of 1835 or 1894— 1895 it is not likely that any groves in the State, with the exception of a few in well protected localities, would escape serious damage. SUMMARY Cold air, like water, settles in depressions and flows from areas of high altitude to areas of low altitude through such channels as may be available. Cold waves moving into Florida from the northwest seem to flow along the western side of natural elevations, such as the Citronelle formation of Central Florida, commonly called the Ridge. This seems to give some protection to areas on top of and to the east of such elevations. Areas of low land immediately adjacent to large areas of elevated land, suffer more severely from cold than flat areas distant from any elevation. This effect may be noted where any abrupt change in eleva- tion takes place, either to the east or to the west, or in any other direction, from the elevated area. Cre 9 €06 ce c'6C =P 0°19 ELST Pcp S6F T'I¢e SST 8°Se SL8T 0O°OOT 8 O°OOT T 8°16 LP LSC 8 0'Ssc T cL. - £9 Aas 76 be 662 Vo PsP ¢° £6 (i tee O°. 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SUOLOMASN] SAULID G’TqA AD GALVNNILS'Y SV ‘Pe6] ATANAOAG YANOISSINWOD ANVG GNV] YXO/GNV ANVG GNV] IVAIGTY OL GIOVOLAOPT SHAOU SNALID VAIMOTY NO LINAY GNV GOO OL AOVNV AZaAa 32 PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT 33 In the freeze of 1934 water protection and relative elevation were effective in preventing serious damage as far north as South Jackson- ville and Palatka, while groves on level lowland and without water protection were badly hurt in Lee County, three hundred miles south. Very severe damage is likely to occur where a major stream of cold air is forced to cross through the lower parts of a relatively high area, such as Valrico, where the ridge to the north and east of Tampa and the higher land of the interior form a funnel through which the cold air must pass. Careful estimates of damage to wood and fruit were made on 2326 groves located in 33 counties. Averages of these reports have been compiled by counties and are given in the opposite table. Averages for the State as a whole give the following figures: EMRE EINECS WOOG. 5.25... oars eee sce eee eas ass 26.8 percent MEME PEAPCIEIL, WOOU.. 25 2. i. oss ser. see neces 17.6 percent Meese SG EANSCTINGS, WOO... .2..0. 202 eke esses scenes 21.7 percent PeeemCMMrANeeS: Tries 2. toe Pee a ede. es 48.5 percent Beeeereesreripeiniit. fruits... Lis... es eee ee ek ees 34.5 percent UD PP GD) a 9 ee 61.2 percent Citrus groves recover very rapidly from cold damage if given the proper care. Groves recover more quickly if pruned back into green wood as soon as the extent of damage can be determined and the pruning cuts treated with antiseptic paint. Acknowledgment is made of assistance rendered by Mr. Eckley S. Ellison, Meteorolo- gist in charge of the Florida Frost Warning Service, who furnished temperature records covering the two nights of the freeze. SOME CONSEQUENCES OF PSEUDO-MATHE- MATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT IN PSYCHOMETRICS, EDUCATION AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES CHRISTIAN PAUL HEINLEIN Florida State College for Women THE PRIMARY purpose of this paper is to describe briefly certain trends and widely accepted conclusions that have emerged from numerous pseudo-mathematical practices as they appear in the familiar fields of psychometry, education and social psychology. A few of the pseudo-mathematical practices which have led to many 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES thousand apparently useless quasi-measurements will be mentioned in the course of discussion. Scientific criteria of measurement will be indicated and their limits of applicability to certain behavioral phe- nomena carefully considered. Finally, substitute mathematical pro- cedures that may lead to more accurate description of behavioral situations will be recommended. Before a description of some of the consequences of quasi-measure- ment is undertaken, the writer wishes to state that he fully realizes the unpopularity which a critical evaluation of authoritative and — traditional knowledge inevitably reaps. The present treatise is likely to prove extremely unpopular to a large body of educators who persistently disregard logic and the principles of scientific interpreta- tion. The amount of pseudo-scientific knowledge that has accumu- lated in psychometry, education, and social science during the past twenty years is truly enormous. Many investigators in social science, fascinated by the intricate weave of nice mathematical tapestries, have constructed special numerological devices and elaborate statisti- cal techniques which often give to syllogisms based on false premises the appearance of verified fact. It behooves the scientist, whose con- cern is the discovery of natural law, to evaluate critically in the light of logic and scientific method those spurious devices and specious techniques which block the road to truth and which further swell the volume of pedagogical equivocation. Let us first consider the widely accepted practice of leveling scholas- tic achievement by means of number grades. I assume that each of us is familiar with the five-point system of grading student achieve- ment. Conventionally, levels of achievement, determined by the per- centile scaling of objective test results or by some subjective criterion of evaluation, are represented by letter symbols, such as A, B, C, D, and FE. Since the letter symbols do not readily lend themselves to the process of addition, they are arbitrarily converted into numbers: A=3; B=2; C=1; D=0 and E=0. It will be observed that numeri- cally D=E, in spite of the fact that D is a passing grade while E isa failure. Thus, qualitative differentiation is achieved by this single pair of letter symbols (D and £) but not by the numerical values assigned to the symbols. With respect to the first three letter symbols, quality differentiation is accomplished by a difference in the size of the assigned numerical value. The quality of response represented by the number 3 is higher than that represented by the number 2. In differentiating the quality levels of student achievement, by an act of pedagogical proclamation the nominal numbers assigned to the letter symbols are transmuted into cardinal numbers having additive prop- erties. Here is our first sample of illicit mathematical treatment—a type of treatment which has deeply penetrated several important PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT a5 fields of knowledge. Many of the fallacies that are found in mental testing, educational achievement testing and in social attitude scaling, have their origin in the failure to differentiate between nominal, ordinal, and cardinal numbers. Many zealous educators would benefit greatly by reading the works of Johnson,' Keyser,” and Cohen and Nagel*® on the nature of logic and scientific method. Following the lead of Johnson, we may remark in passing that no meaning can be attached to the result of any operation performed on nominal num- bers that merely serve as naming numbers for certain discernible properties. While it is true that one may find the arithmetic mean of any column of numbers having a definite sign, it is not true that one may ascribe qualitative value to every mean obtained. Qualitatively, two objects denoted by nominal numbers may stand in a relation to each other that in no way corresponds to the relation expressed by the numbers. Nominal number grades, whether they are derived from so-called objective tests or from comprehensive essay examinations, are non- additive and hence are of no value in correlational techniques where the variables represent defined unitary properties experimentally isolated. The fact that 10,000 educators add, average, and scale such nominal numbers does not make the procedure any the more valid or scientific. Writing 6X9=25 one million times does not make the product 25 correct the last time it is written. Nor does repetition of a bad measurement a million times make it a good measurement. Professional opinion and professional proclamation, like public opin- ion and public proclamation, may keep alive a fallacious practice over a long period of years. Some of the most colossal blunders of Aristotle were perpetuated more than fifteen centuries later by pro- fessional proclamation minus critical insight. By professional proclamation (certainly not by scientific demon- stration) the hypostatized abstraction called ‘‘intelligence”’ has been assigned operational significance by relating test ordinals to the averages of non-additive grade numbers. Intelligence test scores, qualitatively heterogeneous in character, are now being used by psychometricians as forecasting-indices of scholastic achievement when scholastic achievement is understood in terms of number grades de- noting qualitative levels of response. Let us look into this matter a little more carefully. A number grade of the size 1.8 in differential calculus cannot be said to equal a number 1H. M. Johnson, Some Neglected Principles in Aptitude Testing, Amer. J. Psychol., Vol. 47, 1935. 2C. J. Keyser, Mathematical Philosophy, New York, 1922. te An R. Cohen and E. Nagel, Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method, New York, 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES grade of the same size in English literature. These two courses of study introduce properties discernibly different. Moreover, the teach- ing methods demanded by each course of study may vary consider- ably while the patterns of student response are obviously different. No one is in a position to demonstrate that the number and kind of mental patterns manifested in the two courses of study are the same, but any one who is unbiased in his judgment and who is not deficient in gross discrimination will readily attest to the differences in the properties of the subject matter involved in these two courses; yet. educators at large repeatedly treat grade points derived from different courses of study involving different teaching methods and different patterns of response as if they were additive and could be equated. A simple example of the practice of equating average grades is in order. Let us consider the semester courses of study which students X and Y pursued in their sophomore year of college. Each course - listed is given by a different teacher. The semester grades earned by each student are listed after the courses as follows: Student X— Physics=1; Chemistry =3; Calculus=2; Astronomy =1; German=2. Student Y—English Literature=3; French=1; History=1; Soci- ology =3; Education=1. The average semester grade of each student is 1.6. Does this mean that the two students are characterized by the same qualitative or quantitative level of educational achievement? Assuredly not, and yet this is the conventional interpretation of number grades expressed in ratio form. Two average grades of the same magnitude, when related to other functions such as hyposta- tized intelligence represented by composite scores, are projected into correlational frames at one definite point in a scale of magnitudes and hence treated as equivalent. But this is not the end of this numerological scandal that persistent- ly taints our educational process. Averages of semester grades are aver- aged, and these averages averaged into larger institutional averages. Dormitories, fraternities, honor societies, and campus clubs of various kinds compete with one another in terms of such spurious aver- ages. Administrators are sufficiently sensitive about grade averages to suggest the elimination of students who do not ‘‘measure up” to a certain point level, but I believe that administrators on the whole are not sufficiently concerned about the reliability of grade points to calculate the probable error of grade averages. It was a custom in one institution to carry out grade averages to 2 decimal places in the selection of candidates for a national honorary. In some instances fraternities are differentiated from each other in scholarship by carry- ing out the group grade average to the fourth decimal place. Those who have worked statistically with grade points will immediately recognize that the probable error of a group grade average is suffi- PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT 37 ciently large to render any expansion to additional decimal places meaningless. One fraternity is tied with a second fraternity by a group grade average of 1.796. The average is carried to the fourth place to break the tie and give one fraternity the advantage of enjoying cer- tain honors and privileges over the other fraternity. The first frater- nity receives a level of 1.7965 while the second receives a level of 1.7963. Can any one ever state what difference in the quality of scholastic achievement is indicated by the 2/10,000 of a point in the fourth decimal place? This is, indeed, numerology with a vengeance; nomi- nal, non-additive numbers refined to the 1/10,000 of a point. It is quite possible, in terms of range and group variability, for one frater- nal group to excel another in scholarship and achievement and yet have a lower grade average. We need a redefinition of scholarship in our institutions of higher learning and a discontinuance of the pseudo- mathematical practice called the grade-point system. Some years ago Thorndike said ‘‘Whatever exists, exists in some amount and can be measured.” This authoritative proclamation has been instrumental in shaping the devolution of psychometry and edu- cation. Every one will agree that Thorndike’s influence upon psy- chology and education has been great, and it is not surprising to find this influence crystallizing into repeated attempts to measure many phenomena which were once thought far too complex to measure. This enthusiasm to measure whatever exists has developed into the emotionally charged delusion that abstract names of undefined ob- jects existing in the human imagination can be measured also. Thorn- dike holds that intelligence can be measured just as a physicist meas- ures distance or mass or time. On the basis of this assumption he has, unlike most of his colleagues who recognize the arbitrary range as- signed to scales, constructed an absolute intelligence scale with a range extending from 0 to 43 to which he has given the name CAVD. Zero intelligence is said to be ‘“‘just less than that which leads one to spit out a substance that has a very bitter taste or to retain in the mouth a substance that tastes sweet.’ Score 43 is supposed to repre- sent approximately ‘‘the intelligence of a college professor.’’ The application of this scale to human subjects reveals the verdict that 6-year old children have almost three-fourths of the amount of in- telligence that a college professor has, and the mid-point of the scale is represented by a mental age not far from adult idiocy. We may consider this exhibit A of what happens when the quantitative method is applied to human response for the purpose of guaranteeing new psychological insights. Thorndike is one of a vast company of psy- chometricians who have devised and utilized paper tests to measure things that cannot be demonstrated to have concrete, objective reality. 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES If one cares to examine the hundreds of investigations in the field of mental testing that have been published in the various psychologi- cal and educational journals, he will be impressed by the futility of the many attempts to measure hypostatized abstractions. In two very recent volumes by Hunt* and Guilford® we are told that hypo- statized abstractions such as memory, imagination, intelligence, musi- cal talent, art talent, interest, attitude, conduct, character, and per- . sonality are measurable and have been measured. Other investi- gators claim to have measured general intelligence, learning capacity, emotional stability, thrift, introversion, extraversion, social adapta- bility, moral discernment, mathematical ability, generosity, patience, capacity for leadership, honesty, dominance, submissiveness, will- power, and many others. One might excuse many of the psychome- tricians if they openly acknowledged the ambiguous middle use of the term ‘‘measure.”’ But one cannot find such acknowledgment gen- eral; to the contrary, one finds article after article and volume after volume in which the word ‘‘measurement”’ is emphasized and stressed. Without much effort on my part, I believe that I can convince any true scientist that psychometricians have not and do not measure any of the class names which I have mentioned nor the items which are represented by these class names. In order to clarify this point, we might do well to review briefly the more fundamental conditions and criteria that satisfy measure- ment. To measure a property, we must be certain that the property exists. Thus, by way of example, length is a property of a walking stick; extraversion is not a property of a walking stick. The property to be measured must be quantitatively and qualitatively uniform and homogeneous throughout its extent. Thus, length is always length, never thickness. Nor is it confounded by any other property such as taste or odor. In order to measure the property length, there must be a unit of measurement quantitatively uniform within a specified probable error and qualitatively identical with the property to be measured. If we wish to measure as the physicist measures (which to me is the scientific method of measurement), then our scale must have a zero point as point of origin with equal units throughout its extent. Consider the centimeter as a standard unit of length. In measurement, we may say that 3 centimeters added to 5 centimeters will give a length of 8 centimeters. We may say that 45 centimeters are equal to 3 times 15 centimeters, and that 50 centi- meters are equal to 10 times 5 centimeters. When we have such ad- ditive conditions obtaining, we may establish an infinite number of 4'T. Hunt, Measurement in Psychology, New York, 1936. 5 J. P. Guilford, Psychometric Methods, New York, 1936. PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT 39 equalities of ratios or proportions. We may say that a distance which measures 5 centimeters is to a distance which measures 10 centimeters as a distance which measures 50 centimeters is to a distance which measures 100 centimeters. Whenever true measurement is accom- plished such ratios are possible. In the measurement of a property, the addition of quantities of the property must satisfy all the axioms of addition of cardinal num- bers. If the property is denoted by nominal or by ordinal numbers only, it is non-additive and hence non-measurable. When we examine the literature under the heading of mental tests —that is, tests of the class names previously mentioned—we do not find in any part of the literature any units which satisfy the criteria of scientific measurement. The truth is, educators and psychometri- cians, in applying mental tests and achievement tests, never do meas- ure by means of such tests, either directly or indirectly. The few ratios that have been utilized by Stern, Terman, and their pupils are not true ratios of measurement. The function of an I.Q. 110 may not be equivalent to the function of another I.Q. of the same identical size. By the familiar method of scaling gross scores on an intelligence test, there is no means available for determining how much more intelligence is implied by one score than by another. It should be observed that intelligence test scores are non-additive. Psychome- tricians have not discovered any method by means of which we can say John is twice as intelligent as Henry, three times as introverted as Bill, six times as submissive as James, one-fourth as patient as William, with twice as much inferiority feeling as Fred. When we return to the properties which are supposed to inhere in the list of hypostatized abstractions previously mentioned, we find so-called traits described which either do not exist observationally or else cannot be measured independently. We should remember that if a property is to be tested, that is, indirectly measured, then it must be observable and measurable independently of the property by which one proposes to test it. Moreover, the test manner must be regular, constant, and known, while the property to be tested must depend on the test-property. Intelligence tests and personality tests do not satisfy these criteria. Through loose descriptions in articles and texts, students as well as naive laymen have been led to believe that by means of an intelligence test a person’s quota of intelligence can be measured. Psychome- tricians lead many to believe that it is possible to tell a person to what extent he will succeed in a given endeavor if he has so much of intelligence. To say the least, bemuddled programs of intelligence testing and personality testing are consequences of a complete misunderstand- 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ing of the fundamental axioms of arithmetic. The fact that different kinds of response can be identified by numbers does not warrant the pseudo-mathematical treatment of converting qualitatively hetero- geneous activities into homogeneous coefficients from which are sub- _jectively extracted supposedly measurable hypostatized concepts. Intelligence and personality tests are still laboratory devices in the embryonic stage of investigation, and from the experimental point of view further investigation leading to greater refinement should be encouraged only when necessary research cautions are observed. But © as a means of diagnosing or prognosing human behavior, I recommend the discontinuance of such tests in the departments of human welfare and in our institutions of learning. I believe that a frank and honest public confession of the many limitations and inadequacies of scaling techniques in psychometry and education would help to remove from the mental testing program the cataract of black-magic which has so completely blinded the layman into a naive acceptance of statistical numerology. Little does the layman realize that the professional testers utilize volumes in debate over the properties of the abstrac- tions which they assert to measure. I have recently found twenty dif- ferent definitions of intelligence in a single journal, each definition consisting of descriptions of abstractions demanding further defini- tion. Moreover, the debate by prominent statisticians over methods of analyses of test data is no less extensive. One can obtain an excel- lent survey of the confusion over the past ten years in the successive volumes of the Journal of Educational Psychology for that period. With the number of mental tests increasing by leaps and bounds, the professional tester himself is often at a loss as to just which test to select. The elimination of falsely appraised, invalid, and unreliable intel- ligence tests and personality tests from school systems would prevent much dangerous negative motivation of students who are led to be- lieve that their relatively low test scores are indices of an unalterable deficiency in some indispensable inherited capacity. In the name of academic freedom psychologists should be given the privilege of ex- perimenting with various kinds of mental tests under proper cautions, but the projection of mental tests of questionable validity and ques- tionable reliability as a “‘standard program of diagnosis and prog- nosis’’ is a wasteful and dangerous practice, especially when the tests are given into the hands of untrained persons who sometimes pass themselves as psychometricians or mental testers. In terms of be- havior adjustment to various kinds of social situations found in col- lege and in terms of scholastic achievement expressed in grade points, the most valid and reliable intelligence and personality tests avail- able show experimentally a forecasting efficiency that is only a few PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT 41 percent better than pure guess. No one as yet has discovered any scientific and mathematically sound method of predicting a given student’s course in life in the light of any score he might obtain in any intelligence or personality test. The use of the probable error of estimate of a raw score in deviation form calculated from a coefficient of correlation between some criterion adopted as valid and the hypo- statized statistical entity called ‘‘intelligence” is just another ex- ample of pseudo-mathematics. The coefficient of correlation is a spurious index of forecasting efficiency when used in connection with the great mass of psychological and educational testing material. The misuse of the coefficient of correlation as an index of mutual depend- ence and causal efficacy has led to the false identification of the method of correlation with the method of concomitant variation. — The factorial analyses, such as those advanced by Spearman,® Kelley’ and Thurstone,® are pseudo-mathematical procedures that depend on the mistreatment of coefficients of correlation as cardinally defined. Psychological components may be, by an act of professional procla- mation, projected into these larger hypostatized statistical entities, but the obsolete, artificial psychological faculties attributed to these mathematical factors can not be extracted experimentally. We can not demonstrate experimentally that a certain portion of an assumed faculty of memory can be extracted from orthogonal factor matrices. Those who have investigated the method of factorial analysis in the light of measurement-criteria must hold that for psychology and edu- cation the method, whether single or multiple, is spurious and sterile. Psychobiography and descriptions of biochemical development will, I am convinced, eventually displace the questionable, intricate sta- tistical mazes through which more than a few investigators are grop- ing blindly and painfully. I strongly recommend the substitution of configural analyses of dynamically interacting qualitatively homo- geneous events expressed in simple percentages in place of the sta- tistical standardization based on factorial analyses of static trans- verse frames of reference not compatible with the facts of mental life and mental development. The present critical evaluation does not imply that psychometri- cians, educators, and social scientists can not and do not measure in their respective fields. Measurement is accomplished in these fields, but only when the criteria of measurement are satisfied in the light of some macroscopically exact and constant physical unit. Psycho- physical contributions in the fields of visual and auditory sensitivity assume the nature of genuine, invaluable measurements, but it should § C. Spearman, The Abilities of Man, New York, 1927. 7 T. L. Kelley, Crossroads in the Mind of Man, New York, 1928. 8 L. L. Thurstone, The Vectors of Mind, Psychol. Rev., vol. 41, 1934. 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES be kept clearly in mind that the difference between a physical meas- urement and a psychological measurement is not one of kind, but of emphasis only. A physical measurement is essentially a psychological measurement; a psychological measurement is essentially a physical measurement. There is no essential difference in measurement be- tween the two fields. In either field, psychology or physics, the oe ard unit of measurement is a ‘“nerceived-physical unit.” RECENT ADVANCES IN THE FIELD OF VITAMIN CHEMISTRY L. L. RuSoFF University of Florida © PROGRESS in the field of vitamins since their discovery in the last quarter century has been phenomenal. It is interesting to note that until a few years ago, these substances, minute amounts of which are so essential to life and well-being, seemed very elusive and there appeared little immediate prospect of determining their identity. The recent brilliant advances in this field have established the vitamins as definite chemical substances of a decidedly complex character. All of the officially recognized vitamins,—A, B,, C, D, E, and G or Bz have been isolated in chemically pure form. Chemical formulas have been assigned to all, except that of vitamin E. Vitamins By, C, D, and Be have been synthesized in the laboratory and the compounds checked by physical and biological tests. Vitamin A, fat soluble, because of its physiological properties, is also known as the growth promoting vitamin; anti-ophthalmic vita- min, anti-xerophthalmic vitamin, anti-infective vitamin, and the anti- keratinizing vitamin. In 1928, the Swedish investigators, von Euler and Hellstrom, estab- lished the fact that animals suffering from lack of vitamin A could be cured by administering the yellow plant pigment carotene. This pigment, first found in carrots in 1831, and present in all chlorophyll- containing plants, is now recognized as the precursor or parent sub- stance of vitamin A. In 1930, Moore of England, demonstrated that carotene is changed to vitamin A in the liver. Measuring the absorption spectra for vita- min A and carotene was an important factor in proving this conver- sion. The physiological activity of carotene soon received confirma- tion by a host of workers in Switzerland, England, and Germany and led to the discovery of alpha, beta, gamma and iso forms of carotene. These isomers differ in melting point, solubility, specific rotation, ab- PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT 43 sorption spectra, and physiological activity. The beta carotene pos- sesses twice the activity of the other forms. The work of Karrer and his associates in 1933 at the Chemical In- stitute of the University of Zurich, Switzerland, led to the structural formula for beta carotene and vitamin A. By ozonization of pure crystalline carotene or a vitamin A concentrate obtained from fish liver oils, these workers always obtained geronic acid and a number of other products. However, only half as much geronic acid was ob- tained from the vitamin A concentrate as from the carotene. These decomposition products, along with other tests, suggested the for- mulas for beta carotene and vitamin A as follows: (Heilbron at Univ. College, London has confirmed Karrer’s work). CH; CH; CH; CH; Ne 7 NVA \. hi ae a a a nc’ C—CH=CH—C—CH—CH=CH—C=CH—CH—=CH—CH=C—CH=CH—CH=C—CH—CH—C Ci HC C—CH; sHC—C_ CH: X% S77 Cc H: H: B carotene (CscHs«) CH; CH; mes. | | as Mammen H.C C—CH; pe C H, Vitamin A (CooH300) The formulas for the other forms of carotene are of the same type. Carotene might break down into two molecules of vitamin A on the addition of water to the center double bond in the molecule. Vitamin A is a clear pale, yellow, viscous oil. Carotene and vitamin A have not yet been synthesized, although perhydro vitamin A has been synthesized by Karrer and his workers which is identical with the perhydro vitamin A obtained by hydro- genating the natural vitamin A. This compound, however, does not possess any vitamin A potency. The spectrophotometric method of estimating vitamin A quanti- tatively by means of the extinction coefficient of 328mu, is now used by many laboratories. Vitamin A concerns us most in the dairy industry of Florida. Not so long ago a U.S.D.A. worker at the Florida Experiment Station intro- 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES duced an African Squash. Our laboratory has isolated carotene as one of its yellow pigments. The chemical tests were substantiated by the Physics department which checked its absorption spectra as that of carotene. In the near future, the Dairy department at the Uni- versity of Florida intends to feed this yellow squash to dairy cows with the hope of increasing the carotene or vitamin A content of the milk. The milk will be tested biologically with rats, and checked with the spectrophotometer. > Vitamin B,—water soluble, also known as the anti-neuritic vitamin, . the anti-beriberi vitamin, the anti-polyneuritic vitamin, and the appetite-stimulating vitamin. | Some years ago, the original vitamin B was found to consist of at least two physiological substances, an anti-beriberi factor (heat labile), and a pellagra-preventive factor (heat stable.) The English investigators called them B,; and Be while the Americans named them B and G. | Today the vitamin B group has become complex. At least six dif- ferent members have been isolated: Bi, Bz, Bs, Bs, Bs, and Bg. The pic- ture is complicated by the fact that some investigators have intro- duced for some of these or different factors—vitamins H, J, K, and Y. These substances in the vitamin B group are differentiated from each other by their stability to alkali and heat, and by their physio- logical effect on various animals—rat, chicken and pigeon. Of all these substances, the chemical structures of B; and By» are the only ones which have been established and verified by synthesis. In 1932, Windaus and his associates in Germany isolated 62.3 mg. of pure crystalline vitamin B; as the hydrochloride, from 50,000 grams of yeast. They proposed the formula CywHi7ON,S.2HCl. Wil- liams and others confirmed this formula in the following year. Last year (1935) Williams and his associates at Columbia obtained crystalline vitamin B, from rice polish. By sulfite digestion the vita- min was split quantitatively into two fractions. On the basis of chem- ical tests and ultraviolet absorption spectra, the following structural formula was assigned for vitamin Bj. CH; ae) Ve Dah AC ee al \ N—C—C.H; Cas H Vitamin B, (Ci2Hi7N.O S) PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT 45 In August of this year (1936), Williams and Cline reported the synthesis of vitamin B;. The compound was identical with the natural vitamin B,; in composition, ultraviolet absorption spectra and anti- neuritic potency. It is now on the market. Vitamin B,—water soluble, the heat stable factor of B complex, has been called the pellagra-preventive vitamin, or the anti-dermatitis vitamin. Within the last few years, Kuhn and his workers in Germany have shown that Bz is indistinguishable from lactoflavin, the powerfully fluorescent pigment which occurs in the whey of milk. These workers obtained 12 grams from 220,000 pounds of whey. Kuhn and his workers and Karrer with his associates, established the structural formula for lactoflavin in 1934 and had verified it by synthesis the very next year. Other investigators have presented evidence that Be and lactoflavin are not identical. nea ea CH; N N CO NE CH; N ‘¢ 5 Vitamin Bo(Ci7H2oN40¢) (lactoflavin) The synthetic product when tested biologically on rats to deter- mine its physiological action showed only the growth promoting fac- tor and not the pellagra preventive one. Thus, it is possible that Be consists of at least two factors; the growth promoting lactoflavin and the pellagra-preventive one. Vitamins G and Bg have been identified by some investigators as containing the pellagra-preventive factor. The other members of the vitamin B group have not yet been isolated. Vitamin C—water soluble, is known as the anti-scorbutic vitamin, the anti-scurvy vitamin, ascorbic acid, ascorbinic acid, cevitaminic acid. | In 1928, Szent-Gyérgyi, at Cambridge University isolated a hexur- onic acid, CsHsO¢, from adrenal cortex, oranges, and cabbage as an oxidation-reduction factor. Finding it had anti-scorbutic properties, he renamed it ascorbic acid in 1932. In that same year, King and & 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Smith at the University of Pittsburgh, isolated and crystallized ascorbic acid from lemon juice. In 1933, Hirst and Haworth and their collaborators in England, making use of X-ray analyses, crystallographical measurements and spectrophotometry established the structure for ascorbic acid or vita- mmc. Later in that same year these workers announced the synthesis of vitamin C from xylososone. Reichstein in Germany also published a synthesis. Since 1933, other syntheses have been devised—one making. use of glucose, reducing it to sorbitol, and then allowing a micro- organism, Bacillus xylinium, to act on the alcohol to change it to a ketose, an intermediary product necessary in the synthesis. | Se CH,OH—CHOH—CH—C(OH) = C(OH)—CO Vitamin C (CgHsQOg) (l-ascorbic acid) Only the form of l-ascorbic acid is physiologically potent. Ascorbic acid is sold commercially in tablet and crystalline form under the trade name of ‘‘cevitamic acid” and “‘Cebione.”’ Absorption spectra of vitamin C are now being studied to deter- mine the vitamin quantitatively (re Rogers paper). Vitamin D—fat-soluble, the anti-rachitic vitamin, the sunshine vitamin, the calcifying vitamin, the bonebuilding vitamin, calciferol. In 1924, Hess of Columbia aad Steenbock of eeu independ- ently announced that many foods lacking in vitamin D could obtain anti-rachitic properties by irradiation with ultraviolet light. In 1927, Windaus and Hess reported that ergosterol, a sterol, present in the skin of animals and in plant tissues, when exposed to ultraviolet formed a highly anti-rachitic substance. In 1934, four different investigators, two in England, one in Ger- many, and one in Holland isolated crystalline anti-rachitic substances from the products obtained by irradiating ergosterol. The English in- vestigators at the National Institute for Medical Research in London designated their product as calciferol which still remains today. This is known as crystalline vitamin D. The vitamin D2 of Windaus is the same as calciferol of the English workers. Hielbron of England and Windaus of Germany assigned the follow- ing formula for vitamin D.. Pure crystalline vitamin D—calciferol—is now prepared commer- cially by irradiating ergosterol under exact conditions which changes about 25 per cent to calciferol and a number of other sterols. Calcif- erol possesses the highest anti-rachitic property of these substances. PSEUDO-MATHEMATICS AND QUASI-MEASUREMENT 47 G a he Non ve H ree Ne C—CH—CH—CH—CH—CH Hp | | | x C CH.CH, C CHe CH; | Ne ie H.C C C a x c er H, H Vitamin D (CogH.,;0H) The calciferol is precipitated with digitonum- and then forming the crystalline dinitrobenzoate, it is isolated out as the pure product. During each step, the vitamin compound is checked by optical activ- ity, absorption spectra and other tests. Present evidence seems to point out that at least several forms of vitamin D exist. Calciferol, (crystalline vitamin D) and vitamin D of cod-liver oil are not the same product. Not only ergosterol but also cholesterol has been shown to form anti-rachitic products upon ir- radiation. Vitamin E—fat-soluble, the anti-sterility vitamin, the reproduc- tive vitamin. Evans and his associates at the University of California in 1935 obtained a crystalline substance from wheat germ which showed highly potent anti-sterility properties. The empirical formula was found to be Co9H5902, and the compound seems to be one of the higher alcohols. The structural formula has not yet been established. There has been a movement to fortify and improve foods which are lacking in certain mineral and vitamin nutrients. This has spread to products other than foods, so that today many commercial prod- ucts contain vitamin supplements including milk, bread, yeast, ce- reals, cosmetics, facial soap, beverages, cough drops and candy bars. There is much competition in selling these products by manufac- turers and there has been some misrepresentation in advertisements. Unless a substance advertised to contain certain compounds is checked scientifically—i.e., shown to be physiologically potent, it should be questioned. 7 A normal diet containing fresh fruits, especially citrus, fresh vege- tables, meats, milk and dairy products, and plenty of sunshine sup- ply the necessary vitamins to maintain good health and well-being at all ages. 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES COHERING KEELS IN AMARYLLIDS AND RELATED PLANTS* H. Harotp Hume University of Florida FLOWERS in their development present many interesting phenomena. In some species a long period of time may elapse after the flower buds appear before the flowers are matured. They grow slowly, enlarge and change color even after their several parts become clearly differ- entiated. Sepals and petals are folded in buds in different ways and the method of folding is, in some manner, related to the time neces- sary for them to develop fully. As a general rule those that open slowly,—some indeed so slowly that were it not for the maturity of anthers and stigmas it would be difficult.to say when they had reached complete anthesis—also last for a long time. On the other hand, the flowers of some plants mature very quickly and also they fade quickly. Growth, temperature and light are factors affecting the rate of maturity. During a study of certain Amaryllids and some related plants, ex- tending over a period of several years, the phenomena connected with their flower expansion have been studied. It was observed, in these groups, that the flowers of many species open quickly, so quickly that what appear to be rather tightly closed buds at one moment a few minutes later are completely expanded flowers. Im- mediately and without much warning they appear fully formed. A period of a few hours only may intervene between buds, in which no color shows, and well colored, completely developed flowers from the anthers of which pollen is discharged and pollination effected at once. This behavior was first noted in the flowers of Zephyranthes, all species of which genus, thus far observed, behave in precisely the same manner. Flower buds progress toward maturity, perianth parts come to practically full size. They swell out like tiny balloons, then suddenly they snap open,—flowers fully developed. All preparations for the final burst are made in advance and then they expand fully almost at once. Several steps in the opening of a flower bud of Z. Atamasco (L.) Herb. are illustrated in Plate I. Progress is from left to right. Development from No. 1 to No. 3 is accomplished in a few hours, while, for the remaining stages, the time required is a matter of minutes. Further study of the perianth parts revealed certain adaptations that make this interesting flower opening possible. It was observed * Awarded the Achievement Medal for 1936. COHERING KEELS IN AMARYLLIDS 49 that on the inner tip of each outer perianth segment (sepal), there is a tiny papillose elevation, a development of the central rib, and that on each side of it there is a tiny depression formed in part by the side of the elevation and in part by a slight infolding of the margin of the segment. In the folded bud two of these depressions in adjoining seg- ment tips come together to form a larger cavity and the tips of the outer segments are held together by the interlocking of the papillae much as two brushes are fastened together by pressing the bristles of one in among those of the other. The tips of the inner segments (petals) fit into the cavities at the tips of the outer ones and so the apices of all segments, outer and inner, are locked together and re- main so until growth expansion and the pressure of the inner three becomes so great as to unlock the tips. Thereupon, almost fully ma- tured, the flower flies open. The release of the tips may be acceler- ated by a breeze swaying the buds about, by the visit of an insect in search of nectar, by a passing squirrel or rabbit brushing against the plant. Many times in attempting to obtain photographs of expand- ing buds, specimens have been collected and placed in position only to have the setting spoiled by the buds exploding, so to speak. In the Amaryllids the margins of the segments are free, and, as expansion progresses, they separate in their central or median parts, leaving spaces between, remaining attached only at their bases and apices. When in some way or other the mechanism has been damaged and the papillae fail to release, the buds do not or indeed cannot open beyond the balloon stage. Careful examination of botanical literature has failed to reveal specific reference to these interesting structures for which the name “cohering keels’’ is proposed. Apparently botanists have attached no particular importance to their functioning. To determine how generally cohering keels occur, investigations have been made in three directions. Naturally, the first and easiest was to study living, growing buds, opening flowers and fully opened flowers. This sort of material had its limitations since only a compara- tively small number could be examined; no large collections have been available. Second, flowers of herbarium specimens have been examined. Here it is much more difficult to detect their presence be- cause of their delicate fragile structure. Poorly prepared specimens yield little information, but here and there well prepared dried peri- anth segments show dried cohering keels at their apices. Little of form and character can be made out and nothing beyond their presence is discernible. The third source consisted of plant illustrations made by artists for such publications as the Curtis Botanical Magazine, Lindley’s Ornamental Flower Garden, and Loddige’s Botanical Cabi- net. It is interesting to note the number of drawings in which coher- 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ing keels are shown though not in detail. Since it has been impossible to cover these adequately a limited number only are listed below.* Many more might be added, but these are sufficient to illustrate the point that, while botanists seemingly overlooked them, artists who illustrated their writings portrayed them in their fine pictures. After observing the behavior of Zephyranthes flowers, the study was extended to the fresh flowers of a number of other plants with the result that cohering keels have been found on the segments of species belonging to the genera Agapanthus, Lilium and Hemero- callis of the family Liliaceae, to Crinum, Eucharis, Hymenocallis, Sprekelia, Habranthus, Cooperia, and Amaryllis, of the family Amaryllidaceae, and to Aristea of the family Iridaceae. Certain note- worthy differences have been observed in the shape, size and eleva- tion of the cohering keels and in the shape, length and arrangement of the papillae. In some the adjoining pits are absent. In others both the keels and pits are absent and only papillae are present on the margins of the segments, these margins acting in place of the keels. The flowers of certain species open more suddenly than do those of others. There appears to be a relationship between the elasticity and the thickness of the segments and the release of the apices. Those with thick inelastic segments open much more slowly, their tips being released without marked ballooning taking place. Indeed, so striking are these differences that they possess a certain amount of taxonomic value. Their characters within a given species are quite constant, while features presented in one species are different from those found in another. These points may be further emphasized by reference to * References to illustrations showing cohering keels. Plants illustrated are desig- nated by the names under which they were published; no attempt has been made to give their synonyms or to indicate the names under which they now pass. Brunsvigia multiflora. Bot. Mag. t. 1619. Feb. 1814. Coburgia incarnata. Lindley’s Ornamental Flower Garden. t. 196. IIT. 1854. Crinum americanum. Bot. Mag. t. 1034. July, 1807. Crinum erubescens. Bot. Mag. t. 1232. Oct. 1809. Crinum revolutum. Bot. Mag. t. 915. March, 1806. Crinum variable var. roseum. Lindley’s Ornamental Flower Garden. t. 195. III. 1854. Habranthus concolor. Lindley’s Ornamental Flower Garden. t. 240. IV. 1854. Habranthus robustus. Loddige’s Botanical Cabinet. t. 1761. 1831. Hymenocallis rotata. Bot. Mag. Apr. t. 827. 1805. Ismene calathina. Bot. Mag. t. 1561. June, 1813. Pancratium caribaeum. Bot. Mag. t. 826. Apr. 1805. PLATE I. Zephyranthes Atamasco. A partly developed bud, upper left, followed by various stages leading to the opening of the flower, lower right. Flowers reduced nearly one-half, drawn from photographs. COHERING KEELS IN AMARYLLIDS 51 PLATE I 52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the cohering keels found in some species belonging to the genera listed. Certain of these are illustrated, a few are not. CRINUM Several species of Crinums are shown in Plate II. Figures 1 and 2 show two views of a sepal (outer perianth segment) profile and front of an unknown species. It will be noted that the cohering keel is ele- vated at the tip and furnished with long hairlike papillae. Figure 3 illustrates an unnamed species different from Figures 1 and 2. The > keel is much broader and covered abundantly with long attenuated papillae. Figure 4 illustrates the tip of a C. longifolium segment. The keel is blunt, oblong and rounded at the tip and furnished with two kinds of papillae. Those at the tip are hairlike. A tip of a sepal of C. Moorei is shown in Figure 5. The tip of the cohering keel is turned backward, and the margins of the tip of the segment are papillose with short rounded papillae. Figures 6 and 7 of C. Moorez represent the tips of matured outer segments while Figure 8 shows a segment tip from a bud. A sepal tip from the same species is shown in Figure 9. Figure 10 shows how the tip of an inner segment (petal) is held between co- hering keels on the tips of two outer segments. The limb of C. Aszati- cum, not illustrated, is white in color and about 8.0 cm. long, sur- mounting a perianth tube 6 cm. in length. The incurved margins of the segments as the sharp pointed bud approaches maturity are free throughout practically their entire length. The bud is somewhat ir- regular in outline because of the thickened central ridges of the outer segments. These are compressed laterally at their tips. Cohering PLATE II. . Crinum sp., sepal, from bud, X2. Papillae long and hair-like. . Crinum sp., sepal, from bud, front view, X2. . Crinum sp., petal, from bud, X2. . . C. longifolium var. album, sepal, X4. Cohering keel, thickened and elevated at an angle, papillae of two kinds, the short oblong rounded form more abundant. . C. Moorei, sepal, *4. Cohering keel densely covered with hairy papillae, its tip turned upward. Margin of sepal papillate at the tip. . C. Moorei var. album, sepal, X2. C. Powellii var. alba, sepal, <4. . C. Powellii, sepal, from bud, X2. . C. Powelliz, petal, from bud, X2. . C. Powellii, from bud, X 2. This sketch shows how the petal tip is locked between two cohering keels in the unopened bud. A. Sepal. B. Petal. wn BH WN D0 OTD —_ COHERING KEELS IN AMARYLLIDS 53 PLATE II 54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES keels on the segments are dissimilar in shape and size. One is blunt, 1.5 mm. long, irregular in outline; a second is pointed, 1 mm. long; while the third is attenuated with a total length of 3.5 mm. The tips of the three inner segments are erose and dissimilar. The margins of the segments are incurved at their tips. At full anthesis the perianth parts are strongly recurved. Illustrations of Crinum have been intro- duced to show the variation in form of adhering keels and their papillae. HEMEROCALLIS Segment tips of three forms of Hemerocallis are shown in Plate III. (1) H. fulua Kwanso, (2) H. fulva and (3) H. citrina, sepals in all cases. The papillae are quite uniform but the cohering keels are dif- ferent in size, shape and the angle at which they are attached to the segments. AMARYLLIS A segment tip of A. belladonna is shown in Figure 4. It will be noted that the point of the segment is strongly reflexed. The keel stands off at an acute angle and two types of papillae are shown. ZEPHYRANTHES Cohering keels and adjoining pits on the tips of Z. carinata are shown in Figure 5. They are quite typical for the genus. The petal PLATE III. 1. H. fulua Kwanso, sepal, X6. 2. H. fulva, sepal, X6. 3. H. citrina, sepal, X6. 4. Amaryllis belladonna, sepal, X3. The cohering keel here is separated from its matrix and projects outward and downward. 5. Zephyranthes carinata, sepals, X5. The cohering keels and adjoining pits shown here in Z. carinaia are typical for the genus and are followed closely. 6. Agapanthus umbellatus, sepal, X5. 7. Z. candida, sepal, X6. 8. Z. candida, petal, X6. The petal of Z. candida has a papillose tip. 9. Agapanthus umbellatus, expanded bud, X?. 10. L. speciosum, X4.5. Both sepals and petals are papillose at their tips. The strong rib tips are a part of the holding mechanism. A. Sepal. B. Petal. 11. L. speciosum, X2.5. A... ‘Petal tip. B. Sepal rib. C Petal rib. COHERING KEELS IN AMARYLLIDS "F g a. ' fl 4 eras I i { - -y ’ % SINR a ! teed, G eeN Ip, MES 4 Wy If ! i A ij, ] LU ft ' \. | H i | \ ; Th, \ —— \\ —— \ \ \ =; A Ye il lee Yt A | A Z a Yi! ye y Y Lh Gh 4 | NS PLATE III ISS 56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tips are plain, i.e., without papillae and fit into the pits formed by adjoining sepals. Z. candida (Figures 7 and 8) shows kinds of keels and pits but the petal tip is papillose in which respect it differs from Z. carinata. This plant was assigned to a new genus, Argyropsis, by Wm. Herbert in 1837. AGAPANTHUS The blunt tip of the sepal, of A. wmbellatus, and the densely papil- .late area at the apex and the extension down the margins is quite characteristic. An expanded bud is shown in Figure 9, Plate ITI. LILIUM A bud tip (Figure 11) and the tips of two outer and one inner seg- ment of L. speciosum (Figure 10) are shown in Plate III. Papillae are present on both outer and inner segments. The strong rib tips are a — part of the cohering mechanism which differs markedly from what is found in the Amaryllidaceae. EvUCHARIS* Tips of outer segments of E. grandiflorus are rather blunt, pits lacking, margins slightly folded inward at the tips, keel slightly ele- vated with abundant white papillae. The tips of the inner segments are triangular apiculate and slightly papillose. Segments of this flower are quite thick, and consequently they do not open so rapidly as in other genera. ARISTEA (IRIDACEAE)* In A. capitata the flowers are blue. On the tips of each outer seg- ment there is a very small area covered by blue papillae. Flowers open quickly and last only a few hours. SPREKELIA* Cohering keels in S. formosissima show certain variations related to the rather peculiar formation of the perianth. The upper segment has a bilateral symmetrically balanced keel, 7 mm. long, red with white papillae. Another of the segments has a half keel and the third has a rudimentary one or none. SUMMARY 1. Flowers of many Amaryllids and some related plants come to full maturity and then open suddenly. 2. This behavior is made possible through the presence and func- * Not illustrated. GROWTH RING STUDIES OF TREES a7 tioning of cohering keels, elevated papillose areas or their equivalents on the inner surfaces of the tips of the outer segments of the perianth. These have apparently been overlooked or regarded as unimportant by taxonomic and morphological botanists. 3. Cohering keels serve to hold the perianth segments closed until growth expansion releases the tips. In the meantime, the essential organs are coming to maturity and are fully developed very shortly after the flowers open. 4, It is believed that a study of a wide range of forms will develop variations in form and other characteristics that have important taxo- nomic value. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Several members of the staff at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, have been very helpful in working out the details of this study. Through the courtesty of Sir Arthur W. Hill, Director, opportunity was afforded for examining the flowers of several amaryllids and other plants in grounds and greenhouses. Valuable suggestions were made by Mr. A. D. Cotton, Keeper of the Herbarium, and by Dr. T. A. Sprague, Deputy Keeper of the Herbarium. The excellent detail drawings were made by Miss Stella Ross-Craig from fresh material, except where noted. GROWTH-RING STUDIES OF TREES OF NORTHERN FLORIDA W. L. MacGowan Robert E. Lee High School, Jacksonville THIS PAPER deals with some studies of typical growth habits of certain North Florida trees as derived from an examination of their annual tings of growth, and forms part of a research problem conducted by the writer in conjunction with and under the direction of Dr. Herman Kurz. Observation shows that the first forest growth to cover denuded land is usually a stand of some kind of Pine. This correlates with the fact that the seeds of most Pines need full sunlight for germination, whereas the seeds of most other trees require some degree of shade. As the Pine matures, its shade prevents its own seed from sprouting. If fire does not interfere, the Pine stand will be invaded by young Oaks and Hickories, which become the dominant species in the forest as the Pines die of old age. | The Oak-Hickory association is composed of many tree species, and competition becomes so great in the understory that all but the most shade-loving trees are gradually killed for want of sufficient light. At this stage appears the Spruce Pine,—our only shade-loving Pine, 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES —which heralds the approach of the climax or final stage of forest growth. | | The climax species in the type of forest described are Magnolia, Holly, and where they grow, Beech and Southern Hard Maple. As these trees mature, they cast so dense a shade that no tree seeds, not even their own, can germinate beneath them. Consequently this for- est represents the final stage in the succession of forest growth, and Oak-Hickory Forest Spruce Pine Pine Forest Beech-Magnolia Climax Catastrophe Deforested Area CuHart I.—CycLrt oF FoREST SUCCESSIONS. The larger the opening (represented by rings) made in the forest cover of the climax association by accident or the death of an aged tree, the farther back in the cycle the subsequent vegetation will start. A catastrophe starts the cycle again from its beginning. tends to remain unchanged except when the death of an aged tree, or some destructive agency such as fire, wind or the axe of man makes an opening in the forest canopy. The fall of asingle tree will admit enough light to allow the germina- tion of Oaks or Hickories. A larger opening pushes the cycle still farther back, and Pines may grow in the well-lighted center of the open space. Apparently the larger the opening made in the climax forest, the farther back the cycle is thrust. Complete destruction of the forest cover results in the repetition of the cycle, beginning with GROWTH RING STUDIES OF TREES 59 the Pines again. Thus, barring periodic fires and other disturbing factors, each part of the forest tends to develop associations of suc- cessively greater shade-tolerance until a climax association of some form is reached. This concept is illustrated in Chart I, which shows the succession of tree associations from open ground to climax forest. This preface applies to the matter in hand in that the present study has disclosed the fact that each succession yields a characteristic growth curve which seems to be common to all members of its par- ticular association of tree species. To determine these growth curves a careful study of annual rings was made. Under ordinary circumstances a tree adds a layer of wood which appears as a ring in cross section just under its bark each year. CuHart II GROWTH CURVES, PINE ASSOCIATION Youth Maturity Ola Age 0 ~] rings per inch oO These rings are wider in younger trees and in wet warm years. Their study has led to such diverse results as the discovery of undetected long-term weather cycles and the dating of ruins. They also form a record of each individual tree’s experiences, and when averaged with ring measurements of other trees of like species, yield a picture of the growth habits of that species. Typical growth curves are shown on Chart II. The average number of rings per radial inch has been plotted for each species. The re- sulting straightline plots were smoothed and the curves were further generalized to compensate for conditions peculiar to each case. This is illustrated on Chart III. The Pines originate in the open; their growth-curves show beauti- fully the acceleration of growth which represents the vigor of youth, the lessened rapidity of growth that comes with maturity, and the slow decline and retardation of senescence. It will be noted on the charts that the faster the growth the fewer rings per inch. Therefore a rising curve indicates acceleration, a falling curve deceleration. 4 per (nchv re rn OP fo <) 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The straight-line graph of the Pinus Taeda measurements yielded a rise in the middle of the slope of senescence. This apparently was due to the fact that beyond the low point preceding, the curve is domi- nated by the giants whose growth, because of favorable environment, has been more vigorous than in the case of smaller trees. To show that the growth-curve approximated reality, the small and the large trees were plotted separately. The curve of the giant Loblollies on Chart III is identical in character with the curve of all the Loblollies. Cuart III PINUS TAEDA tin.2radz2 4 § 6 of RI SRS Ran) He AS fe I 6 tT Langer Specimens only. Oaks and Hickories germinate in the shade of Pines and replace them. These are shade-tolerant trees, but even so, their youth is marked by a period of struggle and slow growth which shows at the beginning of their growth-curves (Chart IV). This is due to the in- tense struggle for survival in the dense understory. Eventually the weaker trees fail in competition, root systems of more vigorous ones expand, and canopies are thrust up into the light. This state of affairs is reflected in rising curves of accelerated growth. For example the Mockernut Hickory as it approaches maturity shows twice the rate of growth as in infancy. The dip in the curve showing deceleration in early youth seems to be characteristic of this association. The sub-climax Spruce Pine, and three climax trees, Beech, Mag- nolia and Southern Hard Maple, are shown on Chart V. Even though GROWTH RING STUDIES OF TREES 61 CHarT IV OAK-HICKORY ASSOCIATION o ea-~ OA 3 wa —— =f Bien ues«CAcor'! x : ” qs oom i 2 a Tr =< a Basket Cak [4 _ Mockesnut Hickory é e Post Oak 5 moma © xy €rcus stellat& 16 § CHART V CLrimax ASSOCIATION / Zin, 3tad-4-us 5S 6 qT 8 9 io =O I AZ FA IS 16 \ g a4 Spruce Pume Mt > ’ fa Beech 227 id Magnolia . Hard Maple 13 14 ‘5 ——~ AAcer i ~ 16 —* floridanum eee 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES these trees start life as a rule in the dense shadows of the Oak-Hickory forest, their extreme youthful vigor and consequent acceleration of growth is shown in their more-or-less steeply rising growth-curves. This significant and consistent difference between the curves of the climax species and the Oak-Hickory group is in itself intensely inter- esting to the student of Ecology, for it explains why the Beech-Mag- nolia association tends to be the final forest to dominate an area. The trees thus far considered grew in mesophytic habitats, or regions of moderate moisture. Some studies of other types of habitat, and of the effects of varying habitat on a species yielded some inter- Cuart VI NYSSA AQUATICA ( 2 | 4 S 6 7 8 9 Ve) Mt 12 12 esting results. For example, Chart VI shows the Tupelo Gum, grow- ing in a wet, or hydrophytic habitat. The curve shows the character- istic phases of youth, maturity and senescence with the last phase longer in proportion and with a steeper slope of retardation than in other species studied. A comparison was made between Mockernut Hickory growing on the levee of the Apalachicola River with Mockernuts growing on the adjacent limestone bluff. The Hickory on the levee (Chart VII) shows no such severe struggle as its relative on the blufis. Flanked by river and swamp, it has an adequate water supply, a rich soil, and light filtering in from river bank as well as from overhead. The Hickories on the bluff, however, show the record of a hard, losing fight. Soil is probably sparse, even though rich, drainage is too efficient and there is no advantage of light such as obtained on the levee. Hence, a GROWTH RING STUDIES OF TREES 63 gradually retarded growth from infancy until death is self-evident. In the case of Longleaf Pine, shown on Chart VIII, the constant retardation in growth is probably due to boxing for turpentine, and repeated fires. Adequate studies of unburned, unboxed Longleaf have not yet been completed for comparison. A study has been made, how- ever, of burned, boxed Longleaf growing under conditions of rather extreme drought and poverty of soil. Specimens for this study were taken mostly from the dry shoulder above a large sinkhole, where limestone was overlaid with a heavy overburden of red sandy clay CuHart VII EFFECT oF VARYING HABITAT Hicoria alba - —— Rope) 2) rad: 3°30 # tg 5 y a 6 So”. ckernut, . 7 ie Ha seal hytic RS w/o QS 1 2 3 My) Nockernut, a Rock BIuff. whose upper increment had been leached and bleached to a compara- tive whiteness. Only a sparse xerophytic or near-desert vegetation consisting mostly of tufts of wire-grass was growing here. One might expect to find a losing fight as in the case of the other Longleaf Pine, but no,—one finds exactly the opposite. The rising curve shows a con- tinual increase in rate of growth. This is no doubt due to the fact that the Longleaf has a long tap-root, and as the root system pene- trates the hardpan and increases in size and in capacity to absorb, the tree’s condition steadily improves. In this habitat the near-desert conditions were those of the surface only; there was more water avail- able underneath, although the most rapid growth found was far slower than the slowest growth of the mesophytic Longleaf. Several trees besides the Hickory referred to were studied on the 64 | PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES limestone bluffs along the Apalachicola River. These are exemplified on Chart IX. Loblolly Pine shows the falling curve characteristic of most of the bluff species. The substratum of limestone evidently foiled its root system, with a result different from the case of the Longleaf Pine of the sink-hole shoulder, and not at all typical of the growth of the same species under more favorable conditions. (Refer back to Chart III.) | | CuHart VIII EFFECT OF VARYING HABITAT Lons- deaf Pine 7 8 9 i) ( m. 1 rad. 3 a | 8 Pinus palustris in mesophytic 9 habitat rings per in. = > = ° 22 Fraus palustris in 23 xero-meso Phytic 25 ) wn rad. 2 3 4 Torreya, which grows nowhere else in the world, while it is holding its own under these difficult conditions, shows also a falling curve of gradually decelerated growth. More successful is the Beech, whose growth shows no drop for many years. This is not surprising when one considers that it is a climax tree, with huge vitality in its youth. A steady rate of growth is therefore maintained over a long period in spite of the adverse conditions obtaining on the limestone blufis. Referring once more to the curve of Florida or Southern Hard Maple, which appears with the climax species on Chart V, we find an even more extraordinary vitality. In spite of the thin soil of the bluffs, over-drainage, and dense canopy, this species shows a speedily rising tide of youth characteristic of climax species living in more favorable GROWTH RING STUDIES OF TREES 65 habitats. It is an eminently successful species. Its growth-curve is one of the most interesting of all. It is the only species studied whose curve shows the three ideal phases of growth under the difficult con- ditions prevailing on the limestone bluffs. The studies of which this paper is an excerpt form a pioneering expedition into a large and practically untouched field, and the re- sults of which are to be considered indicative rather than conclusive. It seems justifiable, however, to form the following tentative conclu- sions. CuHart IX ADVERSE Soit Conditions Rock BLuFF Gees pedess” 4 s 6 7 8 r 10 uu 2 Loblolly Pine Beech £ = $ X a & c Terreya First: Rates of growth in the forest tree species studied differ ac- cording to the successional association in which the species occurs. Second: Growth rates in each successional association of trees are characteristic and differ significantly from those found in other suc- cessional associations. Third: Rates of growth correlate with the innate differences in vi- tality, structure and behavior which determine the successional type of the tree species. Fourth: Differences in habitat iavolved in these studies produce definite changes in rates of growth, and the reaction of a species under different conditions is characteristic of its successional type. 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STUDIES ON THE LIFE ZONES OF MARINE WATERS ADJACENT TO MIAMI: I. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE OPHIUROIDEA Jay F. W. PEARSON The University of Miami - IN THE SPRING of 1928, the writer began the first of a prolonged series of class studies of underwater life off the shores and keys of the south Florida region, making use of the Miller-Dunn Divinghood and giving undergraduates their first opportunity to become ac- quainted with living specimens of the marine fauna in their natural habitat. Each spring of the past three years a regularly scheduled class in Marine Zodélogy has carried on this work under the writer’s direction. Almost every Saturday, weather permitting, one or two boats have carried the group down into the waters of the Bay, out around the upper keys, or out to the reef itself, out of sight of the mainland. Many studies have been made on the flats in the bay and around the shores of the keys, using a Blake trawl or plankton net at times. How- ever, the great majority of the time has been spent under water, at depths of from ten to forty feet, where the students enter the actual environment of the living animals. - Strict discipline following careful training has so far prevented ac- cidents during the several hundred student hours of actual diving. Though the work has its hazards, the writer believes that the benefits accruing to the students more than justify the risks. The number of helmets in use at once has ranged from two to ten, four being the most desirable number and two being an absolute minimum as well as a maximum in excessively deep water on the outer side of the reef. A minimum of three people is required for effective operation of each helmet, but long periods of diving in deeper water demand four, five or even six students to each helmet to care for the strenuous task of pumping and to provide sufficiently long periods of recuperation between dives. Until the spring of 1934, no effort was made to chart and number stations made by the classes, but with the first offering of regular course work in Marine Zodélogy each separate collecting station has been carefully recorded and all collections and studies are readily cross-referenced. Since 1934, fifty-five stations have been established, the majority of them diving stations. With each new station that is established the variety and complexity of the minor plant and animal habitats become more evident. Several major zones may be deline- LIFE ZONES OF MARINE WATERS 67 ated, based on physical features of the land and water itself. Sub- zones or smaller divisions exist in each of these, while local variations of each sub-zone offer an almost infinite variety of associations or communities, three or four being within hose-range at one anchorage at times. If we limit our discussion to the waters within an area formed by a line running east from Coconut Grove, Dinner Key, to Key Bis- cayne and thence south to a line extending from Broad Creek to Carysfort Light, we may describe the major zone as follows: Zone I. Soft or sticky bottom, usually densely covered with Zostera or eelgrass, water three or more feet in depth at low tide, mainly confined to protected regions of the Bay itself. Zone II. Flats of hard or soft bottom, exposed or almost exposed at low tide, some- times with considerable growth of Zostera or eelgrass, forming large areas in the less protected region of the Bay, adjoining the mainland, or adjoining the Keys, usually on the northern or eastern sides of the keys, though sometimes to the south as well. Zone III. Alcyonarian areas of less protected stretches of the Bay itself, usually existing also on the gradually sloping eastern and southern sides of the keys, usually with hard bottom often rocky, or with well packed shell or sand, never exposed at low tide and ranging from three to 20 feet in depth, often marked with patches or stretches of eelgrass or of completely clean bottom. Zone IV. Relatively deep channels of rapid water between keys and up the inner side of Key Biscayne, or forming narrow passes between Bay flats, and including Hawk Channel itself, the countercurrent passage extending northeast and southwest outside the line of keys and inside the reef. These channels are often completely free of large animal life and the bottom is usually well-packed sand, shell or rock. Hawk Channel has patches of life here and there throughout it at depths that at times reach fifty feet or more at low tide. Zone V. The coral reef extending from a point south of Key Biscayne on down out- side Hawk Channel and forming the barrier that protects the channel, keys, and bay from the waters of the open sea. Of course the reef itself is rocky, completely submerged at low tide, and varies in depth and continuity. Above Fowey Rocks there is an old dead reef which shows signs of rejuvenation. Below Fowey the active reef-building corals have been steadily at work. A new line of keys should some day occupy the region now marked out by the reef. The length of this paper does not permit inclusion of detailed lists of the many residents of each of these regions. Numerous species have been taken in each of them. Many have been identified and many others are still in process of study. The work to date bears out the assumption that while some species will be strictly limited in dis- tribution, others will show such wide distribution as to be considered almost ubiquitous. Centrechinus antillarum, the black, long-spined sea urchin, for ex- ample, is found almost everywhere, except in the bare channels of fast moving water and in the deeper eelgrass-covered waters of the 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES bay and Hawk Channel slopes. Lytechinus variegatus, the variable sea urchin, has a more limited distribution, being found in almost any bottom having eelgrass and occurring also in bare channels swept clean by fast moving water. Tripneustes esculentus, the edible sea urchin, on the contrary, has been taken only on flats having abun- dant life, either inside the bay or extending out eastward from certain of the keys. Likewise, Echinometra lucunter, the rock-boring sea urchin has been taken only in water-worn rocks on the south side of Bear Cut on Key Biscayne, while Eucidaris tribuloides, the club- spined sea urchin, has been taken almost exclusively by trawling in eelgrass on the shallow, sloping western side of Hawk Channel, east or southeast of Soldier Key and well off shore. Noira atropos, a gloriously golden little heart urchin, has been found only in knee- deep mud in perhaps twenty feet of water well up the bay inside of Key Biscayne. Corals of one group or another, form the dominant life of certain of these zones. Porites porites, a small branching grey form, of which two or three varieties have been considered or rejected at various times, occurs sometimes in the eel-grass regions of deep water in the bay, but is far more abundant on certain flats and is extremely abun- dant south and east of most of the keys. Its little colonies remind one of a tumbled heap of giant jacks, HOES definite heavily branching masses also occur. The dominant corals of rougher waters of the bay are of course the soft corals or Alcyonaria. They cannot stand emergence and rarely occur on the flats. They extend outward beyond the keys forming dense stands on the slopes of Hawk Channel as well as patches here and there, scattered among eelgrass and regions of bare sand, en- tirely across the Channel to the reef itself. Here, too, in many lo- calities they are very abundant, though they rarely seem to reach the dominance they attain in quieter water, inside the reef. Rarely on the reef do they reach the size attained in the less violent water. The variety and abundance of form, color, and growth pattern attained by these bushlike colonies of soft corals in Miami waters offers in- finite opportunity for the study of morphology and speciation. Often one clearly defined species will attain an almost uniform stand in one small region. Almost pure stands of the sea plume, Gorgonia acerosa may be found, or perhaps an almost pure stand of Xiphigorgia anceps or one of the species of Plexaura or Plexaurella. The writer knows of only one region of these waters where a practically pure stand of Gorgonia flabellum may be found. Interestingly enough this locality is on the reef itself, the old or dying reef, in the immediate vicinity of Fowey light. These sea fans are to be found almost everywhere that Alcyonaria occur, of course, but not as the dominant form. LIFE ZONES OF MARINE WATERS 69 Solid heads of stony coral may occur here and there over the sandy or rocky bottom of the bay as well as on the western slopes of Hawk Channel where they often reach tremendous size. Aside from these occasional large heads and other smaller patches, few stony corals other than Porites porites occur inside the reef. While many kinds of stony corals contribute to the life and struc- ture of the reef itself, Acropora muricata palmata, the elk-horn or palmate coral may be considered most characteristic. This great branching coral with its many upraised hands attaining a dozen or more feet in height at times occurs in massed colonies on all true reefs. Its dead skeletons may be recognized even when the majority of the hands have been broken off and a crenulated growth of the encrusting stinging coral, Millepora, has overgrown its rocky columns. On the inner slopes of the reef the closely related Acropora muri- cata cervicornis, the stag-horn coral, a slender, low-grading form, pre- dominates. The Ophiuroidea will be considered in somewhat greater detail to illustrate the differences existing between the faunas of the five main regions that have been marked out in local waters. Over two thousand specimens have been studied in the data that will be presented, drawn from a considerable number of the stations that have been made since 1934. The specimens have been collected by the writer and his classes. Two students, Mr. Charles Kramer and Mr. Harold Humm, have aided in special studies that are being carried on with this group and others of the Echinoderms. The writer also is indebted to Dr. Hubert Lyman Clark of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, who kindly looked over a number of forms that proved difficult to determine with accuracy in the absence of an original, named collec- tion. Dr. Clark, in his volume on West Indian Echinoderms (1933), lists 65 species from 9 families. He reports 18 from Bermuda, 38 from Tortugas, 33 from Puerto Rico and 36 from Tobago. In the present study 33 recognized species have been collected in the Miami region, all taken by the writer and his classes. In addition to these, one other genus is represented by a young specimen, which is undoubtedly a new species, while still other puzzling forms indicate the probability that new species exist in these waters but have not yet been brought to light. Counting the one representative of the genus Ophiacantha, all nine recognized families of the littoral West Indian Ophiurans are known from the Miami region and their representatives make up The Uni- versity of Miami’s local collection of the Ophiuroidea. One species, Astrophyton muricatum, the basket-star or basket-fish, of the family Gorgonocephalidae, with its many branched arms end- 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ing in tentacle-like tips, appears to feed almost exclusively on the polyps of Gorgonia acerosa, the sea plume, and is taken abundantly in the Alcyonarian or hard bottom zone, Zone III. It is found with its arms interlocked and wrapped tightly about a branch of the plume, forming a ball-like mass that cannot be removed forcibly without damaging the specimen. All other littoral members of this class appear to be secretive, posi- tively thigmotactic creatures, living in sponges, in crevices or holes in rock, under coral heads, in empty mollusc shells, in masses of coralline “algae such as Halimeda, beneath any object resting on the bottom, or they may be found burrowing into mud or sand, perhaps to a con- siderable depth. While the littoral distribution of these animals would be ee to place all of them in all 5 zones that make up the writer’s collecting range, specific adaptations to specialized small niches of the general environment have acted to eliminate some entirely from certain zones, or have limited their numbers decidedly in comparison with the abun- dance of other forms. Zone I, with its mud and sand, often eelgrass covered, in protected bay waters, has so far yielded the poorest fauna. Only seven identified species hecre been brought to light. The unique Ophiophragmus filo- graneus, recorded here for the first time from the east coast of Florida, and the ubiquitous Ophiactis savigny occur with almost equal abun- dance in the collections from this zone. The other four species are each represented by a single specimen. One specimen of Ampmioplus abditus constitutes the only record for this species, while the single A mphiodia repens has been taken once also on the flats. Only 6 of the 33 identified species have not been taken in what has been termed the zone of the flats, Zone II. These 6 species include Ophiophragmus filograneus, which has so far appeared only in the sand of Zone I, Amphipholis squamata, Amphiodia rhabdota, Amphioplus abditus, Ophiactis algicola, and Ophiothrix angulata, which is typically a reef form. Nine species taken in this zone have not occurred else- where. Single specimens of Ophiothrix brachyactis and Ophionerets olivacea constitute the only representatives of these species. Ophiocoma echinata, O. riiset, Ophioderma brevicaudum, O. appressum, O. cinereum, Ophiozona impressa and Ophiolepis paucispina occur in some abundance on the flats and have been taken nowhere else. Ophioderma brevispinum is very abundant on the flats and has been taken once elsewhere, in the Alcyonarian zone. Seventeen species of ophiurans appear in the Alcyonarian or moder- ately deep water zone of fairly hard bottom. Amphiodia rhabdota has come as a single specimen and from this zone alone. While more speci- mens have been taken from the flats than from this zone, Ophionereis LIFE ZONES OF MARINE WATERS 71 sqguamulosa has been three times as abundant here as it has been on the flats. Poor collections have been yielded by the channel zone with nine species represented. Ophionereis squamulosa has been most abundant with no species appearing that has not been found elsewhere. The reef zone with its seventeen species presents a rather unique representation of ophiurans. Op/iothrix lineata is the dominant form and far exceeds all others, although it has occurred but rarely else- where. There are indications that continued study may make it de- sirable to divide the reef zone into northern and southern sections. Further studies will clear up this point. When the relative abundance of the various species is considered, it must be noted that the family Amphuridae with its 13 species is dominant in zone I, the deeper protected waters and shores of the bay. The two most abundant species of this zone belong to this family and the third most abundant form falls in the family Ophiotrichidae. Not a single specimen of any family, other than these two, has been taken in zone I. With every family but the Ophiacanthidae represented in zone II, the Amphiuridae are relatively less abundant than other families of the flats, even though Ophiostigma isacanthum and Ophiactis savignyt have been collected in great numbers. Ophiothrix orstedit of the Ophio- trichidae is most abundant. Ophiopsila riiser of the Ophiocomidae ranks second, and Ophioderma brevis pinum of the Ophiodermatidae is third. The Alcyonarian or hard bottom zone, Zone III, shows Ophionereis squamulosa of the Ophiochitonidae as most abundant, Ophiactis savignyt of the Amphiuridae as second in point of numbers, and Ophionereis squamulosa of the Ophiochitonidae as third. The third zone, the channel zone, gives greatest abundance to Ophionereis squamulosa of the Ophiochitonidae, but yields second place to Ophiothrix Grstedi of the Ophiotrichidae, while two species of the Ophiocomidae appear in equal numbers to tie for third. In the reef zone or fifth zone the family Ophiotrichidae completely dominates. Three species of this family rank first, second and third in abundance, namely, Ophiothrix lineata, O. 6rstedi1, and O. angulata. In summary it may be said that the family Amphuridae offers the greatest number of species, most widely distributed, but that except for the abundant and ubiquitous Ophiostigma isacanthum and Ophiac- tis savignyi along with the localized Ophiophragmus filograneus, these species are not well represented in the Miami area. The Gorgonacephalidae, represented by Astrophyton muricatum are abundant in the Alcyonarian zone and occasionally occur in flats, or reef zones. 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The family Ophiomyxidae with its single species, Ophiomyxa flac- cida, has been taken only on flats or reefs. The rare Ophiacanthidae are practically unknown to the area. The Ophiotrichidae, except for two rare species, are very abundant. One species, Ophiothrix 6rstedit is ubiquitous and dominant in every zone, and this one with two others completely dominate the reef zone. The Ophiochitonidae, with one species rare and two abundant, is well represented on the flats, while one of them, Ophionerets squamu- losa dominates the Alcyonarian and channel zones. While two species of the Ophiocomidae occur in all zones, except the first, these forms are primarily flats animals and reach their true im- portance in Zone II. The Ophiodermatidae and the Ophiolepididae are almost exclu- sively confined to the shallow water and hiding places of the flats, Zone II. Attention must also be called to the remarkable abundance of Ophiothrix orstedi1, which ranks third in Zone I, first in Zone II, third in Zone III, second in Zone IV, and second in Zone V. It is hoped that this paper will offer some indication of the work that is being carried on in local waters. Space does not permit the inclusion of tables and additional data bearing upon the ecology of these and other groups of the area. Additional material brought to light by this method of class study and research will be forthcoming from time to time as the opportunity presents itself. A KEY TO THE FRESH-WATER FISHES OF FLORIDA A. F. Carr, Jr. University of Florida THE FRESHWATER fish fauna of Florida is one of the most interesting in the United States. It is a fauna developed in a region of recent geologic origin, low topographic relief, poor drainage, and unusual geographic configuration, and consequently exhibits certain very pe- culiar features. Some of the characteristic continental groups appar- ently have not had time to establish themselves in the peninsula since its elevation above the sea, while others have doubtless failed to find suitable conditions in its low and swamp-bordered water courses. Of the suckers and cyprinid minnows, which form a major element in the fauna of eastern North America, few more than a dozen occur in Florida, and several of these are confined to the extreme western portion of the panhandle. The darters, likewise widespread and abun- KEY TO FRESH-WATER FISHES 73 dant farther north, are represented in the peninsula by only three species. The scarcity of these common forage fishes in the state probably is due in part to the recency of the establishment of migration routes. Moreover, many of the forage fishes, and especially the darters, are adapted particularly to life in swift highland streams, where food is scarce and predators and competitors few. Such delicate fishes may find conditions intolerable in the sluggish and fertile Florida streams. Throughout the first several million years of its history Florida was an island. Whatever fish fauna existed in its youthful drainage system must have been derived principally from marine or marine littoral forms. With the closing of the Suwannee Straits and the establishment of a link with the great land mass to the north, a new region was opened up for invasion by the continental fishes. The newcomers en- countered a fish population composed chiefly of forms characteristic of brackish coastal waters. Among these the cyprinodonts were doubt- less the most numerous, both in species and individuals. Today Florida’s cyprinodont fauna is one of the most extensive in the world. The vigorous and adaptable centrarchids apparently found the new conditions highly favorable, for they have spread over the entire state, and with the gars, comprise a predator list almost unrivaled in the United States. In certain Florida lakes there are found fish closely related to or (nominally) identical with marine forms of the adjacent coasts. Most of the lakes of the state have been formed by solution and collapse of underlying limestone. Some of them, however, appear to be ancient lagoons, or depressions consequent upon the elevated sea-bottom. In Lake Eustis (Lake County), which is presumably of the latter type, three of these marine relicts occur—a sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon hubbsi; a glass minnow, Menidia beryllina atrimentis; and a needle fish, Strongylura marina. Although there is a poorly developed and extremely circuitous drainage connection between Lake Eustis and the Atlantic, it seems improbable that migration takes place through at. In addition to anadromous species, which ascend the rivers to spawn, there is a fairly large list of marine or brackish water fishes which are found more or less regularly in freshwater. A pipefish and a stingaree were recently collected in the St. Johns at Welaka, nearly a hundred miles above the mouth of the river. Unsubstantiated verbal reports record these forms from various other streams and springs in the state. Flounders are fairly common in some of our large freshwater springs. The snook is abundant in many of the canals and rivers of southern Florida, and once in the Everglades, after a three day rain, I 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES saw several three-foot tarpon cruising the drainage ditches in an old tomato field. The present key includes 102 species, and constitutes the first state list of freshwater fishes since 1899, when Evermann and Kendall’s Check-List of the Fishes of Florida appeared. Most of the records are based upon specimens in the collection of the Museum of Zodlogy, University of Michigan, and that of the Department of Biology, Uni- versity of Florida. The few records taken — the literature are from entirely reliable sources. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Although I accept sole responsibility for the present form of this key and for the final selection of the criteria that have been used in distinguishing between the groups and species, I must gratefully acknowledge the oa workers whose studies have made the key possible. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Leonard Giovannoli of the Key West Aquarium, formerly of the Department of Biology, University of Florida. Data which he obtained thru extensive field work, and his unpublished key to the fishes of Alachua County have been used extensively, with his permission, in the preparation of this paper. I am deeply grateful to Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, Museum of Zoélogy, University of Michigan, for much valuable advice, for his identifications of Florida material, and for a list of Florida fishes compiled from his own data and collections. For assistance in securing specimens I wish to thank the following: Mr. R. E. Bellamy, Dodd College, Shreveport, La.; Dr. R. F. Bellamy, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee; Mr. John Kilby and Mr. George Van Hyning, Wakulla Resettle- ment Project, Tallahassee; Mr. Herbert Braren, Ormond; and Miss Marjorie Harris, Welaka Resettlement Project, Welaka. Mr. Horton Hobbs, Department of Biology, University of Florida, is responsible for the explanatory figure, and Mr. Frank Young, of the same department, has been of great help in testing the mechanics of the key. MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS Directions for Using This Key.—Read the first half of couplet No. 1. If your fish agrees with the description, proceed to the couplet to which the number in the right margin directs you. However, if the first half of the first couplet does not seem applica- ble, read the second half. One of the two sections should describe your specimen. Con- tinue the process of selecting the most pertinent description in each of the couplets to which you are directed until you encounter a name. If you have made the proper choice in each case this will be the name of your fish. Scales are counted along the lateral line from the upper end of the gill opening to the last caudal vertebra. The crowded scales which often extend out onto the caudal fin are not included. In counting fin rays, consider only fully developed rays, ignoring the rudimentary ones. Soft rays usually are forked, and appear to be jointed. Spiny rays are not always stiff, but they never show joint-like transverse lines, and are never branched. Spines are indicated by Roman numerals and soft rays by Arabic numerals. D. means dorsal fin; A. means anal fin. KEY TO FRESH-WATER FISHES 75 FIRST DORSAL FIN SECOND DORSAL FIN OPERCULUM ‘ eee en ~ PREMAXILLARY The depth of a fish is the greatest belly-to-back distance exclusive of fins. The head length is the distance from the tip of the snout to the posterior edge of the opercular flap. Where the flap is greatly extended, as in the case of some sunfish, the projection is not included. Head 4; depth 3 indicates that the head is } as long as the body, and the depth, 4 the body length. Body length in this key is the standard length, which is the distance from the tip of the snout to the last caudal vertebra. The more obvious external features have been used as far as possible in separating the forms. In many cases, however, it has been necessary to use more detailed and ob- scure characters. In such instances the novice may have some difficulty in using the key. In general an adult fish is much easier to identify than an immature one. The common names used here are those held in best repute by the committee of common and scientific names of the American Fisheries Society. Local vernacular names, when included, are printed in parentheses. GLOSSARY ADIPOSE FIN A thick fin without rays. ADNATE Fused; grown together. BARBEL A fleshy filament or projection, usually about the head. BRANCHIOSTEGALS Bony rays that support the membranes on the lower side of the head of a fish. CAUDAL Pertaining to the tail; the caudal fin. CAUDAL PEDUNCLE The region between the caudal fin and the dorsal and anal fins. CONFLUENT Not separated; continuous. DORSAL Pertaining to the back. EMARGINATE Slightly notched. GILL RAKERS The tooth-like projections along the inner edges of the bony arches that support the gills. 76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES HETEROCERCAL TAIL An unsymmetrical tail, whose upper lobe is often longer HOMOCERCAL TAIL ISTHMUS LATERAL LATERAL LINE MAXILLARIES OCELLATED OPERCLE OVIPAROUS OVOVIVIPAROUS PERITONEUM PREOPERCLE TERMINAL — TRUNCATE VENTRAL than the lower. The backbone may extend out into the upper lobe, or may merely curve upward before reaching it as in the case of the Bowfin (Amia). A symmetrical tail; the backbone ends at the base of the fin and does not curve upward or enter the fin. The ventral part of the throat and breast between the gill-openings. Pertaining to the sides. A series of small pits or tubes forming a line along the sides of most fish. The outer bones of the upper jaw. Having the appearance of an eye; rounded, and sur- rounded by a ring of lighter color. Posterior part of the bony covering of the gill-chamber. Reproducing by means of.eggs which hatch outside the body. Reproducing by means of large eggs which hatch within the body of the female. The shiny membrane which lines the body cavity. Anterior part of the bony covering of the gill-chamber. At the end. Cut off square; not rounded or forked. Pertaining to the under side of the body. KEY TO FAMILIES 1 Mouth without jaws, a circular opening adapted for sucking................ wale wed aldd pale ea eco Sales Bate Meta Ne nea Petromyzonidae. p. 78 Mouth with articulated jaws. ........5..4.2254. see eee: 2 2( 1) Body disk-like; tail whip-like and longer than body........ Dasyatidae. p. 78 Body not disk-like; tail not like a whip................... Cae eR 3 3( 2) Tail heterocercal.... 2.6.00 00005 1s oo Yee ee 4 Tail homocercal... 22.) ..00 50562006. che bee nee 6 4( 3) Tail forked, its upper lobe the longest.................. Acipenseridae. p. 78 Tail not forked, rounded. ..:: 52)... 5.44 Mae eee 5 5( 4) Mouth extended into a bill; dorsal fin short.............. Lepisosteidae. p. 78 Mouth normal, not bill-like; dorsal fin very long............. Amiidae. p. 78 6( 3) Both eyes on one side, or body very elongate and encased in a bony armor. .26 Eyes normal, one on either side and body not encased in a bony armor; scaled or MAKE: 2. 2 oe se ee eae cleo bd cle Seng ers eRe rrr i 7( 6) Fins without spines, or with only one spine which is in the dorsal fin, or skin MAKE oh bce ese eee ese pn ee bie siete Senet 8 KEY TO FRESH-WATER FISHES 77 MOC TGC (UIOMN CALC Oy len arabe aiiels ays alan e/e ell elayelnig dl siniaih sf eigieis «ele aes 9 CS EL OCCUM AL EM ny mid aI iso ice auch sais eal aie annie aliteisie ew analie je aileve dies 8 17 IEE NTERE TOUT SOALG Sc stele bila iy syeraiis tater ayst bia ajiala| nial: 4(s/\si4) sab 4 alayje/ei tals el « 10 ERECT OSSTSCAI OLS Ney tc NOT UNGana ttle gaNanular a Uae a 14 Seem) membranes free iromisthmus........5 260s ccc eee ee eee eae 11 Meimembranes united with isthmus...) oe ace de seed bee eae aie eles 13 MERE VATUCLIN (0) /0)502 Vn )n Gl) /s1oial les i bigiaiiava tele Wie oiere etd elele ala Wolalmin dake ei 12 MEE RTIEGCSEN ys ose 2) i C)ianedaie ols) a: tis pieiiety lorie taal aiel Suny aceie alee Elopidae. p. 78 12(11) Mouth not extremely wide; maxillary reaching scarcely beyond eye......... nth gl cnel Ss EAR BUNGIE PISA VAAN SOND Sash UO a ess Nena oes ee Clupeidae. p. 79 Mouth very wide; maxillary extending much beyond eye. . . Engraulidae. p. 79 Seemisays of dorsal fin 10'or More)... ee Catastomidae. p. 79 Pereomeorsalumiiewer than (Oe ee Cyprinidae. p. 80 14( 9) Mouth large and terminal; body strikingly elongate..................... 15 Mouth small, more or less superior; body not strikingly elongate.......... 16 15(14) Mouth not extended into a long sharp beak; pectoral fins inserted low....... ce wine ech RT ERS TSSEae La el a DER asta oot ang eer Pa Esocidae. p. 81 Mouth a very long, sharp beak; insertion of pectorals high on sides......... IT ea UCU esl cduslatians! wy ahaiis alas Ale 'siasayel Belonidae. p. 81 16(14) Anal fin of male different from that of female; intestine long, with numerous convolutions, or if not long and convoluted, then body and fins without bars, stripes, large rounded spots, or gay colors, and when pregnant, with an irregular black blotch on side before anal fin, and 8 to 13 very large eggs or embryos in MUM W CANILY | OVOVIVIPATOUS. 0.0)... 4.0.6 ee eee lees Poeciliidae. p. 83 Anal of male similar to that of female; intestine comparatively short and little ERT ane ELTA URINE GS Noein) aul ale Nelelia chr ec fal lalie bie eal sc) ge oa Cyprinodontidae. p. 81 MEME DATO SMACK. ee kbs ee ecole a soe glee Std Eee ee Ble le alee e ales 18 Body long and snake-like; ventral fins lacking............. Anguillidae. p. 81 18(17) Barbels 8; posterior nostril with a barbel; no teeth in roof of mouth......... MDA He GWA LUCEY SGI UES NLU avd i ie oyms hc G) sella 6) slewel¥alehov ale Ameiuridae. p. 80 Barbels 4 or 6; none present on posterior nostril; roof of mouth with teeth... IC ee EI EAU ae Mui an a Al acaudl shud aha talenlsue skeetjacy alone Aridae. p. 80 7 heriy real Linas vere Lerma tiot 0 AA pal fen a naka ear ann OE eee 25 Sees ENORACIC OR UGA A ilar e sic cte eek Ba ayelgiala wide e)biel sigidia daa 20 Pe eG ul membranes tree from isthmus. ..... 5 -...6 600.6 8 en ele ee ela ele 21 Gill membranes united with isthmus........ TOW TAA UN ert nel Eleotridae. p. 86 AMR ei atialin\ eitaiiisi ci ilelei alia lle) \a'l'e/celis|\alle) ere ei ive) anit apie\e! (ep aiieil(eiieiia) steele) 8) ie) ie) e).e ee 78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 22(21), Dorsal fins two. bine kak aa pe Vadlp ee eee elt ele lee er D. single or divided only by a notch........ fe neds eblea 23(22) ‘Anal'spines 111; size large #05 6 4:..01-00) satelnicyen se a Serranidae. p. Anal spines I’or IL; small species:only-.....). 22 4...) Percidae. p. 24(22) Lateral line present; dorsal spines VI to XIII........... Centrarchidae. p. Lateral line lacking; dorsal spines IV or V............... Elassomidae. p. § 25(19) Anal spine I; dorsal spines slender. . 27) 0.2)... 02 see Atherinidae. p. Anal spines II or ITI; dorsal spines stout.................. Mugilidae. p. 86 26( 6) Eyes normally placed; body very elongate, encased in bony armor.......... AT oh ae bobs alee e bie elke 4/0 be fella ele fe tyalentlle6) le oats) oe ale a Eyes on one side of the head only; body not elongate; scales not bony....... Mv vajeyaiie pine eo 'eal athe lotailelel eure Bt UPS eN ieee iu ie aac Archiridae. p. 86 PETROMYZONIDAE | One species in our list: Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus—Sea Lamprey DASYATIDAE One species in our list: Amphotistius sabinus (LeSueur)—Stingaree ACIPENSERIDAE One species in our list: Acipenser brevirostris LeSueur—Shortnosed Sturgeon KEY TO LEPISOSTEIDAE 1 Snout not twice as long as rest of head! 02.22)... eee 2 Snout twice as long as rest of head or longer.......................2.000- ipa i NCH Peau R EE cds te), Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus)—Long-nosed Gar 2( 1) Large teeth of upper jaw in a single row on either side; mouth opening longer than rest of head. ..6 2.2.0 08e6 0056400084 es Hee Large teeth of upper jaw in two rows on either side; mouth opening not as long as rest of head........ Lepisosteus spatula Lacepede—American Alligator Gar 3( 2) Distance from front of orbit to edge of opercular membrane less than ? length OE SMOUE eee vets cts ee Lepisosteus platyrhincus De Kay—Florida Spotted Gar Distance from front of orbit to edge of opercular membrane more than 3 length OP SHOE ale et sgt ios) save Lepisosteus oculatus Winchell—Northern Spotted Gar AMIIDAE One species on our list: Ama calva Linnaeus—Bowfin (Mudfish) KEY TO ELOPIDAE 1 D. with the last ray extended much beyond rest of fin BAL es Re Peach Nt aes on ERD MARTA DR ES LAY} Tarpon atlanticus (Valenciennes)—Tarpon D. normal, its last ray not extended..... Elops saurus Linnaeus—Tenpounder KEY TO FRESH-WATER FISHES 79 KEY TO CLUPEIDAE 1 D. with its last rays extending much beyond rest of fin; stomach like a fowl’s ees een cio PN ere g ci uta leroy Nei cc says) aheljird, idiots eile 'e(cia) ge ase i Last rays of D. not extended; stomach not gizzard-like................... 2 2( 1) Upper jaw not strongly notched at tip; cheeks longer than deep; no wing-like RP SROD GALT EL fi Tey oye ah YO icnshe tae as vd Meats ciel amends Sw elvjre was ees 3 Upper jaw notched at tip, the notch receiving the lower jaw; cheeks deeper than fone a pair of wing-like scales at base of caudal.....................05.- 6 EERIE SIBPSALC Shiota Vk a ala) Jiciaialia is) hes Sie Sa She 5. aie aya cle wMeew Gwe Cole ois 4 Peritoneum black.......... Pomolobus aestivalis (Mitchill)—Summer Herring ao) ttead about 4 or more; depth about 33; A. 19 or more.................... 5 Sean OCDE. ADOUE Ss LSet Linclsc cece ye cise rece sn eee ee lceces a SS Se Pomolobus chrysochloris Rafinesque—Skipjack Herring 5( 4) D. 16; A. 19; head about 43; gill rakers about 35 on lower limb of arch...... -o.9:soo dene Pomolobus pseudo-harengus (Wilson)—Alewife D. 15; A. 21; head about 4; gill rakers about 23 on lower limb of arch....... I ee rs a's Pomolobus mediocris (Mitchill)—Hickory Herring 6( 2) Depth about 33; gill rakers about 60 on lower limb of arch................. ~ ton ee did Ae eee er Alosa sapidissima (Wilson)—American Shad Depth about 3; gill rakers about 40 on lower limb of arch.................. = id i i Or Alosa alabamae Jordan and Evermann—Alabama Shad rmenirmeticenles 421044.) ow be ve we oie ve a cae Geas cv evmaduaess eee diae.ss « Signalosa petensis vanhyningi Weed—Florida Lesser Shad Smee AGEAIES 52 tO 50.05). snc c cece ssa senses guewnmeeascgedieess _ Hae cee aes a Sclerotis punctatus punctatus (Valenciennes)—Black-spotted Sunfish Male with about 14 rows of red spots along sides; 4 rows of scales on cheeks; Se MMPRRR EE SaT EGLO SPOES! 28 raya! ces) ytd: ols 8 cents cyatraye asudl wes o's ciel S eheieiata: 8 Sclerotis punctatus miniatus (Jordan)—Red-spotted Sunfish witiwie = a =e « «© © = 6 « «ee Opercular spot with a pale or colored margin; cheek scales in about 4 or 5 rows; ventrals reaching anal; scales on belly in front of ventrals not much smaller 7 ELLOS E AP LSS 7S2GTr (Se ae Xenotis megalotis marginatus (Holbrook)—Florida Long-eared Sunfish Opercular spot without pale or colored border, black to the edge in adults; scales on belly in front of ventrals much smaller than those on lower sides; cheek scales in about 7 to 9 rows; ventrals not reaching origin of anal........ ee Lepomis auritus solis (Valenciennes)—Southern Red-breasted Sunfish Dorsal almost completely divided into two; maxillary in adult extending be- yond eye; no scales on soft dorsal and anal................ 2.2.02 eee ee eee _- 2 Lie 6 ee Huro salmoides (Lacépéde)—Large-mouthed Bass Dorsal not nearly divided into two; maxillary not extending beyond eye; scales Same mte rene AMG AMAL 0) 30) 2-52) =): cic ewe ie ee se es 84a oh See pees eee 15 Sides plain or with a dark longitudinal band; scales 59 to 66; soft rays of D. 11 lb Lbs 2. Aer Micropterus pseudaplites Hubbs—Spotted Bass Sides plain or with vertical bars; scales 72 to 75; soft rays of dorsal 13 to 15.. eer. Micropterus dolomieu Lacépéde—Small-mouthed Bass (Introduced) KEY TO ELASSEMIDAE A round black spot on side; dorsal spines V; scales 38 to 45................ -- ood eee Elassoma zonatum Jordan—Banded Pigmy Sunfish No round black spot on side; dorsal spines III or IV; scales 27 to 30........ / 25 bre Elassoma evergladei Jordan—Everglades Pigmy Sunfish KEY TO ATHERINIDAE A. I, 16 or 17; scales about 39; length of upper jaw about equal to eye...... . Se Menidia beryllina atrimentis Kendall—Freshwater Glass-minnow Pls seales apout 72; eye 13 in upper jaw... ...--. 2 2c2 ee eee e eee ee ....Labidesthes sicculus vanhyningi Bean and Reid—Florida Brook Silversides 86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MUGILIDAE One species in our list: Mugil cephalus Linnaeus—Striped Mullet KEY TO ELEOTRIDAE 1 Depth 4 or more; soft rays of A. 8; scales more than 40................... 2 Depth about 3; soft rays of A. 9 or 10; scales about 33°0).202 sass ee ORT BUCH elidel Ee RA Dormitator maculatus (Bloch)—Fat Sleeper 2( 1) Scales 40 to 46; depth about 44........... +e been bal 6a Aenea Pie Batis hada he See eae Eleotris amblyopsis (Cope)—Large-scaled Slender Sleeper Scales about 62; depth 44 to 5...........00/.2 {eee DR CO ae, w.........Hleotris pisonis (Gmelin)—Fine Scaled Slender Sleeper SYNGNATHIDAE One species in our list: Syrictes scovelli (Evermann and Kendall) Scovell’s Pipefish ARCHIRIDAE One species in our list: Trinectes maculatus (Rafinesque)—Northern Round Sole THE GULF-ISLAND COTTONMOUTHS A. F. Carr, JR. University of Florida FOR SEVERAL years and from many quarters I have heard vague tales of appalling numbers of snakes inhabiting the little Gulf islands in the vicinity of Suwannee Sound. Visiting sportsmen have returned with incredible stories of their numbers. The inhabitants of the little coastal towns of the neighborhood, though at great variance in their interpretations of the taxonomic status of the form, are all agreed that the island brand of snake possesses a biotic potential more vigorous, a venom more lethal, and a disposition more treacherous and vindictive than any other North American reptile. An attempt to formulate a coherent concept of the serpent or ser- pents responsible for the harrowing reports met with little success. The more conservative of the narrators identified the species as cop- perhead; the more imaginative pronounced it sea cobra. Between these extremes of nomenclature were proposed such picturesque names as stump moccasin, stump-tail viper, salt-water rattler, and mangrove rattler. I discussed the matter at some length with an old fisherman who had lived many years on one of the islands. His ob- servations had led him to conclude that there were four kinds of snakes on the keys off the Suwannee Delta—all equally deadly. The rarest of these he described as a rough-scaled tan snake with long THE GULF-ISLAND COTTONMOUTHS 87 stripes; for this creature he knew no name. Then there was the com- mon black stump moccasin which used to eat his young chickens, the copperhead with bright colors and foul temperament, and worst of all, the little green-tailed water rattler, which never attained a length of more than 18 inches, and from whose bite recovery was impossible. Those of you acquainted with snakes, perhaps, will wonder why I did not immediately identify the species described in the fisherman’s account. The first in his list could be none other than the marine lit- toral Natrix clarkii, while the last three are obviously stages in the pattern development of the cottonmouth moccasin, Agkistrodon piscivoris. In defense I can only remind you of the attitude of slightly pained, though conciliatory, unresponsiveness with which the pro- fessional zodlogist always receives the reports of the amateur. He ex- pects to learn nothing of importance and, consequently, rarely does. But cottonmouths they were, and, the establishing of the fact was an experience fraught with excitement as well as ecological interest. On April 4, 1934, a group from the Department of Biology em- barked on a general collecting trip to the islands off Cedar Keys. The party was composed of Mr. Buck Bellamy, Mr. H. K. Wallace, Mr. J. D. Kilby, Mr. T. D. Carr, Mr. Herbert Braren and myself. We located our camp on the beach at the south end of Seahorse Island, which lies about five miles northwest of Cedar Keys. Seahorse is a roughly crescent-shaped, fairly well wooded island, two or three miles long, with a large population of hogs, a boarded cistern for them to wallow in, and an abandoned lighthouse on its highest point. We arrived rather late and set about making preparations for retir- ing. Kilby, objecting to the arenaceous nature of the communal couch, retired to a distance of fifty yards or so back of the beach, where the grass was thicker. Suddenly we heard shocking language in his quarter and he emerged in great haste, shouting that he had laid his blankets on two adult cottonmouth moccasins, and dragging the mutilated corpse of one of them to support his story. Stimulated by this experience, the party dispersed to explore the island. Within an hour three more moccasins were discovered. One of them was coiled at the base of a cabbage palm near the beach; the other two were nearly trodden upon in the trail leading from the beach up to the lighthouse. On the following morning we set out to investigate the validity of the name Snake Key, as applied to another little island four miles off the mainland to the south of Seahorse. We found it to be a narrow strip of land about a mile long and a quarter of a mile wide, bordered along two sides with a thick growth of red mangrove. Inside the island we were surprised to discover a well-developed forest of shore bay 88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tamala littoralis, with scattered cabbage palms, and little under- growth other than an occasional patch of wild pepper bushes. The ground is overlaid by a thick carpet of bay leaves, and the sunlight, filtered and broken by the interlocking limbs above, falls in a pleasing mosaic on the forest floor. The whole aspect is very reminiscent of a high hammock on the mainland. As we sauntered slowly through one of the long aisles among the trees, I happened to direct my glance downward. There at my feet was a young cottonmouth, neatly coiled, his pattern blending per- fectly with the chiaroscuro of the background. I impaled him with a thrust of a frog gig which I was carrying. Turning to exhibit my capture to Bellamy, six feet behind me, I again looked down. To my alarm I perceived a broad, black head, belonging to a body hidden under the leaves directly in Bellamy’s path, where he could not fail to step on it. Since his feet were clad only in low quarter tennis shoes, and since the two steps that would place him squarely over the snake > were being executed with energy, I made recourse to the only means of stopping him that I could conceive on the instant—I jabbed him ~ viciously with the gig, adorned though it was with the still-living cottonmouth. Bellamy was justly outraged at the act, while Kilby and Tom, who brought up the rear, regarded the scene with grieved aston- ishment. As I pointed out the cause for my show of violence, the latter two suddenly uttered cries of warning and scaled a nearby tree with great alacrity. From a branch they indicated the position of a third moccasin lying a few feet away and nearly covered by leaves. After a brief period devoted to recovering a semblance of com- posure, we bagged the three snakes and resumed our interrupted stroll. During the course of our traversal of the island we caught ten more cottonmouths. We didn’t go out of our way to search for them—we merely tried to avoid stepping on them. It was with some relief that we reached the opposite end of the island. We returned to the boat by the way of the beach. It is very difficult to account for the presence of such a tremendous cottonmouth population in a situation of this nature. We found no trace of fresh water on the island. The only other terrestrial vertebrate that we encountered was the skink, Eumeces inexpectatus, which was fairly abundant among the dead leaves in the woods. The bay trees harbored a large number of wading birds, most of which were nesting; we identified the following species: Ward’s, little blue, little green, snowy, Louisiana, and black crowned night herons. We saw no sign of rabbits, rats, or other small mammals, and terrestrial birds were very scarce. Apparently then, the food sources available to the snakes are three in number: the heron rookery, the skink colony, and the marine fish population. THE GULF-ISLAND COTTONMOUTHS 89 The herons are there for only a short period of each year; even then, the most to be expected from them is the occasional toppling out of the nest of an egg or fledgling. The skinks, though perennial inhabit- ants, are small, very nimble, and apparently not much more numer- ous than the snakes. Salt water fish are plentiful enough, but it is difficult for me to envision a cottonmouth pursuing its prey in the open Gulf or a mangrove swamp. The improbability of the occurrence of this perversion is attested by the fact that, though on several occa- sions we have walked around the island and through the mangrove swamp, we have never encountered one of the snakes near the water, or in fact anywhere except in the dry woods in the interior. The possibility of temporary, seasonal, or sporadic occupancy of the island by the moccasins seems to me very remote. I have seen other terrestrial and freshwater snakes in salt water—on two occasions, rat- tlesnakes,—but I never saw or heard of a cottonmouth voluntarily taking to the sea. A tabulated account of the stomachs of the thirteen snakes taken on the island is presented here: No. Age and sex Stomach contents 1. yearling none 2. adult female 3 heron feathers 3. adult male heron feathers 4. young female none 5. adult male bird bone 6. adult female bird bones 7. young female 1 skink (Eumeces inexpectatus) 8. adult male none 9. adult female 1 skink (Eumeces inexpectatus); 3 fish all under one inch in length; 1 heron egg shell 10. adult female none 11. yearling none 12. adult female none 13. young male none It will be noted that the most salient general feature of the stomachs is their vacuity. The most interesting item in the list is the three small fish found in No. 9. No. 9 was the biggest snake we caught, measuring four feet ten inches. The fish were very small, two of them were Cyprinidon variegatus, three quarters of an inch long; the third, an atherine re- sembling Menidia, was less than a half inch in length. The necessity for believing that this massive serpent had engulfed these tiny iry with the aid of dental equipment too heavy for prey five times their size was disturbing. It was with relief that I finally realized that I had picked the fish, with forceps, out of an eggshell and had laid them 90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES aside for identification. Sensing a way around the impasse, I returned to the eggshell and inspected it carefully. There to my satisfaction I found on its inner wall two spots of white guano and a streak of dried mud. The snake was vindicated. She had not eaten the fish at all, but merely an old eggshell with the smell, or taste, or aura of fish and bird about it. The mother heron had caught the fish, and the sloppy young- sters had spilled them into the eggshell in the bottom of the nest. Ata subsequent housecleaning the shell had been ejected. Mingled with my satisfaction at the neat deduction was a feeling of pity for the cottonmouth. How the shell was ingested without ele crushed to bits I cannot imagine. Two observations which I find in my notes on the moccasin hunt impress me as being of such an esoteric nature that mention is made of them here with the greatest trepidation. I record them only as sta- tistical facts, with the assurance that I have conceived no explanation for them. Of the thirteen snakes encountered, five of them were young, with the juvenile pattern of alternating wide bands of brown and gray, while the remaining eight were old individuals of uniform black colora- tion. The young ones were all found lying in the open on top of the leaves, where they presented the most remarkable example of protec- tive coloration that I have ever seen. Two of the eight black ones were crawling over the ground, but the other six were without exception coiled beneath the leaf mold, with only the head protruding. Further, out of the thirteen snakes, all but the two which were mov- ing about were located under trees in which there were heron nests. I leave to your discretion speculations as to whether and how the young snakes knew they were protectively colored, and the old ones that they were not. Moreover I disclaim all responsibility for their ly- ing under the nesting trees, and know no more than you whether or how they knew they were under nests and that sooner or later an egg or a young bird or a fish would fall out. In fact there is little about these island cottonmouths that I do understand, except that seven months later, during their breeding sea- son, we came upon a three foot male and a monstrous female whose old skin had broken away from her lips and head and stood out around her neck like a Queen Anne collar, and who started gliding away at our approach, and whose consort, lying patiently by her side, ignored our presence, and gaping his fearful mouth, seized her gently about the middle and detained her. That, I believe, we can all understand. And I also know that the problems presented by the Snake Key moccasins are fundamental ones which, for personal and biological in- terest, would more than justify the time spent in their solution. BIRDS OF ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA 91 ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BIRDS OF ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA ROBERT C. McCLANAHAN Pensacola High School Every ornithologist visiting a new territory longs for a summary of the findings of previous workers; this paper attempts to provide that help for future bird students in Alachua County. In addition, the pres- entation of present knowledge always brings attention to points that need further investigation, and that too is the purpose of this list. Material for this paper is taken from publications of Oscar E. Baynard, Dr. Frank M. Chapman, Arthur H. Howell, and Harry C. Oberholser. Also specimens in the Department of Biology, University of Florida, have been examined, and the records of the Florida State Museum have been copied and used, but specimens were not examined because of inadequate storage and cataloguing methods. Another im- portant source of information was correspondence with Mr. Baynard and conversation and correspondence with Charles E. Doe. Except for nesting data, which is taken almost wholly from Baynard’s paper, the majority of the material is taken from my own notes covering a period of four years, 1930-34. Most of Mr. Baynard’s work was done in the vicinity of Orange Lake. The territory covered by Frank M. Chapman was probably only the vicinity of Gainesville. Places most frequently visited by the author were Payne’s Prairie and its arms, Lake Wauberg, Orange Lake, Lake Newman, Sugarfoot Prairie, and the grounds of the Agri- cultural Experiment Station, which adjoins the University of Florida campus. One point of particular inadequacy is the departure data for fall; the author never arrived in Gainesville until late September, and many species had evidently departed by that time. Migration dates given represent what the writer considers average unless otherwise stated. In all a total of two hundred and one species and subspecies is recorded, while one hundred and sixty-one of these have been re- corded by the author. -1. Common Loon—Gavia immer immer. Rare migrant. Records are as follows: Chapman, fifteen from March 31 to April 17, 1887; Florida State Museum, specimen 745615 on June 1, 1929; one group seen by myself during the spring of 1932; and one captured alive November 21, 1935, specimen now in the Charles E. Doe Collection. Loons have also been seen by Oscar E. Baynard. 2. HoRNED GREBE—Colymbus auritus. Occasional in winter. L. C. Remsen of Mc- Intosh reports this species as occurring on Orange Lake, and it is reported by Baynard also. 3. PIED-BILLED GREBE—Podilymbus podiceps podiceps. Permanent resident, com- 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mon in winter, but rare from April 1 until about September. This bird is widely dis- tributed in all water areas. Nesting is substantiated by Baynard, who gives June 1 as the date. 4. FroripA Cormorant—Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus. Permanent resident, common; generally distributed over all water areas. According to Baynard, nests rarely about April 10. 5. WATER-TURKEY—Anhinga anhinga. Permanent resident, common, being found on all bodies of water. Breeds from March through May. 6. GREAT WHITE HERON—Ardea occidentalis. This species is known only from a sight record by O. C. VanHyning on May 9, 1926 (Howell, p. 96). 7. GREAT BLUE HERoN—Ardea herodias herodias. Winter resident, exact status un- known. One specimen mentioned by Oberholser, but no data given. 8. WARD’s HEROoN—Ardea herodias wardi. Permanent resident, common; may be seen on practically all bodies of water. Breeds in colonies during February and March; birds were building nests February 3, 1934, in a colony located on Bivan’s Arm of Payne’s Prairie. 9. AMERICAN EGRET—Casmerodius albus egretta.—Permanent resident, common; seen on all bodies of water. Breeds in April and May; found nesting at Bird Island and Orange Lake, where it was less common than the Snowy Egret. 10. SNowy Ecret—Egretia thula thula. Permanent resident, not common during fall and winter, but apparently outnumbers the American Egret during the breeding season. Breeds from late March through early part of May; colonies at Bird Island and Bivan’s Arm, and formerly (through 1934) just east of Lake Alice. 11. ReEppIsH EGRET—Dichromanassa rufescens rufescens. Baynard records the Red- dish Egret as breeding on Orange Lake during 1907, 1908, and 1911; probably has not occurred since. . 12. Loutstana HERoN—H ydranassa tricolor ruficollis. Permanent resident, common; generally distributed, but never as numerous as the Snowy and American Egrets and Little Blue Heron. Breeds from middle March through May; colonies at Bird Island, Bivan’s Arm, and formerly near Lake Alice. 13. Lirtitze BLurE HEron—Fiorida caerulea caerulea. Permanent resident, common about all water. Breeds from about middle of March to middle of May; found nesting at Bird Island and formerly at Lake Alice. 14. EastERN GREEN HERoN—Butorides virescens virescens. Permanent resident, common in summer, but rare from middle of October until March. Breeds in April and May. 15. BLacK-cROWNED NicHt HEron—Wycticorax nycticorax hoacili. Permanent resi- dent, locally common. Seen at Bird Island regularly, but a preference is shown for small ponds and shaded ‘‘sinks.”” Breeds in March and April. 16. YELLOW-cROWNED NicHtT HERon—Wyctanassa violacea violacea. Permanent resident, uncommon. Reported by Baynard at Orange Lake; in my experience it pre- fers small ponds. Breeds in March and April. 17. AwERIcAN BittERN—Botaurus lentiginosus. Permanent resident, rare in breed- ing season, but common during the winter in all marshes. Baynard reports eggs on June 15. 18. Eastern Least BirrerN—Ixobrychus exilis exilis. All records of my own, as well as published records of others, indicate that this species occurs only during the breeding season. Nests in marshes commonly from April through May. BIRDS OF ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA 93 19. Woop In1ts—M ycteria americana. Common after nesting season, but I have no winter or early spring records. I found this species common on Payne’s Prairie in July, 1936, but previously thought it rare. Nests in March and April. 20. EASTERN GuLossy Ints—Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus. Baynard found this bird breeding on Bird Island in 1909, April 1 to May 1. It has nested at Orange Lake in recent years, and at Bivan’s Arm in 1936. 21. Waite Ints—Guwara alba. Summer resident, common. On May 12, 1934, I esti- mated 5000 birds breeding on Bird Island; nests normally from April through May, but on July 13, 1936, I found two hundred pair nesting at Bivan’s Arm, some still having eggs. This was the first time White Ibis has nested here, and the first nests were not built until sometime in June according to Charles E. Doe. 22. ROSEATE SPOONBILL—Ajaia ajaja. Chapman reports one observed by a Mr. Reynolds on April 23, 1887, and another in the collection of a Mr. Bell. 23. LESSER SNow GoosE—Chen hyperborea hyperborea. Rare, in late fall and winter. A specimen labelled Chen h. nivalis, #35739, in the Florida State Museum, is un- doubtedly this form, although I have not examined the specimen. It was taken by T. A. Ridgell, November 24, 1927, on Payne’s Prairie. Baynard has one or more additional records. 24. Common Martrarp—Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos. Winter resident, rare. Scattered records from middle November through February. No migration records for ducks are given as my records are not complete enough for accurate predictions; how- ever, the middle of October finds many species already present, while the majority have departed by the middle of April in the spring. 25. RED-LEGGED BLAck Duck—Anas rubripes rubripes. Winter resident, rare. The only records are by Chapman in 1887, when he reported it not uncommon. 26. Ftoripa Duck—Anas fulvigula fulvigula. Permanent resident, common. Un- known until 1906, when it appeared on Payne’s Prairie and began to nest (Baynard). Nests in April and May. 27. GapwatL~—Chaulelasmus streperus. Winter resident, rare. I saw two live birds which L. C. Remsen had ‘‘winged”’ during the winter of 1933-34; also reported by Baynard. 28. EUROPEAN WIDGEON—WMareca penelope. The only record is a specimen taken at Orange Lake, December 26, 1931, by Dr. A. L. Strange. The specimen is in the collec- tion of the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 29. BALDPATE—M areca americana. Winter resident, common. Prefers larger lakes; most common on Orange Lake. 30. AMERICAN Pintatt—Dafila acuta tzitzihoa. Winter resident, usually common. Duck hunters inform me that a fluctuation in numbers is common; some winters a species may be the predominant form, but during other winters few will be seen. 31. GREEN-WINGED TEAL—WNettion carolinense. Winter resident, rare. I saw a cap- tive bird taken by L. C. Remsen in 1933 on Orange Lake. Reported common by Chap- man and also seen by Baynard. 32. BLUE-WINGED TEAL—Querquedula discors. Winter resident, common. 33. SHOVELLER—S patula clypeata. Winter resident, usually considered rare, but in my experience, common, especially at Bivan’s Arm. 34. Woop Duck—Aix sponsa. Permanent resident, common. Prefers cypress swamps about lakes and small wooded ponds. Breeds in cavities in trees in April and May. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 35. RING-NECKED DucK—WN yroca collaris. Winter resident, usually the most common duck, but showing a decrease in recent winters. 36. CanvasBacK—Wyroca valisineria. Winter resident, rare. A specimen (#35934) in the Florida State Museum was collected December 13, 1927, by G. E. Geller. Not seen by Chapman or myself, but reported by Baynard. 37. RUFFLE-HEAD—Charitonetta albeola. Winter resident, rare. I examined a speci- men taken on Orange Lake in December, 1933; also reported by Baynard. 38. Ruppy Duck—Erismatura jamaicensis rubida. Winter resident, uncommon. Occurs only in small flocks, mainly on open bodies of water. 39. HoopED lines ee cucullatus. Winter resident, rare. Reported by Chapman and Baynard; also seen on Orange Lake by hunters. 40. RED-BREASTED MERGANSER—Mergus serrator. Rare winter visitant. The only record is a specimen (#50708) in the Florida State Museum, taken November 30, 1931, by Paul Winter. 41, TurRKEY VULTURE—Cathartes aura septentrionalis. Permanent resident, abun- dant. Occurs singly more often than in flocks; always present on Payne’s Prairie. Breeds from March through May. 42. BLACK VULTURE—Coragyps atratus atratus. Permanent resident, abundant. In flocks more often than singly; likewise common on Payne’s Prairie. Breeds from Febru- ary to June. » 43. SWALLOW-TAILED KitE—Elanoides forficatus forficatus. Rare migrant. Five ob- served by Chapman, the only record. 44, Mississippr KitE—Ictinia mississippiensis. Three records; Chapman, April 29, 1887, and one seen by the writer one mile west of Gainesville on May 18, 1934. Also reported by Baynard. 45. SHARP-SHINNED Hawk—Accipiter velox velox. Commen in winter, but rare as a breeding bird. Nests April 15 to May 1. . 46. CoopEer’s HAwK—Accipiter cooperi. Not as common as the Sharp-shinned Hawk in winter, but breeds more commonly. Nests in March and April. 47. EASTERN RED-TAILED HAwK—Buteo borealis borealis. Permanent resident, com- mon. All specimens in the Florida State Museum are catalogued as Buteo borealis borealis Nests in March. 48. FLORIDA RED-TAILED HAwK—Buteo borealis umbrinus. A specimen brought to the Florida State Museum, December 27, 1933, was identified by Charles E. Doe as this form. It is quite likely that intermediates are common in this locality, although A. H. Howell (Florida Bird Life) says that Buteo b. borealis “probably breeds south to Gainesville.” 49. FLORIDA RED-SHOULDERED HaAwK—Buteo lineatus alleni. Permanent resident, common. Typical Buteo lineatus allent are more common, but one taken by Dr. H. B. Sherman on January 7, 1928, was identified by the U.S. Biological Survey as being nearer Buteo lineatus lineatus, but not quite typical; this is interesting in view of the fact that the typical northern form has never been recorded from the state, and also since Dr. Josselyn VanTyne identified this specimen as typical Buteo lineatus lineatus. The specimen is #26 in the Department of Biology Collection at the University of Florida. Breeds from middle of February to April. 50. BROAD-wINGED HawxK—Buieo platypterus platypterus. Rare; arrives sometime in April and breeds in May. 51. SHoRT-TAILED Hawk—Buteo brachyurus. One record, a specimen (#28639) in the Florida State Museum, collected by O. C. VanHyning, February 27, 1926. BIRDS OF ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA 95 52. SouTHERN Batp EactE—Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus. Permanent resident, common. Frequents lakes where it often robs the Osprey of its fish. There has been a noticeable decrease in the numbers of this bird in the past six years. Lays in December. 53. Marsa Hawk—Circus hudsonius. Permanent resident, rare in breeding season, but common at other times. Although most common over prairies, such as Payne’s Prairie, it is often seen over dry fields. Most birds seen are either females or immature males. Baynard reports it breeding at Micanopy in May and June. 54. OsprEY—Pandion haliaetus carolinensis. Permanent resident, rare in December and January, but common during remainder of year. Nests from February through May. 55. Duck HawK—Falco peregrinus anatum. Winter resident, rare. Reported by Baynard, while I have three records as follows: Payne’s Prairie, January 9, 1931; Uni- versity of Florida campus, February, 1931; and January 12, 1934, about one mile west of Gainesville. 56. EASTERN PIGEON HawK—Falco columbarius columbarius. Winter resident, rare. Reported by Baynard, and a single specimen was collected by Chapman on January 4, 1887. 57. LittLE SPARROW HAwK—Falco sparverius paulus. Permanent resident, com- mon. Nests on the University of Florida campus; eggs most common about middle of April. Charles E. Doe states by letter that he suspects Falco s. sparverius also occurs in winter, but all winter specimens I have examined were Falco sparverius paulus. 58. BoBwHitE—Colinus virginianus. Permanent resident, common. The Bobwhite is much more common in Alachua County than in Escambia County, where I have ob- served it for over ten years. According to Howell (p. 193), two specimens from Gaines- ville are intermediate between Colinus v. virginianus and Colinus virginianus floridanus. Breeds from April to September. 59. FLoripA TuRKEyY—WMeleagris gallopavo osceola. Permanent resident, rare. Howell (p. 195) states that birds of this region are not typical, but are nearer osceola. Baynard reports full sets of eggs on April 15. 60. FLoripA CRANE—Grus canadensis pratensis. Rare; I have not seen this species. Baynard reports that it once bred on the prairies of two lakes; nests in April. 61. Limpxin—Aramus pictus pictus. Rare; I have not seen this species within the county, but recorded it on the Ocklawaha River in Marion County. Baynard reports it breeding from November to June, with the height of the nesting season in April and May. 62. Kinc Ratt—Rallus elegans elegans. Permanent resident, not uncommon, but not often seen because of its secretiveness, a characteristic of all rails. Nests in May. 63. VircINIA Ratt—Rallus limicola limicola. Winter resident, rare. The only ob- servation is by Baynard, who by letter informs me of two birds on Payne’s Prairie either December 9 or 10, 1934. 64. Sora—Porzana carolina. Winter resident, rare. Recorded by Baynard, Chapman, and F. W. Walker (specimen #9, Department of Biology, University of Florida). 65. Brack Ratt—Creciscus jamaicensis stoddardi. Rare; the only record is by Bay- nard, who saw an adult with three young in early June. 66. PurPLE GALLINULE—TIonornis martinica. Common during nesting season, and probably winters rarely, but I have no records of its doing so. Prefers water areas with a bonnet or water-hyacinth growth. Nests March to August. 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 67. FLoripA GALLINULE—Gallinula chloropus cachinnans. Permanent resident, com- mon. Habitat water in which there is a growth of bonnets or hyacinth. Nests March to July. 68. AMERICAN Coot—Fulica americana americana. Abundant during winter, proba- bly remaining to breed rarely. Baynard has killed females full of eggs in June. 69. KILLDEER—Oxyechus vociferus vociferus. Permanent resident, but less common during nesting season. Found about all open ponds and lakes. Nests in April and May. 70. AMERICAN Woopcock—Philohela minor. Permanent resident, rare. Reported nesting on February 4 by Baynard. 71. Witson’s SnrPE—Capella delicata delicata. Winter resident, common. Arrives October 1 and departs April 15. Occurs about the edge of all ponds and lakes. 72. UPLAND PLOVER—Bartramia longicauda. Rare migrant. Chapman saw it on two occasions, April 8 and 10, 1887; also recorded by Baynard. 73. SPOTTED SANDPIPER—A ctitis macularia. Common migrant. In spring arrives April 22 and departs May 12; no data available on fall migration. 74, EASTERN SOLITARY SANDPIPER—Tringa solitaria solitaria. Common migrant. Usual spring arrival, April 5, and departure May 6; no data on fall migration. 75. GREATER YELLOW-LEGS—Totanus melanoleucus. Rare migrant. I saw one bird on April 15, 1934, while George VanHyning reported seeing several a few days earlier; also reported by Baynard. 76. LESSER YELLOW-LEGS—Totanus flavipes. Uncertain migrant. Earliest arrival, February 22; departure about April 5; no records for fall. 77. LEAST SANDPIPER—Pisobia minutilla. Not uncommon winter resident; most com- mon in spring migration. Departs in spring about May 12; no data on fall arrival. 78. HEerRRInGc Gutt—Larus argentatus smithsonianus. Winter resident; rare. Seen on only one occasion, December 17, 1931, on Lake Newnan, where they were common for this day. Also reported by Baynard. 79. RING-BILLED GuLLt—Larus delawarensis. Winter resident, not uncommon. Last seen April 22; no arrival data available. Occurs about water, even small ponds. 80. FoRSTER’S TERN—Sterna forsiert. Not seen by myself, but recorded by Baynard, and also Howell (p. 262) at Orange Lake, May 25, 1929. 81. EasTERN Sooty TERN—Sterna fuscata fuscata. Accidental. After a hurricane in September, 1928, large numbers appeared over Gainesville, and specimens (#’s 39216-— 39218) were brought to the Florida State Museum on September 19 and 20. 82. EASTERN MourRNING DovE—Zenaidura macroura carolinensis. Permanent resi- dent, common. Much more numerous in winter. Nests in May. 83. EASTERN GrounD DovE—Columbigallina passerina passerina. Permanent resi- dent, common. Nests during every month of the year except December and January. 84. PassENGER PicEoN—Ectopistes migratorius. Now extinct. Listed by Chapman as a rare winter visitant in 1887, with two specimens in the possession of a Mr. Rey- nolds. 85. YELLOW-BILLED Cuckoo—Coccyzus americanus americanus. Summer resident, common. Arrives about April 4 and departs October 27. Nests April to August. 86. BLACK-BILLED CuckKoo—Coccyzus erythropthalmus. The only record is by Bay- nard; three were positively identified on May 11, 1935, at Gainesville, and two at High Springs on May 12, 1935. Others seen on May 11 were probably of this species. 87. BARN OwL—Tyio alba pratincola. Permanent resident, rare. I have not seen this species, but it has been recorded by Chapman and Baynard, and there is a specimen in the Florida State Museum (#4004). Nests in November. BIRDS OF ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA 97 88. FLormpA SCREECH OwL—Oitus asio floridanus. Permanent resident, not common. Nests in April. 89. Great HorNED OwL_—Bubo virginianus virginianus. Permanent resident, rare. Nests in January. 90. FLorIDA BARRED OwL—Sirix varia alleni. Permanent resident, common. This owl may be expected in any wooded place. Nests in January. 91. CHUCK-WILLS WIDOW—Anitrostomus carolinensis. Summer resident, common. Arrives March 28; no departure record available. Nests in April and May. 92. EASTERN WHIP-POOR-WILL—Antrostomus vociferus vociferus. Winter resident, rare. Not seen by the author, but reported by Baynard, Chapman, Dr. H. B. Sherman, and specimens in the Florida State Museum. Records from November 23 to March 13. 93. FLoripa NicHTHAwK—Chordeiles minor chapmani. Summer resident, common. Arrives about April 14 and departs in first part of October. Nests in April and May. 94. CHIMNEY Swirt—Chaetura pelagica. Summer resident, common. Arrives first part of April and departs first of November. Nests from May to June. 95. RUBY-THROATED HummMincspirD—Archilochus colubris. Common in fall and spring migrations, and a few remain to breed. Arrives in March; no departure date available. Nests in May and June. 96. EASTERN BELTED KINGFISHER—Megaceryle alcyon alcyon. Permanent resident; common in winter, but only a few remain to breed. Nests in April. 97. SOUTHERN FLICKER—Colaptes auratus auratus. Permanent resident, common. Nests March to June. 98. SOUTHERN PILEATED WOODPECKER—Ceophloeus pileatus pileatus. Permanent resident, common. Nests in April. 99. RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER—Centurus carolinus. Permanent resident, common. Nests April to June. 100. RED-HEADED WooDPECKER—WMelaner pes erythrocephalus. Permanent resident, becoming less common in winter. Nests from May through June. 101. YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER—Sphyrapicus varius varius. Winter resident, common. Arrives October 11 and departs March 21. 102. SouTHERN Hatry WoopPECKER—Dryobates villosus auduboni. Permanent resi- dent, uncommon. Nests in April and May. 103. SouTHERN DowNy WooDPECKER—Dryobates pubescens pubescens. Permanent resident, common. Nests in May. 104. RED-cOCcKADED WOODPECKER—Dryobates borealis. Permanent resident, un- common, Occurs only in piney woods. Nests in May. 105. Ivory-BILLED WooDPECKER—Campephilus principalis. Probably extinct now; found breeding by Baynard, with no date given, but probably since 1904. 106. Eastern Kincpirp—T yrannus tyrannus. Summer resident, common. Arrives April 4; no departure available. Nests in May. 107. SoUTHERN CRESTED FLycATCHER—M yiarchus crinitus crinitus. Summer resi- dent, common. Arrives March 31; no departure date available. Nests in May. 108. EASTERN PHOEBE—Sayornis phoebe. Winter resident, common. Arrival, Octo- ber 5; departure, April 4. 109. Acaprian FLycaTCHER—Empidonax virescens. Rare migrant. Seen in September, 1931; arrival in spring given as April 20 by Chapman. 110. EastERN Woop PEWEE—WM yiochanes virens. Summer resident, rare. Arrives April 7; no departure available. Nests in early June. 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 111. TREE SwaLLow—Iridoprocne bicolor. Winter resident, common. Arrival, Octo- ber 15; departure, May 1. 112. RoUGH-WINGED SwALLow—Stelgidopteryx ruficollis serripennis. Exact status not known; seen by Baynard and Charles E. Doe. 113. BARN SwALLOw—Hirundo erythrogaster. Common migrant in both spring and fall. In fall migrates in October; common from April 6 to May 9 in spring. 114. NoRTHERN CLirF SwaLLow—Petrochelidon albifrons albifrons. Migrant; one record’ by the author at Payne’s Prairie, October 27, 1933, verified by a report from ~ Charles E. Doe that he saw them at about the same time. 115. PurpLE Martin—Progne subis subis. Summer resident, common. Arrival, February 9; departure, September 27. Nests in April and May. ; 116. FLrortipa BLUE JAyY—Cyanocitia cristata florincola. Permanent resident, com- mon. Nests March to July. 117. Frorma Jay—A phelocoma coerulescens. The only.record by Baynard; nested once on April 16. 118. FLortpa Crow—Corvus brachyrhynchos pascuus. Permanent, resident, not com- mon. Nests March to April. 119. Fise Crow—Corvus ossifragus. Permanent resident, common. Nests in April. 120. FLormpa CHIcKADEE—Penthestes carolinensis impiger. Permanent resident, com- mon. Nests February to June. 121. TurtEp TitmousE—Baeolophus bicolor. Permanent resident, common. Nests February to April. 122. FLormpa NutTHATCH—Sitta carolinensis atkinsi. Permanent resident, rare. I have never seen this species; reported by Chapman, and found breeding by Baynard in March. 123. GRAY-HEADED NUTHATCH—Sifta pusilla caniceps. Permanent resident, com- mon. Found only in pine woods. Nests February to May. 124. BRowN CREEPER—Certhia familiaris americana. Winter resident, rare. The only record is a specimen in the Florida State Museum taken March 18, 1930 by C. F. Aschemeier (#47030). 125. EASTERN HousE WREN—Troglodytes aedon aedon. Winter resident, common. Arrives October 12; departs April 30. 126. EASTERN WINTER WREN—WNannus hiemalis hiemalis. Winter resident, rare. Earliest fall record, November 10; latest in spring, March 6 (Dr. H. B. Sherman). 127. BEwicx’s WREN—Thryomanes bewicki bewicki. Winter resident, rare. Earliest fall record, September 20, 1919, collected by F. W. Walker (specimen #67, Department of Biology, University of Florida); latest spring record, February 4. 128. FLtormA WREN—Thryothorus ludovicianus miamensis. Permanent resident, common. Nests March to July. 129. EastERN Mocktncpirp—Mimus polyglottos polyglottos. Permanent resident, common. Nests March to August. 130. CatsrrpD—Dumetella carolinensis. Permanent resident, rare in winter and breed- ing season, but common in both migrations. Nests in April. 131. Brown THRASHER—T oxostoma rufum. Permanent resident, common in winter, decreases by nesting period. Nests in April. 132. EASTERN Ropin—Turdus migratorius migratorius. Winter resident, common. Southern Robin probably occurs also. Arrives in early November; usually leaves in early April. BIRDS OF ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA 99 133. Woop THRusH—A ylocichla mustelina. Migrant and winter resident, rare. One winter record, December 12, 1930. No significant data on migration. 134. EASTERN Hermit TorusH—Hylocichla guttata faxonit. Winter resident, com- mon. Arrival, October 25; departure, April 15. 135. GRAY-CHEEKED THRUSH—Hylocichla minima aliciae. Rare migrant. One rec- cord, a specimen taken by Chapman, April 26, 1887. 136. EASTERN BLUEBIRD—-Sialia sialis sialis. Permanent resident, common. Nests March to June. 137. BLUE-GRAY GNATCATCHER—Polioptila caerulea caerulea. Permanent resident, common. Nests in April. 138. EASTERN GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET—Regulus satrapa satrapa. Winter resi- dent, rare. Recorded by Baynard, and two specimens (#’s 45723 and 46829) in the Florida State Museum taken November 30, 1929. 139. EASTERN RUBY-CROWNED KincLEt—Corthylio calendula calendula. Winter resident, common. Arrival, October 17; departure, April 24. 140. Amertcan Preit—Anthus spinoletta rubescens. Winter resident, common. Ar- rival, November 10; departure, April 12. 141. Cepar Waxwinc—Bombycilla cedrorum. Winter resident; occurs in large num- bers from March to May, but rare in winter. Departure, May 6. 142. LoccERHEAD SHRIKE—Lanius ludovicianus ludovicianus. Permanent resident, common. Nests Feburary to July. 143. WHITE-EYED VIREO—Vireo griseus griseus. Permanent resident, rather rare in winter, but common at other times. Nests in April and May. 144. YELLOW-THROATED VIREO—Vireo flavifrons. Common migrant; perhaps nests rarely; a very late departure of November 12 was obtained; arrival, April 6. 145. BLUE-HEADED VIREO—Vireo solitarius solitarius. Winter resident, not uncom- mon. Chapman secured specimens of this and the following subspecies and found them occurring in about equal numbers. Arrival, middle of November; departure, March 26. 146. MountaIn VirEo—Vireo solitarius alticola. Winter resident, uncommon. Mi- gration dates of the former subspecies apply, as it is impossible to separate the two in the field. 147. RED-EYED VIREO—V reo olivaceus. Summer resident, common. Arrival, March 27; departure, October 15. Nests in early May. 148. BLAcK AND WHITE WARBLER—WMniotilta varia. Winter resident, common. Arrival, probably in August; departure, April 26. 149. PRoTHONOTARY WARBLER—Protonotaria citrea. Migrant and summer resident, uncommon. Arrival, April 1; departure data not available, but probably early Sep- tember. No nesting records, but nest found in Marion County on May 16. 150. WoRM-EATING WARBLER—Helmitheros vermivorus. Rare migrant, and acci- dental in winter. Chapman took two specimens, April 11 and December 26, 1887; also recorded by Baynard. 151. ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER—Vermivora celata celata. Winter resident, not uncommon. Arrival, October 28; departure, April 1. 152. NoRTHERN PARULA WARBLER—Compsothlypis americana pusilla. Migrant only; Howell (p. 394) mentions specimens taken at Gainesville, October 5, 6, and 21, 1919. 153. SouTHERN PaRULA WARBLER—Compsothlypis americana americana. Summer resident, common. Arrival, March 5; departure, unusually late birds seen on November 19. Nests in early April. 100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 154. EASTERN YELLOW WARBLER—Dendroica aestiva aestiva. Uncommon migrant. Arrival in spring, April 15; arrival in fall, July 24. No departure data available. 155. Cape May WARBLER—Dendroica tigrina. Rare migrant in spring; arrival about April 15. 156. BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER—Dendroica caerulescens caerulescens. Rare migrant; arrival about April 10, remaining until early May. Probably occurs in fall. 157. MyrtTLE WARBLER—Dendroica coronata. Winter resident, common. Arrival, November 7; departure, April 20. 158. YELLOW-THROATED WARBLER—Dendroica dominica dominica. Permanent resi- dent, common. Not listed by Baynard as nesting, but it remains throughout the summer and certainly nests. 159. BLACK-POLL WARBLER—Dendroica striata. Uncommon migrant; appears in May. 160. NoRTHERN PINE WARBLER—Dendroica pinus pinus. Permanent resident, com- mon. Nests in March. 161. KirTLAND’s WARBLER—Dendroica kirtlandi. Rare migrant. One record, a bird observed at Bivan’s Arm, April 26, 1934. 162. NoRTHERN PRAIRIE WARBLER—Dendroica discolor discolor. Migrant; recorded by Howell (p. 407). 163. FLORIDA PRAIRIE WARBLER—Dendroica discolor collinsi. Uncommon summer resident. Nests in late April. Migrant birds, which are common during the first two weeks of April, may be Dendroica d. discolor. 164. WESTERN Patm WARBLER—Dendroica palmarum palmarum. Winter resident, common. Arrival, October 15; departure, April 25. 165. YELLOw PaLtmM WARBLER—Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea. Winter resident, not uncommon. Arrives later and leaves earlier than the Western Palm Warbler. 166. OvENBIRD—Seiurus aurocapillus. Winter resident, not uncommon. Arrival, October; departure, April 19. 167. GRINNEL’S WATER-THRUSH—Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis. One record, a specimen (#36861) in the Florida State Museum, taken by O. C. Van Hyning on May 13, 1928. 168. LoutstanaA WATER-THRUSH—Seiurus motacilla. Migrant in spring and fall. In spring, during March and April; seen on October 27 in fall. 169. NoRTHERN YELLOWTHROAT—Geothlypis trichas brachidactyla. Howell (p. 417) records a specimen taken February 13, 1890. 170. FLoripa YELLOWTHROAT—Geothlypis trichas ignota. Permanent resident, com- mon. Nests in late April and May. 171. HoopED WaRBLER—W ilsonia citrina. Migrant in spring and fall. More common in April during spring; in fall during September and October. 172. AMERICAN REDsSTART—Setophaga ruticilla. Common migrant in both spring and fall. In spring from March 28 to May 8; in fall during October. 173. ENGLISH SPARROW—Passer domesticus domesticus. Permanent resident, abun- dant. 174. BoBoLInK—Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Common migrant in spring; April 19 to May 13. Chapman reports one on January 5, 1887. 175. SOUTHERN MEADOWLARK—Sturnella magna argutula. Permanent resident, common. Nests in late April. ) BIRDS OF ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA 101 176. FLtormpA RED-WING—A gelaius phoeniceus mearnsi. Permanent resident, com- mon. Nests March to July. 177. ORCHARD ORIOLE—Icterus spurius. Rare breeder, and uncommon migrant. Arrival, April 13; probably departs in August. Nests in early June. 178. BALTIMORE OrIoLE—Icterus galbula. Chapman reports two wintering birds, December 15, 1886, and February 4, 1887. 179. Rusty BLacksrirpD—Euphagus carolinus. Winter resident, irregular. Arrival, not known; departure March 20. 180. WEsTON’s GRACKLE—Cassidix mexicanus westoni. Permanent resident, com- mon. Nests from March to July. 181. Frorma GRAcCKLE—OQuiscalus quiscula aglaeus. Permanent resident, common. Nests in April and May. 182. EASTERN CowprrD—Molothrus ater ater. Winter resident, irregular. Arrival, November 13; departure, sometime in March. 183. SuMMER TANAGER—Piranga rubra rubra. Summer resident, common. Arrival, April 12; departure, late September. Nests in early May. 184, FrormpA CARDINAL—Richmondena cardinalis floridana. Permanent resident, common. Nests from April to September. 185. InpIco Buntinc—Passerina cyanea. Uncommon, Chapman reports a female on January 27, 1887; and saw several from October 16 through 21, 1933. H. H. Bailey reports a nest found at Gainesville (Howell). 186. EASTERN PuRPLE FincH—Carpodacus purpureus purpureus. Winter resident. Chapman reports them ‘‘not uncommon.” I have not seen this species. 186. NoRTHERN PINE SIsKIN—Spfinus pinus pinus. Winter visitor. Howell (page 445) states that Brewster and Chapman recorded one bird at Gainesville on February 15, 1890. 188. EASTERN GOLDFINCH—S Pinus tristis tristis. Winter resident, common. Arrival, November 19; departure, April 14. 189. RED-EYED TOWHEE—Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus. Winter resi- dent, common. Arrives in October; departs in April. 190. WHITE-EYED ToWHEE—P%ipilo erythrophthalmus alleni. Permanent resident, common. Nests from April through June. 191. EASTERN SAVANNAH SPARROW—Passerculus sandwichensis savanna. Winter resident, common. Arrival, October 15; departure, April 15. 192. FLORIDA GRASSHOPPER SPARROW—Ammodramus savannarum floridanus. Per- manent resident, rare. Probably nests in May. 193. SHARP-TAILED SPARROW—Ammospiza caudacuta caudacuta. Known from six specimens in the Florida State Museum; taken by C. F. Aschemeier from December 2, 1930, through January 6, 1931. 194, EASTERN VESPER SPARROW—Pooecetes gramineus gramineus. Winter resident, common. Arrival, October 27; departure April 1. _ 195. BAcHMAN’S SPARROW—Aimophila aestivalis bachmani. Winter resident, not uncommon. No migration data available, since few specimens were taken. 196. PINE-woops SPARROW—Aimophila aestivalis aestivalis. Summer resident, com- mon; probably occurs in winter also. Nests in April. 197. EASTERN CHIPPING SPARROW—Sizella passerina passerina. Winter resident, common. Arrival October 18; departure, April 8. 102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 198. EASTERN FIELD SPARROW—S Pizella pusilla pusilla. Winter resident, irregular. Arrival in December; departure, April 8. 199. WHITE-THROATED SPARROW—Zonotrichia albicollis. Winter resident, common. Arrival, November 5; departure, last of April. 200. Swamp SparRow—WMelospiza georgiana. Winter resident, common. Arrival, November 5; departure, April 10. 201. EASTERN SONG SPARROW—Melospiza melodia melodia. Winter resident, not un- common. Arrival, November 1; departure March 20. © LIST OF THE RECENT WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA H. B. SHERMAN University of Florida No RECENT list of the land mammals of this region, intended to be complete, has appeared since the publication in 1898 of ‘““Land Mam- mals of Peninsular Florida and the Coast Region of Georgia’”’ by Bangs. Many of the names used by Bangs are now synonyms and a number of new forms have been described in the past thirty nine years. It is the purpose of the present paper to list, under the scientific names now in use, the land mammals of the state, cite the more im- portant literature, and furnish information as to the geographical dis- tribution of each form. For unpublished distribution records for certain species of bats, I am indebted to the U. S. Biological Survey, U. S. National Museum, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Field Museum of Natu- ral History, Chicago Academy of Sciences, Dr. W. J. Hamilton of Cornell University, and Dr. E. V. Komarek of the Cooperative Quail Study Association of Thomasville, Georgia. Also I am indebted to W. Frank Blair for adding unpublished records from his collection (WFB) and from the collection of the University of Michigan Mu- seum of Zodlogy (UM). As in the above two cases my records are in- dicated by initials. The majority of our mammals belong to groups which have been revised fairly recently, for which reason their relationships and geo- graphical ranges are generally well known. With members of certain other groups, for example the short-tailed shrews and the salamanders (Geomys), it seems probable that a modern revision will alter consider- ably our present ideas of their taxonomy. Also certain regions of the state have been favorite collecting grounds while others have been neglected. Much field work remains to be done to determine the de- tails of distribution in these little-worked areas. Eighty-four species or subspecies are here listed of which six have WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 103 been introduced and five others of which are known only from single locality records. Recently attempts have been made to introduce the beaver and muskrat, but these are not listed, as the success of these experiments is problematical. History.—Exclusive of the writings of the early explorers, in which many statements are present concerning the larger or more conspicu- ous mammals, the earliest list of Florida mammals which I have seen is that of J. A. Allen, 1871, which deals with the mammals of eastern Florida, chiefly from the region of the St. Johns River. Thirty-five species are discussed, one of which, the manatee, is aquatic. The following year, Maynard’s “Catalogue of the mammals of Florida, with notes on their habits, distribution, etc.’’ appeared, which records the roof rat, a leaf-nosed bat, and a porpoise in ad- dition to those mentioned by Allen. The same list was also pub- lished, with but few changes, in 1883. In 1894, Rhoads’ list of 22 species of mammals from the region of Tarpon Springs was published, which contains a description of 2 new species. Also in 1894, Chapman’s ‘‘Remarks on certain land mammals of Florida with a list of the species known to occur in the state” ap- peared. In this, 53 species and subspecies are discussed. Cory’s ‘“‘Hunting and Fishing in Florida,’ 1896, contains much of interest concerning the habits of the larger mammals. He mentions 52 kinds of mammals as occurring in the state. In 1898, Bangs’ “Land mammals of peninsular Florida and the coast region of Georgia”? was published, and is one of the most im- portant technical papers dealing with the mammals of this region. Sixty-two Florida forms are discussed, a number of which are de- scribed for the first time. Another article of interest in this connection is that of Elliot, 1901, which deals with the mammals collected in North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. More recently, Simpson, 1929, includes a list of the recent land mammals for comparison with the extinct land mammals of Florida. This is incomplete for certain groups were intentionally omitted, namely the bats and ‘‘those species or subspecies which are peculiar to islands or keys of Florida, or which may enter northern Florida.”’ Also an interesting non-technical account of ‘‘Florida’s Mammals” by A. H. Howell, is in Nature Magazine for December, 1929. The arrangement of species in the following list is the same as that adopted by Miller in his ‘‘List of the North American recent mam- mals, 1923” and in most cases the common names used are the same as those of Anthony’s “‘Field book of North American mammals” 1928. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CLASS MAMMALIA SUBCLASS EUTHERIA ORDER MARSUPIALIA FAMILY DIDELPHIIDAE Genus Didelphis Linn.—Opossums 1901. J. A. Allen, A preliminary study of the North American opossums of the genus Didelphis. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pp. 149-188. Didelphis virginiana pigra Bangs.—Florida Opossum. 1898. Didelphis virginiana pigra Bangs, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 172. Type Locatity.—Oak Lodge, opposite Micco, Brevard County, Florida. RaNGE.—“‘Florida, the lower coast region of Georgia, and the low Gulf Coast belt as far as western Louisiana.” Miller, 1924, p. 3. FrLorma REcorps:—Alachua County, Alachua, Gainesville, HBS; Brevard County, Oak Lodge, Eau Gallie, Bangs, 1898, p. 172; Citrus County, Deer Creek, Bangs, 1898, p. 172; 10 miles south of Inverness, HBS; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 172; Lake County, Lake Norris, HBS; Monroe County, 5 miles east of Flamingo, Blair, 1935b, p. 802; St. Johns County, Anastasia Island, Elliot, 1901, p. 33; Volusia County, Enterprise, Elliot, 1901, p. 33. ORDER INSECTIVORA FAMILY TALPIDAE—MOLES Genus Scalopus Geoffroy 1915. H. H. T. Jackson. A review of the American moles. N. Amer. Fauna #38; U.S. Dept. Agric., Bureau of Biological Survey. Scalopus aquaticus howelli Jackson.—Howell’s Mole. 1914. Scalopus aquaticus howelli Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 27, p. 19. Type Locatity.—Autaugaville, Autauga County, Alabama. RancE.—“North Carolina (except in Appalachian Mountains), South Carolina, northern Georgia, thence southwest across central Alabama and southern Mississippi to Pensacola Bay and the Mississippi River.’’ Jackson, 1915, pp. 36-7. FLORIDA REcoRDS:—Escambia County, Pensacola, Jackson, 1915, p. 37; Liberty County, Rock Bluff, HBS. Scalopus aquaticus australis (Chapman).—Florida Mole. 1893. Scalops aquaticus australis Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, p. 339. TypE Locatity.—Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida. RANGcE.—“‘Southeastern Georgia and the eastern portion of peninsular Florida south to Lemon City.” Jackson, 1915, p. 38. FLoripA REecorps:—from Jackson, 1915, p. 39, unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville, Micanopy, HBS; Levy Lake, UM; Brevard County, Canaveral, East Micco, Georgiana, Indian River, Oak Lodge; Dade County, Lemon City, south- west of Royal Palm State Park, H. H. Bailey, 1930; Duval County, Jacksonville, New Berlin; Lake County, Eustis; Marion County, Lynne; Palm Beach County, Lake Worth; St. Johns County, Point Matanzas, Bangs, 1898, p. 211, St. Augustine; Volusia County, Enterprise, Kissimmee River, Lake Harney, Orange Hammock. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 105 Scalopus aquaticus anatasae (Bangs).—Anastasia Island Mole. Scalops anastasae Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 212. Type Locatiry.—Point Romo, Anastasia Island, Florida. Rance.—‘‘Anastasia Island, Florida.” Jackson, 1915, p. 39. Scalopus aquaticus parvus (Rhoads).—Little Mole. 1894. Scalops parvus Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 157. TypE Locatiry.—Tarpon Springs, Pinellas County, Florida. RANGE.—Region north of Tampa Bay, in Hillsboro, Pasco and Pinellas Counties, Fla. FLORIDA REcorps from Jackson, 1915, p. 42:—Hillsboro County, Port Tampa City; Pasco County, Port Richey; Pinellas County, Belleair, Seven Oaks, Tarpon Springs. FAMILY SORICIDAE—SHREWS Genus Sorex Linn.—Long-tailed Shrews 1928. H. H. T. Jackson, A taxonomic review of the American long-tailed shrews N. Amer. Fauna #51, U.S. Dept. Agric., Bureau Biol. Surv. Sorex longirostris longirostris Bachman.—Bachman Shrew. 1837. Sorex longirostris Bachman, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 7, pt. 2, p. 370. Typr Locatity.—Swamps of the Santee River, South Carolina. RancEe.—‘‘Atlantic plain and Piedmont region (except vicinity of Dismal Swamp, Va., inhabited by S. 1. fisheri) from northern Virginia and southern Maryland, south to northern Florida (Alachua County) and central Alabama (Autauga County); east- ern and southern Illinois and southwestern Indiana.”’ Jackson, 1928, p. 85. FLoripA REcorps:—Alachua County, 5 miles east of Gainesville, Sherman, 1928, Blair, 1935a, p. 274. Genus Cryptotis Pomel Revised by Merriam under the name Blarina, 1895b. N. Amer. Fauna, #10, pp. 16-30. U.S. Dept. Agric., Bureau of Biol. Surv. Cryptotis floridana (Merriam)—Florida Short-tailed Shrew. 1895. Blarina floridana Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna #10, p. 19. Typr Locatity.—Chester Shoal, 11 miles north of Cape Canaveral, Brevard County, Florida. RANncE.—‘“Peninsular Florida, south of latitude 29°. Exact limits of range un- known.” Merriam, 1895b, p. 19. ‘‘Northward certainly to southeast Georgia (St. Mary’s).” Bangs, 1898, p. 209. FrLorma Recorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Brevard County, Chester Shoal, 11 miles north of Cape Canaveral, Merriam, 1895b, p. 19; Indian River, Mer- riam, 1895b, p. 19, Micco, Merriam, 1895b, p. 19; Oak Lodge, Bangs, 1898, p. 209; Flager County, Carterville, Bangs, 1898, p. 209; St. Johns County, Point Matanzas, Bangs, 1898, p. 209; Volusia County, Enterprise, Elliot, 1901, p. 55. Genus Blarina Gray 1895. C. Hart Merriam, Revision of the shrews of the genera Blarina and Notio- sorex, N. Amer. Fauna 10, U.S. Dept. Agric., Bureau of Biol. Surv. Blarina brevicauda carolinensis (Bachman)—Carolina Short-tailed Shrew. 1837. Sorex carolinensis Bachman, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 7, pt. 2, p. 366. 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Type Locatity.—Eastern South Carolina. RancEe.—‘‘From the mouth of Chesapeake Bay to Arkansas.”? Merriam, 1895b, p. 13. FLoripA REecorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS. Blarina brevicauda peninsula (Merriam)—Everglade Short-tailed Shrew. 1895. Blarina carolinensis peninsulae Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna #10, p. 14. TyprE Locatity.—Miami River, Dade County, Florida. RancE,—“Peninsula of Florida, south of latitude 28°.”’ Merriam, 1895b, p. 14. FLorma REcorps:—Brevard County, Micco, Merriam, 1895b, p. 15; Oak Lodge, Bangs, 1898, p. 208; Collier County, Everglade, Merriam, 1895b, p. 15; Dade County, Miami River, Merriam, 1895b, p. 15. ORDER CHIROPTERA—BATS FAMILY PHYLLOSTOMIDAE—AMERICAN LEAF-NOSED BATS Genus Artibeus Leach 1908. Knud Andersen. A monograph of the chiropteran genera Uroderma, En- chisthenes, and Artibeus. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 204-319. Artibeus jamaicensis subsp. No Florida specimen is known to be in existence, but a drawing of a specimen ob- tained by C. J. Maynard at Key West in 1870, sent to Dr. Harrison Allen, 1893, pp. 52-53, led the latter to “unhesitantingly” identify it as Artibus perspicillatus. Since A. perspicillatus is now a synonym of A. jamaicensis of which there are five subspecies, there is some doubt as to which one Maynard’s specimen should be assigned. The oc- currence of Artibus jamaicensis parvipes (Rhen) in Cuba suggests that this is the sub- species taken in Key West. FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDAE 1897. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr. Revision of the North America bats of the family Ves- pertilionidae. N. Amer. Fauna #13. Genus Myotis Kaup 1928. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., and Glover, M. Allen. The American bats of the genera Myotis and Pizonyx. U.S. Nat. Mus., Bull. #144. Myotis austroriparius (Rhoads)—Southeastern Little Brown Bat. 1897. Vespertilio lucifugus austroriparius Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pe 22i- TyprE Locatity.—Tarpon Springs, Pinellas County, Florida. RANGE.—“‘Vicinity of Tarpon Springs, Fla.; Mitchell, Indiana; Canada?” Miller and Allen, 1928, p. 76. FLorIpA REcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Sherman, 1930, p. 495; Citrus County, 10 miles south of Inverness, HBS; Hillsborough County, Tampa Bay, Indian Key, UM; Jackson County, Mariana, HBS; Leon County, Tallahassee, E. V. Ko- marck; Levy County, Manatee Spring, WFB; Pinellas County, Bird Key, Tampa Bay, Miller and Allen, 1928, p. 78; Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1897, p. 227, Miller and Allen, 1928, p. 78. Myotis grisescens A. H. Howell—Little Gray Bat. 1909. Myotis grisescens Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 22, p. 46. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 107 Type Locarity.—Nickajack Cave, near Shellmound, Marion County, Tennessee. RANGE.—“Limestone area from extreme southern Indiana and Illinois south to Tennessee, Georgia, and central Alabama, westward to southwestern Missouri and Northern Arkansas.” Miller and Allen, 1928, p. 81. FLormDA REcoRDS:—Jackson County, Chipola River, north of Marianna. Sherman, 1934, p. 156. Genus Pipistrellus Kaup Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus (F. Cuvier)—Georgian Bat. 1832. V[espertilio] subflavus F. Cuvier, Nouv. ann. mus. hist. nat. Paris, vol. 1, pail. Type Locatiry.—Eastern United States, probably Georgia. RancE.—“Eastern United States, from the Atlantic coast to Iowa and southern Texas.” Miller, 1924, p. 75. FLtormpA ReEcorps:—Alachua County, Alachua, Gainesville, Newberry, HBS; Citrus County, Blitches Ferry, Miller, 1898, p. 116; 10 miles south of Inverness, HBS; Dixie County, Old Town, Miller, 1898, p. 116; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 157. Genus Eptesicus Rafinesque Eptesicus fuscus osceola Rhoads—Florida Big Brown Bat. 1902. Eptesicus fuscus osceola Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, for 1901, p. 618. Type Locatity.—Tarpon Springs, Pinellas County, Florida. RANGE.— Known only from region of type locality. Genus Lasiurus Gray Lasiurus borealis borealis (Miiller)—Red Bat. 1776. Vespertilio borealis Miiller, Natursyst. Suppl., p. 21. Type Locatity.—New York. RANGE.—“‘Boreal, transition, and Austral zones in eastern North America from Canada to Florida and Texas; west at least to Indian Territory and Colorado.” Miller, 1924, p. 78. FLorma ReEcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Dixie County, Old Town Miller, 1898, p. 216; Duval County, St. Marys River near Boulogne, HBS; Escambia County, Muscogee, U.S. Biol. Survey; Santa Rosa County, Mulat, U.S. Biol. Survey. Lasiurus seminola (Rhoads)—Seminole Bat. 1895. Atalapha borealis seminola Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 32. Type Locatity.—Tarpon Springs, Hillsboro County, Florida. RanGE.—Florida to Louisiana and South Carolina. One record each for Pennsyl- vania and Texas. FLorma ReEcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; 6 miles west of Lake Geneva, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia; Baker County, St. Marys River, Cornell Univ.; Brevard County, Micco, U.S. Biol. Survey; Citrus County, Blitches Ferry, Citronelle, Deer Creek, Miller, 1898, p. 217; Dixie County, Old Town, Miller, 1898, p. 217; Es- cambia County, Pensacola, HBS; Gulf County, Apalachicola, U. S. Biol. Survey; Hillsborough County, Lake Mobley, U. S. Biol. Survey; Leon County, Tallahassee, U.S. Nat. Museum; Levy County, Cedar Keys, HBS; Madison County, Cherry Lake, U.S. Biol. Survey; Nassau County, St. Marys River, Cornell Univ.; Pinellas County, 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Seven Oaks, U. S. Biol. Survey; Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1895a, p. 36; Santa Rosa County, Mulat, U.S. Biol. Survey; Seminole County, Lake Harney, U. S. Biol. Survey; Wakulla County, St. Marks and Five miles above mouth of Aucilla River, U. S. Biol. Survey. Lasiurus cinereus (Beauvois)—Hoary Bat. 1796. “‘Vespertilio cinerea (misspelled linerea) Beauvois, Catal. Raisonne Mus. Peale, Philadelphia, p. 18. (P. 15 of English edition of Peale and Beauvois.)”’ Miller, - 1924, p. 79. Typr Locatiry.—Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Rancr.— Boreal North America from Atlantic to Pacific, breeding within the Boreal Zone, but in autumn and winter migrating at least to southern border of United States.’’ Miller, 1924, p. 79. FLormwA Recorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Chapman, 1894, p. 343. Genus Dasypterus Peters Dasypterus floridanus Miller—Florida Yellow Bat. 1902. Dasypterus floridanus Miller, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 392. Typre Locarttry.—Lake Kissimmee, Florida. RancEe.—“‘Florida and Gulf coast west to Louisiana.’’ Miller, 1924, p. 80. FrioripA REcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Clay County, 6 miles north of Lake Geneva, Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia; Nassau County, St. Marys River near Boulogne, HBS; Pinellas County, Polk County, Lakeland, HBS; Seven Oaks, U. S. Biol. Survey. Genus Nycticeius Rafinesque Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque) Bat. 1818. Vespertilio humeralis Rafinesque. American Monthly Magazine, vol. 3, p. 445. Typre Locatitry.—Kentucky. Rancre.—“‘Austral zones in the eastern United States, west to Arkansas and south- ern Texas.”’ Miller, 1924, p. 80. FLorma Rrecorps:—Alachua, Gainesville, HBS; Brevard County, Titusville, Miller, 1898, p. 217; Citrus, Blitches Ferry, Citronelle, Miller, 1898, p. 217, Columbia County, Benton U. S. Biol. Survey; Dixie County, Old Town, Miller, 1898, p. 217; Escambia County, Pensacola HBS; Gadsden County, Chattahoochee, U. S. Biol. Survey; Hills- borough County, near Plant City, HBS; Tampa Bay, Indian Key, UM; Leon, Talla- hassee, HBS; Marion County, Ocala, HBS; Osceola County, Kenansville, U. 5. Biol. Surv.; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 157; Putnam County, Shell Bluff, U. S. Biol. Survey; Seminole County, Mullet Lake, U. S. Biol. Survey. Genus Corynorhinus H. Allen Corynorhinus macrotis (Le Conte)—Le Conte Lump-nosed Bat. 1831. Plec[otus] macrotis Le Conte, McMurtrie’s Cuvier, Animal Kingdom, vol. 1, p. 431. Type Locatity.—‘‘Georgia; probably the Le Conte plantation, near Riceboro, Liberty County.” Miller, 1924, p. 83. RancE.—“‘Southeastern United States, from North Carolina, Georgia, and (?north- WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 109 ern) Florida, westward through the southern and Gulf States, into Louisiana, and probably eastern Texas.’’ Miller, 1924, p. 83. FLORIDA REcorpDs:—Alachua County, Micanopy, H. Allen, 1893, p. 58. FAMILY MOLOSSIDAE Genus Tadarida Rafinesque 1931. H. Harold Shamel, Notes on the American bats of the genus Tadarida, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 78, Art. 19, pp. 1-27. Tadarida cynocephala (Le Conte)—Le Conte Free-tailed Bat. 1831. Nyctlicea] cynocephala Le Conte, McMurtrie’s Cuvier, Animal Kingdom, vol. 1, p. 432. Type Locartity.—‘ Georgia; probably the Le Conte plantation, near Riceboro, Liberty County.” Miller, 1924, p. 85. RancE.— ‘Louisiana, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina.’ Shamel, 1931, p. 8. FLormDA REecorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Melrose, HBS; Citrus County, Blitches Ferry, Miller, 1898, p. 218; Hillsborough County, Tampa Bay, Indian Key, UM;; Jefferson County, Wacissa River, Shamel, 1931, p. 8; Leon County, Tallahassee, E. V. Komarek; Osceola County, Kissimmee, Shamel, 1931, p. 8; Pinellas County, Indian Key, Fargo, 1929, p. 204; Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 157; Sarasota County, Venice, Field Museum Nat. Hist.; Volusia County, Enterprise, Elliot, 1901, p. di. Genus Eumops Miller Eumops glaucinus (Wagner)—Glaucous Mastiff Bat. 1843. Dysopes glaucinus Wagner, Weigmann’s Archiv. f. Naturg., p. 368. TypE Locatity.—Cuyaba, Matta Grosso, Brazil. RANGE.— Colombia and Ecuador in South America, and Cuba and Jamaica in the West Indies.” Sanborn, 1932, p. 353. FLORIDA REcorDS:—Dade County, Miami, Barbour, 1936, p. 414. ORDER CARNIVORA FAMILY URSIDAE—BEARS Genus Euarctos Gray Euarctos floridanus (Merriam)—Florida Black Bear. 1896. Ursus floridanus Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, p. 81. Type Locatity.—Key Biscayne, Dade County, Florida. RaNnGE.— Florida north into Georgia.” Anthony, 1928, p. 76. FLorRIDA REcorpS:—Dade County, Key Biscayne, Merriam, 1896a, p. 81. Royal Palm State Park, Safford, 1919, p. 424; St. Johns County, Anastasia Island, Bangs, 1898, p. 221; Indian River, Bangs, 1898, p. 221. FAMILY PROCYONIDAE Genus Procyon Storr—Raccoons Procyon lotor elucus Bangs—Florida Raccoon. 1898. Procyon lotor elucus Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, pp. 219. Type Locatity.—Oak Lodge, on peninsula opposite Micco, Brevard County, Florida. 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES RANGE.—“‘Florida and eastern Georgia.”’ Anthony, 1928, p. 76. FLorIpDA Recorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS, Brevard County, Oak Lodge, Bangs, 1898, p. 219; Citrus County, Citronelle, Bangs, 1898, p. 219; Dade County, 15 miles west of Royal Palm State Park, 10 miles east of Pine Crest, Blair, 1935b, p. 802-3; Duval County, New Berlin, Elliot, 1901, p. 53; Lake County, Lake Norris, HBS; Paradise Key, Safford, 1919, p. 424; Pine Crest, Blair, 1935b, p. 802-3; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 155. Procyon lotor marinus Nelson.—Chokoloskee Raccoon. 1930. “Procyon lotor marinus Nelson, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, No. 8, p. 7. Type Locatiry.—Near Chokoloskee, Collier County, locas RancE.—Ten Thousand Islands, Florida. Procyon lotor inesperatus Nelson.—Matecumbe Raccoon. 1930. Procyon lotor inesperatus Nelson, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. vol. 82, No. 8, p. 8. Typr Locatiry.—Upper Matecumbe Key, Monroe County, Florida. RANGE.—Key Largo Group, Monroe County, Florida, Virginia Key, Key Largo, Plantation Key, Upper Matecumbe Key, and Lower Matecumbe Key, Nelson, 1930, p. 9. Procyon lotor auspicatus Nelson—Key Vaca Raccoon. 1930. Procyon lotor auspicatus Nelson, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, No. 8, p. 9. TyprE Locatity.—Key Vaca, Monroe County, Florida. RANGE.—Known only from type locality. Procyon lotor incautus Nelson—Torch Key Raccoon. 1930. Procyon lotor incautus Nelson, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, No. 8, p. 10. TyprE Locattry.—Torch Key, Monroe County, Florida. RaANGcE.—Keys of the Big Pine group; No Name Key, Big Pine Key, Torch Key, Ramrod Key, Boca Chica Key, Stock Island, and Key West, Monroe County, Florida, Nelson, 1930, p. 11. FAMILY MUSTELIDAE Genus Mustela Linnaeus 1896. C. Hart Merriam. Synopsis of the weasels of North America. N. Amer. Fauna 11, U.S. Dept. Agric. Mustela peninsulae peninsulae (Rhoads)—Florida Weasel. 1894. Putorius peninsulae Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 152. Type Locatity.—Hudson, Pasco County, Florida. RancE.—‘“‘Peninsula of Florida; limits of range unknown.” Miller, 1924, p. 121. FLORIDA REcorpDSs:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Bangs, 1898, p. 232; Pasco County, Hudson, Rhoads, 1894, p. 152; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Merriam, 1896b, p. 19; Seminole County, Osceola, Chapman, 1894, p. 345. Mustela peninsulae olivacea Howell—Alabama Weasel. 1913. Mustela peninsulae olivacea Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 26, p. 139. Type Locatity.—Autaugaville, Autauga County, Alabama. RancE.—Alabama “‘except the mountainous regions of the northeastern part, but the limits of its range are at present unknown.”’ Howell, 1921, p. 36. FLoRIDA REcorDs:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Sherman, 1929, p. 258. Mustela vison lutensis (Bangs)—Florida Mink. 1898. Putorius (Lutreola) lutensis Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 229. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 111 TypEe Locarity.—Salt marshes off Matanzas Inlet, St. Johns County, Florida. RANGE.—“‘Coast of southeastern United States from South Carolina to Florida.” Miller, 1924, p. 125. FLoRIDA REcoRDS:—Duval County, New Berlin, formerly common; none taken, Elliot, 1901, p. 54; Levy County, Cedar Keys, Maynard, 1883, p. 5; St. Johns County, Salt marshes opposite Matanzas Inlet, Bangs, 1898, p. 230; St. Johns River above Blue Springs, one seen, Maynard, 1872, p. 138. Genus Lutra Brisson—Otters Lutra canadensis vaga (Bangs)—Florida Otter. 1898. Lutra hudsonica vaga Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 224. Type Locatity.—Micco, Brevard County, Florida. RancEe.—“Florida and eastern Georgia.”’ Anthony, 1928, p. 116. FLoripA Recorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Brevard County, Rose- land, Bangs, 1898, p. 224; Citrus County, Citronelle, Bangs, 1898, p. 224; Dade County, Royal Palm State Park, Safford, 1919, p. 424; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 155; Walton County, Reported from Grayton Beach. Genus Spilogale Gray 1906. A. H. Howell. Revision of the skunks of the genus Spilogale. N. Amer. Fauna No. 26, U.S. Dept. Agric. Spilogale ambarvalis Bangs—Florida Spotted Skunk. 1898. Spilogale ambarvalis Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 222. Type Locatity.—Oak Lodge, East Peninsula, opposite Micco, Brevard County. RANGE.—Peninsular Florida. FLoRmA REcoRDS:—From Howell, 1920a, p. 88, unless otherwise stated.—Brevard County, Canaveral, Cape Canaveral, Oak, Lodge, Howell, 1906, p. 15; Collier County, 25 miles s.e. of Immokalee; Dade County, Coconut Grove, Lemon City; De Soto County, Arcadia; Manatee County, Palma Sola; Palm Beach County, Jupiter Inlet, Maynard, 1872, p. 140, Lake Worth; Palm Beach, Howell, 1906, p. 15; Volusia County, New Smyrna, Maynard, 1872, p. 140; Kissimmee Prairie, Merriam, 1890, p. 7. Spilogale putorius (Linnaeus)—Alleghenian Spotted Skunk. 1758. Viverra putorius Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 44. Typr Locatity.—South Carolina. RaNncE.— Mississippi, Alabama, western Georgia, western South Carolina, and northward along the Alleghenies to northern Virginia; westward limits of range un- known.” Howell, 1906, p. 15. FLoRIDA REcorpDs:—Leon County, Thomasville (Ga.)—Tallahassee area, Stoddard, 1932, p. 189. Also observed by A. F. Carr at Tallahassee. Genus Mephitis Geoffroy and Cuvier 1901. A. H. Howell. Revision of the skunks of the genus Chincha. N. Amer. Fauna No. 20, U.S. Dept. Agric. Mephitis elongata (Bangs)—Florida Skunk. 1895. Mephitis mephitica elongata Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 26, post. Type Locatity.—Micco, Brevard County, Florida. 112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES RancE.—‘“‘Florida (from vicinity of Lake Worth) to North Carolina, and in the mountains to West Virginia; west of the Gulf coast to the Mississippi River.’’ Howell, 1901, p. 28. FLor1pA REecorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Brevard County, Micco, Bangs, 1895, p. 531; Citrus County, Blitche’s Ferry, Citronelle, Bangs, 1898, p. 222; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 222; Franklin County, Beverly, Maynard, ~ 1872, p. 139; Hernando County, Howell, 1901, p. 28; Indian River County, Sebastian, Howell, 1901, p. 28; Palm Beach County, Lake Worth, Howell, 1901, p. 28; Seminole County, Mullet Lake, Howell, 1901, p. 28; Volusia County, Enterprise, Elliot, 1901, p. 54; Lake Harney. FAMILY CANIDAE Genus Urocyon Baird—Gray Foxes Urocyon cinereo-argenteus floridanus Rhoads—Florida Gray Fox. 1895. Urocyon cinereo-argenteus floridanus Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- phia, p. 42. Type Locatity.—Tarpon Springs, Pinellas County, Florida. RancE.—‘‘Florida to eastern Texas.’’ Anthony, 1928, p. 144. FLoRIDA REcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Brevard County, Micco, Bangs, 1898, p. 233; Citrus County, Citronelle, Bangs, 1898, p. 233; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1895b, p. 42. Genus Canis Linnaeus Canis latrans Say—Coyote. 1823. Canis latrans Say, Long’s Exped. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, p. 168. TypE Locatity.—Engineer Cantonment, near present town of Blair, Washington County, Nebraska. RaNGE.—‘‘Humid prairies and bordering woodlands of the northern Mississippi Valley, in Iowa and Minnesota, and northern edge of plains westward to the base of the Rocky Mountains in the Province of Alberta.’”’ Miller, 1924, p. 151. OccURRENCE IN FLormDA:—Brought into the state and liberated at Palm Beach County, 4 young ones in 1925; 2 escaped during the winter of 1925-26, fate of other 2 uncertain. H. H. Bailey, 1933. De Soto County, 10 reported liberated near Arcadia in 1925. H. H. Bailey, 1933. Gadsden County: 16 liberated in 1930 and 1931. All but 1 had been killed by May 1931. W. P. Woodbury (in itt.). Canis rufus floridanus Miller—Florida Wolf. 1912. Canis floridanus Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 25, p. 95. 1937. Canis rufus floridanus Goldman, Journ. Mamm., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 45. Tyrer Locatiry.—Horse Landing, about 12 miles south of Palatka, Putnam County, Florida. RANGE.—Florida, northward to Georgia and Alabama and westward to Louisiana. Very rare or extinct in Florida. FLorIDA REcorps:—Lee County, a specimen examined by Chapman, 1894, p. 345; Palm Beach County, one seen in 1895 near Little Fish Crossing, southwest of Lake Worth, Cory, 1896, p. 110. Cory also states a female and two cubs were killed in Big Cypress, ?Collier County, in 1894 by Robert Osceola. Maynard, 1883, p. 5, states that “Gulf Hummocks” was the last stronghold of this WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 113 species and the last one was killed about 8 years ago, 71875. He states that according to Mr. F. A. Ober they were formerly found about the Kissinee (probably misspelled for Kissimmee) River and Lake Okeechobee. Putnam County, Horse Landing, Miller, 1912, p. 95. FAMILY FELIDAE Genus Felis Linnaeus 1929. Nelson, E. W. and E. A. Goldman. List of the pumas, with three described as new. Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 10, pp. 345-350. Felis concolor coryi Bangs—Florida Panther. 1899. Felis coryi Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 13, p. 15. Typre Locarity.—Wilderness back of Sebastian, Brevard County, Florida. RANGE.—Florida, northward to Georgia and Alabama and westward to Louisiana. FLoRIDA ReEcorDS:—Cory, 1896, p. 42, States it was formerly common on the peninsula east of the Indian River, in Big Cypress south of Fort Myers, and in the Vicinity of Lake Worth, Palm Beach County. Maynard, 1883, p. 3, states not more than 3 have been shot in “‘Gulf Hummocks” ?Levy County in the past 5 years. Safford, 1919, p. 424, states it is an occasional visitor in Paradise Key, Dade County. Its oc- currence in the Okefenokee Swamp of southern Georgia. Harper, 1927, p. 317, and in Louisiana, Lowery, 1936, p. 23, indicates that it formerly occurred in suitable regions throughout Florida. Genus Lynx Kerr Lynx rufus floridanus (Rafinesque)—Florida Bobcat. 1817. Lynx floridanus Rafinesque, American Monthly Magazine, vol. 2, p. 46. Type Locatity.—Florida. RancEe.—‘“Florida, north to Georgia, west to Louisiana.”” Anthony, 1928, p. 167. FLorRIDA REcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Brevard County, Micco, Oak Lodge, Bangs, 1898, p. 234; Citrus County, Bangs, 1898, p. 234; Clay County, Lake Geneva, HBS; Dade County, Paradise Key and in the hammocks between Royal Palm State Park and Miami, Safford, 1919, p. 424; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 234; Monroe County, Cape Sable, Blair, 1935b, p. 803. ORDER RODENTIA FAMILY SCIURIDAE Genus Sciurus Linnaeus—Squirrels 1896. O. Bangs, A review of the squirrels of eastern North America. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, pp. 145-167. Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis Gmelin—Southern Gray Squirrel. 1788. [Sciurus] carolinensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. 1, p. 148. Type Locatity.—‘‘Carolina.” Rance.—“From northern Florida north to about the lower Hudson Valley, west through the Alleghenies south of Pennsylvania to Indiana, Missouri, Oklahoma, and the edge of the plains.” Miller, 1924, p. 223. FLormpA REcorps:—Alachua County, Alachua, Gainesville HBS; Brevard County, Micco, Oak Lodge, Elliot, 1901, p. 35-36; Citrus County, Bangs, 1898, p. 205. Crystal River, Elliot, 1901, p. 35; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 205; Elliot, 1901, 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES p. 35; Escambia County, East Pensacola Mountains, UM; Nassau County, Rose Bluff, St. Marys River, Bangs, 1898, p. 205; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Elliot, 1901, p. 36; St. Petersburg, UM; Volusia County, Enterprise, Elliot, 1901, p. 35. Sciurus carolinensis extimus Bangs—Everglade Gray Squirrel. 1896. Sciurus carolinensis extimus Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, p. 158. Typre Locatity.—Miami, Dade County, Florida. RANGE.—“‘Subtropical fauna of south Florida, northward about half way up the peninsula.” Miller, 1924, p. 223. FLORIDA REcoRDS:—Brevard County, Oak Lodge, Eau Gallie, Bangs, 1898, p. 206; Dade County, Miami, Bangs, 1898, p. 206. Sciurus niger niger Linnaeus—Southern Fox Squirrel. 1758. [Sciurus] niger Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 64. Type Locatiry.—‘‘Probably southern South Carolina. (The type is based on Cates- by’s black fox squirrel.)”’ Miller, 1924, p. 225. RaNnGE.— “Florida and the southeastern states.”’ Miller, 1924, p. 225. FLorma Recorps:—Alachua County, Alachua, Gainesville, HBS; Citrus County, Citronelle, Bangs, 1898, p. 205; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 205; Lake County, Lake Norris, HBS; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 158. Sciurus niger avicennia Howell—Mangrove Fox Squirrel. 1919. Sciurus niger avicennia Howell, Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, p. 37. Type Locatity.—Everglades, Collier County, Florida. RANGE.—‘‘Mangrove forests of the southwest coast of Florida.” Miller, 1924, p. 226. Genus Glaucomys Thomas 1913. A. H. Howell. Revision of the American Flying Squirrels. N. Amer. Fauna No. 44,U.S. Dept. Agric. Glaucomys volans querceti (Bangs)—Florida Flying Squirrel. 1896. Sciuropterus volans querceti Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, p. 166. Type Locatity.—Citronelle, Citrus County, Florida. RANGE.—‘‘Peninsular Florida (south at least to Ft. Myers) and the coast region of Georgia.”” Howell, 1918, p. 26. FLORIDA RECORDS:—From Howell, 1918, p. 27 unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Citrus County, Citronelle, Bangs, 1898, p. 207; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 207; Hernando County, Howell; Lee County, Ft. Myers; Marion County, Ocala; Nassau County, Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs; Volusia County, Enterprise, Lake Harney. Glaucomys volans saturatus Howell—Southeastern Flying Squirrel. 1915. Glaucomys volans saturatus Howell. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 28, p. 110. TypE Locatity.—Dothan, Henry County, Alabama. RANGE.—“‘Southeastern United States (excepting peninsular Florida and the coast region of Georgia) from South Carolina and western North Carolina west to central Oklahoma and north in the Mississippi Valley to southwestern Kentucky.” Howell, 1918, p. 24. FLORIDA REcoRDS:—Escambia County, Muscogee, Howell, 1918, p. 25; Santa Rosa County, Milton, Howell, 1918, p. 25. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 115 FAMILY GEOMYIDAE—POCKET GOPHERS 1895. C. Hart Merriam. Monographic revision of the pocket gophers family Geo- myidae. N. Amer. Fauna No. 8, U.S. Dept. Agric. Genus Geomys Rafinesque 1898. Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, pp. 175-178. Geomys tuza mobilensis Merriam—Alabama Pocket Gopher. 1895. Geomys tuza mobilensis Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna No. 8, p. 119. TyprE Locatity.—Point Clear, Mobile Bay, Baldwin County, Alabama. RancE.—“Southern Alabama and adjacent part of northwest Florida. ...’”’ Miller, 1924, p. 255. FLormaA REcorps:—Escambia County, Pensacola, HBS; Santa Rosa County, Mil- ton, Merriam, 1895a, p. 120. Geomys floridanus floridanus (Audubon and Bachman)—Florida Pocket Gopher, Salamander or Sandymounder. 1854. Pseudostoma floridana Audubon and Bachman, Quad. N. Amer., vol. 3, p. 242. TypE Locatiry.—St. Augustine, St. Johns County, Florida. RaNnGE.—Eastern Florida from the St. Marys River to Eau Gallie, Brevard County. Intergrades with G. f. austrinus at Orlando and Gainesville. Bangs, 1898, p. 176. FLorIDA REcoRDS:—From Bangs, 1898a, p. 176 unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville; Brevard County, Eau Gallie; Duval County, New Berlin; Gads- den County, Chattahoochee, Merriam; Nassau County, Rose Bluff; Orange County, Orlando; Putnam County, Pomona, Merriam, 1895a, p. 116; St. Johns County, St. Augustine. Geomys floridanus austrinus Bangs—Southern Pocket Gopher or Salamander. 1898. Geomys floridanus austrinus Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, peli7. Type Locatity.—Bellaire, Pinellas County, Florida. RANGE.—“‘Western part of the Florida peninsula.” Bangs, 1898, p. 178. FLORIDA REcCORDS:—Pinellas County, Belleair, Tarpon Springs, Bangs, 1898, p. 177; De Soto County, Arcadia, Howell, 1919, p. 88, recorded as G. twza, but is referable to this subspecies, A. H. Howell, (in litt.). FAMILY CRICETIDAE Genus Reithrodontomys Giglioli—American Harvest Mice 1914. A. H. Howell. Revision of the American harvest mice. N. Amer. Fauna No. 36, U.S. Dept. Agric. Reithrodontomys humulis humutis (Audubon and Bachman)—Eastern Harvest Mouse. 1841. Mus humulis Audubon and Bachman, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 97. Typr Locatity.—Charleston, Charleston County, South Carolina. RancEe.—‘‘Southeastern United States, east of the Alleghenies, from southern Vir- ginia to central Florida.’”’ Howell, 1914, p. 19. FLORIDA REcorDs:—From Howell, 1914, p. 20 unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville, Micanopy, HBS; Osceola County, Kissimmee; Pasco County, Willow Oak; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs; Polk County, Sawgrass Island; Volusia County, Enterprise. 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Reithrodontomys humulis merriami (Allen)—Merriam Harvest Mouse. 1895. Reithrodontomys merriami Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 7, p. 119. Typr Locatity.—Austin Bayou, near Alvin, Brazoria County, Texas. RaANGE.—“‘Coast region of east Texas and southern Louisiana north to northeastern Kentucky and West Virginia; east to Alabama; limits of range imperfectly known.” Howell, 1914, p. 21. Southeast to Gainesville, Florida, Sherman, 1929, p. 259. FLORIDA RECORDS:—Known only from Gainesville. Since this subspecies and R. h. humulis have both been taken at Gainesville, it seems probable that they intergrade in this region and that R. h. merriami occurs in the western part of the state. Genus Peromyscus Gloger—White-footed Mice. Deer Mice 1909. Osgood, Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus. N. Amer: Fauna No. 28, U.S. Dept. Agric. Peromyscus polionotus polionotus (Wagner)—Old Field Mouse. For distribution map of the subspecies of P. polionotus see Howell, 1920c, p. 238. 1843. Mus polionotus Wagner, Wiegmann’s Arch. f. Naturg., ix, vol. 2, p. 52. Type LocaLity.—Georgia. RancE.—“‘Southern Georgia, the greater part of eastern Alabama, and extreme northern Florida.’’ Howell, 1920, p. 237. Fioripa Recorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Osgood, 1909, p. 105; New Berry, HBS. Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris (Chapman)—Beach Mouse. 1889. Hesperomys niveiventris Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, p. 117: TypEe Locatiry.—On the east peninsula, opposite Micco, Brevard County, Florida. RancE.—“‘Apparently confined to the ocean beaches on the Atlantic coast from Hillsboro Inlet (Broward County) north to Mosquito Inlet. (Volusia County, Florida.)” Howell, 1920, p. 237. FLoRIDA REcorDS:—From Osgood, 1909, p. 107, unless otherwise stated; Brevard County, Canaveral; Oak Lodge, Bangs, 1898, p. 199; Broward County, Hillsboro Inlet; Martin County, Jupiter Island; Palm Beach County, Lake Worth, Palm Beach, Bangs, 1898, p. 199; Volusia County, Mosquito Inlet, Howell, 1920, p. 237. Peromyscus polionotus phasma (Bangs)—Anastasia Island White-footed Mouse. 1898. Peromyscus phasma Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 199. TypE Locatity.—Point Romo, Anastasia Island, St. Johns County, Florida. RANGE.—‘‘Confined to Anastasia Island.”’ Howell, 1920, p. 237. Peromyscus polionotus rhoadsi (Bangs)—Rhoads White-footed Mouse. 1898. Peromyscus subgriseus rhoadsi Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 201. Type Locatity.—Head of the Anclote River, Pasco County, Florida. RANGE.—‘‘Western side of the (Florida) peninsula in the region north of Tampa Bay and possibly ranges most of the way across to the Atlantic side, probably intergrading with both niveiventris and polionotus.”’ Howell, 1920, p. 237. FLorIDA REcorDS:—From Osgood, 1909, p. 108; Citrus County, Citronelle; Pasco County, Head of Anclote River; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs. Peromyscus polionotus albifrons Osgood—White-fronted Beach Mouse. 1909. Peromyscus polionotus albifrons Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna No. 28, p. 108. Typr Locatity.—Whitfield, Walton County, Florida. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 117 RANGE.—“‘Region around Choctawatchee Bay, extreme western Florida, and... ocean beaches in southeastern Alabama east of Mobile Bay.’’ Howell, 1920, p. 237. FLormA ReEcorDs:—Okaloosa County, Destin, HBS; Walton County, Whitfield, Osgood, 1909, p. 109. Peromyscus polionotus leucocephalus Howell—White-headed Beach Mouse. 1920. Peromyscus leucocephalus Howell, Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, p. 239. Type Locatity.—Santa Rosa Island (opposite Camp Walton), Escambia County, Florida. RancEe.—“‘Confined to Santa Rosa Island.” Miller, 1924, p. 334. Peromyscus gossypinus gossypinus (Le Conte)—Cotton Mouse. 1853. Hespleromys] gossypinus Le Conte, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 6, p. 411. Type Locarity.—‘Georgia; probably the Le Conte Plantation, near Riceboro, Liberty County.” Miller, 1924, p. 337. RaANGE.—“Lowlands of the southeastern United States from the Dismal Swamp, Virginia, to northern Florida and west to Louisiana.” Osgood, 1909, p. 136. FLoRIDA REcoRDS:—From Osgood, 1909, p. 138 unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville; Duval County, Jacksonville, New Berlin; Gadsden County, Quincy, WFB; Nassau County, Amelia Island; Liberty County, Rock Bluff, HBS; Santa Rosa County, Milton; St. Johns County, Point Matanzas, Bangs, 1898, p. 195; Summer Haven; Walton County, Whitfield. Peromyscus gossypinus palmarius Bangs—Florida Cotton Mouse. 1896. Peromyscus gossypinus palmarius Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, p. 124. Type Locatity.—Oak Lodge, on the east peninsula opposite Micco, Brevard County, Florida. RaAnGE.— “Peninsular Florida.”’ Osgood, 1909, p. 139. FLORIDA REcoRDS:—From Osgood, 1909, p. 140 unless otherwise stated; Brevard County, Canaveral, Cape Canaveral, Eau Gallie, Georgiana, Micco, Oak Lodge; Char- lotte County, Charlotte Harbor; Citrus County, Blitches Ferry, Citronelle, Crystal River; Dade County, Miami, 10 miles east of Pine Crest, Blair, 1935b, p. 803; Levy County, Manatee Spring, WFB; De Soto County, Arcadia, HBS; Highlands County, Fort Kissimmee; Indian River County, Sebastian; Levy County, Gulf Hammock; Manatee County, Manatee, HBS; Martin County, Jupiter Island; Monroe County, Flamingo, Planter; Osceola County, Kissimmee; Palm Beach County, Jupiter Inlet, Bangs, 1898a, p. 195; Lake Worth; Pasco County, Anclote River, Port Richey; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs; Polk County, Auburndale, Catfish Creek, Lake Arbuckle, Sawgrass Island; Seminole County, Mullet Lake; St. Lucie County, Eden; Volusia County, Enterprise, Glenwood. Lake Harney. Peromyscus gossypinus anastasae (Bangs)—Anastasia Island Cotton Mouse. 1898. Peromyscus anastasae Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 195. Type Locatity.—Point Romo, Anastasia Island, St. Johns County, Florida. RaNncE.—Sandy islands (possibly also parts of the mainland) of the eastern coast of coast of Georgia and Florida.” Osgood, 1909, p. 141. FLormDA REcorpDs:—St. Johns County: Anastasia Island, Osgood, 1909, p. 141. Peromyscus nuttalli aureolus (Aubudon and Bachman)—Southern Golden Mouse. 1841. Mus (Calomys) aureolus Audubon and Bachman, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 1, p. 98. 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TypE Locatity.— In the oak forests of South Carolina.” Osgood, 1909, p. 226. RancE.—“‘Southeastern United States from North Carolina to northern Florida; west to eastern Texas and Oklahoma.” Osgood, 1909, p. 226. FLORIDA REcorps:—From Osgood, 1909, p. 226 unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, High Springs, Gainesville, HBS; Duval County, Jacksonville; New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 198; Leon County, Tallahasse; Liberty County, Rock Bluff, HBS; . Marion County, Silver Springs, HBS; Putnam County, San Mateo; Santa Rosa County, Milton; Volusia County, Enterprise, Bangs, 1898, p. 198; Walton County, Whitfield. Peromyscus floridanus (Chapman)—Florida White-footed Mouse. 1889. Hesperomys floridanus Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, p. 117.. TypE Locatity.—Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida. RANGE.—“The central part of peninsular Florida from coast to coast.” Osgood, 1909, p. 227. FLormA REcorps:—From Osgood, 1909, p. 228; Alachua County, Gainesville; Brevard County, Canaveral, Eau Gallie, Micco; Citrus County, Blitch Ferry, Citronelle, Crystal.River; Dade County, Miami; Indian River County, Sebastian; Marion County, Ocklawaha River; Palm Beach County, Lake Worth; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Volusia County, Enterprise; Ft. Gardner, Kissimmee River. Genus Oryzomys Baird—Rice Rats 1918. Edward A. Goldman. The rice rats of North America. N. Amer. Fauna No. 43, U.S. Dept. Agric. Oryzomys palustris palustris (Harlan)—Swamp Rice Rat. 1837. Mus palustris Harlan, Silliman’s Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 31, p. 385. Type Locarity.—‘‘Fastland,”’ near Salem, Salem County, ‘New Jersey.” Gold- man, 1918, p. 23. RANGcE.—‘‘Atlantic coastal areas from southern New Jersey (not yet known from Delaware or Maryland, but doubtless occurs there) south to northeastern Florida, thence westward through southern Georgia to the Gulf coast of Alabama and Mis- sissippi, and north through Alabama and western Tennessee to southwestern Kentucky, southern Illinois, and parts of southeastern Missouri. . . . ” Goldman, 1918, p. 23. FLorIpA REecorps:—Duval County, Burnside Beach, New Berlin, Goldman, 1918, p. 24; Gadsden County, Quincy, WFB. Oryzomys palustris natator Chapman—Central Florida Rice Rat. 1893. Oryzomys palustris natator Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, p. 44. Typr Locatity.—Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida. Rance.—“‘Central Florida, north of Everglades.’’ Goldman, 1918, p. 24. FLoripA REcorps:—From Goldman, 1918, p. 25, unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville; Brevard County, Canaveral, Cape Canaveral, Micco, Titusville; Citrus County, Crystal River; Highland County, Fort Kissimmee; Marion County, Ocala; Orange County, Orlando, Dept. of Biol. Univ. Fla.; Osceola County, Kissimmee; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs; Seminole County, Geneva, Mullet Lake; St. Johns County, Anastasia Island, Cartersville; Volusia County, Enterprise, Espanita; Kissim- mee River. Oryzomys palustris colortus Bangs—Everglades Rice Rat. 1898. Oryzomys palustris coloratus Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 189. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 119 Typr Locariry.—Cape Sable, Monroe County, Florida. RancE.— Tropical southern Florida, north to Lake Okechoobee.” Goldman, 1918, p. 26. FrormA REecorps:—From Goldman, 1918, p. 26, unless otherwise stated; Collier County, Everglade; Dade County, Miami, Miami River. 10 miles east of Pine Crest, Blair, 1935b p. 803; Paradise Key, Safford, 1919, p. 424; Monroe County, Cape Sable, Flamingo; Palm Beach County, Juno (Lake Worth), Jupiter; St. Lucie County, Eden. Genus Sigmodon Say and Ord.—Cotton Rats 1902. Vernon Bailey. Synopsis of the North American species of Sigmodon. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 15, pp. 101-116. Sigmodon hispidus hispidus Say and Ord.—Northern Cotton Rat. 1825. S[igmodon] hispidum Say and Ord, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 4, pt.2,p. 354. . Type Locatity.—St. Johns River, Florida. RancE.—“North Carolina to northern Florida and west to southern Louisiana.” Bailey, 1902, p. 104. FLorma ReEcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Bailey, 1902, p. 104; Citrus County, Crystal River, Bangs, 1898, p. 191; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 191; Gadsden County, Chattahoochee, Bailey, 1902, p. 104; Quincy, WFB; Put- nam County, San Mateo, Bailey, 1902, p. 104; Santa Rosa County, Milton, Bailey, 1902, p. 104. Sigmodon hispidus littoralis Chapman—Florida Cotton Rat. 1889. Sigmodon hispidus littoralis Chapman, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, p. 118. Typre Locatity.—East Peninsula, opposite Micco, Brevard County, Florida. RancEe.— Eastern part of the peninsula of Florida, from Lake Harney to the Everglades.” Bailey, 1902, p. 104. FLoripA REcorps:—From Bailey, 1902, p. 104-5 unless otherwise stated; Brevard County, east peninsula opposite Micco; Eau Gallie, Bangs, 1898, p. 192; Micco, Chap- man, 1894, p. 338; Titusville; Collier County, Everglade; Dade County, Miami; Flager County, Point Matanzas, Bangs, 1898, p. 192; Indian River County, Sebastian; Lee County, Pine Island, Charlotte Harbor, Chapman, 1889, p. 118; Palm Beach County, Jupiter Inlet, Bangs, 1898, p. 192; Pinellas County, St. Petersburg, UM; St. Johns County, Anastasia Island, Bangs, 1898, p. 192; St. Lucie County, Eden; Volusia County, Enterprise, Chapman, 1894, p. 338, Lake Kissimmee. Sigmodon hispidus spadicipygus Bangs—Cape Sable Cotton Rat. Sigmodon hispidus spadicipygus Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, p. 192. TypE Locatity.—Cape Sable, Monroe County, Florida. Rance.—‘‘The extreme southern part of the peninsula of Florida,” Bailey, 1902 p:'105. FLORIDA REcorDs:—Dade County, ten miles east of Pine Crest, Blair, 1935b, p. 803; Monroe County, Cape Sable, Flamingo, Planter, Bailey, 1902, p. 105. Sidmodon hispidus exputus G. M. Allen—Pine Key Cotton Rat. 1920. Sigmodon hispidus exputus G. M. Allen, Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, p. 236. Typr Locatity.—Big Pine Key, Monroe County, Florida. RANGE.—Known only from type locality. 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Genus Neotoma Say and Ord.—Wood Rats 1910. Edward A. Goldman. Revision of the wood rats of the genus Neotoma. N. Amer. Fauna No. 31, U.S. Dept. Agric. Neotoma floridana floridana (Ord)—Florida Wood Rat. 1818. Mus floridanus Ord, Bull. soc. philom. Paris, p. 181. Type Locarity.—‘St. Johns River, Florida. (Probably in the vicinity of Jackson- ville.)”” Bangs, 1898a, p. 184. | Ranck.—“‘Atlantic coast region from South Carolina to Sebastian, Florida.” Gold- man, 1910, p. 21. Also westward throughout all but northern Alabama. Howell, 192 p. 53. FLoRIDA REcorpDs:—From Goldman, 1910, p. 22, unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville, Lake Wauburg, HBS; Brevard County, Micco; Citrus County, Bangs, 1898, p. 134; Duval County, New Berlin, Bangs, 1898, p. 184; Indian River County, Sebastian; Osceola County, Kissimmee; Putnam County, San Mateo; Volusia County, Enterprise. Genus Pitymys McMurtrie—Pine Mice Revised under the generic name Microtus, subgenus Pitymys, by Vernon Bailey, 1900. Revision of American Voles of the genus Microtus. N. Amer. Fauna No. 17, pp. 62-67. Pitymys parvulus Howell—Florida Pine Mouse. 1916. Pitymys parvulus Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 29, p. 83. Type Locatity.—Lynne Planting Station of the U. S. Forest Service, near the town of Lynne, Marion County, Florida. Howell, 1934, p. 72. RancEe.—Type locality and Gainesville, Sherman, 1929, p. 258. Two specimens in the author’s collection, received from J. R. Watson, taken at Quincy, Gadsden County, are tentatively referred to this species. Genus Neofiber True—Round-tailed Muskrats Revised under the generic name Microtus, subgenus Neofiber, by Vernon Bailey, 1900. Revision of American voles of the genus Microtus. N. Amer. Fauna No. 17, pp. 78-79. Neofiber alleni alleni True—Florida Round-tailed Muskrat. 1884. Neofiber allent True, Science, vol. 4, p. 34. TypE Locatity.—Georgiana, Brevard County, Florida. RANGE.—Possibly confined to the salt-water regions of the east coast of Florida. Limits of range unknown. FLoripA REcorps:—Brevard County, Canaveral, Georgiana, Oak Lodge on the east peninsula opposite Micco, Titusville, Bailey, 1900, p. 79; St. Lucie County, Eden, Bailey, 1900, p. 79. Neofiber alleni nigrescens Howell—Everglade Round-tailed Muskrat. 1920. Neofiber alleni nigrescens Howell, Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, p. 79. TypE Locatity.—Ritta, Palm Beach County, Florida. RANGE.—Fresh water prairies from southern Florida to Okefinokee Swamp, south- eastern Georgia. FLORIDA REcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, Bangs, 1898, p. 183. Santa Fe Lake, HBS; Collier County, Head of Barnes River, Howell, 1920, p. 79; Broward WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 121 County, Zona, near Fort Lauderdale, Howell, 1920, p. 79; Monroe County?, Cape Sable, Howell, 1920, p. 79; Skull only, subspecies questionable; Palm Beach County, Ritta, Canal Point, Howell, 1920, p. 79; Putnam County, Crescent City, HBS; Volusia County, Enterprise, Bangs, 1898, p. 183. FAMILY MURIDAE—OLD WORLD RATS AND MICE Genus Rattus G. Fischer Rattus rattus rattus (Linnaeus)—Black Rat. 1758. [Mus] rattus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 61. TypE Locatity.— Upsala, Sweden. RANGE.— Introduced and widely distributed in North America.” Miller, 1924, p. 428. FiLormpa Recorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville, HBS; Monroe County, Flamingo, Blair, 1935b, p. 804; Sarasota County, Englewood, HBS; Volusia County, Enterprise, Chapman, 1894, p. 339. Rattus rattus alexandrinus (Geoffroy)—Roof Rat. 1803. Mus alexandrinus Geoffroy, Catal. Mammaif. du Mus. Nat. d’Hist. Nat., Paris, p. 192. TypE Locatity.—Alexandria, Egypt. RANGE.— Introduced and widely established in North America.’ Miller, 1924, p. 429. FLormpA ReEcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville) HBS; Collier County, Ten Thousand Islands, Nelson, 1930, p. 4; Monroe County, Cape Sable, Flamingo, Blair, 1935b, p. 804; Pinellas County, Indian Key, North Tampa Bay, Fargo, 1929, p. 203; Sarasota County, Englewood, HBS; Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 139. Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben)—Norway Rat. 1777. [Mus] norvegicus Erxleben, Syst. Regni Anim., vol. 1, p. 381. TypE Locatity.—Norway. RANGE.— Introduced and widely established in North America.’’ Miller, 1924, p. 429. FiLorma ReEcorps:—Duval County, Jacksonville, Bangs, 1898, p. 204; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 259. Genus Mus Linnaeus Mus musculus musculus Linnaeus—House Mouse. 1758. [Mus] musculus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 62. Type Locatitry.—Upsala, Sweden. RaNGE.— Introduced and widely established in North America.” Miller, 1924, p. 429. FLoripA ReEcorps:—Alachua County, Gainesville), HBS; Monroe County, Key West, Bangs, 1898, p. 203; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, Rhoads, 1894, p. 159. ORDER LAGOMORPHA FAMILY LEPORIDAE—HARES, RABBITS, COTTONTAILS, ETC. Genus Sylvilagus Gray—Cottontails and Marsh Rabbits 1909. E. W. Nelson. The rabbits of North America. N. Amer. Fauna No. 29. Sylvilagus floridanus floridanus (Allen)—Florida Cottontail. 1890. Lepus sylvaticus floridanus Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 3, p. 160. 122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TypE Locarity.—Sebastian River, Brevard County, Florida. RancE.— All of peninsular Florida (including coastal islands) south of Sebastian River and thence northward along the coast to St. Augustine on the east side, and to an unknown distance on the west side.”’ Nelson, 1909, p. 164. FLORIDA REcoRDS:—From Nelson, 1909, p. 165; Brevard County, Micco, Oak Lodge; Citrus County, Blitches Ferry, Citronelle; Dade County, Miami; Indian River County, Sebastian; Osceola County, Camp Hammock, UM; Palm Beach County, Lake Worth; Pinellas County, Tarpon Springs, UM; Polk County, Saw Grass Island; Putnam County, San Mateo; Seminole County, Mullet Lake; Volusia County, Enter- prise, Kissimmee River. Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus (Thomas)—Eastern Cottontail. 1898. Llepus] n[uttalli] mallarus Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 2, p. 320. TypE Locatity.—Raleigh, Wade County, North Carolina. RANGE.—“‘Mainly east of Allegheny Mountains from Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley in extreme southern New York south through New Jersey, Delaware, eastern Pennsylvania, eastern West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, except northwestern part, and west along Gulf coast to near Mobile Bay, and Alabama; also northwestern central parts of Florida south to about Lake Julian, Polk County.” Nelson, 1909, p. 166. FLoRIDA REcoRDS:—From Nelson, 1909, p. 168, unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville; Gadsden County, Chattachoochee; Quincy, WFB; Liberty County, Rock Bluff, HBS; Polk County, Lake Julian. Sylvilagus palustris palustris (Bachman)—Carolina Marsh Rabbit. 1837. Lepus palustris Bachman, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 7, p. 194. TypE Locatiry.—Eastern South Carolina. RANGE.—“Lowlands along rivers and coast of southeastern States from Dismal Swamp, Virginia, south to extreme northern Florida, and west through most of south- ern Georgia and the Gulf Coast of northwestern Florida to the east side of Mobile Bay, Alabama.” Nelson, 1909, p. 266. FLoRIDA REcorps:—From Nelson, 1909, p. 269, unless otherwise stated; Escambia County, Bohemia, UM; Franklin County, Apalachicola, UM; St. Johns County: Anastasia Island; Walton County, Whitfield. Sylvilagus palustris paludicola (Miller and Bangs)—Florida Marsh Rabbit. 1894. Lepus paludicola Miller and Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 9, p. 105. Type Locatity.—Fort Island, near Crystal River, Citrus County, Florida. RaANGE.—“‘Peninsular Florida and adjacent coast islands, north along the east coast at least to San Mateo, and on the west side for an unknown distance beyond the Suwanee River.”’ Nelson, 1909, p. 269. FLoripA REcorps:—From Nelson, 1909, p. 270 unless otherwise stated; Alachua County, Gainesville, Blair, 1936, p. 197; Brevard County, Canaveral, Micco, Oak Lodge; Citrus County, Fort Island, near Crystal River; Clay County, Hibernia; Collier County, Little Marco; Dade County, Paradise Key, Safford, 1919, p. 424; Highlands County, Fort Kissimmee; Lake County, Mt. Dora Lake, UM; Levy County, Manatee Spring, WFB; Osceola County, Kissimmee; Pinellas County, Belleair, Tarpon Springs, Indian Pass, UM, John’s Pass, UM; Putnam County, Drayton Island, San Mateo; Seminole County, Mullet Lake; Volusia County, Enterprise, Kissimmee River, Lake Kissimmee, Suwanee River, Lake Harney. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 123 ORDER ARTIODACTYLA—EVEN-TOED, HoOFED MAMMALS FAMILY CERVIDAE—DEER Genus Odocoileus Rafinesque 1922. Thomas Barbour and Glover M. Allen. The white-tailed deer of the eastern United States. Journ. Mamm., vol. 3, pp. 65-78. Odocoileus virginianus virginianus (Boddaert)—Virginia Deer. 1784. [Cervus] virginianus Boddaert, Elenchus Animalium, vol. 1, p. 136. Tyrer LocaLity.—Virginia. RaANGE.—“Found in the eastern United States north to southern New York(?) and south to Florida; limits of range uncertain.”’ Anthony, 1928, p. 518. FLORIDA REcoRDS:—From Barbour and Allen, 1922, p. 69; Brevard County, Kis- simmee Prairie; Citrus County, Citronelle; Indian River County, Sebastian; Palm Beach County, Palm Beach; Volusia County, New Smyrna. Odocoileus virginianus osceola (Bangs)—Florida Deer. 1896. Cariacus osceola Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, p. 26. Type Locatity.—Citronelle, Citrus County, Florida. RANGE.—The more southern part of peninsular Florida. Barbour and Allen con- sider the type an ‘‘extreme intergrade” with O. ». virginianus. FLorma ReEcorps:—From Barbour and Allen, 1922, p. 73; Citrus County, Citron- elle, Blitches Ferry. Intergrades with typical virginianus; Collier County, Chokolos- kee. Typical O. 2. osceola; Polk County, Lake Arbuckle. Intergrades with O. ». vir- ginianus. Odocoileus virgianus clavium Barbour and Allen—Key Deer. 1922. Odocoileus virginianus clavium Barbour and G. M. Allen, Journ. Mamm., vol. SAF. Type Locatity.—Big Pine Key, Monroe County, Florida. RANGE.—Big Pine Key to Boca Chinca and formerly to Key West Island. Barbour and Allen, 1922, p. 74. ORDER XENARTHRA FAMILY DASYPODIDAE—ARMADILLOS Genus Dasypus Linnaeus Dasypus novemcinctus texanus (Bailey)—Texas Nine-banded Armadillo. 1905. Tatu novemcinctum texanum Bailey, North Amer. Fauna No. 25, p. 52. TypE Locatity.—Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas. RancE.—‘‘From the Rio Grande of Texas south into Mexico; north to about 33° latitude and west to Devils River.’”’ Anthony, 1928, p. 551. OccCURRENCE IN FLormDA:—A pair is reported to have been brought from Texas to Miami during the World War by a marine. One was killed near Miami, by a dog in 1922 and a female with 4 young was killed in February 1924. H. H. Bailey, 1924. Armadillos are also reported to be occasionally killed by dogs in the region of Cocoa, Brevard County, Fla. These are said to have been imported from Texas and were liberated when the Cocoa Zoo was destroyed by a storm in about 1924. Cocoa Tribune, vol. xx, No. 40, Dec. 10, 1936. A captive in the zoo at Scholtz Field, Daytona, is reported to have been captured near Titusville, Brevard County in the autumn of 1936. Another is said to have been shot at Flager Beach. Flagler County, about 1934. 124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, GLOVER M. 1920. An insular race of cotton rat from the Florida keys. Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, pp. 235-236. ALLEN, Harrison. 1893. A monograph of the bats of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 43. ~ ALLEN, J. A. 1871. On the mammals and winter birds of east Florida, with an examina-. tion of certain assumed specific characters in birds, and a sketch of the bird- favtnae of eastern North America. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 2, pp. 161-540. 1890. Descriptions of a new species and a new subspecies of the genus Lepus. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 3, pp. 159-160. 1895. On the species of the genus Reithrodontomys. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 7, p. 107-143. 1901. A preliminary study of the North American opossums of the genus Didelphis. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pp. 149-188. ANDERSEN, Knup. 1908. A monograph of the chiropteran genera Uroderma, aeoes ihenes, and Artibeus. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 204-319. AntHony, H. E. 1928. Field Book of North American Mammals. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. AvuDUBON and BAcuMAN. 1841. Descriptions of new species of North American quad- rupeds. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 1, pp. 92-103. 1854, The viviparous quadrupeds of North America. Vol. 3. Vol. 1 is dated 1846, and vol. 2, 1851. BacuMANn, J. 1837a. Some remarks on the genus Sorex, with a monograph of the North American species. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 7, pt. 2, pp. 362-402, _ pls. 23-24. 1837b. Description of a new species of hare (Lepus palustris) found in South Carolina. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 7, pt. 2, pp. 194-199, Pls. “16” (i.e., 15) and 16, figs. 1 and 2. Battery, H. H. 1924. The armadillo in Florida and how it reached there. Journ. Mamm. vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 264-265. 1930. Correcting inaccurate ranges of certain Florida mammals and others of Virginia and the Carolinas. Bull. No. 5, Bailey Mus. and Lib. Nat. Hist., Miami. 1933. Coyotes (Canis latrans) in Florida. Bull. No. 8, Bailey Mus. and Lib. Nat. Hist., Miami. BAILEY, VERNON. 1900. Revision of the American voles of the genus Microtus. N. Amer. Fauna No. 17, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1902. Synopsis of the North American species of Sigmodon. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 15, pp. 101-116. 1905. Biological survey of Texas. N. Amer. Fauna No. 25, U. S. Dept. Agric. Bancs, OuTRAM. 1895. Notes on North American Mammals. The synonymy of the eastern skunk, Mephitis mephitica (Shaw), with the description of a new subspecies from Florida. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 26, pp. 529-536. 1896a. A review of the squirrels of eastern North America. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, pp. 145-167. 1896b. The cotton mouse, Peromyscus gossypinus. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. 10, pp. 119-125. 1896c. The Florida deer. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 10, pp. 25-28. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 125 1898. The land mammals of peninsular Florida and the coast region of Georgia. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, pp. 157-235. 1899. The Florida puma. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 13, pp. 15-17. Barsour, THomas. 1936. Eumops in Florida. Journ. Mamm., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 414. and Glover M. Allen. 1922. The white-tailed deer of eastern United States. Journ. Mamm., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 65-78, pls. 4.and 5. BEAvvoIs, PALisoT DE. 1796. Catalogue Raisonne Mus. Peale, Philadelphia. Brarr, W. Frank. 1935a. The mammals of a Florida hammock. Journ. Mamm.., vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 271-277. 1935b. Some mammals of southern Florida. Amer. Midland Naturalist., vol. 16, pp. 801-804. 1936. The Florida marsh rabbit. Journ. Mamm., vol. 17, pp. 3, pp. 197-207. BoppaErt, P. 1784. Elenchus animalium, vol. 1. CHAPMAN, FRANK M. 1889a. Preliminary descriptions of two apparently new species of the genus Hesperomys from Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, p. 117. 1889b. Description of a new species of Sigmodon from southern Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, p. 118. 1893a. Description of two new races of mammals from Florida, with remarks on Sitomys niveiventris Chapman. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, pp. 339- 341. 1893b. Description of a new subspecies of Oryzomys from the Gulf states. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, pp. 43-46. 1894. Remarks on certain land mammals from Florida, with a list of the spe- cies known to occur in the state. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 6, pp. 333-346. Cory, CHARLES B. 1896. Hunting and fishing in Florida. Estes and Lauriat, Boston. Cuvier, F. 1832. Nouv. Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, vol. 1. - Extiot, D. G. 1901. A list of mammals obtained by Thaddeus Surber in North and South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. Field Columbian Museum Publication 58. Zool. Ser., vol. 3, no. 4. ERXLEBEN, J. C. P. 1777. Systema regni animalis per classes, ordines, genera, species, varietates, cum synonymia et historia animalium. Classis I, Mammalia. Farco, Wm. G. 1929. Bats of Indian Key, Tampa Bay, Florida. Journ. Mamm., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 203-205. GEOFFROY, ST. HivatreE. 1803. Catal. Mammif. du Mus. Nat. d’Hist. Nat., Paris. GMELIN, J. F. 1788. Caroli a Linne Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Ed. 13ma, aucta reformata. Tomus I, pars 1, Mammalia. GoLpMAN, Epwarp A. 1910. Revision of the wood rats of the genus Neotoma. N. E. Amer. Fauna No. 31, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1918. The rice rats of North America. N. Amer. Fauna No. 43, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1937. The wolves of North America. Journ. Mamm., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 37-45. Haran, R. 1837. Description of a new species of Quadruped, of the order Rodontia, inhabiting the United States. Silliman’s Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 31. Harper, Francis. 1927. The mammals of the Okefinokee Swamp Region of Georgia. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 191-396, pl. 4-7. Howe tz, ArtHur H. 1901. Revision of the skunks of the genus Chincha. N. Amer. Fauna No. 20, U.S. Dept. Agric. 126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ——— 1906. Revision of the skunks of the genus Spilogale. N. Amer. Fauna No. 26, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1909. Description of a new bat from Nickajack Cave, Tennessee. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 22, pp. 45-48. 1913. Description of a new weasel from Alabama. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 26, pp. 139-140. 1914. Revision of the American harvest mice. N. Amer. Fauna No. 36, U. S. Dept. Agric. — 1915. Descriptions of a new genus and seven new races of flying squirrels. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 28, pp. 109-114. 1916. Description of a new pine mouse from Florida. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- | ton, vol. 29, pp. 83-84. 1918. Revision of the American flying squirrels. N. Amer. Fauna No. 44, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1919. Notes on the fox squirrels of southeastern United States, with descrip- tion of a new form from Florida. Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 36-38. 1920a. The Florida spotted skunk as an parohet: oun Mamm., vol. 1, no.2, p. 88. 1920b. A new race of the Florida water rat. Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 79-80. 1920c. Description of a new species of beach mouse from Florida. Journ. Mamm., vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 237-240. 1921. A biological survey of Alabama. II. The mammals. N. Amer. Fauna No. 45, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1929. Florida’s mammals. Nature Magazine, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 338-340, 378- 379. 1934. The type locality of Pitymys parvulus. Journ. Mamm., vol. 15, p. 72. Jackson, Hartitey H. T. 1914. New moles of the genus Scalopus. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 27, pp. 19-22. 1915. A review of the American moles. N. Amer. Fauna No. 38, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1928. A taxonomic review of the American long-tailed shrews. N. Amer. Fauna No. 51, U.S. Dept. Agric. LE Conte, J. 1831. The animal kingdom arranged in conformity with its organization. By the Baron Cuvier, and translated from the French, with notes and additions, by H. McMurtrie, M.D. 4 vols. Mammals in vol. 1. 1853. Descriptions of three new species of American Arvicolae, with remarks on some other North American rodents. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 6, pp. 404-415. LINNAEUvS, C. 1758. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, or- dines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Tomus I. Regnum animale. Lowery, GEoRGE H. 1936. A preliminary report on the distribution of the mammals of Louisiana. Proc. Louisiana Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 11-39. Mavynarp, C. J. 1872. Catalog of the mammals of Florida, with notes on their habits, distribution, etc.—Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 4, pp. 135-150. 1883. The mammals of Florida. Quarterly Journ. Boston Zool. Soc., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-8, no. 2, 17-24, no. 3, 38-43, no. 4, 49-50. WILD LAND MAMMALS OF FLORIDA 127 Merriam, C. Hart. 1890. Revision of the genus Spilogale. N. Amer. Fauna No. 4, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1895a. Monographic revision of the pocket gophers, Family Geomyidae (ex- clusive of the species of Thomomys). N. Amer. Fauna No. 8, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1895b. Revision of the shrews of the genera Blarina and Notiosorex. N. Amer. Fauna No. 10, pp. 5-34, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1896a. Preliminary synopsis of the American bears. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. 10, pp. 65-83. 1896b. Synopsis of the weasels of North America. N. Amer. Fauna No. 11, U. S. Dept. Agric. Mitter, Gerrit S. Jr. 1897. Revision of the North American bats of the family Vespertilionidae. N. Amer. Fauna No. 13, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1898. In Bangs, The land mammals of peninsular Florida and the coast region of Georgia, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 28, pp. 213-218. 1902. Twenty new American bats. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 54, pt. 2, pp. 389-412. 1912. The names of two North American wolves. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 25, pp. 95. 1924. List of North American recent mammals 1923. Bull. 128, U. S. Nat. Mus. and Glover M. Allen. 1928. The American bats of the genera Myotis and Pizonyz. Bull. 144, U.S. Nat. Mus. and Outram Bangs. 1894. A new rabbit from western Florida. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 9, pp. 105-108. Miter, P. L. S. 1776. Des Ritters Carl von Linne vollstandiges Natursystem, Bd. ]-vi und suppl. NELSON, Epwarp W. 1909. The rabbits of North America. N. Amer. Fauna 29, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1930. Four new raccoons from the keys of southern Florida. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, no. 8, pp. 1-12, pls. 1-5. and E. A. Goldman. 1929. List of the pumas, with three described as new. Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 10, pp. 345-350. Orn, GEorGE. 1818. Sur une nouvelle espéce de rongeur de la Floridae. Bull. soc. philom. Paris, December, pp. 181-182. Oscoop, WILFRED H. 1909. Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus. N. Amer. Fauna No. 28, U.S. Dept. Agric. RAFINESQUE, C. S. 1817. Description of seven new genera of North American quadru- peds. Amer. Monthly Magazine, vol. 2, pp. 4446. 1818. Further discoveries in Natural History, made during a journey through the Western States. Amer. Monthly Magazine, vol. 3, pp. 445, 446. _ Rwoaps, SAMUEL N. 1894. Contributions to the mammalogy of florida. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 152-161. 1895a. Descriptions of new mammals from Florida and southern California. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 32-37. 1895b. New subspecies of the gray fox and Say’s chipmunk. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 42-44. 1897. A new southeastern race of the little brown bat. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 227-228. 128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1902. On the common brown bats of peninsular Florida and southern Cali- fornia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. 618-619. SAFFORD, W. E. 1919. Natural history of Paradise Key and the nearby Everglades of Florida. Ann. Rept. Smithsonian Inst. for 1917, pp. 377-434, 64 pls. 32 text figs. Mammals discussed on pages 423-424. SANBORN, CoLIN CAMPBELL. 1932. The bats of the genus Eumops. Journ. Mamm., - vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 347-357. Say, THomaSs. 1823. Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, performed in the years 1819 and ’20, under the command of Major Stephen H. Long. Compiled by Edwin James. 2 vols. Philadelphia. and George Ord. 1825. Description of a new species of Mammalia, whereon a. genus is proposed to be founded. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 4, pp. 352-355, figs. 5, 6. SHAMEL, H. Haroxp. 1931. Notes on the American bats of the genus Tadarida. No. . 2862.—From the Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 78, pp. 1-27. SHERMAN, H. B. 1928. A Florida record of Sorex longirostris. Journ. Mamm., vol. 9, no. 2, p. 148. 1929. Notes on some Florida mammals. Journ. Mamm., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 258-259. 1930. Birth of the young of Myotis austroriparius. Journ. Mamm., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 495-503, pl. 26. 1934. The occurrence of Myotis grisescens in Florida. Journ. Mamm., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 156. SIMPSON, GEORGE GAYLORD. 1929. The extinct land mammals of Florida. Twentieth Ann. Rept. Fla. State Geol. Surv., pp. 229-280. STopDARD, HERBERT L. 1932. The bobwhite quail. Its habits, preservation and in- crease. Chas. Scribner’s Sons, N. Y. THomas, OLDFIELD. 1898. Notes on various American mammals. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 2, pp. 318-320. TRUE, FREDERICK W. 1884. A muskrat with a round tail. Science, vol. 4, p. 34. Wacnep, J. A. 1843. Wiegmann’s Arch. f. Naturg., ix, vol. 2. THE ANALYSIS OF PLANT ASH IN THE LIGHT OF THE LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS: AN APPARENTLY FORGOTTEN CHEMICAL PRINCIPLE L. W. GappuM University of Florida A suRVEY of the literature on the analysis of ashed plant material re- veals some striking inconsistencies with the law of definite propor- tions. In some cases the discrepancy is far beyond any reasonable allowance for experimental error and suggests either an error in cal- culation from experimental data or a serious defect in the method of analysis. THE ANALYSIS OF PLANT ASH 129 The law of definite proportions demands that > >«;= 100 where x; is the percentage of the element in the ash, X; its atomic weight and 2; its valence. Hence, the percentages of elements present in a plant ash should satisfy these two simultaneous equations. In general, analyses indicate that the main constituents of a plant ash are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, iron, chlorine, carbon and oxygen. Other elements are fre- quently present in rather small percentages but their réle is insignifi- cant in the discrepancies mentioned above. Kelley and Cummins! analyzed the ash of Valencia orange leaves obtaining the following data: (On the dry ash basis) Percent sodium 0.78 potassium 6.40 calcium 31.40 magnesium 13 iron 0.15 phosphorus 0.86 sulfur 0.97 silicon 0.97 chlorine 0.95 Presumably the remainder of the ash consists primarily of (a) oxy- gen combined as phosphate, sulfate, and silicate, (b) oxygen combined as metallic oxide, and (c) carbonate. Obviously the oxygen in (a) is 5.37 percent therefore the equation shown above becomes 1 Lhd i SS Bea pee a teOne| ta (%COF)+ (%Oq)=50.4 whence (%COs)= 50.7 on =— .2 [practically zero]. 1 Kelley, W. P., and Cummins, A. B., Composition of normal and mottled citrus leaves. Jour. Agr. Res. 20: 3: 161-191. 1920. 130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES This result indicates that the data quoted above are at least con- sistent with the law of definite proportions. Moreover the results ac- cord with preliminary results of Peterson? who showed that very little if any metallic oxide oxygen was present in citrus leaf ash, when ashed at 450° C. On the other hand, as an example of data apparently inconsistent — with the law of definite proportions, an analysis of cottonseed kernels recorded in the literature? may be cited. The report submits the following data. (On the dry crude ash basis) Percent sodium 17.04 potassium 2715 calcium 4.45 magnesium 9.05 iron 0.36 phosphorus 42.96 Since the sum is 101.61 percent, no place is left in the analysis for sulfur, silicon, carbon, and oxygen. If the data are substituted in the equations above se 4 ae 1 33 06} Oba 06 (Oe a ee (%S)+ — (MSi)++. (GC)+. (MO) =—1.6. The crude ash probably contains sulfur, silicon and carbon in ad- dition to the elements whose percentages are recorded. Neglecting these elements temporarily however, about 88.6 grams of oxygen per 100 grams of ash are required to combine with the phosphorus, since the phosphorus presumably exists as PO, radical. Thus the analysis would imply 190.2 percent of constituents in the ash. If one takes into consideration the sulfur, silicon and carbon which presumably are present in the ash, the discrepancy is greater. The conclusion seems unavoidable that either an error was made in calculating the reported figures from laboratory data or the meth- ods employed are in error by about 90 percent. Similar examination of other data in the literature reported by other workers, reveals similar cases of inconsistency with the law of definite proportions. It is suggested that reports of analytical data on plant and other ashes be accompanied by a check with the law of definite proportions wherever possible. 2H. Peterson. Unpublished work, Dept. of Hort., Univ. of Florida Exp. Sta. 3 McHargue, J. S., Mineral constituents of the cotton plant. Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 18: 12: 1076. 1926. THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS 131 THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS L. E. WIsE and A. MEER Rollins College THE EARLIEST recorded work on the chemistry of Spanish Moss (Til- landsia usneoides) was done in 1861 by Luca,! who found that the moss was high in ash. Spanish Moss is an epiphyte, that is, it derives all of its food from the air. For this reason the high content of ash appeared unusual.?"? Wherry and Buchanan‘ found that the ash con- tained silicon and iron, but gave no reason for their presence. Schorger,® however, considers that all the inorganic matter is de- rived from dust carried by the wind and rain, and caught by the leaf scales which seem very well adapted for this purpose. Spanish Moss has also been studied from the more practical stand- point of adapting it as a stock food.? The botanical side has been thoroughly investigated by Billings* and by Uphof.’ The process of retting the moss prior to its use in upholstery has been carefully in- vestigated by Record.* Uphof has described the fermentation that takes place during the retting process. A rather thorough research of the carbohydrate constituents has been carried out by Schorger,’ who did not, however, actually work on the constitution of the cellulose of the moss. His investigation of the carbohydrate material showed the presence of galactan, araban, xylan, and cellulose. Among the non-carbohydrate constituents pro- tein, chlorophyl, a caratinoid pigment, a sterol, and wax were found. The object of this work was to investigate certain of the chemical properties of the cellulose contained in Spanish Moss, especially in their relation to those of cotton cellulose. The principal object was to learn whether the same chemical unit occurred in Spanish Moss as in the cotton cellulose macromolecule. In this connection Cross and Bevan cellulose and alpha cellulose were isolated by methods in vogue in the U.S. Forest Products Lab- oratory,’ in the case of woods. The yields and properties of cello- biose octaacetate obtained by subjecting the moss cellulose to the acetolysis reaction were compared quantitatively with those obtained from cotton. SOURCES OF CELLULOSE As is commonly known cellulose is one of the most widely distrib- uted of all organic materials. Its sole possible competitor is another complex polysaccharide, starch. Cellulose forms the principal skele- tal substance of green plants, wood, straw and the like. Since care- fully treated cotton is almost pure cellulose, it has been taken as the 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES standard for comparison with celluloses obtained from other sources. Industrially, the tendency has been to substitute wood cellulose for many products which had hitherto employed cotton. Other than cot- ton and wood, products from the stalks of flax, hemp and jute have been employed as textile fibers. All of these seem to contain a recur- ring-anhydro cellobiose unit or residue common to cotton. Some . types of cellulose, however, are of doubtful chemical constitution. The polysaccharide isolated from Posidonia australis,° a seed bear- ing sea plant, and lichenin,!!-13 an important component of Ice- land moss (Cetraria islandica) show only certain of the chemical properties of cellulose. CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF CELLULOSE—THE RECURRING “Unit CELL” IN CELLULOSE (L.E., ANHYDROCELLOBIOSE) Although the hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose has been known since 1819, its quantitative hydrolysis was first carefully carried out by Monier-Williams,” who isolated nearly 91 percent of the theoretical amount of crystallized glucose according to the equation: (CgH190s) n+ nH,O—nCgHi2.0¢ Cellulose d-Glucose The above equation gives, however, only the starting point (cellu- lose) and the end product (d-glucose). Willstatter and Zechmeister!® have isolated several crystalline intermediates between cellulose and glucose. In order to gain some insight into the mechanism of the hydrolysis of cotton cellulose, a useful but limited picture of this stepwise hydrolysis!” may be given as follows:— (1) (CgHi00s) 4n+nH,O—n CosH 49004 (tetrose) (2) Co4H42021-+ H2O— Ce H1206+ CisH32016 (glucose) __(triose) (3) CisH32016-+ H2O—- Cg Hi206+ Ci2H22011 (glucose) (cellobiose) (4) Cy2H22011-+ H2O— 2 C,H 1205 (cellobiose) (glucose) This, of course, is at best only schematic, since according to recent data, cellulose may have a molecular weight as high as 120,000 de- pending on the source and pretreatment,!® which would mean 750 glucose residues in the molecule. @ In connection with the problem of the constitution of cellulose, the acetolysis reaction has been of the greatest help. Acetolysis may be THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS 133 defined as the rupture of a polysaccharide molecule with attendant acetylation of its degradation products.!’ When the reaction is car- ried out on cellulose, cellobiose octaacetate is the principal product, although intermediate products, and the final product glucose penta- acetate may also be formed. It has thus been shown that the complex cellulose molecule consists of recurring ‘“‘unit cells” of anhydrocello- biose. In its simplest terms the reaction may be given as follows:— =< O zt [CgHi00.] aa O = [CsHi904] — a 7Ac,O = Ci2H1103(OAc) g+ 6AcOH A portion of the cellulose molecule Cellobiose Octaacetate (Ac equivalent to CH;CO) The problem of obtaining cellobiose or its derivative, the octaace- tate, from cellulose is, therefore, directly connected with work con- cerning the constitution of the latter, the assumption being made that the acetolytic treatment causes no intramolecular rearrange- ments. To a certain extent there is a similarity between the acetolysis reaction and the hydrolysis of cellulose. In both cases a rupture of the polysaccharide molecule takes place, although in the latter case there is no acetylation, and the hydrolysis goes further to glucose. Leaving out of consideration all of the stero-chemical configura- tions of the “fragment,” the anhydrocellobiose linkage in cellulose is represented below, x indicating the points at which this linkage is joined to similar neighboring linkages. fio 6 ) Cit 5 a - sue + z anal roe oas 3 3 ee ) oe L + Bet! i et Ox 1 a u 6 oe | H For each 6 carbon atoms there is an “‘amylene oxide”’ bridge (i.e., 1, 5,). Also, there is a glucosidic (acetal) linkage between C atom No. 1 of one unit and C atom No. 4 of the neighboring unit. There is thus a succession of anhydroglucose units joined through oxygen bridges. 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES How many times this is repeated we do not know definitely. From present indications, however, in high-grade cotton this unit may be repeated, perhaps, 375 times.1® Haworth" gives the formulation we have given above for cellulose in the form of long chains of heterocycles linked together by oxygen. The configuration of the groups is shown somewhat more clearly by - means of a perspective construction, where the hydrogens and the hydroxyts are placed above or below the plane of the 6 atom ring depending on the stereochemical configuration. ig OH CH.OH O CH.0H x H OH ISOLATION OF CELLULOSE Prior to the isolation of cellulose, extraneous materials must be removed. The removal of such extraneous non-carbohydrate material is effected by the use of different solvents and is often difficult and tedious. In the case of woods the solvents vary in different labora- tories, but may include almost any suitable organic liquid and water. The use of alkalies affects the cell wall components, but has little effect on cellulose. CROSS AND BEVAN CELLULOSE If the isolation of cellulose is simply for analytical purposes, the removal of lignin and other extraneous constituents from the ex- tractive-free material is usually brought about by alternate treat- ment of the finely divided sample with chlorine and sodium sulphite by a purely empirical method. This cellulosic residue after chlorina- tion is usually spoken of as ‘“‘Cross and Bevan Cellulose” rather than THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS 135 just cellulose.?° It cannot be termed cellulose, for it may not be one individual resistant polysaccharide, but a mixture of several resist- ant polysaccharides. Some of these polysaccharides associated with cellulose in woody tissue have been loosely grouped together as “‘hemi- cellulose.”’ They are non-fibrous, colloidal polysaccharides, which are usually soluble in NaOH solutions and hydrolized by dilute acids, in which the resistant cellulose is insoluble. In the original method used by Cross and Bevan”! the chlorination treatments were long; ranging from 30 minutes for the first chlorina- tion to 15 minutes for the last. Ritter”? has shown that these chlori- nation periods may be shortened to 3 minutes for the first chlorina- tion, and, that even in this short period the same quantities of lig- nin and substances other than cellulose are removed. The cellulose thus isolated is in as pure form as when treated with chlorine gas for the longer periods. The Cross and Bevan method for the estimation of cellulose as modified by the U. S. Forests Products Laboratory?® is as follows:— Approximately 2 grams of the air-dry extractive-free material are weighed in a tared alundum crucible contained in a weighing bottle and dried to constant weight in the air oven at 105° C., which usu- ally requires about 3 hours. The crucible is placed near the bottle during the drying, after which it is returned to the stoppered bottle, is cooled in a desiccator, and is re-weighed to obtain the weight of oven-dry material. The crucible is then connected to the chlorination apparatus. The first chlorination treatment requires from 3 to 4 minutes, after which the crucible is removed from the apparatus and the material is washed with cold, distilled water, using suction. These washings are saved for subsequent determination of the HCl formed. The material is next washed with 50 cc. each of a 3 percent sul- phurous acid solution, cold water, and a freshly prepared 2 percent sodium sulphite solution. The material is transferred to a 250 cc. Pyrex beaker with the aid of a pointed glass rod, and is treated with 100 cc. of a 2 percent solution of sodium sulphite. The last traces of the sample adhering to the bottom of the crucible are removed by means of suction. A rubber policeman drawn gently over the bottom of the crucible assists materially in loosening particles of the sample during the procedure. The beaker containing the sample is covered with a watch glass and is placed in a boiling water bath for 30 min- utes. The fibers are again transferred to the alundum crucible and are washed with about 250 cc. of distilled water. This procedure is never sufficient to remove all of the lignin, so that the treatment with chlorine and subsequent treatments, as just outlined, are re- peated until the fibers are practically a uniform white or, at least, show only a very faint tinge of color upon addition of the sodium 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sulphite solution. The second and following treatments with chlorine should not require more than 1 or 2 minutes each. After the lignin has been removed the fibers are thoroughly washed in an alundum crucible (porosity A. 98) successively with hot water, 10 percent acetic acid, 500 cc. hot water, 50 cc. of 95 percent al- cohol and finally with 50 cc. of ether. The tared crucible and its con- - tents are dried at 105° C., to constant weight in an air oven, which usually requires about 23 hours. ) The tared alundum crucible and its contents are again placed in the original stoppered washing bottle, are cooled in a desiccator over concentrated sulphuric acid, and are weighed. ALPHA CELLULOSE The Cross and Bevan residue when subjected to further purifica- tion, such as digestion with cold alkali and careful washing with water and acid, has been termed “alpha cellulose.”” The determina- tion of the alpha cellulose obtained from plant material by the chlorin- ation method is a measure of the resistance of the cellulose to the action of the 17.5 percent sodium hydroxide solution, which is known as Mercer’s solution. The above strength of NaOH is most com- monly used in determining the alpha content of a cellulose. The sol- uble portion removed from alpha cellulose may be further separated into two fractions, the one precipitated by acids and arbitrarily termed beta cellulose; the other remaining dissolved after such treat- ment and termed gamma cellulose. Naturally, the method is em- pirical. ACETOLYSIS OF CELLULOSE Acetylosis has already been defined as the rupture of a polysac- charide molecule with attendant acetylation of its degradation prod- ucts.’ Repeated investigations have served to emphasize the im- portance of the acetolysis reaction when applied to cellulose. When acetic anhydride mixed with sulphuric acid acts upon cel- lulose, a part of the cellulose is converted into the octaacetate of cellobiose. This is the chief product of the reaction. The formation of cellobiose octaacetate has a diagnostic value in indicating the presence of cellulose, since cellobiose has not been ob- tained by the acetolysis of any other polysaccharides (e.g., starch, in- ulin, pentosans, etc.) The formation of cellobiose octaacetate is, however, far from quan- titative. Theoretically, 1 g. of cellulose would yield (if complete con- version could take place) 2.09 g. of cellobiose octaacetate. Ost™ ob- tained 37.7 percent and Madsen” as much as 43 percent of the theoretical amount of cellobiose octaacetate. Hess* has reported 50 THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS 137 percent of the theoretical amount, but Spencer®* was unable to con- firm this. SPENCER’S METHOD OF ACETOLYSIS Three factors:—concentration of sulphuric acid, temperature, and duration of the acetolysis reaction, influence, to a great extent, the yields of the octaacetate. With the purpose of increasing the yields, Spencer has investigated the most favorable conditions under which the reaction proceeds. Highest yields were obtained at a temperature of 50.4° C., using 0.2 cc. concentrated sulphuric acid, and 8 cc. of acetic anhydride (double distilled), which were allowed to react on 2 g. of purified cotton cellulose for a duration of 14 days. Of nine de- terminations an average yield of 42.3 percent of the theoretical was obtained. The maximum was 46.5 percent of the theoretical yield. The method is given in detail in the experimental portion of this paper. Comparative data on yields of cellobiose octaacetate from cotton and from other sources prove that those from cotton are consistently higher. As has been pointed out by Wise and Russell,??2 some of the original cellulose units have been oxidized and others, no doubt, hydrolized during the more or less drastic treatment used in the re- moval of lignin. Those cells of the molecule in which alcoholic hy- droxyl groups have been oxidized would not yield cellobiose octa- acetate. It may be mentioned in passing that cellobiose prepared from cello- biose octaacetate is used in the field of bacteriology.?”? A new method for the production of cellobiose has been devised by the New York State College of Forestry.?® EXPERIMENTAL PART DATA ON ORIGINAL DRY MOSS The moss used in all of these investigations was collected from two trees on the Rollins College campus in Winter Park, Fla. After it was cleaned very carefully of foreign material, it was snipped with shears into particles from 1 cm. to 3 cm. in length. The moisture varied be- tween 40.0 percent and 62.2 percent on samples collected at differ- ent periods. The ash content based on the average analysis of two samples and calculated on an oven-dry basis gave 3.40 percent. FRACTIONS OF MOSS SOLUBLE IN ORGANIC SOLVENTS The moss was treated successively with ether, chloroform, alco- hol and hot water for the removal of non-polysaccharide constituents. The oven-dry material was removed to a mercerized cotton bag and extracted for nine hours in a Soxhlet with ether. 4.08 percent of the 138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES moss was soluble in the ether. The extract was yellowish green in color and had a characteristic odor. The chloroform extracted 1.04 percent of the moss and was yellow in color. The alcohol extract was a brown, hard, dark substance, and varnish-like in appearance on evaporation. The alcohol removed 10.7 percent of the non-polysac- charide material. 14.0 percent was soluble in hot water. A total of 29.8 percent of the oven-dry moss was soluble in the above solvents. The constituents of some of these extractives were determined by Schorger.® Table I summarizes percentages of material soluble in each of the three organic solvents and in hot water in the case of two. samples. TABLE I EXTRACTIVES FROM ORIGINAL Moss Grams of oven- Ether Chloroform Alcohol Hot Water dry moss taken sol. sol. sol. sol. 1.1507 4.28% 1.16% 11.6% 14.0% 1.3657 4.07% .92% 9.8% 14.0% ISOLATION OF CELLULOSE FROM ABOVE EXTRACTED MATERIAL Cross AND BEVAN CELLULOSE Cross and Bevan Cellulose was obtained by the method outlined by the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, with only a few minor modi- fications. Approximately 2 grams of air-dry moss contained in a weighing bottle were dried in an oven at 105° C. After constant weight had been reached, the bottle was stoppered, cooled, and reweighed to ob- tain the weight of oven-dry material. The material was removed to a Gooch crucible and thoroughly moistened with distilled water. The process of chlorination was carried out by passing a stream of washed chlorine from a cylinder over moist moss contained in a 1 liter wide- mouth bottle, which was provided with a two-hole rubber stopper, and an inlet and an outlet tube, so that the material remained in a slowly moving atmosphere of chlorine during each period. The chlorin- ation periods were from 3-4 minutes, after which the crucible was removed from the bottle and the material washed with cold, dis- tilled water, using suction. The material was next washed succes- sively with 50 cc. each of 3 percent sulphurous acid solution, cold water, and a freshly prepared 3 percent sodium sulphite solution. The material was then transferred to a 250 cc. Pyrex beaker and was treated with 100 cc. of a 3 percent solution of sodium sulphite. The mixture was heated in a water bath for 45 minutes. At the end of this THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS 139 period the residue was filtered off and washed with about 250 cc. dis- tilled water. This treatment was continued until the material was entirely white or showed only a slight tinge of pink upon addition of sodium sul- phite solution. After the lignin had been removed, the fibers were thoroughly washed in the Gooch crucible, using a mercerized cotton filter. The successive washings were with hot water, 10 percent acetic acid, 500 cc. hot water, 50 cc. 95 percent alcohol and finally with 50 cc. ether. The tared crucible and its contents were dried at 105° C., to constant weight. Five to six chlorinations were necessary before bleaching was com- pletely effective. Three to four minute periods were used for the first TABLE II YIELDS OF Cross AND BEVAN CELLULOSE FROM EXTRACTIVE- FREE OvEN-pDRyY Moss Oven-dry extracted Cross and Bevan moss Cellulose g. g. To 1.5176 1943 54.44 1.7136 .9086 53.0 122552 2 56.8 13.6418 6.960 SIS) 15.6675 9.2680 59.1 1.8086 1.1520 60.3 chlorination, and periods of 1-2 minutes for the second and subse- quent chlorinations. During the first three chlorinating periods the material became a bright orange, but with later chlorinations the sample finally remained white, or very pale yellow in the presence of chlorine. The addition of sulphurous acid invariably caused the ma- terial to become lighter, thus having a bleaching effect in addition to its action as anti-chlor. On addition of the sodium sulphite solution following the first four chlorinations, the solution became dark red and, finally, almost colorless after the fifth and sixth chlorination, so that by thoroughly washing, a white product was obtained. 2 per- cent sodium sulphite solution was used for all isolations of cellulose, although Schorger states that the chlorinated material was scarcely affected by a 2 percent solution of sodium sulphite.® The cellulose content of the average of 3 determinations of approxi- mately 1.5 grams of oven-dry material gave 54.7 percent. This rep- resented 41.4 percent of the original oven-dry moss. A larger sample was then taken, in order to obtain a sufficient quantity of the puri- fied cellulose for further study. 15.7 grams of the extractive-free 140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES oven-dry moss gave 9.3 grams of the Cross and Bevan cellulose, or a yield of 59.1 percent. In all filtrations of the larger sample a Biichner funnel with a mer- cerized cotton filter was used. ALPHA CELLULOSE The total cellulose was converted to the so-called alpha cellulose. The following method? was the one employed:— A 1 gram sample of oven-dry alpha cellulose was weighed into a beaker and triturated with 25 cc. of 17.5 percent sodium hydroxide. solution until the mass was homogeneous, and was then allowed to stand for 30 minutes. The contents of the beaker were filtered off by suction, until the material was sucked practically dry. It was washed with 50 cc. of 4 per cent sodium hydroxide, and then with approxi- mately 300 cc. of cold distilled water. The alpha cellulose was then treated with 75 cc. hot 10 percent acetic acid, again washed with 300 cc. hot distilled water, dried in the oven to constant weight, and weighed as alpha cellulose. The cellulose obtained in this manner in- variably turned grey upon drying. A 1.2 gram sample of moss cellu- lose gave 70.2 percent alpha cellulose. Carefully dried cotton gave in a comparative experiment 98.6 percent alpha cellulose. DETERMINATION OF CARBON AND HyDROGEN The results of two combustions, which were run on samples of Spanish Moss alpha cellulose, are shown in the following table. TABLE II DETERMINATION OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN IN ALPHA CELLULOSE (SPANISH Moss) Percent Carbon Percent Hydrogen Substance Found Theory Found Theory Sample #1 44 .34 44.44 6.10 6.17 Sample #2 44 .39 44.44 6.12 6.17 ACETOLYSIS OF CELLULOSE METHOD The technic of Spencer®* was followed very carefully in carrying out the acetolysis reaction. Parallel and comparative experiments were made using samples of surgical cotton and normal cellulose iso- lated from Spanish Moss. The method was the following :— 8 cc. double distilled acetic anhydride (b.p. 134-139° C.) was added from a burette into an eight-inch Pyrex test tube. This was immedi- ately stoppered and placed in an ice bath at 0° C. When the tempera- THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS 141 ture of the anhydride had reached that of the bath, 0.2 cc. of sul- phuric acid (sp. gr. 1.84) was carefully added, so as to avoid any appreciable mixing or interaction of the two liquids. After the con- tents had been brought to the temperature of the ice-bath, the tube was carefully shaken. During the mixing of the two liquids a maxi- mum rise of 10° C. took place. The cellulose was then added to the contents of the test tube, and kneaded into the mixture with a glass rod, so that all the fibers came into intimate contact with the liquid. The entire contents of the test tube remained for 30 minutes in the ice-bath, after which it was transferred to a water bath and remained for 14 days at a constant temperature of 50.4° C. (+0.5°). After 50- 60 hours a crystalline mass gradually separated out. After 14 days the tube was removed, 10 cc. of acetic acid were added to the paste and the contents were thoroughly mixed, and poured into 500-750 cc. cold distilled water. The resulting precipitate was allowed to stand in water at 15° C., for at least 1 hour. It was then filtered off on a Biichner funnel, using mercerized cotton cloth as the filtering medium, and washed with water until only a trace of acid was present. The precipitate was air-dried and then extracted with 150 cc. 95 percent alcohol at the boiling point. The solution was filtered and then cooled to 0° C., to permit crystallization. After this was complete, the crys- tals were filtered on a weighed Gooch crucible, dried and weighed. These fine, readily felting white needles were cellobiose octaacetate, as shown by subsequent examination. COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF CELLOBIOSE OCTAACETATE The acetolysis reaction was carried out on 3 samples of cotton and on 4 samples of alpha cellulose from Spanish Moss. The highest yield of the cellobiose octaacetate from cotton was 43.67 percent. Two other samples gave 39.35 percent and 36.9 percent of the theoreti- cal yield. Four samples of alpha cellulose isolated from Spanish Moss gave 27.0—30.9 percent of the theoretical yields of cellobiose octaace- tate. The moss cellulose being in a more compact form and exposing less surface to the liquid was not peptized by the acetolysis mixture as readily as was cotton. As far as it was possible, nearly identical conditions were maintained in carrying out the acetolysis experi- ments. The conditions under which the acetolysis reaction takes place must be carefully controlled. Spencer has shown that even slight deviations from the empirical method will lower the yields of the octaacetate considerably. The difference in the quantitative yields of the above should, therefore, be attributed to unavoidable variations in technic of acetolysis of the cellulose. The identification of cellobiose octaacetate is given in the follow- ing sections. 142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE IV COMPARISON OF YIELDS OF CELLOBIOSE OCTAACETATE OBTAINED FROM COTTON AND SPANISH Moss g. g. Cotton Spanish Moss Alpha cellulose after treatment of original total cellulose with 17.5% NaOH, taken HOT AGETOUTSIS 2A oh ec se nN MON Waku dea gO (1) 1.9997 (1) 1.9997 (2) 1.9918 (2) 1.9909 (3) 1.9901 (3) 1.9982 (4) 2.0470 Cellobiose Octaacetate obtained......... (1) 1.5743 (1) 1.1967 (2) 1.7477 (2) 1.0806 (3) 1.4754 (3) 1.0810 (4) 1.2326 Percentage of theoretical yield of octa- acetate calculated from normal cellulose CONTENU ae eee AMM ie a ahe e (1) 39.35% (1) 28.7% (2) 43.67% (2): (270% (3) 36.87% (3) 27.0% (4) 30.9% MELTING POINT DETERMINATIONS Data of melting point determinations of cellobiose octaacetate ob- tained from cotton and that obtained from moss cellulose, both alone and in admixtures with each other, are shown in Table V. TABLE V MELTING PoINT DETERMINATION ON SAMPLES OF CELLOBIOSE OCTAACETATE Melting Point of Melting Point of Melting Point of crystalline product crystalline product crystalline product from cotton from Moss from 50-50 mixture 222 .5-223.0 C. (uncorr.) 223 .5-224.0 C. 223 .0-224.0 C. 222 .5-223.0 C. 223 .5-224.0 C. 223 .0-224.0 C. OPTICAL ROTATION 2.3958 grams of cellobiose octaacetate, which had been prepared from purified moss cellulose, and which had been purified by recrystal- lization with Norite from hot alcohol, was dissolved in 50 cc. of chlo- roform at 25° C. This represents a concentration of 4.7916 grams per 100 cc. of solution. The angular rotation at 25° was 3.97°, which gives a specific rotation, [a]p-+41.4.° A sample of cellobiose octa- acetate prepared from purified cotton cellulose gave a specific rota- tion, [a]p+41.3°. Spencer®® gives [a]p+41° to [a]p+41.8° for cel- lobiose octaacetate. THE CELLULOSE OF SPANISH MOSS 143 DETERMINATION OF CARBON AND HyDROGEN Two combustions were made on the cellobiose octaacetate pre- pared from the purified Spanish Moss cellulose. The results of the ex- periments are shown in Table VI. TABLE VI DETERMINATION OF PERCENT CARBON AND HyDROGEN IN CELLOBIOSE OCTAACETATE Percent Carbon Percent Hydrogen Found Theory Found Theory Sample #1 49.59% 49.51 _ 5.64 5.54 Sample #2 49.56% 49.51 5.39 5.54 Briefly summarizing these data:— 1. The maximum yield of cellobiose octaacetate obtained from purified cotton cellulose was 43.67 percent of the theoretical yield. 2. The maximum yield of cellobiose octaacetate obtained from purified moss cellulose was 30.90 percent of the theoretical yield. 3. The melting points of samples of cellobiose octaacetate prepared from purified cotton and moss cellulose, as well as mixed melting points, were almost identical. 4, Identical weights of cellobiose octaacetate obtained from puri- fied samples of cotton and moss cellulose gave the same specific ro- tation (within the experimental error). 5. On combustion the octaacetate prepared from purified moss cel- lulose gave 49.57 percent C and 5.52 percent H (which compares favorably with the theory of 49.51 percent C and 5.54 percent H). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides) contains approximately 59 percent Cross and Bevan cellulose on the basis of the extracted ma- terial or 45 percent on the basis of the original material (calculated on an oven-dry basis). 2. Methods for removing the foreign extractives are outlined. 3. The Cross and Bevan residue extracted from Spanish Moss, when treated with 17.5 percent NaOH, EAve approximately 70 per- cent alpha cellulose. 4. The alpha cellulose upon combustion gives 44.37 percent car- bon and 6.11 hydrogen. 5. The anhydrocellobiose linkage in purified moss cellulose occurs to the extent of, at least, 30.9 percent. 6. Since the acetolysis mixture is known to destroy appreciable amounts of cellobiose during the acetolysis, this is a minimal figure. 144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 7. Based on the acetolysis reaction, it is evident that Spanish Moss cellulose and cotton cellulose definitely contain the same “structural unit cell,” i.e., anhydrocellobiose, and that the chemical architecture of Spanish Moss cellulose and of cotton cellulose are similar. 8. These findings, of course, give no evidence regarding the rela- tive dimensions of the cotton and moss cellulose molecules. 28 BIBLIOGRAPHY . Luca, Compt. rend. 52, 244 (1861) through Schorger, ‘‘Some Constituents of Span- ish Moss,” J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 19, 409 (1927). . Pickell, Fla. Expt. Sta., Bull., 11, (1890), 12 (1891). . Halligan, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1, 206, (1919). . Wherry and Buchanan, Science, 61, XLV (1925). . Schorger, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 19, 409 (1927). . Billings, Botan. Gaz., 38, 99 (1904). . Uphof, Tidschrift voor Economische Geographie, May 157 (1932). . Record, Sci. Am., (1916) 58. . Bull., Forest Products Lab., Methods No. 9-45, Aug. (1928). . Earl, H. Chem. Soc., 125, 1322 (1924). . Berzelius, Ann. 90, 277 (1814). . Ott, Helvetica Chim. Acta, 9, 31 (1925). . Hess, “Die Chemie der Zellulose und ihrer Begleiter” p. 91 (1928) through Wise, Cellulose 1, 1 Feb. (1930). . Bracconot, H. Gay Lussac’s Ann. Chemie, Oct. 1819. . Monier-Williams, J. Chem. Soc. 119, 804 (1921). . Willstatter and Zechmeister, Ber., 62,.722 (1929). . Wise, “‘The Chemistry of the Polysaccharides,’ A Lecture delivered at the College of Agriculture of Rutgers University, March 21, 1930. . H. Staudinger, Chem-Zig. 58, 145 (1934) through Papier-Fabr. Abstracts 32, No. 40 (1934). . W. N. Haworth, ‘‘Die Konstitution der Kohlenhydrate,”’ Verlag 'Th. Steinkopff, 1932. . Wise, Cellulose, 1, 1, Feb. (1930). . Cross and Bevan, J. Chem. Soc. 38, 666A (1880). Chem. News 42, 77-91 (1880) J. Chem. Soc. 55, 199 (1889). . G. J. Ritter, Ind. Eng. Chem. 16, 947 (1924). . Ost, Ann., 398, 335, (1913). . Madsen, Dissertation, (Hanover, 1917). . Hess and Friese, Ann., 456, 38 (1927). . Spencer, Cellulosechemie, 10, 61 (1929). . Jones and Wise, Journal of Bacteriology, 11, 359 (1925). J. Am. Chem. Soc., 49, 2822, (1927). ABSTRACTS APPLICATION OF HELLEY’S THEOREM TO SEQUENCES OF JORDAN CURVES DONALD FAULKNER Stetson University HELLEy’s theorem states that an everywhere convergent subsequence can be chosen from a uniformly bounded sequence of monotonic functions. An elementary proof is given. Jordan arcs, distance of two arcs, and convergence of sequences of arcs in the sense of Jordan are next defined and the characteristics of monotonic transformations on Jordan arcs are discussed. These characteristics include the possession of limits from both sides and continuity at a point. An application of Helley’s theorem to Jordan arcs is then stated thus: Let the sequence of Jordan arcs I,* converge to the Jordan arc I* and let the monotonic transformations P,*=T7,(P) carry I into a set on I*. Then, T,(P) con- tains everywhere on I’ convergent subsequences, and the limit transformation is again monotonic and carries I into a set on I™. The Jordan closed curve is defined as the topological image of the unit circle and the theorem on the monotonic transformation of Jordan arcs is used to prove the general theorem: | Let the monotonic transformation P,*=T,(P) carry the Jordan curve I into a set on the Jordan curve I',*, and the three distinct, fixed points, A, B, C, on into three distinct fixed points on T,*, An*, Bn*, Cn*. Also, let T',* converge to Tin the sense of Frechet, and A,*—A*, B,*—>B*, C,*—>C*. Then from the sequence T,(P) we may select everywhere on I’, convergent subsequences 7,4(P). The limit transformation J(P) is monotonic and carries I into a set on I*, with A—A%, B-B*, and C->C*. THE METHODS OF MULTIPLE FACTOR ANALYSIS CHARLES J. MOSIER University of Florida A BRIEF discussion of the historical development of the methods of multiple factor analysis is followed by a concrete example of its application, an indication of the pos- sible range of application to data outside the field of psychology and a geometrical interpretation of the problem. Then is presented in terms of matrix algebra the develop- ment of the fundamental factor theorem, and certain other related theorems, establish- ing the possibility of the methods, the conditions under which the proof holds, and the postulational basis. This is followed by a description of the actual working of the method. 145 146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A QUANTITATIVE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MINUTE AMOUNTS OF COPPER IN BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS L. L. Rusorr anp L. W. Gappum University of Florida “SALT SICK,” a naturally occurring nutritional anemia, is caused by a deficiency of iron and copper in the forages grown on certain soil types along the eastern coast of the United States and Canada. Nutritional anemia due to a lack of iron in soil and forage also occurs in New Zealand, Kenya Colony, the Scottish border and on King’s Island, Tasmania. . Correction and prevention of nutritional anemia was accomplished by the use of iron and a trace of copper in Florida. In order to determine the significance of copper for the body, the copper content of organs and tissues must be studied. A critical examination of the common methods for copper analysis showed each to have at least one of the following faults: 1. There is incomplete recovery of copper when it is precipitated as copper sulfide or electrolyzed out of solution. 2. The removal of metals, especially iron, carries down some copper when they are precipitated out. 3. The colors produced with minute amounts of copper are very difficult to compare and do not follow Beer’s Law. 4, The alkalinity or acidity of the solution changes the concentration of the color in the organic solvent. 5. There is incomplete extraction of color with the organic solvent. The color can be intensified by aliquot extractions in place of the usual total extraction. The time and vigor of shaking also change the intensity of the color and produce a turbidity. 6. The main objection to all the methods is contamination with copper from re- agents and apparatus employed. Since quantitative spectroscopic methods avoid these faults, and contamination from copper is reduced, the authors turned to the development of such a method. Briefly, the spectroscopic method employed is as follows: A set of standards of pure chemicals is made up with definite amounts of copper. Identical amounts of an internal standard are added to each standard copper solution. Spectrograms are taken. The ratio of densities of the spectral lines of the internal standard and the copper are measured by means of a photometer. By plotting the ratio against percentage of copper, a calibra- tion curve is obtained, which is then available for use in determining the amount of copper in an unknown sample. It was necessary that the water and reagents used be purified, in order to determine copper in as small amounts as “parts per million.”’ Redistilling water through an acid leached glass still twice, removed copper to less than 0.5 p.p.m. The salts were purified by recrystallizing eight times from the specially-distilled water and in leached con- tainers, this final product also containing less than 0.5 p.p.m. of copper. These are the purest chemicals yet examined critically by the authors, as far as copper is concerned. A purified base was made according to the composition of an animal ash, using cad- mium and silver as internal standards. The calibration curve is underway. ABSTRACTS 147 RESULTS OF SOME FURTHER STUDIES OF THE DETERMINATION OF ZINC L. H. ROGERS AND O. E. GALL University of Florida It HAS BEEN found that the spectrographic microdetermination of zinc has a probable error of less than 10% of the mean. Comparison of analyses for zinc by this method with analyses by a chemical method (Hibbard, Ind. & Eng. Chemistry Analytical Edition, 6, 423 (1934)) show excellent agreement in some cases and wide deviations in other cases. (Complete results of this study appear in the January, 1937 issue of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, Analytical Edition). ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETRY AND ITS APPLICATIONS L. H. RoGEers University of Florida A REVIEW oi the technique and apparatus required for quantitative absorption spectro= photometry in the visible and ultraviolet. An example of its usefulness for the deter- mination of Vitamin C in citrus juices is cited, and other biochemical and industrial uses mentioned. AN APPLICATION OF INFRA-RED SPECTROSCOPY TO RUBBER CHEMISTRY DUDLEY WILLIAMS University of Florida THE APPLICABILITY of infrared methods to some problems arising in the chemistry of rubber has been demonstrated. The spectra of isoprene, styrene, polymerized butadiene, and several types of rubber have been studied and certain variations in the 5.5u-6.5y regions are attributed to changes occurring during the processes of polymerization. The effects of vulcanization also appear in the spectra of the rubber samples. The methods of infrared analysis do not necessitate the use of solutions of rubber compounds in carbon tetrachloride or carbon disulphide as in the case of previous Raman work. RAMAN SPECTRA OF ACETONE-WATER SOLUTIONS R. C. WILLIAMSON University of Florida Some preliminary results are presented showing changes in frequencies of certain modes of vibration of the acetone molecules in acetone-water solutions. The mode of vibration (1712 cm.*) attributed to the C=O bond, decreased in frequency with increasing water content, approaching a limiting wave number for infinite dilution of approximately 1697 cm.—. The vibration (788 cm.) characteristic of the C—C bond, increased in fre- quency to a wave number of 795 cm. under the same conditions. Other frequencies gave indications of small changes too uncertain to record. 148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN HIGH-FIDELITY SOUND REPRODUCTION ROBERT I. ALLEN Stetson University THE Past decade has been epochal in the history of sound reproduction. Prior to the year 1926, due to mechanical limitations, it was impossible to record or transmit a wider frequency range than 350-3000 cycles/sec. Hence the quality of the resulting sound was greatly impaired. With the advent (in 1926) of the electrical method of recording, the range of fre- quencies was extended from about three octaves to about six. In this method: (a) a microphone replaced the old acoustical horn; (b) a powerful vacuum-tube amplifier was used to boost the intensity of the resulting electrical vibrations; (c) an electro- magnetically operated cutting head replaced the mechanically-operated stylus. The climax to this development came in 1932 when certain further refinements were effected. In the spring of 1933 the Bell Telephone Co. demonstrated before the Ameri- can Academy of Sciences the reproduction of all frequencies of orchestral music (from 40-15,000 cycles/sec.); and, even more remarkable, presented this music in its normal auditory or spatial perspective. Several important factors contributing to this phenomenal development are: (1) Development and use of the cathode-ray oscillograph—a device for accurately graphing the “‘wave form” of any sound. (2) Use of certain electrical networks, called ‘‘Filters” (consisting of an arrangement of condensers and inductance coils), by means of which any desired group or band of frequencies may be isolated from the most complex combination of tones. (3) Development of ultra-high permeability magnetic core materials (such as: “hypernick,” “‘permalloy,”’ etc.) for use in the audio transformers of amplifiers, result- ing in decreased tendencies toward core saturation and distortion of tone. (4) Improvements in the construction of microphones, phenographic pickups, and speakers, utilizing materials having greater efficiency in converting electrical vibrations into mechanical (or vice versa). Rochelle Salt Crystals deserve special mention as hav- ing remarkable properties for such a purpose. [Ep1Tor’s Note: In the original discussion, from which these notes are abstracted, the author interspersed a number of demonstrations which employed the following equipment: a high-fidelity vacuum-tube amplifier, a crystal phonographic pickup, a crystal microphone, a crystal speaker, a cathode-ray oscillograph, a “‘highpass”’ filter, a “low-pass” filter, several phonographic recordings (both acoustical and electrical types), several types of audio transformers, a vacuum-tube oscillator, and a chart showing the three characteristics of musical sound. The following notes refer to several of the demonstrations included. ] (A) The effect upon the pitch quality and of a single recorded tone, played succes- sively by a piano, a cello and a French horn, and reproduced under various conditions of ‘‘filtering,” showed: (a) as more and more of the harmonics were eliminated the quality of the three instruments became more and more indistinguishable, whereas the pitch remained unchanged; (b) as more and more of the lower frequencies (including the fundamental) were eliminated the intensity diminished greatly, the pitch remained un- changed (being supplied subjectively by the ear), and the quality changed slightly. ABSTRACTS 149 Thus was emphasized how greatly the ‘‘quality” of sound depends upon the presence of the higher frequencies or harmonics. (B) An “electrical recording” of Caruso’s voice (the great tenor having died five years before the advent of the electrical method of recording) was played through the high-fidelity amplifier. This brilliant recording was obtained in the following ingenious manner: a stamping of the original (acoustical) recording, upon a disc made of smooth, scratch-free, material, served as the basis. While this record was being reproduced and fed into the new recorder, a new orchestral accompaniment was synchronized with Caruso’s singing. Thus was supplied the lower tones and a richer orchestration—both missing in the original recording. To provide the missing “‘highs,” a special “high-pass” filter system extracted the feeble overtones (which were present only 5 or 10% of their normal strength) and a separate vacuum-tube amplifier boosted them back to their proper proportions. THE INTERRELATION OF MOTOR ABILITIES P. F. FINNER Florida State College for Women THE EASY generalization that an individual is “fast” or “‘graceful’” in his movements— that all performances of a person tend to be alike—is undergoing critical study. Some aspects of simple motor responses such as strength and speed seem to characterize all muscles of an individual. Other performances again are highly specific to certain musculatures. An experiment with 100 subjects each of whom was tested for 300 trials in different tapping movements will be reported. It appears that, within a limited range, the muscles tend to perform at similar rates. Musculatures that have been practiced tend to maintain a uniform rate; muscles in new combinations tend to be unique in the per- formance and to change over a period of time. EFFECT OF A LACK OF VITAMIN A ON THE BLOOD PICTURE OF RATS AND ADULT HUMANS O. D. AsBott and C. F. AHMANN University of Florida CHANGES occurred in the leucocytes of rats fed for six to twelve months on diets low in vitamin A. The most significant ones were a decrease in the polymorphic nuclears, an increase in large lymphocytes and in juvenile forms. The presence of these immature cells such as myelocytes, myeloblasts and stabs indicated exhaustion of certain hema- topoietic tissues. If vitamin A were not given at this time, the animals died. Death was due usually to respiratory diseases as xerophthalmia was present in only a few cases. In codperation with several hospitals a study was made of the blood picture of a number of malnourished humans. The most significant changes in the blood again were found in the ratio of the large to small lymphocytes and the presence of degenerate and immature forms. The changes in the blood picture offer possibilities for use in diagnosing avitaminosis A in adult humans. 150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE EFFECT OF CERTAIN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF COTTON SEED, GERMINATING ABILITY, AND RESULTANT YIELD OF COTTON W. A. CARVER University of Florida THE EFFECTS of the place of origin of seed, of plant nutrients, and of soil moisture were studied by the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. The Florida grown cotton seed used in the place-of-origin test were secured each | year from the varieties in the variety trials. The out-of-state seed, or the seed grown by the originator during the previous year, were planted adjoining the Florida-grown seed of the same variety. A total of seventeen different varieties were tested during five seasons, 1928, 1930, 1931, 1932, and 1933. The varieties were found to differ in their reaction to Florida conditions. When the yield of all varieties are averaged, the out-of-state seed excelled by 56 pounds of seed cotton per acre. This difference is signi- ficant, the odds being 25.3:1. Out-of-state seed also germinated 10 per cent higher. Observations on the effects of organic nitrogen or of green manure on the production of viable cotton seed were made at Gainesville in 1928 and 1929 when cotton was planted following heavy crops of Crotalaria, which were plowed under. The cotton seed produced under these conditions germinated 36 and 22 percent lower for the two years than did seed of the same varieties grown out of the state. The corresponding yields were 11 and 13 percent lower. In 1932 at Quincy, cotton was planted on soil following corn and peanuts (planted in alternate rows) and received fertilizer having various ratios of phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potash. The different fertilizer treatments had no appreciable influence on the germinating ability of the resulting seed crop. On the other hand, the germination from seed produced in rows following corn averaged 14.6 percent higher than seed produced in rows following peanuts. The seed were also heavier following corn and had a lower moisture content. In 1932, a moisture control experiment was conducted with cotton. The plants were carried in four gallon stoneware pots and kept in the open, the soil being protected from rainwater by white oil cloth. The different percentages of soil moisture saturation used were 50, 42, 34, 26, and 18. There were three jars of each moisture content. The wettest series of jars produced the smallest number of mature seed per boll, the highest per- centage of immature seed, largest yield of bolls per plant, and the longest lint. The ger- mination percentages shown by the seed grown at different soil moisture saturations reading from the wettest to the driest series were: 77, 64, 90, 93, and 92. ORGANOGRAPHY OF SIXTEEN MILLIMETER AMEIURUS NELLE CAMPBELL Stetson University 1. The left posterior cardinal vein of Ameiurus arises from the right posterior car- dinal by a sinus-like isthmus in the anterior portion of the kidney. 2. The subclavian veins enter the sinus venosus on the ventral surface, anterior to the position where the common cardinals enter. 3. In the sixteen millimeter stage the pneumatic vein and the transverse stem of the ABSTRACTS 151 right anterior intercostal veins enter the hepatic portal by a common stem with several intestinal and gastric veins. This common vein enters the portal in the pancreas just anterior to the point where the bile duct enters the intestine. 4. In the sixteen millimeter stage, the first pair of intercostal arteries send a branch to the head kidney and another branch dorsally and posteriorly. The second pair of intercostal arteries send a branch dorsally and a branch to the pectoral girdle. The subclavian in the adult seems to have developed from a fusion of portions of these two arteries, and it supplies the head kidney, pectoral girdle and fin, and the dorsal and lateral musculature. 5. In the sixteen millimeter stage the genital artery terminates in branches to the rec- tum. 6. The pneumatic duct is open in the sixteen millimeter, twenty millimeter, twenty- three millimeter, thirty-three millimeter, and adult stages. 7. The head kidney is probably functional in early embryonic stages, for in the sixteen millimeter, twenty millimeter, twenty-three millimeter stages there are present in the head kidney Malpighian corpuscles and renal tubules. There are also two connect- ing ducts which follow the two posterior cardinals from the head kidney to the kidney proper. 8. The pancreas is a separate organ in the sixteen millimeter stage through the thirty- three millimeter stage; in the adult, the pancreatic tissue is not massed together in lobes, but rather follows the blood vessels. In the sixteen millimeter stage there is a pancreatic duct which enters the intestine just posterior to the entrance of the bile duct into the intestine. In all stages studied the pancreatic tissue follows the branches of the hepatic portal into the liver, but only in the adult does the pancreatic tissue follow the blood vessels into the spleen. INHERITANCE OF REST PERIOD IN PEANUT SEEDS Frep H. Hut University of Florida DELAYED germination of seeds is common in many plant species. It is frequently caused by a tough or impervious seed coat and sometimes by an immature embryo which must complete its development after the seed is ripe. If none of these causes operates, delay is attributed to an internal condition which must be modified by a process called ‘‘after- ripening” and the time of delay is called the “rest period.” Seeds of Spanish peanuts planted soon after maturity in a greenhouse usually ger- minated immediately but a small proportion required short rest periods. Average rest periods of runner peanuts were 150 to 200 days with very few seeds germinating im- mediately. Studies of the inheritance of rest period in crosses between pure strains of the two groups were interpreted as indicating typical multigenic inheritance of a quanti- tative character, except that the character is expressed over only about one-half of the range of genetic variation. It was supposed that a basic seed condition on which rest period must depend may be a typical quantitative character with near-normal fre- quency distributions and that near the mid-point of genetic variation of seed condition is a threshold of germination. On one side of the threshold requirements for germination are met or exceeded and no rest period appears. On the other side a range of deficiency is expressed in rest periods of different lengths. A typical picture of quantitative in- heritance with near-normal frequency distributions in pure strains and various hybrid 152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES generations and families is, thus, transformed by having approximately the left one- half compressed into a single class of zero rest period. The right one-half appears with- out distortion. Specific features of rest period behavior and their significance in supporting the inter- pretation were listed as follows: 1. Non-genetic variance of rest period was large in pure runner strains and in other | samples with long rest requirements. It was greatly reduced in pure Spanish strains and other samples with short rest requirements. A pure strain with genotype potential for rest period exactly zero should show some rest period in approximately one-half of its seeds because of non-genetic variation. Pure strains of Spanish which showed rest period in fewer than 50 percent and as few as 10 percent of their seeds are indicated . as having genotype potentials for less than zero rest period. They may have less than the number of genes necessary to produce rest period in any degree. 2. Every F, seed had a rest period of considerable length with the mean nearer the runner type indicating dominance of long rest period. 3. Nearly 50 percent of F; and later generation hybrid seeds germinated immedi- ately or the phenotype of the lesser Spanish parent was fully recovered in them. Fre- quency distributions of remaining seeds in each sample appeared as the right one-half of a normal frequency distribution. This conforms with the theory that nearly 50 per- cent of genotypes have potential values less than zero for rest period. It cannot be at- tributed to dominance of germinability (2). 4, Mean rest periods of hybrid generations after F; were less than one-half of those of greater parents; or average breeding values of Spanish strains were negative. Breed- ing values of Spanish strains in crosses with a single runner strain differed significantly and in accordance with tests on seeds of the several pure Spanish strains. Transgressive segregation, far above the greater parent, appeared frequently in Spanish-runner crosses. It is indicated that Spanish strains have different genotypes with all of them of potential value less than zero and that certain genes whose general effect is to increase rest period may be found in the Spanish group but not in the runner group of peanuts. Any conclusion that immediate germination usually indicates a minimum genotype would be very difficult to establish. GENETICS IN THE TAXONOMY OF ARACHIS HYPOGAEA, L. FrepD H. HuLy University of Florida Louretro (1790) assigned the bunch varieties of A. hypogaea, L. to one species Asiatica and the runner varieties to another Africana. De Candolle recombined them in 1823. Some early writers referred to the many seeded varieties like Valencia as the Peruvian type and to the remaining varieties with two seeds in a pod as the Brazilian type. Waldron (1919) assigned sub-specific rank to bunch and runner peanuts and postulated separate origins from different wild species. Hayes (1933) classified culti- vated peanuts in two principal groups, bunch and runner. Chevalier (1933) makes five principal groups principally on the basis of seed size and pod thickness. Three principal groups now proposed are runner, Spanish, and Valencia. Runner is distinguished by prostrate habit, russet seed coat, dark green foliage, long seeds, and long rest period of seeds. Spanish peanuts have erect habit, tan seed coat, light green ABSTRACTS 153 foliage, short seeds, short or no rest period, and rarely if ever more than two seeds in a pod. The Valencia group is the Peruvian type of early writers. It has three or more seeds in a pod usually but is more definitely determined by a very sparse branching habit and an atypical inflorescence with a rachis or central stem several inches in length. In the typical inflorescence the rachis is greatly reduced so the several flowers have sessile attachment. This classification is further supported by the distribution of two sets of duplicate genes. One set controls the inheritance of yellow seedlings and the other that of sparse branching and atypical inflorescence which make up Valencia plant type. Genetic records assign the genotypes 1], LeL2 Va,Va; vaevae, Lily lle varva; Va,Vai, and Lili L2L2 vayva; Va2Vvaz to the runner, Spanish, and Valencia groups of peanuts respectively. No exceptions have been noted. All varieties of cultivated peanuts seem to intercross freely with no loss of fertility, although natural crosses are rare. All varieties have twenty pairs of chromosomes. Numerous pairs of duplicate genes suggest polyploidy, probably tetraploidy. The common peanut may have originated from a more primitive type by multiplication of chromosome number and ten chromosome types may exist at present among the wild species of South America. NON-EFFECTIVE GENE FREQUENCIES FreD H. Hut University of Florida INHERITANCE of rest period in peanut seeds was described at the previous meeting as multigenic with unique behavior interpreted to indicate zero expression of the character over approximately the lower one-half of the range of gene frequency. No parallel cases were known but one was discovered last summer in the inheritance of number of tillers per plant in maize. Non-effective gene frequencies may have developed accidentally or in response to selection. Shifting to an environment favoring tillering would probably transform the mode of inheritance to the classical type. Conversely the reverse transformation could be made with tillers and other similar characters but the environmental responses of rest period in peanuts hardly admits this interpretation. If non-effective gene fre- quencies were produced by shift of environment and the new environment continued, selection for the character would eventually eliminate them. Selection against the character especially with large non-genetic variance as found in both rest period and tillering would probably build up a range of non-effective gene frequencies. Such selection with some shift of environment seems the more plausible explanation in the case of tillering. Non-effective gene frequencies may have developed in rest period where growing con- ditions prevailed generally except for rare adverse periods. (The peanut originated in the tropics.) Immediate germination of most seeds with varying rest periods in a few would be advantageous. Non-effective lower gene frequencies provide the mechanism to produce this highly skewed distribution. If zero rest period were a minimum geno- type its occurrence would necessarily be rare. Large non-genetic variance adapts the mechanism to intense inbreeding which occurs at present. Long rest period types may be later developments in response to increasing regularity of growing conditions either from climatic changes or from migration to higher latitudes. 154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SOME FLORIDA CRAWFISHES AND THEIR HABITAT DISTRIBUTION H. H. Hopss, Jr. University of Florida THE PROBLEM undertaken in the present study, has been to determine and distinguish the several local species of Cambarus; to ascertain their habitat distribution among the various ecological situations of the Gainesville Region. Each of the six crawfish representatives in this region is associated with a more or less definite type of habitat. In spite of the overlappings which occur, and the situations in which more than one species are found, each of these crawfishes may be thought of in connection with a specific type or specific types of habitats. 1. Cambarus advena geodytes is a habitual burrower. 2. Cambarus pubescens is a flatwoods variety living in any of the temporary water systems of the flatwoods. 3. Cambarus fallax is peculiar to the ponds and lakes but is often found in habitats occupied by members of other species. » 4. Cambarus clarkipaenensulanus inhabits the small springs and sandy bottom creeks where it often burrows into the clay or mud banks. 5. Cambarus spiculifer may be always associated with the large, clear, calcareous streams. 6. Cambarus acherontis is confined to the under-ground water systems where it is not associated with any of the other species. TWO LARVAL CRANE-FLY MEMBERS OF THE NEUSTON FAUNA J. SPEED ROGERS University of Florida THE NEUSTON comprises all the numerous and very diverse organisms that are associ- ated with and dependent upon the surface film of fresh-water habitats. In contrast to the plankton (the submerged drifting organisms of the open waters), the nekton (the active submerged fauna) and the benthos (the bottom-living biota of both shallow and deep water), the neuston has been comparatively little studied but, in the quiet waters of sluggish streams, of ponds, and of marsh pools it forms a considerable part of the total aquatic biota. Recently it has been found that the larvae of two species of crane-flies, Megzstocera longipennis (Macq.) and Limonia (D) distans (Osten Sacken) often form a considerable though inconspicuous element of the neuston population of Florida ponds and “prai- ries.” This is of particular interest in that these are the first instances known of neuston forms among the crane-flies; the larvae of the closest relatives of each of these two species have very different larval habitats, and these two neuston forms are not at all closely related; and that Megistocera longipennis has long been regarded as an extremely rare form. A brief account of the habits, life cycles and adaptations of these forms to the neuston region is given. ABSTRACTS 15 oa] THE PAST AND PRESENT STATUS OF SOME RARE AND THREATENED FLORIDA BIRDS ALDEN H. HADLEY Gainesville Florida has long occupied a unique place among the states of the Union on account of her exceedingly rich and varied flora and fauna. By reason of this fact our state has for many years been a mecca for naturalists and collectors and also for sportsmen as well as unscrupulous killers. This situation, combined with an ever-advancing civilization, has given rise to many abuses which have produced a disastrous effect upon certain conspicuous and unusually interesting forms of bird life. It is the purpose of this paper to give a brief review of the past and present status of certain of these species. First to be dealt with are three birds which for some time have been the chief concern of the National Association of Audubon Societies in its determined efforts to save these forms from complete extirpation. These species, in the order of the critical situation confronting them, are: 1. The Great White Heron 2. The Roseate Spoonbill 3. The Eastern Glossy Ibis Also to be touched upon are other species the fortunes of which should be carefully watched and guarded, such as the Limpkin Florida Crane, Everglade Kite, Florida Burrowing Owl and the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. COMMENTS ON THE RECENT MAMMALS OF FLORIDA E. V. KoMAREK Thomasville, Ga. THE MAMMALS of Florida are divided into 97 species and subspecies; nine of these are sea mammals, five are introduced mammals, and only three are extinct. The land mam- mals only will be considered in this paper. The present mammalian fauna exclusive of sea, extinct, or introduced mammals consist of forty genera as follows. Marsupials (Marsupiala) 1 genus, 1 species Insectivores (Insectivora) 4 genera, 9 species and subspecies (Shrews & Moles) Bats (Chiroptera) 9 genera, and probably 12 species and subspecies Carnivores (Carnivora) 11 genera, 16 species and subspecies Rodents (Rodentia) 10 genera, 37 species and subspecies Rabbits (Lagomorpha) 1 genus, 4 species and subspecies Ungulates (Artiodactyla) 1 genus, 3 species and subspecies The extinct three species are 1 rodent, 1 bovine, 1 Artiodactyl. The mammalian life of Florida is very diversified and unique. It contains more of its original mammalian fauna than any eastern state. It has a larger number of endemic species and subspecies than any eastern state. And Florida also has a larger number of species and subspecies of mammals than any other eastern state. Of the 80 native species and subspecies of land mammals now present in the state 33 are endemic. Two 156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the species extinct in Florida are also extinct in reality. The third extinct species is present in small colonies in other southern states and further knowledge may yet show it to exist in Florida. COMMENTS ON PROBLEMS IN MAMMALS OF FLORIDA E. V. KoMAREK Thomasville, Ga. MAmMALOoGy in Florida literally stopped, just after it had scarcely begun, with the war between the states and the area was still a wilderness. Since that time only sporadic collecting trips have been made into the state, and these usually during winter, so much that the “tourist”’ towns are clearly marked on a distribution map of collecting sites within Florida. Due to the activities of the staff of the Cooperative Quail Study Association and the Chicago Academy of Sciences this problem is rapidly being over- come by intensive collecting and studies, particularly in western and northwestern © Florida. At present we do not have a published check list of the mammals of Florida though one is in preparation. We know very little about the distribution of mammals within the state. Thus on maps and in taxonomic literature such a common mammal as the spotted skunk is limited to the east coast when apparently it occurs throughout Florida, at least above the Everglades. Further work on mammals will show a decided revision in the taxonomy of certain species. We know very little of the food habits of even our most common mammals. In con- nection with studies on game birds we have learned that not more than seventy-five stomachs have been scientifically examined in eastern United States of such common mammals as the opossum or skunk. Very few of these came from Florida and these few from the region near Tallahassee. Apparently little is known about the external or internal parasites of our native mammals, not only in Florida but in eastern United States. Thus a high percentage of both external and internal parasites of mammals in the southeast prove to be new species. The study of internal parasites of native mammals is so recent that most of the material collected in the past few years in the southeast, including Florida, can only be identified to genera by the Bureau of Animal Industry. One rather common bat in eastern Tennessee yielded two apparently new species of external parasites. Apparently little is known about the diseases of our native animals and their rela- tionship to domestic stock and man. We have found tularemia and coccidiosis in some mammals. At the present time we are studying a disease that has been prevalent in skunks in northwest Florida that shows general symptoms of being rabies. When it comes to the more recent fields in science such as ecology, we find a blank page, for such studies must cover years, not weeks or months, to yield dependable in- formation. Neither is there a life history study of any Florida mammal that might be considered anywhere near complete. These fields of knowledge outlined above must be worked for we must know these things to manage intelligently our wildlife natural resource in Florida. Many of these things should be known so as to live more intelligently with our native mammals. Life has been likened to a web in which each strand supports others and in this field of wildlife conservation and restoration we do not know the main strands, let alone those minor ones which may be just as, and even more, important. ABSTRACTS 157 EFFECTS OF X-RAYS ON CORN A. A. BLEss University of Florida EXPERIMENTS reported at the first meeting of the Academy indicated that no definite conclusions could be drawn from results obtained by irradiating a small number of seeds with X-rays. A larger number of specimens has been obtained in a field planting. Four separate lots of corn seeds were subjected to four different X-ray exposures of two wave lengths and two doses for each wave length. These seeds together with con- trols were planted in the field and so staggered as to minimize the effects of soil varia- tion. One hundred hills of each strain containing three seeds were planted. The seeds were of the inbred strain, which were kindly supplied by Mr. John P. Camp of the Florida Experiment Station. As the inbred strain is extremely susceptible to diseases and attacks of insects the number of whole ears was very much smaller than expected; only about twenty-five ears of each variety having been obtained. The records indicate that corn subjected to a certain X-ray treatment shows a 10 percent increase of average ear weight over the controls. However, it is believed that the number of specimens is not sufficient to warrant complete confidence in this result. HAS THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICS A PLACE IN MODERN SOCIALIZED EDUCATION? BARBARA DAVIS Stetson University TuIs Is a progress report of a study of objectives, materials and methods of mathe- matics in education for a democratic society. The basic place of science in giving the frame to modern life and of the need of reflective thinking and scientific method in giving the individual the opportunity for the fullest possible life are recognized. The existence of wide ranges of individual differ- ences and of the consequent need for a more thorough analysis of the nature of the student and his mental processes are also recognized. The relation between the needs of society and the nature of the individual to be educated is the criterion which must determine the place of any given material in a student’s curriculum. Neither the weight of classicism, of tradition, nor the growing inability to understand elementary scientific thought of those entrusted with making up students’ high school and college schedules should be used to determine such materials. This study starts from the University of Chicago four year investigation of the nature of intelligence and endeavors to find the true relation between education for social needs and the nature of the student mind thus assumed. By this process of logic the place of mathematics is assured. Out of this relation, the objectives of mathematics courses are derived. From the objectives are drawn a few suggestions as to materials for inclusion in a college first course in mathematics, designed not exclusively for engineering, scientific and pure mathematics students. 158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES PROVERBS IN BROWNING’S THE RING AND THE BOOK: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD APPLIED TO A PROBLEM IN ENGLISH LITERATURE CORNELIA MARSCHALL SMITH Stetson University IN THE sixteenth century, generally conceded to be the golden age of the proverb, the quintescence of all learning including the great scientific truths was thought to be ex- pressed in proverbs and aphorisms. In the seventeenth century, however, they fell into disfavor, and by the eighteenth century they were taboo in polite society. This aversion for proverbs continued into the nineteenth century. Scholars, therefore, have ap- parently taken for granted that Browning like most of his contemporaries, following the trend of the scientific era, abstained from using them. Apperson in his English Proverbs and Proverbiai Phrases! attributes to Browning a single proverb and Smith in his English Proverbs? credits him with only five, none of which are cited from The Ring and the Book. It is the purpose of this brief communication to show how, by the applica- tion of the scientific method, it was found: (1) That The Ring and the Book contains numerous proverbs, eighty-seven having been definitely identified. (2) That the accumulation and classification of these proverbs discloses that Brown- ing has followed the manner of ancient Latin grammarians in his use of them. (3) That apropos to the setting of the poem: A Roman murder-case: At Rome on February Twenty Two, Since our salvation Sixteen Ninety Eight:3 Browning with his keen historic imagination uses proverbs. Cognizant, however, of the fact that in the seventeenth century they were falling into disfavor, particularly with the more erudite and aristocratic, the poet says: A proverb and a by-word men will mouth At the cross-way, in the corner, up and down Rome and Arezzo. Another poignant statement of the poet in this connection is: Guido, thus made a laughing-stock abroad, A proverb for the market-place at home, Left alone with Pompilia now, this graft So reputable on his ancient stock, This plague-seed set to fester his sound flesh.® Furthermore, examination reveals that of the proverbs used in The Ring and the Book the greatest number occur in those books which pertain to the common folk and their lawyers. (4) That many of Browning’s expressions have the structural turn of proverbs, a fact determined by comparing Browning’s phrase patterns with the phrase patterns peculiar to proverbs. 1 Apperson, G. L., English Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases (New York, 1929), p. 537. 2 Smith, George William, The Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs (Oxford, 1935), pp. 309, 321, 374, 527, 554. 3 Complete Poetical Works of Robert Browning, ed. by Augustine Birrell (New York, 1935), p. 651, Il. 28-35. 4 Ibid., p. 736, ll. 69-71. 5 Ibid., p. 674, ll. 33-37. OFFICERS FOR 1936 President—Herman Kurz, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee. Vice-president—R. C. Williamson, University of Florida, Gainesville. Secretary—J. H. Kusner, University of Florida, Gainesville. Treasurer—J. F. W. Pearson, University of Miami, Coral Gables. Chairman of the Biological Sciences Sectton—H. H. Hume, University of Florida, Gainesville. Chairman of the Physical Sciences Section—Herman Gunter, State Geologist, Talla- hassee. Editor—T. H. Hubbell, University of Florida, Gainesville. OFFICERS FOR 1937 President—H. Harold Hume, University of Florida, Gainesville. Vice-president—Jennie Tilt, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee. Secretary—J. H. Kusner, University of Florida, Gainesville. Treasurer—J. F. W. Pearson, University of Miami, Coral Gables. Chairman of the Biological Sciences Section—Edward P. St. John, Floral City. Chairman of the Physical Sciences Section—J. E. Spurr, Rollins College, Winter Park. Editor—T.H. Hubbell, University of Florida, Gainesville. LIST OF MEMBERS FLORIDA Altamonte Springs | *Beardslee, H. C. (Mycology) Bradenton Norfleet, Sara Camp (Chemistry) Chattahoochee Worchel, Philip, Florida State Hospital (Psychology) Coconut Grove *Zion, Jacob J., 2906 Oak Ave. (Chemistry and Biology) Coral Gables *Pearson, Hazel M., 223 Ave. Calabria (Ecology) Sieplien, O. J., P.O. Box 215 (Chemistry) University of Miami *Buswell, W. M. (Botany) *Clouse, J. H. (Physics) *Fairchild, David (Botany) *Gifford, J. C. (Forestry) *Harrison, R. W. * Charter member. 159 160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lindstrom, Evan T. (Chemistry) *Longenecker, W. B. (Mathematics) *Meyer, Max F. (Psychology) *Miller, E. Morton (Zoology) *Pearson, J. F. W. (Zoology) *Phillips, Walter S. (Botany) **West, Henry S. (Psychology) Davenport *Floyd, B. F. (Horticulture) Daytona Beach Beach, Richard H., Mainland High School (Biology) *Longstreet, Rupert J., 610 Braddock Ave. (Psychology and Ornithology) DeLand Stetson University *Allen, R. I. (Physics) *Campbell, Nelle (Zoology) *Conn, John F. (Chemistry) **Davis, Barbara J. (Mathematics and Physics) *Faulkner, Donald (Mathematics) *Hodges, Q. E. (Physics) Kindred, John J. (Medicine) [Deceased] **Linson, Elizabeth S. (Chemistry and Mathematics) *Smith, Cornelia M. (Biology) *Vance, Charles B. (Geology) Englewood *Bass, J. F., Jr., Bass Biological Lab. (Marine Biology) *Springer, Stuart, Bass Biological Lab. (Zoology) Eustis *Kinser, B. M. (General) Floral City *St. John, Edward P. (Botany) *St. John, Robert P. (Botany) Frostproof *Keenan, Edward T. (Soil Chemistry) Gainesville *Bruce, Malcolm, Fla. Mapping Project, Photo. Lab., U. of F. (General) **Carr, Marjorie Harris, 440 Colson St. (Biology) *Carr, T. D., 1828 W. Church St. (Physics) *Foster, Harriet, 410 W. University Ave. (Biology) *Freeman, Kenneth A., Box 2416 (Chemistry) * Charter member. ** Associate member. LIST OF MEMBERS 161 **Guerra, Jorge, 243 De Soto St. (Chemistry) *Hadley, A. H., 146 Fla. Ct. (Ornithology) *Kallman, I. E., P.O. Box 2747 (General) *Martin, J. M., 1828 W. Church St. (Histology) *Rolfs, C., 1422 W. Arlington St. (Botany) *Rolfs, P. H., 1422 W. Arlington St. (Botany) University of Florida *Abbott, O. D. (Home Economics) *Arnold, Lillian E. (Botany) *Atwood, R. S. (Geography) *Barnette, R. M. (Chemistry) *Becker, R. B. (Dairy Husbandry) *Bell, C. E. (Chemistry and Soils) *Berger, E. W. (Entomology) *Blackmon, G. H. (Horticulture) *Bless, A. A. (Physics) *Bryan, O. C. (Agronomy) *Byers, C. F. (Biology) *Camp, J. P. (Agronomy) *Carr, A. F., Jr. (Biology) *Carroll, W. R. (Bacteriology) *Carver, W. A. (Agronomy) *Chandler, H. W. (Mathematics) *Christensen, B. V. (Pharmacy) *Cody, M. D. (Botany) *Dauer, Manning J. (History and Political Science) *Davis, U. P. (Mathematics) *Dostal, B. F. (Mathematics) *Floyd, W. L. (Agriculture) *Foote, P. A. (Pharmacy) *French, R. B. (Chemistry) *Gaddum, L. W. (Biochemistry) *Gautier, T. N. (Physics) *Germond, H. H. (Mathematics) *Goin, Coleman (Biology) **Hampton, Burt L. (Chemistry) *Hawkins, J. E. (Chemistry) *Hawkins, S. O. (Pathology) [Deceased] *Hinckley, E. D. (Psychology) *Hobbs, H. H. (Biology) *Hubbell, T. H. (Biology) *Hull, F. H. (Genetics) *Hume, H. H. (Botany) *Treland, E. J. (Pharmacy) * Charter member. ** Associate member. 162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES *Johnson, R. S. (General) *Kilby, J. D. (Biology) *Kirk, W. G. (Animal Husbandry and Chemistry) *Knowles, H. L. (Physics) *Kusner, J. H. (Mathematics and Astronomy) *Leigh, T. R. (Chemistry) *Leukel, W. A. (Soil Chemistry) *Mehrhof, Norman R. (Poultry Husbandry) Merrill, G. B. (Entomology) Montgomery, J. H. (Entomology) *Mosier, Charles I. (Psychology) *Mowry, Harold (Horticulture) *Neal, W. M. (Animal Husbandry) Newell, Wilmon (Agriculture) *Newins, H. S. (Forestry) *Perry, W. S. (Physics) *Phipps, Cecil G. (Mathematics) *Pollard, C. B. (Chemistry) *Reitz, J. Wayne (Agricultural Economics) *Ritchey, George E. (Agronomy) *Rogers, J. Speed (Biology) *Rogers, L. H. (Chemistry) *Rusoff, L. L. (Biochemistry) *Senn, P. H. (Agronomy) *Shealy, A. L. (Animal Husbandry) *Sherman, H. B. (Biology) *Specht, Robert D. (Mathematics). *Stokes, W. E. (Agronomy) *Tigert, Jno. J. (Psychology) *Tisdale, W. B. (Plant Pathology) *Tissot, A. N. (Entomology) *Wallace, Howard K. (Biology) *Watson, J. R. (Entomology) *Weber, George F. (Plant Pathology) *Weil, Joseph (Engineering) *West, Erdman (Botany) *Williams, F. D. (Physics) *Williams, Osborne (Psychology) *Williamson, R. C. (Physics) *Willoughby, C. H. (Animal Husbandry) *VYoung, T. Roy, Jr. (Entomology) Glenwood *Van Cleef, Alice (Chemistry and Biology) Hastings Eddins, A. H., Agr. Exp. Sta. Laboratory (Plant Pathology) * Charter member. LIST OF MEMBERS 163 Hollywood *Wray, Floyd L. (Horticulture) Homestead *Fifield, W. M., Sub-Tropical Exp. Sta. (Horticulture) *Ruehle, George D., Exp. Station (Plant Pathology) Jacksonville *Buckland, Charlotte B., 2623 Herschel St. (Biology) *Cason, T. Z., 2033 Riverside Ave. (Medicine) **Clayton, A. L., Jr., 2253 Oak St. (Physics and Chemistry) Diddell, W. D., 333 East Seventh St. (Botany) *Dyrenforth, L. Y., 3885 St. Johns Ave. (Pathology) *Farris, C. D., 454 E. Sixth St. (Chemistry) *George, C. R., Jr., 1514 Barnett National Bank (Archeology) *MacGowan, W. Leroy, 3212 Park St. (Biology) *Mahorner, Sue A., 1755 Greenwood Ave. (Psychology) *Parker, Horatio N., 2777 Park St. (Public Health) *Thomas, R. H., 37 S. Hogan St. (Electricity) Key West *Giovannoli, Leonard, Key West Aquarium (Ichthyology) *Pierce, E. Lowe (Biology) Lake Alfred *Camp, A. F., Citrus Exp. Sta. (Horticulture) Lake City *Heyward, Frank, South Florida Experiment Station (Forestry) Lakeland Florida Southern College *Bly, R. S. (Chemistry) *DeMelt, W. E. (Psychology) *Reinsch, B. P. (Mathematics, Physics) Sims, Harris (General) Spivey, Ludd M. (Sociology, Psychology) Lantana **Smith, Maxwell (Biology) Leesburg *Goff, C. C., Leesburg Expt. Sta. Lab. (Plant Pathology) *Goff, Dorothy S., 501 Line Street (Zoology) *Loucks, K. W., Leesburg Expt. Sta. Lab. (Plant Pathology) *Shippy, William B., Leesburg Expt. Sta. Lab. (Plant Pathology) *Walker, Marion N., Leesburg Expt. Sta. Lab. (Plant Pathology) Manatee Tallant, W. M. (Archeology) * Charter member. ** Associate member. 164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES McIntosh *Gist, N. N., Box 7 (Agriculture) Melrose *Norris, Louise (Zoology) Miami *Brown, S. H., c/o Pan American Airways (Meteorology) *Faust, Burton, 436 N.E. 94 St. (Mathematics) | Kramer, Charles Wilson, 2328 S.W. 17th St. (Plant Physiology) *Marshall, J. J., 918 Seybold Bldg. (Astronomy) *Mosier, Charles A., 3902 N.W. Third Ave. (Biology) [Deceased] Murray, Mary R., Robert E. Lee Jr. High School (General) Mount Dora *Sadler, G. G., 315 N. Highland St. (Zoology) Orlando *Bahrt, G. M., P.O. Box 629 (Chemistry, Agriculture) *Fernald, H. T., 707 E. Concord St. (Entomology) *Kime, C. D., Box 222 (Agriculture) *Levy, Morton, 521 Revere St. (Biology) *Lord, E. L., P.O. Box 1948 (Horticulture) *Miller, Ralph L., Fla. Agr. Supply Co. (Agriculture) *Robinson, Ralph T., P.O. Box 1058 *Stevens, H. E., 224 Annie St. (Horticulture) . *Stubbs, Sidney A., Route 2 (Geology) Ormond *Braren, Herbert, P.O. Box 136 (Biology) Panasoffkee *Tanner, W. Lee (Chemistry) Pass-a-Grille Beach *Fargo, W. G., P.O. Box 283 (Ornithology) Plymouth *Mathews, E. L. (Horticulture) Quincy *Kincaid, R. R., North Fla. Expt. Sta. (Plant Pathology) St. Petersburg *Smith, Frank, 2219 7th St. N. (Zoology) *Story, Helen F., 2762 Burlington Ave. (Astronomy, Mathematics) *West, Frances L., St. Petersburg Junior College (Biology) Sanford *Gut, H. James, P.O. Box 700 (Paleontology) * Charter member. LIST OF MEMBERS 165 Silver Springs Allen, E. Ross (Herpetology) South Jacksonville *Armstrong, J. D., Rt. 1, Box 70 (Chemistry, Physics) Tallahassee *Baker, Harry Lee, State Forester (Forestry) *Boyd, M. F., P.O. Box 793 (Epidemiology) *Coulter, C. H., 212 E. Georgia Ave. (Forestry) *Greene, E. Peck, P.O. Box 42, (Chemistry) *Gunter, Herman, State Board of Conservation (Geology) *Hart, Gordon, 612 W. Call St. (Chemistry) *Lynn, Edith, 503 W. Jefferson St. (Physics) *Owen, B. Jay, P.O. Box 346 (Chemistry) *Partridge, Sarah W., 508 S. Duval St. (Biology) *Pfluge, Margaret, 315 W. Park St. (Biology) *Ponton, G. M., Fla. State Road Dept. (Geology) *Raa, Ida, Leon High School (Chemistry) *Raudenbush, E. J., State Chemistry Laboratory (Chemistry) *Smith, Richard M., 537 Oakland Ave. (Chemistry) *Taylor, J. J., State Chemist (Chemistry) *Westendick, Frank, Fla. Geological Survey (Geology) Florida State College for Women *Barber, Lanas S. (Biology) Barrows, W. M., Jr. (Physics) *Bellamy, R. F. (Sociology) *Boliek, M. Irene (Zoology) *Connor, Ruth (Home Economics) *Conradi, Edward (Psychology) *DeGraff, Mark H. (Education) *Deviney, Ezda (Zoology) *Disher, D. R. (Psychology) *Doyle, S. R. (Biology) Eyman, Ralph L. (Education) *Finner, Paul F. (Psychology) *Graham, Viola (Physiology) *Griffing, Elizabeth (Bacteriology *Heinlein, C. P. (Psychology) *Heinlein, J. H. (Psychology) *Kurz, Herman (Botany) *Larson, Olga (Mathematics) *Lewis, Leland J. (Chemistry) *McKinnel, Isabel (Chemistry) *Moore, Coyle E. (Sociology) *Moore, F. Clifton (Medicine) * Charter member. 166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES *Parsons, Rhey Boyd (Education) *Richards, Harold F. (Physics) *Salley, Nathaniel M. (General) *Sandels, Margaret R. (Home Economics) *Schornherst, Ruth (Botany) *Stewart, Alban (Botany and Bacteriology) *Tilt, Jennie (Chemistry) *Tracy, Anna M. (Nutrition) *Vermillion, Gertrude (Chemistry) *Waskom, Hugh L. (Psychology) *White, Sarah P. (Medicine) Tampa *Becknell, G. C., University of Tampa (Physics, Mathematics) *Simpson, J. Clarence, 114 S. Plant Ave. (Archeology) Umatilla *Williams, Henry W., Drawer C (Herpetology) Venice *Albee, Fred H. (Medicine) Wakulla *Bacon, Milton E., Jr. (Archeology, Geology) Weirsdale *Erck, G. H. (Agriculture) West Palm Beach *Young, John W., 720 Glen Ridge Drive (Mathematics, Physics) Winter Garden Schofield, H. L., Jr., Lakeview High School (Chemistry, Biology) Winter Park *Barbour, R. B., 656 Interlachen Ave. (Chemistry) *Scott, George G., Grand Avenue (Biology) Rollins College *Anderson, W. S. (Chemistry) *Davis, E. M. (Ornithology, Entomology) *Osborn, Herbert (Zoology, Entomology) *Schor, Bernice C. (Biology) *Spurr, J. E. (Geology) *Stiles, C. Wardell (Zoology) *Waddington, Guy (Chemistry) *Weinberg, Edward F. (Mathematics) *Wise, Louis E. (Chemistry) * Charter member. LIST OF MEMBERS 167 OUT OF STATE Ann Arbor, Mich. Blair, W. F., Lab. of Vertebrate Genetics, Univ. of Mich. (Biology) Baltimore, Md. *Kelly, Howard A., 1406 Eutaw Place (Medicine) Buffalo, N.Y. **Babcock, L. L., 726 Delaware Ave. (Ichthyology) Columbia, S.C. *Singleton, Gray, Federal Land Bank (Horticulture) Ithaca, N.Y. *Swanson, D. C., Department of Physics, Cornell University (Physics) Raleigh, N.C. *Van Leer, B. R., N. C. State College (Engineering) Washington, D.C. *Browne, C. A., Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U.S.D.A. (Chemistry) *McClanahan, R. C., U. S. Biological Survey (Biology) * Charter member. ** Associate member. CHARTER OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ARTICLE, I. Name. The name of this corporation shall be Florida Academy of Sciences. ARTICLE II. Purposts. The purposes of the Academy shall be to promote scientific research, to stimulate interest in the sciences, to further the diffusion of scientific knowledge, to unify the scientific interests of the state and to issue an annual scientific publication. ARTICLE III. Memspersuip. Election to membership in the Academy shall be by vote of the Council, upon written nomination by two members. ARTICLE IV. TERM oF CHARTER. This corporation shall have perpetual existence. ARTICLE V. Orricers. The affairs of the Academy shall be managed by the follow- ing officers, to-wit: President, Vice-president, Secretary and Treasurer. ARTICLE VI. Cowtnctt. The officers, together with the immediate past President, and such additional members as are provided in the By-Laws, shall constitute the Council of the Academy. ARTICLE VII. Inrr1at Orricers. The names of the officers who shall manage all the affairs of the Academy until the first election under this Charter are as follows: President—Herman Kurz V ice-president—R. C. Williamson Secretary—J. H. Kusner Treasurer—J. F. W. Pearson ARTICLE VIII. By-Laws. The By-Laws of the Academy shall be made, altered, amended or rescinded at any annual meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present. ARTICLE IX. INnpEstepnNeEss. The highest amount of indebtedness or liability to which the Academy may at any time subject itself shall never be greater than two- thirds of the value of the property of the Academy. ARTICLE X. ReEat Estate. The amount in value of the real estate which the Aca- demy may hold, subject always to the approval of the Circuit Judge, shall be $100,000.00. BY-LAWS DIVISION I. MEMBERSHIP 1. The annual dues shall be two dollars for members, one dollar for associate mem- bers, payable in advance. 2. Members or associate members whose dues become one year in arrears shall be automatically dropped from membership, after due notice has been given by the Secretary. 3. All persons who become members of the Academy during the year 1936 shall be designated as Charter Members of the Academy. 163 ' CHARTER 169 DIVISION II. SEcTIons 1. 2. 3. 4, There shall be such sections of the Academy as the Council may authorize. All section meetings shall be open to all members, but members shall vote con- cerning section matters only in those sections in which they are enrolled, and no member shall be enrolled in more than two sections, except by permission of the Council. There shall be a Chairman of each section. The Chairman of each section shall be, ex-officio, a member of the Council. DIVISION III. Orricers 1. on The President shall discharge the usual duties of a presiding officer at all meet- ings of the Academy and of the Council, and shall give an address to the Acad- emy at the final meeting of the year for which he is elected. . The Vice-president shall assume the duties of the President in the latter’s absence. . The Secretary shall keep the records of the Academy and of the Council. He shall have charge of the sale and exchange of the PROCEEDINGS. . The Treasurer shall have charge of the finances of the Academy. . The Council shall exercise general supervision over all the affairs of the Acad- emy in the intervals between meetings of the Academy. Specific duties of the Council shall be: a) To be responsible for the publications of the Academy. b) To elect members and associate members. c) To fill vacancies in any of the offices of the Academy. d) To invest the funds of the Academy. e) To make recommendations to the Academy in matters pertaining to general policy. f) To nominate a candidate for each office. g) To appoint an Auditing Committee. h) To appoint an Editor. i) To determine affiliation relations of the Academy. j) To choose the time and place of meetings of the Academy. k) To prepare programs for the meetings of the Academy. 1) To authorize the formation of Sections of the Academy. DIVISION IV. ELEctTIons ‘. 2. 3 . Section chairmen shall be elected by vote of the members enrolled in their The officers and section chairmen of the Academy shall be elected at the last session of the annual meeting. The Council shall nominate a candidate for each office, but additional nomina- tions may be made by any member. Officers shall be elected by vote of the members present at the annual meeting. respective sections and present at the annual meeting. . A plurality of the votes cast for each office shall constitute election. . The officers thus elected shall enter upon their duties at the adjournment of the annual meeting. . Vacancies which occur in any office or committee chairmanship between annual meetings shall be filled by the Council. 170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DIVISION V. PuBLicatIons 1. There shall be published an annual volume to be called the PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 2. The PRocEEDINGs shall be under the immediate control of the Council, through an Editor to be chosen by the Council annually. Upon being chosen, the Editor shall become a member of the Council. 3. One copy of the PROCEEDINGS shall be supplied free to each paid up member and associate member. | DIVISION VI. FINANCIAL MatTTERS 1. The fiscal year of the Academy shall be the calendar year, and the accounts of the Treasurer shall be balanced January 1 of each year. 2. Prior to each annual meeting the Council shall select an auditing committee of two members which shall inspect the financial records of the Academy and report on them to the annual meeting. 3. All orders which involve payment of the funds of the Academy shall be signed by the President and the Secretary. DIVISION VII. AFFILIATIONS 1. Affiliation relations between the Academy and other organizations may be arranged by the Council on such terms as it may decide in each case, subject to the approval of the annual meeting. DIVISION VIII. MEETINGS . There shall be at least one meeting of the Academy annually. . The time and place of meetings shall be determined by the Council. . Meetings shall be conducted under Roberts’ Rules of Order. . At least thirty days written notice of each annual meeting shall be given. . The Council shall be the program committee for the general sessions at any meeting. The Secretary together with the Chairman of each section shall con- stitute the program committee for that section. 6. At any meeting of the Academy of which thirty days notice has been given, those present shall constitute a quorum; at other meetings, one-fourth of the members. DIVISION IX. AMENDMENTS (as provided in Charter) 1. By-Laws may be made, altered, amended or rescinded at any annual meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present. 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Toke ae * ee wee me 4 wa an PROCEEDINGS of the Florida Academy of Sciences for [O37 Published by the Academy 1938 THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLoRIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES are is- sued annually under the direction of the Council of the Academy acting through the Editor and the Business Manager. For this volume these officers are: Editor H. HaroLtp Hume Business Manager R. S. JOHNSON THE PROCEEDINGS are sent to all members of the Academy and are available for sale and for exchange. The price of this volume is $1.00, bound in paper, and $2.00, bound in cloth. Orders and correspondence concerning exchange should be sent to the Sec- retary, J. H. Kusner, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. atin 1 a Ss Oe CONTENTS The Academy During 1937.—J. H. Kusner, Secretary............0ee0c0e (reasurer’s Report.—J. F. W. Pearson, Treasurer............020-.000e Program of the Second Annual Meeting, at Coral Gables................ PAPERS Advancing Knowledge of Florida’s Vast Plant Life. Address of H. Haroxp Eee ICCLORMUG TeTEStMEME «0 cis sice «oie se cio ons cele Wass veces esse Limitations of the Probable Error of Estimate in Predicting The Course of Human Behavior.—Curist1AN P, HEINLEIN.........0ccceecececes An Example of the Quantitative Method in Social Psychology.—Cuartes I. /LOENER cca donald beWmeo o.0 toe Spice OM TiGe omee 4 ous bier Hecichor, cin mini icaeecae A Study of the Artesian Water Supply of Seminole County, Florida.— PeREN IMPOR S UIBES oo occe esc. eye bin ew Ps oh eeleiets) © oinin, aie.e Abie balbie'ere we bone oe The Effect of Cold Storage on Certain Native American Perennial Herbs. ee eran NTCACN IR Toor, or So bins car's Slee Shs ci eceele's isi Ga oth oe eine eae wie wees Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees in Florida—Lintitian E. ENON s:°: .. GB RS ER COIR EEL E Ga eos EAP See cen ee RP Taxonomic Characters and Habitats of Some of the Most Common Florida PieetO70a-— CHARLOTTE B. BUCKLAND 2.00200. cee ee esc ences saves Florida Snake Venom Experiments.—E. Ross ALLEN........... eee cc eeees Allergic Hypersensitivity and the Four Blood Groups.—Luvucien Y. Dyren- RE aNRE MP 8c oo ol cl tes ao ietione oA 5 Siake/ era Saisie a Siete gah doe Ge aS woeile Blac ele An Amplifier for Small Thermal Currents.—Dvupiey WitiiaMs and Ricuarp ASTER cab oe elBleh Bree cei Oke Riera IRI og ee Oe Pao Mae ten a arn ra ee eee Axsstracts: The Infrared Absorption of Vitamins C and D, by Lewis H. Rocers; Traits in the Neurotic Inventory, by Cuarzies J. Mosier; Philosophical Integrity in Science Teaching, by Harotp Ricuarps; The Division of Labor in the Natural Sciences, by Joun P. Camp; Torreya West of the Appalachicola River, by Herman Kurz; Banana Water- lilies, by Erpman West; The Flora of Fort George Island, by Mrs. W. D. Dipper; Scientific Theory and Possible Practice of the Bi- chromatic Scale, by Max F. Meyer; Chemical Analysis of Some North Carolina Scallops, by Cuartes E. Bett; Our Calendar and Its Reform, by Ceci G. Puiprps; Raman Spectra of Water Solutions of Methanol, Ethanol, Acetone, Acetic Acid, and Dioxane, by R. C. Witiiamson; An Experiment to Determine the Effect of Severe Atmospheric Dis- turbances on the Ozone Content of the Upper Atmosphere, by W. S. Perry and R. G. Larrick; Physiological and Evolutionary Theories of Non-Additive Gene Interactions, by Frep H. Hutz; The Effects of Elastic Stretch on the Infrared Spectrum of Rubber, by RicHarp TascHeK; A New Automatic Respiration Calorimeter, by W. M. Bar- rows, Jr.; A Suggested New Notation for Logarithms, by H. H. Grermonp; Two New Crawfishes from Florida, by H. H. Hosss; The SeanceLlaylockianDyetly ble ELUNME) (10 0)1. 6 of. owt oc wine cr ce swe csv eecy iv PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Charter By-Laws eocereveeecerevesseeeeee ee eee ese eee ee ee ers eee esesseeosreereerenr ee eeeeeee eocececeoereree eee eee ee eee ere ee ee eee esee eer eeeseeeeseeeeeree ees ee eee se eee THE ACADEMY DURING 1937 In January, 1937, the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science allotted to the Academy $50.00 for use as a grant to be open to members of the Academy as an aid in re- search. Notice of this was sent to all members of the Academy, and applications for the grant were invited. The Council subse- quently awarded the grant to Dr. F. Dudley Williams, of the Department of Physics, University of Florida, for the construc- tion of an amplifier to be used in connection with certain investi- gations of the infra-red absorption spectrum of simple sugars and the effects of certain ions on liquid water.* The second annual meeting of the Academy was held at the University of Miami on November 18, 19, and 20. The complete program of this meeting appears in the following pages. Commit- tees for this meeting were: LocaL COMMITTEE ON ARRANGEMENTS: Walter S. Phillips, E. Morton Miller, E. T. Lindstrom, and J. H. Clouse, all of the University of Miami. NOMINATING COMMITTEE: Preliminary: W. EK. DeMelt (Florida Southern College), Chairman, J. Gifford (University of Miami), Vice- Chairman, J. F. Conn (Stetson University), L. Y. Dyren- forth (St. Luke’s Hospital, Jacksonville), B. J. Owen (Tallahassee), Bernice Shor (Rollins College), Frances L. West (St. Petersburg Junior College), Sarah P. White (Florida State College for Women), R. C. Wil- liamson (University of Florida). Final: R. C. Williamson (University of Florida), Chair- man, EK. M. Miller (University of Miami), B. P. Reinsch (Florida Southern College), Jennie Tilt (Florida State College for Women), Cornelia Smith (Stetson Uni- versity). ReEsoLuTIoNS CoMMITTEE: R. I. Allen (Stetson University), Chairman, W. M. Barrows, Jr. (Florida State College for Women), R. S. Bly (Florida Southern College), W. L. MacGowan (Robert E. Lee High School, Jackson- ville), W. S. Perry (University of Florida). *See page 79 of this volume. 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MepaLt CoMMITTEE: W. 8S. Phillips (University of Miami), Chairman, B. P. Reinsch (Florida Southern College), Cornelia Smith (Stetson University), Jennie Tilt (Florida State College for Women). MeMorRIALS COMMITTEE: Herman Gunter (Tallahassee), Chair- - man, R. IL Allen (Stetson University), G. F. Weber (University of Florida). AvpiTiIng Commirter: G. D. Ruehle (University of Florida), Chairman, W. M. Buswell (University of Miami). Pusticity Commirrer: L. W. Gaddum (University of Flor- ida), Chairman, H. F. Richards (Florida State College for Women), Henry S. West (University of Miami). At the business session of the Annual Meeting certain amend- ments to the By-laws* were voted. On the recommendation of the Medal Committee, the Council subsequently voted to award the Achievement Medal for 1937 to Mr. Sidney A. Stubbs for his paper A Study Of The Artesian Water Supply Of Seminole County, Florida. The Council also voted to hold the 1938 Annual Meeting at Rollins College, Winter Park, on November 18 and 19. J. H. Kusner, Secretary. TREASURER’S REPORT FISCAL YEAR—1937-1938 Casu Position as oF NoveMBER 18, 1937 Debit Credit Balance Total receipts fiscal year 1935-36............... $ $356.00 § Total disbursements fiscal year 1985-36........ 53.00 Balance on hand fiscal year 1935-36............. 303.00 Total receipts fiscal year 1936-37............... 517.05 Total disbursements fiscal year 1936-37.......... 85.66 Cash balance for fiscal year 1936-37............. 431.39 Balance: from W985 -BG2)- 5 cjects'- csersrote ea lo) tee sites 303.00 Total cash on hand November 18, 1937........ $734.39 FINANCIAL OPERATION SINCE FouNDING oF ACADEMY Paid Out PaidIn Balance Paid out on order of Pres. and Sec., 1935-36....$ 51.00 $ $ etund Of Gues paid invernOr.. oes... clei ce ere 2.00 Received profit on inaugural meeting.......... 1.00 Received 1936 dues, 284 members.............. 468.00 Received 1936 dues, 13 associate members....... 13.00 -Received 1936 dues, 1 member, in error........ 2.00 Balance actual 1985-86 funds available......... 431.00 *See page 92 of this volume. +See page 24 of this volume. PROGRAM, SECOND ANNUAL MEETING 3 Paid Out PaidIn Balance Paid out on order of Pres. and Sec., 19386-37.... 83.66 mc GE GUES Paid in Error..............0620- 2.00 Received 1937 dues, 176 members............... 352.00 Received 1937 dues, 9 associate members........ 9.00 Received 1937 dues, 1 member, in error......... 2.00 Balance actual 1936-37 funds available.......... 277.34 Received 1938 dues, 12 members............... 24.00 Received 1938 dues, 1 member..................- 2.05 Balance actual 1938-39 funds available.......... 26.05 Total cash on hand, November 18, 1937....... $734.39 —J. F. W. Pearson, Treasurer PROGRAM OF THE SECOND ANNUAL MEETING THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 18, 1937 BOTANICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL FIELD TRIPS Under the Auspices of the Departments of Botany and Zoology, University of Miami. 9:00 A.M. Leave the University for an all-day Marine Zoological Trip under the direction of J. F. W. Pearson, Professor of Zoology, and E. M. Miller, Assistant Professor of Zoology, University of Miami. The boat will go down Biscayne Bay and outside to Fowey Light, below Soldier Key if possible. Diving will be in from 15 to 30 feet of water. Each person mak- ing the trip will be given the opportunity to dive and view the underwater life. 9:30 A.M. Leave the University for an all-day Botanical Trip to Costello Hammock under the direction of W. S. Phillips, Professor of Botany, and W. M. Buswell, Curator of the Herbarium, University of Miami. The trip will be to Costello Hammock, one of the many hammocks typical of the region between Miami and Homestead. This hammock has several large sink holes where tropical ferns are found. On the trip down, man- grove swamps and salt marshes will be seen. The return will be through the Miami Pinelands to the Everglades, and some interesting transitions between these two societies will be observed. . FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 19, 1937 GENERAL SESSION PRESENTATION OF Papers: President H. Harold Hume presiding. 1. The Division of Labor in the Natural Sciences—John P. Camp, University of Florida. 2. Florida Snake Venom Experiments—E. Ross Allen, Florida Reptile In- stitute. 3. An Example of the Quantitative Method in Social Psychology—Charles I. Mosier, University of Florida. 4, Philosophical Integrity in Science Teaching—Harold Richards, Florida State College for Women. 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 5. Limitation of the Probable Error of Estimate in Predicting the Course of Human Behavior—C. P. Heinlein, Florida State College for Women. 6. Torreya West of the Apalachicola River—Herman Kurz, Florida State Col- lege for Women. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION PrESENTATION OF Papers: Chairman E. P. St. John presiding. 1. The Flora of Fort George Island—Mrs. W. D. Diddell, Jacksonville. 2. The Effect of Cold Storage on Certain Native American Perennial Herbs (Part 1)—Herman Kurz, Florida State College for Women. 3. Taxonomic Characters and Habitats of Some of the Most Common Florida Mycetozoa—Charlotte B. Buckland, Landon High School, Jacksonville. 4. Report on the Florida Copperhead (Agkistrodon mokasen)—K. Ross Allen, Florida Reptile Institute. 5. Physiological and Evolutionary Theories of Non-Additive Gene Interactions —Fred H. Hull, University of Florida. PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION PRESENTATION OF Papers: Chairman J. E. Spurr presiding. 1, A Study of the Artesian Water Supply of Seminole County, Florida—Sidney A. Stubbs, Sanford. 2. The Infra-red Absorption Spectrum of Vitamins C and D—Lewis H. Rogers, University of Florida. 3. The Effects of Elastic Stretch on the Infra-red Spectrum of Rubber—Rich- ard Taschek, University of Florida. 4. A Suggested New Notation for Logarithms—H. H. Germond, University of Florida. 5. An Experiment to Determine the Effect of Severe Atmospheric Disturbances on the Ozone Content of the Upper Atmosphere—W. S. Perry and R. G. Larrick, University of Florida. BANQUET Toastmaster: Jennie Tilt, Vice-President of the Academy. Address of Welcome: Bowman F. Ashe, President, University of Miami. Retiring Address: H. Harold Hume, President of the Academy. Presentation of the Achievement Medal for 1986: Herman Kurz, Past President of the Academy. SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 1937 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION PRESENTATION OF Papers: Chairman E. P. St. John presiding. 1. Chemical Analysis of Some North Carolina Scallops—Charles E. Bell, Uni- versity of Florida. 2. Allergic Hypersensitivity and the Four Blood Groups—L., Y. Dyrenforth, St. Luke’s and Riverside Hospitals, Jacksonville. 3. Banana Water Lilies—Erdman West, University of Florida. 4. Two New Crawfishes from Florida, Cambarus hubbelli and Cambarus Achero- nitis pallidus—Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., University of Florida. By title. 5. Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees in Florida—tLillian E. Arnold, University of Florida. By title. FLORIDA’S PLANT LIFE 5 6. The Genus Haylockia—H. Harold Hume, University of Florida. By title. Business MEETING OF THE BioLoGicaL SCIENCES SECTION PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION PRESENTATION OF Papers: Chairman J. E. Spurr presiding. 1. A New Automatic Respiration Calorimeter—W. M. Barrows, Jr., Florida State College for Women. 2. Raman Spectra of Water Solutions of Methanol, Ethanol, Acetone, Acetic Acid, and Dioxane—-R. C. Williamson, University of Florida. 3. An Amplifier for Small Thermal Currents—Dudley Williams, University of Florida. Business MEETING OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION GENERAL SESSION (Two Parts Meeting Simultaneously) Part A. Theory and Possible Practice of the Bichromatic (24-Tone, Quarter- tone) Scale; with Musical Demonstrations—Max F. Meyer, University of Miami. Part B. Our Calendar and Its Reform—Cecil G. Phipps, University of Florida. BUSINESS SESSION ADVANCING KNOWLEDGE OF FLORIDA’S VAST PLANT LIFE* H. HAROLD HUME University of Florida Fuioripa’s Native Flora—one of the largest and most varied in the world, comprises more than 3,500 species of flowering plants alone to say nothing of lower forms. Of trees there are at least 314 species, a number greater than is found in any other state in the Union. Compare this number, for instance, with the trees of the Pacific Coast, where from Vancouver to Mexico only 147 species are indigenous. Approximately there are 352 species of grasses known as natives in this state. These numbers are not given for purposes of comparison alone but to indicate something of the wealth of plant material that covers the state of Florida. The geographical position of the state, its climate, its topog- raphy, and its geological formation are responsible in large measure for the varied nature of its vegetation. Into its compo- sition three main elements enter. One from northern regions represented by such plants as Iris virginica, Saracenia purpurea, Ilex opaca, and Chamaecyparis thyoides. Another peculiar to the state and found nowhere else than within its borders composed *Retiring Presidential Address. 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of such plants as Rhododendron Chapmanii, Taxus floridana, Ilex cumulicola, Iris savannarum, and Zephyranthes Simpsonii. And a third, essentially tropical, to which such plants as Ficus aurea, Roystonea regia, Tillandsia juncea, and Swietenia Mahag- oni belong. Plants from these distinct sources in bountiful blend- ing have found and maintained a place here. Is it any wonder - that this was an inviting and interesting field for the botanist and collector? The lure of plant life, the beauty and variety of its forms have brought many plantsmen to Florida as well as to neighboring states to the northward where vegetation has much in common with our own. Here came in earlier days many men from across the ocean—English, Scotch, Irish, French, and from our own northeastern states, botanists and collectors all, search- ing for new and unusual plants. Many of them made their head- quarters in Charleston, for in those days it was the most south- erly port and offered opportunity for the dispatch of plants and plant materials across the sea. As a result of their activities highly prized collections of plants, plant materials, and plant products found their way across the Atlantic to enrich and grace the gardens of Europe, to find a cherished place on the shelves of herbaria, to add to the variety, if not always to the effectiveness, of physicians’ remedies, to enter ultimately into the trade and commerce of many nations. The flow of native plant products has not ceased even to this our day and time. How interesting were the journies and adventures of these men! How great their contributions to the scientific knowledge of a vast area! How important their findings, for plant life is as important as soil or water, land or sea, for does it not carry in itself the very basis for the existence of all life? Yet how little is known of those who have made present day knowledge of our plants possible. They have gone their way unnoticed, unrecorded, and unpraised. Is it not strange that the following of peaceful pursuits, important though they may be in their relation to human progress and their effects on human destinies, makes no impression on the passing throng? Seldom are monuments erected to the memory of those who have blazed the way into unknown regions of scientific knowledge. History records the lives of statesmen, of warriors, even of politicians. It records tremendous battles where thous- ands died, but history has taken little note of painstaking en- deavor, of patient toil, of long years of research, and of brilliant successes in scientific fields. There has been nothing spectacular about the goings and comings of such men; they have not caught the public fancy; they have made neither the pages of news nor of history. Yet to such we owe our present day knowledge of the plants of this southeastern area, in which Florida is included. Their explorations began in 1722 and cover a period down to date of a little more than two centuries. FLORIDA’S PLANT LIFE 7 Then who were these men? Whence came they and what did they do? Unfortunately, for reasons already given we know too little about them. I see them in those distant days following dim Indian trails, making their way through unbroken wilderness, plunging through rank swampy growths, crossing streams and rivers on frail rafts, lost betimes, soaked by rain and chilled by piercing winds, sick and weary, yet led onward into the unknown by that peculiar, insatiable desire to find the new and the strange, and so to add their modicum to human knowledge. The first of their number to come into this area of ours was Mark Catesby, who was born at Sudbury, England, in 1679. Some time before he was 40 years old, he made a trip to Virginia where he spent seven years and this led him to want to see more of the plants of America. So he came to Charleston in 1722 and for the next 25 years or so collected and painted plants and ani- mals in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and the Bahamas. He wrote and illustrated the “Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands,” which comprised 11 numbers published from 1730 to 1748. This was completed shortly before his death December 23, 1749, in London. His “Natural History” is an in- teresting and valuable work; the plant descriptions are in French and English. Each plant illustrated is accompanied by an illus- tration of some animal such as a bird, a turtle, or a snake. His contribution to the biological knowledge of the area in which he worked was very material not only in itself, not only in his publi- cations, but because he fired the imagination and lit the interest of those who came after him. Next came Thomas Walter, also from England. Hampshire was his native home, where he was born about 1740. He came to South Carolina as a young man and settled in St. Johns Parish, near Charleston, where he died in January, 1789. The garden which he established has now gone back to a wilderness. It was perhaps the first botanical garden in America. In the British Museum there is a collection of dried plants made by Walter in the years 1786 to 1788. These are mounted in a large book of blank pages, many different kinds on a sheet, well pre- served and in good condition to this day. He wrote the “Flora Caroliniana,” a monumental work when we consider the difficul- ties under which it was written. On going through a list of the plants of this general region, one is struck by the number of species for which he is authority. Smilax Walterii was named for him, and many other plants besides. John Ellis, born in Ireland about 1710, became a London mer- chant, made a fortune and used his wealth on plants, explora- tions and collections. He was appointed Agent for the King of England in 1764 and later went to Dominica in 1770. He im- — ported into England many specimens of plants. He was a corre- 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES spondent of Linneus and of Doctor Garden, of Charleston, South Carolina, who was also interested in plants. He died in London in October, 1776. Outstanding among all the men who came into this southern region were the two Bartrams, John and his son William. Be- tween 1-765 and 1778 they made several trips through the Caro-. linas, Georgia and Florida. They explored the St. Johns River to its source. John Bartram was born near Darby, Pennsylvania, March 23, 1699, and died at Kingsessing, Pennsylvania, Septem- ber 22,1777. All the way from the Canadian border to the head- waters of the St. Johns River he collected plants over a period of many years. He was responsible for the introduction into Eng- land of the bush honeysuckle, fiery lilies, mountain laurel, dog- . tooth violet, wild asters, gentian, hemlock, red and white cedar and sugar maple. His work was followed by his son William, who was born at Kingsessing, February 9, 1759, and died at the same place July 22, 1823. He accompanied his father to Florida in the years 1765 and 1766 and lived in Florida on the St. Johns River somewhere north of Palatka during parts of the years 1766 and 1767. From 1773 to 1778 he was engaged in botanical travels in Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. One of the most interesting travel works, in which he deals with the landscape, plants, animals, and peoples, came from his pen. “Travels Through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida,” was published in Phila- delphia, 1791. It was followed by an English edition, published at London, 1794, and quite recently has been reprinted here in America. It is a fascinating book. One of the interesting episodes in connection with William Bartram’s plant explorations was a request which came to him from Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society, who is said to have offered him for every new plant he could find the sum of one shilling. To this William Bartram replied that “there are not over 500 species altogether in the provinces of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, West and East Florida, and Georgia, which, at one shilling each, amounts only to L 25— supposing everything acceptable. It has taken me two years to search only part of the last two provinces, and find by experi- ence it cannot be done with tolerable conveniency for less than L 100 a year, therefore it cannot reasonably be expected that he can accept the offer.” While from an economic point of view his position was eminently correct, how little did he realize what treasures lay beyond his sight. Andre Michaux, the French botanical explorer, was born March 7, 1746, at Satory near Versailles and from 1786 to 1796 he collected plants in the United States for the French govern- ment. He worked all the way from Hudson Bay to Florida and FLORIDA’S PLANT LIFE 9 from the Atlantic Ocean as far west as the Mississippi River. He published a flora of North America, “Flora Boreali-Americana,” on which work his son was co-author. The son, Francois Andre, also explored in America from 1785 to 1790 and made his head- quarters at Charleston. There he started a garden to which plants were brought and established that they might develop good root systems and be in proper condition for forwarding to France. As much as anyone else, the younger Michaux added to the wealth of Florida plants in France. From 1806 to 1809 he worked from Georgia northward to Maine and westward to Ohio. He returned to France in the latter year and devoted himself to the cultivation of the materials which he had collected. He died at his estate near Point Toise, France, October 23, 1855. These two men were more particularly interested in woody plants, trees particularly, and added greatly to our knowledge of the tree flora of the Southeastern states. Two Scotchmen, John Fraser and his son John, from Scot- land, were interested in Florida plants and did much to assist Walter in the publication of his Flora Caroliniana. Indeed, it is understood that many of the plants described by Walter were collected by the Frasers. Their travels terminated with the return to England of the younger man in 1810. These sketches bring us down now to more modern times and to those who were in some ways more intimately associated with Florida plant explorations. Although he spent but a short time in Florida, 1830 to 1837, Hardy Bryan Croom made a lasting impression upon our knowledge of the plant world of the Apa- lachicola region. Croom came to Florida from North Carolina. He was a graduate of the University of North Carolina and was born in Lenoir County, 1797. About 1832 he rented a plantation in Florida on the west bank of the Apalachicola River. Here he discovered Croomia, which was named for him, the interesting isolated Torreya taxifolia and made a careful study of the native pitcher plants. Unfortunately Croom’s life was brought to an untimely end in a shipwreck near Cape Hatteras where he per- ished with his wife and three children. On the grounds of St. Johns Episcopal Church, Tallahassee, Florida, there stands a monument to his memory. Part of the inscription on this monu- ment reads: AMIABLE WITHOUT WEAKNESS LEARNED WITHOUT ARROGANCE WEALTHY WITHOUT OSTENTATION BENEVOLENT WITHOUT PARADE He was associated for a time with Doctor Chapman and the two had planned to make a careful and thorough exploration of Florida. This plan, however, was never realized and Doctor Chapman was left to study Florida plants without his assistance. Dr. Alvan Wentworth Chapman must be regarded as our own | botanist because he lived and worked in Florida for so many 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES years. Born in 1809 at Southampton, Massachusetts; graduated from Amherst in 1830; taught in a private family at Whitemarsh, Savannah, 1831-1853; became principal of an Academy at Wash- ington, Georgia, in 1833, and remained there until 1835. Studied medicine, moved to Quincy, Florida, in 1835 and began his med- ical practice. In 18537 he moved to Marianna where he lived for a short time, returned to Quincy, and finally located in Apalachi- — cola in 1847 where he continued the practice of medicine and resided until his death in 1899. Chapman’s “Flora of the South- ern United States,” published in 1860, printed in New York City, was, for more than 40 years, our manual of the plants of this region. Though dated in 1860, Doctor Chapman did not see a copy of his work until after the War Between the States was over, and it was due to the interest of Dr. Asa Gray that the plates from which the work was printed were preserved during that troublous period. This Manual ran through three editions. The second was issued in 1883; the main portion of this volume was the same as the first, but new plants were added in a supple- ment and later a second supplement was included. This second edition with two supplements is comparatively rare and is a collector’s prize. The third edition was issued in 1896, three years before his death in 1899. Doctor Chapman added many new species to the lists of Florida plants, among which may be men- tioned in passing Zephyranthes Simpsonu, Viburnum densi- florum, Andropogon maritius, and Salvia Blodgettii. The whole number is very considerable. A genus of mosses, Chapmannia, was named for him. Doctor Chapman was a contemporary of Dr. Asa Gray and Dr. John Torrey. He carried on a wide correspond- ence with botanists both in America and in Europe. Many inter- esting stories are told of his life and work. It may not be out of place to relate a few of these, for they are at least of human interest. He was an unusual and interesting character. He stood over six feet, erect, dignified and handsome, hard and stern, with a strong profile and snow-white hair. In his late years he became very deaf, which affliction he said was not entirely detrimental because, “if I can’t hear people’s groans they won’t send for me.” He admitted that except for easing a soul into or out of the world he had done his best practice with hot baths and bread pills. He strongly believed in fresh air and sunshine. Doctor Chapman was an ardent Union man and his wife was a Southerner from New Bern, North Carolina. About the war they could not agree, so they separated for its duration and she went to live in Marianna. They never saw each other for four years. He heard from her once. When the war closed she re- turned. When I visited the little graveyard in Apalachicola to photograph his tomb, I found at the foot of the grave two little FLORIDA’S PLANT LIFE 11 Confederate flags. Miss Winifred Kimball, who accompanied me and who had known the doctor intimately for many years, said, “T believe he would turn over in his grave if he knew those flags were there.” Because he favored the Union his life was con- stantly in danger, and whenever the guerrillas overran the town they raided his drugstore every time. Then he would betake him- self to Trinity Episcopal Church and hide there until they left. There were cushions in his pew, for, as he said, “If I must hide, I decided I might as well be comfortable.” Doctor Gray, Amer- ica’s most famous botanist, came to Florida to visit Chapman, who had been writing him about a new rhododendron he had found. The two went out to where it grew. Kneeling beside it, Doctor Gray examined it carefully, then rising and extending his hand, said, “You are right; I never saw this species. I congratu- late you on Rhododendron Chapmann.” And so it was named for Chapman. He was an associate of Dr. John Gorrie, the first to make ice artificially. When asked how much Gorrie made from his inven- tion, Chapman replied, “Relatively nothing. He was no business man, was Gorrie. If he had been he never would have invented artificial ice.” Coming down to our own time, tribute must be paid to the indefatiguable work in the field of Florida botany carried out by Dr. John K. Small over a period of 35 years. Every year from about 1900 up to the present time, Doctor Small has visited Florida once or more. The details of his excursions are set forth in some 99 papers. In 1903 he published his voluminous work entitled, “The Flora of the Southeastern United States.” This was followed by a second edition in 1913 and in 1933 his “Manual of the Southeastern Flora” appeared. This last volume has brought down to this date our knowledge of Florida plants. The tremendous amount of work done by Doctor Small can scarcely be appreciated, except by those who have been associated with him from time to time in connection with his investigations. His plant collections are in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. The number of new forms named and described by Doc- tor Small is very large and, although there undoubtedly remain new plants to be found, no one will ever equal the number from this region to which Small’s name is attached as author. AIl- though he has not visited Florida this year, it is hoped that his visits to the state are not yet ended. Recently the herbarium of the Florida Experiment Station has been favored with a collec- tion of 1,059 specimen’s from Small’s collections—a priceless Series of material that has journeyed away from the state and then returned. While by far most of the plants native to Florida are known, our knowledge of where they are is most incomplete. Information © 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES covering their distribution is lacking. Local floras covering defi- nite areas are needed. Lists of plants authenticated by herbarium specimens will be of great value. Representative collections of good herbarium material are greatly to be desired and they are needed in the several educational institutions of the State. The field is wide open for ecological studies to be carried out on a well rounded basis in which undertaking at least the bot- anist, the soil scientist, the chemist and the climatologist should join. There is need for greatly expanded plant interest all over the State, which interest can be aroused best in our grammar and high schools. To these ends the Florida Academy of Sciences may well give help. There remains much still to be done in the botanical fields in | Florida and it is hoped that the years to come may add further to our knowledge of this vast plant area. LIMITATIONS OF THE PROBABLE ERROR OF ESTIMATE IN PREDICTING THE COURSE OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR CHRISTIAN PAUL HEINLEIN Florida State College for Women THE PURPOSE OF this paper is to describe the primary theoretical assumptions which must be satisfied to render valid the probable error of estimate of a raw datum, score or unit-value taken from an empirical distribution. In correlating two variables, such as intelligence (in terms of composite scores obtained from some standardized intelligence test) and scholastic achievement (in terms of point grades), in- vestigators have attempted to predict the level of an individual in a second array from a knowledge of his level in a first array with which the second array is correlated by a definite amount. To describe this situation in another way, we may say that one of the purposes in correlating arrays is to demonstrate the degree of concomitance and mutual dependence of scores in two arrays considered representative. When two arrays of scores are cor- related, the scores in one array are treated as a function of the scores in the other array. If we can demonstrate that the rela- tionship between the two arrays is rectilinear, then in accordance with the practice of predicting in terms of the regression equa- tion, we may assume any y level to be a certain multiple of the corresponding x level when each is measured from the mean. This multiplier, as you know, is the regression coefficient “beta” LIMITATIONS OF PROBABLE ERROR OF ESTIMATE 13 and indicates the slope of the line that best fits the trend of paired levels. We may refer to the regression coefficient of y on x as the slope that the straight line makes with the #-axis when it passes through the successive #-values in such a way as to fit best the corresponding y-values. We may refer to the regression coefficient of x on y as the slope that the straight line makes with the y-axis when it passes through the successive y-values in such a way as to fit best the corresponding « measures. When these coefficients are taken as deviations from the means of their respective arrays, the coefficient of regression of y on #2 becomes the ratio of the standard deviation of y to the standard deviation of # times the magnitude of the coefficient of correlation. In order to compute # in terms of y, we may interchange y and & in the ratio and obtain the regression coefficient of # on y. In order to develop the regression equation in deviation form, we should recall the development of “r’ as the tangent of the angle that the regression line makes with the X-axis when the varia- bilities in the two directions have been equalized. If “beta” rep- resents the slope of the line required when the sum of the squares of the errors is a Minimum, and # a given value in deviation form in the first array, y a corresponding value in the second array, and y the level this y value must reach in order to fall on the re- eression line, then by definition of “beta,” y = bx&. We revert to this equation for the purpose of substituting it in the value obtained for b,,. This gives us our regression equations in devia- tion form—(project slide # 1 on screen) (1) Yy == (Dye), Where Bye = Tay = gL (2) ¢= Y (Ory), Where bey = Pay = y From the first equation it has been the practice in mental measurement to predict the most probable y value of individual behavior from a known # value, and from the second equation to predict the most probable x value of individual behavior from a known y value. If we wish to translate the regression equation in deviation form into a regression equation in raw datum form, we simply substitute (X —WM,) for its equivalent a, and (Y —M,) for its equivalent y, the M’s being the respective means. Thus, the regression equation in score form becomes— (project slide # 2 on screen) VY = OG) 220 = alia where Oye == oy M, = mean of first variable; , = mean of second variable; XY = known score. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In empirical situations where the relationship is other than one, we know that not all y values that correspond to # values fall on the regression line; the # and y values scatter above and below such a line and may be regarded as misses or errors. The standard error of estimate is simply the standard deviation of these misses above and below the regression line. This value is best expressed by the formula—(project slide #3 on screen) Oye = oy(1 — Tay?)” The probable error of estimate, P.L.,., is equal to 0.67450y,. In order to illustrate the practical application of the formu- las presented, let us consider a concrete problem as described by Charles C. Peters. The mean of intelligence test scores is given as 100 with a standard deviation of 30; the mean of “point-aver- . ages” correlated with the intelligence test scores is 1.40 with a standard deviation of .60. The Pearson “r”’ between the two vari- ables is .40. A certain student by the name of William makes a score of 82 in the intelligence test. What may he be expected to achieve in terms of a point average? Substituting the cited values in the regression equation in score form by solving we obtain 1.256. 60 60 Y= A0=, 82 + (40 ee Y = .656 + 1.40 — 0.80 = 1.256 How accurate is this prediction of 1.256? This question is an- swered by the probable error of estimate. Gye = .60(1 — 40°)* = .60(1 — .16)% = .60(.84)4 = 0.55 P.Eyg == .6745(0.55) = 0.371 The computed probable error of estimate is .371. This last value (.371) means that the chances are 50 in 100 that William’s actual point average will not differ from his predicted one by more than 371. However, we must not forget that the chances are 50 in 100 that the score will be missed by more than that amount. If it is our desire to be practically certain within the limits of four probable errors, the limits of our estimate will extend so far that a given prediction becomes practically meaningless. It becomes at once obvious that a very high “r”’ is demanded for the purpose of reducing the element of chance in the prediction of a given score. The coefficient of alienation, which is part of our standard error of estimate, will indicate the absence of relationship be- tween the two correlated variables, whereas the coefficient of alienation taken from unity will describe the percentage of effi- ciency of our prediction. Judging by the kind of conclusions drawn from coefficients of correlation, few investigators seem to realize that under the most ideal conditions of correlation, when LIMITATIONS OF PROBABLE ERROR OF ESTIMATE 15 mutual dependence between the variable can be empirically dem- onstrated, in a prediction based on an r of .95 there remains 31% of the element of chance or that percentage of unknown factors operating. Were this fact generally recognized, we should not be obliged to confront the far sweeping conclusions concerning the so-called “significant” reliabilities and validities of test scores based on 7’s between .50 and .85. Yet many testers affirm the “significant value” of intelligence test scores as predictive indices of scholastic achievement in spite of the median efficiency of only 4 per cent between the Thurstone intelligence IV test and scho- lastic success as indicated in 43 institutions and in spite of the long list of institutional correlations cited by Boynton in which no single r between intelligence and scholastic success ever reaches 50% efficiency. But let us assume that an r between two variables is statis- tically significant so that the degree of chance is reduced eighty- five per cent. Such significance would demand an r of .99. In the light of this 7, is it a logically sound and scientifically valid procedure to predict an # score in terms of a known y score? The answer to this question depends on our concept of correla- tion. We might answer “yes” if we can demonstrate that the criteria of mesokurtosis, homocedasticity and representativeness have been satisfied in the correlated arrays, if further we can demonstrate that the moments within the correlational frame are dynamically interacting and causally efficacious to determine the status of any given value in either axis. Unfortunately, most empirical distributions are not rectilinear and hence not resolv- able in terms of “rv”. Investigators are not prone to indicate the kurtosis or skewness of their distributions, nor are they inclined to define the criteria of representativeness for distributions con- sidered statistically reliable. Instead of moralizing the curve of errors and instead of forcing every conceivable variety of psycho- logical and educational data into this ideal curve, it behooves the present and future investigators to discover the mathematical characteristics of empirical curves that most adequately satisfy specific distributions of experimentally isolated qualitatively homogeneous data. The chief failure in modern educational re- search is the failure to distinguish between empirical probability and theoretical probability. Perhaps the most glaring abuse of the probable error of esti- mate in predicting a single score or value is found in the mis- interpretation that the method of rectilinear correlation is identical with the method of concomitant variation. The method of correlation when applied to the data of mental testing is not the same as the physical method of concomitant variation. In the latter method, a unit event A is varied to determine its effect upon a macroscopically constant unit event B. In this method, 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES an interacting dynamic concomitance provides the specification of a certain degree of causal efficacy. In the method of correla- tion, any degree of relationship may be a function of incidental concomitance. The relationship between intelligence scores and scholastic achievement may be purely incidental, and not caus- ally efficacious. We may be quite certain that the product mo- © ments within the correlational frame involving these two vari- ables are almost purely incidental. The score of student A within the frame of correlation is causally independent of the score of student B unless student B is socially affecting the response of student A to the test in question. The size of the coefficient of correlation is never a certain index of causal efficacy or mutual dependence. It would appear that the relationships indicated by the great mass of educational and social data are purely inci- dental and hence practically useless in the accurate prediction of future events. The following table (project slide #4 on screen) reveals at a glance the percentage of relationship or overlapping between two things in terms of ascending values of “r”’, the coefficient of cor- relation. Observe that the acceleration in percentage of relation- ship between an r of .95 and 1.00 is greater than that between zero and an r of .70. Note also that the acceleration in percent- age of relationship between an r of .99 and 1.00 is greater than that between zero and an r of .50. To the student who has re- garded the coefficient of correlation as a percentage of relation- ship, the above related facts may prove startling and unbelievable. Coefficient of Percentage of correlation “‘r” relationship 00" = «200 20 se ©.08 00) =) aS sO” == 28 Ho. to eee 30: = ~ 40 ole ese YD) 90 eo 20 Oo -OGen neta SOs N= ened 290n 8oU 09 ==" 08 995) == 0 L007" == 1-00 Let it be remembered that the deviations within a correla- tional frame are static and fixed. One cannot vary at will his degree of intelligence to determine the effect the variation will have on scholastic success. The assumption that the moments generated by values in the X and Y arrays are dynamically effica- cious to produce a single X value when a corresponding Y value QUANTITATIVE METHOD IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 17 is known, cannot be justified when we pass from one correlational frame to another. Standardization of a given level of achievement in terms of some second criterion considered valid rests on the assumption of representative behavior wholly static in character and unafiected by time. The pseudo-mathematical techniques in- herent in scaling devices that lead to the hypostatization of correlated variables are perpetuated through the act of stand- ardizing. When guidance experts predict the course of individual be- havior in the light of some mental test score, they assume that the score expresses a psychological function or functions on which future behavior of a discriminable quality depends. They fail to comprehend that the gross score is a momentary transverse ex- pression of a complex of intellectual judgments, the effective dependability and fidelity of which are unknown. It does not take a genius to perceive that the future course of life may as- sume one of a large number of forms and that it is not statically determined by any snap-shot statistical transection of some im- mediate narrow field of arbitrarily selected intellectual judg- ments. A given set of intellectual judgments may function for a given organism in as many different ways as there will be dif- ferent effective future environments. The experimentalist’s de- scription of the future course of life by means of the probable error of estimate based on qualitatively heterogeneous levels is about as reliable as the predictive imagery of the crystal gazer or the fanciful descriptions of the astrologer. AN EXAMPLE OF THE QUANTITATIVE METHOD IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY CHARLES I. MOSIER? University of Florida THIS PAPER represents the preliminary report of an effort to ap- ply rational quantitative methods to a problem in the field of social psychology. The temporal course of fads and popular fashions, representing as it does the reactions of individuals to certain stimuli, is a legitimate problem in the field of social psychology, however trivial it may be deemed. The growth and decline in popularity of any stimulus represents the collective judgments of a large group of persons, and those judgments are 1In presenting this paper, the writer wishes to acknowledge the assistance given by Professors C. G. Phipps and H. H. Germond of the Department of Mathematics of the University of Florida. 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Eig: Popularity Punction ’ “Titles Robins and Roses = ke Functions p=£ [t+4* J+Poe** X Odteined ranke r 0.06 @ Calouleted ranke ege 13.2 o 91.8 26 25-4 S221 012548 6 Fig.3 Popularity Function Titles All ky Life - t-eXt at Functions Pes (eos J+Poe x Obteined ranks k 0.05 @ Calculated ranke cf 20.576 Po 3.00 Ro 9-78 4g b432101236 56 Populerity Punction Titles When I'm With You = went Punctions P=€(t+ 4= ]+Poe™ Fig.2 M Obtained ranks & 0.70 Caloulated A Ee e ry Frenke Py 0.76 Pig + Populerity Function Titles Ie It True A = -e* Functions P=£[t+ = |+Poe* X Obtained ranke ke -0.11 @ Calculated renke cf P. 0,50 < QUANTITATIVE METHOD IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 19 Fig. 5 Popularity Punction Fig. 6 Pepularity Punctiop Titles Take My Heart Titles These Foolish Thirgs A PeEfeess™ xt pri (tse Kt Puncticns Pe (t+ * J+Poe MX Obtained ranke Function: P= & (t+ K J+ Poe X Obtained ranke & 0,07 e Calculated renke x 20.33 Calculated ranks cfs 7.53 efe 1.62 v Pe «(0.8 Po me cows tt | Ry Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Populerity Puncticn Popularity Punction Titles Rod: = Ay Bases Title: When I'm With You Function: P=> +bt +P, x Obteined ranke es 2 Punction: P= 2t"'4 4t + Po X Obtained ranke @ 0.8304 © Calculated ranke ce b 4.946 é 0.6352 e@ Calculated renke Po 16.49 Bb 4,488 Bo 0.987% 1 2345678910 1112 Po 15.928 2» 234567 89 1021213 L ep { P, 0.8682— e x—x >) HSEBS aE 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SY 1 9g ° Popularity Punction ¥ § Fig. 10 ; Popularity Punction Titles All My ute Title « Ie {t True = x -_ 2 Punction: P vat ULES % Obtained ranks PRetices at! ¢bt + Po X Obtained ranks @ Calculated ranke- @ Calculated ranks a 0.5444 b 4.278 P. 19.950 23456 78 9 1011221314 P, 0.8269 Fig.11 Popularity Function Titles These Foolish Things np > Punotions ¥: 5+ bt + Po x Obtained ranke t mgr ogee @ Calculated ranke Po 18.2888 Po 0.896 23456 74 QUANTITATIVE METHOD IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 21 influenced by the social situation of the moment. These changes in total popularity seem to exhibit certain regularities which indicate the possibility of quantitative treatment. We see a fad begin, sometimes slowly, sometimes suddenly, reaching a height of popularity, and then beginning a fall from grace which may be so slow as to be imperceptible over a period of years, or so precipitous as to carry the fad from sight, and even from memory, within a month or two. As examples of this phenomenon of the growth and decline of popularity, the “popular” songs of the day have certain advan- tages as objects of study. The course of their life histories is relatively brief; the development of their popularity is more truly a matter merely of liking or disliking, uncomplicated by the pres- sure of advertising, by the necessity of making any definite action, such as purchasing, or by the related factor of saturation of the potential market. (It is conceivable that a fad might be at its peak popularity after the potential market had been saturated and no more sales were being made.) An additional point in favor of the study of the popularity of songs is that, as a result of the advertising campaign of a popular cigarette, the fifteen most popular songs of the week, determined on a nation-wide basis, are available to test such hypotheses as may be devised. Before going farther, it should be mentioned that this study is not presented as a finished product, and that its chief claim to interest lies in the opening of the field to quantitative methods and the demonstration that such methods are likely to prove fruit- ful, rather than in any specific results. Certain hypotheses as to the laws underlying the growth of popularity have been tested, others are still being tested. Certainly the most satisfactory set has not been found. Before conclusions of significance are reached two conditions must be met that have not been attained: (1) more, and more varied hypotheses must be tested, and the con- sequences of each must be investigated more fully; (2) more, and more adequate data must be assembled to enable us definitely to verify or reject the hypotheses tested. If the popularity of a song be considered it would seem that what we understand by popularity is the total number of indi- viduals who like that song at a certain time. This, in turn, is a function of two factors—the number of people who hear the song, and the proportion of those hearing it who react favorably. Now the first of these factors depends on the popularity already at- tained—the more popular a song becomes, the more it is played, sung, hummed, or whistled, and the more people hear it. Songs of this type, however, do not “wear well,” and after a person has heard it several times (in some cases, once) he is less likely to like it than formerly. Thus, as a first approximation, we may express 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the rate of change in the popularity of a song as the sum of two components (it would appear more profitable to consider the product of the two components, and this is now being investi- gated). The first of these components makes for an increase in | popularity proportional to the popularity already attained, the other causes a decrease with increasing time. (More exactly, the decrease is due to a large number of unknown factors whose average varies as a function of time.) Writing this hypothesis as a differential equation, we have: (1) dp/dt = kp — ct where p is some measure of popularity, ¢ is some measure of time, k is a constant indicating the “catchiness” of the song, and ¢ is a function of its “wearing qualities.” If this equation be solved for the function p(t), we have (omitting the intermediate steps involved in the solution) : (2) p= Jkt a LS ekt) 4. nekt k This, then, is the form in which the hypotheses outlined above may be tested. The ranks of the fifteen most popular songs of each week were secured for the period beginning April 13, 1936, and ending October 19, 1936. Only those songs on which data were complete —from the first to the last appearance among the first fifteen— were retained. Songs on which fewer than ten observations were available were also eliminated. In considering the data available, certain limitations must be pointed out. In the first place, time is measured from an arbi- trary origin—the time of the first appearance of the song among the fifteen most popular. Nothing is known of the time or the popularity before this. The data are limited to the very peak of the curve and no information is available concerning the early stages of growth and the later stages of the decline in popularity —periods crucial for the test of a particular hypothesis. A second objection is that ranks are not units, and a shift from thirteenth place to twelfth place, for example, may not be equivalent to a shift from third to second place, though we are forced to treat it so. Furthermore, the rank of a song is determined by the quality of the other songs in vogue, so that a mediocre song, coming at a time when it is compared with a group of poor songs, will receive the same rank as an excellent song compared with a group of good songs. Although it is true that equal differences in ranks do not ordinarily measure equal differences in the attribute ranked, this objection may be partially overcome. We may reasonably assume that the distribution of popularity of all songs at any particular QUANTITATIVE METHOD IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 23 time is such that for the most popular songs, rank is a linear function of popularity. That this assumption is tenable is indi- cated by the consistency of the results to be reported. For this study, then, popularity may be approximated by rank. Since popularity decreases as rank increases numerically, it will be convenient to measure popularity by the negative of the rank. It will also prove convenient, in testing the hypothesis of equation (2) to measure time in weeks from the time of maximum pop- ularity. A procedure for fitting the curve of equation (2) utilizing first and second differences was developed, by means of which the values of c, k, po, and the zero point for time might be estimated with fair accuracy. The curve-fitting procedure leaves much to be desired in economy of time, and in perfection of results, but it seems adequate to the treatment of data as rough as these ad- mittedly are. The results of fitting the exponential growth curve are shown in Figs. 1-5. Fig. 1 shows the observed ranks and the fitted curve for one particular song. The curve is nearly symmetrical and the fit is surprisingly close. The correlation between observed and calculated values, corrected for the number of parameters, is .89. The next figure shows the curve and the data for a second title—a curve exhibiting a rapid rise and relatively slow decline. The fit in this case is by no means as good as in the first, though still fair. The corrected correlation between observation and prediction is .66. The low correlation may be due to one or all of three factors: (1) the hypothesis does not fit the data; (2) the curve-fitting procedure is not adequate; (3) the data themselves are unreliable. The other figures show results similar to these discussed, some excellent fits by any criterion, some not so good. Since some of the curves presented resemblances in appear- ance to the second degree parabola, it was decided to fit such a curve to the data. The hypothesis leading to such a curve would be that the rate of change in popularity is proportional to time, plus an original velocity. Stated as a differential equation: (3) dp/dt = — at + b which integrates readily to give: at? (4) Digan OE sae Do where p, t, and p, have the same significance as before, a is a positive constant indicative of the “durability” of the song, and b is/the number of weeks necessary for the song to reach its maximum popularity—a measure of its “catchiness”. This function has certain advantages in ease and accuracy of fitting. The resulting fits are superior to those obtained by fitting 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the exponential, which may indicate that this is a better guess as to the laws underlying the growth of popularity, or that the method of curve-fitting is superior. The results of fitting this parabolic function to the data are presented in the next series of slides. | As has been mentioned, other hypotheses ought to be tested, their consequences investigated more fully, and verified by more ~ adequate data. For example, both the functions discussed have no place where the second derivative is zero, and there are ration- al grounds for considering this unlikely. The restriction of the data to the central range makes it impossible to test this possible discrepancy. Again, the hypothesis that the rate is the product function of the two components kp and ct offers interesting pos- sibilities, and a considerably safer rational basis. What may be concluded from this investigation? Certainly not that either of the two hypotheses advanced as descriptions of the popularity function is verified. The data are too few, and too limited in range to permit of such verification. Furthermore, the data are, as has been pointed out, unreliable as measurements. The conclusion that we can draw, however, is that it is possible in the field of social psychology to formulate rational hypotheses as to the behavior of certain variables, to express those mathe- matically and to deduce from those hypotheses certain conclu- sions which admit of verification. If we find evidence of con- sistent behavior from data whose relability is questionable, may we not expect that with more accurate measurements, our hy- potheses will prove susceptible of exact, quantitative verification ? Furthermore such a procedure will lead to the determination of constants having rational meaning, and by utilization of these constants, comparisons between songs, or even between fads, may prove both possible and enlightening. A STUDY OF THE ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY OF SEMINOLE COUNTY, FLORIDA* SIDNEY A. STUBBS University of Florida For THE past ten months I have been engaged in a detailed study of the subsurface geology and the artesian water supply of Seminole County. This paper very briefly summarizes the results of the study of the artesian waters. * Awarded the Achievement Medal for 1937. ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY IN SEMINOLE COUNTY 25 The investigation was begun on January 1, 1987. The pur- pose of the survey has been to outline the area of artesian flow and the area of highly mineralized waters, and to study in detail the amount and causes of fluctuation in the artesian water levels. Seminole County is located in the east central part of the Florida peninsula. This county was organized from a part of Orange County in 1913. The county comprises an area of 205,440 acres or 321 square miles. The county seat of Seminole County is Sanford, located in the northwestern part of the county on Lake Monroe. The 1935 state census gives it a population of 10,903. The population of the county by the same census is 22,192. The raising of celery and citrus fruits is the chief industry of the county. The celery farms occupy the lowlands in the vicinity of Lake Monroe and Lake Jessup, and a considerable area south of Oviedo in the south central part of the county. Most of the citrus groves are in the hill country in the south and western _ part of the county. The area under actual cultivation in truck crops covers approximately 6,000 acres of irrigated land. The water used for irrigation of the truck lands is obtained from artesian wells. Lake water is usually used for grove irrigation. ‘Aawes 84 GAET SEMINOLE COUNTY PIEZOMETRIC SORFECE Febraary, 1937 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Slightly more than two hundred wells have been under ob- servation, and monthly readings have been taken on key wells. The chloride content has been determined upon a much larger number. The readings of the pressure head of flowing wells have been made with a hose and measuring rod in all practical cases. On fiowing wells where the pressure was too high to read by means of a hose, a gauge, regularly checked against a hose, was | used. Non-flowing wells were checked by the wetted tape method. The elevations of the wells have been determined by precise levels run from United States Coast and Geodetic bench marks and from elevations established by the county engineering depart- ment corrected to Coast and Geodetic elevations. Elevations on a few of the outlying wells were obtained by means of an aneroid barometer. GEOLOGY The geologic formations of the county are shown on the chart. Of these formations, four have significance as artesian water horizons ; the Coskinolina zone and the Ocala formation of Eocene age, the Hawthorn formation of Miocene age, and the Caloosa- hatchee marl of Pliocene age. The most important of these are the Coskinolina zone and the Ocala formation. aue@ an Bas ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY IN SEMINOLE COUNTY 27 TasBie I.—Geontocic ForMATION IN SEMINOLE County. THICK- AGE GROUP FORMATION CHARACTER NESS Recent and 0-60? Undifferentiated Pleistocene ; sands and soils. SO | $ SO Ss Caloosahatchee 0-70 Marl, shell and sand. oceve marl Minor artesian aquifer. Interbedded clay, marl, Miocene Alum Bluff Hawthorn 0-70? BiG) GERGy AGS OTe: Important artesian aquifer. Ocala limestone | 9 5992 | Limestone. Important (of Jackson age) " | artesian aquifer. Eocene Limestone. Important Coskinolina zone ? : : artesian aquifer. Undifferentiated *Eocene and Cretaceous smart ts Mica schist, ete. s : meeewe oF Older Metamorphic basement. *After Cooke, C. W., and Mossom, Stuart, Geology of Florida; Florida Geol. Sur. Twentieth Ann. Rept., p. 40, 1929. COSKINOLINA ZONE I first suspected the presence of an aquifer older than the Ocala from a study of the chloride content of the waters. Well cuttings from areas where the chloride content was high revealed a predominance of the Foraminifer Coskinolina and an absence of typical Ocala Foraminifera. I tentatively assigned this zone to the upper part of the Middle Eocene. Through the cooperation of the Florida Geological Survey, it has been possible to have these samples studied by Mrs. E. R. Applin, a micropaleontologist of Ft. Worth, Texas. Mrs. Applin suggested that this limestone is probably Upper Claiborne in age. This zone lies directly below the Ocala formation. The con- tact between the two is unconformable, and the Coskinolina zone 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES was deeply eroded before the deposition of the Ocala formation. The Coskinolina zone is composed of beds of relatively soft and very hard granular limestone ranging in color from white to rich cream and buff. The well cuttings very often closely resemble brown sugar in color and texture. Numerous cavities occur through the formation. G. M. Arie, a driller at Oviedo, has re- ported a particularly large cavity in a well drilled for the Lake Charm Fruit Company at Lake Charm northeast of Oviedo. According to the driller, he passed through a fairly hard rock at 340 feet, and from there to 390 feet the drill was hanging free, indicating an opening fifty feet in depth. This cavity probably occurred in the Coskinolina zone. The Foraminiferal fauna of the Coskinolina zone is rich and distinctive. The following data as to families represented have largely been derived from a study of Mrs. Applin’s logs. The family Valvulinidae is represented by at least five genera and an undetermined number of species. The identified genera are Cos- kinolina, Lituonella, Valvulammina, Cribrobulimina, and Areno- bulimina. Of these, Litwonella and Coskinolina are most common. The Textulariidae are represented by Textularia, Climacammina, and Bigenerina. Three Miliolidae occur commonly, Quinquelocu- lina, Triloculina and Massilina. Two Peneroplidae occur fre- quently; Spirolina and Peneroplis. There is also an abundance Aanes Wasser SEMINQLE COUNTY AREA OF ARTESIAN FLOW ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY IN SEMINOLE COUNTY 29 of other species which seem to be characteristic of this zone, some of which do not appear to have been described. The area in Seminole County that is drawing its water from the Coskinolina zone is confined to the region between Lake Jessup and Lake Monroe, an area almost to Oviedo around the east side of Lake Jessup, and a strip extending east along the St. Johns River to the edge of the county. This zone yields a large quantity of water; but all wells that are definitely known to be flowing from the Coskinolina zone are brackish. THE OcaLA FORMATION The Ocala formation lies unconformably upon the Eocene Coskinolina zone. As the Ocala occurs in Seminole County, it is a white to light-cream-colored limestone. The formation is gen- erally soft and very porous. Cavities of varying depths are often struck during drilling. This formation is relatively thin in Seminole County, attain- ing its greatest thickness to the south and west, thinning rapidly to the north and northeast. The formation is not thought to exceed two hundred feet in this county. The fauna of the Ocala is rich. Gypsina globula, Operculina ocalana and Rotalia sp. (Cushman) are common. Specimens of Lepidocyclina are rare in the samples from wells toward the northern part of the county, but are usually plentiful toward the south and west. Species of Textularia, Reusella, Eponides, and various Miliolidae are abundant. The farming districts west of Sanford and in the vicinity of and south of Oviedo are obtaining artesian waters principally from the Ocala formation, which yields a large volume of water usually low in chloride content. Toward the area where the Cos- kinolina zone is the principal aquifer, however, waters from the Ocala are brackish. Fil Irrigation Gystev fer @ five acve rect ef land 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE HAaAwTHORN FORMATION The Hawthorn formation is third in importance as an aquifer. This formation underlies most of the county south and west of Lake Jessup. At one time all the county was covered by Haw- thorn strata, but these have been almost entirely removed by ero- sion along the St. Johns River valley. The maximum thickness probably does not exceed seventy feet. The Hawthorn formation lies unconformably upon the Ocala formation. In Seminole County it is characterized by beds of white to gray sandy limestones alternating with beds of blue- eray marl. The limestones and marls both contain a large per- centage of phosphate pebbles ranging from the size of sand grains to the size of gravel. The limestone beds are usually very hard and range in thickness from one to three feet. The formation caves badly during drilling, and for this reason it has been diifi- cult to get a very accurate picture of the formation. The fauna of the Hawthorn formation is very poorly pre- served and no identifiable invertebrate fossils have been found. Shark and fish teeth are common, however. The quantity of water that the Hawthorn formation yields is not so great as that from the Hocene formations. A large flow of water is usually obtained at the contact zone between the Hawthorn and the underlying formation. Because water from the Hawthorn is softer than water from the Eocene limestone it has been greatly desired for home water systems. Most of the wells in the county that terminate in the Hawthorn are being used for domestic purposes. Tur CALOOSAHATCHEE MARL The Caloosahatchee marl lies unconformably upon the Ocala formation and upon the Coskinolina zone of the Eocene in the northern part of the county, and upon the Hawthorn formation in the southern part of the county. It is probably absent along the southwestern border of the county. This formation is well developed along the St. Johns River valley. It is known to be seventy feet thick in this region and may possibly be thicker. In the southern part of the county it is much thinner, probably not exceeding twenty-five feet in thickness. In Seminole County, the Caloosahatchee marl is composed of beds of shell marl alternating with beds of shell and sand. The shell and sand beds are usually much thicker than the marly phase. Both of these phases are so variable, however, that it is impossible to give any general average for either. The fauna of the Caloosahatchee marl present in Seminole County is most closely related to the Nashua phase, which is well ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY IN SEMINOLE COUNTY 31 represented by exposures a few miles to the north in Volusia County. The mollusks Drillia tuberculata, Olivella nitidula, Mulinia contracta, Phacoides multilineatus, and Arca camphyla are very common Pliocene species present. Many other forms are also found. Foraminifera are plentiful. The most common forms present are Elphidium gunteri, HE. poeyanum, FE. sagrum, E. in- certum, Rotalia beccarii var. parkinsoniana, Discorbis floridana, and Cibicides lobatulus. A particularly noticeable feature of the micro-fauna is the predominance of various species of Elphidium. This formation yields a small flow of soft water, highly im- pregnated with hydrogen sulphide. Only a few wells are at pres- ent obtaining water from this formation, and they are all small driven wells used for domestic purposes. According to some of the older drillers of the county, however, when artesian waters were first developed in Seminole County, many of the wells were flowing from a shell bed. This was undoubtedly the Caloosa- hatchee marl. PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT The marine Pleistocene has not been identified in any well studied from this county to date. The Pleistocene and the Recent deposits are surficial sands. These sands furnish water for a large number of surface-water wells used for domestic purposes. USES OF WATER By far the largest percentage of the artesian water used in the county is for irrigation. Public water supplies obtaining water from the artesian formations have been developed by the city of Sanford and the communities of Lake Mary, Longwood and Fern Park. Lake Mary is drawing water from the Hawthorn formation. Sanford, Longwood and Fern Park are obtaining water from the Ocala formation. At the suggestion of the writer, an effort has been made by C. R. Dawson, County Agent, to obtain an accurate count of the number of artesian wells on the farms in the county. This infor- mation has been assembled and supplemental data added by H. James Gut of Sanford. These figures show a total of 2,187 ar- tesian wells. Since these figures do not include unused wells, or wells used for municipal, commercial or domestic purposes, another thousand can safely be added to the 2,187 making a total of something over three thousand wells in the county. The figures for wells on cultivated land give an average of one well to every 2.98 acres. The most common sizes are two, three and four inch wells in the order mentioned. The common system of irrigation used in this county is unique and deserves special mention. Because the hardpan lies 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES within only a few feet of the surface, subsurface irrigation is very practical and is now used on most of the celery farms. Figure 1 shows the general set-up for the irrigation of a five- acre tract of land. The well is drilled on the high corner of the field and is designated as A. This well feeds into a concrete or terra cotta standpipe which is connected to a tile main. Running from this main at twenty-foot intervals, there are lines of three- inch drain tile across the field. Where each of these lines of drain tile connects with the main there is another standpipe, so. that it will be possible to plug any line of drain tile and wet only that portion of the field that requires moisture. On the outlet side of the field, the water runs from the drain tile into a sewer or ditch and at each outlet there is a standpipe with a partition through the center. This partition has holes which may be plugged and thereby the level of the water in the field is con- trolled. This is shown in the cross-section. During very wet weather this irrigation tile is left open and serves for drainage. Thus the tiling serves a double purpose. Because it is believed that the water must be kept in circula- tion during irrigation, this system uses an enormous volume of water. AREA OF ARTESIAN FLOW The area of artesian flow in the county has been carefully out- lined on the accompanying map. Whether or not an artesian well will fiow is dependent upon the pressure head of the water and the elevation of the land. Many attempts have been made to obtain flowing wells in non-flowing areas by the drilling of ex- cessively deep wells. All such attempts have been unsuccessful. Near the edges of this outlined area, there are wells that flow during very wet seasons and there may possibly be some addi- tional areas where wells will flow, but where none have been drilled to date. The area of artesian flow is more limited today than it was a number of years ago; and a greater constriction of the flow area is to be expected with increased development of the artesian supply in the county. PERMANENT LOSS OF HEAD Previous records on the pressure head of wells in Seminole County are meagre, and it is now impossible to locate most of the wells mentioned in the older reports. Therefore, much of the information necessary in formulating an estimate of the perma- nent loss of head that has taken place must be inferred from other sources. It has, however, been possible to find the general area of a few of the wells mentioned in the United States Geo- ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY IN SEMINOLE COUNTY 33 logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 319. These wells have been rechecked and the following data have been obtained. Water-Supply Paper 319, which was published in 1913, gives a head of 26 feet for a well on a farm owned by Chas. Campbell. This farm was east of Sanford, and no wells in this area now show a head of more than 16 feet. Wells owned by F. W. Mahoney in Sanford are reported to have had a head of one and one-half feet above the surface at that time. The water in these wells now stands from three to five feet below the surface. The Fifth Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey, also published in 1915, reports a pressure of approximately 23 feet above the surface for a well one-quarter mile west of Lake Monroe Station. No wells within this area have a pressure head of more than 18 feet above the surface today. From these data it can be seen that there has been a minimum permanent loss of head of from four to ten feet within the flow- ing-well area during the past twenty-five years. In a study of permanent loss of head, rainfall must be taken into consideration. A comparison must be made between the rainfall at and preceding the time each set of data was being collected. This comparison must not be restricted to the actual years covered by the readings, but must include several years prior to each period represented by the data. The average rain- fall for Sanford and vicinity is 50.33 inches per year. This aver- age is based upon the twenty-four year period from 1913 through 1936. The first set of well readings was collected between 1909 and 1911. The period for 1907 through 1911 shows an average yearly rainfall of 45.33 inches. This is 5 inches below the normal. Thus there is an accumulated deficit of 25 inches of rain for this five-year period. On the other hand, the years 1933 through 1936 had an average rainfall of 52.2 inches per year, or an average of 1.87 inches above normal for each year. The year 1937 has been slightly above normal rainfall to date. The accumulated differ- ence between these averages is 32.42 inches, excluding the year 1937. It may be inferred, therefore, that should there be another long period of subnormal rainfall the evident loss of head would be even greater than that shown by the comparison I have made, and that this four to ten foot loss of head is a conservative estimate. FLUCTUATION OF THE ARTESIAN HEAD Observation of the artesian wells has shown that the head of the water is constantly fluctuating. The amount of fluctuation was found to range from less than one foot in the non-flowing area to as much as five and six feet within the flowing-well zones. 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The causes for the fluctuation of the wells are rainfall, baromet- ric pressure, and draft. General rains over a large area serve to recharge the water supply of the artesian reservoir. The effect of this recharge, however, is not seen immediately and little or no effect is expected from local rain. The reason for an increase in head immediately after local*rains lies in the fact that almost all the farmers shut off their wells, thus very shortly the pressure of the wells is ma- terially increased. The fluctuation in head due to differences in atmospheric pres- sure is not so great as that caused by shutting and opening the wells, and such changes are best observed in non-flowing wells. THE PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE In order to understand the condition of the underground reservoir of the county, and to determine the direction of flow of the artesian waters, two maps of the piezometric surface have been made. One represents the piezometric surface for February, 1937, a month during which nearly all the truck farms in the county are being irrigated. The second map shows the piezo- metric surface for July. During this month very few of the farm wells are in use, and the large celery wash houses are not operating. Probably there is less draft on the wells during July than in any other month of the.year. The contour lines on both maps represent the artesian head above mean sea level. Certain general features are characteristic of both maps. The contours rise toward their highest point in the southwest part of the county, and drop to their lowest point in the northeast. Although there are no artesian wells in the extreme northeast part of the county, I suspect that the contour will be below ten feet above sea level. This feature demonstrates that the direc- tion of flow is from the southwest. A small amount of recharge may take place in the lake region in the southwest part of the county; but the principal recharge region is probably Orange, Lake and Polk counties. On both maps the contours swing west- ward at Lake Jessup. This indicates a heavy leakage zone in that lake. Another heavy leakage zone is also present along the Wekiva River. The forty-five foot contour swings almost due south as it approaches the river. Leakage is probably also tak- ing place in Lake Harney. A permanent depression cone due to excessive draft is present between Lake Jessup and the St. Johns River east of Sanford. In this district there are a number of celery wash houses. These plants use an excessive amount of water, and as yet they have not made any very effective steps toward the conservation of water. During February the center of this cone had dropped to about 21 feet above sea level. In ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY IN SEMINOLE COUNTY 35 July the center had risen to nearly twenty-five feet. Another small cone is shown by a 30 foot contour directly south of San- ford. This cone surrounds the wells used for the City of San- ford public supply. The wells located outside the flowing-well zone vary only slightly, and a difference is difficult to show on the piezometric maps. On the February map, it may be seen that the contours swing back from the farming areas around Lake Jessup and Lake Mon- roe. Local coning can be seen south of Oviedo, and a slight coning is indicated east of Lake Monroe station. The contours do not represent a closed cone, but the space between the 20 and 25 foot contours broadens perceptibly. On the July map the contours are higher over the flowing- well district. The local cones due to draft for irrigation have returned to normal, and extremely heavy coning shown around the wash houses is not so pronounced. SALINITY OF THE WATERS A large part of the waters used for irrigation in the county is already highly saline. Some wells that have been checked showed a chloride content exceeding eighteen hundred parts per million. The belief is quite common that this high salinity is due to Seepage of sea water into the rocks. This hypothesis is incorrect. All the peninsula of Florida is underlain by connate salt water, salt water contained in the rocks when they were laid down. Over most of the state, this saline water is confined to variable but relatively great depths. In areas where the fresh water head has been sufficiently reduced, however, the salt water has risen to or near to the surface of the artesian strata. As has been pointed out by Badon Ghyben of Amsterdam and Herzberg of Berlin, for every foot of fresh water head that is lost there is an upward encroachment of salt water for approximately forty feet; the exact amount of the encroachment being dependent upon the specific gravity of the salt water. This encroachment can be seen in Florida in certain counties near the coast where the loss of fresh water head has been excessive. The condition existing in Seminole County is basically a func- tion of the theory set forth by Ghyben and Herzberg, but the manner in which the high salinity has been developed has been much more complex than the ideal problem confronting those writers. The most highly mineralized waters in this county are coming from the Coskinolina zone of the Eocene. This zone was raised above the sea and deeply eroded before the deposition of the younger deposits. The region around Lake Jessup and along 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the St. Johns River was undoubtedly a leakage zone during that period of uplift. After the submergence of this zone and the subsequent depo- sition and uplift of the Ocala formation, this region was again developed as a leakage zone. Before the second submergence, the Ocala formation was almost completely eroded away in the present hizhly saline area, and the Coskinolina zone was exposed at the surface. After the Miocene submergence, the same condi- tions were repeated. This excessive leakage over long periods of time sufficiently reduced the fresh water head to allow the highly saline waters to move upward to the surface of the Coskinolina zone, and today all the artesian waters in this area are saline. Waters from the Ocala formation are not as yet highly saline; » but the excessive draft that is taking place is causing a further upward encroachment of saline waters, and an eventual increase in the highly saline area is to be expected. CONCLUSION This survey has shown that there has been a permanent loss of head due to excessive draft, and that a large part of the county is now drawing upon highly saline waters. Further development and excessive use of the artesian waters can be expected to re- duce the present area of artesian flow and to materially increase the areas of highly saline waters. A serious curtailment of agri- cultural operations will undoubtedly result, unless proper pre- cautions are taken and the use of artesian waters wisely regu- lated in the future. THE EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON CERTAIN NATIVE AMERICAN PERENNIAL HERBS Part I HERMAN KURZ Florida State College for Women INTRODUCTION AMONG PRACTICAL growers it is pretty generally known that the perenniating parts of many cultivated flowering herbs must be subjected to a period of cold storage in order to insure the development of normal foliage and flowers. In fact a good many EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON PERENNIAL HERBS 37 popular and semi-popular articles dealing with cold storage asa necessary antecedent for subsequent growth have been published in garden journals and in agricultural experiment station bulle- tins. And when it comes to low temperature relations in general there is prodigious technical literature. Harvey’s (’36) “An Annotated Bibliography of the Low Temperature Relations of Plants” is a letter size volume of 240 pages. In the present paper, however, reference will be made only to important pioneer works having a direct bearing and relation to its studies. Foremost among such works is the classical paper of Coville (’19-20) on “The Infiuence of Cold in Stimulating the Growth of Plants.” Indeed many of the speculations and generalizations regarding the necessity of cold storage, as well as the nature of its effect, for the normal development of various cultivated species trail back to his experiments in the ’teens. He found, for example, that the buds of such American woody species as H/pigaea repens, Vaccinium corymbosum, Viburnum americanum, Pyrus coro- naria, Larix Laricina and the seeds of Cornus canadensis kept in the green house and deprived of winter exposure would not resume a normal growth following the usual winter period of dormancy. In sharp contrast the plants or even parts of plants that were subjected to winter chilling developed normally. This work is so well known and accessible that its details may be omitted here. Suffice it to say that Coville considers winter chill- ing a normal necessity for the above and other species. Nichols (’34), too, in working with the seeds of 141 species of native American herbs and shrubs has made a significant contri- bution. In the main he found that the seeds of northward distri- bution were benefitted by exposure to winter temperature; as a matter of fact a good many of southward distribution also re- sponded favorably to refrigeration. Nichols concludes that “re- frigeration may be an ecological factor of much importance in relation to the northward distribution of plants.” Coville (19, ’20) gave a direct and significant lead 18 years ago when he stated that “the whole question of the effect of chill- ing on herbaceous perennials is an open field,’ but up to the present the writer has found no references to studies attacking the influence of freezing as an ecological or distributional factor on the perenniating parts of native American herbs. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS Ever since the writer came to Florida he has had an irre- pressible desire to grow northern “spring flowers” in his artificial 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES woods. This desire led to the importation in 1930 of a number of northern species like Hrythronium americanum, Dicentra cucul- laria, Polemonium reptans, Claytonia virginica, Dodocatheon meadia, Iris versicolor, Trillium spp., Adiantwn pedatum, and even Hquisetum arvense! Although only exploratory in nature the writer feels that the behavior and leads suggested by them justify a brief description and discussion. Equisetum arvense rhizomes set out in a local garden around September 10 proceeded to sprout and to send up typical vegeta- tive shoots within a few weeks. However, after this initial burst of growth lasting for about two months the shoots died and no new ones ever appeared again. Iris plants potted in common garden soil in the autumn of 1931 produced three small feebly growing shoots in the spring of 1932; by March 1933 the shoots were almost dead. The pot was now put in a mechanical refrigerator and taken out April 23, 1933, one month later. This refrigeration of one month was enough to stimulate the shoots to vigorous growth. From Decem- ber 11, 1933, to February 27, 1934, the plants were refrigerated again; and still greater growth resulted. From December 1934 to February 1935 they were again refrigerated. As a result of this last refrigeration the plants formed seven shoots with the tallest leaves 16 inches high, and by May a total of 5 flowers. Because of subsequent freezing the plants, although they have not bloomed again, are healthy at this writing. The Polemonium plants set in garden soil survived less than two years and the leaves that appeared proved to be progressively smaller and smaller until the plant died. In the winter of 1932 one plant in the garden was stimulated to new growth and flowers by the simple expedient of covering the dormant plant with ice for a week or so. We see here that although chilling is necessary no great amount seems imperative. In December of 1933 ten cultures of Erythronium americanum containing fifteen bulbs each were placed in a refrigeration room of about 52 degrees Fahrenheit of the Middle Florida Ice Company, Tallahassee. These cultures were taken out one by one: the first one after two weeks of refrigeration; the second at the end of three weeks; the third at the end of four weeks; the fourth at the end of five weeks; the fifth at the end of six weeks; the sixth at the end of seven weeks; the seventh at the end of eight weeks ; 1All nomenclature in this paper is according to “Gray, Asa. New Manual of Botany. 7th Edition. 1908.” \\ SSS LEGEND Left, stored in cooler; right, left outdoors. Upper left, Trillium grandiflora; upper right, Dicentra cucullaria. Middle left, Polemonium reptans; middle right, Smilacina racemosa. Lower left, Geranium maculatum; lower right, Claytonia virginica. EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON PERENNIAL HERBS 39 the eighth at the end of nine weeks; the ninth at the end of ten weeks; and the last one at the end of eleven weeks. The first pot taken out with two weeks of chilling produced only 1 normal leaf of one and one-half inches. Because of disturbance of the cultures by rodents and possibly because certain bulbs require at least one year for thorough establishment when transplanted there were twisted and incompletely unfolded leaves in most cultures. But in general the longer the refrigeration, the more, the larger, and the more nearly normal were the leaves after the cultures were again subjected to out-of-door growing conditions. PREPARATION AND CARE OF FoLLow-UP CULTURES The preliminary findings, it was felt, justified a more elabor- ate follow-up; accordingly, beginning with the autumn of 1933 and successive autumns propagative parts of a total of twenty- one species of native American herbs were obtained from New England nurseries and other northern sources. Each lot of the twenty-one species was evenly divided and planted in duplicate pots containing local garden loam. One member of each pair was designated for artificial chilling and the other for exposure to natural Tallahassee, Florida, winter conditions. If two pairs of a given species were run, the cultures were designated as “A” and “B”; for instance, “Claytonia virginica (A)” and “Claytonia virginica (B)”. Some time in December, the date varying with the year, one half of each species was exposed from 8 to 11 weeks to the north Florida natural winter conditions on the shady, north side of a large bamboo bush; the other half was stored from 8 to 11 weeks in a vegetable cooler room of the Middle Florida Ice Plant. While the attempt was made to keep the temperature of this cooler around 40 degrees Fahrenheit it should be noted that a Maximum-minimum thermometer showed a range of 34 to 58 degrees. It is to be regretted that it was not feasible to have a more complete temperature record. In February, date varying with the year, the chilled pots were withdrawn and paired with their mates on the north side and in the partial shade of bam- boos. From here, with the exception of watering and cleaning out weeds, nature was left to do the rest. A condensed history or picture of the behavior of each pair of cultures follows in Table I. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ;(todae fz) ewuleqe[y *yue0-" (Trews ) UIe[q [e}SBvO_ jo ‘uU (Avg) sesuey pue ‘UUTT 0} *“MySOM “BX OF “FT “N “A s(TT2WS) “YY 0} ‘PLT °N (Av19) ‘uvy “UuUIT, 0} ‘HT ‘N "S g(Asoy A) “eT UST -1@q Bl1oqy ‘pues, A1oAy (Avan) SpooM }SIOW YOY wien ek aie eee ces BY Ee uoryNgIAy STC, *pvap ‘suILoD OU—)e6T YyMOLs OU—JEGT YjMOIS OU—GEGT :S100P}NO *‘SUILOD OU—pv2IpP—) FET uGG YSISUOT ‘SadUdd.SaIOYUL E—ORGET uG JE YSOSUOT ‘,G ySIsuUoT ‘sxdUddSaI0YUI G—GEGl ‘:42e[009 SULLOD 8 peep—9E6l wu Yos1R] ‘saavoy OOL ‘..b 3S9[2} ‘seousdsetopul 9—GEGT: S100PyNO u9 Y2T[P} ‘ssouddSa1OYUL GI—LE6T wl YS2]][B} ‘SodUZdSaIOYUL OZ—9EG6T ~9 yseadiey ‘saavoy AYATeoy Gy, *,9 YySe][2} ‘Sa.UZdSaLOYUL OE—GEGI +49T00D | suliod AUB! S}JOPe2T TL *,8 JOoYS ysaT[V} ‘sIaMOY ZZ—LEGT 48 JOOYS }So][e} ‘SIOMO LI—9k6T :S100pInC S}OPe2 SET «8 YOOYS Yso[[e} ‘SIOMOY S—LEGT 46 JOOYS 4So][e} ‘SIOMOY GI—9EGI :40[000 sjurtd 9 eIsuel -ods ou ‘,Z }S9][@} ‘spuody 0Z—LE6T whl FS2T[e} ‘SpuoIZ TI—9EGT ‘S1oopynO u9L S272} SeIsuesods YA sofnuutd oP ‘spuory Og—y,E6T wOL FS2TT2} ‘SpuoIZ 9—OEGT —: L0T009 sjuryd 9 “Areniqaq ur Cs rae Suluulsoq suosvas Surmoss 0} JoJor sxv9d UT, ee a SUTMOT ONV ie ae SHAVa'] NI Gassdudx yy SAUNLTOT) 10 NOLLIGNO) I VIavy, (q) vomibu4 vwu0jhv] 9 (PF) vounba vu0jfivipd SAPLOLJOYDY} DjJauoWeUPp wunjoped wnzunip p salads 41 EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON PERENNIAL HERBS ‘eulege[y jo Aysaoaluyc) ‘daydeisoay quelg ‘iodieyy ‘WW ‘Y “Aq Aq 2souapuodsasi08d 0} SuIpr0d0e uoIyNQ!iysIp Ade A VeSsouUAy, puke VUIeQeTY [B1]UID YSIAA “PF (e8,) [[@UIS 0} ZuIpios9e UOTYNQIIYsSIP JsouILIyINOG ‘g (9g,) At19y A 0} SUIPIOoe UOTINGIAysIP ysoul1aYyNOG °z (g0,) AB1x) 0} SUIPIOIO’ UOTNQIA}SIP JSOWIIYAON *T (Tews) se -X9], 0} BD “UIE [eSeOD (Avin) ‘Ue 0} ‘PI pue “eg (aodiezyz) ‘[eA ‘uUaT, (Tletig) “1qeN 07 “eH (Ae1p) ‘ow pu® ‘DO 'N 0} ‘s “UUI,, pue uoinyy “J 03 ‘S ‘'N uuin} -N® UL SUMOJD ATT g ‘SIMO ou 6,9 Jeol ySaduoT, ‘SoqoSO1 J—J)EG6T odeos Sul1aMoy I ‘L Fee JSesuol ‘s9}}9S01 G—9gET sodvos SulsaMmoy Z *,,2, Jeol ySasuoT ‘sozJoso1 AYeOY G—GEET sodeos SullaMoy Z °,,p Jeo, }sosuoyT ‘ysnqot wioy} JO Gg ‘sa}JoSO1 9—FSGET u¥ YosuoT ‘Soavsy E ‘SIMO OU—)/ EGET uG'Q JIT JSOBUOT ‘SOMO. OU—OKGT uk FS2][2} “SoAvoy GT ‘SIIMOY OU—GEGT u8 49 -ZUOT ‘SoAvz] ZZ ‘dDUIDSIIOPUL [—LEET 6 Jed YSosuUO] SAdUDDSOLOYUL T—OR6T «a9 }s9 -[[2} ‘SeAvzT OG S2dUBDSIIOYUL [—GR6T ‘Ul109 OU “peop—)R6T Jeo] [[eus [ ‘slamoy ou—ggGT uf’ T YSESUOT ‘SoAvoT Z—KECT al J¥2 ysosuol ‘saavay g ‘sIIMOT, OU—PERGT SIABIT EG ‘SLIMOT IUIOS—)/EGT ie) yseduoy ‘soavoy 1.7 ‘SAIMOY VUIOS—ORGT uf 4SeBUoy ‘SQAvOT OP ‘SdUDDSIIOYUL Y9—GEGT uv Jee YSesuo] ‘stomoy GI—PEe6T : 10[000) :S1OOpyng 3 19J00D :S10OPNO L2JO0D SUMOAO 9 sqing OL sqinq 0& (P) vippayy uoeyiv90pog (q) minjjnang viquang (P) visvjyjnons vaquesig 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ne (aodaeyzz) ‘BLY [81}U90-1S9M (TTewig) “yy 0} “el (Avery) “yr pue "JUQ 0} 489M “VT OF “A “N uoryNgII4sIq YIMOLs OU—]RG6T Bud 6 ‘F821 I—986l u& YS2ISUOT ‘SI9AVZT 9Z—LEGCT uG }S2dUOT ‘SAAVZT 6—9EET YJMOLG OU—ORGT uG YSOT[P} ‘S2ABIT 8—GEET u¥ 4Sa][B} ‘SosvoyT EI—LE6T uv ¥S9T[P} ‘SeAva] 8I—986T uG STC} ‘S9AVIT 6—SE6T ‘dn porip spnqg 1aMoy g fadvos Sulszamoy I *.& J82 Jsasuo] ‘soyeSOL Z—LEGI sotnsdeo ‘advos sutlamoy I ‘.G JB] yseduo] ‘seqJoSoL G—9Og6ET 1g[ooo WolT asoy} se AT[eIJUASSI soz}0SO1 G—GEGT a[ns -dvo ‘siamoy p ‘adevos Sutsamoy I ‘.b Jee] ysesuol ‘a}jJ9S0O1 [—LE6I 19}e] soynsdvo ‘sodvos sulaamoy € °,G Jee saduol ‘se}}eS01 9—9ET nG FEI Yasuo] ‘S9}}9S01 G—GEGT peep— LEGIT S19 MOY ou *,G Jeo, ySeasuo] ‘a}}9SO1 [—9E6T SIIMOP OU °,,G"p jeal ysasuo, ‘saq,9SO1 ROM G—GEGT adevos Sultamoy pasvosip I ‘G8 Je2] }Sesuo0] ‘so}}0S01 G—PRET “Avenrzga yy Ul :SLoOpjng oR ) (ole@) :Ss100pjng 2: LIJOOD :s1oopjng : LI[OOT) *SLOOPJNO SUIUUIGI SUOSRIS BUIMOASG 0} 1IJAA SIVIA DUT, SuTMOTY ANV SHAVA']T NI Gassautd xi] SHYOLTAY) LO NOWIGNO;) ponunuoj—] TILV J, sqinq IT sqing BI SUMO) G yod sad s}ivg 10 S}UeT I (q) wnuvdiwawn wnu01yghag (FP) wnuvdawewn wnu0sy hag (q) vypvayy woayzno0pog BELONG 43 EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON PERENNIAL HERBS SIABIT OT ‘LOMOLE T—LRGI SIAVIT OZ ‘LAMOY OU—ORGTL *SLOOP]NGC SIABIT BG “LAMOT. [—LEGT SOARIT MOU BZ ‘SIOMOY OU—ORGL ?40[00) SUMO) G (prop) SOARIT MOU OU ‘SLOMOL OU—QGR6T (radavyzy) “BT AA CN SOAVIT GT ‘SLOMOY. G—POL *SLOOPINO (Avy) (ponurzuodsip ) *M 4SRvo puBe “UUTA SOARIT MIU QZ ‘SLIMOLY OU—GRGT pus “ow “VI 01'S ‘'N SIABIT MOU Gg ‘S1OMOTYE [1—PRET :19[009 SUMO) G SIARIT MAU YQ *SALIMOTZ OU—LRGT SOAR, MOU TT ‘SLIAMOY. OU—ORGT ?S100P}NO SOARO]T MOU g “SIMO. OU—LRGT SIABIT MOU G *SLOMOY OU—ORGT =? A900) SUMO) G (poenutzuodsip ) (aadavyy) AaT[eA ‘uuay, SOABAT MOU J, “LOMO T—IEGT (q[eug) ‘ow “Rg SAARI] MOU ET ‘SLIMOT OU—PRGT *S100pynO (ARiD) "EN “MA SIARZT MOU GT ‘LOMO OU—GR6ET 9) N I v ysnoryy ‘“MYyyNos “andy “aM SOABIT MOU Gy, ‘SMIMOY Z—PRGL 4000 SUMOM) G uk YO[V} ‘SOAVIT Gg ‘SAOMOL OU—OGGT VW JSoT[e} ‘SOAvIT OT *SLOMOL OU—GEGT YIMOLG OU—PRGT ?S100pynG wGL 89 (aadavyzy ) -[[¥} ‘Soavo, py ‘Sx[eIS 19OMOY Z—LRGT "BTW °1]U90-}Ss9M u6l ([eug) “Uvy 0} “BD | ysaT[R7 ‘soavo] OP “Y["1S eMOY I—9RGT (Av1g) *MyqnNos v8 YS2[V} ‘S9ABI] Gy ‘SAOMOY. OU—GRGET pus ‘uvy 0} ‘af “4}UI0 vol YoT[2} “Sy[VIS LOMOY 9—PRGT 2 49T009 SUMO) G (gq) vqop..2 voyodea yy (Pr) vqops, varyjoda yy (q) vqojynon vorywda py (FP) vqojynon vornda fy WN{DINIDUL WNUYLA /) 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DE aa aa a (aodaezz) Aye A “uUay, (1euig) “elt “AA OF “BD (Av1y) JUQ pue “UU, “OT 0} “AM “BD 0} ‘aNd ‘9 ({[eWIg) “xa, 0} “eT y “A (Aei1g) “Myznos pue ‘uUT;, 0} *3UG ‘Ss ({[eWg) ‘ssI 0} “BD (Avin) ‘ue 0} ‘PIN wor Ng!14SIq uf YeT[P} ‘su94s | ‘SIOMOY OU—/ EGET LOL S212} SSUIYS J ‘SIOMOL OU—9EGT u8 ySaT[2} ‘su9}s g ‘SIMO OU—GEGT vol YS2T[2} ‘SUIS g ‘SIIMOT OU—PRGT : SLOOP INO u8L YS2T[P} “SULIIS OT TOMOY I—LEGT wlS Fee} ‘suIs4s | “IMO T—9E6T wOL YS2T[2} ‘SUIS G ‘SI9MOH Z—E6T woL ySe[[2} ‘suleIs g ‘Samo. E—TE6T : L9[009 ul F227 ysoT[e} “syopee,T 66 ‘SIOMOY F—LEGT wvG FSC} Sava] [][ “SLOMOG. OU—QEGET :S1O0P}NO uG Fe2] yso[Te} “syopeoy, 69 ‘StaMOY OU—LEGT vv }Se][2} ‘Soavay g “‘S1aMOY. OU—OEGT : LIJOOD peep—LE6T u& Jeol }S2T[2} ‘s}ooys F ‘s1aMOY OU—OEGT Sl Jeo JS2][e} ‘s}OoyS F ‘sIgMOY OU—GEGT ull FET YsoT[e} “Stomoy OU—PRGT *S1OOPJNO u&I JB2] YSoT[e} “s}ooys OL ‘Auateoy yue[d ‘saomoy OU—yEET wil FRI] YSOT[e} “syoouS G ‘SAOMOG OU—OEGT ul Jeol }SaT[e} ‘SJOOYS g ‘saMoY OU—GEGT uGL FEI 4S2][2} “LOMO Ul—PEGL =? 12009 “Arenige,, Ul BULUUISIq SUOSPIS SUIMOIS 0} JoJar suvad OJ, SUIMOT YT ONV SHAVA] NI Gdssduax yy] SHUALIND JO NOMIaGNoD sqing 9 sjuryd g¢ SUMOJIO 10 spnq 9 yod aod spied Io syue[g asuapoups wnyvyT wnjousang wnihdosy L0]O9USL9Q SUL] saloqas ponuljyu0j—] IIavy, AD RBS x 4 RENNIAL HE ’ a) ON PI ~ A EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ‘1Q2N 0} “}UQ pue “A “"N peop juerd ‘s1ramoy ou—¢g6T S19]SN[O LIMO G—FPRET 2:S100pjNO SIABIT GIL ‘ysnqor szuetd ‘stamoye S[—LE6T SNOLOSIA Jou syuRTd ‘s1oMoY OU—9EGT Peul1of spoes ‘sdomoy AUPUI—GEg6GT (TTeUIg) *XaL “HY 0} “ey “u (ABin) ‘atynos pue ‘UUTT 0} ‘ON’ *M SIO}SN[D LIMO 9—PEGL 2 49[00D fe prop—cee6r SLOMOY 7% ‘GL YSol[e} “STIS JoMOy E—PEGT *S100p}NO (podoajsop AlT[eyUepIo0e) sao -MOY OU FOG YIMOAS JATI]LJOSIA—GRGI S19 MOP L6G Sahl Yol[e} ‘Sy[TeIS TaMOY 9—PEET (ets) AV 0} “BTV CureTq [eyseOD (Ae1g) ‘Myjnos pue 2. 19[0O) SIOMOLY G ‘SACI G8 JO [&}0} °,,1Z S2][P} ‘S}OOYS FH—SEGT + StoopynO SIIMOY OU ‘SIABIT GOT JO [2}0} “LG FST} “s}OOYS E—8EGT SIIMO]Y OU “S9APIT OLT : 1a[00D JO 1210} *,9T 3SoT[e} ‘sJooYs P—SE6I ?S100PINE SIIMOPT Z SS9ABIT ORT Jo [e}0} *,,6% YS2[2} “S}ooYUS E—RE6T Hn G2) (01 01@) Y}MOAT OU :s1OOPJNG pnq aamoy DAI}AOGL UO FTL} ,,0Z Uleys BU0—9ERGT «8 TIYIO 9y} “YSTY ,,[Z WO ‘suI9}s Z—GE6L YIMOLS OU—PEGL :S100pINO pnq 1Moy PAljLoqe ouo “YSTY 0% W23Ss [—E6l SLIMOLY OU *,6 1ayyO ay} “YSIY ,,E{ WU ‘suIa}s Z—PEGT :LIJOO) (ziny) "8[T “"N OSTy ({[euig) “y1y 0} “ey (Ae1n) ‘uUI, 0} ‘Gq ‘N Hn) (0%) (pueysuy Mon Ul01] ) sjueyd ¢ (PF) vyooupap xojy gq SUMO 9 DOWIhMA DISUA71A J (1reuts) sqing % (q) wngsedns wnyvt (oS.1e]) SQING @ (Q) wngsodns unyvT sqingq Z% (gq) wngsodns wnyrvT sqing % (P) wnqsodns wnyyT 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (Tews) ‘e[q ‘u pue ‘yy 0} ‘uv pure “S "N (Aeing) uoulw0d (aodaivyzy) ‘vpy ‘aque. *M# (J[BWg) “SSI, 0} “BH (Aeiy) *Myznos pue ‘uur 0} “XN (aadiezz) ‘ep oA ‘Ul (T[eug) “xey, 07 “eT (Avi) *MUNOS Pus “UUTIT 0} ‘SU(N ‘AM pue ‘and “M uolNg!z4sIq peop— Leer 1123 ,G “Fe2] [ ‘siomoy OU—HEGT *S:100p}NO ak YS2[C} ‘SaABIT OT ‘Satnsdeo ‘s1amMoy Z—LEGT w8 YS2[2} ‘Seavey 6 ‘19MOTY I—9EGTI peop jueld—g¢ge6r SIABI Hm ) (oley@) JlVMp oyzerjsoid ‘slamOY OU—PRGT ?S100p}NO SIABZ ZI ‘SIOMOY. OU—) EGET SOABI] FZ ‘SLOMOY Z—ORG6I lg]jews yueld ‘s1amoy G—Ge6T SIARIT VSALT ‘SAaMOoy pousdo YOF—FERGEI peop—LE6T He ) (olel@) u0L FSeT[2} ‘S9AvZT E—HEGT ?SLOOPINO uGL YS2T[2} ‘SOAVIT G—LEGT uSL FSOT[V} “SOAVIT F—OKGET peop—Le61 uGL 4SeT[2} “SoAvIT Z—9E6T wGl 4S2T[P} ‘soavol G ‘pazy1oqe ‘1aMoy VUO—)e6T uSL YS2][2} “Soavay OMI—OEGT uuinjne Aq peep sjuR[q ‘Seavey OOL JNoqe ‘1a}snJo JaMOY OU—GE6GT yOoYs sul1aMopy 2uOo ‘S1IMOP g 619}SN[O IaMOY UO—FPRGT ‘uuinjne Aq peap SJUB[I ‘S9ABIT ONL JNoqe ‘sis -moy Aueul ‘sia}sn][o IaMOY [[—Ge6T sjooys SulIaMOy [e19AVs ‘SI9MOP. GQ ‘S1aqSN[O JaMOY OZ—PE6I “Arenige,y Ul Hm) (oler@) ?SLOOP}NO : LJ[OOd) :SLOOPINO HR i) (oLo@) SUIUUIZIQ SUOSBIS BUIMOIS 0} AIJaI sIBdA JLT, SUIMOT, GNV SHAVa’] NI Gassdudx}fT SHYOLTAD dO NOLLIGNO’) penuyu0j—] Fav, SOWIOZIYI 9 SUMOLO g spng ¢ 3SB2] 1V spnq ¢ 3se9] 1V jueyd auo yod sod syieg 10 Sjue[ gq SISuapDUDI DiLOUNbUDYS suvjdas wnwowalog (q) wnqwyad wn hydopog (Pp) wnywoyad wnyjhydopog (eMoy wolz) (q) vyvowvap xojYd saloqdS AT EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON PERENNIAL HERBS (aadiezy) AayeA ‘uuUay, (ews) “y1V 0} ‘ON “UleTq [e}S¥OD (Avy) “uur 0} ‘JA ‘A pue ‘andy ‘m (Trews) (ef 10) “ep (Avin) ‘ey pue ‘uur ‘uO 0} “Mm BS) ‘N 0} °S ‘'N (aodieyzyz) ‘epy ‘aqueo -m (Avi) “SN put "uO | | “jyyeg “XOq, 0} a9) Y{Mols OU—LEGT u8 489 -[[@} ‘syooys gz ‘opnsdeo ‘1amM0y I—9RG6I w& S212} “S}OOUS F—EET YJAOIS OU—PRGT IIMOY T ,,8 YS21[@1 ‘S}OOYS 9—LRGT «6 489 -[[®} ‘syooys g ‘ojnsdeo ‘aaMoy I—96T uG FS2T[2} “Sooys 8—CE6T sjooys Z% ‘poyloqe ‘sIaMoy. Z—PFe6T yyMo1d ou ‘png [—LE6T «8 4S2][2} ‘Soave, Z “JOOUS T—9E6T u¥ Ye][@} ‘Soavo] 8 “JOOYS T—LEGET uOL FS2T[B} ‘Soavay]_g “YooYS [—9E6T YyMo1d Ou ‘png I—LE6T ull 4S9][2} ‘Saavay 9 ‘JooUS T—9E6T uO F2T[2} “Saave] BT “S}OOYS E—LEGT u¥I 4S2][2} “Soave, GT “S}ooYS F—9E6T u6 YS2[V} ‘s}ooySs G ‘s1aMOY. OU—) RET wool FS2 [PF *syooys OL “Faz OU SIOXSN[D 1IaMOY. I—9ERGT a8 S218} ‘S}ooys g “yindy [ ‘“taysnJo JIMOY IT—GEET wG YS2[P4 ‘sjooys p ‘“doysnjo JIaMOY po}10qe [—FEREI a9 3S2T[8} ‘s}ooys 6 ‘s}iINdiy ‘sioysnp> JaMOY 9—LEGT «abl F2[P} ‘sjooys g ‘s}Mij ‘sioysnfo IMO E—9ERGT OL ¥SeTT2} ‘syooys 9 ‘s}INIf GT ‘sdoysnfO JIMOY Z—ERET w¥L 49 -[[#} ‘syooys F ‘s19}SN[o JaMoY Z—PHER6T :S100P}NO *LI[OOD | SYIO}S JOO 9 wuntojfipunib6 wny dL, :SLOOpyNGQ 219009 SUMOLD Z (q) snpya0f sndinoojdwhy :S100p}NgQ 3 LIJOOD SUMOLOD G (Pp) snpiz00f sndivoojduhig :S100P1NG spnq 9 sv] ye QT 2 La[00D sawoziyt DsOWaIDA DULIDVULG) a ey ee a ee NS BS ee ee ee eee 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES PRESENTATION AND COMMENTS ON THE DATA In studying the table it appears reasonable to conclude that since they were run in duplicates Claytonia virginica, Dicentra cucullaria, Erythronium americanum, Hepatica triloba, Iris versicolor, Phlox diwaricata, Podophyllum peltatum, Polemonium reptans, and Symplocarpus foetidus, all require a period of chilling. : ; The data also suggest that Geranium maculatum, Lilium canadense, Mertensia virginica, Sanguinaria canadensis, Smila- cina racemosa, and Trillium grandiflora also demand a period of low temperature. Had these been run in duplicates, we could be more confident. The responses of Anemonella thalictroides, Adiantum peda- - tum, Dodocatheon Meadia, Hepatica acutiloba, Isopyrum biter- niatum, and Lilium superbum, were in terms of rate of growth rather than ultimate growth. In all cases the chilled culture grew and matured earlier than the outdoor mates. In the end, however, there was no Significant difference. It should be noted in passing that getting away to a faster start than their unchilled duplicates was characteristic for all cultures that were chilled. Of general significance is the fact that chilling temperatures seldom as low as 32 degrees Fahrenheit could, when applied for a sustained period, promote growth in plants accustomed to the much lower temperature of the northern winter woods. GRADUAL DECLINE OF UNFROZEN CULTURES In observing Table I the reader will notice that in most cases the unfrozen cultures produced at least some growth the first run and that in some species final disintegration of the unfrozen specimens did not take place until the third year. In this con- nection see the photograph Polemonium reptans. A study of the graphs will reveal similar concrete examples. It appears from this behavior that the chilling of a year suffices to tide certain species over at least one unfavorably warm period. Attention is directed to a statement in the “Preliminary Experiments” sec- tion of this paper where it is shown how waning Jris and Pole- monium plants were stimulated to renewed growth and vigor by emergency low temperature treatment. Another thing to be noted in Table I is the fact that, in a number of cases, even the frozen cultures disintegrated after two or more years. This is probably due to the inability of these wild species to thrive indefinitely in such artificial habitats as potted soils. The fact that the frozen ones still do better than the un- frozen ones is, therefore, still meaningful. EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON PERENNIAL HERBS 49 GENERAL DISCUSSION According to the field observations of R. M. Harper (by letter) Polemonium reptans, Geranium maculatum, Claytonia virginica, Smilacina racemosa, and Erythronium americanum, reach just about their southern limits in the Tuscaloosa latitude. Those same species, it will be noted, did not resume normal growth upon exposure to the winter conditions of Tallahassee, 160 miles nearer the moderating influence of the Gulf. It becomes of in- terest, therefore, what the temperature differences are between the two localities. The tabulated data summarize what appear to be some of the significant differences. (Taken from U. S. weather publications. ) Tasie II. Temperature Recorps Average annual number of days Tallahassee, Fla. Tuscaloosa, Ala. with minimum temperature at Region Region or below freezing. 5-15 (10) 30-60 (40) Average annual number of days with temperature continuously none l- 5 below freezing. Average monthly Tallahassee, Fla. Tuscaloosa, Ala. temperature for: (over pd. of 32 yrs.) (over a 4 43 yrs.) Difference Weeenber ....... Rott 8 DU OG easieta soil stv AsO Sorel onsiera rare aw tes 7.5 LU 6 oe iS Hero soe to Goo ao Oe ae sot jog agdsKoa as 5.9 J 2. Mi re DRO RS Bris ede oie eo ee MGS reais ccisidpe mis at 8.5 Average minimum temperature for: _ SiC ee AACR a ten B00 avstous tenet ofeten rs SE ere ae er ne 9.4 DLS eS AD ONS eine cee aes Go Jet cies Benoa a Ola cere a9 ELS BA Ra cdaceF anise eevee FL] Oa re age ee 9.7 Which of these differences in temperature conditions or rela- tions are the most important it is not possible to state. However, it should be pointed out that Coville (29) found that tempera- tures as high as 35 to 40 Fahrenheit for a period of two months were low enough to bring about germination of Cornus cana- densis seeds. Coville expressed the opinion eighteen years ago that chilling “appears to be a critical factor in determining how far such plants (trees and shrubs) may go into the extension of their geographic distribution toward the tropics.” Nichols, already quoted, points out that winter refrigeration of seeds of native plants may be an important factor in determining plant distribu- tion. The responses of the perennial herbs discussed in the pres- ent paper lead to a similar conclusion. The behavior of the writer’s perennial herbs seems to warrant a similar reasoning and to lead to the following assertions: To speak only of “frost resistance,” “hardiness,” and “low temperature endurance” gives 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a one-sided picture of the temperature relations in the distribu- tion of native plants. Many species are certainly restricted in their northward extension because of low temperature. State- ments to that effect are surely true. But it is equally true that a number of, if not many, species are barred from extreme southern — distribution, because they cannot forego such a periodic spell of low temperature. Coville has also pointed out “that chilling of dormant trees and shrubs of temperate climates as a prerequisite to their resumption of normal growth in spring ought to be rec- | ognized in books on plant physiology as one of the normal processes in plant life.’ The writer is fully in accord with that observation. Unfortunately Coville’s lament has to this day brought little response. It does seem that the contribution made on low temperature requirements fully warrant, if not demand, at least some consideration in modern texts of general botany, ecology, and plant geography, if for no other reason than to stimu- late more research in this highly interesting field. An examination of the distributional column will disclose the fact that the manuals credit Florida with Symplocarpus foetidus and Hrythronium americanum. Theoretically, at least, Symplo- carpus and Erythronium could likewise be represented in Florida by physiological or geographical species. It is a curious fact that up to the present, Dr. R. M. Harper (one who has explored Flori- da and the whole Southeast, for that matter), and the writer have never seen these species in Florida. Quite naturally the writer wondered if refrigeration experiments would possibly help to establish the fact that these species could not grow in Florida be- cause of freezing requirements. However, Sanguinaria, Podo- phyllum, and Phlox divaricata may be represented by physiolog- ical species that do not require chilling; no corroboration, how- ever, is produced from the reactions of the latter three species. Physiological or Ecological Species Anemonella thalictroides, Isopyrum biternatum, and Lilium superbum are both found locally in north Florida. So the fact that the frozen and unfrozen cultures from New England showed no significantly total amount of growth at the end of the growing season even though they started and bloomed appreciably earlier was not surprising unless one noticed that the Sanguinaria cana- densis, Phlox divaricata,| and Podophyllum peltatum obtained from the North but which are also local did definitely require or benefit from freezing. The reactions of the latter three species suggest a differentiation of physiological species; the northern *According to Wherry (’30) the Iowa specimen which was collected in Benton County is probably Phlox divaricata laphami; this variety extends to the north- western part of Florida. The New England specimen according to the same authority would probably be Phlow divaricata canadensis. Both varieties it will be observed benefited by chilling. EFFECT OF COLD STORAGE ON PERENNIAL HERBS 51 forms requiring a chilling period and the southern forms not. But the writer is not quite ready to conclude. He awaits more data. This fact presents a number of questions: Did the northern forms by long residence in a rigorous climate come to require a chilling period as Coville (719) suggests in connection with his work? Did the southern forms because of a long sojourn in a milder climate lose this freezing prerequisite? And still other questions arise. To all these the writer has at present no definite reply. AWAITING SOLUTION The following are some questions that still await answers: (1) What other perennial herbs require refrigeration? (2) Are there really any or more geographical or physiological species? (3) Is the length or intensity of the freezing period in any species directly related to or proportional to the northward or south- ward distribution of the species? (4) That is, will Minnesota rep- resentatives of a species require more freezing (lower or longer) than Tennessee individuals? (5) Will the latter require more chilling than the Florida forms? (6) Will northern species estab- lished in Florida benefit from freezing? (7) How does the effect of a long period of freezing (a long continuous dose) compare with shorter, more frequent periods of chilling (frequent, short doses) ? (8) What will happen if the cooled culture of one year is sep- arated into two halved cultures, and half designated for artificial cooling and the other half for outdoor Tallahassee temperatures? (9) Will earlier (August and September) chilling induce earlier growth and response? (10) What would be the effect of a period of consistently freezing or even lower temperature on those that responded to chilling as well as those which responded very little? The writer has experiments in progress which should shed some light on most of these questions. SUMMARY 1. The perenniating parts of twenty-one American native herbs were chilled at temperatures ranging most of the time around 40 degrees Fahrenheit for periods of eight to eleven weeks for four consecutive seasons. Twenty potted duplicates were at the same time subjected to winter exposure of the Tallahassee, Florida, climate. Nine of these gave definite evidence that a period of refrigeration is a necessary and beneficial antecedent to their normal growth and development. 2. Sanguinaria canadensis, Phlox divaricata, and Podophyl- lum peltatum secured from New England required a preliminary chilling period in order to resume normal growth after dormancy, despite the fact that the species are also native in northern Flor- 52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ida. This behavior suggests a development of physiological or geographical species within the species. On the other hand, Anemonella thalictroides, Isopyrum biternatum, and Lilium su- perbum in the same category as to northern and southern distri- bution responded indifferentely and inconsistently to artificial. chilling. ». It is concluded that, while the inability of certain species to endure freezing temperature may restrict their northward exten- sion, there are other species whose southward extension is re- stricted, because they require a chilling period before normal growth will follow dormancy. 4. Students of plant distribution and texts dealing with eco- logical or distributional relations of plants should give attention to low temperature requirement as well as to low temperature endurance. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer is greatly indebted to the Middle Florida Ice Company, Talla- hassee, for donating their refrigeration service. To H. H. Hume, Assistant Director of Research at the Florida Experiment station the author is indebted for cooperation in securing references. LITERATURE CITED Covittz, F. V. The Effect of Cold in Stimulating the Growth of Plants. Jour. Agr. Res. 20: 151-160. 1920, Covit1e, F. V. The Influence of Cold in Stimulating the Growth of Plants. Ann. Report Smith. Inst., 281-291. 1919. Gray, Asa. New Manual of Botany. Seventh Edition. 1908. Harvey, R. B. An Annotated Bibliography of the Low Temperature Relations of Plants. University of Minnesota. 1-240. 1936. Kincer, J. B. Temperature, Sunshine and Win. U. S. Dept. Agr. Atlas of American Agriculture. Advance Sheet No. 7. 1-84. 1928. Nicnots, G. E. The Influence of Exposure to Winter Temperatures Upon Seed Germination in Various Native American Plants. Ecology 15:364-373. Smatz, J. K. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. 1-1554. 3rd. Edition. 1933. Wuerry, E. T. The Eastern Short-style Phloxes. Bartonia No. 12. 25-53. 1930. Wuerry, E. T. Fern Field Notes, 1936. Am. Fern Journal 26: No. 4. 127-131. 1936. CHECK LIST OF NATIVE AND NATURALIZED TREES IN FLORIDA LILLIAN E. ARNOLD University of Florida BEFORE LISTING the trees of Florida, it becomes necessary to de- fine a “tree.” The line of demarcation between a “tree” and a “shrub” is, after all, an arbitrary matter. There is no better rule for separating the two than that contained in the discussion of CHECK LIST OF TREES IN FLORIDA 53 their similarities and differences by Sudworth, who states, “Dif- ference of opinion regarding this question has increased or de- ereased the number of recorded aborescent species. Judgment as to when a plant is to be called a tree and when a shrub appears to be based chiefly on the size, height and diameter attained. The general rule in defining a tree includes woody plants having one well-defined stem and a more or less definitely formed crown, and attaining a height of at least eight feet and a diameter of not less than two inches. Most truly arborescent plants produce a single erect or ascending trunk. Some species of trees, how- eyer, have the habit of producing several trunks from the same root. Examples of this type of growth are to be found among the willows, some of which, on account of their large size, obvi- ously are properly classed as trees.” It should be borne in mind, also, that there are many plants usually shrubby of nature, that occasionally become trees in some part of their range, even though it is outside our State. All such plants have been included in this compilation. Further and more technically, woody plants may be said to differ from herbaceous in being (1) perennial and possessing (2) vascular or specialized conducting tissue, (5) a trunk, (4) lignification and (5) secondary thickening. These must be taken all together, as no one condition is true solely of a tree. However, these conditions do not need to be discussed in a publication of a popular nature. With these differences in mind, 513 species are here included in the check list of native trees, together with 53 trees known to have become naturalized in the state. The latter list is incomplete. ORIGIN OF THE FLORA OF THE STATE Three elements of flora meet in Florida. To account for their presence it is of interest to set forth briefly the geological history of the region as it is now understood. Schuchert has shown that as late as Upper Eocene times the whole of what is now the State of Florida was submerged. During the Oligocene period an island emerged which occupied a territory that included all of what is now central Florida and extended beyond the present coast lines on the east and west. Warm ocean currents flowed north of this island, the flora of which must have been wholly tropical and similar to that of the West Indies today. During the Miocene period, the eastern and western coast of this island sank slowly, while the northern half of the peninsular was elevated at the same time, thus connecting the island with the mainland. During Pleistocene times, the southern quarter of the peninsula and the keys emerged. During these ages successive glacial drifts sent periods of cold climate southward. Many plants commonly re- garded as peculiar to more northerly sections of the United States 54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES were carried by flood waters into what is now known as Florida and, having become adjusted and established, became an integral part of the present flora. Therefore it may be concluded that certain plants native to the central portion of the peninsula are the original settlers - among Florida’s flora. Those more tropical plants that could not withstand the: advent of a colder climate were destroyed in the northern parts of the state and they remain today only in the southern portions of the peninsula where they constitute a trop- ical element of the flora related to and in some instances identical with the Antillean. In addition certain plants of the West Indian flora have become established in this region through the agencies of birds, wind and water. Glacial periods have been a factor in the establishment of a northern floral element in the northwestern parts of the state. The margins of the area in which these groups of plants are found are not clearly defined, but rather they merge into one another. Factors INFLUENCING THE FLORA CLIMATE The climate of Florida is insular and the immediate and chief factors of climatic control are (a) latitude, (b) elevation above sea-level and (c) proximity to large bodies of water, and (d) the presence of the Gulf Stream along the eastern coast. Latitude: The State of Florida lies between latitudes 24° 32’ and 31° N. and longitudes 79° 48’ and 87° 38’ W. It is over 427 miles in length along the 82° meridian and 382 miles wide along the 30° 10’ parallel. This geographical location and exten- sion, favors long summers and offers generous scope for a diversi- fied flora. According to Merriam, the greater part of the State lies in the Lower Austral Life Zone, with the most southern part in the Tropical Belt. Elevation: Since only small areas here and there in the state are above 300 feet elevation, variations in altitude have little effect on the general distribution of plants. However, topography, different soil tvpes and availability of water produce different and distinct ecological conditions, which greatly influence the char- acter of local flora. Plants of the well-drained central ridge sec- tion differ from those growing along the larger streams and the dune flora of the coast portrays the effects of another set. of ecological environments. Since Florida is a region of comparatively slight relief, the source of underground water is mainly the local rainfall, which accumulates in various small basins of the subsoil. There are a number of springs from which water pours in enormous volumes, giving support to a typical flora on the banks of the streams they form, as well as within the streams themselves. Again, there is CHECK LIST OF TREES IN FLORIDA 55 a vast swampy limestone underlain plain of nearly 5000 square miles, known as the Everglades, which slopes gently southward. Out of this area arise islands, commonly known as keys, clothed with a dense growth of hardwoods among which various represen- tatives of tropical trees and other plants are found. Proximity to Water: The peninsula lies between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. The presence of these large bodies of water, as well as the presence of thousands of lakes, has a beneficent effect upon the vegetation of the State, in that the evaporation from them prevents the occurrence of frost in some instances or minimizes the effects of it in a measure in others. The effect of the inland bodies of water, however, is mainly local. TEMPERATURE A difference of 4° in latitude—as from Jacksonville to Miami —gives about a six-degree change in temperature. The average seasonal temperatures for the State are: Summer, 80.8; autumn, 72.5; winter, 59.5; and spring, 70.4. From data collected from 1892 to 1927, it has been established that the mean temperature for the entire State has been 70.9° F. PRECIPITATION The Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean are the chief sources of supply of Florida’s precipitation. The State is so sit- uated geographically as to justify the expectation of generous rainfall, over half of which falls in the daytime in the four warm- est months. Ali districts of the State have received annual amounts in excess of 80 inches, the marked excesses being more frequent in coastal districts than in the interior. The data col- lected from 1892 to 1927 give 52.29 inches as the average annual rainfall for that period. | It is, therefore, noted that the geographical location of the State of Florida is the controlling factor of a set of climatological conditions that are all conducive to an abundant flora in which large numbers of trees are represented. The following check list contains the botanical and common names and family of 318 species of trees native to Florida, of which 15 are cone-bearing and 11 are palm or palm-like. In com- piling this list, the synonymy and range records reviewed may be found under the heading of references. The nomenclature follows that used by J. K. Small in Manual of Southeastern Flora. The check list of the naturalized trees of the State contains the same data as the preceding one, but our information on the number of naturalized trees is still incomplete pending a more. 56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES thorough survey of the State. The nomenclature follows that used by L. H. Bailey in Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. REFERENCES 1 Bailey, L. H. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 3639 pp. MacMillan. New York. 1928. 2 Brown, H..P. Trees of New York State Native and Naturalized. N. Y.— State College of Forestry (Tech. Pub. 15) 21 (No. 5) : 11-406. 1921. 3 Coker, W. C. and H. L. Totten. Trees of the Southeastern States. 382 pp. Univ. of N. C. Press. Chapel Hill. 1934. | 4 Curtis, A. H. Florida: A Pamphlet Descriptive of its History, Topogra- phy, Climate, Soil. Resources and Natural Advantages, in General and by Counties. Prepared in the Interest of Immigration by the Department of Agriculture, B. E. McLin, Commissioner: 264-267. 1904. 5 Gifford, John C. 6 Hough, Romeyn G. American Woods. Author. Lowville, N. Y. 1910. 3rd ed. 7 Mattoon, W. R. Common Forest Trees of Florida—How to Know Them. 98 pp. Florida Forestry Assoc. Jacksonville. Rev. 1930. 8 —————. Forest Trees and Forest Regions of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Mise. Publ. 217; 1-54. 1936. 9 Merriam, C. Hart. Life Zones and Crop Zones in the United States. 79 pp. 1898. 10 Mitchell, A. J. and M. R. Ensign. The Climate of Florida. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 200: 95-299. 1928. 11 Mowry, Harold. Ornamental Trees. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 261: 5-134. 1933. 12 Sargent, C. P. Silva of North America. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1895. 13 —————. Manual of the Trees of North America. 910 pp. Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Boston. 1922. 14 Schuchert, Charles. Historical Geology of the Antillean-Caribbean Region. 768 pp. John Wiley & Sons. New York. 1935. 15 Small, J. K. Florida Trees. 107 pp. Author. New York. 1913. 16 —————.. Manual of the Southeastern Flora, 1554 pp. Author. New York. 1933. 17 Sudworth, George B. Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Cire. 92: 1-295. 1927, CHECK List or Native TREES oF FLORIDA Botanical Name Common Name PIN ACEAE Pinus taeda L. loblolly pine Pinus serotina Michx. pond pine Pinus clausa (Engelm.) Vasey sand pine Pinus echinata Miller short leaf pine Pinus glabra Walt. spruce pine Pinus australis Michx. f. (P. palustris Mill.) long-leaf pine Pinus caribaea Morelet Caribbean pine Pinus palustris Mill. (P. Elliottii Engelm.) swamp-pine J UNIPERACEAE Taxodium distichum (L.) L. C. Richard southern cypress Tavodium ascendens Brongniart pond cypress Chamaecy paris thyoides (L.) B.S. P. white cedar Sabina silicicola Small (S. barbadensis (L.) Small) southern red cedar CHECK LIST OF TREES IN FLORIDA 57 Botanical Name Common Name TAXACEAE Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene stinking cedar Taxus floridana Nutt. Florida yew ARECACEAE Pseudophoenix vinifera (Mart.) Bece. (P. Sargentiti H. Wendl.) Sargent’s palm Roystonea regia (H. B. K.) O. F. Cook royal palm Sabal Palmetto (Walt.) Todd. cabbage palm Sabal Jamesiana Small Thrinax parviflora Sw. (T. floridana Sarg.) Florida thatch-palm Thrinax microcarpa Sarg. brittle-thatch Coccothrinax argentea (Lodd.) Sarg. (C. jucunda Sarg.) silver palm Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small. (S. serrulata (Michx.) Hook.) saw-palmetto Paurotis Wrightii (Griseb.) Britton. (Serenoa arborescens Sarg.) saw-cabbage-palm DRACAENACEAE Yucca gloriosa L. Spanish bayonet Yucca aloifolia L. Spanish dagger J UGLANDACEAE Wallia nigra (L.) Alef. (Juglans nigra L.) black walnut Hicoria aquatica (Michx. f.) Britt. water-hickory Hicoria cordiformis (Wang.) Britton swamp-hickory Hicoria alba (L.) Britt. white mocker-nut Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britt. shag-bark hickory Hicoria austrina Small Hicoria pallida Ashe pale hickory Hicoria floridana (Sarg.) Small scrub-hickory Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton pig-nut LEITNERIACEAE Leitneria floridana Chapm. corkwood MyYricacEAE Cerothamnus ceriferus (L.) Small. (Morella cerifera (L.) Smail) wax-myrtle Cerothamnus inodorus (Bart.) Small. (Morella inodora (Bartr.) Small) odorless wax-myrtle SALICACEAE Populus balsamifera L. (P. deltoides Marsh.) cotton wood Populus heterophylla L. swamp-cottonwood Salix nigra Marsh black-willow Salix marginata Wimm. gulf-willow Salix amphiba Small Sahx longipes Anders black willow Salix Chapmanii Small : CorYLACEAE Carpinus caroliniana Walt. hornbeam Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Willd hop-hornbeam BETULACEAE Betula nigra L. river-birch Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Spreng. smooth alder FAGACEAE Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. (F. Americana Sweet) beech Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. chinquapin 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Botanical Name Castanea Ashei Sudw. Castanea floridana (Sarg.) Ashe Quercus alba L. Quercus stellata Wang. (Q. minor (Marsh.) Sarg.) Quercus Margaretta Ashe Quercus lyrata Walt. Quercus Prinus L. (Q. Michauxii Nutt.) Quercus Muhlenbergu Engelm. (Q. acuminata (Michx.) Honda) Quercus austrina Small Quercus geminata Small Quercus virginiana Mill. Quercus Chapmanii Sarg. Quercus Rolfsti Small Quercus myrtifolia Willd. Quercus nigra L. (Q. aquatica Walt.) Quercus laurifolia Michx. Quercus Phellos L. Quercus obtusa (Willd.) Pursh. (Michx.) Small Quercus cinerea Michx. Quercus maxima (Marsh.) Ashe. (Q. rubra Du- Roi ; Needs Shumardiu Buckl. Quercus laevis Walt. (Q. Catesbaei Michx.) Quercus Marylandica Muench. Quercus arkansana Sarg. .Quercus velutina Lam. Quercus rubra L. Quercus Pagoda Raf. (Q. pagodaefolia (Ell.) Ashe) (Q. hybrida ARTOCARPACEAE Morus rubra L. Ficus aurea Nutt. Ficus brevifolia Nutt. (F. populnea Willd.) ULMACEAE Ulmus alata Michx. Ulmus floridana Chapm. Ulmus americana L. Ulmus fulva Michx. Planera aquatica (Walt.) J. F. Gmel. Celtis georgiana Small Celtis mississippiensis Bosc. Celtis smallii Beadle Trema floridana Britton Trema Lamarckiana (R. & S.) Blume POLYGONACEAE Coccolobis uvifera (L.) Jacq. Coccolobis laurifolia Jacq. PIsONIACEAE Pisonia rotundata Griseb. Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl.) Britton (Pisonia obtusata (Chapm. FI.) Torrubia Bracei Britton Torrubia globosa Small Common Name chinquapin chinquapin white-oak post-oak small post-oak overcup-oak cow-oak chinquapin-oak bastard white oak twin live-oak live-oak Chapman’s-oak Rolfs’-oak myrtle-oak water-oak laurel-oak willow-oak blue jack-oak red-oak leopard-oak turkey-oak black-jack black-oak red-oak - spanish-oak red-mulberry strangler fig wild fig winged elm Florida elm common elm slippery elm water-elm georgia-hackberry sugarberry Small’s hackberry Florida trema West Indian trema sea-grape pigeon plum pisonia blolly blolly CHECK LIST OF TREES IN FLORIDA 59 Botanical Name ANNONACEAE Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal Annona glabra L. MAGNOLIACEAE Magnolia grandiflora L. (M. foetida (L.) Sarg.) Magnolia virginiana L. Magnolia pyramidata Pursh Magnolia macrophylla Michx. Magnolia Ashei Weatherby Illicium floridana Ellis Liriodendron Tulipifera L. CAPPARIDACEAE Capparis flexuosa L. (C. cynophallophora L. 1759) Capparis cynophallophora L. (C. jamaicensis Jacq.) HaAMAMELIDACEAE Hamamelis virginiana L. ALTINGACEAE Liquidambar Styraciflua L. PLATANACEAE Platanus occidentalis L. MatackEakE Malus angustifolia ( Ait.) Michx. Malus bracteata Rehder Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. Crataegus Crus-galli L. Crataegus aestivalis (Walt.) T. & G. Crataegus maloides Sarg. Crataegus luculenta Sarg. Crataegus viridis L. Crataegus flava Ait. Crataegus Michauwii Pers. Crataegus floridana Sarg. Crataegus spathulata Michx. Crataegus Marshall Eggleston (C. aptifolia Michx.) Crataegus uniflora Muench. Crataegus lacrimata Small AMYGDALACEAE Chrysobalanus Icaco L. Chrysobalanus interior Small (C. pellocarpus. (FL. SE. U.S. not Mey.) Prunus americana Marsh. Prunus umbellata Ell. Prunus angustifolia Marsh. Padus virginiana (L.) Mill. (P. serotina (Ehrh.) Agardh.) Padus Cuthbertii Small Laurocerasus myrtifolia (L.) Britton (L. sphaerocarpa (Sw.) Roem.) Laurocerasus caroliniana (Mill.) Roem. Common Name pawpaw custard-apple magnolia sweet-bay mountain magnolia great-leaf magnolia bushy magnolia Florida anise tulip-tree bay-leaved caper-tree Jamaica caper-tree witch-hazel sweet-gum sycamore crab-apple crab-apple serviceberry may-haw shining haw summer-haw Florida haw parsley-haw single-flowered haw cocoa-plum Everglade cocoa-plum wild-plum sloe chickasaw plum wild black-cherry West-Indian cherry cherry laurel 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Botanical Name MIMOSACEAE Pithecolobium Unguis-Cati (L.) Benth. Pithecolobium guadelupense Chapm. Lysiloma bahamensis Benth. (L. latisiliqua Chapm.) Vachellia Farnesiana (L) Wight & Arn. Leucaena glauca (L.) Benth, e CASSIACEAE Cercis canadensis L. Gleditsia aquatica Marsh. Gleditsia triacanthos L. FABACEAE Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) A.S. Hitch. Andira jamaicensis (W. Wright) Urban Erythrina arborea (Chapm.) Small ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Guaiacum sanctum L. MALPIGHIACEAE Brysonima cuneata (Turez.) P. Wilson (B. lucida (Sw.) DC) RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum Fagara (L.) Sarg. (Z. Pterota H.B.K.) Zanthoxyium flavum Vahl. (Z. caribaeum Lam.) Zanthoxylum Clava-Herculis L. Zanthoxylum coriacewm Rich. Ptelea trifoliata L. Amyris elemifera L. Amyris balsamifera L. SuRIANACEAE Suriana maritima L. SIM AROUBACEAE Simarouba glauca DC Picramnia pentandra Sw. Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm. BURSERACEAE Elaphrium Simaruba (L.) Rose. (Bursera Simaruta L.) MELIACEAE Swietenia Mahagoni Jacq. EUPHORBIACEAE Savia bahamensis Britton Drypetes lateriflora (Sw.) Krug. & Urban. Drypetes diversifolia Krug. & Urban (D. keyensis Krug & Urban) Gymnanthes lucida Sw. Hippomane Mancinella L. SPONDIACEAE Metopium toxiferum (L.) Krug. & Urban. (M. Metopium (L.) Small) Towxicodendron Vernix (L.) Kuntze. (Rhus vernix L.) Common Name eat’s-claw black-bead wild tamarind opopanax lead-tree red-bud water-locust honey-locust Jamaica-dogwood red cardinal lignum-vitae locust-berry wild-lime yellow-wood toothache-tree Hercule’s-club hop-tree torch-wood balsam-torchwood bay-cedar paradise-tree bitter-bush alvaradoa gumbo-limbo mahogany maiden-bush guiana-plum whitewood crab-wood manchineel poisonwood thunderwood CHECK LIST OF TREES IN FLORIDA 61 Botanical Name Rhus glabra L. (Schmaltzia glabra (L.) Small) Rhus copallinum L. (Schmaltzia copallina (L.) Small) Rhus leucantha Jacq. CyrILLACEAE Cyrilla racemiflora L. Cyrilla arida Small Cliftonia monophylla (Lam.) Sarg. AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex Krugiana Loesener Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray Ilex longipes Chapm. Ilex Curtissii (Fernald) Small. (J. decidua Curtissii Fernald) Tlex Cuthbertii Small Ilex decidua Walt. Tlex Buswelliti Small Ilex ambigua (Michx.) Chapm. (J. caroliniana (Walt.) Trelease) Ilex myrtifolia Walt. Ilex Cassine L. Ilex vomitoria Ait. Ilex cumulicola Small. (I. arenicola Ashe) Ilex opaca Ait. CELASTRACEAE Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Maytenus phyllanthoides Benth. Rhacoma Crossopetalum L. (Crossopetalum austrina Gardner) Gyminda latifolia (Sw.) Urban Schaefferia frutescens Jacq. DopoN AEACEAE Dodonaea microcarya Small AESCULACEAE Aesculus Pavia L. ACERACEAE Saccharodendron floridanum (Chapm.) Nieuwl. Argentacer saccharinum (L.) Small. (Acer dasycarpum Ebrh.) Rufacer rubrum (L.) Small. (Acer rubrum L.) Rufacer carolinianum (Walt.) Small Rufacer Drummondii (Hook. & Arn.) Small. (Acer Drummondii Hook. & Arn.) Negundo Negundo (L.) Karst. (Rulac negundo (L.) A. S. Hitchcock) SAPINDACEAE Sapindus Saponaria L. Sapindus marginatus Willd. Talisia pedicellaris Radlk. Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk. Hypelate trifoliata Sw. Cupania glabra Sw. Common Name red sumac dwarf sumac southern sumac leatherwood titi Krug’s-holly deciduous holly yaupon dahoon cassena American holly burning-bush false-boxwood boxwood varnish-leaf red-buckeye Florida-maple silver-maple red-maple carolina-maple red-maple box-elder soap-berry soap-berry inkwood white-ironwood 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Botanical Name FRANGULACEAE Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl) Urban. (Rhamnidium ferreum (Vahl) Sarg.) Reynosia septentrionalis Urban. (R. latifolia Griseb.) Rhamunus caroliniana Walt, Colubrina reclinata (L’Her.) Brongn. Colubrina Colubrina (Jacq.) Millsp. Colubrina cubensis (Jacq.) Brongon. TILIACEAE Tilia porracea Ashe Tilia georgiana Sarg. Tilia heterophylla Vent. Tilia eburnea Ashe Tilia lasioclada Sarg. Tilia floridana Small MALVACEAE Pariti tiliaceum (L.) St. Hil. Pariti grande Britton Gossypium hirsutum L. CANELLACEAE Canella Winteriana (L.) Gaertn. CLUSIACEAE Clusia flava Jacq. Clusia rosea L. TTHEACEAE Gordonia Lasianthus (L.) Ellis LAURACEAE Tamala Borbonia (1L.) Raf. Tamala littoralis Small Tamala humilis (Nash) Small Tamala pubescens (Pursh.) Small Nectandra coriacea (Sw.) Griseb. (Ocotea Catesbyana (Michx.) Sarg.) Sassafras Sassafras (L.) Karst. Misanteca triandra (Sw.) Mez. MELASTOMACEAE Tetrazygia bicolor (Mill.) Cogn. TERMINALIACEAE Conocarpus erecta L. Bucida Buceras L. Laguncularia racemosa Gaertn. MyrTAcEAE Eugenia buxifolia (Sw.) Willd. Eugenia azillaris (Sw.) Willd. Eugenia anthera Small Eugenia rhombea (Berg.) Urban Eugenia confusa DC. Anamomis simpsonii Small Anamomis dicrana (Berg) Britton. (A. dichotoma—F L. SE. U.S.) Mosiera longipes (Berg.) Small. (Eugenia longipes Berg.) Common Name black-ironwood red-ironwood Indian-cherry naked-wood wild-coffee mahoe mahoe wild-cotton wild cinnamon loblolly bay red-bay shore-bay silk-bay swamp-bay lance-wood sassafras misanteca tetrazy gia huttonwood black-olive white-mangrove Spanish-stopper white-stopper red-stopper ironwood CHECK LIST OF TREES IN FLORIDA Botanical Name Mosiera bahamensis (Kiaersk.) Small. (Bugenia bahamensis Kiaersk.) Calyptranthes pallens (Poir.) Griseb. (Chytraculia chytraculia—FL. SE. U.S.) Calyptranthes Zuzygium (L.) Sw. (Chytraculia zuzygium (L.) Kuntze) RHIZOPHORACEAE Rhizophora Mangle L. NyYssACEAE Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. Nyssa biflora Walt. Nyssa ursina Small Nyssa Ogeche Marsh. Nyssa aquatica L. Svida alternifolia (L.f.) Small Svida stricta (Lam.) Small Cynoxylon floridum (L.) Raf. HEDERACEAE Aralia spinosa L. ERICACEAE Kalmia latifolia L. Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC Xolisma ferruginea (Walt.) Heller V ACCINIACEAE Batodendron arboreum (Marsh.) Nutt. 'T HEOPHRASTACEAE Jacquinia keyensis Mez. ARDISIACEAE Rapanea guayanensis Aubl. Icacorea paniculata (Nutt.) Sudw. EBENACEAE Diospyros virginiana L. Diospyros Mosieri Small SAPOTACEAE Chrysophyllum olwaeforme L. (C. monopyrenum Sw.) Sideroxylon foetidissimum Jacq. (S. mastichodendron Jacq.) Dipholis salicifolia (L.) A. DC Bumelia angustifolia Nutt. Bumelia lycioides (L.) Gaertn. Bumelia lanuginosa (Michx.) Pers. Bumelia tenax (L.) Willd. Mimusops emarginata (L.) Britton. (M. Siebert A. DC.) SYMPLOCACEAE Symplocos tinctoria (L.) L’Her. STYRACACEAE Halesia carolina L. (Mohrodendron carolinum (L.) Brit.) Halesia parviflora Michx. (Mohrodendron parviflorum (Michx.) Brit.) Halesia diptera Ellis. (Mohrodendron dipterum (Ellis) Brit.) Styrax grandifolia Ait. Common Name spicewood myrtle-of-the-river red-mangrove black-gum bear-gum Ogeche-lime tupelo-gum umbrella-cornel flowering dogwood prickly ash mountain laurel sourwood staggerbush sparkleberry joe-wood myrsine marlberry persimmon persimmon satinleaf mastic bustic saffron-plum buckthorn gum-elastic tough-buckthorn wild-sapodilla sweetleaf wild-olive tree snowdrop-tree storax 63 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Botanical Name OLEACEAE Frazinus pauciflora Nutt. Fraxinus caroliniana Mill. Fraxinus Smallii Britton Fraxinus americana L. Forestiera acuminata (Michx.) Poir. (Adelia acuminata Michx.) Forestiera pérulosa (Michx.) Poir. (Adelia segregata (Jacq.) Small) Chionanthus virginica L. Amarolea megacarpa Small. (Osmanthus megacarpa Small) Amarolea americana (L.) Small. (Osmanthus americana (L.) B. & H.) Osmanthus floridana Chapm. SoLANACEAE Solanum verbascifolium L. E/HRETIACEAE Sebesten Sebestena (L.) Britton. (Cordia Sebestena L.) Bourreria revoluta H.B.K. (B. Radula—FL. SE. U.S.) Bourreria ovata Miers. (B. havanensis— FL. SE. U.S.) VERBENACEAE Citharexylum fruticosum L. (C. villosum Jacq.) Duranta repens L. AVICENNIACEAE Avicennia nitida Jacq. BIGNONIACEAE Enallagma latifolia (Mill.) Small. (Crescentia ovata—FL. SE. U.S.) OLACACEAE Schoepfia chrysophylloides (A. Rich.) Planch. (S. Schreberi—FL. SE. US.) Ximenia americana L. RUBIACEAE Pinckneya pubens Michx. Exostema caribaeum (Jacq.) R. & S. Casasia clustifolia (Jacq.) Urban. (Genipa clusiifolia Jacq.) Hamelia patens Jacq. Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Guettarda elliptica Sw. Guettarda scabra Vent. Psychotria nervosa Sw. Psychotria bahamensis Millsp. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Sambucus Simpsonii Rehder (S. intermedia—FL. SE. U.S.) Viburnum rufidulum Raf. (V. rufotomentosum Small) Viburnum obovatum Walt. Viburnum Nashii Small Common Name swamp-ash water-ash white-ash forestiera Florida privet fringe-tree wild olive potato-tree geiger-tree rough-strongback strongback fiddlewood golden-dewdrop black-mangrove black-calabash whitewood tallow-wood fever-tree princewood seven-year-apple hamelia buttonbush velvet-seed rough velvet-seed wild coffee Bahaman wild-coffee gulf-elder southern black-haw small-viburnum Nash’s viburnum CHECK LIST OF TREES IN FLORIDA 65 Botanical Name CARDUACEAE Baccharis halimifolia L. Baccharis glomeruliflora Pers. Common Name groundsel-tree CHECK LIST OF THE NATURALIZED TREES OF FLORIDA J UNIPERACEAE Biota orientalis (L.) Endl. (Thuja orientalis L.) ARECACEAE Cocos nucifera L. Phoenix dactylifera L. CASUARINACEAE Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. J UGLANDACEAE Hicoria Pecan (Marsh.) Britton ARTOCARPACEAE Morus nigra L. Morus alba L. Papyrius papyrifera (L.) Kuntze. (Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent. Toxylon pomiferum Raf. (Maclura aurantiaca Nutt.) Ficus Carica L. ANNONACEAE Annona squamosa L. MortNGAcEAE Moringa Moringa (L.) Millsp. MALACEAE Pyrus communis L. AMYGDALACEAE Amygdalus Persica L. MIMosaAcEAE A lbizzia Julibrissin (Willd.) Durazz. A lbizzia Lebbek (Wiild.) Benth. CASSIACEAE Parkinsonia aculeata L. Delonix regia (Boj.) Raf. Poinciana pulcherrima L, Tamarindus indica L. FABACEAE Robinia Pseudo-Acacia L. Daubentonia punicea (Cav.) DC. (Sesbania punicea Benth.) Micropteryx Crista-galli (L.) Walp. (Erythrina Crista-galli L.) RUTACEAE Glycosmis citrifolia (Willd.) Lindl. Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. Citrus Aurantium L. Citrus sinensis Osbeck Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Citrus Limonum (L.) Risso Citrus Medica L. Chinese-arborvitae coconut date palm beefwood pecan black-mulberry white-mulberry paper-mulberry osage-orange common fig sweet-sop horseradish-tree pear peach julibrissin woman’s-tongue Jerusalem-thorn royal-ponciana dwarf-ponciana tamarind black-locust purple sesban glycosmis trifoliate-orange bitter-sweet orange sweet-orange lime lemon citron 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Botanical Name SIMAROUBACEAE Ailanthus altissima Swingle. Desf.) MELIACEAE Melia Azedarach L. E,\UPHORBIACEAE:s Triadica sebifera (L.) Small. (Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb.) Sapium glandulosum (L.) Morong. Ricinus communis L. SPONDIACEAE Mangifera indica L. MALVACEAE Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. BuETTNERIACEAE Firmiana platanifolia (L.) R. Br. (Sterculia platanifolia L. PROTACEAE Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. LAURACEAE Camphora Camphora (L.) Karst. -Persea Persea (L.) Cockerell LYTHRACEAE Lagerstroemia indica L. TERMINALIACEAE Terminalia Catappa L. Myrracrar Psidium Guajava Raddi. Melaleuca Leucadendra UW. SAPOTACEAE Sapota Achras Mill. Lucuma nervosa A. DC. OLEACEAE Ligustrum ovalifolium Hassk. APOCYNACEAE Nerium Oleander UL. SoLANACEAE Nicotiana glauca Graham VERBENACEAE Vitex Agqnus-Castus L. BIGNONIACEAE Catalpa Catalpa (L.) Karst. Crescentia Cujete L. (4. glandulosa. Common Name tree-of-heaven chinaberry Chinese tallow-tree milk-tree castor-oil plant . Mango seaside-mahoe Japanese varnish-tree silk-oak camphor tree avocado crape-myrtle Indian-almond guava cajuput-tree sapodilla egg-fruit California privet oleander chaste-tree catalpa calabash-tree THE MOST COMMON FLORIDA MYCETOZOA 67 TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS AND HABITATS OF SOME OF THE MOST COMMON FLORIDA MYCETOZOA CHARLOTTE B. BUCKLAND Landon High School, Jacksonville THE PURPOSE of this paper is to acquaint the interested but per- haps uninitiated scientist with some of the most common myce- tozoa; hoping to stimulate this interest to such an extent that he will join the collectors of this organism. Thus, the scope of the knowledge of the Florida fauna will be further widened. The mycetozoa comprise around 400 species placed in 53 genera which in turn, are grouped into 14 families. The tax- onomic characters are based on the reproductive phase of the organism. This is a fructification producing spores that give rise to zoospores. The vegetative phase is called a plasmodium, the color of which is sometimes used as a diagnostic character. This paper refers to 10 genera and 13 species found in 4 Florida counties. This number is merely an indication of the number of the organism that may be found in this state. Specimens of the Florida species noted are in the hands of the writer except the specimens collected by Dr. Thaxter which are in the Farlow Herbarium at Harvard University and which have been examined by her. As previously mentioned, the taxonomy of this group is based upon the structure of the fruiting bodies and the color and size of the spores. The fructifications are divided into two main groups: those in which the spores develop outside a sporophore belonging to the subclass Exosporeae, and those in which the spores develop inside a sporangium belonging to the subclass Endosporeae. In the Exosporeae there is but one family and one genus: the family, Ceratiomyxaceae; and the genus Ceratiomyxa. During the fall of 1897, Dr. Robert Thaxter collected a speci- men of Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa Macbr. variety flexuosa Lister at Cocoanut Grove, Florida. The specimen is interesting from the fact that it is a tropical form. The sporophores are long, slender, white, and produce externally, white, smooth, ovoid spores. The straight species of this genus is found everywhere, usually most abundant after a considerable amount of rain. Their dazzling, white sporophores catch the eye of the collector who may erro- neously class them among the innumerable fungi. The endosporeae are composed of 52 genera placed in 15 fam- ilies. The sporangia are either simple or compound. The simple sporangia are either stalked or sessile or sessile sporangia with an irregular outline called, plasmodiocarps. The compound spo- 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES rangia are formed from the union of many sporangia and are given the term aethalia. Among the aethalia are found 2 very common forms Lycogala epidendrum Fr. and Fuligo septica Gmelin. Lycogala epidendrum Fr. resembles a miniature puff- ball growing in colonies on wood. The aethalia range in size from 35—1l5mm. It is cosmopolitan and has been collected from Leon and Duval counties. Fuligo cinerea Morg. was collected by Dr. Thaxter ‘at Cocoanut Grove, Florida, in the fall of 1897. It is a white aethalium not as common as the yellow Fuligo septica Gmelin that is frequently referred to as “Flowers of Tan.” The aethalia of Fuligo septica Gmelin range in size from 2mm.—20 cm. From Clay county comes an example of the plasmodiocarp, Hemitrichia Serpula Rost, the sporangia of which form orange- yellow loops resembling a chain. The simple fructifications are the most familiar ones and may be sessile or stalked, with or without lime, scattered clustered or heaped upon the substratum. Other sporangial characters are: the capillitium, a system of threads; the peridium, the sporangial wall; and the columella, a continuation of the stalk into the capillitium. To determine whether a sporangium is sessile or stalked; scattered, clustered or heaped is easily accomplished with the unaided eye. But the other structures must be deter- mined with a microscope. A beautiful example of sessile heaped, spherical sporangia is a specimen of Oligonema nitens Rost. from Leon county. The sporangia are minute (0.2—0.4mm.), shining, olivaceous yellow, somewhat resembling insect eggs. The presence or absence of lime is determined by microscop- ical examination of the sporangia mounted in water. The lime particles are in the form of round granules or stellate crystals. In a water medium, the round, lime granules ably demonstrate Brownian movement and are instantly recognized because of this phenomenon. Physarum polycephalum Schwein. collected from Duval county represents a stalked sporangium containing lime. This species with its medusa-like stalked sporangia is a joy for the beginner to encounter since it is easily recognized from its picture. The capillitium and the olivaceous-yellow peridium con- tain lime granules. Another stalked calcareous form is Diachea leucopoda Rost. found in Clay county. The stalks and columellae of this species are chalk white with lime. This particular speci- men was collected in July 1957 and covered the leaves, grass, and stems of plants to such an extent that a 16-year-old girl exclaimed with wonder at the sight. It is, perhaps, well to digress here, in order to explain the spore characteristics. Spore characters are necessarily micro- scopic due to their size, which range from approximately 4 micra —13 micra. The spore size remains surprisingly constant for a given species. The color of the spores places the mycetozoa in THE MOST COMMON FLORIDA MYCETOZOA 69 the 2 orders of the group. In the first order, the spores are violet-brown or purplish-grey. The order comprises 5 of the 13 families of the Endosporeae. In the second order, the spores are yariously colored but not violet-brown or purplish-grey. The color of the spores is determined when they are magnified and with transmitted light. The spores are diversely marked, such as: worted and reticulated. The spore markings are best studied under the oil immersion lens. The peculiar character of the spores of the mycetozoa separates the mycetozoa from fungi that might be confused with them. Among the stalked sporangia with dark colored spores and without lime are two forms with interesting capillitia and col- umellae. In one form, the sporangium is distinct, the columella is long, and the threads of the capillitium are arranged in the form of a net with small meshes on the surface and large meshes near the columella. The sporangia are cylindrical, clustered and cinnamon-brown in color due to the color of the spore mass. In the field, the sporangia resemble the bristles of a small brush. This form belongs to the genus Stemonitis of which fusca is a renowned species. The specimen previously referred to is Ste- monitis ferruginea Ehrenb. and has been collected from Leon and Clay counties. In the second form, the sporangia are dis- tinct, spherical and the columella branches like a tree. The threads of the capillitium also form a network; however, there is no surface net. The peridium of this form is most interesting since it has the shining appearance of Christmas tree tinsel. A specimen of this form, Lamproderma arcyrionema Rost., has been collected from Leon county. In the following specimens the spores are variously colored and the threads of the capillitium are sculptured. Hemitrichia stipitata Macbr. is a stalked form with subglobose, yellow spo- rangia of which the capillitial threads are in the form of a net and are sculptured with 4—5 smooth, spiral bands. This species seems to be abundant during the early summer and was collected in Duval county May, 1935. A red-colored sporangium sometimes sessile, sometimes stalked is Hemitrichia Vesparium Macbr. col- lected in Leon county. The capillitial threads of this species are red and studded with spines. The stalk, when present, and the peridium is red, also. One of the most common mycetozoa is Arcyria denudata Wettstein which has been collected in Leon and Duval counties and is probably found in every county and country. It is a Stalked form with a capillitium composed of a much branched net. If not weathered, the crimson, subcylindrical sporangia at- tract the eye at once, but if weathered the drab reddish-brown sporangia escape unnoticed. The capillitial threads are sculp- tured with cogs, spines, and half-rings. The stalk is hollow as 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES indicated by the presence within it of spore-like cells. Another common species of this genus is Arcyria cinerea Pers. collected in Leon county. It is similar to Arcyria denudata Wettstein except for its ashen color and the character of the capillitial . threads which are marked with spines and worts. : The time to collect mycetozoa is after a few days of rain. They are found on logs, leaves, stems, pilei of fungi; in. fact almost any moist substratum even the excreta of animals. If a good collecting ground is once discovered continue to return to that region because new species will develop as the season pro- eresses. The Florida lime sinks should be excellent collecting erounds for the calcareous forms. Due to Florida’s mild climate, the season should continue twelve months of the year. The students of Florida’s mycetozoa have only skimmed the surface of this rich field. The quantity and rarity of specimens remaining to be collected are manifold. The Everglades, alone, must contain many rare forms, perhaps new species. The lime sinks too, will surely reap a fertile harvest. In Florida, there are new fields to conquer in every Biological science and, cer- tainly, this is true of the mycetozoa. FLORIDA SNAKE VENOM EXPERIMENTS E. ROSS ALLEN Florida Reptile Institute RELATIVE PoTeENCY OF VENOMS PoIsONOUS SNAKES are born with fangs and venom, and I have seen them kill their prey with one strike when less than a day old. Is the venom of baby snakes as potent as that of the adults? Is there any difference between the venoms of snakes of different sizes? Does venom dried in the sun lose any of its potency? I did not know the answers to these questions, so, Kenneth Free- man, M.S., of the University of Florida, and I began some experi- ments on November 18, 1936, to find out. Some of the results of the experiments are shown in Table I. (Notice that the weight of the venom injected was 4 milligrams, and an ordinary pin measuring 1 1/16 inches weighs 80 milligrams, 20 times as much as the venom used.) FLORIDA SNAKE VENOM EXPERIMENTS 71 Taste I—Tue Rewative Potency or VeENoMs From Various SNAKES Amt. Venom Wet. of Snake Injected Guinea Pig Crotalus adamanteus (Florida Diamond-back) 384 inch, male (Venom was clear white).... 4mg Crotalus adamanteus (Florida Diamond-back) 56.5 inch, 8 er 4mg Crotalus adamanteus (Florida Diamond-back) baby, less Seeemcer Ol. ...........5. 4mg Bothrops atrox (Fer-de-Lance) Seemed, Female.............. 4mg Agkistrodon piscivorus (Cotton- mouth Moccasin) 58-inch, male 4mg Micrurus fulvius fulvius bit leg (Coral snake) of guinea SMES 01s) CA eee 4mg Crotalus adamanteus (Florida Diamond-back) 58-inch, it 2. 3 Oe RRS 4mg 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm 250 gm Results Death in 1 hr 16 mins Death in 1 hr 54 mins Death in 2 hrs Death in 2 hrs 32 mins Death in 2 hrs 45 mins Death in 3 hrs Death in 3 hrs 28 mins Death in 3 hrs 57 mins Death in 6 hrs 14 mins Death in 6 hrs 18 mins Death in 7 hrs 45 mins Death in 8 hrs 55 mins Death in 14 hrs 26 mins Death in 23 hrs 30 mins Death in 29 hrs 47 mins Death in 45 hrs 44 mins Below are the results of experiments performed on dogs to determine the relative potency of venoms. In each case 6 milli- grams of venom to one pound of dog was given: 1. Baby rattlesnake venom; dog died in 3 hours 50 minutes. 2. Pigmy rattlesnake venom; dog died in 9 hours. 3. Diamond-back rattlesnake venom; dog died in 12 hours 35 minutes. 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 4. Baby Cotton-mouth venom; dog died in 15 hours 25 minutes. 5. Adult Cotton-mouth venom; dog died in 30 minutes. 6. Crotalus atrox venom (desiccated) ; dog died in about 35 hours. 7. Crotalus atrox venom (sun-dried); dog died in about 76 hours. Following is a list of results of experiments carried out to determine whether there is a definite time relation corresponding to the given dosages of venoms (Diamond-back Rattlesnake). 2 Milligrams of Venom Per Pound of 4 Milligrams of Venom Per Pound of Dog: Dog: No. 1 dog died in 40 hours 10 minutes. No. 1 dog died in 6 hours. No. 2 dog died in 24 hours 15 minutes. No. 2 dog died in 7 hours 25 minutes. 3 Milligrams of Venom Per Pound of 6 Milligrams of Venom Per Pound of Dog: Dog: No. 1 dog died in 9 hours 40 minutes. No. 1 dog died in 4 hours 30 minutes. No. 2 dog died in 33 hours 30 minutes. No.2 dog died in 15 hours 25 minutes. — EFrrect oF CoTtton-MoutH Moccasin (Agkistrodon Pisciworus) VENOM ON VARIOUS SNAKES It is popularly known that the King Snake is immune to the poison of the Rattlesnake and the Cotton-mouth Moccasin, but little is known about the effects of venom on other snakes. There- fore, Kenneth Freeman, chemist, and I started a series of experi- ments to find out the effect of venom on various snakes. This, of course, is by no means conclusive but only indicates the results obtained. To prove anything definite, we will have to continue the experiments using hundreds of snakes. In these experiments, venom of our own production that had been desiccated and kept in a cool dark place was used. The venom was weighed on balance scales made by Eimer and Amend. The snakes were weighed on a regular 25-pound spring scale. The injections were made with a hypodermic needle. The dried venom was diluted with distilled water just before each injection. 1. Agkistrodon piscworus: This specimen weighed eight ounces and was in- jected with 150 milligrams of moccasin venom midway, just under the skin on the right side. The dose was divided and injected in two different places. Results: The snake died in three hours. When the skin was re- moved, the place where the injections had been made was discolored from bloody coagulation for several inches up and down the body. 2. Agkistrodon piscivorus: This specimen weighed five and a half ounces and was injected with 100 milligrams of venom on the right side about midway. This dose was divided and injected in two places. Result: There was some swelling, but the snake recovered in four days and continued to live. 3. Agkistrodon piscivorus: This specimen weighed eight ounces and was in- jected with 100 milligrams of venom on the right side about midway in two places. Result: There was swelling, as in the others, but the snake recovered in five days. On the seventh day, I killed the snake and re- moved the skin to examine the injected spot and found it to be slightly discolored for five inches up and down the body. 4. Agkistrodon piscivorus: This specimen weighed one-third pound, was in- jected with 100 milligrams of venom and recovered. FLORIDA SNAKE VENOM EXPERIMENTS 73 5. Agkistrodon piscivorus: This specimen weighed one-half pound, was in- jected with 100 milligrams of venom, and recovered. 6. Crotalus adamanteus: This specimen weighed one pound and was injected with 200 milligrams of venom on the left side. The snake died in 30 hours. Upon examination, I found the injected area very discolored with coagu- lated blood. 7. Sistrurus miliarius barbouri: This specimen weighed three ounces, was injected with 25 milligrams of venom and died in about 10 hours. 8. King Snake (Lampropeltis getulus getulus): This specimen weighed one pound four ounces and was injected with 200 milligrams of venom. There was no swelling evident and the snake continued to live without any ill effects. 9. Indigo Snake (Drymarchon corais couperi): This specimen weighed one and a half pounds and was injected with 200 milligrams of venom. The snake did not show any ill effects, except that it became sluggish and remained very quiet. There was a slight swelling evident, but the snake recovered. 10. Congo Water Snake (Watrix cyclopion floridana): This specimen weighed one-half pound and was injected with 100 milligrams of venom in the right side just under the skin. There was a slight swelling, but the snake remained active and fully recovered. We continued the same experiments, using snakes from Central America, also alligators and turtles, the results of which are as follows: 11. Jumping Viper (Bothrops nummifera) : This specimen weighed one-fourth pound, was injected with 75 milligrams of venom, and died in about 138 hours. 12. Tropical Rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus durissus): This specimen weighed 2 ounces, was injected with 25 milligrams of venom, and died in 45 minutes. 13. 2-foot alligator weighing 1% pounds. This specimen was injected with 150 milligrams of Cotton-mouth Moccasin venom. The result was death in about 14 hours. Errect oF PigMy RATTLESNAKE (Sistrurus Miliarius Barbouri) VENOM ON THE CorAL SNAKE (Micrurus Fulvius Fulvius) We have a concrete pit six feet square and five feet deep in which we keep Coral snakes and Pigmy Rattlesnakes. On Sep- tember 15, 1937, David Boyer, an employee at the Florida Rep- tile Institute, put a new Coral snake into the pit. Almost im- mediately a small Pigmy Rattlesnake bit the Coral snake on the back, two inches back of the head. The Coral snake apparently had disturbed the Pigmy with its excited movements. In a few minutes the Coral snake lay still and swelling was noticeable around the place where it had been bitten. A few hours later there was a great amount of swelling, increasing the size of the Coral snake’s neck about one-third its normal size. Twenty-four hours later, the Coral snake was dead and it was very evident that death was caused from the venom of the Pigmy Rattlesnake. 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Errect oF CoTrton-MoutH Moccasin (Agkistrodon Piscivorus) VENOM IN THE Eye I was demonstrating with a four-foot Cotton-mouth Moccasin to show the fangs; the snake bit a stick suddenly and some of the venom squirted out and quite a bit of it went directly into my left eye. Immediately there was a smarting and burning sensa- tion and it was difficult for me to see with that eye. The pain continued as my eye became very bloodshot and inflamed. I im- mediately washed it out with water, which seemed to help some, and continued the treatment with an eye-cup containing boric acid solution. In about an hour the ca left, and in two hours my eye had cleared up. This happened April 11, 1934, and it is now November, 1937, and I have suffered no bad results from the venom in my eye, even though I have had both Cotton-mouth Moceasin venom and Rattlesnake venom squirted in my eye since that time. SWALLOWING SNAKE VENOM; Its TASTE AND EFFECT It was quite accidentally that I first tasted snake venom. A Cotton-mouth Moccasin bit down on a stick opposite my face and the venom spurted into my mouth. Often, since that time, I have tasted the fresh venom by dipping my finger into it. Twice I have swallowed a half teaspoon of Moccasin venom. Once, and this was the only time, I swallowed a teaspoonful of Moccasin venom. This large dose of venom caused my mouth to pucker, very much like the effect of a green persimmon. The astringent effect lasted six hours, and was not very pleasant. My lips remained irritated and slightly sore for over a day. Moccasin and Rattlesnake venom, being a protein, is digested in the stomach and the poisonous properties are destroyed. In Noguchi’s book, Snake Venoms, which gives a great deal of information about snake venoms, he states: Lacerda, Calmette and C. J. Martin state that the venoms of Lachesis lanceolatus and Pseudechis may cause intense inflammation and hemorrhagic changes in the alimentary tract, when sufficient quantities of these venoms are given by the mouth. If the dosage be sufficiently large death follows usually, their administration, with the usual venom-poisoning symptoms. With the venom of cobra, alimentary administration gives somewhat different results from those obtained in the case of crotaline venoms. Brunton and Fayrer observed that fatal effect is produced in animals when cobra venom is given from the digestive tract by feeding. Fraser points out that absorption of cobra venom from the stomach is very slight. In rats and cats, nearly 1,000 times the subcutaneous lethal dose was given without fatal effect. As a result of such administration of venom, the serum of these animals was found to contain a certain amount of antitoxin. Calmette failed to confirm Fraser’s experiments, as he always found the venom to act fatally when given by the mouth in large dosage. Kanthack fully confirms Fraser’s observations that immunity can be secured by feeding the venom to animals. FLORIDA SNAKE VENOM EXPERIMENTS 75 SNAKE BITES IN FLORIDA RECORDED BY FLORIDA REPTILE INSTITUTE 1934-1937 1934. 1935 1936 1937 Snake Bites Deaths Bites Deaths Bites Deaths Bites Deaths Diamond-back Rattlesnake ....... 6 1 24 c 20 8 15 7 Pigmy Rattlesnake... 10 0 13 0 5 0 Cotton-mouth ae 7 2 11 0 17 0 7 0 erat Shake ......... 1 0 Seeperhead ........- 1 0 Species unknown .... 1 0 2 0 3 1 2 0 oe: LS ee 15 3 AZ rf 52 9 30 i At the American Red Cross First Aid and Life Saving In- stitute, I helped administer first aid in a case of Copperhead bite in 1951. Miss Jim Haile, a student, was climbing out of a lake onto the bank when she was bitten by something on her left hip through two layers of bathing suit. She did not see any- thing but felt a burning pain and complained to a doctor. Upon examination, two fanglike punctures were found, and the Insti- tute doctor made small incisions. Then, to verify our suspicions, I looked for the snake and found a small Copperhead near the water’s edge crawling away from the place where Miss Haile had been bitten. The characteristic symptoms increased and now, certain that it was a poisonous snake, we went to work hopefully. The doc- tor injected antivenin while I applied suction on the two inci- sions. The area around the bite became swollen and dark in color and in about two hours had spread around the bite for four inches. The swelling was reduced, probably due to the treat- ment; however, Miss Haile remained sick for five days. She re- coyered fully, with no bad results or complications. As this was a mild case of poisoning, I judged that the snake, being small and biting through two layers of wool bathing suit, was not able to inject a full dose of venom, as it could have under more favorable circumstances. This was one of my first lessons that only a drop of venom can cause serious trouble. I decided then and there to handle poisonous snakes more carefully, and with much more respect for their venom. On one collecting trip in the Everglades, Bill Piper. my as- sistant, was bitten by a Pigmy Rattlesnake as he turned the snake loose to drop it in a sack. The Pigmy sank both fangs into the index finger, and Bill pulled the snake off. Carol Stryker, Director of the Staten Island Zoo, Staten Island, New York, was with us at the time as our guest, and he immediately treated Bill with a suction outfit. In spite of the treatment, however, there was a severe pain and swelling for about 24 hours. 76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MILKING SNAKES FOR VENOM In collecting snake venom the first problem is securing the snakes. We collect them ourselves when time permits, and pay our men an average of $2.00 each for the snakes uninjured and of a worthwhile size. We keep our snakes for milking in a con- crete pit 30’x30’, but even under favorable conditions we lose too high a percentage of them, particularly after handling them in the milking process. We have arranged a box-like table in our pit, with small frames for securing the milking glasses, and with an opening in the center of the table in which to drop the snakes after finishing the milking extraction. In the actual milking process we catch the snake back of the ) head by hand, using the snake hook to guide the snake’s head or to move it around. We then force the fangs over the edge of the glass and allow the venom to run down into the glass. From one good fresh rattlesnake we may get as much as 3 ce. of venom. This venom must be dehydrated before shipping. In one milking we secured one liquid ounce and found that when it was dehydrated we had about 6 grams of venom. We have found that the amount of venom extracted is affected profoundly by the number of times the snake has been milked, by the weather, and by the health and condition of the snake. USES oF VENOM The Cotton-mouth Moccasin venom is being used for hemor- rhagic conditions of the blood. The venom solution is injected in small quantities in the patient which strengthens the blood vessels and prevents bleeding. Diamond-back Rattlesnake venom is being used in experimental work on other diseases and is being used in place of morphine. Fer-de-Lance venom is being used as a local coagulant and is applied directly and stops bleeding at once. ALLERGIC HYPERSENSITIVITY AND THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS LUCIEN Y. DYRENFORTH St. Luke’s, Riverside, and Duval County Hospitals, Jacksonville By THE term allergy is meant the natural tendency of an individual to develop certain chronic diseases such as asthma and hayfever. This is the ordinary meaning of the word. —— ALLERGIC HYPERSENSITIVITY AND THE BLOOD GROUPS 77 Allergic hypersensitivity is the term used to denote this nat- ural process as contrasted to anaphylaxis, or hypersensitization produced by artificial inoculation. This hypersensitivity is therefore a specific hypersensitivity, which is to say, an individual may be sensitive to a certain substance to a degree considered abnormal. The specific exciting substance is usually protein in nature, in the case of asthma, hayfever, uticaria, migraine, tuberculin reaction, and so on. The involved protein substance may be in the form of pollen, in asthma or hayfever, or some food product, or some bacterial infection. In such case this exciting substance is termed “allergen”, by reason of its antigenic powers of arous- ing antibody formation in the system of the inoculated indi- vidual. This, also, is stated in the usual sense relating to the con- cepts of immunity. In a previous publication? it was brought out that individuals belonging to blood Group B appeared, from clinical observation, to experience the most acute forms of allergic disease, and it was suggested, on the basis of a statistical survey, that a rela- tively larger proportion of these Group B persons become hyper- sensitive than do those of the other groups. No attempt was made to base the premise upon biological grounds other than mere clinical observation. This is important, for it may well be considered from a genetic approach that would tend to give it definite experimental credence. The fact that the blood groups are heritable characters, mendelian dominant in nature, lends plausibility to the thesis that linkage may explain the appear- ance of allergic manifestations in individuals from Group B matings. This conception is not entirely new, and there is definite oppo- sition to such argument, principally because of the difficulty to be encountered in demonstrating linkage in families; because of the present paucity of data relating to linkage with the blood groups; and because of improbabilities connected with the 24- chromosome cell nucleus of the human; that is, one case of linkage per twenty-four traits studied. The burden of this investigation is, therefore, not to attempt to prove impossibilities, but to assemble some data of positive nature regarding the number of individuals showing definite hy- persensitiveness plotted against their respective blood groups. If a sufficiently large number of any group is found to possess Specific hypersensitivity, then it will be of interest to make familial studies; for the mere fact of chance linkage is enough to warrant scrutiny of these factors. Since these four phenotypes are definitely heritable, and since Group B is especially inter- +See reference at end of paper. 78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES esting because of its freedom from sub-groups, the equally heri- table factors of allergic hypersensitivity may after all be re- lated. It is hardly necessary to say that only the three groups, rep- resented by the specific agglutinogens A and B (groups A, B, and AB), and the one group represented by lack of a specific agglutinogen (group O) are being considered. The sub-groups, represented by Ai, Az, AiB and A2B are not considered sepa- rately ; nor are the more recently discovered (1927) groups, deter- mined by the agglutinogens M and N, taken into this considera- tion. In the former study it was brought out that Group B indi- viduals were relatively more susceptible to allergy, based upon 322 persons appearing at random for blood transfusion typings, . regardless of any specific history. Since that time a further, more intensive study has been made upon allergic subjects. These were selected from among prospective blood donors known, or subsequently proved, to be allergic; and from definitely aller- gic patients appearing at allergy clinics or under treatment. The figures, of course, have been checked for duplication and other errors. Only adults with fully established groups have been entered, the youngest 16 years, the eldest 60. For the sake of reference it is here stated that the distribu- tion of the four groups is as follows: O 3 43% A 40% B 7% AB 10% Group B is thus the rarest, AB next, and groups O and A forming by far the larger percentage. In material the sexes were about evenly represented. The black and white races were also fairly equitable in distribution. This is interesting to note, in that it has frequently been stated that aboriginal races are predominantly group A, and that they are not susceptible to allergic manifestations. Our figures ap- pear to speak for evident blending of racial characters in this respect, which fact may have some bearing upon the case for or against linkage. In this more recent study of chosen allergic individuals the figures are once again significant of a possible Group B—allergy linkage. Ninety-one individuals were typed. O(48) A(40) B(7) AB(10) Groups, No. of Patients 24 5D 10 2 Group % of whole 26.4 60.5 11.0 2.1 Factor of incidence 0.61 1.51 1.6 0.2 AMPLIFIER FOR SMALL THERMAL CURRENTS 79 Conclusions. [rom these figures several possibilities pre- sent themselves, only one of which will be discussed. It is evi- dent that the incidence of allergy among Group B individuals is greater than in the other groups; that is, if projected on to a large scale, all factors being equal, there would be a definitely larger proportion of “B” individuals possessing allergic hyper- sensitivity. Group B may be linked with a gene for this trait. This supposition would be compatible with the conception that a primordial genotype R gave rise to phenotypes A and B by mu- tation, and that later there was formed an incomplete linkage between the factors for agglutinogen B and a tendency for allergic hypersensitivity. Being a mendelian dominant this char- acter would necessarily survive the haphazard intermatings of the established groups, maintaining its identity. This condition, if proved to exist, may be the basis for certain other disease linkages, and may some time Serve as an index for their diagnosis and treatment. Future studies will comprehend the further accumulation of data from typing allergic individuals with a view to extending the proof, if possible, of a preponderance of this tendency among Group B individuals. REFERENCE Blood Groups and Allergy: A statistical review. The Southern Medical Journal, Vol. 29, number 6, pages 617-618, June 1936, by Dr. Lucien Y. Dyren- forth, Jacksonville, Fla. AN AMPLIFIER FOR SMALL THERMAL CURRENTS DUDLEY WILLIAMS and RICHARD TASCHEK University of Florida IN THE conventional type of infrared spectrometer the dis- persed radiation is detected by means of a thermocouple or thermopile. In connection with the thermal element a high-sen- Sitivity galvanometer is used, the intensity of the radiation being measured by the deflections obtained. This simple arrangement is satisfactory in the near infrared region—from 1.5 » to 7.5 u. However, beyond 7.5 » the intensity of the energy emitted by ordinary sources of infrared radiation—the Nernst Glower and the Globar—is very low. In order to work in this region of long wavelengths one must employ an amplifier. It has been found by other workers in infrared spectroscopy that ordinary forms of resistance-coupled vacuum-tube amplifiers | 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES are unsuited for use in amplifying small thermal currents, a fact due in part to the comparatively low resistance of the thermo- couples and thermopiles. Hence, it was decided in the present case to construct an optical amplifier employing barrier-layer photo-electric cells. The general scheme used may be seen from Figure I: B= 1.5volts Figure IL AMPLIFIER FOR SMALL THERMAL CURRENTS 81 Light from a source S (the filament of an auto headlight) is reflected from the surface of a concave mirror M, to the mirror of a galvanometer G;. From this galvanometer the light passes to right-angled mirror My which divides the beam into two equal parts when no current is passing through galvanometer G,. After the original beam has been separated by Mo, the two resulting beams are focused on the barrier-layer photo-cells P; and Pe by the lenses L; and Leg, respectively. The photo-cells are connected to a second galvanometer Ge» so that their E.M.F.’s are in opposition. This parallel connection keeps the total external resistance in the Ge circuit constant and independent of relative illumination on the photo-cells. Thus, when the amounts of light falling on them are equal, no current flows through Ge. However, if the gal- vanometer G, is used in connection with the thermopile T, a small deflection of G, results in a large deflection of Ge, since the amount of light falling on one photo-cell is increased while that falling on the other is decreased. The deflection of galvanometer Ge is read by means of a lamp and scale and is found to be di- rectly proportional to the deflection of G; for small deflections. The barrier-layer photo-cells are “Electro-Cells” prepared by Loewenberg. Their sensitivity is higher than that of most com- mercially available cells; the sensitized surface is circular and is 4.5 em in diameter. Galvanometer G; is a Type HS Leeds and Northrup instrument, and Ge is a Type R galvanometer made by the same firm. The characteristics of these instruments are shown below: Sensitivity Resistance (Per mm at 1 meter) Period Damping Coil (Micro-volts) Seconds (Ohms) (Ohms) lS. a 0.2 ) 40 17 SL é65 eee 0.5 5) 27 12 In the calibration of the amplifier the circuit shown in Figure II was used. Small E.M.F.’s can be applied to G; from the 1000 ohm po- tentiometer connected across the dry cell B. For a given setting of the potentiometer a deflection of galvanometer G, was read directly and the corresponding deflection of the second galvanom- eter Gy recorded. A comparison of these deflections (at the same scale distance) will give an idea of the amplification ob- tainable; thus, we may set Deflection of Galvanometer Go Defiection of Galvanometer G, It is found that the amplification can be varied over a con- siderable range by varying the current through the filament of the auto lamp; however trial has shown that an amplification of about 250 is all that can be used conveniently due to mechanical vibrations in the building. (All vibrations of the first galvanom- eter are amplified.) Amplification = 82. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The deflections of the second galvanometer G2 are read at a scale distance of 6 meters. Hence, for every 1 mm deflection of G, at a distance of 1 meter, a deflection of 6 x (250) millimeters is obtained from Gy. Thus, the sensitivity of the amplifier as a unit is given by: , 0.2 x 10-6 Ib ox 02 Under working conditions deflections of G2 cannot be read closer than millimeters, and it is found to be desirable to work at lower amplifications, since the above sensitivity is close to the Brownian limit for galvanometer measurements. With the aid of this amplifier it will be possible to extend the range of spectral energy to be investigated from the former upper limit of 7.5 » to about 15 pp. At the present time the amplifier is being used in investigations of the structure of liquid crystals and of sugars. The authors wish to thank the Florida Academy of Sciences for a grant which was used in the construction of the in- strument. Sensitivity = = 1.3 x 10-” volts/mm PERCENTAGE TRANSMISSION ABSTRACTS * THE INFRARED ABSORPTION OF VITAMINS C AND D Lewis H. Rocrers University of Florida THE specTRUM of Vitamin C has been published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society in the 1937 volume. The spectrum of a saturated solution of Vitamin D is shown in the figure below. H———(Hp FER OFS Vitamin Do (Calciferol) 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 45 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 WAVE LENGTH IN MICRONS *It is intended to file complete copies of as many as possible of the papers abstracted in this section with the American Documentation Institute from whom it will then be possible to obtain at a nominal cost microfilm copies or photoprint copies readable without optical aid. Absorption Spectrophotometry and Its Applications by Lewis H. Rogers, an abstract of which appeared in the PROCEEDINGS, Vol. I (1936), p. 147 has been filed in this manner. The complete paper may be obtained from the American Documentation Institute, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D. C. by ordering Document 1126, remitting thirty-five cents for copy in microfilm, or $1.70 for photo- prints. 83 84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TRAITS IN THE NEUROTIC INVENTORY CHARLES I. Moster University of Florida A previous study of the forty most significant symptoms in the Thurstone Neurotic Inventory by the methods of multiple factor analysis revealed evidence of eight traits of the neurotic personality. These traits were tenta- | tively identified as cycloid tendency, depression, hypersensitivness, social introversion, inferiority feeling, stage fright, cognitive defect, and autistic tendency. Using these forty symptoms, scales were developed to yield approxi- mate measures of each of the eight traits. The entire Neurotic Inventory was administered to two hundred college students, and for each student a score in each of the eight traits was obtained. The intercorrelations among the eight scales were low, and no greater than would be expected from the over- lapping of items common to two scales, indicating that at least eight traits are necessary to describe the neurotic personality. For each of the 178 items of the inventory which showed response fre- quencies between 10% and 90% the correlation coefficient between item and each of the eight scales was obtained. From the knowledge of the extent to which each item was measuring the trait determined by the scale, it was possible to extend the hypotheses concerning the nature of the traits. The trait-scale of cycloid tendency shows confirmation of a tendency toward emotional instability as a valid trait. A trait of depression as distinct from emotional instability is adequately confirmed, though the relations between depression and social introversion remain to be clarified. The existence of the trait of hypersensitiveness and its identification are both strikingly con- firmed. The trait of social introversion is borne out by the new evidence. Items apparently social in nature are related either to depression or to social introversion, but not to both. The trait scale intended to measure inferiority feeling yields ambiguous results. The nature of this trait, and its relation to social maladjustment, require further investigation. Concerning the trait scales intended to measure cognitive defect and autistic tendency, no conclu- sions can be drawn. PHILOSOPHICAL INTEGRITY IN SCIENCE TEACHING Haroup RicHARDS Florida State College for Women AN EFFORT to establish a criterion by which to determine what material should be included in undergraduate science courses, and how it should be presented. Illustrations drawn from chemistry, physics, astronomy, biology and psychology are used in the search for a sound criterion. The deficiencies of the most widely stressed form of the periodic table, including those revealed by the facts of isotopes, are discussed briefly to illustrate the distinction between fundamental significance and professional convenience. The criterion of philosophical integrity is applied to the practice of continuing to stress concrete atomic models known to be unsound. The concepts of law and of chance; the dogmatic aspects of current scientific materialism; and the misuse of graphical analogies in an attempt to convey the illusion of explaining a reality which is inherently incapable of being pictured, are other subtopics. Several college texts are cited to serve as examples of the kind of teaching which has led to the demand for greater significance and philosophical validity in science courses. The conclusion is reached that the aims of introductory ABSTRACTS 85 science courses of the newer type will be defeated if a nostalgic affection for scientific heirlooms is permitted to seduce us into parading outmoded shoptalk under the guise of significant truth. This approach quite easily leads teachers and authors into the error of treating students for whom technical difficulties must be minimized, as if they were necessarily juvenile in a cul- tural sense, and fails to give that integrated view of present realities which the student has a right to expect and which philosophical integrity demands. THE DIVISION OF LABOR IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES JOHN P. CamMp University of Florida Tue paper is concerned with specialization in the education, interests, and work of the teaching, research, and administrative personnel in the broad field of the natural sciences, which are peculiarly (and possibly a little boldly) defined for the purposes of this discussion as the collection of these very general divisions: Logic, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and any other which may be yet to come. Just what knowledge is excluded by this definition is not clear. The primary purpose is to lament the obvious fact that there is a con- siderable lack of understanding and appreciation between those laboring in different subdivisions and sub-subdivisions of these sciences. A secondary purpose is to indicate that the general causes of this unfor- tunate condition lie in the inevitable course of historical development, and the present inadequacy of systems of education. And finally an attempt is made to show that the condition is no longer inevitable or necessary and is to be remedied chiefly by further educational developments. A further, and perhaps not inappreciable contribution might be made by organized adult education of the educated. TORREYA WEST OF THE APPALACHICOLA RIVER HERMAN Kurz Florida State College for Women Tue trees belong to the genus Torreya or Tumion, which is a conifer that looks somewhat like a yew. In fact, its full name, Torreya tawvifolia, means “vew-leaved Torreya.” Because of its odorous leaves and wood, it has borne such English names as stinking cedar and polecat wood. It has also been nicknamed gopher wood—possibly an allusion to the reputed material of Noah’s Ark. But lately the old folk names have been giving way, partly, to the scientific Latin, so that to scientists and the general public alike it may eventually have the same name. In earlier geologic times the genus was worldwide in its distribution, but during the Ice Age it was cut down to a few relict patches—one in Florida, larger ones in California, Japan, and China. The Florida Torreya trees, a distinct species, are found mainly in a small block of land just east of the Appalachicola River in the north part of the state. In the books all the trees are declared to be on the east bank of the river. However, in 1885 a noted Southern botanist, Dr. A. W. Chapman, found a few trees about half a dozen miles west of the river, and so reported in 86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES one of his publications. When so few individuals of a species exist, the dis- covery of even a dozen new ones is a matter of some importance. But the find was lost sight of, and from then until now apparently has never been mentioned. There are about 60 trees, ranging in height from 18 inches to 30 feet, scattered over about an acre of ground. Their assorted sizes constitute - evidence that the trees are reproducing, an encouraging sign for their survival. Mixed with them are larger trees, mainly magnolias and beeches—a common timber type in northern Florida. The locality is now known as Dog Pond, near Lake Ocheesee. In Dr. Chapman’s time it was more romantically designated as Cypress Lake. BANANA WATERLILIES ERDMAN WEST University of Florida THe LARGE number of wild ducks of many species that winter in Florida make the subject of duck food an important one. Among the important sources of supply are ponds containing “banana waterlilies.” This term has been found applied to two plants very different botanically but quite similar in several gross characters. The plant usually referred to in literature as “banana waterlily” is known botanically as Castalia flava, a true waterlily with yellow flowers. The plant usually designated “banana waterlily” by Floridians is Nymphoides aquaticum in the buck bean family, often called floating heart. Both plants have similar leaves and similar clusters of tubers, hence the common name, but the flowers are very distinct and tubers are borne on different parts of the plant. Castalia bears its tubers deep in the mud one beneath each node of the long runners that spread through the ooze, while Nymphoides bears its tubers, one on each of the many peduncle-petiole combinations that are produced by each.crown. If the tubers of the two plants have equal food value, the Nymphoides would be much more important because of its greater abundance and accessibility. No chemical analyses or feeding experiments seem to be on record. THE FLORA OF FORT GEORGE ISLAND Mrs. W. D. DIpDELL Jacksonville, Florida Fort Grorce Istanp is the fourth from the outside end of a chain of islands in the mouth of the St. Johns River, separated from each other and from the Main Land by salt marshes and the mouths of several small creeks. It was called Alimacani by the Timuqua Indians, from whom it was taken by the Spanish and held successively by the French, Spanish, English, Spanish, United States, Confederacy, United States. Its elevation ranges from a little above sea level to the peak of “Mount Cornelia” with an elevation of 64 feet. It is characterized by shell-heaps with heavy humus top-soil which thins down to hard packed oyster shell at shore line. Its flora includes pteridophytes, palms, conifers, orchids, deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs, climbers, and herbaceous plants. Fort George Island is the plant collector’s para- dise by reason of the diversity of its species over so small an area; many of the species are not found elsewhere in this section of the state. Cheilanthes ABSTRACTS 87 microphylla and Pepperomia cumulicola were first discovered here by early botanists. SCIENTIFIC THEORY AND POSSIBLE PRACTICE OF THE BICHROMATIC SCALE Max F. MEYER University of Miami Tue History of music is largely a growth through trial and error. But scientific theory and experiment have always been of service, too. Subdivision of the twelve-tone chromatic scale can be scientifically defended only when the result is a twenty-four-tone scale, called bichromatic or quartertone scale. Any scale of just intonation (untempered) is a scientific dream, but prac- tically not wanted. The use of a quartertone (24 keys) instrument is no revolution in music. This scale can be used to enrich music in quite orthodox ways (1) by occa- sionally offering three melodic variations to a theme for only two (major- minor, so-called) variations; (2) by permitting to suggest to the hearer certain chords forcefully which are now a rare psychological accident in the hearer; (3) this third is the least important, by permitting a key instrument to approach a sliding pitch. On the American continent only one quartertone instrument with a single keyboard exists. This unique instrument will be demonstrated to the eye and to the ear. It is a reed organ. Since it is “home-made,” this is not offered to the public as “a concert” but as a laboratory demonstration. The disad- vantages of the only existing European design of a true bichromatic key- board will be pointed out. In theory, the use of fractions (as 1/2, 5/8, 6/7 etc.) must be discarded as leading to complexities unthinkable except to a “lightning calculator.” In the analysis of a piece, each tone must be arithmetically expressed, not by the two members of a fraction but by a single number. This becomes possible through discarding (i.e., not writing nor speaking) any factors which are powers of 2. Say 3 instead of 12. Further, only 1, 3,5 and 7 (no other prime numbers) must be admitted as factors, on psychological grounds. Arithmetical thinking of actual music then becomes simple enough to be possible, though not easy. The physiological theory of music is of course chemistry. The only numerical symbols which in performance call for a quartertone seale are 35 and products like 3x35 or 5x35. All other numbers, like 135 or 225 or 405, are expressible in playing the semitone scale. Any novel musical practice but rarely will call for a quartertone, and the introduction of the bichromatic scale must not be regarded as a revolution in music. All those fantastic scales (scattered through literature) other than the bichromatic to replace Bach’s tempered one by a more complex one are condemned both on theoretical and on practical grounds. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME NORTH CAROLINA SCALLOPS CHARLES E. BELL University of Florida A comparison of the chemical composition of scallops was made with that of other protein foods. Scallops were found to contain less protein than beef, lamb, chicken or fish but in mineral constituents scallops excel. 88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Soaking in fresh water materially increased the size of the scallops but at the same time correspondingly decreased the solids, protein and ash content. Scallops should be washed before being placed on the market. This should be done thoroughly but quickly for if allowed to stand in fresh water more than five minutes they will become soaked. OUR CALENDAR AND ITS REFORM Crcit G. Puirrs University of Florida Tue pay, the month and the year are incommensurable periods of time. This is the source of our difficulty with the calendar. The use of a 7-day week is an additional complication. The Egyptians first found the length of the year, first divided it into 12 months, and first divided the day and the night into 12 hours each. The astrology of Mesopotamia contributed the planetary 7-day week (from the sun, moon and five visible planets) and the Saxons contributed the day names. The Metonic cycle (235 moon months = 19 years approximately) was dis- covered in 4382 B. C. and is the basis of all “moon” calendars. In 45 B. C., Julius Caeser constructed a “solar” calendar with a leap-year every four years. Soon after this the Roman Senate changed the months to their present lengths and adopted their present names. Since the fraction of a day in the length of the year is not exactly one quarter of a day, the Roman calendar had become ten days out of step with the seasons by 1582. In that year Pope Gregory XIII dropped the extra ten days and changed the leap-year rule to its present form. There are two principal plans for reforming the present calendar: (a) 13 months of 28 days each, and (b) 12 months with equal quarters composed of 31-, 30-, 30-day months respectively. Both plans would make the extra day over 52 weeks a second Saturday at the end of December. The second extra day in leap-years would be similarly attached to June. Likewise both would fix the date of Easter. Hence the calendar for every year would be the same. RAMAN SPECTRA OF WATER SOLUTIONS OF METHANOL, ETHANOL, ACETONE, ACETIC ACID, AND DIOXANE R. C. WILLIAMSON University of Florida RAMAN SPEcTRA have been obtained for water solutions of several substances. A series of concentrations was run for each substance with molar ratios of water to the substance in question of 1, 2, 4, 6. The frequency shifts observed all seemed to reach a final value at a concentration of about three moles of water to one of the given substance. Bond | Methanol Ethanol | Acetic Acid | Acetone Dioxane | | M | AM M |AM} M |AM |] M | AM M | AM | | CEC | | 868 |—.6| 695 |— ?| 788i) Neiicammmmnrn CAC 1084 | —14| 1046 | — 6 | 1107 | —10 C=O | 1666 | +48 | 1712 | —11 | | | Ome We eee | Peon | | bending | 1462 | 0 | 1456 0 | 1431 | | 1430 0| 1443 0 | C—H | | | | stretching | 2835 | + 5 | 2928 + 6] 2942 a 3 | 2925 + 5| 2852 +13 | stretching | 2943 | + 7| 2974 |4 8 | 2885 | +11 | ABSTRACTS 89 In general, it will be noted from the above table that (1) the C—H bending frequencies are not measurably affected; (2) the C—H stretching fre- quencies all increase, Dioxane showing the greatest shift; (3) Acetone differs from the others in that the C—C frequency increases, while the others decrease. In the case of the C=O vibration, Acetone shows a fairly large decrease, as opposed to a very large increase in the case of Acetic Acid. AN EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF SEVERE ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES ON THE OZONE CONTENT OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE W.S. Perry and R. G. Larrick University of Florida THIS EXPERIMENT has been suggested by Dr. E. O. Hulburt of the Naval Research Laboratory and is being carried on in colaboration with investi- gators at several stations. The absorption spectrum of the northern sky is determined each day at noon and the extent of the absorption spectrum is measured from a chosen reference line. This is plotted against the days in order to determine if there is any variation during a hurricane. Up to this time the results have been negative. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES OF NON-ADDITIVE GENE INTERACTIONS Frep H. Huu University of Florida WHEN THE effect of two or more genes acting jointly is not the arithmetic sum of their separate effects, it is said that their interaction is non-additive. Non-additive interaction of genes at the same locus is dominance; non-addi- tive interaction of genes at different loci is epistasy. Theories of Wright and Fisher on physiological and evolutionary aspects of dominance are extended to epistasy, i.e. the monogenic theory is extended to the multigenic case to obtain the foundation of a generalized theory of non-additive gene interac- tions. Some additions to the general theory are proposed. THE EFFECTS OF ELASTIC STRETCH ON THE INFRARED SPECTRUM OF RUBBER RicHarD TASCHEK University of Florida THE ABSORPTION spectrum of stretched rubber has been studied in the region between 2y and 8u. In the case of unilateral stretch transmission measurements indicate that the absorption bands near 3.384 and 7y become broader with increasing stretch while the general background absorption be- 90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES comes more pronounced. Radial stretch was found to produce similar effects in the 3.34 and 7y regions while the bands near 6y became less intense for both unilateral and radial stretch. In the spectrum of rubber stretched radially to approximately 12 times its original area a band was found near 4.8, where there is no intense absorption in the unstretched material. Since both absorption and reflection are involved in transmission measurements, it was necessary to determine reflection and extinction coefficients. The results indicate that the reflection coefficient diminishes and the extinction coefficient increases with increasing .stretch. The observed variations in the extinction coefficients are of greater magnitude than those to be expected from the known — density changes which accompany stretching. A NEW AUTOMATIC RESPIRATION CALORIMETER W. M. Barrows, JR. © Florida State College for Women A FULLY automatic respiration calorimeter has been constructed. It operates upon the following principle: In addition to heat produced by the animal, electrically generated heat is produced within: the calorimeter. A device analogous to the self-balancing Wheatstone bridge maintains the total heat supply (as measured by the heat loss) constant. The electric heat is measured and its amount subtracted from the known total. The difference represents animal heat. Simultaneously, products of respiration are analyzed and the “indirect” heat computed for comparison. ixperimental results will be given demonstrating the order of accuracy of .measurement with this instrument. The author designed, constructed and operated this instrument during the years 1935-37, in collaboration with Dr. J. R. Murlin, Director of the Department of Vital Economics, University of Rochester. A SUGGESTED NEW NOTATION FOR LOGARITHMS Hauuetr H. GerMonpD University of Florida A suggested logarithmic notation of the form by = log,N would simplify the statements of certain logarithmic relationships. Thus, log,V” = r log,NV would be written byr = rby. Likewise, the statement b!°%>% — WN becomes simply b°-N = WN. Other simplifications result. TWO NEW CRAWFISHES FROM FLORIDA Cambarus hubbellu Cambarus acherontis pallidus Horton H. Hopes, JR. University of Florida CAMBARUS HUBBELLI was taken from roadside ditches in Holmes, Jackson, and Washington Counties. It is a burrowing species and quite common, especially in the flatwoods of these counties. ABSTRACTS 91 Cambarus acherontis pallidus inhabits the caves of Alachua County. It is a subspecies of C. acherontis taken from an underground rivulet in Orange County, Florida, near Lake Brantley. C. acherontis pallidus has been collected from three caves in Alachua County, namely: Devil’s Hole, Warren’s Cave and Dudley Cave, and one cave in Columbia County. THE GENUS HAYLOCKIA H. Harotp HUME University of Florida Up to this time, the genus Haylockia, set up by William Herbert in 1830, has embraced a single species, H. pusilla, native in Argentina. It had been described previously as Sternbergia americana by Hoffmanseggischen in 1824 and, in 1840, Dietrich referred it to Zephyranthes. However, the validity of Herbert’s monotypic genus is generally accepted. In recent years three species of plants, two Peruvian and one Bolivian, have been referred to Zephyranthes: Z. Pseudo-Colchicum Kranzlin (1914), Z. parvula Killip (1926) and Z. Briquettii Macbride (1930), that present cer- tain important characteristics at variance with the accepted systematic limi- tations for the genus Zephyranthes. Type material of Z. Pseudo-Colchicum in the Museo Berolinensis, of Z. parvula in the United States National Her- barium, and of Z. Briquettii in the Field Museum of Natural History have been examined critically and the conclusion reached that these three should be transferred to the genus Haylockia as H. Pseudo-Colchicum (Kranzlin) n. comb., H. parvula (Killip) n. comb., and H. Briquettii (Macbride) n. comb. Since the genus Haylockia heretofore has been monotypic, the generic description has included only such characters as are presented in the species H. pusilla. Because of the proposed additions to the genus, the original generic description of Haylockia is extended. Such extension does not affect the basic conception of the genus, nor is it incompatible with a satisfactory systematic placement of the three plants together with the type species in the genus Haylockia. CHARTER OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ARTICLE I. Name. The name of this corporation shall be Florida Academy of Sciences. ARTICLE II. Purposes. The purposes of the Academy shall be to promote scientific research, to stimulate interest in the sciences, to further the dif- fusion of scientific knowledge, to unify the scientific interests of the state and to issue an annual scientific publication. ARTICLE III. Memsersuir. Election to membership in the Academy shall be by vote of the Council, upon written nomination by two members. ARTICLE IV. TerworCuarter. This corporation shall have perpetual existence. ARTICLE V. Orricers. The affairs of the Academy shall be managed by the following officers, to-wit: President, Vice-president, Secretary and Treasurer. ARTICLE VI. Councm. The officers, together with the immediate past Presi- dent, and such additional members as are provided in the By-Laws, shall constitute the Council of the Academy. 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ARTICLE VII. Inrrtat Orricers. The names of the officers who shall manage all the affairs of the Academy until the first election under this Charter are as follows: President—Herman Kurz Vice-president—R. C. Williamson Secretary—J. H. Kusner Treasurer—J. F. W. Pearson ARTICLE VIII. By-Laws. The By-Laws of the Academy shall be made, altered, amended or rescinded at any annual meeting by a two-thirds vote - of the members present. ARTICLE IX. Investrepness, The highest amount of indebtedness or liability to which the Academy may at any time subject itself shall never be greater than two-thirds of the value of the property of the Academy. ARTICLE X. Reat Estare. The amount in value of the real estate which the Academy may hold, subject always to the approval of the Circuit Judge, shall be $100,000.00. BY-LAWS (As Amended at the 1937 Annual Meeting) DIVISION I. MemsBersuip 1. The annual dues shall be two dollars for members, one dollar for asso- ciate members, payable in advance. 2. Members or associate members whose dues become one year in arrears shall be automatically dropped from membership, after due notice has been given by the Secretary. 3. All persons who become members of the Academy during the year 1936 shall be designated as Charter Members of the Academy. 4. Individuals or institutions may be granted Individual Sustaining Mem- bership or Institutional Sustaining Membership, respectively, on terms to be arranged by the Council in each case. DIVISION II. Secrions 1. There shall be such sections of the Academy as the Council may authorize. 2. All section meetings shall be open to all members, but members shall vote concerning section matters only in those sections in which they are enrolled, and no member shall be enrolled in more than two sections, except by permission of the Council. 3. There shall be a Chairman of each section. 4. The Chairman of each section shall be, ex-officio, a member of the Council. DIVISION III. Orricrers 1. The President shall discharge the usual duties of a presiding officer at all meetings of the Academy and of the Council, and shall give an address to the Academy at the final meeting of the year for which he is elected. 2. The Vice-President shall assume the duties of the President in the latter’s absence. 3. The Secretary shall keep the records of the Academy and of the Council. He shall have charge of the sale and exchange of the Pro- ceedings. Subject to the approval of the Council, he may appoint an Assistant Secretary to assist him in performing his duties. 4, The Treasurer shall have charge of the finances of the Academy. BY-LAWS 93 5. The Council shall exercise general supervision over all the affairs of the Academy in the intervals between meetings of the Academy. Specific duties of the Council shall be: a) Tobe responsible for the publications of the Academy. b) Toelect members and associate members. c) To fill vacancies in any of the offices of the Academy. d) Toinvest the funds of the Academy. e) Tomake recommendations to the Academy in matters pertaining to general policy. f) To appoint a nominating committee. g) Toappoint an auditing committee. h) Toappoint an Editor, an editorial committee, and a Business Manager of the Proceedings. i) To determine affiliation relations of the Academy. j) Tochoose the time and place of meetings of the Academy. k) To prepare programs for the meetings of the Academy. 1) To authorize the formation of Sections of the Academy. m) Toapprove the appointment of the Assistant Secretary. DIVISION IV. Exections 1. S Or The officers and section chairmen of the Academy shall be elected at the last session of the annual meeting. The Council shall appoint a nominating committee which shall nominate a candidate for each office named in Section 1, but additional nomina- tions may be made by any member. . Officers shall be elected by vote of the members present at the annual meeting. . Section chairmen shall be elected by vote of the members enrolled in their respective sections and present at the annual meeting. . A plurality of the votes cast for each office shall constitute election. . The officers thus elected shall enter upon their duties at the adjourn- ment of the annual meeting. . Vacancies which occur in any office or committee chairmanship between annual meetings shall be filled by the Council. DIVISION V. Pus.ications 1. There shall be published an annual volume to be called the Proceedings 2. of the Florida Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings shall be under the immediate control of the Council, through an Editor, an Editorial Committee, of which the Editor shall be Chairman e# officio, and a Business Manager, all of whom shall be chosen by the Council annually. . One copy of the Proceedings shall be supplied free to each paid up member and associate member. DIVISION VI. Financia Marrers 1. The fiscal year of the Academy shall be the calendar year, and the accounts of the Treasurer shall be balanced January 1 of each year. 2. Prior to each annual meeting the Council shall select an auditing committee of two members which shall inspect the financial records of the Academy and report on them to the annual meeting. 3. All orders which involve payment of the funds of the Academy shall be signed by the President and the Secretary. DIVISION VII. Arriviations 1. Affiliation relations between the Academy and other organizations may be arranged by the Council on such terms as it may decide in each case, subject to the approval of the annual meeting. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DIVISION VIII. MeEeEtrnecs . There shall be at least one meeting of the Academy annually. . The time and place of meetings shall be determined by the Council. . Meetings shall be conducted under Robert’s Rules of Order. . At least thirty days written notice of each annual meeting shall b given. . 5. The Council shall be the program committee for the general sessions at any meeting. The Secretary together with the Chairman of each section shall constitute the program committee for that section. 6. At any meeting of the Academy of which thirty days notice has been given, those present shall constitute a quorum; at other meetings, one- fourth of the members. ; DIVISION IX. Amenpments (as provided in Charter) 1. By-laws may be made, altered, amended or rescinded at any annual meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present. OFFICERS FOR 1937 President—H. Harold Hume, University of Florida, Gainesville. Vice-president—Jennie Tilt, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee Secretary—J. H. Kusner, University of Florida, Gainesville Treasurer—J. F. W. Pearson, University of Miami, Coral Gables Chairman of the Biological Sciences Section—Edward P. St. John, Floral City Chairman of the Physical Sciences Section—J. E. Spurr, Rollins College, Winter Park Editor of the Proceedings—T. H. Hubbell, University of Florida, Gainesville Business Manager of the Proceedings—R. S. Johnson, University of Florida, Gainesville H 09 NO eH OFFICERS FOR 1938 President—R. I. Allen, Stetson University, DeLand Vice-president—Charlotte B. Buckland, Landon High School, Jacksonville Secretary—J. H. Kusner, University of Florida, Gainesville Assistant Secretary—C. I. Mosier, University of Florida, Gainesville Treasurer—(until March 21)—J. F. W. Pearson, University of Miami, Coral Gables Acting Treasurer—(after March 21)—E. M. Miller, University of Miami, Coral Gables Chairman of the Biological Sciences Section—L. Y. Dyrenforth, St. Lukes Hospital, Jacksonville Chairman of the Physical Sciences Section—B. P. Reinsch, Florida Southern College, Lakeland Chairman of the Social Sciences Section—R. S. Atwood, University of Florida, Gainesville Editor of the Proceedings—H. Harold Hume, University of Florida, Gaines- ville Business Manager of the Proceedings—R. S. Johnson, University of Florida, Gainesville LIST OF MEMBERS—1937 +Adams, R. H., Miami Senior High School, Miami (Biology) *Albee, Fred H., Venice (Medicine) Allen, E. Ross, Florida Reptile Institute, Silver Springs (Herpetology) *Allen, R. I., Stetson University, DeLand (Physics) *Charter Member +Associate Member LIST OF MEMBERS, 1937 95 *Anderson, W. S., Rollins College, Winter Park (Chemistry) *Armstrong, J. D., Box 70, Route 1, South Jacksonville (Chemistry, Physics) *Arnold, Lillian E., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Botany) * Atwood, R. S., University of Florida, Gainesville (Geography) Babcock, Louis, M. & T. Building, Buffalo, New York (Ichthyology) *Bacon, Milton E., Jr., 2008 Riverside Drive, Jacksonville (Archeology, Geology) *Bahrt, G. M., P. O. Box 629, U.S.D.A. Laboratory, Orlando (Chemistry, Soils) Baker, Harry Lee, State Forester, Tallahassee (Forestry) *Barbour, R. B., 656 Interlachen Avenue, Winter Park (Chemistry) *Barnette, R. M., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Chemistry) [Deceased] Barrows, W. M., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Physics) *Bass, J. F., Jr., Bass Biological Laboratory, Englewood (Marine Biology) Beach, Richard H., Mainland High School, Daytona Beach (Biology) *Beardslee, H. C., Altamonte Springs (Mycology) *Becker, R. B., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Agriculture) *Becknell, G. G., University of Tampa, Tampa (Physics, Mathematics) *Bellamy, R. F., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Sociology) *Bell, C. E., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Chemistry, Soils) *Berger, E. W., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Entomology) Berner, Lewis, University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) *Blackmon, G. H., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Horticulture) Blair, W. Frank, Laboratory of Vertebrate Genetics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan (Biology) “Bless, Arthur A., University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) abet, he. S., Florida Southern College, Lakeland (Chemistry) *Boliek, M. Irene, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Zoology) *Boyd, M. F., P. O. Box 798, Tallahassee (Epidemiology) -Erown, C: A 3408 Lowell Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. (Chemistry, Agriculture) *Bruce, Malcolm, 325 Arlington Street, Gainesville (General) “Bryan, O. C., Box 209, Bartow (Agronomy) *Buckland, Charlotte B., Landon High School, Jacksonville (Biology) *Buswell, Walter M., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Botany) ~byers, C. F., University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) *Camp, A. F., Citrus Experiment Station, Lake Alfred (Horticulture) *Camp, J. B Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Agronomy ) *Campbell, Nelle, Stetson University, DeLand (Zoology) +Carlin, Kathryn L., 248 Rivo Alto Island, Miami Beach (Chemistry) marta. I, Jr, University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) +Carr, Mrs. ca F., Jr., 440 Colson St., Gainesville (Biology) searr, VT. D., 1828 W. Church Street, Gainesville (Physics) *Carver, W. A., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Agronomy ) *Cason, T. Z., 2033 Riverside Avenue, Jacksonville (Medicine) *Chandler, H. W., University of Florida, Gainesville (Mathematics) *Christensen, B. V., University of Florida, Gainesville (Pharmacy) Clawson, Mrs. E. Richey, Ponce de Leon High School, Coral Gables (Chem- istry, Physics) *Charter Member +Associate Member 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES *Clouse, J. H., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Physics) *Conn, John F., Stetson University, DeLand (Chemistry) *Connor, Ruth, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Home Economics) *Conradi, Edward, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Psychology) *Dauer, Manning J., University of Florida, Gainesville (History, Political Science) +Davis, Barbara J., Apopka (Mathematics, Physics) *Davis, E. M., Rollins College, Winter Park (Ornithology, Entomology) +Davis, Katherine, P. O. Box 402, Homestead (Psychology, Botany) Davis, Norman W., Red Hill Road, Rockland County, New City, New York (Biology) *Davis, U. P., University of Florida, Gainesville (Mathematics) Dell, Mrs. R. G., 1006 Kennedy Avenue, Duquesne, Pa. (Zoology) *DeMelt, W. E., Florida Southern College, Lakeland (Psychology) *Deviney, Ezda, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Zoology) Diddell, Mrs. W. D., 333 East 7th Street, Jacksonville (Botany) *Disher, Dorothy R., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Psychology) *Dostal, B. F., University of Florida, Gainesville (Mathematics) *Doyle, S. R., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Biology) *Dyrenforth, L.. Y., 1022 Park Street, Jacksonville (Pathology) Eddins, A. H., Agricultural Experiment Station Laboratory, Hastings (Plant Pathology) *Erck, G. H., Weirsdale (Agriculture) Eyman, Ralph L., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Education) *Fairchild, David, 4018 Douglas Road, Cocoanut Grove (Botany) *Fargo, W. G., P. O. Box 874, Pass-a- -Grille Beach (Ornithology) *Faulkner, Donald, Stetson University, DeLand (Mathematics) *Faust, Burton, 486 N. E. 94th Street, Miami (Physics and Mathematics) *Fernald, H. T., 707 East Concord Avenue, Orlando (Entomology) *Fifield, W. M., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Horticulture) *Finner, Paul F., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Psychology) *Floyd, B. F., Davenport (Horticulture) *Floyd, W. L., University of Florida, Gainesville (Agriculture) *Foote, P. A., University of Florida, Gainesville (Pharmacy) *French, R. B., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Chemistry ) +Fuller, Dorothy L., Stetson University, DeLand (Biology) *Gaddum, L. W., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Biochemistry ) *Gautier, T. N., University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) *George, C. R., Jr., 1514 Barnette National Bank, Jacksonville (Archeology) *Germond, H. H., University of Florida, Gainesville (Mathematics) *Gifford, J. C., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Forestry) *Giovannolli, Leonard, Key West Aquarium, Key West (Ichthyology) “GISE, Ne IN. Ox 1, McIntosh (Agriculture) *Goff, Cyc. Leesburg Experiment Station Laboratory, Leesburg (Plant Pathology) *Goin, Coleman, University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) Gordon, Donald P., 1852 S. W. Second Avenue, Miami (Biology) *Graham, Viola, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Physiology) *Greene, E. Peck, P. O. Box 42, Tallahassee (Chemistry) *Charter Member +Associate Member LIST OF MEMBERS, 1937 97 *Gunter, Herman, State Geologist, Tallahassee (Geology) *Gut, H. James, P. O. Box 700, Sanford (Paleontology) *Hadley, A. H., 186 Arlington Way, Ormond Beach (Ornithology) +Hardin, Lily, Miami Senior High School, Miami (General) *Harrison, R. W., 2387 N. W. Flagler Terrace, Miami *Hawkins, J. E., University of Florida, Gainesville (Chemistry) *Heinlein, C. P., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Psychology) *Heinlein, Julia H., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Psychology) *Hinckley, E. D., University of Florida, Gainesville (Psychology) Hjort, E. V., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Chemistry) *Hobbs, H. H., University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) *Hodges, Quinton E., Hinesville, Georgia (Physics) *Hodsdon, L. A., N. W. N. River Drive, Miami *Hubbell, T. H., University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) Hughes, Ray C., University of Florida, Gainesville (Chemistry, Physics) *Hull, Fred H., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Genetics) *Hume, H. H., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Botany) Johnson, Margaret C., Box 1094, Punta Gorda (Biology) *Johnson, R. S., University of Florida, Gainesville (General) *Kallman, I. E., P. O. Box 2747, Gainesville (General) *Keenan, Edward T., Frostproof (Soil Chemistry) *Kelly, Howard A., 1406 Eutaw Place, Baltimore, Maryland (Medicine) *Kime, C. D., Box 222, Orlando (Agriculture) * Kincaid, R. R., North Florida Experiment Station, Quincy (Plant Pathology) Kindred, J. J., Astoria, Long Island, New York City [Deceased] *Kinser, B. M., Eustis (General) *Kirk, W. G., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Animal Husbandry and Chemistry) *Knowles, H. L., University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) Kramer, C. W., 2328 S. W. 17th Street, Miami (Plant Physiology) *Kurz, Herman, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Botany) *Kusner, J. H., University of Florida, Gainesville (Mathematics, Astronomy) *Larson, Olga, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Mathematics) *Leigh, Townes R., University of Florida, Gainesville (Chemistry) *Lewis, Leland J., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Chemistry) +Linson, Elizabeth S., 181 W. University Avenue, DeLand (Chemistry, Mathematics ) *Longstreet, Rupert J., 610 Braddock Avenue, Daytona Beach (Psychology, Ornithology) : *Loucks, K. W., Experiment Station, Leesburg (Plant Pathology) : tLyle, Lilla, Miami Beach Senior High School, Miami Beach (Mathematics) *Lynn, Elizabeth, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Physics) McAllister, Birdie, Miami Beach High School, Miami Beach, (Taxonomy, Ecology) *McClanahan, R. C., U. S. Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. (Biology) +McGinty, Paul, Boynton (Zoology) +McGinty, Thomas L., Boynten (Zoology) *MacGowan, W. Leroy, 3212 Park Street, Jacksonville (Biology) *McKinnell, Isabel, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Chemistry) *Mahorner. Sue A., 865 Oak Street, Jacksonville (Psychology) *Marshall, J. J., 918 Seybold Building, Miami (Astronomy) *Martin, J. M., 1828 W. Church Street, Gainesville (Histology) *Mathews, E. L., Plymouth (Horticulture) *Charter Member +Associate Member 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mendenhall, H. D., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Engineering) Merrill, G. B., State Plant Board, Gainesville (Entomology) *Meyer, Max F., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Psychology) +Miller, Dorothy B., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Zoology) *Miller, E. Morton, University of Miami, Coral Gables (Zoology) Montgomery, J. H., State Plant Board, Gainesville (Entomology) *Moore, Coyle E., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Sociology) *Moore, F. Clifton, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Medicine) - *Mosier, Charles I., University of Florida, Gainesville (Psychology) *Mowry, Harold, Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Horticulture) Murray, Mary R., Robert E. Lee Junior High School, Miami (General) *Neal, W. M., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Animal Husbandry) Newell, Wilmon, University of Florida, Gainesville (Agriculture) *Newins, H. S., University of Florida, Gainesville (Forestry) Norfleet, Sara C., Bradenton (Chemistry) +Ogilvie, Frances May, Stetson University, DeLand *Osborn, Herbert, Rollins College, Winter Park (Zoology, Entomology) Owen, B. Jay, Box 1111, Tallahassee (Chemistry) Palmer, Katharine B., 185 N. W. 60th Street, Miami (Biology) Palmer, P. S., 185 N. W. 60th Street, Miami (Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy ) *Parker, Horatio Newton, 2777 Park Street, Jacksonville (Public Health) *Parsons, Rhey Boyd, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Education) *Partridge, Sarah W., 508 S. Duval Street, Tallahassee (Biology) *Pearson, Hazel M., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Ecology) “Pearson, J. F. W., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Zoology) Perry, Louise M., Sanibel (Marine Biology, Ornithology) *Perry, W. S., University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) *Pfluge, Margaret, 315 W. Park Street, Tallahassee (Biology) *Phillips, Walter S., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Botany) *Phipps, Cecil G., University of Florida, Gainesville (Mathematics) *Pierce, E. Lowe, Jr., 417 Elizabeth Street, Key West (Biology) *Ponton, G. M., Florida State Road Department, Tallahassee (Geology) +Poole, Eva L., 748 N. W. 39th Street, Miami (Biology) *Raa, Ida, Leon High School, Tallahassee (Chemistry) *Reinsch, B. P., Florida Southern College, Lakeland (Mathematics, Physics) *Reitz, J. Wayne, University of Florida, Gainesville (Agricultural Economics) *Richards, Harold F., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Physics) *Ritchey, George E., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Agronomy) *Robinson, T. Ralph, P. O. Box 1058, Orlando *Rogers, J. Speed, University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) *Rogers, L. H., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Chemistry ) *Rolfs, C., 509 E. Church Street, Gainesville (Botany) *Rolfs, P. H., 509 E. Church Street, Gainesville (Botany) *Ruehle, George D., Experiment Station, Homestead (Plant Pathology) *Rusoff, L. L., University of Florida, Gainesville (Biochemistry) *Sadler, G. G., 315 N. Highland Street, Mount Dora (Zoology) *Sandels, Margaret R., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Home Economics) *Charter Member +Associate Member LIST OF MEMBERS, 1937 99 +Schell, Hannah, 220 2nd Street, N. E., Winter Haven (Biology, Chemistry) *Schornherst, Ruth, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Botany) *Scott, George G., 1894 Grove Terrace, Winter Park (Biology) *Senn, P. H., University of Florida, Gainesville (Agronomy) *Shealy, A. L., University of Florida, Gainesville (Animal Husbandry) *Sherman, H. B., University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) *Shippy, W. B., Experiment Station, Sanford (Plant Pathology) *Shor, Bernice C., Rollins College, Winter Park (Biology) *Sieplein, O. J., P. O. Box 212, Coral Gables (Chemistry) *Simpson, J. Clarence, 114 S. Plant Avenue, Tampa (Archeology) Sims, Harris G., Florida Southern College, Lakeland (General) Singleton, Gray, Federal I.and Bank, Columbia, South Carolina (Horticulture) *Smith, Cornelia M., Stetson University, DeLand (Biology) *Smith, Frank, 875 Marine Court South, St. Petersburg (Zoology) Smith, Maxwell, Lantana (Biology) *Smith, Richard M., P. O. Box 212, Tallahassee (Chemistry) *Springer, Stuart, Bass Biological Laboratory, Englewood (Zoology) *Spurr, J. E., Rollins College, Winter Park (Geology) *St. John, Robert P., Floral City (Botany) *Stevens, H. E., 224 Annie Street, Orlando (Horticulture) *Stewart, Alban, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Botany, Bacteriology) *Stiles, C. Wardeli, Rollins College, Winter Park (Zoology) *Stokes, W. E., Experiment Siation, University of Florida, Gainesville (Agronomy) *Story, Helen F., 2762 Burlington Avenue, St. Petersburg (Astronomy, Mathematics) *Stubbs, Sidney A., State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville (Geology) *Swanson, D. C., University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) Tallant, W. M., Bradenton (Archeology) *Tanner, W. Lee, 732 N. W. 36th Street, Miami (Chemistry) +Taschek, Richard, University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) +Terry, Myritelle H., Box 665, Miami “Thomas, R. H., 37 S. Hogan Street, Jacksonville (Electricity) *Tilt, Jennie, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Chemistry) *Tisdale, W. B., Experiment Staticn, University of Florida, Gainesville (Plant Pathology) *Tissot, A. N., Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville (Entomology) *Tracy, Anna M., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Nutrition) *Vance, Charles B., Stetson University, DeLand (Geology) *Van Cleef, Alice, Glenwood (Chemistry and Biology) *Van Leer, B. R., North Carolina State College, Raleigh, N. C. (Engineering) *Vermillion, Gertrude, Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Chemistry) *Waddington, Guy, Rollins College, Winter Park (Chemistry) “Walker, Marion N., Experiment Station, Leesburg (Plant Pathology) “Wallace, Howard K., University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) *Waskom, Hugh L., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Psychology) *Weber, George F., Experiment Station, Gainesville (Plant Pathology) *Weil, Joseph, University of Florida, Gainesville (Engineering) *Weinberg, E. F., Rollins College, Winter Park (Mathematics) *West, Erdman, University of Florida, Gainesville (Botany) *Charter Member +Associate Member 100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES *West, Frances L., St. Petersburg Junior College, St. Petersburg (Biology) +West, Henry S., University of Miami, Coral Gables (Psychology) *White, Sarah P., Florida State College for Women, Tallahassee (Medicine) *Williams, F. Dudley, University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) *Williams, Henry W., Drawer C., Umatilla (Herpetology) *Williams, Osborne, University of Florida, Gainesville (Psychology) *Williamson, R. C., University of Florida, Gainesville (Physics) *Willoughby, C. H., University of Florida, Gainesville (Animal Husbandry) *Wise, Louis E., Rollins College, Winter Park (Chemistry) *Wray, F. L., 1927 Hollywood Blvd., Hollywood Yothers, W. W., 457 Boone Street, Orlando *Young, John W., 720 Glen Ridge Drive, West Palm Beach (Mathematics, Physics) Young, Frank N., University of Florida, Gainesville (Biology) *Young, T. Roy, Jr., University of Florida, Gainesville (Entomology) *Charter Member +Associate Member 506.'73 FakLS PROCEEDINGS of the Florida Academy of Sciences for 1938 coe STING 5 \* SEP.23 199 oe NN Y . F if NY TONAL must Published by the Academy Gainesville, Flerida June, 1939 or hes Ye ahanw Pe RY ee ee - y a 1 each yimye He - “gig ew z b> ; a ' “a “~ , ® te , i " we > - - - * - « = ae ny eer fi . 2 " = K rt - be , *, - 7 = . _ 4 M ’ a ad Si *, ¥ ‘ re « : — « < . 4 " 4 a 7] Pip ‘ 4 5. < . é : * . a é ¢ « e ae , . a ‘ re ‘ a " =~ : ‘ ~ ae ~ rl 2 } * - “ on = - S . by “| » lg x 4" gr => - . - "2 f ~é * : ‘ "2 . - = . 7 > a “5476 ey , . ¢ ' Pe “ é PROCEEDINGS of the Florida Academy of Sciences for 1938 Published by the Academy Gainesville, Florida June, 1939 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES _ Published annually by the Academy Editor: L. Y. Dyrenforth Managing Editor: J. H. Kusner Editorial Committee: A. F. Carr Ezda Deviney C. 1]. Mosier Maurice Mulvania S. A. Stubbs R. C. Williamson A paper-bound copy of the Proceedings is sent to each member of the Academy, without charge. A cloth-bound copy may be obtained, instead, upon payment of $1.00. The sale price of the Proceedings is: Paper-bound—$1.00 per copy Cloth-bound—$2.00 per copy The Academy will be pleased to enter into exchange arrangements with other scientific societies in any field and in any country. Orders for copies of the Proceedings, subscriptions, exchange publications, inquiries concerning exchange, and general correspond- ence concerning Academy matters should be addressed to: J. H. Kusner, Secretary Florida Academy of Sciences University of Florida Gainesville, Fla. THE E. O. PAINTER PRINTING CO., DELAND, FLA. [eG.? > ‘Pe Fes CONTENTS Page 1938 ANNUAL MEETING Secretary’s Report—J. H. Kuswner ...... USL 1) NR gee AREA a aber: he 1 Report of the Acting Treasurer—E. Morton MILLER WWW. 3 peeenea ities third Annual Meeting —_.2 ee “ Eammmmittees for the Third Annual Meeting -...-.-.-.------------.------------——------ 7 acre rare ch AN ek i ee 8 ENE A GP ee 8 nmr ees Ne er he ee 8 PAPERS Notes on the Sharks of Florida—STEWART SPRINGER -.---c-cccccccecececececeee-- 9 Variations Within Successive Categories of an Extended Series of Extra- Sensory Discriminations—EFE.LizapetH A. BECKNELL _...0-------ceccececcoe---- 42 Hitherto Unrecorded Vertebrate Fossil Localities in South-Central eee OEMEBOMES (SUT 6 Oe ee 50 Additions to the Recorded Pleistocene Mammals from Ocala, Florida— a. Jc 6 aah dase seag Ch BONIS UA Od NO oe Cae e, SO 54 The Role of Hormones in the Development of Higher Plants — RE LTD 5 QOeTTE oT gS RP a ee 56 Torreya West of the Apalachicola River—HERMAN KURZ ..._WWWWWW----------- 66 A Physiographic Study of the Tree Associations of the Apalachicola 2 a == STD DT) GST reer ee 78 Pretended Accuracies in Computations—B. P. REINSCH _...WW.00000..-- 91 The Necessity for Artesian Water Conservation in the Florida Penin- SEE SemMPNP A SPUTENS 2.00000 2 ee ee 97 Notes on Florida Water Snakes—F. Ross ALLEN _QWWWW2 222 ci 101 Notes on the Feeding and Egg-Laying Habits of the Pseudemys.—E. Ross ED cessseaduvetli Ui J I es ee eee 105 A Preliminary Report on Studies of Moss Habitats and Distribution in North Central Florida—RutrH SCHORNHERST —..W.02-222-2----c--c-eceeeeee eee 109 Are Women Clairvoyant?—Jur1a H. Hetnrern and Curistian P. TEE SB S/d 2 SS een ee meV 5 Le 115 emetic in (Prinates—James H. Etper WW 125 Holothurians from Biscayne Bay, Florida—E.isAsetH DrICHMANN .... 128 iii SEP 21 1938 iv PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ABSTRACTS. Notes on the Histology of Stren.—G. G. Scor? ........ eee 139 The Experimental Techniques of Scientific Psychology versus the Spec- ulative Dogmas of Educational Psychosophy.—CHrisTIAN P. HEtIn- EXD occ ceececccenee ceca hace concent ented eaten ted educate pa rr rrr 139 Resonance in the Telephone and in the Cochlea—Max F, Meyer —........ 140 The Basal Metabolism of College Women as Influenced by Race and — Degree of Activity—Lota Scumint and JENNIE TILT __.WWWW.... 141 Suggestions Concerning the Teaching of Biology —G. G. Scorr WW... 142 Mental Hygiene in Secondary Education—W. L. MacGowan .............. 143 Psychometric Results and Notes on Behavior Before and After a Pre- frontal Lobotomy on a Mental Patient—PuHiILttep WorcHEL —_.......... 144 Conditions for Algebraic Solutions of Certain Ordinary Differential Equa- tions of First Order and First Degree—BArBARA DAVIS —-W..-------------- 145 The S-H Frequency of the Mercaptans.—DupLey WILLIAMS —............. 145 Suggestions for an Improved Notation in Trigonometry—H. H. Ger- MOND acecncnennoenccncccenneenenecocetecnetbont erect deaactaratiat te rrr 145 The Neutron.—D. C. SWANSON 2.02 146 An Infra-Red Study of Several Liquid Crystals —RicHarp TASCHEK and DupLEY WILLIAMS. 22..cc.cccccccce cc 147 - The Design of Numerical Problems for Instructional Efficiency—H. H. GERMOND onccncescecsecesesoceeste scene seen sen erent eo 147 Semantic Analysis: A Basic Step in Scientific Method.—Curistian P. FIBENLEIN octet ete eee 3 A New Concept of Florida Soils—Epwarp T. KEENAN _..WWWWWW WW. 148 Natural Phenomena.—Mary W. Dindell ... 148 ACADEMY PERSONNEL Officers of the Academy for 1938 _...U i150 Officers of the Academy for 1939 WW... er 150 Last’ of Members-=1938 2s ee veonannenniediistuncien er = 1 Institutional Sustaining Members _... sanctedeeviensieen. stot) gee 157 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 3 1938 SECRETARY’S REPORT During 19358 the membership of the Academy has continued to grow. When the Academy was founded in February 1936, the ap- plication for the Charter contained ninety-two signatures. By the end of 1936 the membership had grown to 236, and at the Annual Meeting of 1937 the membership totaled 262. Today the Academy has 285 members in good standing. This is, of course, exclusive of the memberships which have lapsed for non-payment of dues. Our members are to be found in every part of the state, in every Florida college and university, in 16 high schools and in many government laboratories and other organizations of a scientific nature, both within the state and elsewhere. Although this growth in member- ship could hardly be called phenomenal, it is gratifying that we are getting new members more rapidly than we are losing old ones. Although we are hardly interested in the mere size of the member- ship roll of the Academy, we undoubtedly do desire to have as- sociated with us all those in the state who share our purposes and who are worthy of membership in this science-wide and state-wide scientific society which is, for Florida, the official counterpart of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, with which the Academy is affiliated. _ There are undoubtedly many persons who would like to take part in the activities of the Academy and whom we would desire to have associated with us. The searching out of these people and drawing them into membership in the Academy is a responsibility which should be shared by all members. It is to be hoped that every mem- ber who knows of others who are worthy of and would be interested in membership in the Academy will nominate such persons for membership. At the 1937 Annual Meeting, the By-Laws were amended to pro- vide for sustaining membership, both individual and institutional. 1 SEP 21 1939 z PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES As a result of this action, the following six institutions have become institutional sustaining members of the Academy : University of Florida Florida State College For Women University of Miami Rollins College Florida Southern College Stetson University icity these six colleges and universities pay a total of $290 per year as their institutional membership dues. It is to be hoped that such of our members as are connected with institutions or organizations not yet contained in this list, will put forth efforts to add their institutions to this distinguished roll. The Secretary will be glad to consult with any members in the matter of initiation of such moves. The Academy has not been quite so fortunate in building up its roll of individual sustaining members. The list of such members is as yet extremely meager, and it is to be hoped that many more of those members who are in a position to do so will undertake this slightly increased responsibility of supporting the work of the . Academy. Transfer to Individual Sustaining Membership is open to all regular members automatically upon payment of the small ad- ditional sum of $3 which, incidentally, carries with it a cloth-bound copy of the Proceedings instead of the usual paper-bound copy. Many of us are hopeful that the list of individual sustaining mem- bers will undergo considerable growth. Acting on instructions from the Council, the Secretary’s office has made some progress in bring about exchange arrangements with other scientific societies. Our Proceedings is now being ex- changed with periodicals published by most of the academies and many other scientific societies. It is expected soon to issue to all members a list of the publications in the possession of the Academy so that these may be available for their use, upon request. The reception given to the first volume of our Proceedings has been very gratifying. Unsolicited orders, requests for copies, or offers of exchange have been received from places as remote as Great Britain, Germany, and even China. During the year, the Council of the Academy has had two meet- ings apart from the Annual Meeting. One of these was held in Gainesville and the other in DeLand. Of course, the bulk of the Council business was conducted by correspondence, to which the REPORT OF THE ACTING TREASURER. 3 members of the Council of this year have paid serious and prompt attention. A considerable part of the work of the Secretary’s office has been carried on through the cooperation of the University of Florida which has provided clerical and stenographic assistance and many other aids. During the past year, the work of the Secretary’s office has been aided through the efforts of Dr. C. I. Mosier of the Univer- sity of Florida who has occupied the post of assistant secretary created at the 1937 Annual Meeting. Also, many other colleagues have at various times during the year allowed themselves to be im- pressed into the Academy’s service. The Secretary can truthfully report that the proportion of its membership which has a strong interest in and loyalty to the Academy is sufficiently large to augur well for the Academy’s future development. November 18, 1938 J. H. Kusner, Secretary REPORT OF THE ACTING TREASURER (As of November 15, 1938) INCOME: Balance carried forward from November 20, 1937 ..........---------- $734.39 eeeeeeeciven= 1937 Memberships ---..-.--...-----.--..--------.------- 116.00 Re CHHMCESINDS) 22 ee ee ee 309.10 SPM cine SHIPS c2022-s2e ee ak 14.00 1937 Associate Memberships ........-.--.--------------- 6.00 1938 Associate Memberships .-...--.--.-----.------------ 5.00 1939 Associate Memberships ...-.--.---.---------------- 1.00 1938 Institutional Sustaining Memberships 165.00 Receipts from the sale of Proceedings, Vol. 1 -----.--------------------- 29.00 EVES UCC 1 | 50.00 $1,429.49 DISBURSEMENTS: emer SMCCCHINITS Vol. | -----<-------------esnna-2-csecennncennecnee $890.79 eee ewes for Procecdings ----..------------------------------0--2------ 8.00 Administrative Expenses: Secretary’s Office, Postage and stationery -.--------------------- 65.47 aptess and iretoht its. 41.78 Meeisutet, Postase and envelopes’ ------------+---2--------------------- 9.56 Business Manager, Express, telegrams, reprint covers ---- 14.85 Publishing of Programs, 1937 Meetings -..--------------------------------- 25.50 EER EAPC oe reese ca cht eaueant erodes 50.00 Miscellaneous: Book adjustments, reassignments of dues --....- 4.00 Total Disbursements on order of Pee sIMC Hen ARIE SECECEAL y. -228ace2--- can cagee een c cine $1,109.95 Baisace: acttial cash available --.2 2. 319.54 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY ‘OF SCIENCES ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE: 1938 Institutional Sustaining Memberships ....-....--.---------:--:-:--0-- $100.00 1937 Univ. of Florida, Purchase of Proceedings .....-.---------------— 100.00 i938 Memberships yet unpaid (approx.) 2. eee 180.00 Reimbursements by authors for engravings in Proceedings, 1 -.-. 58.00 $ 438.00 « FE. Morton Miter, Acting Treasurer. PROGRAM OF THE THIRD ANNUAL MEET- ING—ROLLINS COLLEGE FIELD TRIPS ON THURSDAY AFTERNOON, NOVEMBER 17, 1938 1. Two hour boat trip on Winter Park lakes. 2. Wekiwa Springs and Nature’s Mystery. 3. Trip to Gentile Brothers’ Packing House, Winter Park. 4. Inspection of Orlando Municipal Airport. FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 18, 1938 9:30 to 11:10 A. M—GENERAL SESSION—Annie Russell Theater President R. I. Allen presiding PRESENTATION OF PAPERS Natural Phenomena—Mrs. W. D. Diddell, Jacksonville. 15 min. 2. The Austin Cary Memorial Demonstration Forest—H. S. Newins, Uni- versity of Florida. 5 min. The Vitamin C Content of Grapefruit—R. W. Harrison, Miami. 10 min. 4. A Report on the Water Snakes (Natrix) of Florida—E. Ross Allen, Florida Reptile Institute, Silver Springs. 12 min. 5. A Preliminary Report on Studies of Moss Habitats and Distribution— Ruth Schornherst, Florida State College for Women. 10 min. 6. A New Concept of Florida Soils—Edward T. Keenan, Keenan Soil Lab- oratory, Frostproof. 15 min. 7. Notes on the Histology of Siren—George G. Scott, Winter Park. 5 min. 11:10 A. M. to 12:15 P. M—MOTION PICTURES (Marine Studios, St. Augustine, and Florida Reptile Institute, Silver Springs) 1:45 to 3:00 P. M—GENERAL SESSION—Annie Russell Theater President R. I. Allen presiding — a) PRESENTATION OF PAPERS 1. Pretended Accuracies in Computations—B. P. Reinsch, Florida Southern College. 25 min. 2. The Experimental Techniques of Scientific Psychology Versus the Specu- lative Dogmas of Educational Psychosophy—C. P. Heinlein, Florida State College for Women. 15 min. 3. Resonance in the Telephone and in the Cochlea—Max F. Meyer, University of Miami. 20 min. (With demonstration.) PROGRAM OF THIRD ANNUAL MEETING : 5 3:00 to 3:30 P. M—INTERMISSION 3:30 to 5:00 P. M@—BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION Room 523, Knowles Hall Chairman L. Y. Dyrenforth presiding PRESENTATION OF PAPERS | 1. The Basal Metabolism of College Women as Influenced by Race and Degree of Activity—Lola Schmidt and Jennie Tilt, Florida State Col- lege for Women. 15 min. (Illustrated.) 2. A Comparison of the Plant Associations and Physiography of the Apa- lachicola and Ocklockenee Rivers Flood Plains—Herman Kurz, Florida State College for Women. 20 min. (Illustrated.) 3. Hitherto Unrecorded Vertebrate Fossil Localities in South-Central Florida—H. James Gut, Sanford. 10 min. 4. Suggestions Concerning the Teaching of Biology—George G. Scott, Winter Park 25 mit. 5. Holothurians from Biscayne Bay, Florida—Elizabeth Deichmann, Harvard University. (By title.) 3:30 to 5:00 P. MA-PSYCHOLOGY SECTION-—Room 509, Knowles Hall Professor C. P. Heinlein presiding PRESENTATION OF PAPERS 1. Mental Hygiene in Secondary Education—W. Leroy MacGowan, Lee High School, Jacksonville. 15 min. 2. Variations within Successive Categories of an Extended Series of Extra~ Sensory Discriminations—Elizabeth A. Becknell, Florida State College for Women. 26 min. 3. Psychometric Results and Notes on Behavior Before and After a Pre- frontal Lobotomy on a Mental Patient—Philip Worchel, Florida State Hospital, Chattahoochee. 15 min. 4. Are Women Clairvoyant ?—Julia H. Heinlein and C. P. Heinlein, Florida State College for Women. 20 min. 6:00 to 8:00 P. Mi—BANQUET— (Informal) Assembly Room, Angebilt Hotel, Orlando Toastmaster: Charlotte B. Buckland, Vice-President of the Academy. Address of Welcome: Hamilton Holt, President, Rollins College. Retiring Address*: Robert I. Allen, President of the Academy. Presentation of the Achievement Medal for 1937: W.S. Phillips, Chairman, Achievement Medal Committee (1937). *“Science versus Unemployment,” Science, Vol. 89, No, 2317 (May 26, 1939), pp. 474-9. 1A PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 19, 1938 8:30: te 10:00 A. M—BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION Room 523 Knowles Hall Chairman L. Y. Dyrenforth presiding PRESENTATION OF PAPERS _ The Kole of Hormones and Vitamins in the Development of Higher Plants—William C. Cooper, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Orlando. 20 min. Additions to the Recorded Pleistocene Mammals from Ocala, Florida— H. James Gut, Sanford. 10 min. Notes on the Sharks of Florida—Stewart Springer, Bass Biological Lab- oratory, Englewood. 15 min. Ovulation Time in Primates—J. H. Elder, Yale Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park. 15 min. (Iilustrated. ) -A Report on the Habits of Florida Terrapins—E. Ross Allen, Florida Reptile Institute, Silver Springs. 12 min. 8:30 tc 10:00 A. M—PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION Room 509, Knowles Hall Chairman B. P. Reinsch presiding PRESENTATION OF PAPERS Conditions for Algebraic Solutions of Differential Equation Mdx+Ndy=O where M and N are Polynomials—Barbara Davis, Apopka. 15 min. The S-H Frequency of the Mercaptans—Dudley Williams, University of Florida. 10 min. Suggestions for an Improved Notation in Trigonometry—H. H. Germond, ‘ University of Florida. 5 min. The Neutron—D. C. Swanson, University of Florida. 15 min. ‘An Infra-Red Study of Several Liquid Crystals—Richard Taschek and Dudiey Williams, University of Florida. 10 min. The Design of Numerical Problems for Instructional Efficiency—H. H. Germond, University of Florida. 20 min. 10:00 to 10:30 A. M—INTERMISSION 10:30 te 11:40 A. M—GENERAL SESSION—Annie Russell Theater President R. I. Allen presiding PRESENTATION OF PAPERS Semantic Analysis: A Basic Step in Scientific Method—C. P. Heinlein, Florida State College for Women. 20 min. The Necessity for Artesian Water Conservation in Florida—Sidney A. Stubbs, University of Florida. 10 min. 11:45 A. M. to 12:15 P. M—BUSINESS SESSION—Annie Russell Theater 12:15 P. M—COUNCIL MEETING (Both new and refitins)anembers) COMMITTEES COMMITTEES FOR THE 1938 ANNUAL MEETING COMMITTEE ON LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS Guy Waddington, Rollins College, Chairman W. S. Anderson, Rollins College -R. T. Robinson, Orlando G. G. Scott, Winter Park Bernice C. Shor, Rollins College E. R. Weinberg, Rollins College W. Yothers, Orlando NOMINATING COMMITTEE Herman Kurz, Florida State College For Women, Chairman R. S. Bly, Florida Southern College C. B. Buckland, Landon High School, Jacksonville J. H. Clouse, University of Miami S. A. Stubbs, University of Florida C. B. Vance, Stetson University Sarah P. White, Florida State College for Women MEDAL COMMITTEE _R. C. Williamson, University of Florida, Chairman _ E. Deviney, Florida State College for Women L. Y. Dyrenforth, St. Luke’s Hospital, Jacksonville FE. D. Hinckley, University of Florida M. Mulvania, Florida Southern College RESOLUTIONS AND MEMORIALS COMMITTEE _B. P. Reinsch, Florida Southern College, Chairman W. M. Barrows, Florida State College for Women R. T. Robinson, Orlando PUBLICITY COMMITTEE E. F. Weinberg, Rollins Coilege, Chairman _C. 1. Mosier, University of Florida AUDITING COMMITTEE B. Faust, Edison Senior High School, Miami, Chairman B. McAllister, Miami 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE ACHIEVEMENT MEDAL The ACHIEVEMENT MEDAL oF THE FLorIpDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is awarded annually for a noteworthy paper presented at the annual meeting. For the 1938 Annual Meeting, the medal was awarded to Stewart Springer, Bass Biological Laboratory, Englewood, for his paper “Notes on the Sharks of Florida,” published in this volume, pp. 9-41. The committee which selected the paper to receive the award is listed on page 7 of this volume. RESEARCH GRANT For 1938, the AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF ScrENCE allotted $50 for use as a grant in aid of research, to be awarded to a member of the FLtoripa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The Council of the Academy awarded the grant to Sidney A. Stubbs, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, for field work in a study of the fauna, geographical distribution and structure of a recently discovered’ artesian aquifer older than the Ocala lime- stone, and the relationship of this zone to other Eocene horizons of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. CHANGES IN THE BY-LAWS At the 1938 Annual Meeting certain divisions of the By-Laws were amended. The changes in these divisions are given below. All other portions of the By-Laws remain as given in Volume 2 of the Proceedings, pp. 92-94. DIVISION III. OrFrtcers. 3. The Secretary shall keep the records of the Academy and of the Council and shall act as Managing Editor of the Procerpincs. He shall have charge of the sale and exchange of the Proceepincs. Sub- ject to the approval of the Council he may appoint an Assistant Sec- retary to assist him in performing his duties. DIVISION V. PUBLICATIONS. 2. The Proceepincs shall be under the immediate control of the Council, through an Editor, a Managing Editor, an Editorial Committee of which the Editor shall be Chairman ex-officio, and a Business Man- ager. The Editor, Editorial Committee, and Business Manager shall be appointed by the Council each year for the volume of the Pro- ceedings of that year. 1 See S. A. Stubbs, ‘A Study of the Artesian Water Supply of Seminole County, Florida,” these Proceedings, Vol. 2 (1937), pp. 24-36. NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA’ STEWART SPRINGER Bass Biological Laboratory, Englewood The sharks, rays, and chimaeras make up the class, Elasmo- branchu. The fishes make up a separate class Pisces, and the dif- ferences between members of the two classes are considerable. While it is unnecessary to go into these differences here, I do wish to emphasize the fact that there is a large gap between the two groups, and to point out the necessity for the appreciation of these differences in taxonomic studies. Our knowledge of the Elasmo- branchii is not without its bright spots, but it is weak as compared to our knowledge of other vertebrate classes. In working out systems of classification, the taxonomist is fundamentally concerned with the morphological facts, but if there is a background of knowledge about the organism that is reasonably comprehensive, he can interpret the data derived from a study of the specimen, and erect a system with much greater meaning. The study of sharks is handicapped by both the lack of great collections of specimens and a background of knowledge about the life histories of those specimens before they entered the alcohol bin or bottle. The fragmentary information I have gathered can not have much value unless it is followed up. My facts are too few for the inter- pretations or assumptions I have made, and the interpretations do not satisfactorily cover the facts. But a start must be made some- where, and I do have a specific purpose in presenting this paper. Sharks are frequently bulky and hard to handle. They are expen- sive to collect and time consuming to examine. Museum facilities do not permit the storage of series of large specimens. Therefore, it is desirable to take the maximum advantage of any material that becomes available. A large quantity of material is collected by the shark fishery in Florida. Each shark is subject to some handling and at least one measurement, and at some stations, the catch is reported on daily. There has not been any general agreement on the names of the sharks included in these reports, and it is my hope to set some standard in the use of common names. I have given preference to common names in general use by the fishery without particular regard to the common names applied by ichthyologists. * Awarded the ACHIEVEMENT MEDAL oF THE FLorRIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES for 1938. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The scientific nomenclature applied to sharks is badly muddled, species have been poorly described, and where large species are con- cerned there are rarely any types. The obvious procedure of com- paring sharks from different parts of the world is impractical. Consequently, I have emphasized some characters and described them in more detail, so that they may be compared with oe characters for sharks.in other parts of the world. Most of the material used in the preparation of this paper has been collected at Bass Biological Laboratory by members of the staff, and at the stations of Shark Fisheries, Inc. I am particularly indebted to Mr. John F. Bass, Jr. for facilities for carrying out investigations, for financial assistance in gathering material, and for many helpful suggestions. I wish to thank the personnel of Shark Fisheries, Inc. and Mr. Ferd Dalton of Bass Biological Lab- oratory for their very helpul co-operation. VARIATION AND GROWTH The initial impression to be gained from an examination of shark specimens with an attempt to identify them, is that great variation in form exists; and variation in form there is, but a very large part of it is change in form due to growth, and a comparison of specimens of exactly equal size shows remarkable similarity of form. I origi- nally thought that the measurements I had taken of [sogomphodon limbatus indicated variation in form, but an analysis of them led me to the discovery that two species were involved. Poey recognized and described J. maculipinnis years ago, but ichthyologists have not recognized his species, possibly because they have had to work with a small number of young specimens. While the material has not been sufficient to treat problems statis- tically, it has been possible to draw some inferences from the series of measurements I have for a few species. Alteration of the body form, in the species of Carcharinus, is apparently much greater when maturity is reached. The snout becomes shorter and the fins be- come proportionately longer. The relative positions of the pectoral and first dorsal remain about the same, but the proportions of the head and tail regions are greatly changed. The size of the eye decreases proportionately with age 7m Carcharinus milberti and prob- ably in Carcharinus obscurus, but in Carcharinus platyodon the rela- tion of the eye size to total length remains about the same. Maturity is reached at a fairly definite size in each of the species I have studied. In so far as my material goes, adult sharks of any given species are all about the same size. I have no doubt but that NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA . J 11 the size range of adults is a useful character for the separation of species. Unfortunately, I cannot get any conclusive data for the larger species. Most of the adult tiger sharks taken by the Florida shark stations range from ten and a half to thirteen feet in total length. It is possible that some individuals as long as fifteen feet have been taken, but I have not found any objective evidence of these very large ones. I have seen probably twenty thousand tiger shark teeth, taken in Florida and West Indian waters in the past two years, and in the lot there have been none that exceeded the teeth of a thirteen foot specimen in size. This might be conclusive evidence that extremely large individuals exist only as abnormalities except for the fact that the shark fishery uses a more or less standardized equipment which will catch some thirteen foot sharks and not much more. The two great white sharks recorded here were taken on unusually strong equipment, a combination of steel cable and rope, probably capable of withstanding a much greater strain than the ordinary chain lines. REPRODUCTION Fertilization is internal in all the sharks. The young are either born alive, or the fertilized eggs are deposited in heavy impervious egg cases. Within the class Elasmobranchu there is an amazing variety in specialization of structures to effect internal fertilization and to provide nourishment for the developing embryos. The num- ber of young born at one time varies greatly with different species. Some of the smaller sharks have a fairly definite period for re- productive activity each year and mature females collected in the proper month will all contain embryos. For the tiger shark and the three large Carcharinus, there does not appear to be any certain period at which embryos can be collected. It is possible that they are produced at irregular intervals. I have not collected any reliable data on the sex ratio of the large sharks. I have had difficulty in getting measurements of enough mature males of the larger species, although I have always selected males for examination when there was any choice. FEEDING HABITS Probably most of the sharks are of little importance as enemies of food fishes. A possible exception is the sand-tiger. The common tiger shark may devour enough of the spiny lobsters to be of economic importance. The mako shark and the great hammerhead get injured or spent game fish. The mako may be fast enough to catch some of the larger uninjured fish, but if the hammerhead gets any it must be on the basis of its superior maneuverability. 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MIGRATION Sharks move about, sometimes for considerable distances, but no investigations of the extent and regularity of their migrations have been made. At Englewood, there are several species which we have taken only in winter and several species which have been collected only in summer. At Salerno, this division is much less clear cut. TABLE I PRESENCE OF ONE or More INDIVIDUALS IN CaTCH oF ENGLEWOOD SHARK STATION OR IN COLLECTIONS OF Bass BroLocicAL LABORATORY (indicated by X) ai) 8) 1 2) 2) se 2 eee ies ae ye ft et Ss | 2] ee ee este Nurse. en KT Mee hi x a | | Gulf smooth hound) Se OT aA |x |x Tiger ee] | Le te eee ON Ne ec | oo . {xX E | Black Pea I UML UATEAby AN. eee ie | | |e Gee Sandebar wenn] ||| | | | fae Dusky x | xX Daten | os Spot-fin AMR Ia aos | x | x Me ie | x a ah | X | Bigek-tip es ee x ;x] | | | x Tires cavern eee ek | x | X | x | x x | 4 Xx x ie (Comune temnernead on) ex Peo aPSee hey es esd xX |X Great hammerhead ---.---- | |x | x | ae) i |x |x | Syabatel | etese aces nas |x |x an as kta! The fluctuations in the percentage of a given species in the total weekly catch suggest an irregular wandering on the part of large schools or looser aggregates of individuals. Of the seventeen species taken at Englewood, the free swimming young of only eight have been collected, and I doubt whether the shallow water off Englewood is within the range in which the other nine liberate the young. THE SHARK FISHERY Sharks are not used as food in this country, and at present the flesh of sharks taken in Florida has no market value. The carcasses have been cut into strips, dried, and ground for fertilizer but this has been carried out on an experimental basis and most of the carcasses of sharks caught in Florida are discarded. The dried fins find a ready market at a high price per pound for fishery products. The hides are the most valuable single product of the shark fishery, and as the supply is not great, the chances of overproduction are slight. The liver oil is in demand and most of the better quality oil NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 13 taken from the Florida shark fishery is processed by a Florida com- pany. Most of the revenue derived from the Florida fishery comes from the hides, fins, and liver oil. The teeth are sometimes sold, and it is probable that the carcasses will eventually be utilized. In- vestigations are being made as to the possibilities for the production of a very active pepsin from the stomachs of freshly killed sharks. The industry in Florida is not large, but it is not beset by the dangers of overproduction, and should flourish as long as the supply of sharks remains at the present level. The industry should know how far it can expand without the dangers of overfishing. Bio- logists can only guess without knowing more about the life histories of the sharks. Questions of the rate growth of the various species, the number of young produced, the frequency of the production of young, the nature and abundance of the food supply, and the kinds of natural enemies should be answered. Probably the best and quickest way to get at these problems is by tagging the young sharks. 1. Gingylostoma cirratum (Gmelin). THre Nurse SHARK. The nurse sharks are confined to the tropical and semi-tropical waters of the western hemisphere. It appears to be problematical whether more than one species exists, but only one is to be found regularly on the coasts of Florida, where it is common south of the latitude of Tampa, and is present in summer at least as far north as the state line. Fic. 1—Tue Nurse SHARK, Gingylostoma cirratum Mature specimens are from seven and a half to eleven feet long. They are big headed, somewhat flattened sharks with relatively small, but enormously powerful jaws. The jaws are armed with many small teeth, several rows of which are functional. The mouth is close to the tip of the snout, but is definitely inferior and 1s pre- ceded by a pair of cylindical nasal cirri. The color is a rich uniform brown, lighter on the belly. Young individuals are spotted with darker color and the spots occasionally persist on old ones. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The dermal denticles are heavy, close-set, and smooth, forming a very strong armor. No doubt this armor is important to a heavy. bottom-feeding shark inhabiting coral reef areas, and it is probable that it makes the nurse shark nearly immune to the attacks of other sharks. The species is said to come into shallow water for mating. Com- plete shells are produced for the eggs but these are thought to be retained until after hatching. Nurse sharks take hooks baited with fish, and the stomach of one large specimen from Englewood contained a quantity of crab shell. The hides bring a slightly higher price than those of other local species, but the fins are not in demand and the liver oil yield is relatively low. 2. Mustelus canis (Mitchill). THe Common SmootH Houwnp. No Florida specimens of this species have passed through my hands, but I have seen specimens from Cuban waters and from the Fw Typical tooth Fic. 2—TuHe Common Smoota Hounpn, Mustelus cams coast of Virginia. Smooth hounds are abundant in winter off Nor- folk in relatively deep water, usually from November through Febru- ary; but during this period they travel in large compact schools, which, I am told by fishermen, are not easy to locate in the coldest part of the winter. No doubt they come further south, as the existence of Cuban specimens would indicate, and deep-water fish- ing with otter trawls in winter on the east coast of Florida might be expected to produce specimens. At Norfolk I examined a lot of some five thousand pounds of smooth hounds, all taken in one drag by an otter trawl in about fifty fathoms. These were taken in early February, and ranged in length from 510 mm. to 1100 mm. Sexually mature specimens in this lot were all more than 750 mm. in total length. Most of the large NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 15 females contained embryos at about the same stage of development, the embryos from 200 mm. to 260 mm. long. The average number of young carried by females, in a lot of ten examined after preserva- tion, was eleven. The embryos are nourished by means of a pseudo- placenta, at least for the later period of development. During the warmer months the smooth hounds move northward and into shallow water and are rare south of New Jersey. 3. Mustelus norriss Springer. THE GutF Smoota Hounp. This small, slender, smooth dogshark is known only from a series of adult males taken at Englewood and a single female with embryos taken near Key West in 1906. All were collected in the winter months. [ have been told by Englewood fishermen, who know the species, that during February, 1938 large numbers were taken in mackerel nets off Naples, Florida. As the fish fauna of the Gulf of Mexico in waters of moderate depth is little known, tt is not surprising that the species has been infrequently taken. It 1s possible that the Gulf smooth hound is common in waters of fifty fathoms and that it comes into shallow water only when the temper- ature of the water is down. % ol AY Fic. 3—TwHe Gutr Smootu Hounp, Mustelus. norrisi Mustelus norrisi is very close to Mustelus lunulatus Jordan and Gilbert, which is found in the Gulf of California. It differs chiefly in having the origin of the first dorsal back of the inner angle of the pectoral instead of in advance of it. Mustelus norrist may be dis- tinguished from Mustelus canis by a comparison of the teeth and jaws of adult specimens. In the Gulf smooth hound the jaw is nar- row, strongly arched, and the line of occlusion of the jaws forms an angle of 90 degrees or less at the middle of the mouth. The teeth are high crowned. In the common smooth hound the teeth are low crowned and the angle formed by the jaws is more than 90 degrees. With the characters given in the key, identification of the two forms should be comparatively easy. 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 4. Galeocerdo arcticus (Faber). THe Tickr SHARK. The common name most frequently applied to this shark by Flor- ida fishermen is leopard shark, the name tiger shark being given to the big sand shark, Odontaspis. Galeocerdo arcticus has a wide distribution in warm seas and the term tiger shark is in general use for it and preferable Tiger sharks are present on the coasts of peninsular Florida throughout the year, and are probably present in the north Gulf.and in Atlantic waters north of Florida during the warmer months. Typical tooth of either jaw. Fic. 4—THeE Ticer SHark, Galeocerdo arcticus Young specimens are spotted or banded with darker color, but these markings are obscure or absent on large individuals. The shape of the teeth especially, together with the presence of small spiracles and heavy lateral keels will serve to distinguish this species from all other sharks. Tiger sharks are probably the largest and most powerful of the common species to be found on the Florida coast. The large coarsely serrate teeth are extremely efficient cutting instruments. Only one series is functional and the bites taken by the shark are generally smooth and clean. Bites on large objects are made by a rolling motion with both jaws cutting much in the manner of a saw, and if the object bitten is large enough to offer resistance, the tiger shark is quite capable of cutting through bone and shell. These sharks are very destructive to gill nets, biting out great holes to take a single fish, and, swimming back and forth through the nets as they feed on the gilled fish, they pile up many hours of net mending for the unlucky fisherman. tomachs of tiger sharks taken at Englewood most frequently contained horseshoe crabs, small sharks or pieces of large ones, small sea turtles or pieces of large ones, sting rays, tin cans, cormo- rants, spiny lobsters, and migratory birds such as warblers. Horse- shoe crabs formed the largest part of the stomach contents and very NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 17 few bony fish remains were found. Although spiny lobsters are not often taken at Englewood, the remains were regularly taken from tiger shark stomachs in the spring of 1938. Probably this shark may be classed as an important enemy of the larger crustaceans and the horseshoe crab as well as a scavenger. From thirty to fifty young may be born at a time. There ts evi- dently no special period of the year at which the young are liberated. Early and late embryos have been taken from Englewood specimens in April and very early embryos have been found in June. The tiger shark is one of the most valuable species to the shark fishery. The hides, liver oil, and fins find a ready market.. The liver of a single specimen may yield as much as fifteen gallons of high quality oil. The amount of oil in the liver of female sharks seems to be correlated with the development of the young, a high oil content being present when there are ripe ova in the oviducts and a low oil content being present when there are nearly full term embryos. 5. Prionace glauca (Linnaeus). THE Great BLue SHARK. This is a very large shark, more truly pelagic than any of the other species of the family Carcharinidae. It is found in most seas, ‘Tooth of upper jaw, serrate. Fig. 5—TuHe Great BLUE SHARK, Prionace glatca but is apparently rare in Florida waters. I have seen one photo- graph of a catch of sharks, taken by anglers off Miami, which may include a specimen of this species, and I have one lot of teeth from a small specimen from the Salerno shark station carcass dump. Mr. Mooney, manager of the station, assures me that the teeth must have come from the stomach of some other species, and that no great blue sharks have come in. Blue sharks are said to reach a length of twenty or twenty-five feet. There is no equipment at any of the shark stations that would | 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES hold a specimen of such size, and large, wandering individuals may ‘be much commoner than captures indicate. The curved serrate teeth of the upper jaw, differing in shape from those of the lower jaw, afford the best means of identifying the species, | 6. Scoliodon terra-novae (Richardson). THe SHarp-Nosep {0 DEAR Several species of the small sharks of the genus Scoliodon have been described from the West Indian region. While a large number of specimens have been taken at Englewood, and these specimens do Tooth from upper jaw faces Tooth from lower jaw. Fig. 6—Tue SwHarp-Nosep SHARK, Scoliodon terra-novae show more range of variation than I have seen in other ground sharks, ] have not compared them with series from other localities and have not compared series of summer and winter collection. It 1s possible that two species may be involved, and that both are regularly present in south Florida waters. The sharp-nosed sharks range from Cape Cod to Brazil and are common on the Florida coasts. They are small sharks, about three feet long when mature, and censequently, of little importance to the commercial fishery. Scoliodon terra-novae differs from species of Carcharinus, Hypoprion, Isogomphodon, and Aprionodon in having relatively long labial grooves running forward from the corners of the mouth; and in having teeth similar in shape in the upper and lower jaws, oblique, deeply notched on the outer margins, with the points of all but the central teeth directed toward the angles of the jaws. Large schools of sharp-nosed sharks frequent the passes into Mississippi sound during the summer months but are absent during the winter. Collections were made there during the months of June through September in 1931, 1932, and 1933. iIn the total catch of NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA Pi hes ‘19 many hundreds of individuals, only a few (less than ten) half grown specimens appeared. Early in the summer, only adult males were collected on hook and line in any quantity. Females were present in the area, but not in schools with the males, and only a small number were taken on hook and line. In August the newborn young were frequently taken on hook and line in the sound, and in September the schools of adult sharks included a large proportion of females. At Englewood, specimens have been taken in all months and the number of half-grown specimens is proportionately great in both spring and fall catches.In mid-summer the species is not common. Females with early embryos have not been taken. 7. Carcharinus platyodon (Poey). THE BuLtt SHARK. Bullhead shark has been used in Florida as a name for this species, but I propose the name bull shark because the former name has wide acceptance for species of sharks of the family Heterodontidae. In Florida, the species is also called mackerel shark or mullet shark because it is supposed to follow schools of these fishes. Actually, the bull shark is probably too slow to catch either, and mackerel shark is a better name for the swift, fish-eating sharks such as the mako, in which the lower caudal lobe is well developed, forming a tail fin similar in shape to that of a mackerel. yNo interdorsal skin ridge here. Fic. 7—THeE Buri SHark, Carcharinus platyodon Most authors have included both this species and another closely related one, Carcharinus commersonu in accounts of the West Indian fauna. I have seen but one form from Florida, and, on rather slender evidence, have chosen to recognize it as distinct from the Mediterranean Carcharinus commersonu. On _ theoretical grounds I would be inclined to doubt the existence of West Indian 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES specimens of that species. Poey’s description of Carcharinus platyodon is a good one, and covers characters not subject to varia- tion or growth changes. The genus Carcharinus is a large one, well represented in the shore waters of most temperate and tropical seas. It includes an assemblage of sharks of medium and large size, which are very similar in appearance, although differences in the shape of the teeth, in the structure of the dermal denticles, and in the relative positions of the fins are sometimes considerable. In so far as the material | have examined is concerned, the Florida species do not show any marked variation. The characters which have been used for the demarcation of species have frequently been those relating to length of fins, length of tail, and length of snout. As I have already pointed out, these characters are modified during growth, and while they may be useful when large series are available for the identifi- cation of species, they are misleading in giving the impression of variation in form within a species. The characters I have given in the accompanying key are apparently stable, nevertheless, identifi- cation of specimens within the genus Carcharimus is sometimes dif- ficult. Carcharinus platyodon is found on the Gulf and Atlantic coasts _of Florida, and ranges through the West Indies from Texas to the Carolinas. At Englewood, we have not taken specimens in Decem- ber, January, or February, the species being then replaced by Carcharinus milberti and Carcarinus obscurus. The bull shark is a large, heavy bodied species, becoming mature at slightly more than seven feet in length and reaching a little more than nine feet. The snout is short and broadly rounded, its length being much less than the width of the mouth. The color is usually light gray above and white below, without any conspicuous fin mark- ings. A few of the specimens I have seen have been quite dark, and it is possible that the form occurs in two color phases, or that the color may be modified by environmental factors. There is no trace of an interdorsal ridge. The origin of the first dorsal is in advance of the inner angle of the pectoral fin. Typical teeth of the upper jaw are nearly erect and triangular, only slightly angled to- ward the sides of the mouth, serrate and quite sharp. Typical teeth of the lower jaw are erect and narrow, with fine serration. The lower jaw teeth may be described as two rooted; that is, the lower surface of the basal portion is quite concave, and the enamel line of the outer surface curves upward at the center of the tooth. The lower jaw teeth are proportionately heavier than those of the ' NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 21 dusky shark and the sand-bar shark, with the point more abruptly tapering. The tooth count on seventeen mature specimens taken at eas 120 od 3s 1) ATS: meni? 1s bok ures above the line refer to the number of rows of teeth in the upper jaw, twelve or thirteen rows on either side of the jaw and one central tooth at the symphysis. Englewood was In this formula the fig- 8. Carcharinus acronotus (Poey). THE BLacK-NosEeD SHARK. Specimens of this small species have been taken on the Atlantic coast at least as far north as the Carolinas, and the species is abun- dant on the west coast of Florida. I have seen at least one specimen from Biloxi, Mississippi, and the species was described by Poey from Cuban specimens. It does not reach a large enough size to be of importance to the commercial fishery. ;ko interdorsel skin ridge here. 2 f Typical upper tooth, serrate se Y oN 4 Typical lower tooth, finely serrate. Fic. 8—THeE Briack-Nosep SHARK, Carcharinus acronotus The black-nosed sharks taken at Englewood have appeared in two color phases. Most of them were cream colored above and white below, without definite fin markings, but with the snout tipped with darker color. Some were uniform brown except for the darker snout tip. While the black or darker colored nose is a good field recognition mark for fresh specimens, I am not sure that the color would be especially noticeable on preserved ones. The nose spot is well marked on young, but becomes obscure and diffuse on old adults. These sharks are mature at about three feet four inches, and may reach a length of four feet six inches. The origin of the first dorsal is over or slightly behind the inner angle of the pectoral. There is no interdorsal skin ridge. The teeth of the upper jaw are strongly notched on the outer margin, oblique, and roughly triangular in out- line. Serrations on the teeth of the upper jaw are just visible to 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the naked eye.The teeth of the lower jaw are narrow and erect on broad bases, and the serrations can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. Tooth counts of ten mature specimens from Engle- ZN eae hs L352 ales: LL ee a a At Englewood nearly full term embryos have been collected from January to April, three to six being taken from a single female. Full grown black-nosed sharks have frequently been taken from the stomachs of tiger sharks and bull sharks. wood run from 9. Carcharinus milberti (Valenciennes,). .THE SAnD-BAR SHARK. It is not improbable that there are two species in the material I have seen and referred to Carcharinus milbertt. Both Mr. Charles Mooney and Mr. Guy Hunt of Shark Fisheries, Inc., tell me that they have noticed two kinds of sand-bar sharks in their catches on the east coast of Florida, one is the smaller and commoner, more off- shore species which is certainly C. milberti, Mr. Mooney tells me that the other form is larger and is taken on the inshore lines. In my measurements of Englewood sharks, I have noted one specimen which I originally thought to be Carcharinus falciformis (Bibron). ‘Subsequently, I removed this specimen from consideration because of an obvious error in one of the pectoral fin measurements. The specimen was much too large, nine feet nine inches, for a sand-bar shark, the origin of the first dorsal was almost over the inner angle of the pectoral instead of well in advance, and the tooth count was ie near the extreme for the sand-bar shark. Unfortunately, I did not make an examination of the dermal denticles and did not save a skin sample. The exact range of the sand-bar shark is not known. Certainly, it is found on the coast of the northern states in summer, and, al- though I can find no definite record of the species for Florida, it is the most abundant of the commercially valuable sharks taken at Salerno on the east coast of Florida. We have it with Carcharinus obscurus at Englewood, replacing Carcharinus platyodon in the catch of the shark station during late December, January, February, and early March in the winter of 1937-1938. In the northern part of its range this form has been called the brown shark but all the specimens I have seen from Florida have been slate-gray. It is possible that, along with Carcharinus acrono- NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 23 tus, this shark may have color phases or have the color modified by the environment. The sand-bar shark may be distinguished from other Florida species of the family most certainly, by an examination of the dermal denticles with a microscope. In the sand-bar shark, typical denticles on the skin of the side a few inches below the mid-dorsal line are widely spaced, not touching one another, and with the skin showing through. The denticles are three to five ridged in adults, wider than long, and with the points made by the ends of the ridges at the posterior end of the denticles scarcely projecting. No very satisfactory characters have been given in the past for separating C. milberti from all the rest of the genus, and while the material I have seen is not sufficient to do this, some comparisons may be of interest to students. Both Carcharinus japonicus Vertical, | through inner angle of pectoral Vertical through the 4 : origian of first dorsal f | ‘ an interdorsal skin ridgs hers - ° > Ly » Tooth of lower jaw, Sl (\ very finely serrate 1 oN ‘Teeth of upper jaw, serrate Fic. 9—TuHeE Sanp-BAar SHARK, Carcharinus milberit (Schlegel) and Carcharinus dussumiert (Muller and Henle) have widely spaced denticles, broader than long, and both have an inter- dorsal skin ridge, although in the specimens I have seen, the spacing . of the denticles is not so wide as in C. milbertt. The teeth of C. japonicus are smaller in specimens of comparable size, and more oblique in the upper jaw, resembling those figured in Muller and Henle, “Der Plagiostomen,” 1841, for Carcharias menisorrah Muller and Henle. The very oblique teeth of the upper jaw and the long slender nasal flap serve to distinguish C. dussumieri from C. milbertz. In all three species the relative positions of the second dorsal and anal are somewhat variable and entirely worthless for consideration as distinguishing features. Unless the larger inshore form already mentioned turns out to be the same as the common offshore form it should be possible to set a fairly definite limit to the size range of the species. For the present, 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES q I shall eliminate the larger form from the discussion, and assume that it is an unidentified species or the hybrid of C. milberti and the closely allied C. obscurus. - The sand-bar shark becomes mature at about six feet eight inches, and very large specimens may be as much as seven feet ten inches in total length. It is a heavy bodied shark, but not quite so big- headed as the bull shark. The width of the mouth of adults is about one and one-half times the length of the snout, measured from the front of the mouth. There is an interdorsal skin ridge. The origin of the first dorsal is well in advance of the inner angle of the pectoral. In adults the pectoral fins are long, and when folded back along the sides, reach well past the end of the base of the first dorsal. The distal margin of the pectorals of adults is somewhat concave. In the embryos, however, the pectorals reach past the base of the first dorsal, but the distal margin is nearly straight. The origin of the second dorsal is either over, slightly in advance, or slightly in back of the origin of the anal. The teeth are comparatively larger than those of the dusky shark and comparatively smaller than those of the bull shark. The upper teeth are similar in shape to those of the bull shark, usually as high or higher than broad and centrally nearly erect, while the lower teeth . are similar to those of the dusky shark, but are smaller, narrower, and without the cupped base and central groove of the lower teeth of the bull shark. The tooth count in the specimens examined has 4 OSE, OEE CS ee le Three, of the sixteen mature fetnales taken at Englewood, carried embryos, all from 380 mm. to 440 mm. in length, and in litters of eight, eleven, and twelve. No young sand-bar sharks have been collected at Englewood. run from 10. Carcharinus obscurus (Lesueur). THe Dusky SHARK. The dusky shark is known from the Atlantic coast of the United States. I do not find definite records of the species from Florida, but it is to be found on the lower west coast, at least in winter, and on the east coast is common throughout the year. It is a larger species than either the sand-bar shark or the bull shark, and has a proportionately longer snout and smaller teeth. The presence of an interdorsal skin ridge in specimens of all ages will distinguish the dusky shark from the bull shark. It differs from the sand-bar shark in having the origin of the first dorsal in back of the inner angle of the pectoral rather than in advance, and NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 25 in having the distal margins of the pectoral fins of the embryos concave. The upper surface is dirty gray and the lower surface white with the lower surface of the pectoral fins tipped with black. Some specimens are very light in color and the species is occasionally refer- red to as the white shark. The second dorsal is smaller than the anal and about opposite it. The teeth of the specimens examined usually give a slightly higher count than the teeth of C. mulberti, but Vertical through origin of first dorsal Vertical through inner { angle of the pectoral i t a 4n interdorsal ridge hare. ° Teeth of lower jaw, Mae = vary finaly serrats. Tooth of upper jaw, serrate Fic. 10.—TuHe Dusky SHARK, Carcharinus obscurus counts from the two species are overlapping. The tooth counts of 14 2 14 rob? 3 15. rhe 14 1 14 14 3 14 upper teeth are broadly triangular, with the margin toward the angles of the jaws concave and the opposite margin convex. Typi- cal teeth are broader at the base than high, the height measured along the tooth axis. The teeth of the lower jaw are narrow, erect, and have broad bases without the central groove and cupped base which is characteristic of the teeth of C. platyodon. The upper teeth are coarsely serrate, and the lower teeth are very finely serrate on the cusps only. the dusky shark have run from Nine adult females, ranging in length from ten feet four inches to eleven feet eight inches, were examined. Two of them carried embryos. One litter of ten, taken at Englewood on January tenth, included embryos from 575 mm. to 585 mm. long. Embryos of the second lot, taken January twenty-first, were from 950 mm. to 965 mm. long. Dusky sharks have been collected at Englewood only in December, January, and February, and no young, half-grown individuals, or adult males have appeared in the collections made there. 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 11. Jsogomphodon limbatus (Miller and Henle). THe Spot-Fin SHARK. The recent tendency of taxonomists has been to regard this species as one of almost cosmopolitan distribution, with wide variation in form, as the size and shape of the teeth, and in the number of rows of teeth. An examination of the large numbers of specimens col- lected by the Englewood shark station has shown, that instead of one variable species, we have two species without marked variation for the characters mentioned. It seems unlikely to me _ that Isogomphodon limbatus ranges much beyond the West Indian region Inner angle of pectoral, posterior f \ No interdorsal skin ridge here. wy a a: Tooth from upper jaw, serrate. Tooth from lower jaw, finely serrate. Fic. 11.—TuHe Spot-Fin SuHark, Isogomphodon limbatus except possibly up the Atlantic coast of North America as a migrant. As this and the following species have generally been considered synonymous, and the diagnostic features are not given in faunal lists and other publications, it is difficult to assign a range to either. Isogomphodon limbatus has been taken at Englewood in all months except December, January, and February, at which time, it is re- placed by Jsogomphodon maculipinnis. I. imbatus may be mature at six feet in length and probably does not ordinarily reach a length of more than seven and a half feet. It is probably swifter than species of Carcharinus, and it does manage to catch some bony fishes. Although it is at least as abundant, it does not appear so often in the stomachs of the larger sharks as Carcharinus acronotus. Both the species of [sogomphodon give a fast and furious fight when taken on hook and line, often leaping clear of the water. It is possible to wear them out more easily than the kinds of sharks that come up and fight the boat. Both the species of Jsogomphodon are gray above and white below with the tips of the pectorals black. The other fins are often black tipped or edged with darker. The line formed on the sides by the meeting of the darker dorsal color with the lighter ventral color is NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 27 usually clear cut and the lighter stripe, shown in the figure of J. limbatus, is definite, although it appears in many species of Car- carinus and related genera, it consequently has little value as a diag- nostic feature. There is no interdorsal ridge. The teeth of the upper jaw of this shark are very narrowly triangular on broad bases, with straight-sided somewhat oblique cusps, and serrations which are visibe to the naked eye on all but very small specimens. The teeth of the lower jaw have narrow, erect cusps, the sides of which are sub-parallel except near the tip. The teeth are slightly recurved forward near the tip and the cusps are very finely serrate, the ser- rations just visible to the naked eye on large specimens. The largest tooth of the upper jaw of a six foot six inch male taken at Engle- wood was 11 mm. from the tip to the enamel line. The largest tooth of the lower jaw of the same specimen was 10 mm. from the tip to the enamel line. The tooth counts of thirteen mature specimens of La 05 Hay) 8) 15. eres psd) £5 Full term embryos, 540 mm. to 5/0 mm. long, were taken from an Englewood specimen captured April fourteenth. The young and half-grown individuals are common at Englewood except in winter. liimbatus taken at Englewood run from 12. Jsogomphodon maculipinnis Poey. THE BLacKk-Tip SHARK. g J The species was described from Cuba and was common at Engle- wood during January, February, and March 1938. Nothing further appears to be known about the range. This species is very similar in appearance to the preceding. It probably reaches a little larger : ; Tooth of upper Le “ie ; very finely serrete. Pas of lower jaw, 4 without serration.~ Fic 12—TwHe Biack-Tipe SHark, /sogomphodon maculipinnis size. Three males, taken at Englewood in January, were all be- tween seven, and seven feet six inches long. Aside from the differences given in the key, maculipinnis may be distinguished from limbatus by its more slender form, sharper and 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES longer snout, and more intense colors. These characters, however, are unreliable, and apparently subject to some variation. Local fishermen who have seen numbers of both species recognize macult- pinnis because it is “keener,” the term probably referring to the trim and streamlined appearance given by the pointed snout and the de- finite color pattern. The teeth are muth smaller than the teeth of limbatus, the largest tooth of the upper jaw of a seven foot male being 7 mm. from the tip to the enamel line, and the largest tooth of the lower jaw of the same shark being 6 mm. from the tip to the enamel line. The upper jaw teeth are narrower than those of limbatus and the serrations are just visible to the naked eye in large specimens. The lower jaw teeth do not have the tip recurved forward as in limbatus and their edges are entire. The tooth count of eight adult specimens taken 16% 2G 17 Se 6i bb” i Neither embryos nor very young individuals have been seen. at Englewood run from 13. Hypoprion brevirostris Poey. THe Lemon SHARK. This large West Indian shark regularly goes up the Atlantic coast _ as far as the Carolinas and is common on the west coast of Florida at least as far north as Tampa. It is a heavy bodied shark with large fins and a short, broad snout; usually yellowish brown, but sometimes dark brown. There are no spots or markings of color. The dermal denticles are large and rough to the touch. The second dorsal fin is nearly as large as the first dorsal. There is no interdorsal skin ridge and the origin of the first dorsal is in back of the inner angle of the pectorals. The species may be mature at about seven and a half feet and reaches a length of about eleven feet. The teeth have rather narrow cusps on broad bases. The upper jaw teeth are a little wider than the lower and the edges of the cusp are entire The bases of the upper jaw teeth are irregularly serrate. The edges of both cusps and bases of the lower jaw teeth are entire. Tooth counts of eight mature specimens of the lemon shark run from 142 13, [5) 2 the: 12, 2 1a ee A large female was present in the shallow, salt-water creek ad- joining Bass Biological Laboratory on June first, and was under observation frequently for several hours before darkness. The fol- lowing morning the large shark was gone, but young with open umbilical scars were present. Two of these small specimens, taken NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 29 June second, were 624 mm. and 630 mm. long. The young were frequently seen in the creek until July twelfth, but left shortly after. Two specimens taken from the creek on the twelfth were 730 mm. Tooth of upper jaw, oN serrate at base only Lower tooth, not serrate Fic. 13.—TuHe Lemon SHaArk, Hypoprion brevirostris and 750 mm. long. Under the circumstances, I think it very likely that only one litter was present in the creek, and it is probable that an increase in length of 100 mm. the first month is normal. I have records of new born specimens from shallow inlets on the west coast of Florida south of Englewood in May, June, July, and September. The lemon sharks make up a considerable portion of the catches of the shark fishery. The hides, fins, and oil are of good quality and the species reaches a large enough size to be worth handling. 14. Aprionodon isodon (Miller and Henle). Tue Smoorug- TOOTHED SHARK. This species is evidently rare. At least it is uncommon in our waters. According to Jordan and Evermann it has been taken from mo XY 4 Teeth of both jaws A without serration Fic. 14—THe SmoorH-ToorHep SHARK, Aprionodon tsodon New York, Virginia, and Cuba. H. W. Norris secured several specimens at Englewood, and I have collected three at Biloxt. 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Radcliffe records one from Beaufort, and gives a good description of it. ‘The specimens I had were immature, and under two and a half feet long. The species may be recognized by the smooth pointed teeth, which are without serrations on the bases or cusps. The gill slits are comparatively longer than in related species to be tound in our waters. ; 15. Sphyrna tiburo (Linnaeus). THE SHovEL-Nosz SHARK. This species is thought to have a world wide distribution. Prob- -ably specimens from one part of the world have not been compared with series from another part of the world.. These are bottom feed- ing sharks and one would suppose that populations of them might be isolated from one another by broad expanses of deep water. Com- parisons would certainly be interesting. ade SN 7 : y; Ss A \ FN i é yA & 4 Lower side of head : N ,4 Fic. 15——TuHe SHover-Nosep SHARK, Sphyrna tiburo There are so many conflicting bits of information about this species and the hammerheads in the literature that I hesitate to add confusion to the situation without being able to clear up some of the points. Unfortunately, about all I can contribute is the opinion that there are more species than have been recognized, and that the relationships within the family cannot be cleared up until compari- sons Of series of specimens are made. The question of genera to which the various forms should be referred may best be left until species have been more adequately defined. The shovel-nosed shark has been placed in Gill’s genus Reniceps by some authors, and the older name of Swainson, Platysqualus, has been used to harbour the great hammerhead on the grounds that Swainson’s reference to a figure in Russell depicts the great hammerhead. However, Swainson describes Platysqualus, - ?“The Sharks and Rays of Beaufort, North Carolina,” Bulletin U. S. Bu- reau of Fisheries, Vol. 34 (1914), pp. 252-3. NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 31 “Head more or less heart-shaped” and, by no stretch of the imagi- nation can | see how that could be applied to the great hammerhead, either more or less. Heart-shaped has frequently been used to de- scribe the head of the shovel-nose. The description, then, is definite and diagnostic. Judgments about the intent of Swainson seem use- less. We evidently have two parts to the description which are in conflict and one of them must be thrown out. It would seem the better policy to use the part of the description that Swainson himself produced, and if a separate genus is required for the shovel-nose sharks, Platysqualus of Swainson should be used. In the characters of skull shape and tooth form, the Florida west coast shovel-nose is closer to the smaller Florida hammerhead, a form which I[ tentatively call Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus), than to the great hammerhead Sphyrna tudes (Cuvier). The shovel-nose sharks may easily be distinguished from the ham- merhead sharks by the characters given in the key. The following discussion refers only to specimens collected at Engle- wood, and undoubtedly all of the same species. The largest speci- men in the lot of several hundred I have seen from Englewood was 110.0 cm. long (43% inches). The tooth count of ten adult speci- io aR We 14 1 14. meet: 13 1) 13 jaw have rather low pointed cusps, very oblique, and with the points directed toward the angles of the jaws. The cusps of the last two or three rows of teeth toward the angles of the jaws have very low cusps or the cusps are entirely absent. The lower teeth are similar except that the cusps are more nearly erect and the last four rows of teeth have cusps extremely small or absent. None of the teeth have serrate edges. At most seasons, specimens up to three and a half feet are common at Englewood, but I have no record of midsummer captures. An examination of stomach contents has shown that crabs form a large part of the diet. mens runs from Tne teeth of the upper 16. Sphyrne zygaena (Linnaeus). THe Common HAMMERHEAD. The Florida form of the common hammerhead may be readily separated from the great hammerhead by the characters presented in the key. Attention is particularly called to the shape of the sec- ond dorsal fin. The very long posterior lobe on the relatively low fin is characteristic and a reliable field mark. 16) 30716 The teeth are never serrate and are usually in Te 11g 1OWS: 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The upper teeth are oblique and narrowly triangular, with the points directed toward the angles of the jaws. The margins of some of the teeth are curved so that the points are directed straight out from the jaw. The lower teeth are slender and are more erect. ver Nasal grove, deep, 2 : Tasth of both jaws Ma cha ad \/ Arte serration ( @my \ Second dorsal fin. *, Fic. 16—THE Common HamMeErHEAD, Sphyrna zygaena The common hammerhead is more abundant at Englewood in winter and specimens of all sizes up to nine feet have been taken. No embryos have been collected. A few young individuals have been secured in the late spring. ‘17. Sphyrna tudes (Cuvier). THe Great HAMMERHEAD. At least a part of the original description of Sphyrna tudes ap- plied to specimens collected at Cayenne but Mediterranean speci- mens are mentioned as well. The plate accompanying the descrip- tion in ““Memoires du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle,’ M. A. Valen- Nasal groove very shallow, long. a7 'Taath of both jaws serrate. _-Nostril. Second dorsal fin. ~ \ \.-E V9» Fig. 17—TuHe Great HAMMERHEAD, Sphyrna tudes ciennes, Paris, 1822, pl. II, fig. la & 1b, is a poor illustration of the Florida Sphyrna tudes, and it may represent one of the Mediter- ranean specimens. Compared with the illustration, the Florida form has the mouth further back and larger. In Florida tudes, a line through the angles of the mouth is posterior to a line along the NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 33 posterior edge of the hammer. The anterior edge of the hammer in the illustration is more curved, the eyes are further forward and smaller, and the nasal groove is depicted as more prominent than in Florida specimens. The great hammerhead probably reaches a much greater size than the common hammerhead. Thirteen foot specimens are often taken and there seems to be reliable evidence that fifteen foot individuals have been secured. Apparently the species is not mature at less than ten feet long. No great modification in form has been noted during growth except that the hammer becomes more exactly transverse in old adults, much more so than in adults of the common hammerhead. The relative positions of the fins seems to be variable in this species as well as in the common hammerhead and the shovel-nose. The teeth of the great hammerhead are larger, in specimens of the same size, than the teeth of the common hammerhead. They are always serrate in both jaws, and the bases are very heavy. Tooth Ii 2 k7, 1G) 3616 with variations of plus or minus one from each figure of the formula. At Englewood, the great hammerhead is more abundant in sum- mer and large specimens have not been taken in winter. Three females with embryos have been taken, all in early June. Of these, a twelve foot specimen contained 30 embryos, and two thirteen foot specimens carried 37, and 38 embryos respectively. counts in most of the Englewood specimens have been 18. Rhineodon typicus Smith. THE WHALE SHARK. The whale shark is an enormous shark of the open seas. E. W. Gudger has recorded specimens from the coast of Florida where it Fic. 18—TuHE WHALE SHarK, Rhineodon typicus apparently is about as common as anywhere else. I have not seen one. Dr. Gudger, in various papers, has given about all that is known of the species. 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 19. Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre). THe THRESHER SHARK. ~~ This species is not common in Florida waters. I have seen one small one said to have been taken near Miami. JI collected one specimen of moderate size at Biloxi, Mississippi. Fic. 19.—THt TuHresHer Spark, Alopias vulpinus 20. Odontaspis littoralhs (Mitchill). Tae Sanp Ticer. Two of these big ugly sharks have been taken at Englewood, one specimen nine feet two inches long, and the other ten feet five inches long, on February eighth and March thirteenth. They are often taken on the east coast at all seasons, appearing irregularly in con- siderable numbers off Salerno. I have compared our specimens with a small one, sent to me by Mr. Breder of the New York Aquarium, and can find no noteworthy differences. Evidently, only the large specimens have been taken in south Florida waters and only -small specimens on the northeast coast of the United States. x ‘we \ Fic. 20.—Tue Sano-Ticer, Odontaspis littoralis The sand tiger bears a superficial resemblance to the lemon shark, but the snout is sharp pointed and the color is usually gray instead of brownish. In both, the second dorsal fin is comparatively large, nearly as large as the first dorsal. The teeth of the sand tiger are very long, slender, and sharp, with small accessory cusps on either side of the main cusp. There may also be rudiments of third cusps on either side. None of the teeth are serrate. The central ones in both jaws are long, in the ten foot five inch specimen the longest NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 35 tooth is 30 mm. from the tip to the enamel line, the lateral ones are very short, almost paved. The teeth are similar in both jaws. The fourth lateral teeth, counted from the symphysis, in the upper jaw are small, and the first laterals of the lower jaw are small. At least two series and sometimes three are functional. The tooth counts of h ee el ae 20 CO Me: ea aN 3 the two Englewood specimens ey eT ay EG anc a eG A single jaw from Salerno in my possession has the tooth count m 3 4 16. —_——— = These three counts indicate a wide variation in ma 1 0 15 the tooth formula.The bases of the sand tiger teeth are hard, much harder than in any of the sharks of the family Carcharinidae and similar to those of the mackerel sharks and great white shark in that respect. Both the Englewood sharks were adult females but neither car- ried embryos. When these sharks were captured both of them were enormously distended and on opening them we found that the stomachs contained bony fish, probably a hundred pounds in each. There were a large number of the shark remoras, Echenets nau- crates, small Pogonias cromis, Menticirrhus sp. and Chaetodipterus faber. Among the species of fish represented by a few specimens were Cynoscion nebulosus and Mugil cephalus. 21. Jsurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque. THE Mako SHARK. No mackerel sharks have been taken or sighted at Englewood. I have one set of jaws from off Havana which probably were taken Sie tooth, Fic. 21—TuHe Mako SuHarkK, I[surus oxyrinchus from a specimen of this species, and there is a cast in the Pfleuger Museum in Miami of a specimen which I believe should be referred to Isurus oxyrinchus. Isurus tigris (Atwood) is supposed to be present in the Gulf of Mexico, although it would probably not often 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES be found in the shallow shore waters of the Florida west coast. Isurus punctatus (Storer) may also occasionally appear in Florida waters. These are primarily fish-eating sharks, swift, powerful species of the open sea. They may be distinguished from other sharks except the great white shark (also a mackerel shark or member of the mackerel shark fanfily) by the presence of a strongly developed lower caudal lobe, making the tail-fin nearly symmetrical. Ea 22. Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus). THE GREAT WHITE SHARK. One of these was taken by Mr. Holbrook and Mr. Green at Long Beach near Sarasota in the winter of 1936-1937 and a second speci- men was taken by them the following winter. From a photograph, I judge that the second specimen was about fifteen feet long. A num- Tooth of upper jaw, serrate. serrate. Fic. 22—TuHeE Great WHITE SHARK, Carcharodon carcharias ber of the teeth were collected at the carcass dump of the Salerno shark station but Mr. Mooney tells me that these teeth must have come in in the stomachs of other sharks. It is possible that the species is much commoner than captures suggest. The species may be recognized by the characters given in the key. Fic. 23.—Tue Spiny Docrish, Squalus acanthias NOTES ON THE SHARKS OF FLORIDA 37 23. Squalus acaxthias Linnaeus. THr Sprny Docrisu. The spiny dogfish was recorded from the Indian River by Ever- mann and Bean. I have no doubt that the species is occasionally present in large numbers in deep water off the east coast of Florida in winter. KEY TO THE COMMON SHARKS OF THE SHALLOW WATERS OF FLORIDA 1. IF THE SHARK has no anal FUT, es | Sylvilagus palustris .......- Marsh rabbit x Geomys floridanus ......-..- Fla. pocket gopher x Peromyscus sp. - --...------ | Mouse x PEEVEOINYS, SP. —-----------.------- Rat x Sigmodon hispidus ...-.--- 4 Cotton rat x Arctodus floridanus* -.--.- Fla. short-faced bear x ants Verse ' \.......-..-...----- Dire wolf x Smnulodon floridanus’ .... Fla. sabre-tooth tiger x Mylodon harlai?’ ...-..... Harlan’s ground sloth | x ape oeias* ..............--.--. Armadillo x x Bguus leidyi' ........-.----.- Horse x > SF ness EGC 8 3a | Horse eather Tapirus spo Tapir x | at | Odocotleus osceola ...--.-.-- Fla. white-tailed deer x DSO ae Odocoileus sellardsiae’| ~ Sellard’s deer | | x Platygonus sp. ...-..-.-------- Peccary | me | MAVlohyus Sp" -..-----..-<-.-. " Peccary x Tanupolana mirifica? -...- Camel ees | SS Bison 2) \ mareiepnas sp" _....--....... Mammoth eS | * Extinct. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Letpy, JosepH. “Description of Mammalian Remains from a Rock Crevice in Florida,” Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Science, Vol. 2 (1889), pp. 13-17. 2. SeLiarps, FE. H. “Fossil Vertebrates from Florida,” Fla. Geological Sur- vey, 8th Ann. Report, (1916), pp. 102-3. 3. Hay, Oxtver P. “The Pleistocene of North America and its Vertebrated Animals, etc.,” Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Pub. No. 322, (1923), pp. 207 and 378. 4. Stimpson, GeorGE Gayiorp. “Extinct Land Mammals of Florida.” ate. Geological Survey, 20th Ann. Report, (1927-28), p. 271. THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE DEVELOP- ~ MENT OF HIGHER PLANTS Wi1LL1AM C. COOPER Bureau of Plant Indusiry, United States Department of Agriculture, Orlando t Julius Sachs, as early as 1880, clearly pointed out that the growth of plants may be influenced by “specific substances” not of the na- ture of foodstuffs. Twenty-five years later hormones were dis- covered in animals, substantiating the principal point of Sach’s theory. The term hormone was derived from a Greek word meaning ‘‘T arouse to activity” and was first used by Bayliss and Starling (1) in referring to “those chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands which, when carried by the biood stream to another organ, profoundly influence the activity of that organ.” It took another twenty-five years before botanists generally be- came aware of the soundness of Sach’s theory, but it is clear now that plants do produce special substances which coordinate the activ- ity of certain organs with that of others. These substances are ap- parently not nutrients in the ordinary sense, but rather of the nature -of specific substances regulating growth. Known chemical substances which are now regarded as plant hormones include the “auxins” and the “vitamins.” In both in- stances the substances have been isolated from the plant tissues and appear to have a regulating effect on some physiological process in the plant. The physiological effects of these two groups of sub- stances will be considered separately. THE AUXINS Isolation and identification of auxin—A large portion of the known facts about the auxins are based on work done on the cylin- drical primary leaf sheath, or coleoptile, of Avena. In this organ all cell divisions are completed at a very early stage, and subsequent growth consists entirely of cell elongation. li the tip of the coleop- tile is cut off, the coleoptile stops growing. Paal (23) demonstrated that this is not due to a simple wound shock, for, if the tip of a de- capitated coleoptile is replaced on the cut surface, the stump will grow faster than without the tip. It therefore appeared that this in- fluence of the tip was caused by some substance diffusing out of the tip. Success in obtaining the active substance from the coleoptile 56 HORMONES AND PLANT DEVELOPMENT BY tips was finally achieved by Went (40). He placed the coleoptile tips upon blocks of agar, and then placed the agar on one side of the stumps of the decapitated coleoptiles. The result was a curvature away from the agar block (See Fig. 1). He measured this curva- ture, which was found to be proportional, within limits, to the con- centration of the active substance. This test, “the Avena test,” was then used to determine some of the properties of the substance which was shown to be thermostable, readily diffusible, and to have a mole- cular weight of about 328. “> -—-—— = eS SS SM we P ae ec Fic. 1.—Diagrammatic summary of procedure in Avena test. [Abridged from illustration by Went and Thimann (43) | A.—Avena coleoptile. B.—Coleoptile decapitated leaving the primary leaflet protruding above the stump. C—tThe primary leaf partly drawn out. D.—Agar block with auxin placed on one side of cut surface, resting against the leaf so that it is held in place by capil- larity. E—Two hours after application of agar the resulting curvature is measured. The chemistry of various substances active in the Avena test was worked out especially by Kogl, Haagen Smit and Erxleben (18) and Thimann (31.). Kogl and co-workers isolated three different erystailine substances, all giving positive reaction in the Avena test. 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES They have been named auxin A (C,,H,,O,); auxin B (C,,H,,O,) ; and heteroauxin (indole-3-acetic acid C,,H,O,N). Their chemical structure is shown in Fig. 2. Auxin A and heteroauxin were isolated from human urine and auxin B from malt and corn-germ oil. Later Thimann (31) isolated heteroauxin from Rhizopus cul- tures. Kogl and co-workers also have given good evidence by in- direct methods that the active substance of the Avena coleoptile is auxin A. It is also probable that other plants contain the same auxin. : . : CH CH ¢H—-C—CHOH.CH, CHOH CHORE OOH: CH, C,Hs—-C H—-CH—CH bins AUXIN A CH; CH, CH CH GH—C—CHOH.CH,.COCH, COOH CH, ~ C,H-CH—CH—CH | AUXIN B CH, C—CH,COOH yon NI HETERO-AUXIN, Hy INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID Fic. 2.—Structural formulae for the auxins. The three auxins are physiologically indistinguishable, all of them giving the same type of growth and root production response. Also, it is now known (44) that a number of ether substances, such as indolebutyric acid and napthyl-acetic acid, affect growth and root formation in a similar way. These substances, however, have not been isolated from plant tissue. HORMONES AND PLANT DEVELOPMENT 59 Auxm and Growth.—Results of Went (41) with Avena coleop- tiles, Overbeek (22) with Raphanus hypocotyls, and Dijkman (10) with Lupinus hypocotyls have shown that straight growth appears to be strictly proportional to the applied auxin up to a clearly defined limit, which limit varies for different plants. Applications of auxin beyond this limit often result in swellings, and further growth in length is inhibited. In case of root growth, it has been shown repeatedly that certain concentrations of indoleacetic acid such as promote growth of shoots (1-10 p.p.m.) cause an inhibition of elongation of roots. It has, however, recently been made clear by Thimann (33) that in the presence of extremely dilute solutions (1/100 p.p.m.) roots of Avena are slightly accelerated in their growth. Grace (13) reported similar results for Salvia, lettuce, tomato, and nasturtium. Excel- lent results were also obtained from treating germinating seed with a hormone dust consisting of a dilute mixture of indoleacetic acid with talc or a standard mercurial dust disinfectant. Wheat seed treated with a 0.0002% indoleacetic acid preparation resulted in a 65% in- crease in the length of the roots as compared with that on non- treated seed. Thimann and Lane (35) in a continuation of their study on the response of roots of Avena to auxin has found that the plant soon recovers from the inhibiting effect of a treatment with high auxin concentration. The number of roots is increased and the general vegetative growth of the shoot is accelerated. The leaves may be- come both longer and wider, and the dry weight of the plant may be increased more than 50 per cent. Auxin and Root Formation—Following the discovery of the growth-promoting activity of the auxins, it was found that many well known correlations in organ development are brought about by the same substance. Sachs (27) assumed that root formation was due to a special root-forming substance synthesized in the leaves. Proof that a special substance produced by the leaves is indeed con- cerned was obtained by Went (42) and the isolation of this active substance by Thimann and Went (37) led to its identification with the auxins by Thimann and Koepfli (34). This identity with the atuxins has been independently confirmed by many other workers. Study of the use of indoleacetic acid for rooting cuttings of horti- culturally important plants was begun by Cooper (7). He obtained excellent root formation on cuttings of lemon, Acalypha and Lantana by application of auxin in lanolin paste form to the tip of the cutting. Later, the application of indoleacetic acid mm water solution to the 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES base of the cuttings was utilized successfully by Hitchcock and Zim- merman (17) and by Cooper (8) for cuttings of many other plants. Subsequently numerous other workers have obtained similar results with thousands of different plants. Also Traub (38) has found that a number of substances, which are not active in the Avena test, are active in inducing root formation on cuttings. The furane com- pounds and nicotine are examples of such compounds. Later, work by Went (45) has suggested that these substances sensitize the cut- ting, thus more or less preparing the way for the action of the nat- urally occurring auxin in the cutting. Auxin and Bud Inhibition—Another phenomenon long known as a typical correlation is the inhibitory effect of the terminal bud of a shoot on the development of lateral buds [Goebel (12) and Reed and Halma (25)]. The lateral buds, low down,on a stem, do not develop in presence of the terminal bud but if the terminal bud be removed, some of the laterals usually grow out at once; this !s the basis of all pruning. Thimann and Skoog (36) were the first to demonstrate that this inhibitory influence of the terminal bud is nothing but the auxin produced by it. They removed the terminal bud and put a dosage of indoleacetic acid on the stump. The buds did not start to grow, but if the indoleacetic acid was removed the ‘lateral bud developed. Thus it appears that indoleacetic acid is able to prevent buds from developing. Auxin and Cambial Activity—The one type of cell division which appears to be readily controlled by auxins under physiological condi-« tions is the formation of, and division in, the cambium. Snow (29) obtained excellent cambial activity in Helianthus hypocotyls by ap- plication of pure auxin A and indole-3-acetic acid in concentrations comparable to that occurring in the normal plant. He produced evi- dence that the auxin formed iby buds and leaves is responsible for the cambial activity below them. The stimulation of cambial divisions in trees by auxin has been studied by Soding (30), who showed that insertion of a crystal of indole-3-acetic acid into the cambium of woody twigs gives rise to a rapid growth of new secondary wood. Brown and Cormack (5) also found that the application of indole-3-acetic acid in lanolin (1 p.p.m.) to the distal end of disbudded cuttings of leader shoots of balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) stimulated cambial activity for a distance of 1.0—1.5 inches below the point of application. A comprehensive study of the histological reactions of bean and tomato plants to indole-3-acetic acid has been conducted by Kraus, Brown, and Hamner (20), and Borthwick, Hamner, and Parker (4). HORMONES AND PLANT DEVELOPMENT 61 Seedlings were decapitated and a lanolin-indoleacetic acid mixture (2 to 3%) was applied to the cut surface. In both plants many of the tissues oi the stem, in addition to the cambium, become meri- tematic in response to the treatment, although most of the activity was confined to a zone 0.5 to 2 mm. from the treated surface. The cells of the cortical parenchyma, endodermis, phloem parenchyma (both internal and external in case of the tomato), cambium, xylem rays, and the pith exhibited the greatest activity. Little or no meristematic activity, however, was found in the epidermis, most of the pericycle, sieve tubs, companion cells, and internal fibers. Auxin and Parthenocarpy.—Parthenocarpy, the production of fruits without pollen, occurs naturally in a number of plants and has been induced in others by a variety of means. Recently Gustafson (14) obtained fruit development in several species, which normally do not exhibit parthenocarpy, by applying lanolin mixtures of in- doleacetic acid to the styles which had first been cut off close to the ovaries. Fully developed fruits, without seeds, were obtained with tomato, Petunia, pepper, and eggplant. Hagerman (15) reported similar results with Gladiolus, and Gardner and Marth (11) pro- duced parthenocarpic fruits on the American holly by spraying the blossoms with aqueous solutions of indoleacetic acid. From these results and other evidence obtained by numerous workers, it appears that the pollen grain contains a growth promot- ing substance (probably auxin), which may be carried by the pollen tube to the ovary and cause it to grow. Other Aciiwities of Auxin—A number of other effects of auxin have been recorded. These include production of root nodules on roots of leguminous plants (32), crown galls on Phaseolus (6), and intumescences on leaves of Populus (21). It has also been shown by Traub (38) that dilute solutions of either indole-3-acetic acid or indole-3-butyric acid (1-10 p.p.m.) arrested senescence in fruits of Passiflora and Citrus. We have thus seen that the auxins play a varied role in the de- velopment of plants, and influence a large number of processes. THE VITAMINS Interest in the role of vitamins in plant development has centered upon the water-soluble (B and C) rather than upon the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D and E); so very little of the role of the latter is known at present. Vitamin B, is of general occurrence in the tissue of higher plants, it having been found in leaves, stems, roots, fruits, seeds, etc. [sum- 62. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mary in Sherman and Smith (28)|. The first direct demonstration that B, is a growth factor for higher plants was that of Kogl and Haagen Smit (19). They used excised pea embryos grown in vitro on'a nutrient medium and found that added B:i considerably un- proved the growth of the embryos, even in concentrations as low as 10°. The effect in this case was primarily upon the root, the length, weight, and branching of which was considerably increased. -Bonner (Z) and Robbins and Bartley (26) worked with the cul- ture of excised roots in vitro and found that pea and tomato roots will grow in vitro in an otherwise optimal nutrient Solution only if an adequate supply of B, is present. In other experiments with green plants, it has been demonstrated by Bonner and Greene (3). that the root is dependent upon the green leaf for its supply of this vitamin, and the growth of many green plants may be limited by a deficiency of B,. Aleurites, Buginvillaea, Arbutus, Eucalyptus, Camellia, and Bryophyllum all showed considerably increased growth from the application of an external supply of Vitamin B,. A similar response was obtained for papaya in the U.S. D.A. laboratory at Orlando. Furthermore, Bonner and Greene (3) have found that organic manure contains appreciable amounts of B, and conclude that the beneficial effects of manure upon plant development may be owing in part to its content of Vitamin B,. The B, content of the soil may be expected to be derived also from plant debris and from soil microflora. Vitamin C, also, is found generally in plant tissues. The work of Virtanen et al., (39), and Ray (24) has shown that good growth of the plant was correlated with a high vitamin C content. Later, Havas (16a) was able to increase the growth rate of wheat seed- lings by the addition of Vitamin C. Von Hausen (16) soaked pea seed in a concentrated Vitamin C solution, then grew the seedlings from such treated seed and found that seedlings from the treated seeds.increased in dry weight 35% faster than the controls. When young plants were deprived of their cotyledons, the effect of added vitamin C was even more striking. . Vitamin Bz is an essential part of one of the plant’s oxidative mechanisms and is very. widely distributed in the plant. This vita- min has a powerful growth promoting activity on young animals but no marked effect of added B. has been observed on the development of higher plants other than that it appears to induce germination of pollen (9). HORMONES AND PLANT DEVELOPMENT 63 CONCLUSION We are now beginning to see the array of accessory growth fac- tors which appear to be needed in minute amounts for the normal growth of the higher plants. In this brief review only the effects of known chemical substances have been considered. The existence of many other specific substances, concerned with the development of roots, leaves, flowers, etc., has been postulated, but the identity of these substances with known chemical compounds awaits further research. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bayress, W. M., and Sraritinc, E. H. “The mechanism of pancreatic - secretion,” J. Piiysiol., Vol. 28 (1902), pp. 325-53. Z. Bonner, J. “Vitamin B: a growth factor for higher plants,” Science, Vol. 85 (1937), pp. 183-4. 3. Bonner, J., and Greene, J. ‘Vitamin B: and the growth of green plants,” - Bot. Gaz., Vol. 100 (1938), pp. 225-337. 4. Bortruwicx, H. A., Hamner, K. C., and Parker, M W. “Histological and microchemical studies of the reactions of tomato plants to indoleacetic acid,’ Bot. Gaz., Vol. 98 (1937), pp. 491-519. 5. Brown, A. B., and Cormack, R. G. H. “Stimulation of cambial activity, locally in the region of application and at a distance in relation to a wound, by means of heteroauxin,” Can. Jour. Res., Vol. 15 (1937), pp. 433-41. 6. Brown, N. A., and Garpner, F. E. “Galls produced by plant hormones, including a hormone extracted from Bacterium tumefaciens,’ Phytopath., Vol. 26 (1936), pp. 708-13. 7. Cooper, W. C. “Hormones in relation to root formation on stem cut- tings,’ Plant Physiol., Vol. 10 (1935), pp. 789-94. 8. “The transport of root-forming hormone in woody cuttings,” Plant Physiol., Vol. 11 (1936), pp. 779-93. 9. “Vitamins and the germination of pollen grains and fungus ‘Spores,’ Boi. Gaz., Vol. 100 (1939), In Press. 10. Drjxman, M. J. “Wuchsstoff und geotropische Krumming bei Lupinus,” Rec. trav. bot. neerl., Vol. 31 (1934), 391-450. 11. Garpner, F. E., and Marty, P. C. “Parthenocarpic fruits induced by _ spraying with growth-promoting compounds,” Bot. Gaz., Vol. 99 (1937), pp. 184-95. 12. GorpeL, K. “Regeneration in plants,” Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 30 (1903), pp. 197-205. : 13. Grace, N. H. “Physiological curve of response to plant growth hor-- mones,” Nature, Vol. 141 (1938), p. 3557. 14. Gustarson, F. G. “Inducement of fruit development by growth pro- moting chemicals,” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. 22 (1936), pp. 628-36. 64 15. 16. 16a. 17. 18. Ie), 20. Zi6 22. Zs 25: 26. Cafe 28. 29: Jo. $l. a2, PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES HacerMaAn, P. “Uber durch beta-indolessigsaure ausgeloste partheno- karpie Gladiole,” Gartenbauwissen schaft, Vol. 11, (1937), pp. 144-50. Hausen, S. V. “Die Rolle des Vitamins C beim Wachtum der hoheren Pflanzen,” Biochem. Zeit., Vol. 288 (1936), p. 378. : Havas, L. “Ascorbic acid and the germination and growth of seedlings,” Nature, Vol. 136 (1935), p. 435. Hitchcock, A. E., ‘and Zimmerman, P. W. “Effect of growth sub- stances on the rooting response of cuttings,” Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst., Vol. 8 (1936), pp. 63-79. Koci, F., Haacen Smit, A. J., and Erxiesen, J. “Uber ein Phyto- hormone der Zellstreckung,” Zeits, physiol. Chem., Vol. 214 (1933), pp. 241-61. Koei, F., and Haaczen Smit, J. “Biotin und Aneurin als Phytohormone,”” Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem., Vol. 243 (1936), pp. 209-26. Kraus, &. J., Brown, N. A., and Hamner, K. C. “Histological reactions of bean plants to indoleacetic acid,” Bot. Gaz., Vol. 98 (1936), pp. 370- 419. La Rug, C. D. “Intumescences on poplar leaves. III. The role of plant growth hormones in their production,” Am. J. Bot., Vol. 23, pp. 520-4. OversEEK, J. VAN. “Wuchsstoff, Lichtwachstumsreaktion und Photo- tropismus bei Raphanus,” Rec. trav. bot. neerl., Vol. 30 (1933), pp. 536- 626. Paat, A. “Uber phototropische Reizeitung,” Jahrb. wiss. Bot., Vol. 58 (1919), pp. 406-58. Ray, S. “On the nature of the precursor of the vitamin C in the vege- table kingdom. 1. Vitamin C in the growing pea seedling,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 28 (1934), p. 996. Reep, H. S., and Hatma, F. F. “On the existence of a growth inhibiting substance in the Chinese lemon,” Univ. Calif. Publ. Agr. Sct., Vol. 4 (1919) No. 3, pp. 99-112. Roppins, W. J., and Barttey, M. “Vitamin Bi and the growth of ex- cised tomato roots,” Science, Vol. 85 (1937), pp. 246-7. SacHs, J. “Stoff und Form der Pflanzenorgane,” Arb. bot. Inst. Wurs- burg, Vol. 2 (1880), pp. 482-88. SHERMAN, H., and Smitu, S. The vitamins. (New York Chem. Cata- logue Co., 1931). Snow, R. “Activation of Cambial Growth by pure hormones,” Nature, Vol. 135 (1935), p. 876. Sopinc, H. “Uber den Einfluss von Wuchsstoff auf das Dickenwach- stum der Baume,” Ber. d. bot. Ges., Vol. 54 (1936), pp. 291-304. Tuimann, K. V. “On the plant growth hormone produced by RAtzopus suinus,” J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 109 (1935), pp. 279-91. “On the phvsioiogy of the formation of nodules on legume roots,” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc., Vol. 22 (1936), pp. 511-4 33. ie) oot ao. 40. 41. 42, 43, 44. 45. HORMONES AND PLANT DEVELOPMENT 65 “On the nature of inhibitions caused by auxin,” Amer. Jour. Bot. Voi. 23 (1937), pp. 561-9. THIMANN, K. V., and Koeprut, J. B. “Identity of the growth-promoting and root-forming substances of plants,” Nature, Vol. 135 (1935), p. 101. Tuimann, K. V., and Lang, R. H. “After-effects of the treatinent of seed with auxin,’ Amer. Jour. Bot., Vol. 25 (1938), pp. 535-42. THIMANN, K. V., and Sxooc, F. “On the inhibition of bud development and other functions of growth substance in Vicia faba,’ Proc. Roy. Soc. B, Vol. 114 (1934), pp. 317-39. Tuimann, K. V., and WENT, F. W. “On the chemical nature of the root-iorming hormone,” Proc. Kon. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, Vol. 37 (1934), pp. 456-9. Traus, H. P. “Growth substances with particular reference to sub- tropical fruit plants,’ Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., Vol. 35 (1938), pp. 438-42. VirTANEN, A. V., Hausen, S., und SAASTAMOINEN, S. Untersuchungen tuber die Vitaminbilding in Pflanzen,’ Biochem. Zeit., Vol. 267 (1933), p. 179. Went, F. W. “On growth-accelerating substances in the coleoptile of Avena sativa,’ Proc. Kon. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, Vel 30 (1926), pp. 10-19. “Wuchsstoff und Wachstum,” Rec. trav. bot. neerl., Vol. 25 (1928), pp. 1-116. “On a substance causing root formation,’ Proc. Kon. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, Vol. 32 (1929), pp. 35-9. Went, F. W., and TuHimann, K. V., Phytohormones. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1937). ZIMMERMAN, P. W., and Witcoxin, F. “Several chemical growth sub- stances which cause initiation of roots and other responses in plants,” Contrib. Boyce Thompsen Inst., Vol. 7 (1935), pp. 209-29. Went, F. W., 1939. (In Press). TORREYA WEST OF THE APALACHICOLA RIVER | HERMAN KURZ Florida Siate College for Women INTRODUCTION In the summer of 1936 I gave little credence to the statement of Carrie Yon Williams, a member of my Field Botany class, that Torreya’ was to be found west of the Apalachicola River on the old Yon Plantation near Lake Ocheesee, Jackson County, Florida; for I knew that that gently rolling country was not at all like the rugged Torreya hills, cliffs, and ravines east of the river ; moreover previous explorations in Jackson County had always shown a singular lack of many of the associates of Torreya of northern affinity or origin found east of the river. So, of course, Mrs. Williams must have been mistaken. Nevertheless, within a week specimens of Torreya came fresh from Dog Pond on the present J. W. Yon property. PRESENT AND PAST DISTRIBUTION Present Distribution—Now anything new concerning the distribu- tion of Torreya is of interest and importance to students of plant and animal distribution. It is not hard to account for this interest: in past geological times Torreya was more or less widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, but from the heart of this area the species vanished in geological times. The genus, because of itsonce greater past,. its subsequent decline, and its final local last stands, has always fascinated naturalists. Today only remnant areas with four well established relic species remain: Torreya californica Torr. in the mountains of California; Tor- reya taxtfolia Arn. in the Apalachicola River vicinity of Florida and extending a mile or so into Georgia; Torreya grandis Fort. in central and northern China according to Sargent,’ and in eastern China according to Rehder ;’ and Torreya nucifera Sieb. and Zurc. in * Among botanists: either Tumium taxtfolium (Arn.) Greene, or Torreya taxifolia (Arn.). To the pubiic in general: Torreya. Locally: Gopherwood, Savin, Stinking cedar, or Polecat wood. * Sargent, C. S., Manual of the Trees of North America (3rd Ed.; Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933), pp. 1-910. *Rehder, Alfred, Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1927). 66 TORREYA WEST OF THE APALACHICOLA 367 Japan. Sargent gives the Island of Quelpart as another station for Torreya but does not say which species. Rehder recognizes a fifth species, Torreya Fargesu, Franch. in central China and in western China. There is some doubt of the fifth species. But in any event great distances lie between any two of the species: Torreya taxifolia and Torreya californica are separated by a Torreya-less stretch of 2500 miles; from Torreya taxifolia eastward across the Atlantic Ocean, Europe, and Asia to Torreya grandis is about 8000 miles; from Torreya californica across the Pacific, 6000 or 7000 miles ; and even the species conveniently dismissed as “Asiatic” it must be realized may themselves be great stretches apart. Past Distribution.—According to Boeshore and Gray * fossil remains of Torreya have been reported from Alaska (Cretaceous) ; Protec- tion Island (Cretaceous) ; British Columbia (Cretaceous) ; Oregon (Eocene) ; California (Oligocene) ; Colorado (Cretaceous) ; Geor- gia (Cretaceous) ; North Carolina (Cretaceous) ; Virginia (Meso- zoic) ; Greenland (Cretaceous and Tertiary); France (Pliocene) ; and Silesia (Miocene). The fact that the species once flourished over such an enormous area lends peculiar interest to the four or five species remaining in as many isolated localities. EXPLORATION OF LOCALITY Because of this general interest and distributional significance I explored the new location, on February 4, 1937, with the aid of Mr. Penn King who acted as guide. The area was found to be about an acre in extent and contained about sixty trees. All size classes were represented from one foot high to fifty feet high and ten inches in diameter at breast height. According to I. H. King the colony was larger in former times but clearing adjacent forest land for cultivation has reduced the stand to its present size. And even now the habitat shows signs of burning, cutting, and disturb- ance by hogs; yet there are seedlings of Tumion as well as sprouts. But unless this colony is more violently and consistently abused the species stands a fair chance of perpetuation even in this isolated and maltreated spot. DISPOSITION OF SPECIMENS On June 12, 1937 I made my third trip to the Dog Pond station on the J. W. Yon property. At this time [ collected specimens. *Boeshore,, Irvir, and Gray, William D., “An Upper Cretaceous Wood: Torreya Antiqua,’ American Journal of Botany, Vol. 23, No. 8 (Octcber, 1936), pp. 524-528. 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Several were sent to the Herbarium of the Florida Experiment Sta- tion where they are now preserved as Specimen No. 26,668. On July 6 specimens were sent to the Herbarium of the New York Botanical Gardens and to the Herbarium of the University of North Carolina. Receipt of each of these has been acknowledged. PREVIOUS RECORDS ¢ Consultation of an early article by Chapman” revealed that fifty- two years ago he had stated ‘there are, also, a few trees at the southern extremity of Cypress Lake (now Lake Ocheesee) three miles west of the river (Apalachicola River).” In fact he includes a comprehensive, distributional map with Torreya hatched for the south side of the southern end of the Lake as well as for the eastern bluffs and tributary streams of the Apalachicola River. It must be pointed out that Chapman’s map of Cypress Lake is far too simple, diagrammatic, and wholly inadequate to have any value in placing or locating this colony of Torreya. It will be noted that he hatches Torreya on the southern end of Cypress Lake. The map of Ocheesee Lake in the present text is by 2 eeinan: draughtsman, after Bryan King, designer, both of the State Road Department. Mr. King is a native of the region in question and, therefore, we may consider his map of the Lake reasonably accurate. A comparison of the two maps—Chapman’s and the one of this paper—shows at a glance how much Chapman was in error. The colony is actually about six miles west of the Apalachicola River and not three as stated by Chapman. Moreover, the colony is slightly to the west of the south end of Dog Pond which in turn is south of an arm projecting southward from the northwestern end of Lake Ocheesee. Since we do not know which part of the very irregularly shaped Lake Ocheesee his diagram represents, it is difficult to assert just how far his hatched area would be from the actual location of Torreya at Dog Pond, but it probably lies about three miles north- west of Chapman’s indicated area. In spite of considerable exploration and consultation with local residents I have as yet no verified record of Torreya in this vicinity except the one at Dog Pond. This fact coupled with the inaccuracy of his map and a statement quoted by Chapman elsewhere in this paper make it hard to believe that he actually saw Torreya at Cypress Lake. On what basis Chapman mapped the species where he did is up to the present unknown to me. | *Chapman, A. W., “Torreya taxifolia, Arnott. A Reminiscence,” Bot. Gaz., Vol. 10 ( April, 1885), pp. 251-254. 3A te ns? GX EN TORREYA WEST OF THE APALACHICOLA 69 \ A | ACHIC | : 5 1 lobe: Large arrow in upper left hand corner indwster area where the Author ‘seated, poolngraphed and callectad Toreya ey ointuselsell fta. MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF LAKE OCHEESEE JO PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES However, the following other considerations are also of interest. Sargent * in speaking of Torreya taxifolia Arn., says: “Western Florida, eastern bank of the Apalachicola River from Chattahoochee to the neighborhood of Bristol, Gadsden County ; doubtfully reported from the shores of a small lake west of Ocheesee and at Wakulla Springs, Wakulla County (Curtiss).” He quotes’ Curtiss as fol- lows: “There are twd trees in this region of particular interest, as they are not known to grow anywhere else; these are the stinking cedar (Torreya taxifolia,) and the yew (Taxus Floridana). There is reason to believe that the Torreya occurs also along the Wakulla River, and perhaps elsewhere in the state, but there is no positive knowledge of its occurrence except along the Apalachicola River, on the limestone hills which border it at intervals on the east.” While this volume was not published until 1884 Sargent wrote his manu- script as early as 1880. So just about five years before Chapman’s statement and map or 1885 Sargent received but doubted the rumors of the presence of Tumion west of the Apalachicola River. Still more puzzling is the fact that Chapman himself confines Torreya to “rich soil, eastern banks of the Apalachicola River, middle Florida” in his revised book * published in 1897 twelve years after his article * in the Botanical Gazette. A number of others have written on the restricted distribution and endemism of Torreya: Gray,’ Curtiss (quoted in Sargent’), Nash,” Cowles,” and Harper,” “ All of these, tersely said memave by * Sargent, C. S., “The Forests of the United States in their Economic As- ’ pects,” Tenth Census of the United States, Vol. 9 (1884), p. 186. Nbr Space. | *Chapman, A. W., Flora of the Southern United States, (New York: American Book Co., 1897). “Gray, Asa, “A Pilgrimage to Torreya” The American Agriculturist, Vol. 34 (July, 1875), pp. 266-267. *° Nash, George V., “Notes on Florida Plants IJ,” Torrveya Botanical Club Bulletin, Vol. 23 (1896), pp. 95-108. ™ Cowles, H. C., “A Remarkable Colony of Northern Plants Along the Apalachicola River, Florida, and Its Significance,” Report of the Eighth International Geographic Congress, (1904), p. 599 ™ Harper, R. M., “The River Bank Vegetation of the Lower Apaiachicola, and A New Principle Illustrated Thereby,’ Torreya, Vol. 11 (November, 1911), pp. 225-26. ® Harper, R. M., “Apalachicola River Bluff and Bottoms. Geography and Vegetation of Northern Florida,” Fla. Geol. Survey, 6th Ann. Report (1914), pp. 210-216. TORREYA WEST OF THE APALACHICOLA 7) omission Or commission limited the tree to a relatively narrow, ir- regular block of rugged topography on the east side of the Apala- chicola from the Florida-Georgia line, but within Florida, to the neighborhood of Bristol. Harper,” by discovering a few trees growing just over the Florida-Georgia state line near Chattahoochee, extended the range of Torreya a mile or less into Georgia. Both Sargent and Small recognize this extension by Harper. But the same authors disregard Chapman’s record of isolated trees stranded near Lake Ocheesee, Jackson County about six miles west of the river; Sargent” states: “On bluffs along the eastern banks of the Apalachicola River, Florida, from River Junction to the neighbor- hood of Bristol, Liberty County, and in the southwestern corner of Decatur County, Georgia (R. M. Harper).” Small” says “bluffs and woods along the Apalachicola River and tributary streams.” This statement of Small’s, because of the omission of such terms as “eastern bank” as used by Sargent, is broad enough to cover any possible new stations of Torreya on either side of the river, yet Small’s retention of “tributary streams” makes the statement too specific to apply to the distribution of Torreya west of the river, for the known disjunctive Torreya station west of the river is far from any tributary streams. CONSIDERATIONS OF THE DISJUNCTIVE AREA The strange fact that Chapman’s record of these Torreva disjunctive outliers seems to have been consistently disregarded or overlooked for fifty-two years justifies a re-birth of his distribu- tional statements of 1885. Hitherto the records confine Torreya to a more or less irregular strip of about 18 miles in length north and south and varying eastward from the river. Its eastward extension would naturally depend locally upon the size of the tributary streams and their proportional valley bluffs. The maximum would probably be under eight miles away from the river. The extension of this extremely restricted species by five or six miles is therefore in itself notewerthy ; but there is still another interesting angle, and that is the freakishness of this outlying colony. Here we have on the one hand a species presumably very specific in its habitat, avoiding bluffs which appear from a vegetative, topographical, and soil aspect just a “Harper, R. M., Tumion taxifolium in Georgia,’ Torreya, Vol. 19 (June, 1919), pp. 120-2. ®* Small, J. K., Manual of the Southeastern Flora. (New York: Author, 033). Fa, PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES continuation of the hills two or three miles farther north and east- ward where it does grow; a species avoiding also a rather highly dis- sected area in the vicinity of Quincy, 20 miles farther east where many of its arboreal associates do grow. There is even no record of the species on the hills a mile across the river nor is it found on the natural levees adjacent to the banks east of the river which | harbor many of its tree associates of the bluffs. In fact, though it does often invade the more nearly level adjacent terrain, it seldom, if ever, ventures far into the level uplands bordering the river bluffs. On the other hand the tree has moved six miles in the opposite direc- tion across the river and established itself in an area of about one acre, on soil only a few feet above the adjacent swamp and in a . locality devoid of bluffs or ravines and of the northern species as- sociated with Torrcya at the river. HABITAT STUDIES Plant Associates of Torreya.—This Apalachicola River region con- tains practically all arboreal species to be found in central and north Florida besides some not found elsewhere. In addition many northern species find their southernmost extension here. Cowles,” Harper,” and Kurz” have pointed this out. 00282. X 5963.7 == iia and the statement “this result checks [!] the figure 1.117 used in the formula.” Since the number .00282 is correct to only 3 significant figures, the computed result would be reliable to no more than 3 figures, namely, 1.12. How can the author then — say that this checks the figure 1.117, to four figures? In this same issue we find the computation 1.0054 0.998 Three figure data, yet results pretending to be accurate to five figures! The result should have been given as 1.01, known to the nearest 3 figures only. ee 0074 7 Vol. 16? (Jan. 15) 1938) Ue PRETENDED ACCURACIES IN COMPUTATION 93 In a famous text on thermodynamics we find “Weight of Fuel Mixture required per minute (42.44) (80) (0.83) (205) Here a part of the data is correct to only 2 figures, the factor 0.83 representing the highly uncertain value of the mechanical efficiency of the engine. Hence, the result should be given to no more than 2 figures (20 lbs.) 22) 19 95) bh." In a text on mechanics for engineers we find the problem “Find the work done in raising 100 tons of ore from a mine shaft 1500 it. deep, hoisting apparatus having total efficiency of 45%.’ The answer is given as 666 666 667 ft. lbs. ! This is a classic! Such an accuracy in the computed result would require the load of ore to be measured to the nearest one- thousandth of a pound, and the depth of the mine shaft correct to the nearest one-ten thousandth of an inch! In the same text the kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel is computed to five figures, K.E.=Ylw = (1000/32.2) (2)* (20.94) =27234 ft. lbs., even though the value of the acceleration of gravity (g=32.2) is given to only three figures. Similar errors are found throughout the textbooks in the applied sciences of mechanics, strength of materials, hydraulics, -thermodynamics, etc. These simple errors are unbelievably frequent. In fairness we must say that some authors are very accurate, but the sad fact remains that only rarely does one find a textbook in the applied sciences that does not contain such silly mistakes. | Who is responsible for all of this? Who taught these writers how to make such ridiculous computations? Evidence will now be given showing that the college textbooks in the basic com- putational sciences (physics, chemistry, and mathematics) en- courage these practices and actually teach these in their il- lustrative problems. In a recent excellent textbook in physics, we find an illustra- tive problem computing the pressure of a column of mercury 76 cm. high at 0° C to seven figures with data given to only two and three figures: P = 76 (13.6) (980) = 1012928 dynes /cm.”. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCITENOES In a general chemistry text the author uses three-figure data to obtain a result to six figures: 2 (0.x 10 X 2735) ae ee 2 2755820) ee then 9.19 % 1.429 = 13.1325 pihexyeem In a college trigonometry text we find the problem: “The Star Sirius is 5.26 & 10” miles distant. How long will it take light to travel from the star to us at 186,000 m1. per second ?” The data are given to only 3 figures, yet the answer is given to 5 figures: Ans. 3254.4 days. So far we had only illustrations of carrying out computations to an accuracy incompatible with the accuracy of the data. Other types of pretended accuracies and undesirable practices are now listed: fe Problems are given with data appearing to be measured quanti- ties, yet computations are made as if the data were exact. Illustration from a mathematics text: X 322 (26): |= 2 pee 93.5 lta ity ok ea MO ee Answers pretend to be exact when they are not—can not be exact. Illustration. The volume of a silo with inside diameter = 20 ft. height = 12 ft. (using G22) 7 V = ahh = 22/7 (10)? (12) =3771 ay eee Many texts, when working with 4—place logarithm tables, always keep 4 figures in the answers, and never mention the fact that the fourth figure is usually considerably in error. When approximate values are substituted for the various ir- rational and transcendental quantities, they are not taken ac- curately enough. That is, errors are introduced into the result due to the insufficiently accurate values of the rounded-off values of quantities like ay 2, sin 40°, log 1.05 PRETENDED ACCURACIES IN COMPUTATION 95 6. Data are sometimes given to an improbable or even impossible degree of accuracy. 7. - Problems involving physical constants are often carried out too far. This is frequently done in the kinematics and dynamics problems of mechanics involving the value of acceleration of gravity, g = 32.2. Similarly in problems involving densities, specific gravities, or atomic weights. HOW FREQUENT ARE THESE ERRORS? Some texts are literally filled with them while others contain very few. They really shouldn’t contain any such errors. It must be noted also that some texts have few if any illustrative numerical computations.