PROCEEDINGS ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES PHILADELPHIA. 1881. publication committee: Joseph Leidy, M.D„ Geo. H. Hokn, M.D. WiLiiiAM 8. Vaux, Thomas Meehan, John H. Redfield. Editor: EDWARD J. NOLAN, M.D. PHILADELPHIA: ACADEMY OF NATUKAL SCIENCES, S.W. Corner Nineteenth and Race Streets. 1882. )^^aa Academy of Natural Soibnces op Philadelphia, February, 1882. I hereby certify that printed copies of the Proceedings for 1881 have been presented at the meetings of tlie Academy, as follows: — ^ges 9 to 24 May 10, 1881. " 25 to 5G . May 31, 1881. 57 to 88 . June 14, 1881. " 89 to 112 . June 21, 1881. " 113 to 144 . August 2, 1881. " 145 to 160 . August 18, 1881. " 161 to 176 . September 13, 1881. " 177 to 208 . September 27, 1881. '• 209 to 256 . October 18, 1881. " 257 to 304 . November 8, 1881. " 305 to 384 . November 22, 1881. " 385 to 414 . . December 6, 1881. " 415 to 446 . December 13, 1881. " 447 to 462 . . February 7, 1882. " 463 to 478 . . February 21, 1882. EDWARD J. NOLAN, Recording Secretary. PHILADELPHIA W. P. KtLDARE. Printer. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. With reference to the several articles contributed by each. For "Verbal Communications, see Greneral Index. Arango, Rafael. Description ef new species of Terrestrial MoUusca of Cuba 15 Buckley, S. B. Quercus Durandii Buckley 121 Quercus rubra L. var. Texana 123 Rhus cotinoides Nutt 125 Chapman, Henry C, M. D. Observations upon the Hippopotamus 126 On a Foetal Kangaroo and its Membranes 468 Heilprin, Angelo. Notes on the Tertiary Geology of the Southern United States , 157 A Revision of the Cis-Mississippi Tertiary Species of the United States 416 Remarks on the Molluscan Genera Hippagus, Verticordia and Pecchiolia 423 Note on the Approximate Position of the Eocene Deposits of Mary- land 444 A revision of the Tertiary Species of Area of the Eastern and South- ern United States 448 Lockington, W. N. List of the Fishes collected by Mr. W. J. Fisher, upon the coast of Lower California, 1876-77, with descriptions of new Species 113 McCook, Rev. H. C. The Honey Ants of the Garden of the Gods 17 The snare of the Ray Spider (Epeira radiosa), a new form of Orb- web 163 Ryder, John A. The Structure, AfBnities and Species of Scolopendrella. 79 Stearns, R. E. C. Observations on Planorbis 92 Wachsmuth, Chas. and Frank Springer. Revision of the Palseocrinoidea. Part II, Family Spheeroidocrinidse 177 / S^ b 1^ "> PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 1881. January 4, 1881. Dr. Jos. Leidy in the chair. Twenty persons present. Bhizopods as Food for Young Fishes. — Prof. Leidy remarked that last September he had received a letter from Mr. S. A. Forbes of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Normal Illinois, stating that the 3'onng of some of the suckers {Catasto- midse), Hi/jjentelium, Myxostoma, etc., " have the intestines packed with tests of Difflugia and Arcella.^'' Later, Mr. Forbes sent two slides, with some of the intestinal contents, for examination. The slide with food from the intestine of the large-scaled Mullet Myxostoma macrolepidotum, from Macinaw Creek, contained the following species: DiFPLiTGiA GLOBULOSA. Shell of rather coarse sand, with laroer o-rains around the mouth ; mostly in the shape of the segment of an oval" with the oral pole truncated. Most numerous form. Measurements of a number were c^s follows : 1. Shell 0.18 mm. long ; 0.162 broad ; oral end, 0.103 broad. 0.18 0.156 0.174 0.198 0.198 0.156 0.15 0.156 0.168 0.31 0.103 0.073 0.09 0.096 0 108 Difflugia acuminata. Shell mostly slightly unsymmetrical • some with a slight neck, straight or slightly everted at the mouth ; a few with 3 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. two points to the summit ; usually of minute sand and comparatively smooth. One oblique form noticed (No. G), approaching D. constricfa. 1. Shell 0.18 mm. long ; 0.108 broad ; oral end 0.06 broad. 2. Shell of same size, but with a short neck, slightly erected and undulant at the border. 3. Shell 0.18 mm. long ; 0.114 broad ; oral end 0.048 broad. 4. " 0.198 " " 0.103 " " 0.06 " 5. " 0.18 " " 0.114 " " 0.06 " 6. *' 0.163 " " 0.09 " " 0.06 " Nos. 1-3 of fine sand, and smooth ; Nos. 4-6 of coarser sand. The slide with food of Eremyzon succetta. The material apparently consisted of the superficial sediment of the water, and contained entomos- tracans, rotifers, dipterous larvae, desmids, diatoms, etc., together with the following : DiPFLUGiA GLOBOLOSA. Shell 0.15 mm. long, 0.138 broad; oral end 0.078 broad. DiFFLUGiA L0B08T0MA. Shell with trilobed mouth, 0.09 mm. long, 0.078 broad ; mouth 0.03 wide. Several measvired of the same size ; others slightly smaller. The most common species present. DiFFLUGiA PYRiFORMis. Shell 0.43 mm. long, 0.31 broad, at mouth 0.09 broad. Arcella vulgaris. Variety with pitted shell. Arcella discoides. Shell 0.18 mm. broad, mouth 0.036 wide. Another specimen 0.15 broad, with mouth 0.054 wide. Another rhizopod shell observed, was diflferent from any pre- viously noticed. The shell had the form of that of Arcella dis- coides, with no trace of the structure characteristic of that of Arcella, but composed of a nearly colorless or pale yellowish chitinoid substance, incorporated with minute spherical granules of uniform size, darkly outlined, scattered irregularl}^, isolated, or in little groups or chains, straight or irregular, and in pairs, or up to five in number. The specimens measured about 0.105 mm. broad, with the mouth 0.03 wide. A chain of five granules of the shell measured 0.009 mm. long. It is certainly an interesting observation of Mr. Forbes, to dis- cover that the young suckers should use the rhizopod shells to olitain as nutriment their little stores of delicate protoplasm. January 11. Dr. John L. Le Conte in the chair. Eighteen persons present. A paper entitled "Descriptions of new species of Terrestrial Mollusca of Cuba," by Rafael Arango, was presented for pub- lication. 1881.] natural sciences of philadelphia. 11 January 18. The President, Dr. Ruschenberqer, in the chair. Twenty persons present. January 25. The President, Dr. Ruschenberqer, in the chair. Twenty-one persons present. Jos. J. Knox and Geo. H. Rex, M. D., were elected members. Chas. Velain, of Paris, was elected a correspondent. February 1. Mr. Geo. W. Tryon, Jr. in the chair. Ten persons present. February 8. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Twenty-seven persons present. Note on Treeless Prairies. — Mr. Thomas Meehan remarked that the absence of timber or arborescent growth on the grassy prairies of America, still continued to be a matter of controversy, but he believed that in the light of accumulating evidence, we mip-ht now come to a positive decision in regard to the question. The most prevalent belief had been that trees would not grow on these prairies, — and we have had theories relating to soil or climate, to show why they could not grow. Then there were others who believed that trees did grow there in ancient times, but had been burnt off, and kept burnt off by annual fires. Mr. Meehan considered in detail, the authors who had pro- pounded various theories, and the distinguished men who had ad- vocated them, and said that it was evident climate could have nothing to do with the question, because in these prairie regions there were often large belts of timber lands, projected like huge arms into the grassy regions, with precisely the same climatal conditions over both. That the soil was not unfavorable, was proved now by the artificial plantations everywhere successful and that the soil was unfavorable to the germination of tree seed as suggested by Prof. Whitney, was on the face of it untenable 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. from the foct that it required but the same conditions for the seeds of trees as for those of lierbaceous plants, the number of species of which on the prairies was well known to be very large. Another great gain to our present knowledge, was that since the annual firing of the grass}^ prairies had been discontinued by the advance of civilization, the timber was everywhere encroaching on them. Among the facts which he otfered in proof of this, was a reference to p. 505 of the Yth Report of the Geological Survey of Indiana, where Dr. Schneck shows how land which was once grassy prairie, is now covered with a luxuriant growth of forest trees ; to the evidence of Major Hotchkiss, Geologist of Staunton, Vir- ginia, that the Shenandoah Vallej', now heavily timbered, was clear of trees in the early history of Virginia ; to the discovery of buffalo bones, in caves near Stroudsburg, Pa., by Dr. Joseph Leidy, — now a timbered region, the buffalo only existing in open, grassy countries ; ^ and to various traditions of settlers in some valleys now timbered, that the land was originally clear of trees. He pointed out that in all known parts of the United States at the present time, except the arid regions, where only drought- loving plants could exist, the natural result of freedom was the succession of forest growth. Seeds were scattered by winds or animals over acres of cleared land ; if such land became neglected, these, again seeding in time, extended the forest area continu- ally'. The tallest growing vegetation, lilic trees, crowded out the weaker, and the forest naturally crowded out the lower growing and weaker herbaceous plants. He illustrated this by reference to the neglected cotton-fields of the Southern States. From all this, the speaker said that it was evident that there was nothing in Nature either now or in the past, to prevent the gradual encroachment of the forest over the grassy plains, till long before the white man came here, the whole would have been com- pletely covered by arborescent growth. Were there any artificial causes equal to the exclusion of trees, and j^et permitting an her- baceous growth ? If we were to sow a piece of land in the autumn with some tree seed and some seeds of annuals, the latter would be up, flower, mature and scatter their seed to the ground before the next autumn, and many of these seeds would be washed into the earth, or drawn into the eai'th by insects or small animals. But tree seed would make young trees, which would not again produce seed for ten or more years. If now, at the end of this first season, a fire swept over the tract, the seeds of the annuals which had found a slight earthy protection, would come up again the next summer, again seeding and extending the area. The trees would be burned down, and though perhaps many would sprout, successive bui-nings would keep them confined to one place. In short, under annual burnings, herbaceous plants could > Since the reading of the paper, it has been brought to the attention of the author, that the bones may have belonged to the Wood Buffalo. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 13 still increase their area annually, but trees could never get far beyond the line they had reached when the annual fire first com- menced. There could be no doubt that an annual burning in a tract destitute of forest growth, would certainly prevent the spread of timber, or of any plant that required more than a year to mature seed from the time of sowing. Now, if we look at the actual facts, we find that the Indians did annually fire the prairies. Father Hennepin, the earliest writer on Indian habits, noted that it was the practice in his time. There is little doubt but this practice of annual burning has been one extending long into the past. What object had they in these annual burnings ? They must have known that the buflTalo and other animals on which they were largely dependent for a living, throve only on huge grassy plains, and that it was to their interest to preserve these plains by every means in their power. Low as their power of reasoning may be, they could not but have perceived that while grassy herbage throve in spite of fires, perhaps improved under the fiery ordeal, trees could not follow on burned laud. What could be more natural than that they would burn the prairies with the object of retaining food for their wild animals ? If we have no difficulty in reaching a positive conclusion so far, we may now take a glance at the early geological times. Mr. Meehan then re- ferred to the researches of Worthen, Whittlesley and others in Ohio, Illinois and other prairie regions. On the retreat of the great glacier, the higher lands and drift formation were probably high and dry long before the immense lakes formed from the melting and turbid waters ceased to be. It was tolerably well understood that many species of trees and other plants which required a temperate atmosphere, retreated southward!}^ with the advance of the glacier, and advanced to higher latitudes on the glacier's retreat. Thus these higher ridges would become timbered long before the lower lands became dry. Evidence accumulates that man existed on this continent, in the far west, not long after the glacier retreated, though '"not long," in a geological sense, may mean many hundreds of years. The lakes of glacial water would gradually become shallower from the deposit of the highly comminuted material brought down from higher land, from the wearing away of rocky breastwoi'ks as in South Pass, Illinois, as well as from the openings which would continually occur from nature's ever varying plan of streams under ground. In all events, the drying of these lakes would be from their outward edges first. Aquatics would give way to marsh grasses, and these to vegetation such as we now find gener- ally spread over the prairie region. If now we can conceive of human beings such as we know the Indian races to be, al- ready in more southern latttudes — having learned the fact that firing would keep down trees and aid in the preservation of the chase — following the retreat of the glacier to the higher lands, and still as they advanced northwardly, firing the plains up to the 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 'OP [1881. water's edge, it would certainly account for tlie absence of ar- boreal vegetation from these immense lacustrine lands from the ver}- beginning of their formation. Of course with this view we should have to look for some evidences of man's existence, both on the lands which were once under water, as well as those which were timber lands at his first appearance there. He did not know how many such evidences have been or ma}^ be found. Man's traces in the past are at best but rare, and they would naturally be much more scarce in the lacustrine regions than in lands dry at the same epoch. At any rate, this part of his remarks he said, must be taken as mere speculation ; but, as we could see on the basis of sound scientific investigation why there could be no trees on these grassy prairies within the range of indubitable history, it was a fair inference that some such cause had continued from the beginning; namely, that annual fires had ever been the reason why arborescent vegetation had never had an existence there. The resignation of Mr. Edw. S. Whelen, as a member of the Council and Finance Committee, was read and accepted. February 15. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Nineteen persons present. A paper entitled " The Honey Ants of the Garden of the Gods," by Rev. Henry C. McCook, D. D., was presented for publication. February 22. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Thirty-six persons present. The death of Harry C. Hart, M. D., a member, was announced. Mr. Isaac C. Martindale was elected a member of the Finance Committee, to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation of Mr. Edw. S. Whelen. Mr. Charles P. Perot was elected a member of the Council for the unexpired term of Mr. Whelen. Robert P. Field was elected a member. John Brazier, of Sydne}^, N. S. W. ; Rafael Arango, of Habana, and Chas. Mohr, of Mobile, Ala., were elected correspondents. The following were ordered to be printed : — 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 15 DESCKIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES OF TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCA OF CUBA. BY RAFAEL ARANGO. Choanopoma acervatnm Arango. Testa obtecte-umbilicata, ovato-oblonga, plerumque decollata, tenuis, plicis transversis irregulariter et costulis spiralibus dis- tantibus undulatiin et acervatiminterruptis lamellata, albida, anfractus 6 (superstites 3^-4) convexi, lente acrescentes ad suturam canaliculatam (ob plicarum extremitatem) denticulati, ultimus aufractui coutigui callo adnatus ; apertura eircularis, peritrema dupli- catum, interniim rectum, externum patens, concentrice striatum et ob costulas spirales testae undulatum, ad anfractum contiguum Galium tbrmans, turn umbilicum lamina lata fornicata tegens. Long. 8^-9^ ; diam. 4^5 mill. Differt ab Choan. Tryoni Arango primo visu costulis spiralibus, ab sordido imprimis plicis testas undulata interrupta. Habitat. — Las Lagunitas prope Pinar del Rio partis occidentalis in plantatione dicta " Yega de D. Manuel de Jesus Hernandez." Cylindrella paradoza Arango. Testa sine umbilico, fusiformi-turrita, solidula, albida, costis subrectis confertis munita, Integra, apice obtusiuscula, anfractus 12-13 convexi, penultimus longitudinaliter in medio canaliculatus, ejusdem pars superior reliquis an- fractibus igualis quoad sculpturam, inferior angustior, reducta, costulis magis aproximatis, dein dilatata et umbilicum tegens. Apertura piriformis, obliqua, superne angustior ob carinam salientem partis superioris anfrac- tus. Peritrema continuum, undique ffiqualiter expansum. Col- umna interna simplex. Long. 12^ ; diam. 2^ mill. Habitat. — Guane in loco " Puerta de la Muralla " dicto. Cylindrella incerta Arango. Testa quoad sculpturam et columnam internam simillima Cylindrellse cserulans Poey, sed forma ven- troso-cylindracea et anfr. superst. 8 (in testa Integra 14). Long. 18 ; diam. 4^, testa Integra. Long. 14i ; diam. 4^, testa fracta. Habitat. — Guane in loco " Puerta de la Muralla " dicto 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Ctenopoma nodiferum Arango n. sp. Testa clauso-perforata, cylinclraceo-turrita, decollata, tenuis, plicis aequaliter distantibus et liris debilibus decussata, cineracenti- albida, anfr. 3^-4 superstites convexi, lente accrescentes, ad suturam canaliculatam subdenticulati ; ultimus subdisjunctis pone aperturam callo lato cum penultimo anfractu junctus ; apertura verticalis, obliqua, ovalis ; peritrema duplicatum, internum rectum, externum subaequaliter patens, sed superne dilatatum, anfractum contiguum attingens et umbilicum claudens. Operculum typicum generis. Long, testse truncatae 8 ; diam. 3 ; apert. 2 mill. Simile Ctenopomati nodulato ; sed differt testa plicis aequaliter distantibus (nee acervatim approximatis et liras decussata). Habitat. — Sub lapidibus circa oppitum Santo Gristo de la Salud prope Bejucal. Ctenopoma Wrightianam Gundl. n. sp. Testa subperforata, cylindraceo-turrita, decollata, costis sequali- ter distantibus obtusis et liris subtilissimis decussata, cineracenti- albida, anfr. de superstites, convexi, lente accrescentes, ad suturam canaliculatam denticulati ; ultimus subdisjunctus pone aperturam callo lato cum penultimo anfractu junctus ; apertura verticalis, oblique ovali-rotundato ; peritrema duplicatum internum rectum, externum subaequaliter patens, sed superne non dilatatum itaque anfractum penultimum non attingens. Operculum typicum generis. Long, testae truncatte 11 ; diam. 5 ; apert. 2^ mill. Proximum Ctenopomati ruguloso sed distinctum costis testse obtusis (nee acutis) et liris decussata. Habitat. — Sub lapidibus loci Punta de la Jaula dicti in Proviucia Pinar del Rio, partis occidentalis. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. IT THE HONEY ANTS OF THE GARDEN OF THE GODS. By Rev. Henry C. McCook, D. D. I. — Geographical Distribution, The peculiarity in the Honey Ants (Myrmecocystus melliger) which has attracted the especial attention of naturalists is that one of the castes or worker forms has the abdomen distended to the size and form of a currant or small grape, and entirely filled with grape-sugar or " honey." Yery little of their habits has heretofore been known, and onl^^ the forms of the hone3-bearer and worker-major. In order, if possible, to remove this reproach from Entomology, I started in the early part of July, A, D. 18T9, for New Mexico, as the honey- ants have been found in the neighborliood of Santa Fe, and even as far north as Abiquiu, on the Big Chama River.^ During a brief visit at the cottage of Gen. Charles Adams, ^ of Manitou, Colorado, which is located in the mouth of the Garden of the gods, in the course of some observations made upon the ants of the vicinit}'^, a nest was discovered whose external archi- tecture was new to me. The sentinels were called out hy the application of a straw, and their general appearance raised the suspicion that they might be Honey Ants, which, as I had never seen specimens, were known to me only b}^ description. The nest was opened, and the delightful fact revealed that the objects of my search were before me. I thereupon made an exploration of the vicinity, and found that the nests were present in sufficient numbers for purposes of study ; whereupon I abandoned m}' New Mexico outfit, encamped in the Garden of the gods, and began the observations of which the following paper is the record. Up to the time of my discovery, it had not been known that the Honey Ants were distributed as far north as Colorado. I found no formicaries at any other point in the State, although the opportunity to search for them was limited. There is little doubt, ^ At the latter point Prof. Edward D. Cope informed me that he had seen them. Dr. Loew and ^Ir. Krummeck saw them near Santa Fe. ^ Gen. Adams has recently been widely known by his intrepid venture among the hostile White River Ute Indians, and rescue of their unhappy prisoners, Mrs. Meeker and others, at the risk of his own life. As a recog- nition of this service he has been appointed Minister Plenipotentiary for the United States to the Republic of Bolivia, 2 Matamoras, Mex., 50 " Lano-stroth 18 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881' however, that they ma}^ be found in favorable locations in the entire soutliern portion of the state, and perhaps also north of the latitude of Pike's Peak.^ Mexico, New Mexico and southern Colorado, may certainly be designated as the natural habitat of the Honey Ants. It is probable, however, that they may be found throughout the entire south-western portions of North America, especiall^^ the uplands. They will doubtless be found west of the Rockj' Mountains, as I have recently found one female of this species among a collection of Hymenoptera sent to Mr. Cresson from southern California. The following facts can be presented concerning the vertical distribution : — LiOOAi/iTY. Elevation. Observer. City of Mexico, . . . T482 feet, Llave. Brownsville, U. S.,) * ' Santa Fe, 7047 " Loew, Kummeck. Abiquiu, 5930 " Cope. Garden of the gods, . . 6181 " McCook. It will thus be seen that the points at which these insects have heretofore been found, lie for the most part upon uplands, ranging from 6000 to 7500 feet in height above sea level. Mr. Langstroth's find is recorded as "in the vicinity of Matamoras."^ If this means the near vicinity, the fact prevents the generalization which one might otherwise have been tempted to form, limiting the ants to the upland, for Matamoras has but a slight elevation. II. — Nest Sites and Exterior Architecture. The Honey Ants are domiciled in large numbers throughout the section of country known as the Garden of the gods. The conformation of the surface here appears to be an im- portant element in determining the habitat of the insects, and deserves a brief notice. The Garden of the gods embraces a 1 The matter of their distribution is a point to which the attention of entomologists and other naturalists is called, and any information bearing thereupon will be of value. ^ I could not lay hands upon the elevations of Matamoras, which cannot vary much from that of Brownsville, Texas, on the opposite side of the river. 3 "Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.," vol. vi, 1852, p. 71. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHTLADELPHTA. 19 space of about two miles in length by one in -width, the surface of which is broken into ridges crossing each other at various angles, and crowned or bordered at the top by the red sandstone and conglomerate rocks, whose peculiar shapes and likenesses to heathen deities have probablj- suggested the name given to this bit of landscape. A rude idea of the topography may be had by drawing a horse-shoe, the toe toward the north ; within the mouth of this let a second horse-shoe be described, occupying about one- half the space in width and one-third in length. Unite the toes of •HV"/'/ :'i:h^r^i>^ ^'^^v- fff.-'w^^**' Fis. 1.— Sketch-map of the Garden of the gods. the two shoes by a zig-zag line, and draw lines east and west, on either side from the interior figure. The western line of the out- side shoe will represent the Manitou ridge, which starts at the base of Pike's Peak. The eastern line will indicate the cretaceous wall of the table-land known as the Mesa, and the two walls of the Red Canyon. The inner shoe has for its western line the Von Hagen ridge, for its eastern the Adams ridge ; the east and west lines will represent the general course of the- ridges which drop down from these two, from the broken central ridge, Prospect ridge, represented hy the zig-zag line, and from the eastern face of Manitou ridge. These ridges are composed of red sandstone, which crops out freely, forming vast ledges and cliffs. The top soil, where the rock is not exposed, is a heavy gravel, upon which grow tufts of gramma grass, straggling bunches of grease wood, 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Spanish bayonet, low cedars and pine, and in the little vales or nooks wild sunflowers, wild roses, and numerous small thickets and clusters ol' a scrub oak (Quercus undulata). These localities are indicated diagramatically in the sketch-map at Fig. 1. All along the tops of these ridges, and on the eastern and south-eastern slopes, the nests of the Honey Ants arc located (PL I, fig. 2 ^). About ninety per cent, of those found were on the tops of the ridges, and every one on or near the summit or central line of the top. The choosing of such a site may, there- fore, be inferred to be a fixed habit of the ant. The advantage of this location is apparent, at least in the points of dryness and warmth. I made several observations of the effects of the heavy July and August rain storms upon the exterior architecture, which is a low, gravel-covered moundlet, penetrated at the centre by a tubular gallery or gate three-fourths of an inch in diameter (PI. II, figs, 3, 4). The large gravel-covered mounds of the Occidental Ant {Pogonomyrmex occidentalism Cres- son), numbers of which were built in the vallej^ of the Boiling Fountain Creek, and in the nooks between the ridges, were more or less damaged by the wash of the water. Some were seriously injured, one wholly swept away. The only damage wrought upon the Honey Ant nests was a little beating down of the pellets of gravel within the gate. There was no injury from the wash of the water, and apparently no likelihood of any beyond that which the momentum of the rain-drops could inflict as they dashed upon the nest and within the gate. Throughout one storm, during the entii'c progress of which a nest was watched, several ants were stationed like sentinels within the gate around the upper margin (PI. Y, fig. 25). They were evidently on the look out for any damages to their home. The disarrangement of a few pellets moved two of these sentinels to bring up bits of gravel and attempt repairs. But there was little occasion for this, although the force of the rain was great enough to cause a good deal of discomfort to the observer. In half an hour the rain ceased, the sun came out over Pike's Peak, and a rainbow girdled the Mesa. One worker-major crawled upon the crest of the nest, stretched herself, reared her head as though to snuff the fresh air, then 1 This is a sketch of my camp, from the point at which the Adams and Von Hagen ridges meet. One of the ant-nests is seen in the foreground ; others are indicated by the white circles on the crests of the ridges. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 21 hurried down the gravel side and started at a swinging pace along the trail to a neighboring oak copse. An hour afterward she had not returned, and not another ant had left the ne^t. Several, howcA^er, came out, hut apparently were disturbed by a gale which followed the rain, and returned. On another occasion, the slight disarrangement of the nest made bj'^ the rain was repaired immediately after the storm. It amounted to a closing up of the greater part of the entrance by some of the displaced gravel-stones along the crater. The exterior architecture has been referred to as a small mouudlet of gravel.^ The largest seen was one on one of the ridges quite within the Garden ; it measured arouhd the base thirty-two inches, in height three and one-half inches, length of northern slope four and one-half inches (PI. II, fig. 3). The average dimension of the nests is something less than this. The base diameter varies from ten to three and one-third inches, the greatest number of nests measuring six and seven inches.^ The ordinar}- height is from two to three inches. The shape of the nests is a truncated cone. The section across the top is about two inches in diameter. In the centre is a tubular opening or gate, fiom three-fourths to seven-eighths inch in diameter .^ III — Position or Honey-Bearers in the JsTest. Leaving the details of the architecture to a later period, that habit which attaches the greatest interest to this insect, viz. , the storing of honey, may be considered. The first nest that was opened, and called the " Bessie " nest,^ for convenience of notation, is on the terminal slope of Adams' ridge, looking due south, and quite near to the valley of the creek Fontaine qui Bouille. The gravel had ^ Dr. Oscar Loew, "American Naturalist," 1874, says of Melligera col- lected near Santa Fe, that "they make no hills, like other ants." "A structure like a crater indicates where they live underground." Every formicary seen by me had a decided elevation. ^ I succeeded in bringing one of these mounds home nearly entire, having fixed the gravel contents by liquid cement. * Dr. Loew says of the nests near Santa Fe, that the openings were the size of a quill. It seems strange that such a difference should exist within localities so near each other. * A little girl, Bessie Root, a guest in Gen. Adams' cottage, whom I had enlisted in the search for ant-hills, first reported to me the nest in which I found the ^lelligers. 22 PEOOEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881. not been penetrated to a depth oi more than six inches before a honoj^-chamber was uncovered, and the presence of the honey- bearers indicated that a home of the true Hone}' Ant had been found (PL III, fig. 5). Within a dome-roofed vault, about three inches in width and three-quarters to one inch in height, hung the hone^^-bearers, clinging by their feet to the roof. Their yellow bodies stretched along the ceiling, but the rotund abdomens hung down, almost perfect globules of transpalrent tissue, through which the amber-colored honey showed. They looked like a cluster of small Delaware grapes or large currants. Most of the abdomens were quite round, but they were in various stages of fullness. Upon some the external membrane of the abdomen was gathered in folds. A few of the abdomens, and especially those but little distended, were of a white instead of amber color. I have observed that the honey-bearers in my artificial nests show the honey, which has been gathered from white sugar, quite white and translucent. It is probable that the color becomes amber, and even a wine color, with age. When the abdomen is full it fairly shines, reflecting the light that falls upon it from the lamp. With most of the honey-bearers the abdomens hang downward without touching the ceiling, except at the rotundity near the base, and often not even at that point. With some, however, the whole lower part of the abdomen rests against the roof (PI. IV, fig. 13). This appears to depend chiefly upon the contour of the perch, and not upon the relative degree of comfort to the ant in the two positions. The roof of the honey-chamber is different in structure from the floor, the latter being comparatively smooth, while the former is rough, being the natural granulated surface left after the picking away of the sandy soil. This character, of course, enables the honey-bearer to cling more easily and securely to her perch. This position is not held by the mandibles clasping the rugose dome with their sharp teeth, but almost exclusively^ by the feet, whose claws, hairs and pulvuli all doubtless contribute to the effect. Judging from observations upon artificial nests and from the utter unwieldiness and helplessness of the fully charged bearers, they are not much disposed to change their roost after once taking it, at least after they have reached a considerable degree of rotundity. But the statements generally made by writers, that they are wholly unable to move, and never change position, are 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 23 inferences without the facts. They are not unable to move, and in point of fact do occasionally move their positions. Those -whose abdomens are but half or even two-thirds the full globose, I have frequently seen coming out of their chambers, ascending the galleries and moving freely about the surface. Those with full globes can move about with no little agility when placed upon a table, or when exposed in their nests to some unusual danger or alarm. In the nests they slide along from point to point, moving their feet sidewise, and so make changes of position. Fallen Honey-bearers Helpless. — If once they loosen their hold, however, and fall to the floor, they seem ordinarily helpless to recover. Numbers of my full honey-bearers dropping from various causes, or shaken down by thoughtless visitors, laid upon the floor helpless, resting upon the rotund abdomen, bodies up, antennae and feet in motion, and seeming exceedingly uncomfort- able. Those who so fell as to have some object upon which to lay their feet, as a clod or the surface of the jar, fared better. In very favorable positions a few recovered their roost. But as a rule they were helpless, remained stationary, and so passed their lives, which were evidently shortened by their position, although some of them lived thus several months (see PI. YI, fig. 32). lY. — Source of Honey-Supply. The rotunds do not elaborate the honey, as has frequently been asserted. I was not for a moment misled by this fancy, being satisfied that, in the nature of things they were sedentary, and that their immense abdomens were charged by regurgitation from the workers who were the honey gatherers. But whence do they obtain their supplies ? Not from Aphides, at this season of the year at least. I searched every bush and shrub in the vicinity, including large numbers of wild rose bushes, but failed to find any of these familiar and useful Emmet " herds." Certainly, at least, the honey ants were not there drawing supplies from them. It was not possible to trace the ants to these or other sources of food supply during the day, for I found very soon that they were nocturnal insects. Their nests were as silent, and to all appearance empty, as an abandoned habitation, during the daytime. I accordingly stationed myself beside a nest to await the nightfall. This nest was located upon the summit of a ridge which from a peculiar formation of a 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OE* [1881. rock upon it I named Eagle-head ridge, and the nest Eagle-head nest. At T.30 P. M., the sun was set, and darkness had begun to gather. A few ants appeared within the gate. They advanced to the top, followed by others ; they puslied out upon the gravelled sides of the mound, over which a goodly swarm of yellow insects was soon gathered. There were no rotunds or semi-rotunds among these mustering squadrons ; all were workers, with normal abdo- mens. Presently an ant left the mound and started over the ridge northward. Another — several — a score followed, until within a brief time a vast column was seen trailed along the ridge, all moving in the same direction. The evening had now become so far advanced that it was ditBcult to trace the column, but b}'^ stooping down close to the earth and using care not to alarm the ants, I was able to do so. The trail was somewhat winding, but on the whole seemed to be chosen with some regard to avoiding the inequalities of the ridge. I was not impressed, however, with the engineering skill of the insects in this matter. At the distance of about fifty feet from the nest, the column turned down the slope and entered a copse of scrub oak ( Quercus undidata, var.), I traced a number of ants to a bush several feet within the thicket, but failed to unravel the secret that night. The next night a similar experience awaited me. After a long careful, but vain search, I retired to my tent baffled. The third night (July 29), the ants of Eagle head next came out at 7.23 P. M. Those on Toad-stone ridge, to which I had assigned my assistant, Johnson, came out at 1.25 P. M., but did not begin to move until 7.44. Johnson followed them, but failed to find their feeding ground. They moved north and eastward, as did those of the Eagle head. These latter began to move almost as soon as they came out. Thej^ followed the same trail as on the previous evening, the track having beem marked by me. The movement was somewhat slower than before, perhaps because the trail had been washed by a heavy rain during the afternoon. There was no leader. A dwarf worker kept in advance over the greater part of the track, then a worker minor took the head of the column. The two were separated from each other, and the van of the column about eight to ten inches. There was, however, not the slightest evidence of any leadership at any time, in any part of the moving line, although I carefully looked for such. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 25 The ants directed tlieir movements to the same tree as on for- mer forays, reaching it in seventeen minutes,, at 7.40 P, M. They distributed themselves along the tree, hunting trunk, branches, leaves. I could trace their forms, but when it is remembered that I was wedged in among the thick, low branches of this dwarf oak, holding up a lantern with one hand, and using the other to clear space for it ; that the necessity' to avoid alarming the timid insects compelled me to retain ver}'' inconvenient positions for a long time, it will riot seem strange that I could find nothing satis- factory until between nine and ten o'clock. At last, in course of the slow investigations, I reached the extreme end of a branch on the south side of the tree, and found a number of ants engaged upon clusters of brownish-red galls. The ants were moving from gall to gall, not tarrying for any length of time upon any. They applied their mouth organs to the galls frequently. The dimness of the light, and the distance which I was compelled to keep, pre- vented me from seeing anything more than this. But it was plain that the}^ were obtaining honey stores, for in the lantern light it could be seen that their abdomens were alreadj^ much distended by the sweets which they had lapped. The branch was carefully cut off without disturbing the ants, taken to my tent, and the movements of the insects observed during the remainder of the night, the branch having been so placed as to prevent the escape of the ants, who were 3'et easily under view. They, however, were so preoccupied with their honey gathering, that they made little effort to escape. Directing attention to the galls, it was seen that some of them were gradually exuding minute globules of a white transparent liquid, which the ants greedily licked. I tasted the liquor, and found that it was verj' sweet and pleasant. The object of the nocturn'al expedition of the ants, and the source of their hone}'- supply, were thus revealed. These galls are of various sizes, from that of a currant downward. Most of them were of a Turk's-head shape, some flattened spheres. They are placed in groups of two and more along the stems of the branches ; they are commonly of reddish-brown color, marked with black patches, but some of them are of a brighter tint, almost rose-color, some of a livid yellow marked with black, some almost green. By cutting off a few of the clusters and removing them from the ants, I saw that the sugar}' sap issued from several points upon the gall, which in some 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. cases became beaded with six or more globules, several times larger than a pin-head. By removing these beads successively, I found that during the night one gall gave out at least three series. The continual flitting of the ants from branch to branch and gall to gall, was thus explained : the successive exudations invited their frequent return to the galls from which they had formerly fed. When the branch had first been brought to the tent, some of the gall-bearing twigs had been clipped off and placed within the artificial nests, but received no attention from the ants. Some of the bleeding galls were now introduced, which were instantly covered by the ants, and soon cleaned of their beaded sweets. An examination of the first galls explained the reason for their neglect — they were sapless. Nectar-producing Galls. — A number of galls of various sorts and sizes, was collected for dissection. They were readily divided into two classes (1), the livid and greenish galls which were soft and entire ; (2) the darker colored ones which were hard, unjneld- ing to the touch, and pierced at one side by a small, smooth, reg- ular, cylindrical cavity. It soon appeared that the bleeding of honey -sap was confined to the first class. Upon cutting away the soft pulpy fruit (if it may be so termed), a hard whitish-green ovoid cell, not unlike a cherry seed, was found at the centre. It was about one-eighth inch in diameter. Lying outside of and against this, in a little cavity, I found in one gall a minute, living- grub (PI. Ill, fig. 12). The body was white, of eleven segments, the head tipped with a brownish hue. The inner cell when opened, showed a spherical cavity in which was a very minute gelatinous pyriform object, which adhered to the side of the cavity. I had no microscope with me, and in lieu of facts, can only conjecture that this may have been an embryonic form of an insect, which matures later in the season. * The hard galls were next dissected. They are all pierced on one side, invariably near the base (figs. 10, 11), by a circular open- ing made by the matured gall-insect in its escape. Fig. 11 repre- sents one of these, a turban-shaped gall, magnified about three times the natural size. A section view of the gall (fig. 10) shows that the exit hole (eh) penetrates the interior cell-ease, which must therefore serve as the cocoon in which the pupa transforms. Inside of some of these cells I found traces of a flossy texture. The cells are commonly spherical, but (as in fig. 10) sometimes 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 2t egg-shaped. They are separate from the rest of the gall, from which they quite differ in appearance, and are of a firmer sub- stance. In fig, 10, the gall is three-sixteenths of an inch in length, of which the cell occupies two-thirds, that is, one-eighth of an inch. The largest gall observed had an outside measure- ment of three-eights inch long and the same across the top. In one of the galls opened, I found an imperfect insect (imago), which is identified b}' Mr. E. T. Cresson as of the genus Cynips, a true gall-fl3^ The specimen would not permit further identifi- tification. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, held in 1880, at Boston, I had the pleasure of presenting the substance of this paper to the Entomological Section. My account of the extravasation of the galls, as above, caused much comment, the result of which was to confirm the accurac}' of the observation which had been challenged. Prof. C. V. Riley, well known as an entomologist, declared upon his own observations, that many galls exude saccharine matter, citing among others, those of certain Phylloxerae on Hickory, one of which he had named caryae-gummosa on account of the abundance and stickiness of the exudation. Mr. H. F. Bassett, who has made extensive and careful studies of galls, said that he had found many species of galls visited by ants ^ Specimens of the oak-gall visited b}' Melliger were sent to Mr. Riley, concerning which he sa.js : The gall is one that is found quite commonly in the Rocky Mountain region on Quercus undu- ^ American Entomologist, Dec, 1880. The following additional remarks will be interesting in this connection : Mr. E. P. Austin remarked that the chemical composition of sugar and woody fibre are the same, and that sugar could be produced by conversion from woody fibre in the plant. Dr. J. Li Le Conte said that he understood tannin to be a conjugation of gallic acid and sugar. Mr. B. P. Mann suggested that some light might be thrown upon this food-supply of the ants, by the nature of much of the moisture which appears occasionally at night in great abundance on the leaves and other portions of plants, and which is usually mistaken for dew. This moisture, it is said, diflers from dew in being produced under circumstances which would not account for the formation of dew, and in containing a perceptible quantity of sugar. It is the ordinary watery ex- cretion from the surface of the plant, which, under favorable conditions of the atmosphere, collects in beads or in drops, instead of evaporating as rapidly as it is formed. 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. lata, as determined by Dr. Engelmann, ■who sent me the same gall in 18*74, though I had previonsl}' collected it myself. It is, un- doubtedl}-, an undescribed gall, and a A^ery similar one occurs on the Quercus macrocarpa in the Mississippi vallej'. It has the ordinary woody texture that belongs to so many Cynipidous oak- stem galls, and the architect develops in a paler cell that occupies a large part of the interior of the gall. When fresh, the gall is quite bright-colored, inclining to crimson or scarlet. It seldom attains a larger size than an ordinary pea, and differs from similar galls in my cabinet by having frequently a rather broad, flattened crown, though this character is b}' no means constant.^ NocTUENAL Habits. — It has already been said that the ants collect the oak-gall nectar by night. Observations daily re- peated upon a number of nests, determined that they leave their nests for the oak thickets at or near V.30 o'clock P. M., and between that hour and 8 o'clock, which is about the time of sun- set in July and August. PreAious to the departure, the crater, gate and exterior of the mound become graduall}^ covered with swarms of insects whose yellow bodies quite hide the red gravel surface of the nest. The marching of the honey-gatherers has already been described, but always there remained a very numer- ous force at home, who were seen at all hours of the night on guard within and around the gate. (PI. V, fig. 25.) The return home began about or a little before midnight, and continued until between four and five, which was near da^'light at that season. One or two extracts from my field notes will indicate the facts on this point. " 11.30 P. M. Some ants returning home ; the move- ment ver}' slow and deliberate. . . . 12.30. Quite a number are now returning. Some are also still going outward. Numbers of workers patrol the moimd and vicinity challenging nearl}' all in- comers, who have to stand the test and give the required satisfac- tion. What is the antennal password ? None of the returning repletes are tolled bj^ the home sentries. . . . This morning at 4,10 A. M. the ants were seen coming in from the oak bushes, most of them well laden, but others not so full. There are evidentl}^ degrees of success in honey-gathering among them. Some of the dwarfs had very full abdomens. . . . 4.30 A. M. ^ He suggests for the gall the name Cynips quercuB-mellarm. Am, Ento, Dec. 1880. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 29 The ants are returning in numbers and rapidly moving from tlie brush to the nest. It is about da3'light." In these night observations the light of the lantern seemed to cause the ants in column no little disturbance. They would go toward the lantern as it sat on the ground near the trail, appear to examine it, then move away. It really seemed to confuse their ideas of locality, and shake their confidence as to the site of the trail, although no one was finally thrown off the track therebj'. The sentries at home were alwaj's more or less excited by the light, and delicate manipulation was everywhere required in order to preserve the natural conditions and get the natural behavior. At no time were the ants seen during the day except when it rained, and then onl}' a few sentinels appeared at the gate. Ordi- narily the entrance, as far as the eye could see, was entireh' abandoned. It is doubtful if Melliger can endure a great amount of sunlight and heat. While excavating a nest, a number of specimens were collected in a large empty glass bottle, which was set aside fv)r further use. Not more than three minutes afterward when I took up the vessel to insert more specimens, those already collected were dead. The sun had killed them. I was surprised at this ((uick fatal issue, and tried to revive the insects ; but no, they Avere quite dead. The sun was of the usual August tempera- ture, but the bottle was large, and such a result in so brief a time argues extreme sensitiveness to the heat. I have observed that the agricultural ants^ always avoided the noonda}' heats of Texas, which are certainl}- intense ; and indeed all ants appear to me to shun, more or less, the midday fervor of the sun. But Melliger doubtless is more susceptible to solar influences than most of her felloAvs. It cannot therefore be wondered at that she seeks her food under the shelter of night. Y. Quality op the Ant Honey. A number of the honey-bearers were unavoidabl}' injured and their abdomens broken during the excavations of the nests, and I observed from these the qualitj' of the hone3\ It is ver}- pleasant, with a peculiar aromatic flavor, suggestive of bee-hone}', and quite agreeable to me. Dr. Loew describes it as having " an agreeable taste, slightly acid in summer from a trace of formic acid, but perfectly neutral in autumn and winter.'' It contains, according 1 Op. cit., p. 18. 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. to this writer, a, little more water than the honey of bees, and has therefore somewhat greater limpidity. Fortunately, the com])osition of this ant-honey has been sub- jected to a thorough chemical anal^'sis by a competent authority, Dr. Chas. M. Wetherill.^ The experiments were made at the request of Dr. liCid}'^, from specimens of 31. melliger-mexicanus collected hy Mr. Langstroth at Matamoras, Mexico.^ These ants showed the variations observed b}^ me in the distension of the abdomen, and the amount and color of the honey. Six of the average-sized honey-bearers were weighed, and showed the average weight of the honey-bearer's bod}^ alone (without honey) to be 0*048 grammes, and the average of hone}'' in a single ant 0'3942 grammes. The amount of honej" was therefore 8*2 times greater in weight than the bod}^ without tlie hone3^ The density calculated for the ants filled with honey was 1*28, and for the bodies alone r05. Dr. WetherilFs calculations expressed in English Troy weight would allow about six grains for the weight of each honey-bearer. It would thus require about one thousand (960) honey-bearers to 3'ield one pound of honey (Troy weight), or about twelve hundred (1166) to yield a market or avoirdupois pound. The sj'rup extracted from the ants had an agreeable sweet taste, and an odor like that of the syrup of squills. When set aside as removed it showed no trace of crystallization to the naked e^^e or under the microscope. Under high powers fragments of organic tissue were seen. When evaporated by the heat of steam, it dried to a gumni}^ mass, which did not exhibit traces of crystallization after standing for a couple of weeks. This mass was yery hydroscopic, becoming quickly soft from the absorption of water from the atmosphere. It dissolved with- out residue in ordinary alcohol, leaving a residue in nearly absolute alcohol. These solutions did not crystallize when set aside. They had exactly the smell of perfumed bay rum. After various tests, which are described. Dr. Wetherill analyzed by combustion with oxide of copper and chlorate of potassa a portion of the gum- .ke substance which resulted after the ant-honej^ had been left in v^acuo for two weeks. As this was not perfectly hard, but of a sticky nature, it was necessary to introduce it into the combustion 1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. VI, pp. Ill, 112, 1852. '^ I have some of these still in good condition after twenty-nine years' preservation in alcohol. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 31 tube upon a piece of glass. 0"49T of honey gave 0.306 of water, and 0.684 of carbonic acid, corresponding to a percentage of C = 87-535, H = 6.841, O by loss =55-634. This corresponds, as nearly as could be expected under the circumstances of the analysis, with the formula of crystallized grape sugar, C^ Hj^ Ou- Dr. Wetherill, who in this analysis was especially seeking light upon the origin of the ant-honey, thus announces his conclusion : " It results, I think, from these experiments, that the honej' con- tained in the Mexican ant is a nearly pure solution of the sugar, so called, of fruits, which is in a state of hydration, isomeric with grape-sugar, C12 Hu Ou, and differing from grape-sugar in not crystallizing." It is certainly an interesting confirmation of the value of this reasoning from analj^sis, that the ants have been proved by field observations to have collected their honey-dew as Dr. Wetherill concluded, from the nectar of plants. Thus the methods of cabinet and laboratorj^, and the objective studies of the field, confirm and complete each other. With regard to the acidity of the ant-honey, which has been referred to, Dr. Wetherill found that it reacted slightly acid to blue litmus paper, but want of material prevented satisfactory experiments. He was in doubt as to whether it was formic acid, or acetic from the oxidation of the alcohol in which the ants were preserved. A portion of the alcohol (reacting acid like the honey) neutralized hj caustic potassa, when distilled with sulphuric acid, gave an aqueous acid liquid, which, on addition of nitrate of silver, gave a whitish precipitate, becoming black on boiling, ren- dering the supposition of formic acid probable. The uses to which the Mexicans and Indians put this ant-honej' are various. That they eat it freely, and regard it as a delicate morsel is beyond doubt. Prof. Cope, when in New Mexico, had the ants offered to him upon a dish as a dainty relish. The Mexi- cans (Loew) press the insects, and use the gathered honey at their meals. They also are said to prepare from it by fermenta- tion an alcoholic liquor. Again, they are said (Eclwards) to apply the honey to bruised and swollen limbs, ascribing to it great healing properties. Dr. Loew's suggestion to bee-keepers to test the commercial value of these ants as honey producers is wholly impracticable. The difficulties of farming the colonies, gathering the supplj', and the limited quantity of the product, would prevent a profitable industiy. The greatest number of honey-bearers in a 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. large colony, taking ni}' observations as a standard, will not exceed six hundred, which, counting six grains of honej^ to the ant, would be little more than one-half pound avoirdupois. Besides, the senti- ment against the use of honey thus taken from living insects, which is worthy of all respect, would not be overcome. The Mexicans and Indians will therefore probably not be disturbed in their monopoly of the honey-product of the nests of Melliger. YI. Interior Architecture. Gate Architecture. — In order to determine the gate archi- tecture— a term by which I characterize the structure of the nest nearest to the entrance — several formicaries were carefully opened and studied. Four of these are here given as fair types of all. It will be seen from these that a general similarit}- of plan prevails. The gate itself is a single tubular opening in the centre of the mound, from three-fourths to seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. It is smooth within, and penetrates the mound and the earth perpen- dicularly to a depth varying from three and one-half to six inches. This gate is funnel-shaped at the top, and the funnel (PI. lY , fig, 14, F) is gravel-lined, differing therein from the lower part or nozzle of the gate (fig. 18, !N"). The nozgle descends perpendicularlj^, or with a slight slope, for three inches, more or less, and then deflects at an angle more or less abrupt, forming an arm (A) usually shorter than the nozzle. This leads into a series of radiating galleries and rooms, and the point of deflection may be called the vestibule, Y. These galleries and rooms appear to extend quite habituallj^ beneath and chiefl}'^ in 'one direction from the gate. There are indeed galleries immediately surrounding the gate on every side ; but these appear to be limited except in the one direction, within a radius of about eight to ten inches, and to the same distance in depth. These general statements may be illustrated and expanded by the following details of particular nests. 1. Nest No. 7, fig. 19, was a small nest three and one-third inches in diameter. The gate had a perpendicular depth from the surface of three inches. Thence at nearly a right angle it bent south-east for two and one-half inches, forming the arm, A, and meeting at Y a series of branching galleries, a, 6, e, d. Galler}^ a, bore westward, terminating under the gate ; 6, bore southwest, appearing to run upward toward the surface ; c, extended down- 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 33 ward and southward at a sharp inclination, entering a long roobo, E, was a small circular chamber, at one end of which was a beau- tiful gallery,/, running deep downward and inclining slightly west. It was entered near by and above by another gallery, d, running toward the surface. 2. Nest jSTo. 6, fig. 18. The depth of the gate, G, was three inches ; the length of the arm, A, two inches. The gallery into which A opened toward b, divided at one end with two branches separated at their mouths by a little column of two stones resting one upon the other. The gallery, c, could be traced at least six inches downward, and a gallery opened directly downward at a. 3. Nest on Eaglehead Ridge, PI. V, fig. 20. This nest, from Avhich many of my night studies were made, was finally opened, and the section view, fig. 20, taken. The vestibule, as in the above examples, also opened into a main gallery, &, which led to the northeast, and joined a circular gallery which passed around the vestibule and terminated in an oval room, A. At the other end it entered a circle, which widened upon one side into a bay-room, and sent off a couple of branches, one of which, c, was a chamber. Two galleries, g g, opened downward. Beyond this, southward, was a long waved gallery, D D, which ended at e e, and branched at h. Galleries, g g, in this series, also led downward. No. 4. Fig. 23, Nest No. 4, on Adams Ridge. The diameter of this mound was three and one-half inches at the top and seven inches at the bottom. The vestibule sloped eastward from the summit, downward three inches to the main gallery, which had three branches, x, y and z ; x was followed six inches northeast and upward ; y, extended sovithwest and downward ; 2, southeast and downward. A gallery, 1, ran upward from z, and connected with X. Another, 2, opened on the southwest into a room. A, six inches long and three inches wide, at the west end of which were galleries dividing north and south. A third gallery separated from z at 3, and bent northward, apparently uniting with a room, A, five inches long. This room was entered again by a widened mouth. Be, about one-half inch above z. At the vestibule and upper part of z were a number of cocoons. The room. A, was five inches below the surface of the ground at G. Galleries and Honey-Rooms. — The last figure gives an idea of the relation of some of the honey-rooms to the gate and the upper series of galleries. These rooms lie at least as near to the 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. surface as six and eight inclies. Tliey vary in size, but for the most part, are about five or six inches in length and three or four in width. They are irregular in their outlines, but have a general tendency toward the oval. One of tiie most irregular is figured at PI. Y, fig. '21, HR, a large chamber which lay nearly underneath the gate. The gallery, g g, into which the vestibule opened, debouched into tliis room, and a portion of the gallery roof unbroken is shown at ug. At B, appeared a bay-room, or enlargement of a gallery, which penetrated the earth horizontally at one end and at the other seemed to wind into the vestibule. The height of the rooms at the w^alls or sides is from one-half to three-fourths of an inch. The roof is vaulted, thus causing the height to increase gradually until at the centre it is one and one- half inches, which is the greatest distance that I measured. Floors and Roof. — The floors and walls are well nigli invari- ably smooth, quite smooth some of them. The roof, on the con- trary, is rough, presenting the natural condition after the sandy pellets of earth and the little pebbles had been picked out by the workers. This can hardly be otherwise than b}' purpose, precisely as with the smoothness of the floors. The roughness of the roof evidently greatly favors the use to which the honey-bearers put it as a perch. So the smoothness of the floor and walls much better adapts them for the use of gangways. The amount of travel to and fro must be enormous, it is true, in a large formicary ; but I cannot think that the resulting friction will account for the smooth- ness, independently of the purposed masonry of the ants. In the galleries the entire surface, above and below, is smooth, a condi- tion which might be anticipated on the ground of adaptation. Galleries and Rooms. — The galleries are tubular openings, varying somewhat in size, from one-half to three-fourths of an inch, and even more, in diameter. A vertical section, however, uniformly shows a quite perfect circle. The underground formi- cary ma}^ be described in general terms as a system of galleries and rooms, arranged in several horizontal series, one above another, approximating the order of " stories " in a house, and intercom- municating at many points by vertical galleries. The chai'acter of the interior architecture can, perhaps, be best shown further by giving somewhat in detail my studies of one nest. The nest selected for exhaustive exploration w^as situated upon the summit of Adams Ridge, just above the nook within which my 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 35 camp was located. Three entire days, besides other portions of time, were spent in this work by myself and assistant. The nest interior sloped eastward, and toward the base of the hill, and occupied a space (in round numbers) eight feet long, three feet high and one and one-half feet wide, the whole tunneled through the soft red sandstone rock of which the ridge consists. This rock is much of it quite friable, crumbling readily under the pres- sure of the hand, but packs tightly under the stroke of mallet and chisel, thus making difficult mining for men if not for ants. Most of our work was done with the chisel, and the galleries and rooms had to be worked out with knives. ^ These thirty-six cubic feet of rock were fairly honeycombed by the series of galleries and cham- bers above referred to. The dimensions of the exterior nest are as follows (see PI. IV, fig. 15): Height, north side, 2i inches; west side. If inches; east side. If inches; south side, 1| inches; distance across the top, a e = 10 inches; distance around the base, a ^■ e c = 29 inches ; distance around the crater, m o n r = S inches ; eastern ridge of the crater, v n = 1|- inches ; western ridge of crater, m s =: ^ inch ; distance across the gate at a; 2 = 1 inch, at s v = f inch ; depth of the gate before bending, 4 inches. The mouth, as appears from measurement, was ovate (PI. IV, fig. 14), but the entrance beyond was a circular tube. The mound was removed and the soil carefully scraped away. Close to the surface, at the distance of one-half to three-fourths of an inch, openings were found of various sizes, from one-fourth to one inch in diameter. These openings occurred at various dis- tances from the gate, on all sides, four and one-half, five, five and one-half, eight, eight and one-half inches and upwards to ten inches on the northwest side, eighteen inches on the south side, and eighty-two inches on the southeast, in which direction the formi- cary extended. Toward the termination of the nest, however, thej' did not appear so near to the surface. Section views were next had by cutting across the nest. On the north side I found no galleries at a greater depth than eight inches. On the south side, the first cutting was made east and ^ While engaged upon this part of my work, I was pleasantly surprised by a brief visit of Prof. A. ?, Packard. I am glad to be able thus to refer to his valuable testimony in confirmation of some of the statements of this paper. 36 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. west, and thereafter the rock cleared away outwardly , until the end of the nest, when the cutting was made inwardly from the starting point toward the gate. The character of the architecture is the same throughout the entire nest, so that the following views will suffice to typify all the interior. The figures PI. YI, fig. 35, and PL Y, figs. 16, 17, give views of vertical and horizontal sec- tions made from the gate (southeast), the l)ottom of the section being twenty-one inches below the surface and the distance of the furthest point from the gate twenty-three and one-half inches. Fig. .3.5, PL YI, is a front view of galleries looking south, and exhibits a surface about seventeen inches in length by seven in height.^ The main series of galleries within this area are accu- rately shown, but the connecting vertical galleries were broken away in the excavation, and are not figured. Fig. 16 is a vertical section showing the southwest and south- east sides of the excavation at the same point as the preceding figure, part of which is included in this view.^ There are here shown the general tendency of the galleries (^, ^, g) toward stories, arranged one above another ; the relative position of the honey- rooms (R, R), and the relation of the series to the large honey- rooms, C, D, E, shown fully at fig. 17. The broken lines, c I d, and e h k, show a series of rooms, some of which were occupied by larvae and some by honej-bearers. The large rooms, C D E, Fig. 17, belong to the lowest series, and are figured and described as fairly typical of all the honey-rooms and other chambers. They were carefully uncovered by chisel and knife, and after being sketched, a plaster cast was taken of them, which is preserved in my collection.'' These rooms were of ' Detailed measurements. — a to G =- oj^ inches ; G to d = 11 inches ; e to / =- 10 inches ; hto i = 11 inches ; k to 1 = 11 inches ; m to » := 3 inches ; b to e = 2% inches ; o to /=- Z)4 inches ; p to q = 1)4 inches ; g to A; = 2X inches ; t to Z — 2% inches ; o to r = 3X inches : Ito » = &% inches. ^ Fig. 16 measurements.— « to J = 4>^ inches ; c to d = 10 inches ; e to/ _ 4 inches ; h to i = 4X inches ; i to k — A% inches/ c to j = 10 inches. The gallery, j, appeared to connect upward with the lowest series of rooms, efhk. ' I succeeded by vast painstaking and labor in securing a number of fine specimens of the architecture, which were carefully packed in Vjoxes and committed to the Express Company at Colorado Springs. The company received a heavy bill for transfjortation, and delivered my beautiful and 1881.] NATrSAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA- 37 an irregular oval shape ; in length five, three and one-half, and six inches successively (C, D. E), and were of an average width of about four inches, Thev were not boilt upon a level, the origin of C, at h, being three and one-half inches above the middle point of D, and six inches above the termination of E. A side gallery, g g, skirted two of the rooms, and appeared to open upon a fourth chamber at F, which, however, was too much broken in the digging to be identified. Of course, only the floor and part of the side walls of the rooms are shown, but the roofs were vaulted and rough, as already described, and rose to the height of three-fourths to one and one-fourth inches. Within them, clinging to the roofs, were packed the rotunds. The number in each room averaged about thirty ; and as there were at least ten chambers thus occupied, the number of rotunds in the nest was certainly not less than three hundred. Of far the greater proportion of these the abdomens were distended to a perfect sphere. The Queen Room. — I had the good fortune to capture the fertile queen of this colony. She was found quite near the extreme end of the formicary, in a nearly circular room four inches in diameter. The series of galleries and honey-rooms which composed the formicary terminated in a single gallery (fig. 22, g g g). about eighteen inches long, three-fourths inch wide and one-fourth inch deep. The gallery sloped sharply with the slope of the hill-side on which the nest was made. Xear the middle part thereof was the queen-room (C), being seventy-two inches from the central gate and twenty-eight and one-half inches below the surface of the hiU. Besides the queen the room con- tained a large number of naked grubs, callows, honey-bearers and workers. It is not improbable that the queen habitually dwelt in or near this room; but it may be that during the successive attacks upon the nest, the workers bore their queen still further and further from the point of danger until the limit was reached. Ten inches below the queen-room, the gallery, g g g, was con- tinued until it finally terminated in a small circular chamber (E) or bay on the one side, and on the opposite side a narrow gallery- {t g). which curved upward. This was the end of the formicary. costly specimens at the Academy broken in pieces ! It was an act of gross carelessness, which merits this notice, as some specimens brooght home in my trunk survived even the "baggage smashers." 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. It was eighty-two inches from the central gate, forty and one-half inches below the level of the main nest gate, and twenty-nine and one-half inches below the level of the hill-side. The entire length of the formicary from northwest to southeast was thus seven feet eight inches.^ VII. QuEEisr Life. The captured queen of the large excavated nest was transported to Philadelphia, placed in one of my artificial nests, a large glass globe, and afforded several interesting observations npon her habits. Her Body-Guard. — After the usual custom of ants, she was continually surrounded by a guard of workers (PI. VI, fig. 29) var^'iug in number, but usually as many as twelve or twenty. These attendants quite enclosed her, and restricted her move- ments, apparently watching and guarding her with great careful- ness. On one occasion when she escaped to the upper surface of the nest, she was followed and seized by a worker-m:ijor, who interlocked her mandibles with the queen's (PI. VI, fig. 26) and dragged her down the gateway into the interior. The royal lad}"^ gave only a passive resistance, holding back somewhat heavily. Depositing Eggs. — I quote from my notes the description of this process, the various stages of which I was also able to sketch. " The queen has been laying a small heap of eggs. She is now on a little elevation of earth, surrounded by a number of workers of all castes, some of whom lick her abdomen, especially beneath and at the apex. One, meanwhile, gives her food in the usual wa}-, by regurgitation. I see the tongues of the two insects overlap in the 1 While preparing clay models of some of the above examples of ant architecture for my cabinet of Insect Architecture in the Academy of Natural Sciences, it was suggested that moulds be made, from which plaster casts could be taken, for the benefit of such other scientific collec- tions and public museums as they might be wished for. This I had done, and the moulds are now in the hands of the Curator in charge of the Academy, by whom they will be furnished, ujion proper order, at the cost of reproduction and packing, as nearly as may be. Five sjjecimeus are cast^viz., those figured at PL II, fig. 4, and PL V, figs. IG, 17, 22 and 23. They are cast natural size, except fig. 16, which is half size. The cost, painted natural coloi', will be SIO fm- the set, unpainted $6. Orders should be sent to Charles F. Parker, Curator in charge Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 39 act. The queen's abdomen is raised high, her head is stooped, she lifts the abdomen up and down. The workers have clustered under her body, giving her somewhat the appearance of a success- ful candidate undergoing ' a chairing.' She has changed her position ; tlie workers follow, quite surrounding her. Two are beneath the abdomen, which is depressed now, the head being elevated. The attendants sit down patiently to watch. The}^ keep their antennie moving continually, while they amuse them- selves by cleansing their persons. The queen moves ; a dwarf seizes a fore-foot and attempts to control her course. This and "nipping " with the mandibles, is the common mode by which the guard directs the queen's motions. The eggs laid are in an irregular mass about one-eighth of an inch thick. There are twenty to thirty minute yellowish, ovoid objects, which adhere-to each, other. The workers surround the mass, some appeared to lick it. The queen straggles over the eggs, places a foot upon the mass. A dwarf seizes the foot hastily and draws it back, while another worker catches up the egg-mass and draws it aside." The observation was made at 11.20 P.M.; at 1 A. M., when I retired, no change had occurred. This is as much of this interest- ing behavior as I was able to observe in this female. I have, however, seen the actual deposition of the eggs bj' a queen of Camponotus pennsylvanicus. ^ VIII. Acts of Beneficence. In the natural sites the workers showed great interest in the preservation and removal of the rotunds, dealing with them very much as with the larvae. As the honey-rooms were opened and the rotunds disturbed from their roosts, the workers of all castes rushed eagerl^^ to them, and dragged them into the unbroken interiors. Sometimes several ants would join in removing one rotund, pushing and pulling her along. One sketch (PI. YI, fig. 27) made in my notes, represents a major pulling a rotund, whom she has seized with her mandibles by the outer abdominal wall, wliile a dwarf-worker is mounted upon the globe, standing upon her hind legs " a-tip-toe," as it were, pushing lustily. Another sketch (PL YI, fig. 36), caught on the spot, represents a worker- major dragging a rotund honey-bearer up the perpendicular face 1 See a note in "Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. of Pliila.," 1879, p. 140. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP " [1881. of a cutting made in the excavation of the nest. The mandibles of the two insects were interlocked, and the worker backed up the steep, successfully drawing her protege. This interest is maintained in the daily life of the formicar3^ The workers were continually seen hovering about the rotunds as they hung from the roof of my nests, or as they lay upon the floor cleansing their bodies. It is evident that these creatures are regarded as dependents, and, as with the queen, virgin females, males and larvte, are fed and tended by the active members of the community. In all these cases the same communal instinct "would of course control action, giving at least the semblance of beneficence. Lack of Individual Beneficence, — But a great number of ex- amples fell under notice which go to throw doubt upon the pos- session of any personal or individual sentiment as towards special cases of need, outside of the above limit. Some of these may deserve permanent record. 1. In making up my artificial nests, I placed in the natural soil, which was closely packed down, and then introduced the ants, knowing that they would work out their own habitations. The hone3'-bearers were thus mingled upon the surface with the workers, upon whom fell the entire task of digging galleries. In this work, and in the distribution of the excavated pellets, there was much room for the exhibition of individual carefulness and tenderness toward the honey-bearers. Not a single such instance was noted, although I watched closely and with some anxiety to discover such excellencies in my little friends. On the contrary, the exhibitions of an apparent cruel neglect and positive cruelty were many. The grains of sand and soil were heaped around the rotunds (PI. YI, fig. 31) until the poor creatures were literally buried alive. It would have been easy for the busy masons to draw their fellows aside and thus carry on their work. But it either never occurred to them to do so, or the disposition was wanting. 2. Again, as the openings were made into the earth, most of the rotunds, not prevented as above, managed to roll down the galleries and secure a place in the honey-rooms. They were not observed to be aided in this by the workers, and I believe that they attained their perches unaided. Some of them, on the route, became fastened in the gang-way in most uncomfortable positions. 1881. J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 41 heads downwards, bodies awiy, etc. The workers passed by and over them continually, for many days, witliout the slightest apparent concern, and certainly without a single observed effort to relieve their comrades, who could readily have been extricated and drawn into the chambers. 3 . 1 1 frequently happened that the rotunds dropped or were shaken down from their perch against tlie roof to the floor. These creatures remained in the positions in wliich they fell, except when they chanced to so fall as to be able to clasp with their claws some clod of earth, or bit of gravel, or the rough surface of the project- ing walls or roof. In such case, they either recovered their perch, or placed themselves in comparatively comfortable postures. The gi-eater number, however, fell upon the round abdomen in such wise tliat tlie body stood up quite erect (PI. YI, fig. 32), leaving the legs thrust out unsuppoi'ted. These unfortunates were faitli- fully attended, often cleansed and caressed, but in no single instance did the workers attempt to right them and restore them to the roof. Yet they were abundantly able to do so, with little effort, and the fallen rotunds were in sore need of help. Some of these lived for two months and longer in this awkward position, but it was ver}"^ CAndent that they were extremely uncomfortable. When it was practicable to extend m^' help to those near the surface it was eagerlj'^ accepted, the offered stick or quill clasped by the mandibles, sometimes assisted b}^ the feet, so firmh- as to enable me to transfer the heav}' creatures to any point, even to lift them out of the nest. Here again the idea or at least the act of helpfulness was lacking. If we are to suppose the power of communicating their distress and desires to have been possessed by the bearers, we must think the workers even yet more lacking in feeling and intelligence. 4. One honej'-bearer was partly buried under her perch, that portion of the roof having fallen. Her abdomen was quite covered by the fine sand}' particles at the margin of the little landslide. The task of rescuing her would have been easy to the workers, but it was never undertaken, A sketch (PI. YI, fig. 28) was made, shortly after the occurrence, which shows one worker- minor standing before the rotund with head and bod}' erect, antennae atent, with ever}- mark of curious interest in her deport- ment. She watched the struggles and mute appeals (as it seemed to me) of her unhappy comrade, who by great exertion had suc- 4 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. ceeded in heaving up the clod, and then " passed by on the other side.'' Meanwhile a second worker Avas perched atop of the clod, coolly and cosily comhing her back-hair and antennae ! This tableau is simply characteristic of the ordinary behavior of the workers. An a[)parent exception was noted in the case of a semi-rotund who was overtaken in a gangway by water with which I was sup- plying the community, and stuck fast in a bed of mud. For a long time the ivorkers, who were incited to masonry, as usual, by the water suppl}^, dug and traveled around and over the imbedded ant without notice of any sort. Finally one stopped and licked the antennae and head of the prisoner, who began to struggle, and so dropped down a little into the gangway. Meanwhile the first- comer had left. A second ant stopped, applied the tongue a moment, gave a little tug at the unfortunate, and w^as off. Still the stream of workers passed on. Finally, an additional pull from below was given by a concealed worker, but when I closed the observation the ant was still imbedded in the mud within the gangway. It was impossible to decide in this case whether the helpers noted were moved b}' personal kindness, or rather (as is most likely), by the same impulse which directs them in ordinary mason operations and toward supposed dead comrades. Sir John Lubbock, who has made interesting experiments and observations with a view to testing the presence of benevolent feeling in ants,^ does not have a very high opinion of emmet charity, but concludes that there are " individual differences," and that among ants, as with men, there are Priests and Levites, as w^ell as Good Samaritans. I am much inclined to the view that anything like individual benevolence, as distinguished from tribal or communal benevolence, does not exist. The apparent special cases of beneficence, outside the instinctive actions which lie within the line of formicary routine, are so rare and so doubtful as to their cause, that (however loth), I must decide against anything like a personal benevolent character on the part of my honey-ants. Such an example, indeed, as one of those cited by Lubbock,^ viz., the neglect on the part of co-formicarians to remove the decapitated heads of enemies from the limbs to which they are firmlj' clasped, does not seem to me as remarkable as it does to 1 Journal of the Linnsean Society, Zoology, Vol. XII, p. 497. 2 Op. cit. p. 492. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 43 Sir John. I have often observed the same fact among various species, and, knowing by experience, the difficulty of imloosing those formidable jaws, clasped by their immense muscles in the rigor of death, would charge it to inability rather than indisposi- tion, that these adhering death's-heads are not removed bj^ kindly offices of comrades. But such examples as are here recorded, together with kindred ones given by Lubbock, may fairly be quoted against the existence of a personal benevolent character in ants. However, the question can by no means be regarded as settled. Cleansing and Feeding Larv^. — One or two miscellaneous observations may, perhaps, be allowed a place in this connection. The solicitude of the workers for the helpless larvje was a matter for continual admiration. The offices of nurse do not seem to be confined to any one caste, but the burden of dut}^ appeared to be assumed bj' the dwarfs, and next to them the minors. When the grub is to be cleansed it is taken in the mouth, turned by the fore pair of legs, the antennae meanwhile touching and apparently aiding, while the mandibles are applied over the grub their teeth apparentl}" working chieflj" within the annular divisions of the several joints. Doubtless this motion is accompanied by a free use of the tongue, but this I did not observe. When the grubs are to be fed^ the workers pass from one to another, striding over them, and standing among them (PL YI fig. 34) as the}^ lie in little groups. The wee white things perk up their brownish yellow heads, which thej' stretch out and move around, evidently soliciting food. Their nurses move from one to another, apply the mouth for a moment, and pass on. At the slightest alarm the grubs are seized and hurried into the recesses of the nest. Their position is frequently changed, from higher to lower, from outer to inner rooms, and the reverse, with- out any purpose which I could discover or imagine. When this sort of transfer was not going on, the nurses would often be engaged in shifting the position of their charges, flitting restlessly among them, picking them up, turning them around, putting them down again, with an aimless uneasiness that bore an amusing like- ness to the dandling which human infants undergo at the hands of certain j^oung mothers. Toilet Habits. — It has been said that the hone}- -bearers are cleansed by the workers. This is the rule ; bxit the rotunds are 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. not wlioll}^ dependent for this n]ion their fellows. In one of m^' formicaries, the rotunds when placed within the light, began to cleanse themselves, without leaving their perch. They held en to the roof by the two hind legs and one of the middle pair, and used the other middle and the two fore legs in the usual manner of ants.i They "were quite able thus to draw a leg through the spui'-comb of one of the fore-feet ; to brush the head, etc. In one case I even saw a honey-bearer performing the offices of the toilet upon a worker. The latter held her mandibles apart, while the rotund licked the mouth parts ; and from thence pro- ceeded to the vertex of the head. Both insects were in a semi- rampant posture the meanwhile. Fraternal Relations with Sister Colonies. — A few experi- ments upon several nests quite widely separated, showed that as in the case of some other ants,^ the inmates (of the same species) fraternized completely, and engaged within the artificial nests, in the care of the larvae, cocoons, honey-bearers, and in all other formicary duties. IX. Economy of the Honey-Bearers. What is the economy of the remarkable structure and habit presented in the honey-bearer ? The naturalist is shut out from all observations in natural site that might give answer to this question. But from studies thus far made upon my artificial formicaries, from structure, and from reasonable analogy, I ha^e little hesitation in saying that the economy is precisel}^ that of the bee in storing honey within the comb. The difference lies in the fact that the bee puts her store within inorganic, the ant within organic matter ; the bee within the waxen cell which her industry constructs, the ant within the living tissue of her sister formicarian, provided to her hands by the Creator. The honey is held in reserve within its globular store-room of animal tissue for times when the workers fail to gather food, or the supply fails in Nature. The queen, the virgin females, the males, the teem- ing nursery of white grubs, are all and always altogether dependent upon others for nurture. During the winter months and in seasons when the honey supply is scant or wholly fails, 1 See Toilet Habits of Ants, in Agricultural Ants of Texas, Ch. VIII, p. 135. 2 Mound-Making Ants of the Alleghenies, p. 281. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHTLADELPinA. 45 perhaps during the long rain}^ seasons, the entire famih* must have food. Precisely as the bee goes to the honey-comb in such emergencies, the hone3-ant goes to the hone^^-bearer. There is, to be sure, a corresponding difference in the mode of eliciting the stored sweets. The bee brealcs the cell and laps the honey. The hungry ant places her mouth to that of the bearer, from whose mouth it is received as it is regurgitated from the hone}' crop. The muscles of the abdomen act upon that organ as does the pressure of a lady's hand upon the eau-de- cologne within the elastic bulb of a toilet jet or spraying bottle. It is forced up, gathers in a little globule, a honey-dewdrop, upon the filament-like maxillse under the jaw, whence it is lapped off by the waiting pensioners. The admirable adaptation by which the ant's structure is fitted for this function, will be noted further on. It may be well to state such facts as appeared in various efforts to arrive at the truth of the above opinion, viz., that the honej'-bearers serve as store-houses of food for the inmates of the nest. If these facts fall short of a complete deraonsti-ation, they at least form a chain of evidence which creates a verv strono- probability. 1. Regurgitation of Honey. — On the occasion of the dis- covery that the ants collected nectar from the oak-galls, a branch upon wliich the foragers were at work was removed to my tent for stud}'. First, however, it was taken to the home site, and a dwarf worker coaxed upon a leaf and laid on the nest. She seemed much confused, and evidently did not at first recoo-nize the fact that she was at home. The workers around the gall, who .were quite easily distinguished b}' the smaller size of their abdomens, also showed marks of surprise -at this im expected arrival. However, two dwarfs and a minor soon sufficiently recovered their equanimity to arrest their fellow and " take toll " from her mouth of the syrup with which her crop was well charged. (PI. Y, fig. 24.) The mode was that which is common among ants, and has been fulty described.^ A worker major was next transferred from the bush to the nest, and showed the same confusion at this unexpected " railroading " home. She also was tolled b}^ the ants clustering upon the mound. In both cases I saw the drop of liquid honey sparlding as it passed, a lantern having been placed on each side, thus throwing light full}- upon ^ See Mound-Making Ants, p. 275. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the o:roup. The major, after her first confuseTl hesitation, seeiued inclined to start again on the trail, but after being tolled entered the gate. It thus appeared at the outset, that the honey collected by the foraging parties is served out to the sentinels, working parties and others at the nest, precisely as has been fully shown in the case of the mound-making ants of the Alleghenies. ^ 2. The act of receiving supplies from the hone^'-bearer was observed by me soon after the transfer of the ants to an artificial nest. The rotund threw her head up, raised her thorax, and regurgitated a large drop of amber liquid, which hung upon the mouth and palps. At first two ants were feeding — a major, who was in a position similar to that of the rotund, and a dwarf who stood upon her hind legs and reached up from below. During the feeding another major was attracted to the banquet, and obtained her share by reaching over the back of the first worker, indeed, partly standing upon her, and thrusting her mouth into the common " dish." (PI. Y, fig. 24.) The mandibles and maxillge of the pensioners serve as a sort of dish, upon which a particle of honey is taken and afterward is licked oft" more at leisure. 3. Workers fond of the stored Honey — The fondness of the workers for the store within the rotunds was strikingly shown during the excavation of a nest. Necessaril}", in breaking down the rooms, the distended abdomens of some of the honey -bearers were ruptured. The high state of excitement which pervaded the colony, the ordinary instinct to defend the nest and preserve the larvae, cocoons and other dependents, were at once suspended in the presence of this delicious temptation, and amid the ruins of their home the workers paused, clustered in large groups around the unfortunate comrade, and greedily lapped the sweets from the honey-moistened spot. It was a pitiful sight to see, and was noted with a mild sort of indignation, and to the disparagement of the ants, until I remembered that history has often recorded,' and, indeed, I myself have seen, the humiliating fact that human beings have exhibited a like greed and ignoble self-gratification amid the perils and threatened wreck of their country and homes. Treatment of Dead Rotunds. — Over against this fact may be placed one seemingly more to the credit of our Melligera. From time to time the honej^-beai'ers died. The bodies of those who perished upon their perch would hang to the roof for daj^s before 1 Op. cit., p. 377. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 4^ the death-grip finally relaxed and they fell. It happened more than once that the workers failed to perceive the change, and for some time, a day or more, after death, continued to cleanse and tend them with the accustomed solicitude. When the fact was at last perceived, and the dead removed, the round abdomen was first severed from the thorax by clipping the petiole, then the parts were separately removed to the " cemetery," that common dumping-ground for the dead, which these ants, like all others whom I have observed, invariably maintained. In view of the fact last recorded, it seemed curious that the stored treasures of these " honey-pots " were not secured by cutting the sealing tissue. In point of fact, this was never seen to be done, and the amber globes were pulled up galleries, rolled along rooms, and bowled into the graveyard along with the juiceless legs, heads and other members. I verily believe that they were never once deliberately opened, in spite of their tempting contents. If this act were the result of an instinctive sentiment by which Nature guarantees protection to the living honey-bearer (and this, indeed, is likely), it must soem to us very beautiful and praiseworthy-. But what if it were only the consequence of a mentalism so low and fixed within its instinctive ruts as to hinder even a suggestion of utilizing the wasting store by opening the abdomen ? 4. Effects of Withholding Food — In order to determine be3'-ond doubt the relations of the honey -bearers to the other ants, I made a number of experiments, which, I regret to say, led to no decided conclusion. ^ One or two of them, however, gave results of some value. A number of rotunds and workers were placed in a nest,' and denied all food. A little water was allowed them, but for more than four months their fast was not otherwise broken. ^ Au unusual press of professional and domestic duties during the winter of '79-80 absorbed even my eveniugs and those leisure hours which I feel at liberty to devote to natural history. I was thus unable to give to my little friends that attention which might have assured a complete success. On one occasion, just as a long series of preparations promised satisfactory results, a family bereavement intervened, and when it was possible to resume observations, the hour of advantage had passed. Then followed the untimely destruction of my captives, as will be related hereafter, and the estopment of all study. Naturalists, at least, will know how to esti- mate the various ordinary as well as extraordinary interruptions and hin- drances with which the observer has to contend, and which often prevent the most satisfactory results. 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. It was 1113- hope that this prolonged separation from external food supplies would compel the workers to resort to the hone^'-bearers for food, and thus afford the positive proof that the latter were the natural storehouses of the colonj'. Most provokin;^!}-. the perverse Melligei'S made the room of the hone^'-bearers within the very heart of the nest, and no strategy of mine could tempt more than one or two of the rotunds into a position under m\' e3'es. I was therefore limited to such inferences as might be drawn fi'om the general condition of the inmates during and at the close of the fast. During the entire four months, the workers, whose movements were of course observable, were in perfect health and good condi- tion. Indeed, it was very evident that they were in a more healthy state, more vigorous and active than the inmates of the other nests. When the nest was finally opened the remaining workers had well-filled abdomens, all of them looking more like foragers freshly returned from a banquet of nectar among the oak galls, than like the victims of a four-months' seige. The abdo- mens of the honey-bearers were undoubtedh' diminished, but presented little appearance of having been largely drawn upon by hungry workers. The complement of this experiment over a nest of workers who were wholly separated from honey-bearers, and denied food, came to an untimely end. The purpose had been to make such a com- parison between the two sets of workers as would have shown what effect the presence of houej^-beaArs had upon the abdomens. 5. Covering obnoxious matter. — Two other formicaries were established with the special purpose of determining whether the workers habitually transferred food to the sedentary insects upon the roof. One colony was fed syrup mixed with carmine, the expectation being that if the ants ate this and fed it to the honey- bearers, the color would show through their abdomens, or be discovered by dissection. The experiment failed, as to its main ^ lurpose, but was the occasion of uncovering an interesting trait. Che carmiue-sj'rup was obnoxious to the ants. Some tasted it, turned awa^'^, and rubbed their mouth parts upon the earth, with evident tokens of dislike. Others tested it with their antennje, and although they had been prepared for a banquet by previous fasting, refused to eat. Moreover, they instantly, deliberateh', and with one accord set to work to cover up the offensive material. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 49 The syrup had been placed upon large corks, hollowed out atop into little dishes, and set in the soil. One cork projected an inch above the surface, and up this the workers climbed, carrj'iug pellets of earth and gravel, from the A-ery bottom of the nest, four inches below the surface. These pellets they dropped into the syrup, until the dish was filled and heaped up high. Some of the bits of gravel were quite large, of greater bulk, and several times heavier than the ants. As the nests were made of their native soil, I thus saw the ease with which the workers carr}- up the gravel stones, that cover their mounds (PI. YI, fig, 30). A broad trail of s^-rup was forced down one side of the cork, and it also was covered. This required more delicate manage- ment, as the ants wei*e forced to support themselves upon the perpendicular surface of the cork, and, working side-wise, daub the dirt into the syrup, and fix it there ! The whole trail was thus covered from top to bottom. The sjrup was fed to another for- micary with precisely the same results. This was not the only occasion on which food given the ants was thus served. A crushed grape, and a juicj' bit of a pear were covered in the sajne way in four of the nests. The fruit did not seem to be relished hy the ants, yet I am not sure that the juice may not afterwards have been lapped from the soil which ab- sorbed it. White sugar the ants took freely ; bees' honey was not so much relished. In the meanwhile, during the progress of these observations, I found that the semi-rotunds, at least were not wholly dependent for food upon the workers, as they partook freely of the sugar. But I never saw a honev-bearer, one of full rotundity, taking food or drink. ^ One might imagine that they are quite independent of outside supplies after the}- have once reached that state, and could spend the remainder of their lives, unless greatly prolonged, without eating. The question of chief interest here is : are thej' brought to that state b}' the deliberate action of workers in feed- ing them ■? I believe that after a certain point of distension this is the case. But the belief does not yet rest upon positive demonstration. We now proceed to the anatomy of the creature, which may aflford some additional light upon this question. ^ I substituted for carmine Pmssian blue, which Dr. Forel had used for staining living ants (Fouvmis de la Suisse, p. 110), but had no better suc- cess, although some of the ants fed upon the colored sweets. 50 PRO0EEDINO8 OP THE ACADEMY OP [1881. X. Anatomy op the Alimentary Canal in the Honey-Ant. These questions, closely related, required answer : I. Are the honej-bearers a distinct caste ? II. How is the peculiar dilated condition of the abdomen to be accounted for ? III. What is the condition of the digestive organs in the ab- domen of the hone3^-bearer ? There are some field observations that have a bearing upon these questions : 1. The workers observed returning from foraging excursions had largely inflated abdomens. This is an ordinary experience with ants ; the workers of Foi'mica exsectoides, our movintain mound-builders, for example, returning from attendance upon the Aphides with their props very much swollen. The workers of Melliger, however, seem to have an especial elasticity of the crop, which gave the abdomens of some of the returning repletes a nearly semi-rotundity. 2. These repletes and semi-rotunds in my artificial nests adopted in a measure the sedentary habits of the honey -bearers, and perched upon the roofs, where they hung quite persistently. They were often very sluggish, but more ready to move than the rotunds, and at times showed much activit}', though not greatl}'^ disposed to work. (See PI. Ill, fig. 6.) 3. In the formicaries opened in natural site, I observed, what Llave had seen from his specimens, that there were several degrees in the sizes of the honey-bearers in the honej^-rooms. 4. There was an apparent growth in the abdomens of the seden- tary' workers in the artificial nests. As early as September 7th, 18T9, 1 made this record in m}^ note-book: "It begins to dawn upon me that the worker majors become honey-bearers. Many of them hang in the nests to the honey-rooms. In 'B ' nest the en- tire line along the upper margin of the large room is composed of this rank." Honey -bearers with abdomens distended from one-half to two-thirds the full size were continually noted, and I could onlj- infer that they were recruited from the number of the sedentary majors. In fact it became difficult to mark the individuals in whom the sedentary major ceased and the honey-bearer began. 5. A series of experiments was attempted to solve this point. Semi-rotunds or sedentary majors were separated, freely fed, and their growth noted. They never exceeded the condition of about 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 51 two-thirds the usual spherical abdomen. What the result would have been had the}'' lived the entire year, and how long it would have taken them to attain the rotund condition can only be guessed.^ 6. Among the callows, or young ants, collected, I could find no evidence at all of a separate honey-bearer caste. Among the larvae there were some large, broad grubs, that differed much from the others, which I supposed to be queen-grubs. I was not able to hatch these and the cocoons, and observe results, a process which would probably determine the whole inquiry. The cocoons collected were all of three sizes, corresponding in length to the workers, major, minor and dwarf or minim as this smallest caste might perhaps be called. Y. A comparison of the workers* with the honey ^bearer shows that there is absolutel}' no difference between them except in the distended condition of the abdomen. The measurements as to length and size of head, length of legs and thorax are precisely the same. This appears to be true also, of some of the smaller rotunds and the minors. My conclusion from the above facts is that the worker majors, for the most part, and sometimes the minors, are transformed by the gradual distention of the crop, and expansion of the abdomen, into the honey-bearers, and that the latter do not compose a dis- tinct caste. ^ It is probable, however, that some of the majors have a special tendency to this change by reason of some peculiar structure or form of the intestine and abdominal walls. 8. Finally I undertook an anatomical comparison of the honey- bearers and workers. I made a large number of dissections, which were carefully studied and compared, and these observations ^ Some observer upon the field might readily take up these and other ex- periments and carry them to a satisfactory conclusion. There are invalids at Colorado Springs and Manitou, who might follow the admirable example of the late Mr. Moggridge at Mentone, and find both enjoyment and pro- longed life in some such studies. ' I am glad to be confirmed in this opinion by Dr. Aug. Forel, to whom I early sent specimens and notes, and who has shown a gratifying interest in these studies, and has cordially aided them by valuable suggestions. See a communication to the Morphologico-Physiological Society of Munich, in Aerztlichen Intelligenz-Blatte, Jan'y, 1880. 52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. strengthened, I niiobt almost say entirel_y confirmed my opinion.' Some of the results thus obtained will have value to many stu- dents, and they are therefore briefly presented here. Without entering fully into anatomical and histological details, enough will be given to confirm and explain the facts related and opinions stated above. The Alimentary or Intestinal Canal. — The whole eoui'se of the alimentary tract from the mouth to the anus was carefully worked out in many dissections. Less attention was given to the head ; the pharynx and mouth parts were, however, worked out. Attention Avas, of course, chiefly directed to the abdomen and con- tents. The intestinal canal is composed of the following parts : I. Within the head there are : § 1. The mouth and the mouth-parts, viz. : the mandibles (Plate VII, figs. 37, 38) w6.,- which are armed with teeth of irregular size ; the maxillse, mx, and maxillary palps, mx. p ; the labium, Ib.^ and lower lip, the labial palps, lb. p., and the tongue, to. § 2. The buccal sac (fig. 51, 6c.s), a spherical expansion at the anterior part of the pharynx, in the middle of the front part of the head. Its function is not determined.^ It is frequently found filled or partly filled with various, amorphous particles, the debris of food, etc. Brants, who first discovered it in the wasps, supposes that it may serve those insects in the preparation of their paper- nests. Forel conjectures that it may serve the purpose of a special digestion for the anterior part of the body. Lubbock once found in it an entire worm. It would appear to be a sort of anatomical " Botany bay" for the temporary seclusion of such food material as may not be prepared to yield the juices which alone pass into the crop. ' I mounted many of my preparations for more leisui'ely study under the microscope, and they have been submitted to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. I acknowledge here the assistance and advice of Prof. J. Gibbons Hunt, M. D,, in these studies, whose unrivaled skill as a microscopist was cordially placed at my disposal. ^ The reference-symbols are uniform in all the figures, and are for the most part such abbreviations of the names of the parts as may aid the memory in studying the plates. See the key to reference symbols. • 2 See Forel Swiss Ants, p. 109 ; Lubbock, Microscop. Jour., London, 1877, p. 139 ; Agricultural Ants of Texas, p. 119. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 53 § .3. The phan-nx (fig. 51, px.) a strongly miisculav vrall situ- ated within tlie head in front of the neck, nk. II. Within the body there is the oesophagus (ce. fig 52), a mus- cular tube^ or canal which passes through the neck and petiole, and connects the head with the abdomen. III. The parts within the abdomen, which most concern us are § 1. Segmental Plates of Abdomen. — It is first necessary to understand the structure of the wall of the abdomen. This consists of ten strongly chitinous segmental plates, five dorsal and five ventral (PI. Til, figs. 53, 54). These overlap one another, like scales, from the base toward the apex, and the dorsal plates overlap the ventral. The last plates which guard the cloacal cavit}', are known as the pA'gidium (py,) and the h3'pop3'gium (hy.) The anus, in Melliger is surrounded by a circle of strong bristle-like hairs. These plates, in the normal condition of the abdomen, are set upon (if I may so say) a strongl}- muscular inner wall, which is highlj^ elastic in all ants, particularly of the Formicida?. This elasticity' appears to reach its extreme point in Melliger. In ordinary excessive feeding, the distension of the crop causes the expansion of the muscular coat between the plates which are thus forced apart, at various degrees of separation, according to the amount of food taken, until in the case of the honey-bearer of Melliger the three middle plates (Nos. 2, 3, 4) are wholl}^ isolated, appearing, as Forel has well said, like little islands on the tersel}- stretched, light colored abdominal membrane. (Plate YII, fio-. 54, D2, 3, V2, 3), (Plate X, figs. 72, 73). Plates Dl, Yl, retain their normal position, and plates D4, Y4, are not so wideh' sepa- rated from D5, Y5, as from their next anterior plates. We may now view the abdominal portion of the intestinal tract, in order to understand what happens in the growth of the honev- bearer. § 2. The Crop or Ingluvies. — The crop is the anterior and superior sub^division of the abdominal portion of the alimentar}- canal. It is simply an expansion of the (jesophagus within the ab- domen. The normal condition of the crop was determined bv examination of the workers with undistended abdomens, and more readil}' from the stud}' of a virgin queen (PL YIII, fig. 59;, 'Forel, quoting Meinert, speaks of the muscularization as feeble • but in Melliger, at least, the muscles appear to be sufficiently strono-. 54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. The ocspliagiis ce, is there seen passing through and bent over the hard ring (J71) which forms the junction of the petiole and abdomen. The oesophagus is seen as continued (ce c) within the abdomen, where it has precisely the same structure as within the thorax. The crop or ingluvies contains a moderate amount of food and is fairl}^ distended. The exterior coat of the crop is a net-work of muscles which present the branched character some- times found in insects (PI. VII, fig. 45). Another section of the crop showing tlie character of this muscularization is given at Fig. 46. This enlarged view is taken from the object shown at PI. YIII, fig. 55, and is made at the margin. The spherical crop is thus seen to be hung within the muscular netting, something like an inflated balloon within its net bag. Forel thinks^ that the muscles of the segmental walls of the abdomen alone are concerned in the act of regurgitation; but I see no ground for this opinion, except possibly with the honey- bearers, whose abdominal muscles alone might suffice to expel the contents of the crop. Such a remarkably efficient structure as is here demonstrated and illustrated, can hardly be without its proper function. Before proceeding to demonstrate the main point in hand, it will be well to follow the alimentary canal to its termination. § 3. The Gizzard or Pboventriculus. — The crop is continued posteriorly by the gizzard, gz (PI. VIII, figs. 55, 56, 57, 59), a singular and complicated organ in ants which has given rise to conjectures the most diverse. Meinert regards it as serving to regulate the movement of the aliments. Forel thinks it certain that it serves above all to close, and for the most part hermeti- cally, the digestive canal between the crop and the stomach.- The gizzard properly belongs to the anterior part of the intestinal canal its internal cuticle (tunica intima) being a direct continua- tion of the crop, oesophagus, pharynx and mouth. It consists in Myrmecocystus (and the entire sub-family Camponotidse) of three parts. ^ Swiss Ants, p. 111. ^ The gizzard varies largely among ants, and the variations form generic characters of great value, which Dr. Forel has shown, first in his ' ' Four- mis de la Suisse," p. 112, seq., and afterward, more fully and clearly, in his "Etudes Myrmecologiques," Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudois d. Sci. Nat., Vol. XV, 1878,pp. 337, 392. This last study of this organ is one of the most admirable contributions yet made to niyrmecological histology. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 55 1. The anterior part, or gizzard proper, a lily-shaped organ composed of a spherical bowl (b.gz) and four blades or sepals, s.gz. It is strongly chitinous, appears intact in all dissections, and is easily seen. The crop contracts at the posterior end within the four sepals of the gizzard, which thus appear to act as valves to regulate or moderate the flow of aliment from the crop to the stomach. What, if any, action it may have upon the food is not known ; it can hardh' have the usual function of trituration, as ants do not receive solid food into the crop.^ 2. The middle part of the gizzard, or cylinder, cy.gz, is a straight cylinder, with a fine, transparent internal cuticle whose matrix is surrounded by a compact coat of transverse striated muscles. Exteriorly the cylinder appears to merge directly into the stomach. Only the muscular coat, however, is thus directly continued and expanded into the fine muscular bag-net of the stomach (PI. VIII, fig. b1). 3. The internal cuticle of the gizzard traverses the walls of the stomach accompanied b}- its matrix, and projects within the cavity of the stomach, terminating in an elongated bulb, which is the button, bn.gz. (fig. 51), bn. (fig. 59 >, or posterior part of the gizzard. The anterior and posterior parts of the gizzard are always found in ants, the first varying greath^, the latter scarcely at all. The cyl- inder, on the contrary, is wholly wanting in many genera, and in others undergoes great variations of length. The entire organ is united to the crop externally by a strong muscular netting, so that the two might be compared to a balloon (crop) and the car (gizzard) and the enfolding muscles to the network swinging between the two. § 4. The Stomach. — The stomach, stm (PI. YIII,figs. 55, 56), like the gizzard is alwaj'S easily discernible, inasmuch as a quan- tit}^ of solid amorphous matter within it, of a dark brown or blackish color, betraj^s its presence even through the segmental plates. It is commonly spherical or ovate in shape. § 5. Malpighian Tubes. — Around the posterior pole of the stomach are grouped the Malpighian vessels, mpg (figs. 56, 60), twelve in number. 1 The various sections of the bowl appeared to me to have upon their interior edges certain tooth-like inequalities, which suggested at least the office of triturating or agitating the passing food. These may be, however, nothing more than longitudinal flutiugs upon the external surface. 56 TROCEEDINOS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. § 6. The Intestine, — The location and appearance of the intes- tine, is seen in fig. ST), more clearly in fig. .60. The ileum (il) passes from the posterioi- pole of the abdomen, and appears to be united to the colon (col) by a fold which I have ventured to refer to as the ileo-secal valve {il.v). The rectal glands (re.gl) appear upon the colon, and the rectum (?'e), a strongly chitinous and muscuhir structure, terminates in tlie ciHated anus (an). Finally, PI. YIII, fig. 58 ^ will show the relative positions of all the organs opening into the cloaca. See Explanation of Plates, fig. 58. We may now construct for further illustration the synthetic figure, PI. IX, fig. 61, giving a side view of the entire intestinal canal in situ. This will indicate the normal position of the crop relative to the abdomen and the other alimentary" organs. It will be seen that it occupies a position anterior and superior to these. The natural tendency of the pressure caused b}^ the expansion of the crop, as it fills the abdominal cavit}', would be to force the remainder of the tract backward and downward. In point of fact it is so fourfd. A number of workers, with abdomens in various degrees of distension wei'e examined, and the condition and site of the digestive organs noted. A few outlines of these abdomens are given : The series begins with Fig. 63 (PI. IX), where the crop is shown in nearly normal site, and well filled. The same condition is indicated at Fig. 66, except that the crop shows marks of having once been quite distended and afterward emptied. Fig. 64 shows a worker, whose crop about half fills the abdomen. The gizzard, gfz, is forced downward (ventral J and has the anterior poles of the sepals turned upward (dorsad;. The effect of sub- sequent pressure (should the crop have expanded), in forcing the stomach, etc., backward and downward into the cloacal cavity, can readily be predicted from the figure. In Figs. 62 and 65, the abdomens of workers in the semi-rotund state, the distension has advanced a little further so as to push the stomacli in one case (62) as far ns, in the other (65) partly beyond, the fourth segmental plates, compressing the intestine proportionatel3\ 1 Adapted from Forel, "Der Giftapparat und die Aurddriisen der Amei- sen," Zeitschrlftf. wiss. Zool., Bd. XXX. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 5T That the same results follow in all the worker castes may be seen in Fig. 6*7, the abfloraen of a minim or dwarf worker. Turning to tlie honej'-bearers, we find precisely the same con- dition of the abdomen, except that the distention of the crop has greatly increased, pushing its walls in all directions quite up against the inner walls of the abdomen, forcing the latter into rotundity, and compressing the other organs into the smaller space. Fig. 69 is the abdomen of a honej^-bearer, which appeared to be a little short of the full rotundity. The crop filled the entire cavity, but the gizzard, stomach and intestine, instead of being- crowded together upon each other, were in their normal relations, and appeared to be in an entirely healthy state. The aspect of man}^ of the bearers raised the query, whether the anus might not be sealed by the organs forced against it, thus stopping all excre- tion, and making the animal simply a vital honey-pot. The above individual, at least, had every appearance of normal condition and action of all the organs. In the next example (fig. 70), the gizzard, stomach, malpighi- an vessels and intestine are forced down quite within the compass of the fourth pairs of segmental plates, and directly over the cloacal vent. For the most part these organs are situated ventral, but here they are partly dorsal of this cleft. The most usual position of the stomach in the honey-bearers is between and quite close to the fifth and fourth ventral plates. The gizzard is a little anterior of this, the sepals, which mark the posterior pole, or entrance of the crop within the gizzard, being directed downward, upward, downward and backward, upward and backward, or forward, at hap-hazard. Another illustration is given (fig. 68), in which the crop of a honey-bearer is seen in the act of contraction, after having been punctured through a slit (s) in the abdomen. When one holds a rotund up to the light, and looks into the semi-transparent abdo- men, it is not possible to distinguish the crop from the abdominal membrane. But in the example here figured, as the honey flowed out from the pierced crop, the slowly contracting and thickenino- folds of the partly emptied organ were thus revealed. Nothino- could demonstrate more clearly than this experiment and figure that it is the crojj alone which fills the distended abdomen. I venture to add a final illustratioji to tliis series. I was en- 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. abled to separate a crop entire from the abdomen, and mount it for microscopic examination. In this delicate woi'k, which could not otherwise have been done, I was aided by some morbid con- dition of the abdomen. I occasionally noticed, both in the natural and artificial nests, honej^-bearers whose abdomens had the ap- pearance of cones (PI. VI, fig. 3.3) and the outer membrane hung in folds. ^ The}^ seemed to have suflTered some injury, which ap- parently had affected the crop. It was from one of these that the crop (PI. VIII, fig. 55) was taken. These studies point to the following conclusions : I. First ^ and absolutely, that it is the crop alone which contains the nectar received at the mouth, which, immensely distended thereby, fills the rounded abdomen of the honey-bearer. II. Second^ and absolutel}^, the organs of the abdominal portion of the alimentary canal in the honey-brearers are ordinarilj^ in a natural state, except in so far as their position has been changed by the downward and backward pressure of the expanding crop. This condition of the abdomen is fi-equent, in a greater or less degree, among ants. There has been much error and loose statement on this point among authors. So eminent an anatomist as Dr. Joseph Leidy supposed that the honey was contained within the stomach ; that all the other viscera of the stomach were obliterated, and that even the tracheal A^essels had entirely disappeared.^ Dr. Oscar Loew^ makes some correct notices of the honey -ant, as seen at Santa Fe, New Mexico, but permits himself to recognize " the intestine . . as a narrow canal winding through the rounded and puffed up ab- domen." This could only, in any sense, be affirmed of a small part of the abdomen, the posterior portion into which, as we have seen, the intestine is crowded. It is possible that the dorsal ves- 1 I do not credit the statement (Loew) that many of the rotunds burst by force of the pressure upon the crop. Probably this never occurs in na- ture. The spots of moistened clay seen by observers rather mark the wreck of ants crushed by pressure upon the chambers and galleries during excavation, or ruptured by falling from the roosts. 2 Proceedings Academy Natural Science, Vol. VI, 1853, p. 72. This, however, was twenty- nine years ago. ^ Chemist and mineralogist to Lieut. "Wheeler's Exploring Expedition, American Naturalist, Vol. VIII, 1874, p. 365-6. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 59 sel may have been mistaken for the intestine, as this may be seen in some specimens very plainly. Dr. James Blake ^ has published a brief report in which he falls upon an error quite the reverse of Dr Loew.^ " The intes- tine of the insect," he says, " is not continued beyond the thorax, so that there is no way in which the remains of the food can be ex- pelled from the body, except by the mouth." It follows, of course, that with this view, he should further err in supposing the honey- bag to be formed simply by the expansion of the abdominal seg- ments. The illustrations above figured, on the contrary, show that the intestinal canal has neither been ruptured, nor resorbed, nor other- wise disposed of than is quite natural.^ III. Third, it is seen that the process by which the rotundity of the honey-bearers has probably been produced, has its exact counterpart in the ordinary distension of the crop in over-fed ants ; that, at least, the condition of the alimentar}- canal, in all the castes is the same, differing only in degree, and therefore, the probability is very great that the honey-hearer is simply a worker with an overgroivn abdomen. If this last conclusion has not been fully demonstrated, it has at least been shown that there is no anatomical or physiological obstacle thereto, but very much confirmatory thereof. The Australian Honey-Ant. — An exceedingly interesting discovery of a new species of honey-ant, adds to the probability of this last conclusion. Sir John Lubbock has described this species as Gamponotus ijijlatus,* from specimens collected at Adelaide, Australia. I received examples through the courtesy of Mr. Gerald Waller, last summer, which enabled me even in advance of Lubbock's admirable description, to note that a con- ^ Proceedings California Academy Science, 1873, part II, page 98. 2 Dr. Forel, in the communication to the Morphologic© physiological So- ciety of Munich, already alluded to, appears to me to have misunderstood Dr. Loew's published statement. Dr. L. erred in seeing too much intestine, instead of none at all. ^ It is not worth while to more than mention here the opinion which has leen largely circulated, that the workers bite and wound the ends of the ahdomens, producing thereby an inflammation which seals up the anus, stops all excretion, and so causes the rei^letion of the abdomen. * Journal Linn. Soc. Zoology, 1880^ Vol.. XV, p. 185, seq. 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. dition supposed to be peculiar to our American Melliger, obtained in an Australian species belonging to a genus quite removed from Myrmecocystus. Mr. Waller could tell me nothing of the habits or luibitat of C. inflatus, and Lubbock has no account of an}'. But tlie congeners of the Australian insect are " Carpenter ants," quite generally making tlieir formicaries in the roots and trunks of trees, and thus in economy as well as structure differ from M. hortus-deorum. This widening of the range within which this hitherto phenomenonal condition of the abdomen is found, not only raises the suggestion which Sir John makes of an independent origin of the modification in the two species, but also adds to the probability that the modification may have qriginated in the natural mode which I have described. It is to be regretted that Lubbock did not make an examination of the alimentary canal of his species, which, with tlie material and resources at his command, would doubtless have been highly satisfactory. However, I undertook from my limited material, to make at least so mucli of a stud}^ of the digestive organs as would permit some comparison with results obtained from Hortus- deorum. I had but one perfect specimen, which is figured Plate •X, fig. 74. The abdomen of this example was removed and care- fully mounted without rupturing the abdominal walls. The result is shown at Plate IX, fig. 71, and as will at once be seen, corresponds with those obtained fully from Hortus-deorum, and as far as pursued, from Mexicanus also. The crop (fig. 71) fills the cavity of the abdomen, and the rest of the digestive organs are seen crowded into the anal region. The gizzard has the general features of that of Hortus-deorum, but has marked charac- teristics, quite identical with those of the genus Camponotus as pointed out by Forel.' The sepals are not deflected at the anterior pole, as in the lily-shaped sepals of Hortus-deorum, but are clavate and straight. This fact certainly strengthens the conclusion arrived at con- cerning the American species of honey-bearer, viz., that the rotund has been developed by natural habit from the ordinary worker, and that the possibilities of such a condition exist in the structure and functions of all nectar-feeding ants. Why the extraordinarily distended crop seen in the honey-ant should be limited to two ' Etudes Myrmecologiques, Bull. Soc. Vaud. de Sci. Nat. 1878. PI XXIII, fig. 1. 1881]. NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 61 species (so far as known), and why so limited a number of workers in the formicaries of these two species should develop the round abdomen, are questions that provoke sufficient wonder, but j-ield scant satisfaction. XI. Possible Organs of Stridl'lation in Ants. The segmental plates of the abdomen are composed of numer- ous hexagonal epithelial scales, PI. YII, fig. 48, which present a very beautiful appearance, as of delicate mosaics, when viewed througli a microscope. When a profile view of one of these plates is exposed to the lens, as at fig. 49, the scales are seen to be imbricated, that is, to overlap each other like tiles on a house roof, and show the serrate edge figured in the cuts, figs. 49 and 50. The former (49) is drawn from a section of Gamponotus inflatus, and the latter (50) from Hortus-deorum. This serrate edge not only shows upon the external part of the plate e. ab. pL, but upon the imbricated portion, i. ab. pi. By referring to the manner in which the one part overlaps the other shown at figs. 53, 54, it may be seen that a backward and forward motion of the plates iipon each other might produce a faint rasping sound. That this motion is entirely possible can hardly be doubted. The abdominal plates are continually, though gradually, sliding out and in, like the parts of a telescope, under the expansion and contraction of the crop, as the ant feeds or regurgitates the con- tained nectar. All that is required to have the complete condi- tions for stridulation seems, therefore, to be the muscular ability to perform this action rapidly; which, it appears to me, ants cer- tainly possess. I have often noticed the peculiar hiss-z-z-z ! which arises from an excited colonj^ or column of ants, a sound which grows in intensity according to the degree of excitement. I have also met an opinion prevalent among ordinary observers, that the ants produce this sound by some organ analogous to some one of those by which other insects produce musical notes or noises — in short (to use the popular phrase), that "ants sing." But I have here- tofore been disposed to consider the noise referred to simply as the result of friction of a great multitude of insects moving rapidly over the surface of the earth, the litter of leaves, twigs, etc., and against the hard, shell-like bodies of their fellows, or possibly (also) b}' the gratings of the hard tooth-like mandibles upon each other. 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. I am not yet prepared to abandon this opinion, nor to affirm that ants do produce audible sounds by proper stridulating organs ; but simply record the structural possibility of such behavior. Since making the above note, Mr. Swinton's work on "Insect Variety " ^ has reached me. The author records an example of what seemed to be an act of stridulation by a small yellow ant, Myrmica ruginodis. This insect was observed stationed near the edge of an inverted wine glass, underneath which it had been confined, its head down- ward, rapidly vibrating its abdomen vertically from the pedicle, and simultaneously giving out a continuous singing sound, in color and intensity resembling the sharp whining of the little dipteron Syrilla pipens. Concluding that the rhythmical motion accompanying the music indicated this ant as a stridulator, the author undertook a microscopic stud^^ of its anatomy, from which the following facts appear : ^ The ant belongs to the family Myrmicid^, which are distinguished from the Formicid^, to which our honey ant belongs, by having two knots or nodes to the petiole. The second or posterior knot is commonly the larger, and is placed quite near to the anterior pole of the abdomen. Upon the insertion of the abdomen into this node, were observed twelve minute yet regular annular striae. (PI. X, fig. 81.) This stria'ion was produced, but less distinctly, upon the articulation of this (the second) node with the first (anterior) node. It was conjectured that the rapid movement of these joints of the petiole, back and forward upon each other and upon the abdomen (like the jointed tubes of a telescope), produced the sound above described. As the nodes are to be regarded as abbreviated segments of the abdomen, and as the abdominal segments have already been shown to be capable of movement one upon another, Mr. Swinton's interesting obser- vation gives new value to the suggestion above made concerning the structural possibility of stridulation in the honey ant and others of like organism. 1 "Insect Variety, its Propagation and Distribution," by A. H. Swin- ton, member of the Entomological Society of London, p. 106, and PI. VI, fig. 7. 2 The writer's account is somewhat confused by false punctuation, and he falls into the error of conjecturing that the small worker may have been a male. I have given my understanding of the structure as derived chiefly from the figure, which I reproduce with some alteration. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 63 XII. Destruction of the Ants by Mites. The untimely end of my artificial colonies is worthy of a passing note. The ants were brought from Colorado in large jars, domi- ciled in their native soil. Every precaution which circumstances would allow was taken to preserve their health, but after a con- finement of over seven months, during which mau}^ of the obser- vations noted above were made, they became infested with mites. These parasites, or their germs, were probably brought from Colorado with the insects, although I did not observe them until late in their imprisoment. However, I have seen the same or similar parasites upon other ants while in their home-nest, and more than once have suffered the loss of colonized formicaries from their inroads. In the case of the hone^- ants I was powerless to give relief of any kind, and witnessed with real grief the helpless little sufferei's in their struggles to free themselves from their destroyers. I have figured the head of an ant thus infested, at PI. VII, fig. 39, where the mites ma}" be seen clinging to the cheek, mandibles and antennae. I have spared the feelings of my readers so far as to figure but a few of the pests. In point of fact they literally covered the moiith parts, where they were chiefly congregated, although the}' were attached to other parts of the bod}-. The poor " host," although so admirably provided with implements for cleansing her person — such as the mandibles, mouth and tarsal comb— found all efforts to rid herself of her " guests " futil^. Even that friendly aid in toilet service which one emmet is wont to extend to another, was vain. Graduall}^ the poor victim yielded life to the parasitic swarm that sucked at her vital juices. The charnel-house — the little cemetery centre at one side of the formicar}' — gained many inmates daily ; the galleries and cham- bers thinned of their busy populace and grew lonely ; at last, as in some plague-stricken human commonwealth, the dead were suffered to lie where they fell, for the living were themselves sealed to death, and unable to give their comrades sepulture. So my nests faded away, until, unwilling longer to witness their suf- ferings, I gave them all a painless death. My studies were seriously interfered with by this calamit}-, as many of my well-nigh ripened experiments thus came to nought. But one cannot complain, for Nature and Destiny pursue ants 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. also, and that this i)articular form of insect doom is unhappily not rare has long ago been voiced in tlie familiar couplet : — " Great fleas have little fleas, they smaller fleas to bite 'em ; Smaller fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum,^'' One might pass to the opposite pole of the zoological series — TVIan — and add the I'eflection of Quintus Serenus upon the death of the Dictator Sylla : — '* Great Sylla, too, the fatal scourge hath known, * Slain by a host far mightier than his own," It might be supposed, at least I had so thought, that the presence of these parasites would greatly irritate the ants, and produce an excited behavior, and animated struggles to be rid of their guests. On the contrary, they endured the affliction with wonderful patience. It seemed to me, although one must allow in such cases for the anthropomorphic color upon his observa- tions, that the unfortunate creatures were quite conscious of their doom, of the hopelessness of contending against it, and had yielded tliemselves in a philosophic resignation. The mites are, in color, white, almost transparent, and are about one millimetre in length. I am not certain as to the species, but present correct drawings of the animals, from wdiich they ma}' be determined by a competent authority. (See PI. VII, figs. 40, 41). Greatly magnified views, in several degrees of ex- pansion, of the sucking organs, by which the mites cling to their host, are shown at figs. 42, 43, 44. XIII. Previous Accounts of the Honey-Ant. The first account of the Honey-ant was given to the world by Dr. Pablo de Llave, in the year A. D. 1832, in a Mexican journal.' A translation into French of the substance of this paper was given by Monsieur H. Lucas in the French Review and Magazine of Zoology, June, 1860.^ Meanwhile (1838), M. Wesmael had pub- lished a description of the ant, with figures, without knowledge of the above paper of Llave, establishing for it the Genus Myrmeco- CYSTUS. Wesmael 's generic name remains, but his specific name ^ Registro trimestre o collecion de Memorias de Historia literatura cien- cias y Artes, 1832. 2 Revue et Magazin de Zoologie, Tome XII, 18G0, p. 271. 1881.J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 65 {Mexicanus) has of course yielded to that of Llave, modified, liowever, from MeUigera to MelUger. The Colorado insects, upon "which the studies of this paper are based, I have ventured to regard as a new variety, and have named Myrmecocystus liortus- deorum, and thus have retained Wesmael's name as a variety name. It will be well to state briefly the facts in the economy of these insects indicated in the foregoing and other papers, in order to mark precisely the new facts which have now been communicated here. Llave 's information was all at second hand, he having made no personal observations of the habits of Melliger. From a person living at Dolores, a village in the vicinitj^ of the cit}^ of Mexico, he learned : 1. That the ants were popularly known under the name of Busileras; 2. That they do not erect heaps of earth at the entrance to their nests ; 3. That on opening the nest, a species of gallerj' is reached, to the roof of which certain ants are suspended, packed one against the other ; 4. That these ants cover the roof as well as the wall of the gallery. 5. The women and children of the valley know these nests per- fectly well, and frequently open them for the sake of the honey- bearers, or rotunds. The honej' is sucked from the abdomen of the rotunds, with great relish, at the nests ; or, if it is wished to pre- serve them, they are lifted by the head and thorax and placed upon plates, in which they grace the village feasts, and are eaten as delicacies. 6. The rotunds when thus placed together, stir around, lay hold of and tear one another, and finally end life by bursting. 7. The skin of the abdomen, which binds the segments together, is so thin, and the upper coat so distended, on account of the quantity of honey which it encloses, that the least pressure suf- fices to cause the ants to disgorge. 8. When they do not so disgorge, that is, by elevating the head and thorax, the honey diminishes, and the ants eat it. 9. Dr. Llave observed, moreover, from specimens of the ants sent to him, that there were difterent castes of workers and degrees of distension in the abdomens, and 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. 10. That the honey in the rotunds varied in color from a crystal "whiteness to a wine-color. Several of the above statements, as has been seen, are without foundation, but the majority of them are confirmed in whole or part b}"^ my observations. Wesmael,^ who made his study from specimens sent him from Mexico bj^ the Belgian Envoy, Baron Normann, records his credence of the theory announced by that gentleman, viz., that the honey-bearer elaborates the honey and deposits it in certain reservoirs, analogous to the cells of bees, for the nurture of the formicary. Baron Normann was unable to obtain examples of these reservoirs to send to Europe, or rather failed to do so under the conviction that they would be destroyed during shipment. In point of fact, such reservoirs exist only in imagination. One of the most perplexing accounts of the honey-ant is that of Mr. Henry Edwards.^ The statements recorded are made at second hand from the verbal narrative of a Capt. W. B. Fleeson, whose observations were made at or near Santa Fe. They are so extraordinary and contradictor}' of my own experiences, that I am compelled to withhold credence, until some experienced observer shall have corroborated them, a result of which I have little expectation. According to this account, no exterior mound- let surmounts the formicary, but simply two openings into the earth. Within the nest, at a depth of about three feet, "a small excavation is reached, across which is spread, in the form of a spider's web, a network of squares spread by the insects, the squares being about one-quarter inch across, and the ends of the web^ fastened firmly to the earth at the sides of the hollowed space which forms the bottom of the excavation. In each one of the sqiiares, supported by the web, sits one of the honey-making workers, apparently in the condition of a prisoner, as it does not appear that these creatures ever quit the nest." But the marvels of this strange story are not exhausted. " The 1 Bulletin de 1' Acad. Roy. des Sci. et Belles lettre de Bruxelles, Tome V p. 770. PI. XIX, figs. 1-4. 2 Proceed. California Acad, of Sciences, Vol. V. 1873, p. 72 ; " Notes on the Honey-making Ants of Texas and New Mexico." ^ Of course, this is pure fiction, as no ant makes a web, or anything that could well suggest one. The cutting ant does make out of fragments of leaves a "comb" of more or less regular cells, resembling the nests of the paper-making wasps. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 67 inmates of the formicaiy are composed of two distinct species, apparently even of different genera, of ants. There are the ordi- nary yellow workers and houey-bearers of Melliger, and besides, black workers, who act as guards and purveyors. One column of the blacks surrounds the openings on three sides, attacking, driving off or destroj'ing all intruding insects. Another column bears, through the unguarded side of the hollow square, fragments of flowers, aromatic leaves and pollen, which (adds our author), by a process analogous to that of the bee, the honej'-makers con- vert into honej'." One can hardly refrain from the thought that Capt. Fleeson was testing the credulity of the writer by one of those jokes of which naturalists are occasionally the victims. But, if the narra- tive is to be taken in good faith, I can onl}^ explain the facts by supposing, first, that the observer happened upon a nest of cutting- ants (Atta fervens), within whose boundaries a nest of Melliger had chanced to be established, and had confounded the habits of the two as those of one formicary; or, second, that the cutting- ant, or some other species of similar economy, has really acquired the habit of kidnapping and domesticating the honej'-ant for the sake of its treasured sweets, precisely as man}^ ants domesticate aphides ; or, as the slave-making ants, Formica sanguinea and Folyergus lucidus, domesticate Formica fusca and F. Schauffusxi.^ One of the latest accounts of the honey-ant, and so far as it goes, one of the best, is that of Mr, Saunders, the editor of the Canadian Entomologist,^ who communicates to his journal some observations made by Mr. Kummeck, at Santa Fe.^ According to this observer, considerable numbers of these insects are found in the mountains of that vicinity. He sat by a nest six or seven 1 One may not be over rash in refusing belief even to facts that go counter to all past experiences, for the marvels of Nature are ever widening within our view. While, therefore, I am inclined to reject the whole story, I await the observation of some trained naturalist, giving the account the benefit of the above possible explanations. 2 Can. Entom., 1875, Vol. VII, pp. 12-13. * I may be permitted to explain why I did not go to New Mexico, to attempt on the spot a solution of some of the questions raised by these accounts. I had made every arrangement to do so, after my studies in the Garden-of-the-gods were completed, but on the morning that I was to break camp, was taken with a sudden and violent illness which compelled me to abandon my journey. 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. hours and noticed the workers carry home leaves of different plants to feed, as he supposed, "the others that produce the honey," This would seem to conhrm the leaf-bearing habit quoted by Mr. Edwards from Capt. Fleeson. The inference as to the use of these leaves is, however, quite unwarranted, as the portage of leaves, etc., into nests is not an uncommon habit among ants of divers species. Without stopping to discuss the question whether such material may contribute to the food suppl}' of the formicary, it may be remarked that its most probable and ordinary use is for purposes of architecture or nest-building, Mr. Kurameck also makes the remark, which I had not seen at the time my own conclusions had been reached, that " in early life none of these insects present any unusual distension of the body, but when arrived at a certain period of maturity some individuals begin to show a distended abdomen." The ant honey has no commercial value among the New Mexi- cans. It has a place, however, as a remedy in the domestic thera- peutics of the native Indians, who compound a drink by mixing three to four drachms of the honey with six ounces of water. The drink is used in cases of fever. The honey is also applied as an unguent in eye diseases, especially cataract. To the above may properly be added two accounts of my own studies published in the London Jow^-nal of Science} These are reports made hy Mr. Morris, of the verbal communications in which my observations were originally announced to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. They were made and printed without any oversight or responsibility on my part, but are admirably, and in the main, accurately done. They have been reproduced with various degrees of fulness in other journals. Such other notices of this ant as I have been able to find, and have had occasion to use, will be found properly referred to in the text of this paper, where those who are interested in the literature can readil}^ find them. 1 .Tour. Sci., February, 1880, '' Living Honey Comb ; a novel phase of Ant Life." By Mr, C, Morris. Ibid. July, 1880, "Habits and Anatomy of the Honey-bearing Ant." By Charles Morris. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 69 XIV. Description of Species. FORMICARI.E. Family FORMICIDJE. Subfamily CAMPOXOTID^ (Forel). Genus MYRMECOCYSTUS, Wesmael, CataglypMs, Foerster, Vevli. d, Nat. Ver. d. Rheinl., 1850 , Mayr, Europ. Formic, 1861; Norton, Wheeler's Report, Vol. V, Zool., p. 734. Monocumbus, Mayr, Verb. d. Zool.-bot. Ver. in Wien, 1855. Myrmecocystus, Forel, Etudes Myrmecologiques, Bull. Soc. Vaud. de Sci. Nat. M. melliger, Llave. 1. Var. mexicanus, Wesm. 2. Var. hortus-deorum, McCook. Workers. — Three castes, major, minor and minim or dwarf. Color, a uniform light yellow ; the body is covered quite tliickly, the legs more thickl}', with short yellow hairs. The maxillary palps are very long, six-jointed, third joint longest ; they are covered, especially beneath, with long hairs, curved backward. Lf\,bial palps four joints ; mandibles with nine teeth. The head is quadrate, in the worker-major more rounded at the sides than with the minor and dwarf; wider than the thorax. Clypeus smooth, rounded, slightly flattened in front of the frontal area. Frontal area smooth, shining, triangular, somewliat truncated posteriorly. Ocelli sufficiently prominent ; a tuft of hairs on the face beneath, directed forward. The body is of good length, narrow and compressed beneath at the mesothorax ; metanotum as high as, or slightly higher than the pronotum. The node cordate, cleft at the tip, thickened at the base, set perpendicularly upon the petiole. Anns strong!}' ciliated. Length, worker-major, 8^ mm. ; worker-minor, 7 mm, ; worker-minim, 5^ mm. Honey-bearers —A sedentary class or caste distinguished by alxloraens distended into spherical form by expansion of the crop filled with grape-sugar. The length (including abdomen) is 13 mm. (one-half inch) ; the proportions and description of the head and body are those of the worker-major, of which it may be a developed form. Female Virgin queen, total length, 13 mm., as follows : Man- dibles, 1 m. ; head, 2 mm. ; body, 5 mm. ; abdomen, 5 mm. Width 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. of abdomen, 3 mm. ; of prothorax, 2 mm. Color, livid yellow. Fore-wing, 14 mm. long; venation as in PI. X, fig. 17. Male. — Length, 5 mm. ; length of fore-wing, 5^ mm. Color, livid yellow ; the head, upper part of thorax and dorsum of abdo- men blackish. The mandible has one feeble tooth at the tip, and two others shorter and feebler. Habitat. — Southern Colorado, occupying subterranean formica- ries with small gravel-covered exterior moundlet, pierced by one central gallery. ALPHABETICAL KEY TO REFERENCES IN THE PLATES. The references are uniform in application throughout all the figures. References which occur only once, and are explained in the " Explanation of Plates," are not placed in the Key. «6., abdomen. ab. pi., abdominal plate. ah. pi. (Z, abdominal plate dorsal. ah. p>l. I', abdominal plate ven- tral, a??, anus. an. sp, scape of antenna. ant^ antennse. he. s, buccal or mouth sac. h. gz^ bowl of gizzard. hn. gz, button of gizzard. h. ms, branched muscles. CL, Clypeus. G. ms, crop muscles. Col, colon. Cy. gz, cylinder of gizzard. D, dorsal. E, epithelium. E. I. s, epithelium imbricated, serrate edge.] E. ab. pi, exterior abdominal plate. Epc, epicranium. f. ar, frontal area. fe77i, femora. Jig, flagellum of antenna. fm, foramen. yz, gizzard. hy, hypopygium. i. ah. pZ, interior abdominal plate. il, ileum. il. V, ileo-secal valve. in, intestine. lb, labium. lb. p, labial paljjs. Ibm, labrum. vih, mandibles, mo, mouth. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA 71 mpg, malpighian tubes. pr. th, prothorax. VIS, muscles. py, pygidium. m. th, mesothorax. px, pharynx met. th, metathorax. m. tr, metatarsus. ^^' ^^«^"°^- mx, maxilla. ^^- ^h rectal glands. mx. p, maxillary palpi. g_ ^^^ g^p^lg ^f; gizzard. stm, stomach. nd, node of petiole 7ik, neck. str, striae. su, sucker. 00^9, occiput. tib, tibia. ^^' ocelli. i^^ tongue, ffi, esophagus. t,.^ tarsus. 2). ms, pharj-ngeal muscle. V, ventral. EXPLANATIOX OF PLATES.^ Plate I. Fig. 2. Yiew of my camp in the Garden of the gods, showing the site of some of the nests of the honey ants studied. The view is taken from the rocks at the junction of Adams and Yon Hagen ridges (see Fig. 1, p. 19), and looks towards the south, and the eastern face of Pike's Peak. One of the nests is shown in the foreground, and the sites of others are indicated by the white circles on the tops of the ridges. My tent and booth are seen near the centre of the sketch, and just opposite, on the right, is the oak copse in which the ants were discovered feeding on the exudations of galls. Page 19. Plate II. Fig. 3. Elevated gravel cone of a honey-ant nest ; the gravel is of red sandstone, and the rocks around are bits of quartz of several colors, giving a prett}^ effect. This nest is the largest seen, and measures three and one-half inches high and thirty-two inches around the base. Page 21 ^ Mr. Joseph Jeanes, a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, contributed the money required for the illustration of this paper, and thus has greatly added to whatever value it may possess. 73 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. Fig. 4. A nest built partly around a tuft of gramma grass, and less conical in shape than the above, Plate III. Fig. 5. View of honey-bearers as seen in natural site, clinging to the roof of a honey-room. About natural size. Page 22. Fig. 6. View of honey -bearers in same position, drawn from one of m}' artificial nests. Mingled with them are seen ordinary workers, and semi-rotunds, or workers apparently in process of transformation into honey-bearers. About natural size. Plate IV. Fig. 7. Sprig of dwarf oak, Quercus undulata, with galls of Cynips quercus-mellaria, showing the beads of sweet sap. Page 25. Fig. 8. The same galls enlarged. Fig. 9. Another cluster of the same galls. Fig, 10. Section of gall showing the inside cell, c, and the exit hole of .the gall-fly, eh. Page 26. Fig. 11. Turk's-head'gall, showing exit-hole, eh. Fig. 12. View of inside of a gall, showing a globular cell, and a small grub domiciled against it. Page 27. Fig. 13. A honey-bearer clinging by her feet to the wall of a honey-room. Page 22. Fig. 14. The crater of a gate to an ant's nest, showing the grav- eled funnel, F, and the smooth nozzle, N. Page 32. Fig. 15. Outline of the elevation of a formicary. Page 35. Plate V. Fig. 16. Double section view of the interior of a nest, drawn from a point in the excavaticm twenty-one inches below the sur- face. Nest made in soft, red sandstone, g, y, g, galleries arranged in stories. R, R, R, vertical sections through hone3^-rooms and chambers for nursery purposes. C, D, E, the floors of a suite of honey-rooms, showing their connection with the general S3'stem. Page 86. Fig. 17. The three honey-rooms C, D, E, above referred to, and the indication of a fourth, F. Length of C from a to 6 = 5 inches ; D, from c to d = 3| inches ; E, from e to /i = 4 inches. Eleva- tion of h above x = B^ inches ; of b above e = 6 inches. A little stairway united D with C and F ; g,g, a, gallery. Page 36. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. Y3 Fig. 18. Section through middle of nest, showing the gate architecture. G, gate; X, nozzle; A, arm of the gate gallery terminating in the vestibule V. a, 6, c, branching galleries. Page 32. Fig. 10. A similar section of another nest. Letters as above; E, a small room, with gallery/!, leading downward. Fig. 20. Similar section of another nest. The main gallerj^ branches to the right, and passes behind the gate, b, &, 6, into room A. E, C, small bays or rooms; D, D, ee, curved and branched gallery on the same plane, with openings downward g, gr, g. Page 33. Fig. 21. A honey-room, HR ; g; gallery leading into the gate gallery, G ; ug, unbroken part of same ; B, small bay -room. Page 34. Fig. 22. Termination of excavated nest, 6 feet 10 inches from gate. 2 feet 5 inches below surface. ^ y, galler}^ entrance; C, •Queen-room, 4 inches diameter. E, Small bay-room, apparently beginning of a chamber ; t (/, terminal gallerj-, running upwards as though the ants were in process of excavating a room resem- bling C. Page 36. Fig. 23. Sloping section through middle of nest, showing rela- tion of gate to the upper series of galleries and rooms. A, B, hone3M'Ooms ; ar, y, z, main galleries; 1, 2, 3, side openings. Page 33. Fig. 24. A honey-bearer regurgitating hone}' from her crop at the solicitation of hungry workers. Page 46. Fig. 25. Sentinels on guai'd at the gate. Page 20. Plate YI. Fig. 26. A queen dragged home b}^ a worker. Page 38. Fig. 27. A honej^-bearer dragged and pushed by a worker-major and dwarf from a broken room into a galler}^ Page 39. Fig. 28. A honey -bearer under a " land.slide," one worker look- ing on, curious but inactiA'e, another on the clod at her toilet. Page 41. Fig. 29. Queen surrounded b}' her "court " or body-gunvd of attendant workers. Page 38. Fig. 30. Workers carrying a pebble up the mound. Fig. 31. Honey-bearer parti}' buried alive under pellets brought up by mining workers. Page 40. 6 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Fig. 32. Honey-bearer fallen from her perch, being cleansed by a worker, who reaches down from the wall. Page 40, Fig. 33. Ilonej'-bearer with (apparently) morbid abdomen. Page 58. Fig. 34. Worker nurses feeding and cleansing larvfe. Page 43. Fig. 35. Yiew of vertical section of a nest, showing galleries arranged in stories. See PI. V, fig. 16. G, location of gate ; a — ^, e — z, k — Z, galleries ; R, R, sections of honey-rooms. Page 36, and foot-note. Fig. 36. A worker dragging a honey-bearer up a perpendicular surface into a galler}^ Page 39. Plate YII. Fig. 37. Yiew of the under side of the head of Myrmecocystus hortus-deorum, showing the mouth organs. X 20, Page 20. The letter-references in this and subsequent anatomical figures are imiform throughout. The Key to References, therefore (p. 70), will apply to all figures. Fig. 38. Face sculpture of same. X 20, Page 20. Fig. 39, Side view of head of worker to show parasitic mites clinging thereto. The mites are about natural size. Page 63. Fig. 40 Dorsal view of mites greatly enlarged. Fig. 41. Yentral view of same. Fig. 42. One of the suckers, su, contracted. Figs. 43 and 44, the same further drawn out. Fig. 45. Muscles of the honey crop, showing their netted and branched character. X 30, Page 54. Fig. 46. The same, from margin of the crop. G. ws, crop muscles ; b. ms, branched muscles. Fig. 47. Third leg of 31. 7ior^us-(?eorwm, worker-minor. X 10. Fig. 48. Section of segmental plate of abdomen of honey ant, showing hexagonal cells of epithelium, and a bristle-like hair, or seta, arising therefrom. Fig. 49. Profile view of segmental plates of Camponotus vijlatus, showing the overlapping of the same, and the imbricated epithelial cells, forming a rachet-like structure which suggests the possibility of a sound-producing organism, e. ab. pl^ exterior abdominal plate ; i, ab. pi, interior ditto. Page 61. Fig. 50. Profile view of abdominal plate of M. hortus-deorum^ to show, the same. 1881.] NATLTIAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. t5 « Fig. 51. After Lubbock. Section through the head of Lasius niger^ to show site of buccal sac, he. s, the pharynx, j9^, and its muscles, p. ms. X 36, Page 52. Fig. 52. View of the cesophagus of a worker of M. hortus- deorum. One side of the thorax and petiole are cut awaj' in order to show the oesophagus in site. X 18, Page 53. Fig. 53. Abdomem of hone}^ ant, showing the segmental plates both dorsal (D) and ventral (V) in normal conditi(m of the crop. X 16, Page 53. Fig. 54. Same, when separated by partly expanded crop. Page 53. Plate YIII. Fig. 55. Entire crop with gizzard and stomach. Dissected from a honey -bearer with morbid abdomen. X 14, Page 53. Fig. 56. Crop, gizzard, stomach, malpighian tubes and intestine. From honey-bearer. X 14, Page 54. Fig. 51. Enlarged view of gizzard. X 50, Page 55. Fig. 58. After Forel. Topographic, somewhat diagrammatic representation of the organs opening into the cloaca of Botlirio- myrmex meridionalis g, enlarged 18 times. 4, 5 and 6, optical section of the tergal chitinous pieces of what are reallj?^ the 4th, 5th and 6th abdominal segments (nodes of the petiolus reckoned as one segment). Opposite and beneath there are shown the sterna of the corresponding segments. ets." 1881.] natural sciences of philadelphia. 89 April 26. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in tlie chair. Twenty-six persons present. A paper entitled " List of Fishes collected by Mr. W. J. Fisher, npon the coasts of Lower California, 1816-77, with descriptions of new species," hy W. X. Lockington, was presented for publication. The death of Dr. J. Dickinson Logan, a member, was announced. Motility in Plants. — Mr. Thomas Meehan remarked that com- paratively little knowledge of motion had been gained since the time of Linnteus. The recent work of Mr. Darwin on the motions of plants, was a A'aluable contribution to the subject, though con- fined to motion in roots and leaves. He thought it would serve the cause of science to note that the presence or absence of light in itself could not, as so often assumed, account for all the phe- nomena of motion. He had made numerous and careful observa- tions, this season, on motility in Draha verna^ which plant, so far as he knew, had not been observed to have an}' peculiarities. The petals are usually closed during the early season, though the pedi- cels are erect in the daytime, di'ooping so as to form almost a perfect circle at night. These pedicels become erect about three hours after sunrise when there is about twelve hours of sun in the day, commencing to droop at about two o'clock in the afternoon.' This diurnal motion in the pedicels continues some da^'s after the petals have fallen, and apparentl}^ as long as the silicic continues to grow. Later in the season, on clear days, the petals com- mence to open early in the morning, contemporaneoush' with the rising of the pedicel ; by the time this was erect, the petals Avould be nearlj' expanded. The expansion, when the sun rose at half- past five or six, would be complete by nine A. M. Strange to say, no matter how clearlj^ the sun might continue to shine, the petals commence to close about noon, and b}' about two P. M,, are com- pleteh' closed. During the course of his observations, there was a period of four da3's cloudy, and no attempt at expansion was made. The fourth day, however, was so slightly cloud^^, that the eye could scarcely look at the sun through the thin cloudj^ veil, The amount of absolute light could be little less than on some days earlier in the season, when the sun was wholly unclouded, but still there was no attempt at expansion of the petals. Continued observa- tions seemed to show that not mere light, but clear sunlight, was necessarj' to the opening of the flower. One evening there was a heavy thunder shower ; the next da}- 7 i 90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. was densely cloudy, warm and moist, but the flowers of the Draha expanded just as well as under the bright sun of previous days ! These facts show that we cannot refer the opening of the flowers either to light or sunlight alone. Mr. Meehan believed that plants not onl^^ behaved differently at different times, but in different countries; and as no one, not even Mr. Darwin, seems to have noted the expansion of the petals of the Draba in England, it is possible that under those cloudy skies, they do not expand at all. So far as he had noted here, the self-fertilized flowers of the closed Drabas produced seed just as well as the expanded ones, which might possibly be occasionally cross-fertilized by the small sand wasps, which visited the open flowers freely for pollen. How habits change at times, Mr. Meehan illustrated \)\ speci- mens of Lamium aviplexicanle^ a common introduced weed in gardens. Dr. Bromfleld, in his Flora of the Isle of Wight, notices that the flowers vary in size during the season, but that the earliest ones are the largest. Here it is reversed. The speci- mens exhibited had already flowered from six verticels, and had mature seeds in many, but the flowers had never expanded in any case. Indeed, very rarely had the closed corollas been produced beyond the calyx. They were essentially cleistogene. As showing how unceriain were the laws influencing this condition, when usu- ally about the end of April, the perfect flowers appeared, some plants would have them a week or more before others alongside produced any. To all appearances, external influences were the same. As somewhat bearing on the laws of motion, the angle of diver- gence,in branches was referred to. Mr. M. exhibited branches of tSaJix capi^ea. Normally the branches separated from each other at a very acute angle, but the fertile anient on these branches was pendulous. Under no external influence, so far as we could tell, an individual appears with pendulous branches. This has been increased by grafting, and is known in nurseries as the Kilmarnock weeping willow. But the aments have retained their normal con- dition as regards the bi'anch. The catkins are erect on the pen- dulous branches, while pendulous on the erect ones. Morpho- logically a catkin is but a modifled — an arrested — branch, but we see by this that whatever cause induced the change from the normal condition of divergence, it v/as purely local, and ceased to exist before it reached the arrested branch or ament. These facts were offered to show that in studj^ing motility in the vai-ious parts of plants, it would be well to remember that ex- ternal causes had but a limited influence, and that in these cases a combination of circumstances often controlled the influences at- tributed to one. As, therefore, the f;icts would vary with various observations, —those of one observer sometimes seeming rather to conflict with than to confirm another, — it was too soon to form any just conclusion as to the motive cause. What was desired 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 91 was not so much these speculations, but an increase in the number of observers, and a correct record of well authenticated facts. The resignation of Dr. Henry C. Chapman, as a member of the Council was read and accepted. Jesse S. Walton and Harrj^ Skinner were elected members. The following Avas ordered to be published : 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. OBSERVATIONS ON PLANORBIS. BY ROBERT E. C. STEARNS. I. Are the Shells of Planorbis Dextral or Sinistral ? Incidental to an investigation into the relations of certain fresh- water snails, upon looking through the books, I find that authori- ties differ on the point, whether the shells of Planorbis are dextral or sinistral. While Say,^ Swainsou,^ G. B. Sowerby, Jr.^ and Reeve ^ regard them as sinistral, or reversed, and properly figure the shells, in their works, in a sinistral position, and not " upside down," as in many of the books, Macgillivray^ says ''the shell is dextral, as several observers have proved; not sinistral, as many have alleged;" and Woodward," H. and A. Adams,'' W. G. Binney'^ and others also describe it or refer to it as being dextral. Dall remarks in a foot-note to his paper " On the Genus Pom- pholyx and its Allies,"^ " if we consider the shells of this group as dextral, they oflfer the peculiarity of having the genitalia as in most sinistral shells ; Pompholyx presents the same conditions and is certainly dextral." Dr. Philip P. Carpenter, referring to Planorbis^ says, " it lives in a reversed position."^'' It will be observed from the above that eminent writers are divided, and that we have substantial authority on both sides of the question. My own observations thus far prove the shells to be generally sinistral,^^ but as I have examined but comparativel}' few of the whole number of species, it may be that the shells in some species are dextral, and in other species sinistral. 1 Say ex Binney, L. and F. W. Shells of N. A,, Part II, p. 103. - Treatise on Malacology, p. 337. ^ Conchological Manual, p. 245. * Conchologia Systematica, PI. CXC. ^ Molluscous Animals of Scotland, p. 114. " Manual of MoUusca, second ed., p. 302. ^ Genera of Recent Mollusca, Vol. II, p. 260. '^ Smithsonian Miss. Pub. No. 143, p. 103. a Annals of Lyceum of Nat. History of N. Y., Vol. IX, March, 1870. '0 Lectures on Mollusca, S. I. Report, 1860. " The figures of Say's larger species in Gould's luvertebrata of Mass., first ed., are most excellent. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. D3 G. B. Sowerbj' , Jr., in comparing Planorbis with certain Am- pullariffi {Marisa)^ says: " It is further to be remarked that the discoidal Ampulhirife are dextral shells, and the Planorbes are sinistral or reversed ; and although the latter are sometimes so flat and orbicular that it is difficult to know which is the spiral side, it may nevertheless always be ascertained b}' a careful examina- tion."i "While the anatomy of Planorhiii in its principal characters, is presumed to be sinistral, and indicates, with the sum of other characters (including habitat), a most intimate relationship to P/njsa, which has, as is well known, a sinistral shell, yet some of the authors who affirm the sinistral character of the soft parts or body, say also, that the species of this genus {Planorbis)^ have a dextral sliell, an inclusive and broad statement which applies to all of the species, and apparently repeat this tradition, or else assume that it is so, because the great majorit}' of gasteropodous moUusks which have shells at all, have dextral shells, the excep- tions being comparativeh' few. If we consider what are regarded as apical characters in forms about which there is no question, and it is permitted to reason, from analogy in this connection, it will be seen that some species of Planorbis have sinistral shells, and I submit as examples sustaining this position, the larger West American forms known as P. amnion, (fig. 1) Gould (+ P. Traskii, Lea,), P. trivolvis, (fig. 2) Say 2 ( 4- P. var. occidentalism Cp. MSS.), P. lumens^ Cpr., P. subcrenafus, (figs. 3-3a) Cpr.^, P.corpulentus^ (figs. 4-4a) Say, and P. tumidus, Pfr., from Nicaragua, also P. corneas. L., Britain, as shown in authentic specimens received from an experienced and ^ Concliological Manual, p. 345. - Pacific Coast specimens. ^ This species more nearly resembles P. corneus, than does any other American form. Many of the smaller so-called species (A.mevican) are exceedingly close to the smaller forms of Europe, and it is not unlikely a careful investigation would place some of them under the names previously made by the earlier authors. Mr. W. G. Binney writes of Physa hypnorum, "it is one of the species common to the three continents ;" and of Limmca, he says, " It seems certain that the boreal regions are inhabited by several species common to similar latitudes in A.sia and Europe, such as L. stag- nalis and L. palmtris.^^ This remark will ultimately be found to apply with equal truth to species of Planorbis. I 94 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881. trustworthy correspondent near London. This latter is the only large European species, I am familiar with. While it is neither proven nor asserted herein, that all species of Planorbis liave sinistral shells, neither is it known that the anatomy of all the species is sinistral. The relations of Planorbis to Limnsea are not so remote as to make it altogether unwarrantable to look for a divergence in that direction. The extreme variableness of Planorbis has undoubtedly led to the making of too many species ; specimens which are conceded Fig. 1 Fig. 3(7. P. trivolvis. Say. P. suhcrenatus, Cpr. Fig. 4. Fig. 4a. P. ammon, Gld. P. subcrenatus, Cpr. P. corpulentus, Say. to be of the same species, from difierent though adjacent ponds, etc., vary more or less, and this is particularly the case with "West American forms which are in various degrees affected by the character of the water, temperature, etc. While it is quite certain that the specific names herein given would be reduced b}' a careful and philosophical comparison, at this time I can onl^^ refer to them as they now stand in the books ; I may mention P. tumens from near Petaluma as a dwarfed variety of P. corpulentus ; varie- ties of the latter are frequently confused with P. ammon. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 95 It may here be remarked that Macgillivra}^, an enthusiastic observer, Avho has described some of the. British species with great fidelity, lays much stress on the shape of the mouth, com- paring it with those of Helix and Zonites, as conclusive of the dexti-al character of the shells in Planorhis} If analogies in form of mouth are worthy of consideration, though this point may not have much weight without otlier and corroborative evidence, we have in this character a stronger argu- ment the other way, b}-, more propeiiy a comparison between nearer related forms like Physa (that is the more globose species), and most of the forms of Planorhia I have given, holding the latter in a normal sinistral position, when the tendency to the ph^^soid moutli, tlie ovate shape and sag of the aperture will be readily noticed. Frequently, immature, half-grown, and less than half-grown shells of Planorhis have been brought to me by collectors who were quite confident they had made new discoveries, and it is not improbable that j'oung shells as above have been described and published as new species of Physa. Fig. 6. Fig. 5. Fig. 7. Ameria scalaris, Jay. Physa globosa, Physa hiimerosa, Gld. Hald. Fig. 8, Fig. 9. Physa ancillaria, Say. Physa ampullacca, Gld. I would further suggest a compari- son of the apertures of our larger Cali- fornian (adult) shells of Planorhis^ held in a sinistral position with Ame- ria scalaris (fig. 5)^ (= Paludina sca- laris, Jay), a curious Florida form ; Phy- sella globosa (fig. 6), Hald., a Tennessee ^ It is presumable that the shells of Planorhis, by which Macgillivray was impressed and which were the most familiar to him, were the small species of his own country, which are flat, symmetrically coiled, regular in form, and gradual in growth, being in striking contrast with the sturdier, ventricose West American forms I have cited— which also more conspic- uously exhibit sinistral characters. - Dall says : "A careful examination of a number of specimens of this singular form, shows that it is distinct, and not a young Planorhis, as has 96 PROCEEDINOS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. species; also with other species of PJiysa, like P. hvmerom (fig. 7), P. ancillaria (fig. 8), P. ampullacea (fig. 9', etc., ct sic de similihus. We shall, however, find more satisfactory testimony on the sinistral point by analyzing the apical characters. If, as in other shells, we consider that to be the upper end or spire in which we can follow tlie volutions through the entire shell from tip or nucleus to the ultimate or basal whorl and mouth — then it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that some species of Planorbis have sinistral shells. In some of the smaller forms, like P. vortex^ P. conforfus^ P. glaber, P. carinatus^ and P. spir- orbis, all of which are British species, and in which the whorls are (in comparison with larger American forms) quite evenly coiled and in which also, the increase in size of whorl is quite gradual, the difference between the two sides of the shell, apical and umbilical, is not as readily perceived. The largest British species, P. corneus, confirms my view, being sinistral. The rapid enlargement of the whorls in some of the West American species is in marked contrast with even the shells of P. corneus of the same diameter ; the height of the latter as compared to P. corjni- lentus being as -31 to "54, while the length of the aperture is in still greater contrast, being as -42 to -YG. These measurements were made from average-sized perfect specimens of both species placed apex up, with the mouth to the left, It is easy to perceive that in those forms where the ratio of increase is great as between the last whorl and the preceding Arolu- tion and so on, whorl compared with whorl, through the whole, as for instance in P. ammon^ that the depression of both spire and umbilicus is most marked ; but nevertheless the umbilicus is the more profound as may easily be proved by counting the volutions first on one side, and then on the other. Again, if additional proof is wanted, take any one of the larger forms^ of the species herein named, and carefully, by degrees, burn off the under side (which can easily be done, by pouring a little been suspected.— ^rt«-rt7s N. T. Lyceum Nat. Hist., Vol. IX, p. 35G ; foot- note. 1 As distorted individuals, with the volutions exceedingly irregular, are of frequent occurrence, in making the test suggested, such monstrosities should be rejected, as they would as often unduly favor one side of the question as the other. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 97 acid in a saucer or watch-glass), until the shell is eaten off to a line which obliterates the umbilicus, when the nucleus of the spire, the tip, and half a whorl to a whorl and a-half will be found re- maining. Those who insist on the dextral character of the shells in Planorhis, unless the}' except the species I have named, are thus compelled to demonstrate how in the sequence of growth the umbilicus can precede the nucleus. Though specimens of the forms under discussion, in various embryonic stages, have frequently excited my attention, j-et the material, so far as adolescence is connected with the present line of inquiiy, was at the moment, unfortvinatel}^, inaccessible. I have therefore been compelled, in order to present such structural features of the shells as are related to the direction (right or left) of the volutions, the form of the aperture, etc., to use adult speci- mens, and by breaking back, piece by piece, and whorl after whorl, towards the nucleus, until the larger whorls are sufflcientl}^ removed, so that the apex or spire ceases to be either concave or depressed, and is simply flat. It would be almost, if not quite impossible to do this with the smaller species, owing to their diminutive size and exceeding fragility, and difficult to obtain the necessar}^ sections for illustration herein, by the use of acid. The figures (10) are drawn from specimens of Planorhis coiyu- lentus collected in Oregon, also in Clear Lake, Fig. 10. California, by that indefatigable collector, Mr. C. D. Yoy. Before manipulation they measured as follows : Plan, corpuientus- Largest diameter, . . -94 inch. nuclear whorls. Height. . . . • . "38 inch. Number of whorls, four and a-half, which were broken back to one and a-half whorls, with a diameter of "10 inch. ; height -15 inch. The umbilicus in one instance was still discernible — in the others, destroj^ed. This species is widely distributed and occupies an extensive geographical area, on the western side of the continent, from the Columbia River in the north ; easterly to Lake Winnipeg ; and southerly to Cape St. Lucas. ^ Binney says, " F. corpulentus is catalogued from Guate- mala b}^ Mr. Tristram," ^ Prof. Geo. Davidson collected specimens at this place. 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Fig. 11. Plan, tumidus—nnoleixr whorls. P. Traskii, Lea, whicli Mr. Binney makes a synonym of P. ammon, belongs to the western corpulentus form. While the forcooing figures (10) show the shells of one species reduced to one and a-half whorls, the following figures exhibit the form of Planorhis tumidus, Pfr., which measured in Largest diameter, . . . . '68 inch, with five whorls, reduced by breaking down to two and a-half whorls and a diameter of '16 inch. This last is a more southern species ;. numerous specimens were collected by the late Thos. Bridges, who found them abundant in ele- vated pools, small lakes, etc., amid the forest slopes of Mombacho, in Nicaragua. It closely resembles more northern forms and should hardly be called a species. It will be observed in the figures (10) that we have in the embryonic shells of Planorhis corpulentus a near approach to Physa, a, close resemblance to a Physa with a flattened spire ; suggesting such physoid forms as P. humerosa, while the adolescent stage of Planorhis tumidus (at half its adult size) also suggests an umbilicated Physa with a flattened spire, somewhat like (N. W. American) Physa Lordi (fig. 12), with the spire cut off, and an umbilicus punched in, back of the mouth. The first figures (10) explain De Kay's " Physa jAanorbula " (fig. 13), and also suggestively point towards Ameria scalaris. These figures also exhibit the phj'soid mouth, and show that there is neither necessity nor propriety ysa or i. .^ leaving closely related forms for more distant, analogies. In this connection it should also be kept in mind that certain species of Physa, included in Ehrenberg's subgenus Isido7'a, are more or less umbilicated. Of the smaller species of Planorhis which have passed under ray examination, I have seldom found it difficult to determine the sinistral characters b}^ a com- parison of the two sides of the shell. If we could unroll a specimen of, say, Planorhis sjnrorhis, and Fig. 13. Physa 2)lanorbula. 1881.J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 99 then straighten it out, it woukl resemble, in minatiire, an acutely elongated conical tube, in a general way like the following figure : Fig. 14. X -^^ &s^ ' — - — N Fig. of which N represents the nucleus, A the aperture or mouth, and ML a median line. Xow it will readil}^ be seen that such a tube, if simply wound up, or made into a flat coil, and during the pro- cess of winding, kept horizontalh^ and laterally in plane with the central or median line which divides the tube into equal parts, would, in an exceedingly small shell, make it somewhat difficult to determine which was the apical or the umbilical (that is the upper or under) side of the shell, as the nucleus and nuclear whorls in such a case would be equall}' as perceptible on one side of the shell as on the other, and the concavit}^ or depression of both sides would be the same, bejng equal to one-half of the diameter of the tube as seen at X. The Californiau species to which I have re- ferred, instead o,f being represented b}^ an attenu- ated tube like the preceding figure, which very slowly increases in circumference from nucleus to aperture, would if unwound, give us a more robust form, a more rapidly enlarging, conical tube, like this (fig. 15) : X being the nucleus, A the aperture, and ML the median line. It will be seen that if this tube, commencing at X the nucleus, was evenly coiled upon the median line, the nucleus as in the first instance, though very much more depressed, owing to the greater diameter of the tube as seen at X, could be equally- well seen on the two sides, the umbilical and apical depressions being the same. When the line of coil is other than median, and the greater portion of the tube or shell is below the line of coil, as is the case with the species I find to be sinistral, then of course the umbilicus is the more and the 100 PROCEEDINOS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. apex the less depressed, and therefore the latter is more easily discerned. Another point too important to be overlooked, is the form of the tube as exliibited in a transverse or cross section ; whether circular, semilunar, or horizontally or perpendicularly ovate. Some of the larger species have tubes, which, in cross section, are of the latter shape, hence the physoid aspect of the aper- ture both in adult and embryonic specimens. Since the foregoing was written, the shells which appear in the list appended hereto as from Lake Simcoe, came to hand. The lot embraced three species of Planorhis. Several specimens (of rather small size) of P. trivolvis, are of the western P. corpu- lentus character, and sinistral. Twenty-five specimens of P. campanulatus, Say, are also sinistral as described by that author, and three specimens of P. bicarinatus are dextral, though des- cribed as sinistral b}' Say. Of the smaller American species glanced at by me in the course of investigation, I find P. vermic- ularis^ from Utah Lake, U. T., is sometimes dextral. From what is presented above it will, I think, be admitted that some species of Planorbes have shells whose structure is in har- mony with the sinistral characters of the anatomy, as might reasonably be presumed, and it is not unlikely that such will prove to be the rule and not the exception, when an extended and critical examination of the whole group has been made. I do not propose, at this time, to inquire into the origin of the related forms referred to in this paper ; but the suggestions, which have incidentally occurred in, or grown out of the consideration of the simpler points discussed, impress me as inviting investigation. The following species of Planorhis from the localities stated, have been especially examined in connection herewith. * P. trivolois, Erie Canal, N. Y. * " Tinker's Creek, Lake Co., Willoughby, O * _ " Foot's Pond, Woodburn, near Cincinnati Ohio, * " Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin. * " Wabash River, Posey Co., Indiana. * '' Covington, Kentucky, f " Washoe Lake, Nevada. Note. — I am indebted to the courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution for all of the figures herein, except 10, 11, 14 and 15, which are original. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 101 Near Salt Lake, Utah T. Utah Lake, U. T. Carthage, Ohio. Cumbeiland Co., Tennessee. Cumberland Co., Tennessee. Tuolumne Meadows, Tuolumne Co., Cal. Indian River, Texas. Bexar County, Texas. Miami, Florida. Lake Simcoe, Canada. Near Portland, Oregon. Lake Simcoe, Canada. Traskii, Clear Lake, Lake Co. Cal. " Oregon, Mus. Stearns. Cp. Russian River, near Ukiah, Cal. King's River, Cal. Mountain Lake, near San Francisco, Cal. Santa Cruz, Cal. Los Angeles, Cal, Nicaragua. East Tennessee. Erie Canal, N. Y. McHenry County, Ills, Portland, Oregon. Lake Simcoe, Canada. Clear Lakes of Indian River, Florida. Orono, Maine. Henry County, Ills. Salinas River, Cal. Great Britain, many localities. The note marks above refer to the following parties from whom the material examined was received : * Prof. A. G. Wetherbj' ; t C. D. Voj ; t Henry Hemphill ; ft -^- ^'- Crawford ; § Dr. Edward Palmer; %% the late Thomas Bridges; || 0. Button ; ^ the late W. W. Walpole, Esq., from all of whom I have received most generous assistance. As to the validity of the species, or determinations as above, it is not necessarj' to discuss the matter in this paper, as it is not pertinent to the objective point, but as may naturally be supposed b}' any one who has had occasion to examine into the literature relating to the group, and to make a critical comparison of mate- X P. ti'ivolvis, % (( « P. between Icntus and glabratus. * P. approaching glabratus. * P. approaching lentus. X P. near ttimens, * P. near corpulentus, * (< .( * (' <( tt K (( X P. corpulentus, tt n t " var. X P. var. occidentalis, tt . '< (( tt (< . < t (( u X P. tumens, XX P. tumidus, * P. glabratus, * P. bicarinata, * n X u tt u * P. lentus. * P. campamdatus. * n II P. ammon, IT p. corneus, 102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. rial, I have found much that is unsatisfactory, and it is not asserting too much to say, that too many species have been made, and that a careful revision is required ; and in this connection, which shows the well-known variability of the group, I may men- tion the examination of a parcel of specimens from a single " pond back of Covington, Kentucky," kindly furnished by Professor Wetherby, which admits of a separation resulting in three species and a remainder which readily connects all three ; for this reason I do not claim that the determinations as given are always con- sistent, though carefully considered ; as before remarked, how- ever, the point I have endeavored to present is not affected thereby. II. On certain Aspects of Variation in American Planorbes. In the course of the preceding inquiry various aspects of varia- tion, as exhibited in the material under examination were con- stantly recurring. Without presuming to explain such phenomena, which would quite likely be a difficult matter, even if all the peculiarities of environment in each case, or of each lot of shells examined, were known, and without such data, quite hypothetical, yet a few notes and comments suggested by the forms referred to, may be worth a passing notice. The larger so-called species of Planorbis may for convenience in discussion be grouped as follows : First. Those in which the whorls are rounded ; that is to say Figs. 16 and 17. if the tube or cone, as represented in the pre- ceding paper, was cut trans versel}^, the section would show a rounded (not round) outline. Examples— The typical P. corneus, L.,^ of Europe; P. Guadaloupensis, Shj.f P. suh- crenatus (figs. 16, It), Cpr.,^ and P. tumidus, Pfr.,'* of Nicaragua, a quite persistent form, not, however, quite as rounded as the others. Second. Those in which the whorls are either planulate, angulated, carinated or sub- ^pTsubaenatus Cpr! carinatcd, which includes most of the larger 1 Woodward's Manual, PI. XII, fig. 34 ; Sby.'s Manual, PI. XIV, fig. 311 ; Keeve, Conch. System., PI. CXC, fig. 1. ■' Ibid, fig. 2. ■' Binney, L. and F. W. Shells, N. A., Part II, figs. 176, 178. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 103 Xorth American species riGS. 18 and V.>. Examples — P. corpidentus (figs. 18, 19), Saj^,' P.Traskii^ Lea., P, occiden- talism Cp., and P. hicarinatus (fig. 20), Sa3\ In these the tube, if cut transversely, would present an outline more or less angulated. Forms like P. trivolvis (fig. 21), Say, connect the two groups ; for while in some inst'^nees this species exhibits the rounded whorls of the first, it imperceptibh" differenti- ates from the above to obtuse angulation, and p. corpuientus, Say. ^^^^^^q to the subcarinate forms of the second bicarinatiLS, Say. jronp, P. amnion (fig Fig. 21. Fig. 22. P. irivolvis. Say. 22), Gould, must be mentioned here, as it illus- trates another aspect of variation, that of a more rapid enlargement of the whorls, the result of a more obtuse cone than in tri- volvis; this, when flattened above or angulated, gives us the form P, Traskii, the most striking of all the American Planorbes ; it is the extreme or culmination of the flattened or planu- lated aspect in the second group of species, of which P. corpidentus is a well known form and more widelj- distributed than the other ; Dr. Cooper's P. occidentalis being an inter- mediate link between t^'pical P. tricoluis and ordinary average specimens of P. corpidentus. Southern specimens of/*, trivolvis seem to be nearer the southern form of P. lentus than do average specimens of these alleged species from northern stations ; and both of the above from soutlierl}- stations approach more closel}- to the European corneus than do northern specimens of the same ; the same mav be said of the Xicarasfuan P. tumidus. p. ammon, G-IJ. ^ Biiiney"s figures, ibid. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. P. hicarinatus, the cone of which is less robust than that of P. amnion oi' P. Traskii, being in that respect nearer to the typical trivolvis, exhibits the culmination of the carinated or keeled character of the second group, and appears to mark tlie limit in this direction, having reached what may be termed a permanent point. This species is usually quite persistent as to plane of coil ; though in Binney it is reported from a single station as far south as "Northern Georgia" — it seems to prefer northerly regions. It is apparently of rare occurrence west of the Rocky Moun- tains. Mr. Hemphill informed me that he detected two or three individuals at Antioch, California, a station peculiar in its enviro- mental characters, being at a point where the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers meet and unite the drainage waters of the two great valleys of the same names; mingling in combined volume their fresh water with the salt tidal-water from San Fran- cisco Bay. Other forms are sometimes found at this point ; they seem unable to obtain a foothold or to establish a permanent colony or settlement. The region is one of marshes, which sus- tain a rank growth of coarse vegetation, especially what is known as tales, whicli sift, as it were, the waters, and hold for a time forms which, during the great floods of excessively wet winters, are swept from their native haunts through the submersion or overflow of the ponds, lakes and streams of a vast interior region. Thus Mr. Carlton^ found a few juvenile specimens of Carinifex here in May, 1869, which, like Mr. Hemphill's specimens of P. bicarinatus, had never before nor, so far as I can learn, have never since been reported from this place nor any point in the ad- joining region. In fact, the only habitat west of the Rocky Moun- tains, I believe, from which this Planorbis is reported on good authority, is Oregon ; I have specimens from Portland, collected by Mr. Hemphill. A frequent aspect of variation in the forms falling within the first gi'oup, is that of occasional bulgings or swellings, as seen in P. glabratus, Say, and P. tuinens, Cpr., suggesting periodicity in growth, or rather periods of hibernation or rest, and periods of activit}', at the termination of which a mouth or expansion of the 1 Proc. Cal. Acad., Vol. IV, p. 50, 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 105 aperture, analagous to a varix, is formed — and this repeated as the animal advances towards maturity, imparts to the shell its special feature. It will be readily seen by this, that any of these forms, scattered or distributed over a wide region in northerly or extremely elevated stations, where the season of cold reaches a maximum, against which protection must be sought by hiberna- tion, might in some of their colonies be subjected to such condi- tions, and hibernation be the only protection, as in the land snails of arid regions, against seasons of excessive drought, and in other regions against the cold of winter ; and bulged or varicose varia- tion be produced in a perfectly simple way, that is, in harmony with or through the operation of a general law ; and this variation be perpetuated for some time in colonies migrating from such stations to a more genial habitat ; until after awhile, some of the descendants of these varicose ancestors reach places where hiber- nation is unnecessary by reason of a permanency or mean of con- ditions— temperature, suppl}' and quality of water being in equilibrium with the usual requirements of these animals — and the ordinary smooth, evenly-grown shells again prevail through re- version to the original form. To return to the groups, as above, the Covington Pond speci- mens referred to in part first, connect said groups, being what may be called " trivolvis^ with variations " — that species or general form being, through its plasticit}', the connecting link. Still another aspect of variation is shown in Ingersoll's ^ P. plexata, from St. Maiy's Lake, Antelope Park, Colorado. Here we have a variation not unusual in the various Planorbes, and not confined to any of the larger species, that of irregularity in winding, as if through extreme torsion the coil cockled ; the whorls twisting off the line or plane of volution. P. plexata is an eccentrically coiled trivolvis, the deviation from plane of volu- tion having somewhat of regularity of occurrence, and not im- probably owing to the same cause as that to which I attribute the bulging in the glabratus form, namel}^ — to recurring seasons of hibernation and activity, when the new growth hardly makes a " good joint " as a mechanic might say, with the edges of the previous mouth ; the heavy water plants at the bottom of the lake described by Mr. Ingersoll, quite likely perform a part, in causing or contributing to the irregular winding of the shell at * See Hayden's Reports Teri-itorial Surveys, 1874, p. 402. loo PROOKKDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the time when a new growth comniences — when tlie shell which is to be is liardly more tiian plastic membrane, not backed up with a still'ening ol' lime, as it is after the fabric is perfected. In Mountain Lake, near San Francisco, a few miles west of said city, curionsly distorted pond snails of the genus Physa occur, which at one time, some years ago, excited attention. The season of their growth is the summer, and its generative warmth is accompanied with the trade winds, which blow across the lake with considerable violence ; the plastic shells of the Ph3'^sa; are forced against plants, chips and various fragments, odds and ends atloat in or around the lake ; and the outer lip thus gets dented and bent, giving a curious twist to many of the individuals. A figure (128) illustrating a distorted specimen from the foregoing locality is given by Mr. Binney in his L. and F. W. Shells of North America. However, I have no reason to believe that this deformit}^ is transmitted, as only a small proportion of the multi- tude are affected. The specimens on which Mr. Ingersoll's species is based, were found by him, as stated, in a snow-fed pond of small size, between or among high cliffs. As before implied, the vacillations in plane of coil may be owing to interruption of growth by recurring- periods of hibernation, the characters in the environment, men- tioned by Mr. Ingersoll, affording a reasonable solution of the phe- nomena. Such ponds are subject to marked climatic contingen- cies ; and sometimes, or rather in some years, their basins are nearly pr quite dry — and again, fluctuations of temperature, according to the volume of water, which is an important factor, are far more critical in small ponds than in lakes or large bodies of water, where the extremes of temperature, as well as other conditions, as quality of water, are less variable or extreme. These two aspects of variation, bulging and irregularity in coiling are exhibited with more or less frequency in all of the larger American species, and in a greater or less degree, through- out the entire area inhabited by Planorbis ; occurring oftener, perhaps, among colonies which inhabit elevated stations, than with those living at altitudes nearer the level of the sea. I am of the belief, too, that these aspects of variation are less frequent among colonies inhabiting southerly and semi-tropical regions. All of the variations referred to are, when present, more con- spicuous in the larger forms west of the Rocky Mountains, for 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. lOY the reason that some of them reach a size very much in excess of the largest individuals of the same species, from points east of said range. The carinated and planulate forms seem to be freer from the bulging or variceal peculiarity than the others. As to the relations of the various species to each other, or their interrelations,, it is quite evident that many of them have an immediate common ancestry. P. trivolvis (+ P- trivolvis var. fallax + P. lentus) of the American species appears to be the dominant stock-form, and maj' be regarded as Americanized Cornells, if a serai-political term may be used in a physico- geographical sense ; its presence in the company of such forms as Limneea stagnalis, L. palustris and others, of circumpolar dis- tribution, indicates a geographical identity with the European species. While the Planor.bes attain their maximum of size in that part of North America west of the Rocky Mountains and north of latitude 30° N., the number of supposed species, or of forms which present characters more or less distinct, are more numerous east of said range. There is apparently no relation between altitude of habitat and size of shell. The quantity of West-coast material accessible at this moment is too small to enable me to give a satisfactory exhibit of measurements. The following will, however, convey a fair idea of the robust proportions of the more conspicuous West- American forms, the first and second being P. trivolvis and the third P. amnion. 1. Utah Lake, U. T., elevation 4498'.5 feet. Greater diameter 1*41 ; lesser, 1"04 inches. Long, of aperture "71 ; longitudinal diameter of whorl at juncture of parietal callus -45 inch. 2. Washoe Lake, Nevada, elevation 5006 feet. Greater diameter 1-30 ; lesser, 1"01 inches. Long, of aperture '60; long, of whorl at junction of parietal callus •47 inch. 3. Salinas Yalley, Cal., elevation 100 — feet. Greater diameter 1*24; lesser, '98 inch. Long, of aperture "90; long, diameter of whorl at junction of parietal callus '55 inch. 4. Clear Lake, Cal., elevation 1323 feet. Greater diameter 1-05 ; lesser, -74 inch. Long, of aperture "77 ; long, diameter at junction of parietal callus "76 inch. This last (4) is a typical Traskii. A comparison of the meas- 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. FlQ. 23. P. trivolvis. Original. Fig 24. urements of the aperture and of the whorl at the junction of the parietal callus in this and 3 (P. amnion), with similar measure- ments in 1 and 2 (P. trivolvis), wiW give a good idea of the relative obtuseness of their cones or tubes, as well as of the inflation or patulous aspect of the aperture, and of its effect on the physiog- nomy of the shell. A typical P. corneus (Britisli specimens) of 1"10 inches greater diameter measures -87 inch lesser diameter, while the longitude of aperture is '42, and longitudinal diameter at junction of parietal callus is -30 inch. The following original figures from nature, show the Washoe Lake form as above (fig. 23); while fig. 24, from the same locality, also illustrates the distortion resulting by deviation from or eccentricity in plane of coil. The sinistral or dextral inquiry led to the discovery that P. bicarinatus is some- times right and sometimes left ; this is an interesting fact, because said species ex- hibits certain analogies with other peculiar and characteristic forms. The i-elations of the dextral Carinifex, whose planorboid character led Dr. Lea^ p.MuotoM. Original (distorted), ^o describe it as a Planorhis^ are appar- ently closer to P. bicarinatus than to any other species. The exceeding variability of Carinifex is seen by the figures here given, which, however, do not fully represent the range of variation. (Figs. 25, 26, 27). In the light of our present knowledge it should perhaps be regarded only as a coincidence that the very territory from which P. bicarinatus is with the two exceptions of Hemphill's Antioch, and Portland (Oregon) localities, entirely absent, is the territory inhabited by Carinifex, and in which it has been found, either recent or fossil. When the immense area of this territory is con- sidered, the number of localities in which it has been detected, are few ; still Fig. -26. From Lea's types. Klamath and Canoe Ureek specimens. Fig. 27. From Lea's types. Klamath and Canoe Creek Specimens. Carin^/'eaii^ewfierryt, and varieties, these fcW are SO related the One tO the Variety from Pitt River, Cal. 1 Binney's L. and F. W. Shells of N. A., Part II, p..74. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 109 other as to indicate a wide and general disti'ibution within its boundaries. These localities are as follows, commencing at the easternmost station : 1. Utah Territor}" ; near Utah Lake, in Wahsatch Mountains, collected hy Dr. Edward Palmer. Museum Stearns. (Semi- fossil. ) 2. Nevada (Tertiaries) ; as Vorticifex Tryoni, Meek, in King's Survey. 3. California ; Owen's Yalley, collected living by Hemphill ; " The most southern locality. The animal undistinguishable externally from that of PJanorhia ammoiV Cooper. 4. California ; Klamath Lake and Canoe Creek, living ; Dr. J. S. Newberry. S. I. Collection. 5. California; Pitt River, Dr. Cooper ; living. S. I. Collection. 6. California; Clear Lake, living; Dr. Yeatch. S. I. Collec- tion. Cooper makes a var. ? ''minor'' of specimens from this place. 7. California; Antioch ; living. Carlton. '* A few A^ery young ones, perhaps a dwarfed southern variety like those from Clear Lake." 8. California; Livermore Valley, Alameda County; "in the hills north of Martin's, near Tassajara," Cooper, fossil ; label marked " Planorbis, etc., Tertiary? " in State Geol. Survey Coll., Univ. of Cal. The Utah specimens, though small, are mature, and include the form rounded above like Meek's Nevada species, as well as the more flattened and grooved features of the Tassajara ^ specimens, which approach in size and general characters more closely to Lea's type, fig. 25. Some of Palmer's Utah specimens are elevated, and vary in the direction of fig. 27, though not terraced or keeled as much ; the lot of only a dozen specimens, exhibits a remarka- ble range of variation. There are striking analogies between the shells of Garinifex in its varieties, and the Australasian brackish water Amphibolse. A new species has been made on one of the varieties by Mr. Smith, of the British Museum, which he named C. Ponsonbii;'^ ^ Tassajara is the name of a stream which is frequently dry in the latter part of summer. '^ Proc. Zool. Soc., 1875, p. 536. Also Quar. .Tour. Conch., Vol. I, p. 150. no PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the specimens T\^ere collected by Lord Walsingham, in Cnlifornia. There are several varieties still nndescribed, which challenge the attention of those who are ambitious in this direction. Garinifex exhibits manj^ of the variations in form of tube or cone, in cross-section, which are seen in Planorbis, without the bulgings of the varicose forms, and plus the elevation of spire which is seen especiall}^ in extreme individuals like the figure ; the outline of the mouth is very much like that of P. hicarinatus^ and in some of its varieties suggests a P. hicarinatui<, with the umbilicus deepened by pushing up the spire from below. With the discovery of new localities, and ample material both recent and fossil, without doubt the sequence of variation wall be traced, and its relation to meteorological, geological and chemical changes, within the area of its distribution partially indicated. In this connection I would direct attention to Prof. Hyatt's interesting letter to Mr. Ingersoll, referring to Steinheim fossils, and to the Valvatse of Lawlor's Lake, Nova Scotia, in Prof. F. V. Hayden's Report, 1874. 1881.] natural sciences of philadelphia. ill May 3. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Thirty-four persons present. Dr. Geo. A. Koenig was elected a member of the Council to fill the vacanity caused by the resignation of Dr. Chapman. May 10. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Twenty-eight persons present. The deaths of Jos. S. Lovering, a member, and of Dr. James Lewis, of Mohawk, N. Y., a correspondent, were annovmced. May n. Mr. Thos. Meehan, Yice-President, in the chair. Twentj'-nine persons present. The following papers were presented for publication : " Quercus rubra L. var, Texana," by S. B. Buckley. " Quercus Durandii," by S. B. Buckley. " Rhus cotinoides," by S. B. Buckley. May 24. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Twenty-nine persons present. A paper entitled *' Revision of the Palaeocrinoidea, Part II, Family Spha?roidocrinidifi, including the subfamilies Platycrin- idae, Rhodocrinidae and Actinocrinidge," by Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer, was presented for publication. The death of Thos. A. Scott, a member, was announced. Sexual Characters in FrUillaria atropur^j^urea, Nuttall. — Mr. Thomas Meehan noticed the occurrence of separate male and hermaphrodite flowers in Fritillaria atropurpurea, cases of bi- 112 I'KOCEEDINGS OK THE ACADEMY OK NATURAL SCIENCES. [1881. sexuality being rare in truly liliaceous plants. His specimens were from western Nevada, and the characters now noted were exhibited in 1880 ; but as the plant had only been received a short time before, the absence of female organs might be attributed to weak- ness, but observation this season shows it to be a normal condition. The jjlant produced four spikes, flowering on the 15th of May. The spikes were 15, 14, 13, and 11 inches high, respectively, and had from twelve to fourteen narrow glaucous leaves each, and all of apparently equal strength. The tallest spike had but one per- fect floAver; another had the lowermost perfect, but with four others aboA^e, all purelj' staminate. The other two had three flowers each, all staminate. These staminate flowers had antlers as large and as polleniferous as the hermaphrodite ones, and the perianth seemed in every respect as perfect, the only difference being in the total absence of all traces of a gynoecium. It was evidently the normal condition of the species, which, by the way, seems to run closely into Fritillaria pariiifiora. Mr. Meehan said the facts were intei-esting, as drawing still closer the well-known relationship of Melanthiace'se and Liliacese. A tendency to diclinism had hitherto been supposed to be the special characteristic of the former order, although occasionally, as in Asparagus, there were indications of the same characteristics in Liliaceae also. May 31. Ther President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Twenty-five members present. A paper entitled " Observations on the Hippopotamus," by Henry C. Chapman, M. D., was presented for publication. Alexander Biddle, M. D., W. Norton Whitney, M. D., and John G. Lea, M. D., were elected members. Thomas T. Bouve, of Boston, was elected a correspondent. The following were ordered to be published : PROC. A. N. S, PHILA,, 1881 PL, - ^^>^ ^ '^^'^^m^^^ ^^Ayvr4/<^^j, if, '?:^f PROC. A, N. S. PHILA., PL II. T-rr^ PROC, A, N. S, PHILA., I88i. PL 111, PROC, A, N. S. PHILA,, I88i . PL IV. PROG. A. N. S. PHILA., 1881. PL V. 24 PROC. A. N. S. PHILA,, 1881. PLVI. PROC. A, N. S, PHILA., 1881 PL VII, ]. A. N. S, PHILA,, PL Vlli PROC. A. N. S. PHILA,, 1881. PL. IX CE ^ ^ px pr.th ; ^' *■ ab.pl. v g^ an 70 ab.pl.v' 71 PROC. A. N. S. PHILA.. 1881. PL X 1881. j NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 113 LIST OF THE FISHES COLLECTED BY MB. W. J. FISHER, UPON THE COASTS OF LOWER CALIFORNIA, 1876-77, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES. BY W. N. LOCKINGTON. In x\.pril, 1876, the schooner Harvest Queen, W. J. Fisher in command, left San Francisco on a collecting expedition to Lower California. The intention was to work down the western coast, and then along the eastern to the head of the Gulf of California ; and the object was to collect seals, birds, fishes, mollusks, Crus- tacea, radiates, etc., for sale or exchange. Financially the expedition proA^ed a signal failure ; few skins or shells of value were procured, and most of the former were spoiled before reaching San Francisco ; but the scientific results were far from insignificant. Chieflj' in consequence of the free use of the dredge in depths under fifteen fathoms, large numbers of small Crustacea, many of them new or little known, were procured, also a few rare and three* or four new mollusks, and some interesting fishes from the Gulf, the latter mingled with the Crustacea and other objects di'edged at moderate depths. Besides these fishes, which will be described in the following pages, several better known species were taken in considerable quantity at Magdalena Bay, upon the Pacific coast of the peninsula. As these fishes have already formed the subject of two short papers in the Proceedings of the California Academj^ of Sciences, and one or two were by error described as new, they will be in- cluded in the^list herein given, with references to my previous papers. The reptiles obtained were catalogued in the American Natu?'- alist, April, 1880, p. 295. Nothing new was found among birds, and the only mammals taken were a fine female Elephant seal {Morunga proboscidea) , killed at Ascencion Island, on the western coast of the peninsula ; several sea-lions (Eunietopias stelleri) ; and the skull of a species of Orca. Diodon maculatus Lac. Gulf of Cal. Tetrodon politus Gill. Magdalena Bay. Tetrodon punctatissimus ? Gunther. Gulf of Cal. Antennarius leopardinns Gnthr. Gulf of Cal. Hypleurochilus gentilis (Grd.) Gill. La Paz, Las Animas Bay, Gulf of Cal. PhoUdichthys anguilliformis Locktn. Gulf of Cal. Cremnobates altivelis Locktn. Gulf of Cal. 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. CUnus pJiillippi Steind. Gulf of Cal. Apodichthys vnivittatus Locktn. Gulf of Cal. Microdesmiis dipus Gnthr. La Paz. Gobiesox r/iessodon Rosa Smith. Gulf of Cal. OilUchthys mirahilis Cpr. Magdalena Bay. Pimelomdopon pulclier (Ayres) Gill. Magdalena Bay. Semicosxyphu^ pulcherljoc^tn. Proc. Cal, Ac. Sci., 1876. p. 87. Cynoscion parvipinnis (Ayres) .T. & G. Magdalena Bay. Menticirrus undulahis (Grd.) Gil). Magdalena Bay. Oirella nigricans (Ayres) Gill. Magdalena Bay. Spams brachysomus Locktn. Proc. U. S. National Museum, 1880, 283. Magdalena Bay. Pristipoma melanopterum Cuv. . Gulf of Cal. Serranus nebtilifer (Grd.) Steind. Magdalena Bay. Paralabrax nebuUfer Locktn. Proc. Cal. Ac. Sci., 1876, 86. Serranus clathratus (Grd.) Steind. Magdalena Bay. Serramis maculofaseiatus Steind. Angeles Bay, Gulf of Cal. Serranus gigas (Ayres) J. «& G. Magdalena Bay. Centropomus undecimalis Bloch. Ascencion Island, I. C. Centropomus viridis Locktn. Proc. Cal. Ac. Sci., 1876, 109. Selene vomer (L.) Liitken. Magdalena Bay. Argyreiosus pacificus Locktn. Proc. Cal. Ac. Sci.', 1876, 84. Trachynotus carolinus (L.) Gtlir., Cuv. and Val. Magdalena Bay. Trachynotus ovatus L. Lae. Magdalena Bay. Trachynotus ovatus Locktn. Proc. Cal. Ac. Sci., 1876, 86. TracJiurus saurtis Raf. Magdalena Bay. Sphyrcena argentea Grd. Magdalena Bay. Sphyrosna argentea Locktn. Proc. Cal. Ac. Sci., 1876, 88. Atherinopsis californiensis (Grd.) Gill. Magdalena Bay. Myxus harengus Giinther. Las Animas Bay, Gulf of Cal. Albula vulpes (L.) Goode. Albula conorhyncJius Locktn., loc. cit. 83. Heterodontus francisi (Grd.) J. & G. Magdalena Bay. Cestracio7ifrancisi hocktn., loc. cit. 85. Mustelus Jdnnulus (Blainville) J. & G. Magdalena Bay. Mustelus californicus Locktn., 1 c. 87. Triads semifaseiatus Grd. Magdalena Bay. Triads semifasciata Locktn., 1. c. 87. SpTiyrna zygmia (L.) Raf. South of Cape St. Lucas. BrancMostoma lanceolatum (Pallas) Gray. Angeles Bay, Gulf of Cal. Tetrodon punctatissimus T Giinther. Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., VIII, p. 302, 1870. D. 9, A. 8, P. 11, G. 2-7, 2. Bod}^ compressed, short ; the dorsal profile from tip of snout to eye slightly concave, thence to origin of dorsal gently convex, 1881]. NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 115 thence descending nioderatel}', somewhat concave from posterior margin of dorsal to caudal. Abdominal outline slightly concave in front of eye, thence boldly convex to origin of anal, thence cor- responding to dorsal outline. Head 3^ times, greatest depth 2yV in total length, the greatest depth above the centre of the pectoral base ; greatest breadth (at gill-openings) less than the length of the head, and 3j% in total length. Snout H, eye 4 times in length of head, width of inter- orbital area about 1^ times the diameter of the eye. Depth of caudal peduncle nearly 2| times in greatest depth. The back behind the head forms a keel. Snout truncate at the tip, concave above and below, higher than wide ; nostrils inconspicuous, a single opening on each side on a minute papilla; mouth small; eyes round, lateral, entirely in the posterior half of the head, the upper orbital margins slightly raised, so that the interorbital area is somewhat concave. Teeth smooth, sharp-edged, line of junction distinct. Gill-opening small, almost perpendicular, distant from the e3-e about an ej'e-diameter. Dorsal fin arising at a distance from the gill-opening equal to the length of the head, with nine articulated rays, the first simple, the others once or twice divided. Base of dorsal less than one- third of the length of the snout, height rather more than one- third of length of head. Anal slightlj' posterior to dorsal, with eight rays, the first ver- tical with the posterior margin of the dorsal ; height and length of base equal to dorsal. Caudal very slightly convex on posterior margin when opened out, all the principal rays divided, some of the central ones four times ; length of fin about 5^ times in total length. ' Pectoral base oblique, its upper axil near the upjDcr end of the gill-slit, thence backwards and downwards at an angle of about 4.5°. Pectoral fin fan-shaped, rather short (the tips of the rays in the specimen are slightly injured), the uppermost ra^^ short, simple ; the next (longest) simple ; the others once or twice divided, slightlj^ diminishing in length downwards. Top and sides of head, breast, and abdomen to anal fin with prickly papillte, most numerous upon the breast and under side of the snout. Rest of body naked. Color purple, thickly sown with subcircular or subelliptic 116 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881. lighter spots ; these become larger upon the flanks, until the ground color fades out, leaving the abdomen, breast, and under side of snout dirty yellow. Spots of sides and upper portion light purplish. Behind the anal fin the spots can be traced all round the body. No color bands or spots are now evident upon the fins. Specimen in alcohol since 1816. Angeles Ba}' ; Gulf of California. From T. furthii, Steind. (Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1876. Icthyol. Beitrage, V, p. 22) this species may readily be distinguished by • the great length of the snout, two-thirds of that of the head, while in the T. furthii it is only f-x\ of the head. Other difterences are the absence of a skin-fold on the tail, the inconspicuous nasal papilla, and the smaller development of the spinules upon the back. The coloration is also different. T. furthii has indistinct transverse bands, and a dark band on the pectoral base The short description given by Dr. Giinther of T . punctatissi- mus agrees, so far as it goes, with the present species. His specimens were from Panama. Should the present species prove distinct, I propose for it the name of oxyrhynchus. Length of specimen, 3*06 inches. Antennarius leopardinus, Gnthr.? Trans. Zool. Soc, 1864, 15 *. Fishes Cent. Amer. in Trans. Zool. Soc, Vol. VI, 434, PI. VII. This species was originally described from Panama. Two examples were obtained by Mr. Fisher by dredging at a depth of 22 fathoms, among beds of pearl oyster (Mar gar itophor a) off San Jos^ Island, Amortiguado Bay, Gulf of California. The spots have in most cases faded into light yellow, leaving the bright vermilion of all the rest of the body and fins unchanged. A black spot persists upon the ninth ray of the dorsal, and there are traces of black upon the sides and head. The under side of the abdomen, in advance of the anal, is light yellowish with dark spots. Total length 1*95 inches ; width from tip to tip of pec- torals riO in. Cremnobates altivelis, nov. sp. D. 4-25, A. 21, P. 13, C. 13, V. 2, L. lat. 37. Body compressed, greatest depth a little behind pectoral axil, greatest thickness at gill-covers, dorsal and abdominal profiles of 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. Tit similar curvature, decreasing regularly to the caudal fin. Profile of occiput and superorbital regions convex ; snout somewhat produced, its upper outline slightly concave. Head one-fourth of total length, greatest depth a little less than length of head, caudal peduncle about one-fourth of the greatest depth. Eye round, lateral, with a slight direction upwards, its diameter less than the length of the snout. Interorbital area nearly equal in width to the diameter of the eye, concave transversel}', upper orbital borders slightl}^ raised. A short nasal tentacle slightly anterior to the front margin of the eye. A large fimbriated tentacle on each side of the first dorsal ray. Cleft of mouth oblique, the lower jaw the longer ; the posterior convex extremity of the club-shaped maxillary about vertical with the centre of the pupil. Teeth of the outer row regular, sharp, incurved, the largest in front, graduallv decreasing along the lateral portions of the jaws, and not extending much past the middle of their length. A narrow band of small teeth in the rear of the outer row. Vomer- ine teeth. Branchiostegals six. Gill-openings continuous, membranes not attached to the isthmus. Distance from the first ray of the dorsal to the posterior margin of the eye equal to the length of the snout. First two rays of the dorsal much developed, the first slightly the longer, and nearly equal in height to the distance of its base from the tip of the upper jaw ; third ray about half the length of the first ; fourth very shoi't ; succeeding rays to the twentj^-sixth longer than the third, the three last somewhat decreasing. Anal commencing under the eleventh dorsal raj^ ; coterminous with, and equal in height to the dorsal. Caudal with thirteen simple jointed rays, the longest in the centre, posterior margin convex. Pectorals narrow, lanceolate, the fifth and sixth rays longest, and four-fifths the length of the head. Ventrals inserted in advance of the pectorals. Lateral line with thirty-seven simple pores, parallel with dorsal outline to opposite the origin of the anal, where it is deflected 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. almost perpeiuliculjvrly downward to the middle of the side of the bod3-, along which it continues to its termination. Scales rather lai'ge, about ten in a transverse row in the central part of the body, their posterior margin membranous. No scales on fins. A line of pores around the margin of the orbit, another along the posterior margin of the pre-operculum, connected to each other and to the lateral line by a line from tlie centre of the hinder border of the eye. Color (in alcohol) bright pink above, becoming dusky below, under side of head light olivaceous, lower lip blackish. Dorsal pink, dusky on its margin, a black spot on the fourth ray, and another on its hinder part upon the 24-25th rays, the latter spot extending on to the body. Membrane of anal black. Occipital tentacles black. Total length 1-9 inch. A single specimen from La Paz, dredged at a depth of 22 fathoms. This species maj^ be distinguished from G. monophthalmus, Gnthr., by the much greater development of the first two dorsal rays ; by the longer and concave snout, and by the coloration ; and from C. marmoraius^ Steind. (Sitz. Akad. Wiss., Wien, 18T6, 174), by its more elongate form, shorter cleft of month, and longer first dorsal ra^'. In C. marmoratus the second dorsal ray is longest. Pholidichthys anguilliformis nov. sp. Body exceedingly elongate, much compressed, naked, upper profile of head forming a continuous convex curve to the tip of the snout, which is about equal in length to the eye, Head six and two-fifths, greatest depth sixteen times in total length. Eye lateral, round ; interorbital space about two-thirds of the diameter of the eye, convex transversely. Posterior extremit}' of maxillary vertical with the hinder margin of the eye. Tip of snout a little below the level from the centre of the eye ; mouth moderately oblique, lower jaw slightly the longer. Teeth of lower jaw in a close-set row, the largest in front, diminishing along the sides. Teeth of upper jaw similar but smaller. Palate smooth. Vertical fins continuous but distinct, dorsal entirely spinous, anal commencing a little behind the middle of the entire length of 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 119 the fish. Ventrals two-rayed, very slightly in advance of the jsectorals, which are about equal in length to the distance of their base from the eye. Color (in spirits) dark bla.-kish brown, mingled with white upon top, sides and lower parts of head. Interorbital area and top of snout white. A single specimen dredged off San Jose Island, Amortiguado Bay, Gulf of California. Total length 1-60 in. Head 0-25 in. The example is broken across, the branchiostegals are defec- tive, the caudal fin broken, and some fin- rays missing, so that the fin formula cannot be accurately given. The dorsal fin has above sixty raj^s. The bod}' is much moi-e slender than that of P. leucotsenia Bleeker, and there is no trace of the longitudinal bluish white band of that species. Apodichthys univittatus, nov. sp. D. circa 95. A. ca. 1-40. Body elongate, much compressed, band-like, presei-ving almost the same depth to about the posterior fifth of the body, thence tapering more rapidly to the caudal fin. Head seven, depth nearh^ ten times in the total length ; depth of caudal peduncle about one-half of that of body. Snout obtuse, about two-thirds as long as the diameter of the eye, the upper profile of the head a continuous curve from snout to occi- put. Interorbital area highly convex transversely, about equal in width to half the diameter of the eye. Ej^e entirely lateral, round, contained entirely in the anterior half of the head ; iris golden. Mouth small, the posterior extremity of the maxillary reaching to the anterior margin of the eye. Teeth small. Branchiostegals five. Dorsal fin continuous with but distinct from the anal, arising A' ertically above the tip of the operculum, and composed of spines only. Anal preceded by a long, sharp, slender spine of V-shaped transverse section, the hollow side anterior, the length of the spine equal to about half the depth of the fish. Distance from anal spine to tip of operculum a little more than to tip of caudal. Caudal with numerous accessory rays, so that its sides are almost straight, posterior margin broken in specimen, all the rays simple. General color (in spirits) light reddish, the vertical fins rather bright, and the top of the head reddish brown. Tip of snout brown, A silvery band (possibly bluish in life) from the tip of 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the snoTit, across the lower pai't of the eye, cheeks and opercles, terminating at about the middle of the length of the operculum ; this band bordered above by a narrower brown band. A single specimen. Lower California, probably from the Gulf. Length 1-88 in. Length of head 0-27 in. Greatest depth 0'19 in. Snout to anal spine TIO in. The peculiar vitta upon each side of the head at once dis- tinguishes this species from tiie two other described forms. Microdesmus dipus, Giinther. Trans. Zool. Soc, 1864, p. 26. A single specimen of this rare species was obtained at La Paz, near low-tide level. Hemiramphus uaifasciatus, Ranzani. D. 14. A. 16. With some hesitation I refer two specimens taken in Las Animas Bay, Gulf of California, to this species rather than to H. rosse J. & G. The proportion of the jaw to the length of the body, as well as the number of dorsal rays, agree with unifasciatus. On each side of the median line of the back a row of elongated spots of dark greenish tint, one on each scale, forms a narrow band, and between these bands is a median series of dark spots formed by thickly aggregated black dots. Between the narrow dark-green band and the lateral band similar close aggregations of dark spots form a series of spots, elongated transversely. The silvery lateral band is bordered above by a narrower greenish stripe. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 121 QUEKCUS DURANDII, Buckley. BY S. B. BUCKLEY, PH. D. I bad spent several years in studying the trees of the United States in their native places, when, in the month of September, 1859, as I was walking from Camden to Allenton, in Wilcox County, Alabama, I saw an oak, different from any I had ever seen. It was in a dark, rich, limestone soil, on the right hand side of the road, about three miles from Allenton. The bark of its trunk and limbs was scaly ; leaves lanceolate, entire or slightly lobed or repand ; acorns small, ovate, obtuse ; cup ver^^ shallow, about one-eighth as long as the acorn. The tree Avas 1 foot in diameter and about 25 feet high, and the only one there. I showed specimens of it to the gentleman with whom I staid all night. He told me it was a rare oak in that country, growing near the banks of streams and swamps, that its wood was close grained and xery tough, making excellent screws for cotton-gins, firm and durable wagon-hubs, etc., also splints for making baskets for the cotton-fi^ld, when the cotton is being gathered; that it was seldom more than 3 feet in diameter and 60 feet high. This oak was the Quercus Durandii, a new species which I de- scribed in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1861. It is named after the late Elias Durand, who was for many years chairman of the Committee on Botany of the Academy. In October, 1859, I saw it again at Shreveport, in Louisiana, on the bluffs of the Red River, in the upper part of the town. There its acorns were larger and longer than in Alabama. Here there were several trees of it, one of which was 4 feet 2 inches in dia- meter at 3 feet from the ground. These were low, spreading trees, growing in an open space. In Southern Texas, on the Colorado River, in Fort Bend and other counties, it is a large tree, often 2 to 3 feet in diameter and 60 to YO feet high. In 1814, in Milam County, Texas, I saw many large, tall trees of this oak in the bottom lands of Little River, a tributary of the Brazos. There it is sometimes called the " bastard white oak " because the bark of its trunk resembles that of the scaly forms of white oak. Durand's oak grows on the bauks of Shoal Creek, one-half to 122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. two miles above Austin, also near Mount Bond, about three miles from the eit^-. In 1872, Mr. Elihu Hall, of Athens, Illinois, was at Austin col- lecting plants. I showed him Durand's oalc, which is referred to as a good species in his " Plants TexanjE," published in 1873. Mr. Charles Mohr, Botanist for the Tenth Census Department of Forestry in tlie Gulf States, was here, last November, and obtained sections of the wood, and specimens of the leaves and acorns of Q. Durandii for the Department of Forestry under the direction of Prof. Chas. S. Sargent, for the United States Government. Lastly, Prof. Sargent came here tliree weeks ago, and together we visited the banks of Shoal Creek, where there were several small trees of this oak, the largest being nearly two feet in diameter. He was satisfied it was a good species. I have been thus particular in giving the history of this oak to the present time, because all who have seen the living trees regard it as a good species, which is not the case with some who have not. In Dr. Engelmann's " Oaks of the United States," published at p. 392, " Transactions of St. Louis Academy," speaking of the forms of Quercus undulata, he says: •' The var. Gamhelii runs into variety Gunnisonii on one side, and on the other into variety breviloba {Q, ohtusiloha var. hrevifolia^ Torrey, Bot. Bound, and probably Q. Durandii and San sabea, Buckley)." Dr. E. thus regards it as probably identical with a marked variety of Quercus undulata^ an opinion which a better acquaintance with living trees would surely lead him to revise. Without extensive field expe- rience it is almost impossible to decide on the limits of species in oaks, as well as in grapes and other difficult genera. 1881.J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 123 QTJERCUS RUBRA, L., var. TEXANA. BY S. B. BUCKLEY, PH. D. Quercus rubra is distributed over a larger area than any other oak in North America. According to Dr. Richardson, it is the most northern of oaks ; he found it on the Saskatchewan and the rocks of Lake Xamakeen, in British America. It is in Nova Scotia, and southward through the United States to El Paso County, in the northwest part of Texas. The writer saw it in the coves of the mountains near Fort Davis, in the summer of 1875, at elevations of fi-om 5000 to 6000 feet above the sea. The differences of soil and climate in which it grows cause it to vary so much in size, wood, leaves and acorns that the two extremes of difference considered apart from intermediate forms, would make two ver}^ good species. The Texas form, growing on limestone hills and coves and little valley's in the vicinitj' of Austin and westward, has been called Q. ijalustris hy Torrey and Gra}', in the Report of the Botany of the Pacific Railroad. Report of Capt. John Pope, p. 173; also in other reports of theirs on the Botany of Texas. It has also been called Q. palustris by Dr. Engelmann, when he named the plants collected by Elihu Hall in Texas in 1872. (See Hall's Plantee Texana?, p. 21, Nos. 604 and 605.) Hall obtained specimens of it here in June, and I sent him acorns of it in the fall, and he informed me that Dr. Engel- mann regarded it as Q. palustris. I have never seen the true Q. palustris farther south than the vicinity of Washington. Prof Sar- gent and Mr. Mohr both inform me that they do not know of its being in the Southern States, and so says Michaux, in his " North American Sjdva." It is not in Chapman's " Flora of the Southern States." These things in part, joined with the characteristics of the oak as growing here, caused me to describe it as a new species. (See Q. Texana, in Young's " Flora of Texas," p. 507.) If not a good species, it is a well-marked variety of Q. rubra. Let it then be called Q. rubra var. Texana. Last December, Mr. Charles Mohr and myself got sections of its wood, etc., which he sent North for the Department of Forestry of the Government Census Bureau. We then thought it to be a good species. A few daA^s after, on the bottom lands of Walnut Creek, about six miles below Austin, we found the acorns and 124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. leaves of Q. rubra and also those of Q. 2'exana on and beneath the same tree ; and also many intermediate forms. It was not onl_y one tree, hut man}', which showed these differences. Quercus rubra attains a large size in Eastern Texas ; but west of the Trinity River it is seldom more than two feet in diameter. Its wood here is harder, firmer and better than that of the Northern red oak. About two miles from Raleigh, North Carolina, on the F'ayette- ville road, in 1858, I measured a Quercus rubra which was 20 feet 8 inches in circumference at three feet from the ground. It was a low tree, with a remarkable spread of very large limbs, whose length on the south side was 72 feet and 71 feet. The longest on the north side was 66 feet. Near the base of its limbs at ten feet from the ground it was 27 feet in circumference. The circum- ference of the largest limb, at two feet from the trunk, was 9 feet 7 inches. Another limb was 7 feet 7 inches in circumference. In September, 1859, I measured a Q. rubra in Wilcox County, Alabama, which was 24 feet 7 inches in circurnference at three feet from the ground. It was a tall, well-developed, healthy tree. Another one not far distant was 18 feet 2 inches in circumference at three feet. In the town of Romulus, Seneca County, N. Y., I measured another, in 1865, which was 17 feet 2 inches in in cir- cumfererence at three feet high. Most of the large red oaks of the Northern States have been cut down to make staves for flour barrels, etc. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 125 KHUS COTINOIDES, Nutt. BY S. B. BUCKLEY, PH. D. This sumac was discovered by Nuttall, in the autumn of 1819, on the Grand, a large tributary of the Arkansas River, and within the limits of the present Indian Territory. It was on high broken rocky banks at a place tlien known as tlie "Eagle's Nest.'' It grew there only as a shrub, and was not again found by Nuttall. He gives a description of it, with a plate, at p. 71, vol. ii, of his addition to Michaux's " North American Sylva." He there calls it Cohnus Americana. Nuttall's specimens were in fruit only. I found this same Ehus on the 6th of April, 1842, in descending from the table lands of North Alabama to the Tennessee River, on the Huntsville road. Here were large shrubs of it growing in clumps from 8 to 10 feet high. They were in fruit and strikingly beautiful. I collected many specimens of them Soon after, I came to the river and staid all night at a Mr. Chun's. Next morning, I crossed at " Ditto's Landing," and went on the Madison turnpike to Huntsville, nine miles distant. After dinner, I went twelve miles from Huntsville to a Mr. Bailee's, in Madison County, Alabama, on the road to Winchester, Tennessee, via Salem. From Mr. Bailee's house I walked up to the top of a low mountain to get specimens. Near its base and on its sides, in wooded ravines, I saw several trees of R. cotinoides in flower, and with larger leaves than those seen before south of the Tennessee River. These trees were about 38 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, with trunks and larger limbs coated with light gray and deeply-furrowed bark resembling the bark of the larger trees of the common sassafras {S. officinale). I climbed a tree to obtain specimens. The branches were brittle, and when broken emitted a yellowish sap, the odor of which was highly aromatic ; to me very unpleasant. . This sumac, when in fruit, resembles the common Venetian sumac {Rhus cotinus), as is indicated by its specific name. It must be very local in its habitats, and also very rare. I think it has not been found elsewhere than in the Indian Territory and North Alabama. In Chapman's " Flora of the Southern States," p. 10, it is stated that I found it in the interior of Alabama. Dr. Chapman was led into this error from our correspondence and exchange of plants when I was living in Wilcox County, Alabama. 126 proceedings of the academy of [1881. June 7. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Eighteen persons pi-esent. The following was ordered to be printed : OBSERVATIONS UPON THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. BY HENRY C. CHAPMAN, M. D. On several different occasions, before and daring the reign of Augustus and of his successors, Antoninus, Commodus, Heleoga- balus, etc., the Hippopotamus was exhibited at Rome. Xaturally one would suppose, therefore, that among the writers of those times a truthful description of this interesting animal would be found. Pliny's ^ account, however, is only a restatement of tlie imperfect and erroneous descriptions of Herodotus and Aristotle, with some mistalies of his own added, while tliose of later Latin writers like Tatius, though better than Pliny's, are still obscure and contain errors. Indeed, the Hippopotamus, as described by Herodotus ^ and Aristotle,^ is so unlike the animal known at the present day, that either these usually most accurate and trust- worthy observers could never have seen the Hippopotamus or else they must have desciibed s6me other animal under that name. About the middle of the sixteenth century it is said that Belon saw the living Hippopotamus at Constantinople, but even so late as the time of Cuvier^ the living animal had not been seen in Western Europe. The London Zoological Garden, I believe, has the credit of iiaving been the first in modern times (during 1850) to exhibit the living Hippopotamus. So far as I know, the first dissection of this animal was mad.e in 1764, by Daubenton.-^ The specimen, however, being a female 1 De animalibus, Lib. viii, cap. xxxix ; Lib. ix, cap. xiv. - Historia, Lib. ii, cap. Ixxi. * Historia Animalium, Lib. ii, cap. iv. * Ossemens Fossiles, Tome deuxieme, p. 383. 5 Histoire naturelle, &c., avec la description du Cabinet du Roi. Tome douzieme, 1764, p. 50. Supplement to Buffon. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 127 foetus, it was questionable liow far the description wonld apply to the adult animal. Nothing further was added to the above account until, in 1844, Vrolik^ described the stomach of a half-grown indi- vidual from drawings sent from the Cape of Good Hope. A few years afterwards Peters,^ in his Travels, gives a short but valuable account of the appearance that the viscera presented in the adult animal. It will be seen, therefore, that the knowledge of the soft parts of the Hippopotamus was very limited up to quite a recent period. During 1867 there appeared the elaborate monograph of Gratiolet^ on the anatom}^ of this animal, and the important observations of Crisp. ^ Gratiolet's description was derived from his dissection of the two A'oung animals, male and female, that were born and had died in the Jardin des Plantes. Science is indebted to Dr. Alix for the publication of this important work, Gratiolet dying before its completion. This distinguished anatomist had, however, before his death, communicated to the Academic des Sciences,^ an abstract of his researches. A third young Hippopotamus having died in Paris during the preparation of the work just referred to, Dr. Alix had a further opportunity of supplementing and confirming Gratiolet's A'iews. Dr. Crisp's specimen was a male and about fourteen months old ; it was burnt to death in the fire that destroyed the Crystal Palace in London, and was the first Hippopotamus dissected in England. Dr. Crisp ^ refers to Gratiolet's abstract in Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1860, but does not mention that in Comptes Rendus for 1860. His observations were, therefore, uninfluenced by those of Gratiolet. In 1872, Mr. J. W. Clark ^ published the " Notes on the Visceral Anatom}" of the Hippopotamus " that died in the London Garden. This animal was a female, and only a few days old. It is well known that in addition to the ordinary Hippopotamus, there is a rarer species from the Western Coast of Africa, first ' Amsterdam Verhandelingen, x, 1844, p. 240 ; Recherches sur la Baby- russa. ■^ Reise nach Mosambique, 1852, i, p. 180, ^ Recherches sur I'anatomie de I'Hlppopotame. Paris, 1867. * On some points connected with the anatomy of the Hippopotamus. Proc. of Lond. Zool. Soc, 1867, p. 601 and 689. 5 Comptes Rendus, 1860, pp. 524, 593. « Op. cit., p. 601. ' Proc. Zool. Soc, London, 1872, p. 185. 128 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. made known by Morton,' and called by him Hippopotamus Liberiensis. Its osteology was afterwards fully described by Prof. Leidy,^ who showed that this species differed so much from the ordinary one that a distinct name, Chceropsis, was given to it, as indicating that the supposed new species was really a new genus. Prof. Leidy's views have since been thoroughly' corrobo- rated by other anatomists, particularly by Milne Edwards,^ in his recent beautiful monograph on this animal. The only living example of the Choeropsis Liberiensis ever seen outside of Africa was the female specimen only three or four months old that died a few minutes after arriving at the Zoological Gardens in Dublin in 18*74, and that formed the subject of a paper by Mr. Alex, Macalester.^ Since then, within a year, the late lamented Dr. A. H. Garrod ^ communicated to the Zoological Society of London the results of his dissection of the adult male Hippopotamus that had lived twentj^-eight years in their admirably conducted Garden. It will be observed from this resume of the literature of the subject that, with one or two exceptions, the Hippopotami tlmt have been dissected were young animals ; some not more than a few days or weeks, others about a year old, and that with the exception of the Choeropsis examined at Dublin, they were of the ordinary kind, or the Hippopotamus amphibius. While the general results of these various observations are con- firmator}' of each other, nevertheless, on account of the ditference in the age and sex of the individuals dissected, it is still important that whenever the opportunity presents itself of examining a full or half-grown Hippopotamus the results of such dissection should be compared with those already made for the sake of confirming, supplementing, or farther illustrating them. It is with this object that I bring before the Academy the results of my examinations of the female Hippopotamus which recently died in the menagerie of Mr. Adam Forepaugh, to whom I am indebted for the oppor- tunity of dissecting it ; and of the male specimen that died in New ^ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, vol. ii, p. 14 ; Journal, vol. i, 1849, p. 231. 2 Journal Acad. Nat. Sci, vol. ii, 1852. ^ Recherches sur les mammiferes. * Proc. of Royal Irish Academy, 1874. The anatomy of Choeropsis Libe- riensis. "•> Trans, of Zoo. Soc. of London, 1880. On the Brain and other parts of the Hippopotamus. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 129 York on its way to the Zoological Garden of Philadelphia. I take the occasion also of thanking Mr. Arthur E, Brown, Superintend- ent of the Zoological Garden where the dissections were made, for materially assisting me in the investigation. Both the animals were examples of the ordinary species, the Hippopotamus amphibius, and measured about 5 feet 6 inches in length. The female was both the taller and heavier of the two. Her height at the shoulder being 28 inches and weight 550 pounds. She was probably older than the male. The condition of the skin in the female suggested the idea that it had not been sufficiently bathed during the past winter. It is well known that the health of the skin, and of the animal generally, depends upon the free use of water, either in the form of a bath, or where that is not practi- cable, by constant sponging, etc. With the exception of some slight inflammation of the fourth stomach and an apparent hyper- trophy of the left ventricle of the heart, the organs were healthy. The male animal died from an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, the epithelium and submucous tissue in parts of the stomach being stripped off, while portions of the intestine were gangi'enous. The immediate cause of death was a large well- organized clot in the heart. As the myology of Hippopotamus and of Choeropsis have been described and figured by Gratiolet ^ and Macalester ^ respectively, I will not dwell upon this part of the subject, but pass to the consideration of the internal organs. Alimentary System, etc. — The tongue of the Hippopotamus (PI. XI, fig. 1) is a long, flattened organ expanded and rounded off at the top rather than tapered. It measured 1 4 inches in length, in breadth 3^ inches at the middle and 5 inches at the top. A t the back of the tongue where one finds the circumvallate papillae in man, in place of these are seen what might be called elongated, thorn}'^ papillae. They do not correspond to either the human filiform or fungiform papillae. The latter were well developed. I did not notice anything peculiar about the submaxillary gland, the sublingual however was absent;^ the parotids were present, but not very well developed, as Gratiolet states was the case in the animals examined by him. The small size of the parotids in the Hippopotamus may be due to the habit of passing so much time in the water ; the necessity of the secretion not being felt, 1 Op. cit., Planches IV to VIIL ^ Op. cit., pages 496, 500. 3 Op. cit., p. 384. 10 130 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OP [1881. as is the case in fishes. According to Gratiolet,^ it is doubtful if they were present in the very young animal. What at once struck me, on exposing the larynx, etc., was the space (PI. XI, fig. 1) intervening between it and the tongue, and the large size of the back of the tongue as compared with the epiglottis. Through the flexibility of this space the larynx when elevated can be thrust up into the posterior nares ; this space, together with the tongue, effectually cutting off the cavity of the mouth. This can be well seen in the living animal. It is possible that tliis disposition of the parts may be of advantage to tlie Hippo- potamus when sunk in the water. Under such circumstances, the nose only appearing, the air can pass into the external nares and so back directly into the larynx. Further, as the external nares are extremely flexible and close very tightly, it may be that the animal before sinking under the water can take in a considerable quantity of air into the nose and retain it there until needed, when it is then drawn into the lar3nix. On looking over the literature of the anatomy of the Hippopotamus, I find that Gratiolet^ and Clark » are the only ones who dwell particularly upon this part of its economy. Clark gives figures of tlie spaces 1 have referred to, and points out what appears to be the probable function of the parts. The lar3nix and its muscles have been well described hy Gratiolet,* Crisp ^ and Clark." It would be superfluous therefore for me to dwell upon them. I will, however, call attention in this connection to the fact of the epiglottis (Plate XI, figs. 1 and 2 e) being small as compared with the larynx (Plate XI, fig. 2), the former measuring 2|- inches in length, and 2 inches wide, the latter being 6i inches long and 6^ in circum- ference, and that the nares, epiglottis, etc., of the Hippopotamus I'eminded me rather of those of the Manatee than of those of the Cetacea. The vocal cords were situated obliquely, the anterior ends being lowermost; they measure 2 inches in length and ^ inch in depth. There was nothing peculiar about the lungs ; they were not divided into lobes or subdivided into lobviles recognizable by the naked eye, as described by Gratiolet.^ The stomach in the Hippopotamus is subdivided into four distinct 1 Op. cit., p. 384. 2 Op. cit., p. 375. 3 Op. cit., p. 188. * Op. cit., p. 305. Op. cit., p. 608. •* Compare Gratiolet, op. cit., p. 368. On oM. n S74. ' Op, cit., p. 374 1881.J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 131 compartments, &, c, d and e (Plate XII) ; the first, h, however, not being so apparent externall}' as the other three (shown in Plate XI, fig. 3). The oesophagus, a (Plate XII), opens freely into the compartment 6, which is situated posteriorly, and which might be easily overlooked unless opened. I propose calling this compartment the first stomach, as the food can pass from the oesophagus into it without necessarily passing into either of the other two stomachs, c and d, whereas the food must pass through a small part at least of b in order to get into c or d. This is due to a peculiar disposition at the entrance of the stomachs c and d (Plate XIII). At this point the lining membrane is raised up into two valvular folds, g and h (PI. XIII), of which the former is the best developed. The fold g almost divides the second stomach into two parts. These folds are 10 and 4 inches in length respectively, and abovit the ^ of an inch in breadth, and contain muscular fibres. When these folds are approximated the oesophagus, a, and first stomach, &, are completely shut off from c and d. When, however, the valvular folds are separated, then the food can pass from the oesophagus, a, or from stomach, 6, over the edges of the folds, g and h, into either the stomachs, c or d. As the compartment d passes into e, which is continuous with the intestine, /", it appears to me that the two compartments may be appropriately called the third and fourth stomachs, in which case c would be the second one. From a simple inspection of the stomachs of the Hippopotamus, one would be disposed to conclude that the animal was a rumi- nant. As the act of rumination, however, has never been observed in the Hippopotamus, either in captivity or in the wild state, so far as is known, the inference must be that the food passes either directl}^ from the oesophagus into the second or third stomachs, as is probably the case with liquids, or into the first stomach, and then indirectly into the second or third, when more solid articles are introduced. The four stomachs differ considerably in size, the third, d^ being by far the largest ; it measured from right to left 27 inches, as seen in situ in PI. XII ; it overlaps, when viewed from the anterior sur- face, the second and fourth stomachs, c and e, and, to a great extent conceals the first stomach, &, especially when the latter is empty. The first stomach, b, measured 15 inches from right to left, and is so closel}^ united to the third one, d, that externall}^ 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the two look like one when empty, and their distinctness does not become evident until they are forcibly separated and opened. The first stomacli is also connected laterally with the third and fourth ones. These are about the same length, 7 inches, measured from right to left. The third stomach communicated with the fourth by a narrow aperture, which measured 3 inches in diameter. In situ the second stomach was situated in the left hypochondriac region ; the fourth stomach on the right ; the third stomach lying between the third and fourth and in the same plane, and in front and partially concealing the first stomach. The difierence in the four stomachs of the Hippopotamus viewed internally are even more marked than those observed externally. The smooth mucous membrane of the oesophagus contrasts strongly with that of the first stomach, in which the mucous membrane exhibits parallel folds or ridges. In the second stomach the ridges are seen, but here they consist of rows of villi, averaging the ^ of an inch in height ; the villi are not so closely set on the rows but that they can be readil}' distinguished. The villi in the third stom- ach, however, are densely packed and smaller than those of the second stomach. In addition the mucous membrane is thrown into eight large (the seventh divided into two) folds that run at right angles to the long axis of the stomach. The mucous membrane of the fourth stomach differed from that of the others in being the only one containing the gastric glands ; according to Dr. Hunt, these measure in length -^^^ of an inch, in breadth yi^ of an inch. The food did not seem to be digested to any extent in the first three stomachs, but lay as a sodden mass. In the fourth stomach, how- ever, the food was softened, and its general appearance differed from that of the other stomachs. As the animal died shortly after eating, digestion had not been going on any length of time, so that any great change in the food could not have taken place. In the case of the male, the fourth stomach had been affected by dis- ease and the food appeared almost unchanged. The small intestine in the female measured TO feet, the large intestine 11 feet. There were no valvulse conniventes in the small intestine but the mucous membrane was villous and exhibited the Lieberkiihnian follicle and the Peyer's patches in the lower two-thirds. There was no very sharp line of demarkation between the small and large intestines, the beginning of the latter being indicated by a slight enlarge- ment. A small transverse fold was the only indication of an ileo- 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 133 csecal valve. As might have been expected on account of the large and complex stomach, there was no well defined cfecum. It is an interesting fact, however, that the peculiar glandular-like structure in the cfBcal end of the colon of the Giraffe first described by Cob- bold, should be present in the Hippopotamus. There was nothing very peculiar about the pancreas or the spleen. The duct of the former pierced the duodenum separately from the ductus choledo- chus. The latter was closely bound to the greater curvature of the stomach by a fold of peritoneum. The liver was a quadri- lateral mass not subdivided to any extent into lobes. The gall bladder was absent in the female ; in the male, however, it was present and measured 6 inches long. On comparing m}^ observations with those of the anatomists already referred to, I find, that while some of the descriptions accord very well with mine, others diflTer considerably. Thus Daubenton's description is very good, especially when it is remem- bered that it is based upon the examination of a fcetus. His^ figures give a very good idea of the relations of the four stomachs when they are separated from each other by division of their con- necting bands. Peters' ^ and Vrolik's^ accounts are very fair. Unfortunatel}^, however, no figures are given. On the other hand, I cannot say that the figure given hy Crisp ^ of the stomachs illustrate the specimens examined by me. His descriptions, how- ever, of the colic gland, spleen, liver and pancreas accord very well with my observations. Clark ^ gives four figures, illustrating the stomach described by him, that by Gratiolet, and of one pi'e- served in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. The figure of the latter gives a much better idea of the stomach examined by me than either that of Clark's or Gratiolet's. Garrod ® states that " he could find no confirmation of the peculiar position of the diflferent parts described by Mr. J. W. Clark in his speci- men." Possibly these differences observed in the stomach may be due to age, sex, to the extent to which the different stomachs had been separated, or to the amount of food that thej^ contained, etc. As all of these conditions will influence greatly the form of the organ, it need not occasion surprise that I find the accounts 1 Op. cit., figs. 1 and 2, PI. IV. ^ Op. cit., p. 180. 3 Op. cit., p. 240. * Op. cit., fig. 3, *p. 604. ^ Op. cit., figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, p. 190. « Op. cit., p. 16. 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [l^^l. somewhat discordant, without, however, intending to throw dis- credit upon any of them. A Peccary having died at the Zoological Garden the same day that the Hippopotamus arrived there, a favorable opportunity presented itself of comparing the stomachs of the two animals. While externally the stomach of the Peccary is not subdivided to any great extent, internally through the elevation of the mucous membrane into two ridges, three compartments, cardiac, middle and p3'loric, may be distinguished. The cardiac portion further subdivided at its termination into two blind pouches, opens into the middle division of the stomach ; the latter receives the oesophagus and communicates with the pyloric part. Conceive the ridges and the cardiac pouches in the stomach of the Peccary greatly enlarged and we would have the stomach of a small Hippopotamus. On the other hand, diminish the first two stomachs of the Hippo- potamus to mere blind pouches, at the same time increasing the constriction between the third and fourth ones and we have, with- out any stretching of the imagination, the stomach of the Manatee. Beginning with the Pig the transition from that form of the stomach through the Babyrussa ' to that of the Peccary is an easy one. The latter again, leads to the Hippopotamus, which in turn anticipates on the one hand the Manatee and on the other the Ruminant type. Vascular System. — The circulation of the blood in the Hippo- potamus was first studied by Gratiolet. The result of his careful investigation was the subject of a special communication to the Academy of Sciences, which appeared in the Comptes Rendus^^ several years before the publication of his more general work by Dr. Alix, A good account of the heart is also given by Crisp.^ With the exception of the above accounts, little or no attention seems to have been given to the study of the circulation by those anatomists who have dissected the common variety of Hippopota- mus, DaiibentoH ^ devoting merely a few lines to the heart, while the later writers do not mention the circulation at all. Macalester ^ mentions one or two peculiarities about the blood-vessels in the Ch(]eropsis. Although I have nothing particularly to add to •Gratiolet's excellent description, inasmuch as the subject of his 1 Vrolik, op. cit., p. 240. ^ Tome 11, p. 524, 1860, 1867. 3 Op. cit., p. 609. * Op. cit., p. 57. ^ Op. cit., p. 495. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OE PHILADELPHIA. 135 dissection was onh^ a day old, it was important that the heart and blood-vessels in a more fully developed animal should be examined with reference to determining whether the circulation was in any way modified by age. On opening the thorax of the animal it appeared to me that in both sexes the heart was large in proportion to the size of the animals. This is in a great measure due to the thickness of the walls of the left ventricle. In the female Hippopotamus, which was the first examined, I suspected this might be due to hj'per- trophy, but finding it to be the case in the male also, perhaps this is normal. The heart, in an empty condition, measured, from base to apex, 9 Inches, and in circumference 14 inches. The wall of the left ventricle measured 1 inch in thickness, that of the right ^ of an inch. According to Gratiolet,^ the heart in the young Hippopotamus terminates in two points, the ventricles being separated by a little groove, reminding one of the form of the heart in the Manatee and the Dugong. There was no indica- tion of this groove in either of the Hippopotami examined by me. With the exception of the absence of the corpora arantii on the semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery and their very slight development in those of the aorta I did not notice anj^thing peculiar about the interior of the heart. The aorta gave off the coronary arteries first, which were very large and then an innomi- nate and the left subclavian. The innominate divided into the right subclavian and a trunk which bifurcated into the two com- mon carotids. The external carotid as well as the ascending cervical and occipital arteries were all rather slender vessels in proportion to the size of the head and neck. The external carotid artery was very much larger than the internal. A pecu- liarity about the external carotid artery of the Hippopotamus first described by Gratiolet,^ I noticed m both the male and the female animals, the fact of the vessel in its course towards the head passing between the hyoid bone and the digastric and stylo-hyoid muscles in such a manner that when the hyoid is elevated the vessel is compressed against the bone by these muscles. The effect of this disposition is that the blood is cut off" to a great extent from the brain and head when the animal sinks under water, the hyoid being elevated at such times. Gratiolet ^ Recherches, p. 358, and Planche III. 2 Op. cit., p. 354. 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. having shown that the external carotid through the sphenoidal branch of its internal maxillary communicates with the carotid rete mirabile, this sphenoidal branch in the Hippopotamus is as large as the internal carotid and plays the part of an " anterior internal carotid." In this connection I may say that it appeared to me that the elevation of the hyoid bone would compress the internal carotid arterj' as well as the external, the common carotid bifurcating between the digastric muscle and the hyoid bone in my specimens. The return of the venous blood to the heart from the head, however, was not impeded in any way, the jugular veins lying to the outside of the muscles which compressed the carotid arteries. The superior mesenteric artery came off the aorta in common with the coeliac, the inferior mesenteric separately. The common trunk of the external and internal iliacs was short. I did not notice any rete mirabile in the arteries of the body or extremi- ties. In this respect the venous system, however, differed very considerably from the arterial. I was struck with the large size of the cutaneous and subcutaneous veins and of the many anasto- moses between them, especially in the extremities, where numei'ous rete exist. Another peculiarity about the venous system in the Hippopotamus is the difference between the superior and inferior vena cavae. The superior being very lai'ge and readily transmit- ting the blood to the heart, whereas the inferior cava, at least that part of it above the diaphragm, is rather small. According to Macalester,^ in Choeropsis a left superior vena cava is partly represented by a small vein. As Gratiolet first showed, there is found in the walls of the vena cava above the diaphragm a cir- cular band of muscular fibres which in contracting will entirely or partially constrict the vessel. The effect of such action is that the blood in the inferior cava is prevented returning to the heart. The circular muscular band in the Hippopotami examined by me was ^ an inch broad. Such a disposition of the vena cava is also seen in the SeaP and in some other mammals which habitually remain under water for a certain length of time.^ Below the diaphragm the vena cava was very much dilated, while the open- ings into it of the hepatic veins were enormous. It will be seen from the above that while the venous blood readily returns from 1 Op. cit., p. 495. 2 Burrow, MuUer's Archiv, 1838. ^ Mihie Edwards' Physiologie, Tome lit, p. 594. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, 137 the biain and cord and upper extremities to the heart, that from the viscera and lower extremities can be entii'ely cut off from it, welling back into the dilated cava and cutaneous veins, while congestion of the brain can be prevented when the animal sinks under water by the obliteration of the carotid arteries. In this way paralysis of the respiratory centres of the brain and cord through congestion is prevented, while the demand for fresh air is diminished, so much blood being retained in the viscera and lower extremities and so diverted from the lungs. Tliese pecu- liarities in the vascular system of the Hippopotamus — taken together with the disposition of the nares, larynx, etc., already referred to, through which the air can be retained — accounts, according to Gratiolet,' for the Hippopotamus being able to remain under water for so long a time, from fifteen to even forty minutes. Bert,- while admitting the force of Gratiolet's reasoning, attrib- utes the power that many animals have of resisting for a long time asphyxia, however produced, rather to the relative richness of blood that is contained in their bodies ; the blood serving as a storehouse or magazine for oxygen which cS,n be drawn upon when needed. For example, Bert has shown that the blood of the duck is richer than that of the chicken, and explains in this way that the duck will live longer than the chicken, when both are asphj^xiated either by submersion in water or by ligation of the trachea. It seems to me, however, that the great quantity of blood present in those mammals that are in the habit of remaining under the water any length of time is an important element in the question. In open- ing several sea-lions, Zalophus Gillespii, that have died at the Zoological Garden, and different Cetacea, I have been alwa3^s im- pressed with the enormous quantity of blood that literally ran out of their bodies. In presenting a specimen of a Dolphin, Ddphi- nus^ to the Academy, I called attention^ to the vast rete mirabile formed by the intercostal arteries constituting the intercostal gland of the older anatomists, and which is usually regarded as a reservoir of arterialized oxygenated blood, to be drawn upon ac- cording to the needs of the animal. If the blood of the seals and cetaceans proves to be relatively richer than that of othei" mammals, 1 Recherches, p. 363. - Physiologie comparie de la Respiration, p. 543. ' Proceediugs of Academy, 1873, p. 279. 138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. it would show that both the quality of the blood, as well as the quantity, is important in enabling the animal to resist asphyxia. Not only was the quantity of blood in the Hippopotamus very great but the color in the arteries was very bright, more so than is usual in mammalian blood. Further I found the blood cor- puscles measured only the yg^oo of ^'^ ^^^ch in diameter, or more strictl}^ the ^^^ of a millimetre — a Nachet eye-piece micrometer being used. The blood of the Iliiipopotamus should be therefore very rich in oxygen, as a corpuscle subdivided into a number of small ones would expose a larger absorbing surface to the oxygen respired than if undivided. This view is confirmatory of that of Bert, just referred to. It must be admitted, however, that accord- ing to the high authority of Gulliver, the blood corpuscle measures the 34^2^ of an inch in the Hippopotamus. The fact of the Hip- popotamus being able to remain under water would seem, therefore, to depend upon the peculiarities of its vascular and respiratory systems, and the great quantity and rich quality of its blood, the structural relations being as important as the chemical. Genito-Urinari/ Apparatus. — In the different accounts of the Hippopotamus that I have referred to, with the exception of that of Gratiolet and of Clark, little or nothing is said of the genito- urinary organs. Daubenton^ devotes a few lines to the descrip- tion of the uterus and vagina, but his specimen, it will be remem- bered, was only a foetus. Peters ^ merely alludes to the mammae, the penis, etc. In Crisp's^ specimen, which was a male, the parts were destroyed to such an extent as rendered detailed dissection impossible. The account in Gratiolet's ^ work is really, I presume, due to Dr. Alix, as that anatomist tells us in the preface,'' the death of a young Hippopotamus born at the Jardin des Plantes a few days previously, gave him the opportunity of adding some details to the dissections left by Gratiolet. Alix's description of the parts, which is an account of both sexes, is excellent, but unfortunately is unaccompanied by any illustrations. Clark's^ figure of the uterus and vagina is imperfect, but his description is very clear. It is to be regretted that Garrod ^ says nothing of the genito-urinary organs of the male animal examined by him. It 1 Op. cit , p. 58. 2 Op. cit., p. 181. ^ Op. cit., 608. * Op. cit., p. 396. 5 Op. cit., p. vi. « Op. cit., p. 195. ' Op. cit. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 139 will be seen from the aboA^e that the genito-urinaiy apparatus in the male Hippopotamus have not been figured, and that of the female onl}^ imperfectl}' so, while the description of Alix is based on very young animals, and that of Clark is limited to the female sex. I trust that the following brief description of the parts as I found them in the male and female, with the accompanying figures will sufficiently illustrate what is wanting in the accounts hitherto given of the animal. Genito- TJjnnary Organs in Male. — The kidneys, k (Plate XIV), measured five inches in length and were distinctly lobulated. About ten of these lobules could be counted on each face. The ureters were 7 inches in length, and opened into the bladder at the angles of the trigonum vesicfe. The bladder, 6, from the highest point to the verumontanum in the middle line measured 9 inches. There was no sign of a prostate gland or utriculus. On each side, however, of the middle line below the verumontanum a number of little follicles could be observed. The Cowperian glands, c, on the other hand, are xevy large, being almost an inch in diameter ; the main duct was well developed and opened into the urethra an inch below the gland. A considerable amount of a viscous humor could be squeezed out of the gland and duct. The muscular fibres covering the gland no doubt produce this effect in contracting. The distance from the verumontanum to the orifices of the Cowper's ducts measured four inches. The orifices of the ducts were concealed by a little fold of mucous membrane. Under this fold the membrane was thrown into delicate transverse ridges. The mucous membrane of the membranous portion of the urethra was thrown into longitudinal folds. The urethra from the open- ings of Cowper's ducts to its termination in the glans measured 12 inches. There was nothing exceptional in reference to the corpus spongiosum or the corpora cavernosa. The penis meas- ured in circumference 2 inches. The ischio cavernous and bulbo urethral muscles were well developed. The sj-mmetricall}' disposed retractor muscles, etc., of the penis arising from the posterior surface of the rectum pass to the bulbous portion of the urethra, where, becoming tendinous, they are continued side b}' side to the base of the glans into which they are inserted. The glans itself measured in circumference b\ inches, and when eA'erted presents a veiy peculiar appearance, it being then thrown into a rosette which consists of folds arranged somewhat like the leaves of a 140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. book. The testicles, t, were found in the inguinal canal, midway between the internal and external abdominal rings. There was a free communication between the cavity of the peritoneum and that of the tunica vaginalis testis. The cremaster muscle was well developed, and arose, as usual, from the internal oblique and transversalis muscles. The testicle itself measured 2^ inches. The vas deferens, v, measured 18 inches from the epididymis to the point where it is joined by the duct of the seminal vesicle. The latter was about an inch in length, but not much developed. The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra at the verumontanum. Genito- Urinary Organs in Female. — The ovai-y, o (Plate XV), in the Hippopotamus is elongated and flattened, measuring an inch in length and f of an inch in breadth. The Fallopian tube,/, 8 inches long and ^ of an inch wide, pursues quite a flexuous course towards the cornua of the uterus, cu, into which it opens by a very small aperture. The pavilion, p, while not fringed, consists of a series of folds radiating from the central opening. The latter readily admitted a bristle. The cornua of the uterus, cu, measured 6^ inches in length and | of an inch in breadth. For the last two inches of their course the cornua run alongside of each other, and are apparently fused together, though internall}^ they are seen to be still quite distinct. Finally, each cornu opens by a wide mouth into a common cavity, which probably represents the body of the uterus. While the mucous membrane of the cornua is thrown into longitudinal folds, that of the body of the uterus is smooth. What is usually regarded as uterus is very small, measuring only ^ an inch in length and 1;^ inches in width. It appears to me, however, that this space represents only a part of the uterus ; the bod}'^ and that which has been heretofore described as vagina, is really an elongated cervix uteri ; this measures 6 inches in length and 1 inch in width. Its mucous membrane was elevated into seventeen folds, c, which are situated transversely to the long axis of the vagina, and which resemble valvulfe conni- ventes. These folds, on an average, were | of an inch in breadth and I inch in height, and are subdivided by indentations. Every other fold, however, alternates in reference to the part where it was most developed. Thus, the first, third, fifth folds, etc., were thickest in the middle, fading away at the sides into the walls of the vagina, whereas the second, fourth and sixth folds, etc., were thickest at the sides of the vagina, fading away towards the middle. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 141 These folds are disposed in rather a spiral manner, and are so Olosely set together and developed that the cavit};' of the tube is almost obliterated. It is difficult, indeed, to conceive how the penis can introduce itself if this is the vagina, the rugosities being capable of otfering great resistance. The folds, however, gradu- all}^ fade away, and in the lower four inches of the genital tube the mucous membrane is smooth or slightly folded longitudinally. It is this part of the tube which appears to me is the vagina. It opens into the genito-urinary vestibule by a distinct aperture, through which a probe was passed without difficulty. According to Gratiolet,^ thie vagina was imperforate. The female urethra, 6, is about an inch long, and is closely connected with the lower part of the vagina, the openings of the two tubes into the genito- urinary vestibule being situated almost next to each other. Just in front of the opening of the vagina a ridge is seen, and on either side of this ridge there ai'e two small sinuses in which the orifices of the vulvar vaginal glands open. Externally, the vulva appears as a circular fleshj^mass, 14 inches in circumference, surrounding and leading into the genito-urinary vestibule. There is no appearance of external or internal labia, and a perinseum can hardly be said to exist, the rectum lying directly against the vulva. Within the vestibule there is quite a large sinus, s (next to the rectum). There was nothing particularly noticeable about the clitoris, cl, except that the prepuce was very well developed. The female generative apparatus of the Hippopotamus is in every respect essentially like that of the Peccary, the only differ- ence being in the relative size of what I have described as the body and neck of the uterus. The bod}'- of the uterus in the Peccary being relatively larger than the cervix. The peculiar disposition of the mucous membrane in folds is seen in the cervix of both animals. It is with some diffidence that I have ventured to consider as cervix the part of the genital tube usually described as vagina, for anatomists, even in the Peccary, consider the rugose portion of the tube to be the vagina. Clark ^ seems, however, to have the same opinion as expressed by me, as to the homology of the parts. The two teats were situated in the inguinal region, and although the mammary gland was but little developed externally, on section the milk-ducts could be easilj^ recognized. ' Op. cit., p. 401. ^ Compare op. cit., p. 195. 142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Brain. — When the study of the structure of an animal is limited to the investigation of its adult condition, without any reference to its mode of development or regard to its natural affinities with closely allied or even remote species, much will be found obscure, or even entirely unintelligible in its organization. The study of the brain is no exception to this general rule. Comparative anatomy and embryology are, indeed, the lamps which throw light upon the darkness of cerebral structure. Taking advantage of the methods cultivated with such success bv Owen,^ Leuret- and Gratiolet, Kreug,^ etc., let us begin our study of the brain of the Hippopotamus by first considering, as suggested by Garrod,* so far as is known, the general type of the artiodactyle brain, and then ascertaining the amount of deviation from the type exhibited in the brain of the different genera. Studied in this wa}', the brain of the Hippopotamus will prove far more interesting and instruc- tive than if merely described topographically. According to Kreug the simplest kind of ungulate brain is to be seen in the embryo of the Sheep, Ovis aries. Figs. 1, 2, 3, give diagrammatically surface, side and mesial views of the hemisphere of the same. On looking at the surface view (fig. 1), there will be observed to the right of the great longitudinal fissure the coronal fissure, co, anteriorly, and the lateral, I, posteriori}^, and towards the side the supra-sylvian, ss, fissure with its anterior, ascending, descending, and posterior branches. In addition to these fissures may be seen upon the side view (fig. 2), the sylvian fissure, sac, running transversely into the rhinal fissures, rh, the diagonal, d, and the postica, p. The calloso marginal, sp, 1 Com. Anati of Vertebrates, vol. iii, p. 115. ^ Anatomie Comparee du Systeme Nerveux. ^ Zeit. fiir wiss. Zoologie, Leipzig, 1878. Band 31. * Op. cit., p. 12. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 143 genial, g, and liippocampal, h, are seen on the mesial surface (fig. .3). Let us suppose, now, that that the calloso marginal from the mesial surface and the ascending branch of the supra-sylvian blend with the coronal and that at the same time, while the des- cending branch of the supra-sylvian lengthens, the posterior limit shortens, we shall transform the typical ungulate brain into that of the Pig, Sus scrofa. On the other hand, should the posterior branch of the supra-sylvian lengthen while the descending branch shortens, the result will be the brain of the Cotylophora. The Peccary, Dicotyles, dilfers from the Pig in that the calloso mar- ginal only joins the coronal, and that often at least, the des- cending branch of the supra-sylvian is wanting. In most of the Cervidffi the ascending limit of the supra-s^dvian runs into coronal. From this brief resume it will be seen that fundamentall}^ the brain is constructed on the same pattern in the Pig, Peccary, Sheep, Camel, Giraffe, Deer, etc. Let us now try to show that the brain of the Hippopotamus does not essentially differ from the tj^picai ungulate brain to a greater extent than that of the animals just referred to. The most striking feature of the brain of the Hippopotamus, viewed from its upper surface, is the deep fissure, I co (PL XVI), that runs from the posterior to the anterior part of the brain, and rather in an oblique direction, being situated nearer the great longitudinal fissure anteriorly than posteriorly. This fissure serves to divide the upper surface of the hemisphere into two parts, very much as the interparietal fissure does in man ; compared with the type of the ungulate brain, this fissure is evidently due, as suggested by Garrod,^ to the lateral and coronal fissures running into eacli other, wliich I find they almost do in the Camel, Giraffe, Deer and Ox. On the right side of the Hippopotamus' brain examined by me, this fissure runs farther forward than on the left. In the ungulate brain there are usually found between the lateral fissure, that is, the posterior part of the fissure just de- scribed, and the great longitudinal fissure, one or two secondary longitudinal fissures. On the left side of the brain in the Hippo- potamus a secondary longitudinal fissure may be seen, extending forward to about the usual extent, but on the right side this, m I (PL XY I), runs forward anteriorly until it passes between the coro- nal and the great longitudinal fissures. In this respect my specimen ^ Op. cit., p. 15. 144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. differs from that figured by Garrod.' In the brains of the Llama and Giraffe these secondary longitudinal fissures are often found both anteriorly' and posteriorly, and are almost continuous with each other ; on the other hand, in the brain of the Peccary used by me for comparison, the secondar}- longitudinal fissure, usually found posteriorly, is absent. The sylvian fissure in my Hippo- potamus is quite evident, and within it I noticed a rudimentary island of Reil. This fissure on the right side differs from that de- scribed by Garrod, in that it is quite distinct from the Rhinal fissure, there is, however, posteriorly a little connecting branch between the two. I identified, as Garrod,^ on the left side of the brain the supra-sylvian fissure with its branches, but these were not well matched on the right side. On the mesial surface the calloso marginal sent up a fissure which nearly reached the latiro coronal and terminated in the genial. As is usuall}' the case in the artiodactyle, there was a secondary fissure between the corpus callosum and the calloso marginal. The minor convolutions of the brain of the Hippopotamus are not very numerous. Indeed, the brain is much less convulated than those of the Giraffe, Llama, or even the Peccary, used by me for comparison ; in the general form of its hemispheres the brain of the Hippopotamus resembled that of the Giraffe ; the cerebellum, however, differed from that of the Giraffe, Peccary, and other artiodactyles in that its largest diameter was transverse, whereas, in the animals just mentioned, the largest diameter of the cere- bellum was antero posterior ; the latter, however, seems to be the case in the young Hippopotamus, at least judging from Gratio- let's 3 figure. In the adult the cerebellum resembled more that of the Manatee than that of the Artiodactyle. As the desoiption and figures of the brain of the Hippopotamus given by Gratiolet ^ and Garrod * are limited to the surface, it appeared to me ver}' desirable that the interior of the ventricle should be exposed and figured. On making the section, I found a septum lucidum. The lateral ventricle was very large, recalling to my mind that of the Manatee, dissected by me some years since. According to Macal- ester's figure the ventricle is also large in Choeropsis. The general 1 Op. cit., Plate III, fig. 1. ^ Qp. cit., Plate IV, fig. 3. 3 Op. cit., fig. 2, PI. XII. * Op. cit.,. p, 317, PI. XII. 5 Op. cit., p. U, figs. 1, 2, PI. 3; figs. 1, 2, 3, PI. 4. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 145 appearance and size of the corpus striatum, .s, taenia, thalamus opticus, 0, and hippocampus major, when compared side b}^ side with the corresponding parts of the Manatee, resembled these more than the}' did those of the Giraffe, Llama, Peccar3\ etc. Of the corpora quadrigemina in the Hippopotamus, the testes, ^, were broader than the nates, n, and less rounded in shape. ^ If the above description of the brain of the Hippopotamus be correct, it follows that the general form of its hemispheres, the arrangement of its fissures, etc., deviate but little from the t3'pical ungulate brain, while the capaciousness of its ventricles, the form of its basal ganglia, and the cerebellum, resemble rather those of the brain of the Manatee. Sweat Glands. — As is well known, when the Hippopotamus comes out of the water there exudes from tlie slcin a pinkish, reddish secretion, which quicldy dries up and does not reappear until the animal comes out of the water again. This secretion has probably given rise to the name blood-sweating Behemoth, bj'^ wliich the Hippopotamus is often known among showmen. This secretion was first examined by Tomes, ^ who stated that it consisted of a transparent fluid containing colorless and red- colored corpuscles, the color of the secretion being due to the solution of the latter. Crisp ^ examined and figured the glands supposed to produce this secretion. It will be remembered that his specimen was burnt to death, and it was to be expected, there- fore, that the skin was affected. For this reason I requested that admirable microscopist, Dr. J. Gibbons Hunt, to examine the skin of my Hippopotamus, and I give his result in his own words : " I put in a camera lucida slietch of the blood-gland (fig. 4) of the Hippopotamus magnified 25 diameters. It has no limiting membrane, but bioplasts or nuclei of the usual apparent form make up the entire gland. In the centre these gland-cells are loosely arranged, thus allowing the contents to escape, perhaps, like com- mon sweat glands do, in which, similarly, there is no external or internal membrane." The contents of the gland-cells loosel}' arranged in tiie centre are probabl}" the corpuscle, the solution of which, according to ^ Peters gives in Moiiatsberichte of Berlin Acad., 1854, a brief description of the brain of the Hippopotamus, but unfortunately not ilhistrated. 2 Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1850. ■^ Op. cit., p. 603. 11 14G PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Tomes, gives rise to the color. The length of the blood gland measured -^^ of an inch, in width the :^^ of an inch, the length'of the duct -^Q of an inch. In many parts of the skin these glands are absent, and when present are situ- ated about the ^^ of an inch below the surface, A most striking feature in the skin of the Hippo- potamus is the great de- velopment of the fibrous tissue of the corium. This is disposed in great bands, which are so interwoven with each other as to give the appearance of a fabric. Rejections. — In conclu- ding these observations, it may not appear super- fluous to briefly consider what appears to me to be the natural affinities of the Hippopotamus with the Ungulata or other mammalia. In observing the Manatee that lived for several months in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden, the manner in which it rose to the surface of the water to breathe reminded me often of the Hippopotami that I watched in the Zoological Garden of London and the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. The slow way in which the animals rise to the surface, the motionless pose of the almost sunken body, the nostrils often just appearing at the surface, etc., are very much alike in both animals. In speaking of the alimentary canal, I called attention to the stomach of the Manatee representing the stomach of the Hippopotamus in an atrophied condition, while, on the other hand, the stomach of the Hippopotamus is intermediate between the Peccary and the Ruminants. As regards the heart, it will be remembered, that in the 3"oung Hippopotamus, at least, it is bifid, resembling in tliis respect that of the Manatee. The female generative apparatus of the Peccary and Hippopotamus are almost identical. Again, the sexual vesicles are found iai both Hippopotamus and Manatee. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 141 While the placenta does not appear to me to have the importance attached to it by some authors as a guide in determining the affinities of animals, it is proper to mention in this connection that according to Milne Edwards^ and Garrod^ the placenta of the Hippopotamus is diffuse and appears to be non-deciduous, and such is the case, according to Harting,^ in the Dugong,* and therefore in the Manatee, probably, for as a matter of fact the placentation of the Manatee is unknown. While the brain of the Hippopotamus appears to be a modifi- cation of a type common to the Pig, Peccary, Sheep, Ox, Giraffe, etc., it has also, it seems to me, affinities with that of the Manatee. In a word, then, beginning with the Pig, we pass by an easy transi- tion to the Peccar}^, which leads to the Hippopotamus, and thence, in diverging lines, to the Ruminautia on the one hand, and the Manatee on the other. Paleontologists have not discovered a form which bridges over the gap between the Hippopotamus and the Manatee, but it will be remembered that certain fossil bones, considei'ed by Cuvier^ to have belonged to an extinct species of Hippopotamus, H. medius, are regarded by Gei'V'ais" as the remains of the Halitherium fossile, a.n extinct Sirenean, of which order the Manatee is a living representative. According to Prof. Owen,^ the molar teeth also, both in the Halitherium, and the Felsino- therium,^ another Sirenean, are constructed on the same pattern 1 Physiologie, Tome 9, p. 56. 2 Proceed. Zool. Soc, 1873, p. 821. ■■' Tijdschrift der Nederlandsche Dlerkundige Vereenigung, Deel iv, 1879, p. 1. * Dr. Hartung, in his very valuable paper on the placenta of the Dugong, just refeiTed to, describes and figures bodies attached to the blood-vessels resernbling. apparently, very much those of the placenta of the Elephant. His figure (7) shows that the cavity of the vessel communicates with that of the body attached to it. Dr. Harting inquires whether such is the case in the Elephant. I will state in reply, that neither Dr. J. Gibbons Hunt nor myself found any such continuity between the vessel and body in the placenta of the Elephant, These oval bodies in the Elephant are not sacs or cavities, the little branches from the main vessel only ramify through their substance. There seem?, then, to be an essential difference between the oval bodies in the placenta of the Elephant and in that of the Dugong. ^ Ossemens Fossiles, II, p. 492. ^ Paleontologie Francaise, p. 143. " Geological Magazine, 1875, p. 423. * De Zigno, Sopra un nuovo suienio fossile. Reale Acad, dei Lincei, 1877-78. 148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. as those of the Hippopotamus. It is proper to mention, however, that the same distinguished observer considers the teeth of the Manatee and the Prorastomus^ another extinct Sirenean, to be rather allied to those of the Tapir and Lophiodon, but this quali- fication does not really invalidate the supposed affinities between the Sirenea and the Hippopotamus. For the Artiodactyla and Perisodactyla are probably offshoots of a common stock, and hence we may expect to find in these two groups certain characters common to both, inherited from their Lophiodon and Ooryphiodon- like ancestors. The affinities of the teeth of the Manatee with those of the Tapir — the first an embryonic Artiodactyle, the second a generalized Perisodactyle — would be examples of the above view. I do not mean to imply that the Manatee has neces- sarily descended directly from the Hippopotamus, though extinct intermediate forms may in the future show this to be so, for possibly they may be the descendants of a common ancestor. To many such speculations may appear mere waste of time, we being unable, from the nature of the case, to experimentally prove or disprove the truth of the hypothesis advanced. It seems to me, however, that the only explanation of the structure of the living forms and of the petrified remains of the animals referred to in these observations is the hypothesis of there being some generic connection between them. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 149 June 14. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Twenty-one persons present. A paper entited " Notes on the Tertiary Geology of the South- ern United States," by Angelo Heilprin, was presented for pub- lication. The death of Baron Maximilien de Chaudoir, a correspondent, was announced. Some new Genera of Fresh Water Sponges — Mr. E. Potts re- ferred to a recent paper by H. J. Carter, F. R. S., (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Feb. 1881,) entitled, " The History and Classification of the Known Species of SjMngilla,^^ in which the writer has dis- tributed the species, heretofore grouped under one generic title, among five genera, founded upon the differences in form and ar- rangement of the spiculse surrounding the statospheres. He spoke of the arrangement as a timely step well taken in ad- vance, in the history of this branch of the animal kingdom. He believed that the characteristics of the statospheres and their spiculaB were those which furnished the only reliable dis- tinctions among fresli water sponges ; but the recent discovery of novel forms in American waters had already required an increase in the number of genera and seemed to make it desirable to modif}^ the terms of some of those already established. In illustration he referred to several forms observed in this neighborhood, resembling in many points the English Spongilla lacustris, (taken as a type of the genus Spongilla in the new ar- rangement), in which, however, the spiculae were not acerate, but irregular in shape ; were not placed " tangentially " upon the surface ; or were altogether wanting. Specific names were suggested for these, but were held under ad\'isenient, awaiting a decision as to whether it would be better to create new genera for them or to enlarge the scope of those alread}^ defined b^^ Dr. Carter. The two new genera already decided upon were then described. Under the generic head Ileyenia, Dr. Carter has grouped those species, in which the statosphere is surrounded b}^ birotulate spiculae, radiateh' arranged ; one disk resting upon the surface. Throughout the genus as alread^y constituted, the shafts of these spicules are of a nearly uniform length ; and the outer disks nearly or quite touching at their edges give the appearance of a second coat to the statosphere. In two species, however, observed by Mr. Potts last summer, this uniform series was broken by another, of about double their length, much fewer in number, somewhat regularly arranged, interspersed among them. He 150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. proposed to group these under the genus Heteromeyeina, as H. argyroypertna and H. 7-tpens: suggesting that the latter may pos- sibly be the same as Bowerbank's Sf^wgiUa. now Jfeyejiia Bailei/i. Another nevr genus had been formed and dedicated to Dr. Carter under the" name Carterella. to include the singular form described by the sjvaker last \-ear in the Proceedings of the Acad- emy, and then called Spongilla tentoifperma : changed later to S. tenosperma. The distinguishing peculiarity of this genus is that the tube surrovmding the foramen of the statosphere is elonirated and diyides into :2-5 long, curling or t\nsted tendrils by means of which during the winter the statosphere remains attached to the stems or rootS upon which the sponge had grown. This will now be Carterella tenosperma. A. second species has been added to this genus, the discoyery of Professor Kellicott and Mr. Henry MUls. of Buffalo, under the n.ame of Carterella tubisp>erma. In this, the tube is much longer than in any sponge heretofore described, terminating in seyeral strag:gling^ rather weak tentacles much shorter than in the former species. The birotulate spicul* in the two forms are quite differ- ent, and the species are unquestionably distinct. JuN-B -21. The President. Dr. Ruschexbergee. in the chair. Nineteen persons present. JrxE 28. The President, Dr. Ruschenberges, in the chair. Fifteen persons present. Jerome Gray was elected a member. M. S. Bebb, of Rockport, 111., and Chas. S. Sargent, of Brook- line. Mass.. were elected correspondents. The following was ordered to be printed : 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, 151 N0TE3 ON THE TERTIARY GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. BY ANOELO HEILPRIN. In the following notes the author makes no pretense at unravel- ling the many knotty points connected with the Tertiary geology of the southern United States; he has merely brought together such facts, old and new, and certain conclusions drawn from these facts, as may possibly serve to facilitate the inquiry into this as yet imperfectly known branch of American geological history. It is with this view of rendering the material treating of the subject more accessible to the working geologist that some of the pub- lished sections are here reproduced. A convenient starting-point in Eocene stratigraphy is afforded by the famous bluff exposed on the Alabama River near Claiborne, Ala., and which has yielded the fossils known to geologists and paleontologists as those characteristic of the " Claiborne Group." Section of Claiborne Bluff. — Probably the most trustworthy section of this bluff is that afforded by Tuomey (" First Biennial Report of the Geology of Alabama," 1850, p. 152), as follows : 9 Red sand, loam, and pebbles. Feet. 30 f Mottled clay. 8 e Limestone, with grains of green sand. 54 d Ferruginous sand ; numerous fossils. c Whitisli limestone. 62 b Bed of clay 15 feet thick, with seam of limestone on top. 15 Note. —Tuomey does not give the thickness of bed "(Z," but it appears from the concurrent statements of different observers to be about 17 feet. The total height of the bluff above the Alabama River would therefore appear to be in the neighborhood of 190 feet. 152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. The measurements and descriptions of Conrad (" Fossil Shells of the Tertiary- Formations," 1833, p 32 ; Proceedings of the National Institution, 1841. p. It4), Hale ("Geology of South Alabama," American Journal of Science, new ser., YI, p. 354), and Lyell (Journal of the Geological Society, lY, p. 10, et seq.) do not differ very essentially from the data given by Tuomey. The arenaceous bed " rf," about 80 feet above water level, has ^aelded the vast majority of the fossils for which the locality is famous, and is that which has been identified as the equivalent of the " Calcaire Grossier " (Upper Eocene) of France (et conseq., Bruxellian of Belgium, and Bartonian of England). To what extent the deposits either below or above this bed can be cor- related with the remaining deposits of the Paris or London series has not yet been determined ; nor has it yet been conclusively shown what exact portion of the American Eocene formation is represented in this Claiborne exposure. Although formerly con- sidered to be near the base of the system, there are now verj^ strong grounds for concluding that these beds are underlaid bj' older Eocene strata having a thickness of at least 200 feet, and possibly even much more. The age of the limestone bed " e," although perhaps the character of its contained fossils does not permit absolute determination, is in all probabilit^y Jacksonian — at least in part — and will doubtless be found to correspond with a portion of tlie bluff exposed at St. Stephen's on the Tombigbee River, about thirty miles almost due west of Claiborne. At any rate, a portion of the white, or so-called "rotten" limestone im- mediately west of Claiborne has been found to contain several of the characteristic fossils of the Jackson group, and these asso- ciated with the remains of Zeuglodon ; there is, therefore, no doubt as to the age of at least this portion of the white limestone, nor can there be any reasonable doubt as to the continuity existing between these deposits and the similar ones exposed on Claiborne bluff. Section on Bashia Creek, Clarke Co., Ala. — Probably the section representing the oldest Eocene deposits of the State of Alabama is that exposed on Bashia Creek, Clarke Co., and detailed by Toumey in his report on the geology of the State (First Biennial report, p. 145) : 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 153 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hard Limestone. 4 feet. Marl, highly fossiliferous. 25 feet. Blue sand. Variable. Lignite and clay. 6 feet. Laminated clay, sand, and mud. Thickness undetermined. Lignite, do. do. Note. — Beds 5 and 6 do not properly belong to the section, but "repre- sent beds seen on another part of the stream below the preceding ' ' (Tuo- mey, loc. cit,, p. 146). Beds corresponding to J^o. " 2 " of the above section are like- wise exposed on Cave and Knight's branches, tributaries of Bashia Creek, and have been shown b^' Dr. Eugene A. Smith to underly the base of the " Buhrstone " proper by nearly (if not more than) 200 feet (Heilprin, " Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia," 1881, p. 369). The relations of these various beds will be best understood by a reference to the sections exposed on the Tombigbee River. Sections on the Tombigbee Biver. — At Wood's Bluflf, near the mouth of Bashia Creek, we have the following exposure : ^ No. 7 Orange sand, or stratified drift. Feet. 10-20 6 Grayish or greenish laminated clays, colored brown by iron. 10 5 Ledge of bluish or greenish sand, fossiliferous— capped by a ledge of hard nodules. 3 4 Bluish laminated clay, with few fossils. 5 3 , Indurated greenish sand, full of the same shells as marl bed No. 2. 3 2 1 Greensand marl, quite soft, and full of shells. 3 Indurated greensand with shells, and a stratum of oyster shells at watei"'s edge— said to extend 10 feet further down. 10-15 ^ I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Eugene A. Smith, State Geologist of Alabama, for the use of this heretofore unpublished section. lo4 VHOOKKlMNiiS OF TllK AOAPKMY OP [ISSl. IhhI No. i of the invcoiiing- sootiou is oonsidercil by Pr. Smith to bo most closely rehited in the ohnriieter of its fossil remains to the fossiliferons strata exi^osed on Cave and Knight's branches, and it is therotiMv not unlikely that the series l-o corresponds in the main \Yith No. - of Tuomey 's Bashia section. The basal lignite would then probably be found to underly the lowest stratum exhibited at the Bluti* (Heilpriii, loc. cit., p. 3ti7-S\ Bed No. 6 (Wood's Blutf section "i can be traced down the river for a distance of two to three miles, when it dips beneath the water's level. Somewhat below this point, and beyond the mouth of Witch Creek, the stratigraphieal relation of the dili'erent beds is beauti- fully exhibited in a prominent clitl i^" White Blutf "^, rising from 250 to 275 feet above the river. The upper portion of this blutl" is constituted by the characteristic siliceous clay-stones and silici- fied shell deposits of the southern '' Buhrstone " formation, which make up fully 100 feet of the vertical height. Laminated lignitic clays (bearing numerous leaf impressions), with occasional inter- calated beds of pure lignite, enter mairly into the composition of the intermediate portion, /. e., from the water's level to the base of the buhrstone above mentioned. Allowing a uniform southerly dip of 10 feet to the mile, which appears to be consistent with obtained data, it is manifest that at this point the lower fossiliferons strata exposed at Wood's Blutf (and consequently, the equivalent deposits on Bashia Creek and its tributaries. Cave and Knight's branches) must lie from 175 to 200 feet below the base of the siliceous mass constituting the true buhrstone ; or, in other words. we have here a series of deposits aggregating about 300 feet in thickness, which can be shown to be of an age anterior to the deposi- tions of the Claiborne fossiliferons sands. At Baker's Blutf, a fcAv miles above St. Stephen's (which is situated about twenty-eight miles south of Wood's Bluif ). the buhrstone, according to Tuomej', appears in a vertical escarpment rising only 50 feet above the water, a low height perfectly in accordance with the loss occa- sioned by the general dip extending over nearly twenty miles. At this point, moreover, and occupying a position above the buhrstone. Tuomey yloc. ej7.,p. 14S) identities a bed of green sand (8 feet in thickness) as the equivalent of the Claiborne fossilifer- ons sands " d " of his section), and containing numerous fossils identical with those foimd at Claiborne. Still further south, and occupying a considerably lower level, the same bed is described 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 1.55 as having an extent of 12 feet, and immediately above St. Ste- phen's, was seen to dip beneath the water's edge. At this last locality we have a beautiful exhibit of what has generally been designated by the name of" White Limestone."' There can be not the least doubt, however, that this " White Limestone," which has most frequently been taken to represent strata of Yicksburg age, is in reality, as has been insisted upon by Winchell (Proceedings of the American Association, 1850, Part 11, p. 85), a combination of strata belonging to two distinct (at least, as now recognized) groups of deposits. The lower moiety, dipping into the river, and resting upon the subjacent Claiborne sands ' Tuorne}', loc. cit., p. 157 ; Lyell, Journal Cieol. Soc, Lon- don, IV, p. 15 ; Hale, A. J. Science, new ser., VI, p. 359; is the true " White Limestone," an exponent of the Jacksonian group of deposits, as may be inferred from its position, and the charac- ter of its contained fossils,^ Moreover, were it otherwise the case, it would have been very dilficult to explain the total disap- pearance over a distance of only thirty miles (and with but ex- ceedingly moderate dip) of the equivalent beds exposed on the Alabama River at Claiborne. The upper moiety, on the other hand, is a portion of the well known Orbitoide (Vicksburg or Oligocene) rock, and is that which alone contains specimens of Orhitoides Mantelli (Winchell, loc. cit., p. 85). From the data herewith presented, a section of tiie Tertiary strata traced along the Tombighee River from Wood's Bluff to St. Stephen's, may probably, with considerable approach to truth, be constructed as follows : ' I have been unable to discover the exact height of this bluff. Neither Lyell nor Toumey mentions it ; Conrad, in the appendix to Morton's " .'Sy- nopsis" (p. 23), states it is about 100 feet, ■•' Spondylus dumosus and Oitrea panda, originally described aB charac- teristic fossils of the Newer Cretaceous (upper Eocene) deposits of the southern United States, have been found abundantly near the base of the bluff. 156 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881. 1^ I ^ ca 8 , ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ *--• w M A ^ K«*9><9«(N m if* 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 157 An examination of the foregoing section shows almost conclu- siveh' that the Eocene deposits of Alabama have a thickness of very nearly 400 feet; and, indeed, I am informed by Dr. Smith that there are good grounds for supposing that Tertiar}^ beds exist in the northern part of the State, wliose position would be still 150-180 feet below the Wood's Bluff marl bed. It will fur- ther be seen that the Claibomian (or Claiborne proper, as chai'ac- terized by the fossiliferous greensands) holds a position decidedly near the top of the series, a position almost preciscl}' similar to that occupied by the " Calcaire Grossier " (Parisian) of France, and more properly Upper than Middle Eocene, which last it has verj'' generallj^ been considered. What relation beds •• b " and» " c " of the Claiborne Bluff holds to the sub-Claibornian (•' Buhr- stone " in part) deposits of the Tombigbee River has not yet been absolutely determined ; but there can probably be no legitimate doubts that they represent, in a modified form, the upper moiety of those deposits. Although the marked difference in the lithological character of the strata of the two localities as compared with each other (and indeed it must be confessed, this is much greater than could have been reasonably inferred from the genera] constancy of the deposits in this region) would seem to militate against such a view, there is, nevertheless, sufficient evidence, both stratigraphical and paleontological, to support this conclusion. In the first place, by determining the position of the buhrstone rock near St. Stephen's as immediatel}'' underl3'ing the highly fossiliferous greensand laj-er, Tuomej^ has proved that the two series of deposits (the Buhrstone on the Tombigbee, and bed " c " on the Alabama) hold relatively the same position to the true Claibomian, lying immediately below it. In the second place, the argillaceous sti'ata at the base of Claiborne Bluff (bed " 4 " of Hale's series) have been identified by Hale, both on litho- logical and paleontological evidence (A. J. Science, new ser., YI, p. 356), as occurring at Coffeeville Landing on the Tombigbee River, about 14 miles north of St. Stephen's, what miglit very readil}' have been expected from an inspection of the general la}' of the different formations.^ Xo data are given relative to ^ A line uniting Claiborne and Coffeeville Landing would mn almost precisely parallel with the line marking the junction of the Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits lying hence due north. The contour lines traced by Tuomey would indicate a true dip west of the southerly line, and that this 158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. the position of the Buhrstone at this last locality, but hypotheti- cally considered (as deduced from its position at White Bluff, and its general dip), its summit must still occupy a position fully 100 feet above the level of the river ; and this thickness (100 feet) coincides very closely with the thickness (80 to 90 feet) of the deposits below the true Claibornian (bed " d ") as exposed at the bluff on Alabama River. And finally, that at least a very con- siderable portion of the inferior beds at this last named locality represent strata of a different lithological character in other por- tions of the state— and consequently, that they are local deposits — is proved by the concurrent statements of Hale (loc. cit., p. 356) and Wincliell {loc. cit.^ p. 86), both of whom assert that the cal- careous deposit below the arenaceous bed (not the " White Lime- stone ") is not known to occur at any other locality.^ Admitting the conclusions reached in this paper, it will be seen that the Alabama Eocene deposits comprise : — 4. " White Limestone " (Jacksonian), best exhibited at Claiborne (upper portion of bluff) and St. Stephen's (lower moiety of bluff), not ver}- abundant in fossils — Pecten membranosus, P. Poulsoni^ Ostrea panda.^ Spondylus dumosus, " Scutella " Lyelli, etc 50 — ? feet. 3. The fossiliferous arenaceous deposit (Claibornian), best shown at Claiborne — subaqueous at St. Stephen's — very rich in fossils, and of the age of the " Calcaire Grossier " of France — n feet. 2. " Buhrstone " (Siliceous Claiborne of Hilgard), comprising siliceous clay-stones (buhrstone proper) densely charged with fossils or their impressions, laminated clays, sands and calcareous deposits — beds " h " and " c " of the Claiborne section, the cliff at White Bluff, and the so-called " Chalk is actually the case is proved by the difference (80-90 feet) betweeu the actual heights at which the equivalent beds at St. Stephen's and Claiborne are placed. This also accords with Hilgard' s observations in Mississippi, where the dip of the Jackson and Vicksburg strata was found to be about 10 to 12 feet per mile S. by W. (A, J. Science, new ser., XLIII, p. 36). ^ It is greatly to be hoped that under the present able management of Dr. Smith, the survey will be able to yield much more satisfactory data connected with the geology of the State than have heretofore been rendered. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 159 Hills " of the southern part of the State. At Claiborne the representative beds consist of aluminous and calcareous deposits, poor in fossils, but containing occasional layers of Ostrea sellseformis — about 250 feet? 1. The Wood's Bluff and Bashia (with Cave and Knight's Branches) deposits (Eo-lignitic), consisting of alternating dark claj'S, greenish and buff sands, and numerous seams of lignite, partlj^ very rich in fossils, and as far as is yet poni- tively known, the oldest Tertiary- deposits of the State — 50 — ? feet.i It is the intention of the writer to discuss in a future paper the relations of these various Alabama deposits to those of other sections of the United States, and to correlate them, as far as possible, with the Eocene deposits of the typical European basins. ^ It appears to the author that it would be convenient to designate these lower deposits, which hold a rather constant position at the base of the Eocene series in different parts of the eastern and southern United States, by a tenn which could be readily applied in adjective form, and which would at the same time in some manner express the relation of the beds referred to. He therefore proposes the term "Eo-lignitic,'' which, while it to some extent indicates the general character of the beds so designated, is not restricted in its definition to the character of the deposits of any one single locality. The " Buff Sand" of Wincbell {loc. cit., p. 89), probably falls into this group, but its exact position, or its correspondent, does not appear to be as yet definitely determined. It is seen to underly the "Buhrstone," and is considered by Winchell to represent the absolute base of the Tertiary system of the State. At Black's Bluff, Wilcox Co., it is stated to repose directly on the subjacent Cretaceous limestone, but in a foot-note (p. 90), we are informed that, according to Tuomey, the characteristic fossil of this limestone, an Ostreeiy is probably Tertiary. 160 proceedings of the academy of [1881. July 5. The President, Dr. Ruschenberoer, in the chair. Seventeen persons present. A paper entitled, " The Snare of the Ray Spider, Epeira radi- osa, a new form of Orb-weh," by Rev. H. C McCook, D. D., was presented for publication. Sarcodes sanguinea. — Mr. Thomas Meehan referred to discus- sion among members at former meetings, as to the true character of parasitic plants. They were believed to be in the main of two classes,— one which might be represented by the common mistle- toe, with woody stems continuing from year to j^ear, — the other like the Arceuthobium, or pine parasite, which died to the surface of the wood, but continued to grow up from the same spot every year — a sort of parasitic herbaceous plant. It was a question how far root parasites partook of these several characters. There were some plants, as Caslilleia and Gomandra^ which might be said to be in a transition state between an ordinar}' terrestrial plant and a parasite. Usually they were as other plants, but some of the roots would attach themselves to other roots, and form as perfect a union as genuine parasites, and, by the decline in vigor of the victim root beyond the point of union, evidently showed they were really parasitic, deriving nourishment from the attach- ment. Aphyllon unijiorum, germinated on the annual fibrous roots of Asters and Solidagoes, as had been clearly traced, and perhaps on other plants ; and after germination formed a mass of innumerable coral-like spougelets, drawing moisture and perhaps some other elements of nutrition from the surrounding medium. Epiphegus Virgi7iiana behaved precisely in the same way. Mono- tropaa\\d others had also this mass of pseudo-roots, or spongelets, and had been supposed to germinate and live wholly on half de- cayed vegetation, but he believed from analogy they would be found, as in Epiphegus and others, to germinate at first on living roots. Conopholis was the only root parasite he had found any reason for believing to be a perennial. This had been found at- tached to quite large roots, evidently coming up from the same spot from year to year as Arceuthobium does. Having correspondents in regions where grows the beautiful Snow-plant of the Sierras — Sarcodes sanguinea. — about which nothing but its aerial character has been so far known, he had set them to watching for him, their appearance and final end. The places wliere they grew were carefully marked, and with the fol- lowing results : — Mr. John M. Hutchings, of Yosemite, found the bottom of the old plants 10 to 14 inches below the surface, with not the slightest signs of attachment an} where. To him it ap- 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 161 peared no more than an "ordinary annual plant of great beauty." Of course an ordinary annual growing from seed, could not push through the ground at so great a depth. The vital power spent in overcoming so heavy an obstruction, would lie exhausted long before the growing point pushed through a foot of soil to the sur- face, as observing seed growers of experience would testify. Only a parasite, or bud, having an unlimited supply of food to di'aw on could accomplish this feat. But the matter was settled by an- other observer, Mrs. Ross Lewers, of Washoe Valley, Nevada, who, together with her observations, had sent the dead spongy mass from the last 3'ear's plants, which Mr. M. exhibited, and these were found to have a slender pine root through the mass around which the spongy mass had grown, and as it was dead, there was little doubt that it had been the matrix from which the seed had made its original start, and which the plant killed in the end. The dead, spongy mass of pseudo-roots was larger than he had seen in any other species of root parasite. Altogether it might be said that Sarcodes sanguinea was an annual, germinating on small pine roots, and subsequently obtaining subsistence from the earth as Aphyllon. Epiphegus, &c. Talinum teretifolium. — Mr. Thomas Meehan remarked that the point he made recentl}' in regard to Draba ve7'na, that mere light alone evidentl}' failed to account for the special opening-time of flowers, was confirmed by recent observations on Talinum teretifolium. When preparing the chapter on tliis plant for his "Native Flowers and Ferns of the United States," a few years ago, he had watched plants almost daily through the whole season and found that without any exception they opened at 1 P. M. and closed at 2. This season he had watched them again and found that though the time of opening was the same, 1 p. m., they never on any occasion noted, closed at 2, but continued open sometimes to half-past three or half-past four, and on one occasion were found closing at half-past five. Mr. Meehan said he had endeavored to associate these variations with some atmospheric changes, such as heat, light, or moisture, but in no case did these endeavors prove satisfactory. In the " Proceedings of the Kansas Academy of Science," Professor Smyth had contributed materials for a "floral clock" for Kansas, and Talinum teretifolium was set down in the list as opening at 11 a. m. in that State. Mr. Meehan believed that the laws influencing this peculiar class of motion in flowers, were completely hidden from us, and that the subject ofl^ered an inviting field to the biologist. Mr. Redfield suggested that perhaps the age of the plants made some difference in their habits. Mr. Meehan replied that the patch in his garden was much larger now than at first, from addition through self sown seeds ; but all the plants behaved precisely alike. He did not suppose 12 162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. that external circumstances had no influence ; but that the con- dition of the living material on which they acted, decided the final character, and that Mr. Redfield's question was in the right line. July 12. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Ten persons present. The death of John P. Brock and of Alfred D. Jessup, members, was announced. The following was ordered to be printed : — 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 163 THE SNARE OF THE RAY SPIDER (EPEIRA RADIOSA), A NEW FORM OF ORB- WEB. By Henry C. McCook, D. D. In the vicinity of Philadelphia, June 14, 1881, 1 found a number ■of spiders grouped not far from each other on Epeiroid webs, which proved to be of a type hitherto unknown, and which I designate as the Actinic or Raj'-formed Orb-web. The spider appears also to be new to science, and is named Ej^eira radiosa.^ I. Character of the Web. The first example or two of the spiders collected seemed to be upon nests that had been broken by ordinarj^ wear and tear in FiQ. 1.— The Ray Spider seated in her snare, just before drawing the trap-line. capturing insects ; bat the repetition of the form in a third snare, particularly of the peculiar open central, caused more careful examination. The result was the discovery of the remarkable ^ Radiosa, full of rays. A closer study of the spider may compel the change of its generic position. 164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. form of web hci-e described. On account of the continually changing form of the snare, it will be necessary to present it from various points of view, and as seen in different stages of its diurnal changes. Fig. 1 presents a view of the snare in a partially relaxed con- dition. The spider is seen seated in the centre of a series of rays, i, ii, iii, iv, v, which are grasped by the third and fourth pairs of legs. There is no hub, properly speaking, but the axes of the rays may be seen at times united upon a central point, as at H, fig. 2. The general tendency is to four or five main divisions or Fro. 2. rays, as ma}' be seen by studying the figures presented. But there is more or less variation, and in the course of the day's usage in capturing prey two sections will become interblended upon one axis, as appears to be the case in fig. 2, and also in fig. 4. The central space is a lai'ge irregular opening, constituting about one-third of the entire snare, whose diameter is usually from three to five inches (see fig. 3). The central circle, meshes, and notched spirals which so generally characterize the Orb-webs are thus wholly wanting here. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 165 The orb ma}' be said to be composed of a series of independent rays or sectors, each ray composed of several spirall}' crossed radii, and the whole series united into an orl) by cross-lines or spirals like those which unite the radii. In the shifting of the section-lines above referred to, this separation of the orb into in- dependent rays, is always quite evident. The spirals are covered with viscid beads, as in most orb-webs The radii do not all pass to the Hub or Centre, as do those of orb-webs generally, but converge for the most part upon the axes of the rays as repre- sented at figs. 1, 2, 3. These axes themselves converge upon a Fig. 5.— View from front. "Web taut. Perspective not t^liown . Central opening exact. single strong thread, a trap-line, T ( figs. 1 and 2, and succeeding cuts), which is attached to some part of the surrounding surface, of rock, earth or plant. When the snare is flat or relaxed, as was the case with the one drawn at fig. 2, and as appears in fig. 1, the trap-line is often about perpendicular to the plane of the orb, as is the handle to the Ta.ys of an open Japanese umbrella. This, how- ever, depends somewhat upon the environment ; a convenient point for the attachment of the trap-line will cause the animal to divert the thread more or less from the perpendicular. 166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. We may now suppose the spider placed as in figs. 1 and 3, at the point where the rays converge, grasping the axes with the four hind feet. The two front feet seize the trap-line and draw it taut. Then, precisely as a sailor pulls upon a rope, " hand over hand," the little arachnid's feet move along the trap-line, one over another. The axes of the ra^- s, held firmly in the hind feet, follow her ; the centre of the snare bears inward, the other parts are stretched taut, and the web at last has taken the form of a cone or funnel (figs. 4, 5). In this position the snares continually suggested to me the figure of an umbrella with ribs reversed by the wind and the covering Fig. 4.— Side view of Kay Spider's snare, when drawn taut or bowed. Seen within a cavity. stripped loose from the top of the handle. Fig. 4 gives a side view of the web when thus bowed or drawn taut ; another snare is shown at fig. 5, as seen from behind. In this example (fig. 5), the spider has moved quite down the trap-line to the surface of the little twig (projecting into the cavity) to which it is attached. It will thus be seen that the snare is more or less a plane surface, or more or less conical, according to the position of the animal upon the trap-line and the degree of tension thereof. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 16T II. Mode of Operating the Snare. When an insect strikes the snare, the spider has two modes of operating. The first somewhat resembles that of the ordinary orb-weaver in that the insect is simply permitted to entangle itself and is then taken, swathed, returned to the centre and eaten. There is, however, this difference : before going to the insect, the axes of the snare are twisted or knotted, by a rotary action of the body and movement of the legs, so that the untouched parts of the orb remains taut. Fig. 2 represents a snare thus " locked,"' Fig. 5. or, perhaps I might more properly say, " keyed." The trap-line is now relaxed, although its elasticity is such that the change can scarcely be noticed. The spider then moves upon her victim, quite habitually cutting out the spirals with her mandibles as she goes. When the insect is ensnared well towards the circumference of the web, and indeed, for the most part, in other cases also, it results that the ray or sector upon which the entanglement had occurred, is quite cut awaJ^ The spider thereupon proceeds to operate the remaining parts of her snare, which, in time, is thus destroyed by sections, as will be fully illustrated hereafter. 168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. The second mode of operation resembles that of the Triangle spider, Ilyptiotes cavata^ Ilentz, which has been so admirably described by Wilder, and which I have very frequently and fully observed in the suburbs of Philadelphia and throughout Pennsyl- vania. It is at this point that the habit of our Ra}^ spider becomes particularly interesting. The Triangle spider makes a triangular web, which is in fact an orb sector, composed with unvarying regularit}' of four spirally crossed radii converging upon a single line T (fig. 6, a). Upon this line the spider hangs back downward, grasping it with all her feet, and having a portion of the line, SI (fig. 6, b), rolled up slack, between her two hind, or sometimes, Fig. 6.— Triangle spider hanging upon taut snare, a, Spider in position. SI, Ball ol slack-line, b, Enlarged figure of spider, showing the mode of grasping the line. apparently, her fore and hind feet. Thus the forward and back parts of the trap-line are taut, while the intermediate part is slack. The spiral parts of the snare are also taut. When the web is struck by an insect, the spider suddenly releases her hind feet, the slack line sharply uncoils, the spider shoots forward, the whole web relaxes, as at fig. T, and the spiral lines are thrown around the insect. This is repeated several times before the prey is seized. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 169 Precisely the same action characterizes the Ra}^ spider. Her ordinary position, or at least the one in which I most frequently observed her, is a sitting posture, back upward, as shown at fig. 1. The axes of the rays are held in the third and fourth pairs of legs, the fourth commanding the upper, the third the lower series, quite habituall^^, as it appeared to me. A sort of " basket," or sj'stem of connecting lines, shown at figs. 1, 9, unites all the feet, seeming to converge toward the fore-feet (perhaps, upon the second pair), where they grasp the trap-line. It is upon this foot- basket that the spider sits when her net is bowed. This, however, is not the invariable posture ; in the reconstruc- tion of the raj^s and shifting of the axes, as the day's work tells Fig. 7,— Triangle spider, Hyptiotes cavaia, with slacli-line uncoiled and snare relaxed. upon the snare, the spider will A^ary her posture to that of fig. 5. The trap-line generall}- has a direction downward rather than upward, so that the head and fore-feet tend to be depressed below the abdomen, and this depression may gradually result in the complete inversion of the animal, fig, 5, so that she assumes the natural position of orb-weavers. I have even seen individuals with the back turned downward, fig. 8, as is the habit with the Triangle spider and with all those species who make a dome or horizontal orb-web, as the Basilica spider, E. basilica McCook, and the Orchard spider, E. hortorum Hentz. If now the feet of the spider be careful I3' examined with a good glass, a coil of slack-line will be seen, precisely as in the case of the Triangle-si^ider. This is illustrated at fig. 8, where a, b, c, are the axes of several rays, grasped in the third (3) and fourth (4) i 170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [188L pairs of legs, and SI is the coil or slack-line between these and the fore pairs (1 and 2), or simply between the pair of fore-legs, 1 and 2. As the spider does not exceed one-eighth of an inch in body length, and the position of the snare is within cavities and inter- stices of rocks, where the light does not bring out the delicate tracery of the fine webs, the observation of these and other points of like character, is a matter of some difficulty. But, although the exact relations of the coil to the feet were sometimes in doubt, and indeed seemed to vary somewhat, the existence of the coil and its general relations were determined beyond doubt. It is also certain that the slack-line sharply uncoils and straightens when the spider releases her grasp upon the trap-line, and that the web unbends and shoots quickly forward. It is instantly changed from the bowed or conical form of figs. 4 and 5 to the circular plane of FIG 8 -Ray spider (greatly ea- ^ ^ ^^^ ^ larged) in position on taut snare. ° To show the slack-line coil, SI. The following points, howcvcr, long evaded my observation, before webs were found which presented the conditions for successful study. But at last I was well satisfied, although I hope for further and fuller verification during, the present summer. The " springing " of the snare is caused by the sudden releasing of the trap-line from the fore-feet^ instead of the hind-feet, as with the Triangle spider. The polarity of the two arachnids relative to their webs is reversed, Hyptiotes having her fore-feet, but Radiosa her hind- feet towards the web. The slack-line is therefore coiled between the two fore-feet or between the fore and hind-feet of Radiosa, but between the two hind pairs (as a rule) of Hyptiotes. A glance at fig. 6, b, will suggest the manner in which Hj'ptiotes is affected when her two hind feet are released from the trap-line. The coil, SI, straightens, and the whole body of the spider shoots forward. If now we turn to Radiosa, as represented at fig. 8, or again, as shown somewhat better at fig. 9, we observe that if the fore-feet ,1,2, fig. 9, are released suddenly from the trap-line, T, the whole body shoots backward, although still toward the snare, as with Hyptiotes. This was the action which I observed. The determination was finally accomplished by first carefully 1881.] xVATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 171 sketching the arrangement of the basket stretched between the feet (2, 3, 3, 4, 4, fig. 9). With this chart in one hand, and in the other hand a magnifying glass focused upon the feet, I watched until favored with several successive and unsuccessful springings of the net. As the spider only leaves her seat when she thinks that an insect is well entangled, and again bows her net by pulling on the trap-line if no prey be ensnared, the above conditions en- abled me to compare my chart of the basket, with the basket itself as seen under the glass. I found that the outlines on the paper and the lines under the animal's feet exactly corresponded. There had therefore been no change in the relative positions of the hind- feet, mandibles and palps, perhaps also of the second pair (2) of feet. There had been an ac- tual (not seeming) motion of the body with and in the di- rection of the web, and this had been caused by releasing the first pair of legs (1) from the trap-line. The importance of this determination seems greater from the fact that I had at first concluded that the Radiosa actually operated her snare by sections. That is, instead of springing the whole orb at once, as above described, she simply sprung the ray struck by an insect, by unclasping the foot holding the axis of that ra3^ Thus, ray ii, fig. 9, would be sprung by releasing the axis of ii, from No. 3, the third foot. This is probabl}'' not done when the snare is in complete form (as at figs. 1, 3, 4), but I now believe that it is done when the web has been partially destroyed, and is reduced to two rays or sectors as at fig. 11. This I hope to determine accurately during the current summer. If it should be verified we shall have another resemblance between the habits of Hyptiotes and Radiosa. Fig. 9. — Kay spider in position showing slack coll SI, and fout-basket, 2, 3, 4. III. Gradual Obliteration of the Web. The fragmentary condition of Radiosa's web after contact with insects has already been referred to. The snare is gradually 172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. obliterated, a conclusion to which the spider herself very curiously contributes. When an insect strikes the snare, as at fig. 10, ray I (broken ray), Radiosa first " keys " the snare by twisting together the foot-basket and the parts adjoining (C), including the end of the trap-line. This maintains the compact condition of the snare after the spider has left the central point at which she has held all parts together in the manner heretofore described. Then the insect is sought. Creeping along the axis of the ray upon which is the entanglement, she cuts away the cross-lines as she goes, leaving the bare skeleton of radii, as shown, fig. 10, I, broken ray. The insect is then brought back to a point (D) near the centre, but (in this case at least,) above it, where it is eaten. While the feast goes on, not unmindful of future supplies, the spider (S) clasps the ad- joining axis and (C D) the connecting lines, which appear to be in condition for operating somewhat in the usual way. When the insect is eaten, the former position is resumed, the trap-line clasped, and the net bowed and tightened. After a morning's trapping, if the game has been plenty, and generally towards the Fig, 10.— Kay spider. Action when an insect middle of the aftemOOn, Ra- is taken. S, Spider; In, insect. t- i ■^^ -i x> ^ diosa's snare will be found reduced to one or two rays or fragments of rays. I have seen it reduced to a bare skeleton. In fig. 11, there are one ray (I), and two fragments of two others united into a new ray, and these are placed in opposite parts of the orb. Again, one-half of the orb maybe eliminated (fig. 12), leaving two radii (i, ii) to operate with. Radiosa was also observed to construct or adopt a new trap- line, thus changing, so to speak, her base of operations. This action is illustrated at fig. 12, where Ta is the original, and T6 the new trap-line. This is not a frequent occurrence, as the necessity' for changing the original line does not appear to arise frequently. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 175 lY. The Affinities of the Actinic Orb with other Orb Webs. Not the least interesting and valuable feature of the Ray- spider's industry, is that it discovers a connecting link between two forms of snare which stand at the very opposite poles of the spinning-work of the (Orbitelarise) orb-weavers. At the one ex- treme is the familiar circular snare or full orb of the ordinary garden spider, as, for example, that of Epeira domiciliorum, Hentz, fig. 13. At the other is the orb-sector of the Triangle spider, figs. 6, 1. A glance at these will show how far they are apart in structure. The same separation appears in the habits of the two araneads.^ As opposed to the Hyptiotes, the spiders of which E. domiciliorum is a type hang head downward in the Fig. 11. — Ray spider's snare after usage in taking prey. Fig. 12.— Ray spider. Half of orb eliminated and a new trap- line, Tb, formed. centre of the orb, with their feet grasping small groups of the radii ; or sit in a silken den, or crevice, holding to a taut trap-line which is connected with the centre. There is no slack coil, and no springing of the net as with the Triangle spider. The industry of Radiosa, it is now seen, is united to that of the Full Orb makers (E . domiciliorum, et al.), on the one extreme, by the completeness of the circle; but with that of Hyptiotes, on the other extreme, by the independent character of the rays, the nature of the trap-line, and the entire mode of operating the snare. The facts necessary to trace their affinities I have already given. ^ I hope that I shall be tolerated in the invention of this general word for members of the Order Aranese ; "Arachnid," the class term, is too general ; "aranead" is needed for the true spiders. n4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Some of the striking differences I have also recorded, and they may thus be summarized. The web of Hyptiotes is a single sector ; that of Radiosa has four or more, united. Hyptiotes commands one line with her feet, the trap-line and its continuation ; Radiosa commands several axes, which are connected with, but not con- tinuous of, the trap-line. Hyptiotes has her head, Radiosa her abdomen towards her snare. Hyptiotes habitually hangs to the trap-line, back downward ; Radiosa generally sits upon a foot- basket of lines, back upward. Hyptiotes shoots forward when her net is sprung ; Radiosa shoots backward — but both spiders move toward their webs. Hyptiotes holds her slack coil between the two hind-feet (apparently) ; Radiosa between the fore-feet. In these differences, the points wherein Radiosa varies from Fig. 1j.— Full-Orb snare of Epeira domiciilorum. Hyptiotes show a quite apparent approach to the behavior of E. domiciilorum and the Full-Orb makers. Thus the distance which heretofore had separated between the far-away extremes of the spinning-work of the Orbitelarise, has been completely bridged over by the industry of our little indigenous aranead — the Ra}' spider. It is to be remarked that while structurally^ the Triangle 1881.J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 115 spider is as widely removed from the Domicile spider, as economi- cally, the Ray spider is more closely allied structurally to the latter than the former. V. Natural Habitat and Environment. The first specimens of Radiosa taken were hung in large open- ings left between the breastwork stones of a very old mill-dam. The wall had crumbled and quite fallen away in places, leaving large cavities, within whose moist, cool shelter, among ferns and mosses, this, with several species of spiders, had domiciled. The brook poured over the middle part of the wall, making a pretty waterfall ; briers, bushes, ferns and various wood plants grew out of the wall and stretched over a deep pool 12 or 15 feet in diame- ter, into which the fall dropped. On the lower bushes and branches above the stream, and continually agitated bj^ the splashing of the water, was a colony of Stilt spiders, Tefragnatha grallator^ stretching their long legs along their round webs, and dancing with the motion of the waves ; the beautiful nests of Phillyra riparia^ Hentz, nests of Tegenaria persica^ Lyniphia communis, L. neophyta, Epeira hortorum, and one or two species of Theridiords, were in close neighborhood. The whole pretty scene was embowered in a grove of young trees. A more charm- ing habitat could not well have been found. Another colony, not far awaj', was established within the cavi- ties formed underneath the roots of a large fallen tree, and beneath the ledges of some rocks over which the roots turned. In several similar positions were found the same nests, and also among the rocks in a wild ravine through which ran the stream Lownes' Run.^ Further explorations of the surrounding country showed that the spider was largel^^ distributed, and in similar conditions. I found numbers in ravines, on the broad leaves of the skunk cab- bage, Symplocarpus (or Ichtodes) fcetidus, the snares stretched over the brooklet, and beneath the shelving banks. They were also found among the rocks of Crum Creek over the beautiful drive to Howard Lewis' mill. The habitat of the Ray spider may therefore be described as moist, cool, shaded cavities and recesses among rocks, roots, beneath banks and foliage, over or near run- ning water. ^ Since writing the above I have found Radiosa in similar environment at Mineral-spring Glen, New Lisbon, Ohio. 176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. July 19. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Twelve persons present. A paper entitled " A Revision of the Cis-Mississippi Tertiary Pectens of the United States," by Angelo Heilprin, was pre- sented for publication. July 26. The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Twelve persons present. A New Form of Fresh-ivater Sponge. — A note was read from Mr. Edw. Potts, reporting the discovery in Chester Creek of another curious form of fresh-water sponge, a third species of Carterella, resembling C. titbisperma in the character of its birotulates and the length of its foraminal tubes, but much more robust than that species. The tendrils are nearly as long as those of C. tenosperyna, but broad, flat and ribband-like. Thus far it is the most conspicuous and peculiar of our Ameri- can forms. He proposed for it the name Carte7'ella latitenta. John Gr. Graham was elected a member. The following was ordered to be printed : 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. H*? REVISION OF THE PALJSOCRINOIDEA. BY CHARLES WACHSMUTH AND FRANK SPRINGER. Part II. Family SPH^ROIDOCRINID^, INCLUDING THE SUB-FAMILIES PLATYCRINID^, RHODOCRINID^, and ACTINO- CRINID^. The first part of this work was published contemporaneously with the " 3d Lieferimg " of Professor Zittel's " Handbuch der Palaeontologie," which embraces the Crinoidea. In his classification, this distinguished author follows Johannes Miiller, and divides the Crinoidea into three orders : Eucrinoidea {Brachiata^W\\\\Q\-)^ Gyst'oidea, and Blastoidea ; subdiA'iding the first into the Tesselata, Articulata, and Costata. The " Tesselata " agree in general features with our PalseocrinoideajeLnd the Articu- lata with the mesozoic and recent Crinoids, for which we have proposed the name Stomatocrinoidea ; but while we treat these groups as of the same rank with the Blastoidea and Cystoidea, they are, according to Miiller and Zittel, mere subdivisions of the '' Brachiata:'^ Zittel divides the Tesselata into twentj'-six families, among 1 While this was in press, we received from Dr. Etheridge, Jr., and P. Herb. Carpenter, an intei-esting paper upon the genus AUagccrmus, a new form from the Carboniferous of Scotland, which they consider to be "tesselate" in the younger, "articulate" in the adult state. In a dis- cussion upon Miiller's terms, Tesselata and Artieulata, they arrive at the conclusion, that at the present state of our knowledge of these Crinoids those names are inappropriate and should be abandoned. They adopt our name Palceocrinoidea, but object to Stomatocrinoidea, as they think it possible, that also Crinoids of the other group might have possessed an external mouth. They consider the irregular an-angement of the plates in the calyx, against the almost perfect symmetry which is found throughout the other group, and the vault structure, to be better and more persistent characters for distinction than the condition of the mouth. We can only notice here this important paper, but shall take pleasure to refer to it at some future time. 13 178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. which his Ichthyocrinidae and Taxocrinidse substantially agree with our Ichthyocrinidae, except that he included among the Taxo- crinidii^ the genera Lecythocrinus and Gissocrinus^ wliicli we refer to the Cyathocrinidai. Our Cyathocrinidae include his Poteriocrinidae, Heterocrinida?, Cyathocrinidae and Hybocrinidae, except that he places among the first of these families, Agassizo- crinus and Belemnocrinus^vf\\\c\i we think belong to other families. Zittel's classification, in its general results and conclusions, does not differ materially from our own ; but instead of subdividing the Palaeocrinoidea at once into a number of small groups which he calls families, we separate them at first into comparatively few well-marked groups, which we subdivide when necessar3^ Our families are not based upon mere differences in the arrangement of the plates, but are expressions of important modifications in the structure of the animal, which must have affected the whole organism, and consequently form the basis of well defined natural divisions. The groups which we recognize as Ichthyocrinidae, Cyatho- crinidae and Sphaeroidocrinidae existed at the beginning of the geological record, and flourished side by side until they became extinct. They are so well defined by nature, that once under- stood there is no difficulty in identifjang them. The smaller groups into which we have divided the Sphaeroidocrinidae, are likewise of early origin, but they follow more or less the same general plan in the arrangement of their plates, as well as in their mode of development, individually and paleontologically. There haA^e been several interesting publications on Crinoids during the past 3'ear, containing, among others, descriptions of new species of both Ichthyocrinidae and Cj^athoerinidae. These species will be noticed and systematically arranged in an appendix at the end of this work. We are under special obligations to Prof. Spencer F. Baird for access to a number of rare and valuable books in the Smithsonian Library; to Dr. C. A. White, of the National Museum, for numerous favors received during the preparation of this work ; to Prof. A. H. Worthen, of Springfield, 111., and to a number of other gentlemen for the liberal loan of books and specimens, and for other valuable information. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 179 III.-SPHiEROIDOCRINID^. The above name is proposed as a family designation, to include such forms of the Palaeocrinoidea, in which both calyx and vault are constructed of a large number of immovable plates and these forming inflexible walls ; with several orders of radials, and one or more of interradials on both the oral and aboral sides. The SphferoidocrinidiB differ thus conspicuously from the Ichthyo- crinidte with their flexible walls and squamous vault, and from the Cyathocrinidffi with their uniform elements of three rings of plates in the calj^x, without interradials, and with simple oral plates in the vault. The family, as thus defined, will include genera with underbasals, and genera without them. In this we differ from most authors, who make the presence or absence of these plates a marked family distinction, and who place together within the same family Cj'a- thocrinidte, Ichthyocrinidse and Rhodocrinida?. Pictet, Traite de Paleontologie, vol. iv, included in his " Cya thocriniens " our Cyathocrinidee, RhodocrinidiB and parti}' our Ichthyocrinidae ; from the former, however, he excluded Graphio- crinus, which had been described by De Koninck and Lehon with a single circle of plates beneath the radials, and from the latter Fo7'beswcrinus and Taxocri7ius, in which underbasals had not been discovered ; while he admitted the allied genera Ichthyocrinus, Lecanocrinus and Mespilocrinus in which they had been observed. Similar opinions were held by d'Orbigny, Hall, Miller, Austin and others, not including, however, Roemer and Schultze, who made the Rhodocrinidte a distinct family. In the first part of this work we have discussed somewhat fully the relations of the underbasals, which we took to be the product of growth in geological times, introduced gradually by interpola- tion between the basals. It is very remarkable that, although the introduction of underbasals dates back to the Lower Silurian, as a rule, the genera in which those plates are found differ at no time materially from those in which they are wanting. Even as late as the Subcarboniferous, we find such species as Adinocrinus Whitei, and Bhodocrinus Wachsmuthi, both from the Burling- ton limestone, so strikingly similar in every respect, both in the structure of the bodj^ and arms, that the species cannot be 180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. separated except by means of the basal portions. There are sim- ilar examples in the Silurian and Devonian, which will be noticed later. If^ therefore, it be true that the underbasals had no important bearing or influence upon the general structure of the Crinoids, there is no good reason for making their presence or absence a family character, and basing thereon a division to rank with the Cyathocrinidic and Ichthyocrinidae, whose fundamental structural plans offer broad and unmistakable distinctions. Nevertheless, they are not without importance in classification, and certainly characterize a group of more than generic value. We have accord- ingly brought together the genera of this family in which these plates exist under the name '■'' Rhodocriniclse.'''' The great family SphajroidocrinidiB includes a vast variety of forms, and a mere separation of these into genera does not meet the requirements of a systematic classification. We find that the genera fall naturally into groups which are well defined. These subordinate groups, which are three in number, we consider to be sub-families, and have arranged them in the following manner : 1. Platycrinid^. — Underbasals wanting ; basals and first radials forming the greater part of the calyx ; succeeding primary radials very small or rudimentary ; all higher orders of radials embraced within free rays ; interradial system but little developed. 2. AcTiNOCRiNiD^. — Underbasal wanting ; calyx composed of basals ; two or more ordei'^ of radials : well developed interradial, and often interaxillary series. 3. RnoDOCRiNiDiE. — Underbasals present ; calyx composed of basals and several orders of radials ; interradial system well developed. Before proceeding to the more detailed consideration of these groups, we will consider the difl!erent parts of which the body in the Sphreroidocrinida3 is constructed, and this will throw additional light upon the relations of the subdivisions. 1881.] natural sciences of philadelphia. 181 1. Underbasals and Basals. The genus Glyptocrinus Hall, from the Lower Silurian is one of the earliest, most beautiful, and most instructive types of the Pala?ocrinoidea, and fortunately^ is often found in excellent preser- vation. Looking at the great number of plates which compose its body, at its elaborate ornamentation, one is naturally inclined to consider this as one of the most maturely developed forms in the whole family, but in other respects, it possesses in a marked degree the characters of the young crinoid of later geologic times. Glyptocririus was originally described with five basals and no underbasals. Hall afterwards discovered in Gl. decadactylus small pieces concealed within the basal cavity, so rudimentar}-, however, that both he and Meek hesitated to call them basals, although both authors apply that term to the proximal plates in all other cases. Meek distinguished them as " subbasals." We have examined the plates in question very carefnll}" in the species named, and find them, although very rudimentary, placed within the basal ring, hence they are, according to our terminology, true underbasals, and not as Hall describes them a " quinquepartite " upper joint of the column.^ In some other species of this genus the underbasals seem to be altogether wanting, at least are not developed externalh'. In Glyptocrinus Dyeri no trace of them can be discovered, thovigh we have examined with reference to this point, some most perfect specimens. If the underbasals were elements of famil}^ import- ance, Gl. decadactylus and Gl. Dyeri would be representatives of distinct families. Glyptocrinus is exclusively a Lower Silurian genus. The two species from the Upper Silurian, referred to it by Hall, have been transferred by us to other genera. One of these, 3Iariacrinus Carleyi, is another interesting case illustrating our view that the underbasals have no important effect upon the general structure of the body. M. Carleyi would be an excellent Glyptocrinus were it not that the cal^'x below the radials is composed of a single ^ The underbasals cannot be developed from a columnar joint, or their sutures would correspond with the sutures of the column ; whenever this is divided, the division occurs alternately with that of the underbasals, and as a rule alternately with the proximal ring of plates. 182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. ring, and this of only four pieces. Periechocrinus, like Mari- acrinus an Upper Silurian genus and like it without underbasals, has instead of four or five basals, only three. In all other respects tliese genera agree so perfectly with Glyptocrinus that they cannot be distinguished, proving again liow closely llhodo- crinidne and Actinocrinidse are linked together, and that they are in fact variations of one great group. Where underbasals are unrepresented, families have frequently been created upon the number of the basals, and Angelin based his entire classification upon the number of proximal plates, whether basals or underbasals. Convenient as this scheme of classification may seem, it is altogether artificial, and combines forms which are widely different, while it separates others which are clearly allied. We have in the introduction to this work, page 11, dwelt at some length upon the basals or first ring of plates below the radials ; and believe we have shown that the basal disk, whether composed of one, two, three, four or five pieces, can almost invariably be reduced to five elementary pieces, and that all deviations from this number have been produced by anchylosis of two or more of the original segments. This, of itself, is a strong argument against a classification based upon the number of these plates. Among the Actinocrinidas, only a few genera with the original five basal plates are known, and these are confined to the Silurian ; indeed we have good reason to believe that only the very earliest representatives of this group possess a base divided into five pieces. Genera with four basals commence in the Silurian and terminate in the Devonian ; while genera with three basals are found from the Upper Silurian to the close of the Warsaw lime- stone where the family becomes extinct. The genera, with four basals have been referred by us partly to the Actinocrinidte, and partly to the Calyptocrinidffi. The latter family has four basals throughout, but even here this number cannot be considered a family character, since Melocrinus and Mariacrinus^ which have four basals, belong nndoubtedly to the Actinocrinida?. Species with three basals are found among both Actinocrinid* and Platycrinidae, and the latter are by no means restricted to this number, as Dichocrinus, which has been by most systematists placed in the same group with Plati/crinus and Rexacrinus, has but two basals. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 183 It is apparent from these facts that neither the existence of underbasals, nor the modifications which took place in the basal disk, had any such corresponding effect upon tlie general structure of the crinoids as to entitle them to be considered characters of family importance, though in distinguishing subordinate groups they may possess some value. The radial and interradial plates are elements of far greater value. 2. Radial Plates. In our nomenclature we have proposed different terms for special parts of the ra}^, discriminating between radials, brachials and arm plates. We designate as " radials " the whole succes- sion of plates above the basals radially situated and enclosed within the body walls. The "arm plates" form the movable portion of the ra^- ; the "brachials," while radials in position, are ai'm plates in construction, being free and distinctly articu- lated. The term " brachials " is therefore purely a conventional one, employed for greater convenience in description. We desig- nate as "primary radials" those below the first bifurcation, while the " secondary radials " compose the first branches of each ra3% the so-called " Distichalia" of Miiller and other writers ; and those of succeeding bifurcations are distinguished by referring them to the order in which they stand in succession. Miiller, in applying the term " distichalia," was evidently not aware, that there are many fossil Crinoids in which these plates give oflT branches which likewise form a part of the test, otherwise he would not have regarded the arms as commencing at the "axil- lary distichals," 4 Schultze, in his Monograph Echinod. Eifl. Kalk, p. 5, improved upon Miiller's views, and asserted that "the commencement of the arms begins invariably with the first distinct articulation of the ra3^" Like Miiller, he uses the term " distichalia " for the secondary radials, and proposes no name to designate the plates of the higher branches within the body. Schultze difllers from Miiller in designating the free radials as arm plates, and in this he agrees with us ; except that we distinguish those arm plates which are in direct vertical line with the radials as " brachials." De Koninck and Lehon regarded the arms as beginning from the first bifurcation in the ray, no matter whether they became 184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. free at this point, oi' remained included within the body walls for some distance. Thej', however, characterized those plates which arc immovably united with the calyx — the " distichalia " of Mliller — as " pieces brachiales," and the movable joints as " articles brachiaux." P. Herbert Carpenter, in his late work on the Actinometra, p. 22, states that the views of De Koninck upon the relation of these plates were unquestionably correct in the case of the "Articulate Crinoids," but that their application to the " fossil Tesselata " was beset with some difficulties. We do not exactly coincide with any of these views. It seems to us that either the entire radial series of plates within the calyx, eventually up to the sixth division, or even higher, must be called radials, or this term must be restricted to the first radial plate. The first primary radials are the only plates, besides the basals, which form a part of the calyx iri all Crinoids^ and which can be homologized with the apical plates of other Echinoderms. All succeeding plates in the series are, in our own opinion, originally arm plates, wdiich by growth during the life of the individual — chiefly, no doubt, in the embrj^o — and by development in geologi- cal time, were enclosed within the walls, and became thus modified into radials, the change being produced by growth and the devel- opment of additional interradials and interaxillary pieces. That this was the case in the higher orders of radials can be clearly demonstrated, and we feel confident, from analogy, that the same rule extends to the plates throughout the ray, which in turn suggests the idea that the arms fundamentally commence with the second radials, and not with the axillary plate" as intimated by Carpenter, nor with the distichalia of Mliller. In practice, how- ever, and in this we agree with Carpenter, it is more convenient to regard the arms as commencing with the first free plate beyond the calyx. The radials, as we designate them, consist throughout the Sphai- roidocrinidffi, of five rows of plates, of two to three each, longi- tudinally arranged. The upper one bifurcates and supports upon its upper sloping sides two rows of one or more smaller plates — the secondary radials — which in turn, either support the arms directl}^, or divide again, and are followed by radials of the third order. In species of the latter kind, the upper plate in one or both divisions is axillary and supports on each sloping side another 1881. J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 185 row of raclials. The formation of higher orders of radials takes place in a similar manner, only one branch generally bifurcating, and one remaining single. In species with but two orders of I'adials the number of primary arms is limited to two in each ray, which, however, sometimes branch after they become free. Species with tertiary radials may have either three or four arms to the ray, depending upon whether one or both divisions bifurcate. Upon the same principle species with four orders of radials may have five to eight arms, and those with a fifth order may have from eight to twelve and even sixteen. The first number can onl}- occur when all the branches remain simx^le ; the latter when thej- all divide. Hence the number of primar}- arms is dependent upon the number of orders of radials represented in the species, and whether part of them bifurcate again or remain simple. It is important to note that simple arms are always given off from opposite sides alternately. The number of arms is most frequently only of specific import- ance, but in cases where certain rays throughout a number of species are distinguished bj^ a smaller or greater number, the arm formula may become almost a generic character, as for instance in Batocrinus^ where the posterior rays are generally more developed. In Eretmocrinus the anterior and two posterior rays are less developed than the antero-lateral rays. In some genera the arms appear to be limited to a certain number, in others the}^ vary. In the typical Actinocrinus there are species with four, five, six, seven and eight arms to the ray, but the normal number is uniform in the different rays. In all these cases, how- ever, as well as not unfrequently within the limits of species, there are exceptions. 3. Interradials and Anals. The interradial and anal plates occupy the intermediate spaces between the five radial divisions or raj'S in the bod}', and their number and shape depends altogether upon the number, position and. proportions of the radial plates. They vary from a single plate to twent}' or more, but are represented even in the young crinoid by at least one plate. In species in which the secondary radials of adjacent rays abut laterally, the number of interradials is naturally small, but when higher orders of radials are present, and especially when the raj'S are widel}- separated, the number is 186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. comparatively much larger. When the second and third radials are short, the number of interradials decreases, and it increases when they are long and narrow. This increase in number takes place by interpolation, contrary to the radials in which the increase is from the distal ends of the rays. The interradials are designed to fill up vacant spaces in the test, and this accounts to some extent for the great diversity which is found in their number within the limits of a genus, and within species at different stages of maturity. The first interradial is always larger than any of the rest, and is situated between the upper sloping margins of the adjoining first radials, except in some species of the Rhodocrinidse in which it rests directly upon the basals, separating the ring completely. There are generally two plates in the second series, and two or three in each succeeding one, but in forms where the secondary or tertiary radials form an arch over tlie interradial spaces, as in Batocrinus, there is often only a single plate in the second or third series. The plates decrease in size upwards, those of the uppermost row being sometimes barely visible to the eye. The posterior or anal area is readily recognized in most of the Sph.Troidocrinidse by its greater width, and by having a larger number, and a somewhat diflerent arrangement of plates. In most of the genera the first anal plate is in line with the first radials, resting upon the basals. In our remarks upon the Cyathocrinidfe we noted the fact that in that family the anal plates, with a few exceptions, are directed toward the right side. In the Sphffiroidocrinidse, on the contrary, the symmetry is always bi- lateral, in some cases almost perfectly pentahedral, and a vertical section through the median line of the anal area, the anal aper- ture, the central dome plate, and along the anterior ray, divides the body invariably into two equal parts, and this symmetry, which extends to the arrangement of the arms, is one of the most char- acteristic features of the fiunily. The term "anal plates," as now used, designates the entire series of plates which compose the posterior interradius. Properly speaking, however, this is not quite correct. Careful examina- tion shows clearly that the majority of these plates are in the true sense of the word " interradials," while only a few of them are actuall}' " anals," by which we understand plates supporting the anus, or that can be accounted for as being in any way, directly 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 18t or indirectly, connected with that organ. In the earlier genera, Glyptocriniis, Beteocrinus, Glyptaster, Archaeocrinus, Eucrinus, and in all genera up to the Subcarboniferous in which the anal opening is lateral, the posterior area is distinctly' divided into two equal parts by a single median row of plates. This row, which often extends to the anal opening, is composed of the true anal plates, but the plates on either side of it are interradials. By considering the latter, without regard to the median row, it will be found, that the two sections taken together correspond exactly in number and general arrangement with the interradials of the other areas, or at least differ not more than the other four differ among themselves. But it must be observed that in genera in which the first anal plate rests directly upon the basals {Glyptaster, Eucrinus, Dorycrmus, etc.), the first true interradial in the pos- terior area is divided, and is represented by two smaller plates, separated by a special anal plate (PI. XIX, fig. 2). In these genera the anals proper extend from the basals to the anal aperture. Glyptocrinus and its congeners, in which there is no anal piece represented between the first radials and in which the first interra- dial range, consists of a single plate in all five spaces, the special anal plates begin with the second range in which there are three plates. In later geological times, when the anal opening became more central, the special anal plates decreased to two or three, and in the t3'pical Actinocrinidie in which we include the genera Actinocrinus, Amphoracrinus, Strotocrinus, Physetocrinus and Steganocrinus, they are reduced to a single plate. Some of the Platj^crinidas have no special anal piece, and the posterior side differs merely b}^ having a somewhat larger inter- radial, others however, as Dichocrinus and Hexacrinus, have a very large special plate. In some of the Rhodocrinidfe, like the Calyptocrinidfe, the symmetry of the cal3'x is almost regularly pentahedral, and none of the plates of the posterior side are actually anals. 4. Interaxillary Plates. The space within the axil of the secondar}^ radials is frequently filled by plates, for which we proposed in the first part of this work the name " axillarj^ plates." This designation is undoutedly appropriate, but finding that it had been previousl}- used b}' several authors for the bifurcating plates, we have thought best, in order 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. to avoid confusion, to nse the term " interaxillary " for these plates. In the Platyeriniclffi, which have rare]}' more than a single order of radials within the calyx, interaxillary plates are not represented. In the ActinocrinidjB and Rhodocrinidfe the}^ may be present or absent in the same species, and sometimes in different rays of the same specimen, their number, like that of the interradials, increas- ing with age. Roemer and Joh. Miiller considered the presence of interaxll- lai'ies as of generic value, and the latter proposed a division of the genus Actinoci'iniis, placing all species having those plates under Pyxidocrinus; but it is evident that such a division is alto- gether artificial and not warranted by the facts, and if carried out would produce confusion. 5. Yault. One of the writers, in a paper upon " the internal and external structure of Paleozoic Crinoids " (Am. Jour. Sci., Sept. 187*7), discussed the importance of the vault with reference to classifica- tion. It was noted that in a large number of genera, among them Actinocrimis, Rhodocrinus and Platycrinus, and their allies, the ventral coA'cring is composed of strong plates closely cemented together, and that these form a free arch which braces the entire oral side of the body without the aid of oral plates. This is the general character of the vault in the family under consideration. The vault in the Sphseroidocrinidae is usually well preserved, owing to its solid structure, and is capable of accurate definition. Its plates var}' from a few to many hundred ; but, notwith- standing this diversity- in number, their arrangement is governed by definite rules. Certain of these plates, which we have termed the " apical dome plates," are represented in every species of this group. They consist of a central piece, occupying a position directl}'' above the oral centre, which in this family is quite uniformly the centre of the disk. It is surrounded by six prox- imal plates, interradial in position, of which four are large, and equal, and two smaller. The four large plates are placed above the four regular interradial spaces respectivel}^ ; the two smaller plates which are equivalent to and take the place of one large plate, are directed posteriori}-, being separated from each other by anal plates or the proboscis. These seven plates are easily recognized in species with comparatively few summit pieces and a lateral 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 189 anal aperture (PL XYIIT, figs. 1 and 9), but their identification is often difficult in forms in which a large subcentral anal tube is interposed between the two small plates, pushing them toward the anterior side, while the central piece rests against the side of the anal tube. (PI. XYIII, fig. 8). There are other vault pieces occupying a radial position which are sither in contact with those just described, or, as is more frequently the case, separated from them by a belt of small pieces. Their number varies considerably among species, and depends upon the number of primary arms, without reference to the number of bifur- cations after they become free. They increase in proportion to the number of pi'imarj' arms, in the same manner and on the same principle as the plates of the calj^x, each order of radials has its corresponding plates in the vault. Therefore, in adult specimens, with some practice the number of arms can be ascertained as well from the dome as from the calyx. In species with two arms to the ray, there are two ranges of corresponding radial plates in the dome ; the first or upper being a large bifurcating plate, equiva- lent to the primary radials of the caljx. This is followed by two other plates, which take the place of the secondary radials, one over each arm base, with a third plate — an interbrachial — between them. When there are three arms to the ray, there are three ranges of radial dome plates, two plates in direct succession from the large bifurcating plate toward the single arm, and a second bifur- cation, with one plate in each branch, toward the division with two arms. In species with four arms to the ray, there are two secoudarj^ bifurcations, producing radial dome plates of a tMrd order, leading to each arm base, and so on. There are also interradial plates represented in the summit, occupying intermediate spaces between the radials, but their arrangement is very irregular and their number variable. In some genera the number of vault pieces is enormous, notably in Strotocrinus, which has a large number of arms. Looking at such a specimen with its vast number of apparentl}" irregular vault pieces, one would scarcely expect to find this multitude of plates arranged upon a definite plan ; and this the same that prevails in the calj'x. We have called the principal plates in the vault apical dome plates, because thej^ correspond to the apical plates of the aboral side. The six proximal plates surrounding the central piece repre- 190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. sent the basals or genitals, and the radial dome plates, the radials or oculars. The centre piece may perhaps be compared with the underbasals, or the subanal plate of the Echini. The apical dome plates, as the apical plates of the cal^-x, are fundamental elements, and are represented in the vault of all Sphffiroidocrinidse both in the 3^oung and the adult, from the Lower Silurian to the Subcarboniferous. They are generallj' larger than the other dome plates, and more prominent, frequently nodose or spiniferous, though in some species they cannot, at least in mature specimens, be readily distinguished from the other dome-plates which have attained equal size. In some genera, for instance, CuUcocrinus, Miiller, they occupy almost the entire ventral disk ; in Glyptocrinus and Bhodocrinus^ on the contrary, they fill only the median part. In some species of Dorycrinus the central piece is spiniferous and the radials nodose ; in others, all these plates are spiniferous. In Amphoracrinus only the four larger proximal dome plates are nodose or spiniferous ; in Agari- cocrinus allapical plates are tuberculose ; in Batocrinus the entire dome is composed of nodose plates. The proximal plates in some species are attached to the centre plate, in others separated from it by a ring of small accessory pieces, and in still others the centre piece is entirely isolated by the wide belt of minute pieces. The latter is frequently the case in large specimens, and in genera with but few primary arms, like 3Iegistocrinus. In this genus it is inter- esting to find in very young specimens and in the smaller species the central and proximal plates in contact, while in the larger and adult specimens all are isolated, even the proximal plates being separated from each other. The radial dome plates are sometimes attached to the other apical plates, frequently so in young speci- mens, and generally in the Platycrinidaj. In Platycrinus the radial series of the dome is composed of two rows of pieces alternately arranged, which decrease in size toward the arm bases, and of which the fii-st and larger plate fits in the angle of two adjacent proximal plates. The vault of the Platycrinidtie differs in several particulars from that of the other Sphseroidocrinidoe, and in these same char- acters it approaches the Cyathocrinidte. We elsewhere suggest that the Platycrinoid is the simplest form of the Sphiieroido- crinidse, and that it represents the j-ounger stage of the famil}'. This is indicated by the construction of the calyx, but not less b}^ 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 191 the structure of the vault. In the genus Coccocrinus Miiller, one of its earliest forms, the vault is composed of five large oral plates, resting upon the upper truncate side of a single interradial, and, as found in the fossil, it has a central oral opening and lateral grooves for the ambulacral furrows. Zittel has already- noted the close resemblance of the above structure with the recent genus Hyocrinns Wj'ville Thomson, and the larval state of Coma;!M?a, calling it very appropriately " ein embryonales Stadium von Comatula in persistenter Form." The similiarity to Hyo- crinus is probably merel}" superficial, as the lateral grooves in Coccocrinus were evidentlj^ closed by additional plates as in other Platycrinidae, while they are open in Hyocrinus. The oi'al plates of Coccocrinus have been,b3' several authors, confounded with an apparently similar superstructure in Symbathocrinus, Tnacrinus and other forms, but there is really no analogy between the two structures. The parts which enclose the opening at the oral centre in the latter forms are radial in position, and therefore not oral plates, but merely extended articulating facets of the radials. In those genera, the central space, like the opening at the centre of the oral plates, is also closed in perfect specimens by apical dome plates, which rest directly upon the extended pro- cesses. This group will be introduced hereafter as a separate family under the name SymbathocrinidtB. The ventral disk in Coccocrinus bears a close resemblance to that of Cyathocrinus, but while the former has an additional inter- radial interposed between its radial and oral plates, in Cyatho- crinus the intermediate plate is absent, and the oral plate rests against the incurved upper margins of the radials. In Platycrinus and similar genera, the two series of alternate plates which, as mentioned before, cover the radial regions of the dome, are inter- posed between three and sometimes five interradial plates, which in Coccocrinus as oral and interradial plates occupy the same position. This suggests the question whether these plates in the Platycrinidae, and the interradial dome plates in the Sphteroido- crinidoe generally, are not the homologues of the oral plates, which are here broken up, and represented by several plates instead of one. This interpretation seems to us the more probable because Coccocrinus is one of the earliest known forms of the Platycrinidae, and may be considered an embryonic type of the family. The homology: in Platycrinus^ however, extends only to the 192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. second or upper row of interradials, the first interradial, -which exceptionally in this group is placed almost within the dome regions, is identical with the outer interradial plate of Coccocrinus, and as such forms part of the apical and not of the oral system. This Adew differs somewhat from that expressed by us in Part I, p. 13, where we stated that the oral plate of the Cyathocrinidse had " no representative in the vault of the Actinocrinidse.atleast not externally ; " we were not at tliat time acquainted, with the genus Coccocrinus^ which has given us new light upon the subject. We have thought heretofore that perhaps the triangular porous structures arranged around the inner test of many Actinocri- nidae, might be the homologues of the oral plates. The vault throughout the Sphjeroidocrinidfe is perforated with a single opening, which in all of them is more or less exeentric ; in some lateral and placed toward the periphery of the disk ; in others sub-central leaning toward the posterior side of the body. The construction of the parts at the inner surface of the dome proves that the opening communicated with the posterior side of the visceral cavity, not with the digestive organs. It is sejDarated from the ambulacral and oral systems by a strong partition attached to the inner surface of the vault, and hence the opening represents the anus, and is not the oral aperture, as has been supi^osed by the earlier writers. The anus is either in the form of a simple opening through the vault, or is prolonged into a tube, which in Batocrinus sometimes attains a length of three times the height of the body including the arms. The tube is in all cases composed of heavy, generally nodose, wedge-form pieces, which are firmly put together, giving but little flexibility to the structure. It has no openings or pores through its plates or at the sutures, but has in the centre a comparatively small passage, with a minute outlet at the extremit3^ In cases where the anus is not extended into a tube, the aperture is generally situated within the centre of a wart-like inflation com- posed of very small pieces. It is possible that in such cases the small inner plates formed a little pliable tube, which could be drawn in by the animal like the anus in recents Ci'inoids,^ but a ^ In the genus Codonites of the Blastoidea, we find in connection with the anal opening a similar little tube, which we found in one specimen extended outward, while in another, traces of its little plates are left within the opening. 1881.] ■ NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 193 contraction of the long solid tube of Acfinoo'inus, as has been suggested by Austin, is wholl3' impossible. There has been considerable difference of opinion as to whether species with a solid anal tube should be separated from those with a simple opening. Cousidering the slight distinctious upon which many of the genera have been founded, it would seem that the tubular structure ought to be of sufficient importance to justify a generic separation ; but when we consider that various generic groups, after being carefully restricted with reference to all other characters, include both forms, its value as a full generic character must be somewhat doubtful. We once supposed that it might be a sexual difference, but the specific relations of the forms thus distinguished do not sustain that supposition. Both forms are not found in all the groups, though they exist in many, and throughout all divisions of this famil}'. In some cases generic separations have been made upon this character, as for instance Physetocrinus has been divided from Actinocrinus, Alloprosallo- crinus from Agaricocrinus^ etc., while in other cases as Platy- criniis^ GJy2:)tocrinus and Strotocinnus both forms have been retained in the same genus. It must also be observed, in this connection, that in some cases, especially species with a very slender proboscis like Batocrinus rotundus^ we find occasionally specimens in which the tube seems to have been accidentally broken awaj^ during the life of the animal, and in which the fractured edges of its base had become absorbed and rounded, giving it the appearance of a naturalh^ simple oj>ening. That the simple opening could have been produced in a like manner in Strotocrinus and other genera, no one would for a moment suppose after examining good specimens. The fact that the crinoid lived on without the tube, at least proves that this structure had no important influence upon the general organization of these animals. A tube is more freqiiently found in genera in which the arms are arranged in a continuous series around the body, while in species with a simple lateral opening the arms are arranged more or less in clusters, leaving wide spaces between the ra3's. In the former case, the long tube could discharge the excrements free from the arms, and in the latter it was not needed as the refuse matter could be easily discharged between the bases of the arm clusters. In view of these facts, we think a subgeneric division 14 194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF * [1881. sufficient to mark the two structures, but this should be done uniformly and we shall accordingly propose subgenera where necessary for this purpose. The vault does not completely cover the calyx, but leaves along the line of junction a row of oval or circular passages which have been called arms or " ambulacral openings." The belt in which they occur is known as the " arm regions," and their distribution in the different rays is expressed by the " arm formula." Thi'ough the arm openings which are veiy conspicuous in the Sphaeroido- cnnidii:', food entered the body, and the}^ served as passages for the ambulacral vessels. In a mature specimen the number of primar}^ arms can be ascertained by counting the arm openings ; but not always in young specimens, or in species in which the radial portions are extended into free ra^'s. By " free rays " we mean lateral extensions of the body, com- posed of a succession of radials, unconnected by interradials, and covered with similar plates, as solidly and in the same manner as the radial portions of the dome proper. These free rays, whether composed of only a few plates as in Plafycrinus, or extended almost to the full length of the arms as in Eucladocrinus and Steganocrinus, are actually portions of the body, and the arms are given off from them in the same manner as from the body in other cases. In the PlatyCrinid^ generally , there are within the calyx primary radials onlj^, all the higher orders of radials being included within the free ra3^s. In the body of a Platycrinus in its ordinary preser- vation, we find but five arm openings, but whenever the bifurcating plate is well preserved at its distal end, ten openings are Ausible,^ and these form passages for the free rays which here divide, each branch giving off arms laterally and from opposite sides. The free rays are rarely preserved in the fossil unless the arms are attached, when they really appear like arms and have been described as such. That they are not arms is proved by the fact that their ventral side is not provided with a furrow, but is covered in the same way as the vault proper. In these forms, as might be expected, the number of arms cannot be determined from ^ This proves that P. Herbert Carpenter is correct in saying that the division of the arms actually begins at the middle of the bifurcating plates, (pn Actinometra, p. 22). 1881.] ■ NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 195 the arm openings, unless the full length of the ra}' is preserved ; any fracture of the ray, whether cutting off one arm or a dozen, shows in the specimen onl}' a single opening. The Platycrinoid with its simple form, is similar in structure to the young Actinocrinoid,in which some portions of the ray are yet in the condition of free appendages. The young Actinocrinoid, at this stage, has the same number of arms as the adult ; but in species with numerous arms, the upper divisions of the ray, which in the mature animal are incorporated in the body walls by means of interradial and interaxillary plates, form free appendages in the younger stage, and consequently the number of arms is comparatively less than in full grown individuals. In Slroto- crini's, which has the greatest number of arms, we find in very 3'oung specimens only four arm openings to the raj' ; approaching maturity there are eight, afterwards twelve, and in fully matured individuals there are perhaps sixteen or more. Specimens in different stages of growth, have frequently been described as distinct species on account of variation in the number of arm openings ; and this has even been extended to genera. As growth progressed, the upper branches gradually lost their free character by being absorbed into the body walls through the interpolation of interradials and interaxillaries, both in the calj^x and in the vault. The plates which covered the ventral side of the free appendages were thus drawn into the vault, and became at length a part of the main bodj^ ; but the Platj'crinidfe, which have no interaxillaries nor increase of interradials, retain the free append- ages during life. As a general rule it may be asserted, that in the Sphreroido- crinidffi the plates of the vault increase in number outward in a similar manner to the plates of the calyx. The various plates of which the body is composed might be separated into two classes : 1. Plates which either do not increase in number, or do so only at the distal ends, and not by interpolation, including the basals, radials and arm plates. 2. Plates which increase by interpolation only, including the underbasals, interradials, anals and interaxillaries, to which we might add the joints of the column. 19g proceedings of the academy of [1881. 6, Arms and 1'innules. The arms in the Sphseroidocrinidae are either simple or branch- ing, and are constructed either of a single or double series of joints. Single arm joints are restricted to the Silurian, all Devonian and Subcarboniferous genera have two rows of alter- nately arranged joints in the arms. In the Cyathocrinidfe, almost to the close of the Subcarboniferous, the arms are composed of single joints, but in the Kaskaskia Limestone and Coal Measures a few species occur with double-jointed arms, intermingled, how- ever, Avith species apparentl}' of the same genus, in which the arms are constructed of single wedge-form joints alternately arranged. These two structures run so closely into each other through transition forms, that we have been compelled to arrange them in some cases under the same genus, although we have in. other cases considered the arm structure to be of generic import- ance. For tliis we have been criticised by Prof. Wetherby, of Cincinnati, who thinks it " a singular statement, that a character in forms of the same geological age may be generic in one case, and only specific in another." He evidently overlooks the fact that all Crinoids in their young stage have single-jointed arms, and that the double-jointed feature is a product of growth which primarilj- was only an individual variation, but which, by becom- ing fixed and constant in certain forms, attained generic value, especially when taken in connection with other characters. The best specific and generic and even famil}' characters, originated in individual A^ariation, and at some period in the paleontological history of the organism were without value as a means of classi- fication. Near the close of the existence of the family Cyatho- crinida?, the double-jointed arm structure began to be developed, in some forms irregularly, in others to such a degree as to be constant, and to form a distinguishing characteristic of many species, which thus fell naturally into a generic group. This process is illustrated in Eupachycrinus, Hydreionocrinus and Erisocrinus^ and there are similar examples among the Sphseroido- crinidae. The young Platycrinus and Actinocrinus have a single series of cuneiform arm joints, which are constructed exactly like those of the adult Poteriocrinus^ and the pinnules are given off in a like manner. At a more advanced stage the joints begin to enlarge laterally in such a manner that the sharp inner angles 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 197 interlock. This process commences at the extremities of the arras, and gradually involves the lower portions down to the bases. During this stage we often find the lower arm joints quadrangular, with parallel sutures, followed by wedge-form and cuneiform pieces, and finall\- the tips constructed of a double series of plates. The same development, which thus took place during the life of the individual, is observed to go on in geological times, but not contemporaneously in different families. In the Actinocrinidffi and Platycrinida? it became complete in the Silurian, and is found invariably in all succeedyig forms. In the Cyathocrinidie, that structure appeared only at the close of the Subcarboniferous shortly before the famih' became extinct. In this group, the arm pieces attained that marked wedge-form which everywhere ])re- ceded the double joints in the Burlington limestone, and here in some species of Poteriocrinus and Cceliocrinus the plates beo-an to interlock already at the tips of the arms. This became more frequent and more conspicuous in the Kaskaskia group, where in some few cases, it extended to the entire arm. The ditierent stages of individual growth, as the3' became gradu- ally introduced paleontologically and fixed, undoubtedly form excellent generic characters, but we must not forget that there was a time in the life of the crinoid at which the arms were neither single- nor double-jointed, but at which the joints began to interlock, and when probably a very few daj^s brought about important changes in the arms of the growing animal. This stage is represented paleontologicallj^ among the C3^athocrinid£e b}' Eupachycrinus, Erisocrinus and Hydreionocrinus, and jn this view of the ease it is not difficult to understand how this arm structure may be of generic importance as a rule, but scarcely of specific value in exceptional cases. It has been stated that the double-joint structure was introduced in the Spha^roidocrinidaj in the Silurian, and this occurred under exactly the same conditions as it did later on in the Cvathocri- nidse. By far the greater number of species in the Lower Silurian have single arm joints, and these, with a few exceptions, consist of quadrangular pieces with parallel sutures. In the Upper Silurian we find a few forms with single joints, and along with them arms with cuneiform joints — either interlocking or not — associated in the same strata with species having double series of arm plates and we find all intermediate gradations between the two extremes. 198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. In some of these species the two structures are found combined, in others so closely associated that it is next to impossible to separate them ; and in still others the extremes are separately represented. Generic divisions based upon these variations, unless accompanied by other distinctive characters, seem to be unneces- sary and inexpedient. It would require the creation of a large number of new genera, which would probably have to be sub- divided to accommodate other transitional forms, and so on with- out end. The double series of joints resulted from the increasing width and outward growth of the arm ; hence arm joints which originally Avere simple and cuneate did not in the mature animal extend througli the full width of the arm, but gradually interlocked by their shai'p angles, so that joints on each side, which at first were separated b}^ another joint, came by degrees to be partly in con- tact and to rest upon each other. Therefore, in double-jointed arms every joint at each side bears a pinnule, while in those with single joints the pinnules are found only on alternate sides. The arms in the Actinocrinidaj and Plat^crinidte divide rarely af:er they become free, the branching as a rule taking place in the body or in the free rays, MegUtocrinus^ Amphorac7-inus, and Periechocrinus form the only exceptions. In the Rhodocrinidte, on the contrary', the arms branch as a rule beyond the calyx. The ventral grooves in the arms of this family are less deep, but comparatively wider than those of the Cyathocrinidae. They are bordered on each side by a row of long pinnules, which cover them perfectly. Whether the grooves were closed b}" marginal plates seems to us doubtful, although Prof. Wetherby states that he has observed such plates in Glyptocrinus. they probabl}^ occur below the bifurcation where the arms should be regarded as free ra^^s, or perhaps they are restricted to oral arms, such as P. Herbert Carpenter describes in Actinometra The pinnules throughout this family are long, closely crowded together laterally, and the two rows with which each arm is pro- vided fit together so neatl}'^, and cover the arm furrow so perfectly, that additional plates were scarcel}^ needed. Each pinnule is com- posed of a number of joints, which differ in form in different genera. In some they are of equal width .and height, outwardly convex ; in others higher than wide, with the outer surface flat ; in some they are entirely smooth, and in others provided with a peculiar 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 199 hook ; but in all cases they lie so close together side by side, that it appears as if the pinnules were laterally- attached. In Activo- crinus and Strotocrinus each pinnule is furnislied near the middle of its outer surface with a tooth-like spine Avhich curves abruptly upwards ; these spines are short and obtuse near the arms, but gradually increase in length toward the tips of the pinnules. As a rule the pinnules are deeply grooved on their inner surface, and in perfect specimens the grooves are covered by a double series of very minute pieces, though owing to defective preservation this covering is rarely observed. In young specimens, while the arms are composed of a single series of joints, the pinnules are not in contact, and are onl}^ given off from the alternate joints, but when the alternate arm joints meet b}^ lateral growth, and the pinnules attain their full size they become gradually connected. D'Orbigny's genus EdwardaociHnus was founded upon a young Flatycrinus, whose arms and pinnules were in their transition state. T. Internal Cavity. The construction of the interior of the bod}' of all Paleozoic Crinoids is best known in the Sphctroidocrinidte, among which, specimens preserving some parts of the delicate organs have occa- sionally been found. The inner surface of the vault is ofcen deeply grooved toward the brachial zone, producing corresponding elevations outwardly on the test. There are generally five large grooves, each branching into two smaller ones, the former corresponding to the five rays, the latter to their main divisions. This kind of vault is found most frequently among the Rhodocrinida?. Among the Actino- crinidae external ridges are rarely observed, but in their place the vault within is strengthened with bars or braces radiating from near, but not joining at the centre. The braces widen toward the arm bases, where they fold over to form regular tubes, corresponding with the natural grooves in the vault just described, and they branch as those do. In genera in which the rays are extended into free appendages, and in which but five ambulacral canals pass out from the vault proper (Flatycrinus, Steganocrinus, etc.), the grooves are deep and in some cases were evidently closed and formed into tunnels, leaving, however, in either case beneath the median portion of the dome and in front of the anus, a space which is occupied by narrow grooves, meeting 200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. in the centre, and following the median line of the radial depres- sions and galleries below the vault to the arm openings. In some specimens of ActinoorinidjB, almost the entire test is lined with a delicate calcareous i)lexus or network. This lining is not in contact with the test directly, but connected with it by small partitions, producing innumerable little chambers, which eommunicate with each other and with the visceral cavity. Thi're is, at least, one such partition or support from each plate of the test, generally arising from the median portion of the plate. (PI. XIX, fig. 16). The plexus is very delicate in some specimens, in others — mostly in large specimens — rather dense and rigid, but in all of them perforated with conspicuous pores or passages, whose arrangement corresponds with the direction of the sutures between the plates of the test. There is one pore at least to each angle of the plate, but sometimes additional ones in large individuals. The structure extends but little below the regions of the second radials, leaves passages at the arm openings, and tow^ard the vault reaches to a place near the median portion of the ray, leaving at the centre an open space in the test which is occupied by the central vault piece. From this space five wide avenues, corresponding with the grooves on the inner surface of the vault, pass out toward the arm bases. The avenues produce five subtriangular interradial or interpalmar fields, which are raised conspicuously above the floor of the vault. They are of rather dense texture at the borders, the inner side somewhat thickened, while the surface of the median portions is rough and uneven, perforated with large and small passages which communicate with the avenues. Four of the interpalmar fields are equal, the posterior one fre- quently larger and penetrated by the anal aperture. In species with a lateral opening all five fields have about the same form, and the central space between them is of pentangular outline. The case is different in species with a subcentral anus, when frequently the posterior field is larger and encroaches deepl}^ upon the middle space, giving to it a lunate instead of a subcircular or pentangular outline. In species of this kind, the anus is placed near the edge of the interpnlmar field, but separated from the central space by a partition which forms the border of the field. In species with secondary radials, the avenues divide, sending a branch to 1881. J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 201 each arm, and forming thereby, between the interpalmar fields, a smaller intrapalmar' one similarly constructed. A calcareous lining, such as described, has been observed by us with slight variations in Batocrinus, Dorycrinus, Teleiocrinus, (Meek and Worthen's Strotocrinus B), Agaricocrinus and Eretmo- crinus^ and probably existed in many other genera. In the Actinocriniles, or tj'pical Actinocrinidre, the inner framework was either less developed, or was of a more perishable nature. In the genus Actinoci'inus it is indicated on the inner floor of the test by little roughened places, which we take to be traces of the pillars which supported it. In Physelocriniis even these have not been observed, but it is a characteristic feature of that genus, that the plates of the calj^x have along the sutures at each angle verv distinct indentations resembling pores, which give to the outer surface of the test almost the appearance of the inner plexus in species of Batocrinus or Dorycrinus. Whether there was any communication with the visceral cavity' through these indenta- tions cannot be ascertained from the fossil. The test at these points is exceedingly' thin and transparent, but we have never detected an actual passage. It must also be noted that the vault in that genus has similar indentations, but these, contrary to the others, open out from the inner floor of the test, being arranged along the radial grooves, not interradiall^'' as those along the calyx (PI. XIX, figs. 5 and 16). In Strotocrinus^ an internal framework has been observed in connection with the cal^-x, but none with the vault, and its typical form had apparently, like Physetocrinus, slight indentations along the inner floor of the vault. The general internal structure indicates a concentration of organs toward a point beneath the centre of the vault, in front of the anus, but not to the anus itself. The latter is situated distinctly outside the radiation, i. e., interradially. The grooves which we have noticed in the vault were figured by De Koninck and Lelion in their Recherches Crin. Carb. Belg., but they seem to have regarded them as muscular impressions. Billings, in the third and fourth Decades of the Canada Geological Report, was the first to treat ' The term " i/ii<;rpalmar Felder " was used by Joh. Mtiller for the " in- terradialen Felder zwischen den Tentakelvinnen im Perisom des Penta- crir.us, ' /«^?'rtpalmar Felder ' for the interdistichal Felder" (jMonatsber. Berl. Acad. 1841, p. 218;. 202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. of them in connection witli the ambulacral system. He showed how impossible it was that the ambulacral canals in some Paleo- zoic Crinoids coukl be continued along the outer surface of the vault, and he reached the conclusion that they passed into the body at the arm bases. It is remarkable that Billings, after mak- ing this important discovery, in connection with which analogy suggested that the food entered the bod}' in the same manner, clung as late as 1810 to the old theory that the subcentral passage in these crinoids — interradiately situated as we have shown — served both as mouth and vent. This view was advocated b3'him in a series of interesting articles, published 1869-tO in tlie Am. Jour. Science and Arts, Nos. 142, 145, 149, as '' Notes on the Structure of Crinoidea, Cystidea and Blastoidea." Since that time, it has been most generally conceded that the interradial opening was the anus onl}', and that the oral centre or mouth in the earlier crinoids was hidden from view by external structures.^ Billings' views with regard to the ambulacral passages were con- firmed by Wachsmuth's discovery of radiating tubes beneath the vault,^ which, as he ascertained, connect with the ambulacral furrows in the arms. We have since examined these tubes in several other specimens, both of Actinocrinus and Strotocrinus, and are enabled to give additional information regarding them. The radiating tubes are attached to the vault, running parallel to its inner surface. They consist of five main trunks, which follow the direction of the five main avenues which separate the interpalmar fields. They bifurcate in the same waj^ and until a branch connects with every arm. They are composed of four rows of plates, two below and two above. The two latter touch with their edges the inner surface of the vault, are alternately arranged, and grooved along their median line, leaving a tun- neled passage between the walls of the tube and the vault. The trunks of the two lateral sets of tubes on the same side not un- 1 The following writers have expressed this opinion : Schultze, 1866, Monog-. Echin. Eifl. Kalk, p. 7 ; Meek and Wortlien, 1869, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., p. 323 ; Loven, on Hypomene Sarsi, reprinted Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Sept., 1869 ; Wachsmuth, "On the Internal and External Stnicture of Paleozoic Crinoids," Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, Aug. 1877, p. 115; Zittel, 1879, Handb. d. Palseontologie. ^ Described by Meek and Wortben, Geol. Rep. 111., vol. v, p. 329, and Wachsmuth, Am. Jour. Sci., Aug., 1877, p. 119. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 203 frequently meet before reaching the peristome, but the anterior ray is always distinctl}^ separated. Whenever tubular canals have been observed, they are pre- served only to the border of the central space, but none of them have been found to join in the centre. In a specimen of Actinocr. glans, however, the tubes before terminating bend down- ward toward the visceral cavity, give forth lateral processes, as if disposed to branch, and expose two openings at the extremities directed to opposite sides. The openings indicate that the tubes ma}^ have been connected with each other by lateral passages, and formed a ring around the centre. This is evidentl}^ the structure of Actinocr. Verneuilianus^ in which a circular vessel is observed beneath the centre at a short distance from the vault ; no ambu- lacral tubes are attached to it, but there are small radial openings with which they might have been connected. The lower portion of the ring is composed of minute interlocking pieces, with five additional openings interradially situated. This ring is com- paratively large, enclosing within its circumference the contracted upper part of the convoluted digestive organ, which is well preserved in the specimen from which these facts were obtained. A tubular skeleton, as above described, has thus far been observed only in the Actinocrinidae, but a tubular passage beneath the vault, in connection with the arm grooves and oral centre, has been traced in most groups of the Palffiocrinoids, and no doubt existed also in the Blastoids. In Cyathocri7ius, and probabl}' in the Cyathocrinidse generall}^ the tube is constructed of two series of pieces overlying the oral plates, and these again are covered by two similar series of plates, which form a part of the vault. In Granatocrinus the tubes follow the pseudambulacra, being covered by three series of small plates which must be considered extensions of the vault (PI. XIX, fig. 3). It is now generally conceded that the tubular canals beneath the vault contain the same organs which in modern crinoids are exposed on the ventral disk, and like them embrace the food passages, and certain other vessels in connection with the ambu- lacral system. In this view of the case, it is reasonable to further consider tliat the annular vessel, above described, served as a water-vascular ring. The relations between the vault and the ventral covering of recent Crinoids are not so close as has been sometimes supposed, 204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the3^ are indeed diflerent things, although there are certain analo- gies between some of their parts. Among these are the oral plates, which are represented in some of the later Crinoids, but absent again in the fully grown PentacrinuH and in the Comatitlidse. They are also absent in the Spluvroidocrinidte, unless we consider the interradial vault pieces to be their representatives. We have alread}' suggested that all intenadial plates in the dome — exclu- siA'C of the proximal pieces — may perhaps have been modified oral plates which, either by division or interpolation, gradually increased in number. The dome of Coccocrinus has a single oral plate to each interradial field, while the corresponding spaces in most species of Plafyannuti are occupied by three and occa- sionally five pieces each. It is as easy to consider the single plate of the former to be represented by three in Platycrinus, as that the three are sometimes replaced by five within the limits of the same genus, the plates occup}^ the same jwsition in both cases, but in some groups the true orals meet laterally which is not the case with the interradial dome pieces of Platycrinus or Acti- nocrinus, nor with the undivided plates of Coccocrinus. In Cyathocrinus where the orals are very conspicuous, they join beneath the radial groove, and form the floor upon which the am- bulacral tube i-ests. The bottom of the tube is composed of two series of pieces, which are covered directl}^ b}^ vault pieces in two alternate rows, whose lateral margins rest upon the upper edges of the two orals ; while in Platycrinus the corresponding vault pieces abut laterally against the sides of the interradial — oral — plates in an unbroken succession. In Platycrinus the interradial plates thus take exactly the same position as the exposed part of the oral plates in Cyathocrinus, while the covered parts are unrepresented. In Coccocrinus^ a covering of the ambulacral groove has not yet been observed, but judging from the fissure between the oral plates, it probably rested just upon their edges, and formed an intermediate link between the vault structure of the Cyathocrinidse and Platycrinidfe. In the Actinocrinidfe and Rhodocrinidoe, the alternate dome plates are not so readily distinguished, as in the Platycrinidfe and forms with free rays, in which they are well marked in the extended parts. In the recent Crinoids the alternate plates are represented by the " Saumpliittchen," which, however, instead of 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 205 forming a part of a solid vault, are movable, and line the lateral margins of the tentacle furrows. The proximal and central dome plates are altogether unrepre- sented in recent Crinoids. This is best perceived by comparing CoccocrnnuH as usually preserved, with Hyocrinus or other recent genera in which the oral plates are developed. In both cases, there is at the oral centre an opening at which the grooves con- vei-ge, surrounded by the oral plates ; but, while in Hyocrinus and. all recent genei-a this opening is unobstructed b}" solid parts, in Coccocrinus, Gyathocrinus^ and the Palaeocrinoids geuerall}', it is covered by the apical dome plates. The central piece generally occupies the median portion of the vault, and always indicates the centre of the oral system. We have already noted narrow grooves upon the inner surface of the vault, which meet on the central piece, and follow the median line of the radial depressions and galleries to the arm openings. Only three main grooves meet at the centre, those of the two lateral rays are uniting before reaching that point (PI. XVIII, fig. 1). The grooves are best observed in natural casts of the interior, in which they appear on the surface in the form of narrow bands or ridges (PI. XIX, figs. 5 and 9). The position of the grooves indicates that they may have contained axial cords in connection with a nervous system located beneath the central plate. The location of the nervous system within the regions of the ambulacral centre is in analogy to the structure of other Echi- noderms, except the Comatulidffi, in which, according to P. Herbert Carpenter, the principal nervous systems are located at the apical side, and in connection with the quinquelocular organ which occupies the cavit}- of the centrodorsal plate. ^ The interpalmar fields are composed of a soft skin, but although this is more or less incrusted with limestone particles, which sometimes almost look like vault pieces, they have no affinities with the plates of the vault. The plates of all recent Crinoids are perforated with numerous pores for the introduction of water into the body, a function which could not well be pei'formed by the interradial pieces, but much less by the solid undivided oral plates of Gyathocrinus and Goccocrinus. In the Cyathocrinidse, these functions may have been performed by the ventral sac 1 On some points in the anatomy of Pentacrinus and lihizocrinus. Jour. Anat. and Phys., vol. xii p. 35. 20r> PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. ■which is profusely punctured, but evidentl}^ not by the simpler ventral tube of the Sphyeroidocrinidse which is destitute of such openings. Nor can we imagine that there was any such communi- cation through the dome proper, its plates are perfectly con- nected at their sutures, and the interradial series especially are strengthened by strong braces within. There are evidently closer relations between Cyathocrinus and Hyocrinus or genera with oral plates, than between the Penta- crinidffi and Sphaeroidocrinida?, in which those plates are either unrepresented or greatly modified. The latter two types form the extremes, and are probably more distant in their relations with each other, than most Blastoids and Cystideans from the Palaeocrinoids. The affinities of the Palaeocrinoids with the Blastoids, become more apparent by our recent discover}^ of hydrospires in a speci- men of TeJeiocrinus. Their exact construction has not j^et been fully ascertained, but that such organs existed in some of the Actinocrinidoe is now demonstrated beyond a donbt. The speci- men is fragmentary, it was obtained from a narrow cherty band of the Upper Burlington Limestone, and is itself silicious. The interior is solid, with the exception of a natural concavit}' beneath the vault, at which point it was broken in quarrying, exposing a part -of the upper face of the tubular skeleton. Portions of two tubes only are visible, and these are broken transversely after their second branching, the fracture giving a cross-section of the tubes and surrounding parts. In Teleiocrinus as in Strotocrinus proper, the lateral rim contains radiating tunnels formed by par- titions between the divisions of the raj^s. The tunnels, as observed by us in several specimens, are divided transversely into two com- partments, of which the upper one is occupied by the ambulacral tubes (PI. XIX, figs. 16 and 8). In the specimen under considera- tion the lower or dorsal compartment has a semicircular outline, and witliin this, below one of the branches of the ambulacral tubes, there are visible two distinct folds, closely resembling the folds in the hydrospires of Granatocrinus (PI. XIX, fig. 3). Beneath the adjoining branch, the folds cannot be so well distinguished, but the outlines of the h3'drospifes are also there faintly indicated. Considering that the arms in the Blastoids are inverted and recumbent, and that their calcareous portions represent not onl}' he solid parts of the arms, but also a part of the test, it M'ill be 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 207 seen that the hydrospires above noted, and those of the Blastoids, have not only a similar form, but also a very similar position.^ The hydrospires of the Crinoids, like those of the Blastoids, are placed in close proximity to the arms with which they were probably in communication, close to the test and within the general cavity of the body. The above is, to our knowledge, the only case in which hydro- spires have been observed among the Sphaeroidocrinidae, but thej^ were probably present in other genera, and perhaps in the Palseo- crinoids generally- ; while these organs are unknown in all later and recent Crinoids, and in other groups of Echinoderms. It is a fact worthy of note that all Cystideans and Blastoids, and so far as known, all Palaeocrinoids which possess hydro- ' The vault in the Blastoids, as we understand it, consists not merely of the plates which cover the oral opening, but extends all along the median portions of the pseudambulacra (PI. XIX, fig. 3), "forming underneath a good-sized tunnel, which we take to be the bomologue of the ambulacra! tube of the Crinoids. If this interpretation is correct the structure bears the closest similarity to that found in those Crinoids in which the vault is extended into free rays, and in which these extensions combine to some degree the characters of. the arms and body. The recumbent arms of the Blastoids are, according to this, lateral extensions of the body which take the place of true arms ; but while in the Crinoids the radial exten- sions give off regular arms, in which the ambulacral tubes are converted into grooves, the corresponding parts in Blastoids remain attached to the body, and the pinnules form the only free appendages. It is possible, how- ever, that in the Blastoids the lateral furrowswhich traverse the ambulacral fields were not covered by plates, and that these correspond to the open arm grooves — respectively arms— in Crinoids. Dr. Hambach (Contributions on the Anatomy of the genus Pentremites, p. 7) is probably correct in supposing that the pinnules of the Blastoids were not connected with the pores, as hitherto believed. We think it probable that they rested in the funnel-shaped pits which alternate with the pores, and which communicate with the lateral grooves of the pseud- ambulacra, while the pores probably communicated with the hydrospires. This view coincides with what we have heretofore suggested, that the upper face of the pseudambulacra corresponds to the grooves within the arms of the Crinoids. and indicates that there are close affinities between the ambulacral field itself and the solid portion of the arms. The passage directly beneath the field is probably the dorsal or axial canal, which by the inverted position of the arms became the inner instead of the outer passage. The hydrospires in the Blastoids are placed beneath the canal, and extend along the perivisceral cavity of the body, like in the case ot Teleiocrinus. 208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. spires had a subtegminal mouth, and a solid test built up of plates so closel}^ fitted togetlier that expansion or contraction was impossible. Expansion in some parts, however, was neces- sary to produce circulatory currents for the introduction of food. In most Echinoderms, including all recent Crinoids, this is accom- plislied by means of the pliant test and soft appendages which surrounded it. The Echini alone, like the Paleozoic Crinoids, have a rigid test, but the}'^ possess an external mouth, and in addition to their numerous soft appendages a movable actinal membrane, capable of considerable expansion, even in some cases beyond the line of the actinostome. It seems to us not unlikely that the h3'drospires served the purpose of gills, producing by their con- tractions and dilatations the requisite circulation to introduce food and expel the refuse matter. This would account for their absence in the recent Crinoids and other Echinoderms, and would suggest that they were probably connected with numerous soft appendages along the arms, arranged perhaps in like manner as the pores along the ambulacra of the Blastoids, but not as in the Cystideans, in which the pores which connect with the hydrospires are distributed over different parts of the body. A better knowl- edge of these organs, as they exist among the three great divisions of the Paleozoic Crinoids, would doubtless afford far more satis- factory characters for separation than we now possess. In the abdominal cavity of the Paheocrinoidea, the only structure which has been observed consists of a peculiar skeleton located beneath the tubular canals, which from its position, in analogy to other Ecliinoderms, has been referred to the digestive apparatus.^ In its usual preservation, it is a large convoluted body resem- bling the shell of a Bulla, open at both ends. The upper end is placed beneath the centre of the vault, and the lower directed toward the base. It is dilated above ; contracted below ; its surface about parallel with the walls of the visceral cavity. In some species it is subcylindrical, with the vertical axis the longer ; in others globular or even depressed globose ; but it is always truncate below, and never extends to the inner floor of the basal plates. The walls are coiled without touching at any point, and > Meek and Wortlien, Geol. Rep. 111., v., p. 328, call it a convoluted sup- port of the digestive sac. Wachsmuth, Am. Jour. Sci. Aug., 1878, p. 135, terms it the " alimentary canal. ' 1881,] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. i^09 the convolutions are directed outward from left to right, varying in number from two to four in different species. In the usual state of preservation the walls are perfectly solid, almost like a " convoluted plate " as which it was described by Hall. In transverse sections, they are seen to be strong, and appear to be constructed of two partitions closely fitted together and united at the edges. The unusual thickness and apparent double natui'e of the walls in these specimens misled Wachsmuth in 1877, who considered the walls to be the body of the alimentary canal. This is evidentl}- a mistake. We now know, from a num- ber of other specimens, that the wall was simple in all cases, very delicate, and constructed of an extremely fine filigree work, which generally in the fossil became thickly incrusted with silicious matter on both sides, thus producing the apparent duplication of the wall. In good specimens, a magnifier fWiows the wall to be composed of an extremely fine network of minute pieces or bars, with intervening meshes. These bars, according to Meek and Worthen, " do not intersect each other at anj- uniform angle', but anastomose so as to impart a kind of irregular regularity to the form and size of the meshes." That this network was in some wa}' connected with the diges- tive organs, is no doubt true, but whether it formed a mere sup- port for the digestiA^e sac, as Meek and Worthen suggested, or was an extensive plexus of blood vessels surrounding the ambu- lacral canal, is a question we are as yet unable to solve. It should, however, receive a more appropriate name than any yet given, and we propose to call it the " oesophageal network," which may be changed when its special functions and aflftnities are discovered. One of the writers found a specimen of Actinocrinus, in which the convolutions were nearly intact, and b}'^ removing the outer fold, the inner or upper end, as distinguished from the outer or terminal part, could be examined (PI. XIX, fig. 12). The organ has the usual dense structure, and where it comes into view, is an elongate tube, which passing downward widens at first gradually to near the middle of the visceral cavity, then rapidlj^ until it attains a width equal to two-thirds the entire length of the cavity. The upper part descending spirally turns from right to left, but on becoming wider the whorls are abruptly reversed , and there- after the convolutions are from left to right. The outer end also tapers rapidly, assuming the form of a flattened tube, and ascends 15 210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. spirally on tlio outside, while the other end is directed toward the oral centre, but a connection with the food grooves has not yet been observed. In all cases where the oesophageal network has been examined, among the Actinocrinidai and Platycrinidse, it varies only in out- line and in the number of whorls ; while in Ollacrinus the entire skeleton resembles a large spiral. In the only specimen observed, it apparently consisted of a large round canal, which turned spirally on its axis, and which near the basal plates turned upward, but the organ is in a fragmentary condition, and it is ((uite possible that this part was surrounded by other convolu- tions. Until recently this organ had been observed only in crinoids from the Burlington group. Angelin, however, in the Icononographia Crinoideorum Suecise, figures several examples from the Upper Silurian of Sweden ^Pl. 26, figs. 12, 12 a, 6, ). It is well preserved in these specimens, and resembles that of later Actinocrinida\ It differs, however, in being closed at the outer side, while the inner parts, as in Burlington specimens, are distinctly coiled. The outer wall is pentangular in outline, open toward the basal disk, and consists of a very delicate porous texture, appearing like an envelope for the inner or coiled parts, and as such possibly represents the perivisceral plexus, which in some cases almost equals the oesophageal network in delicacy of structure. 8. Column. The column in the SphseroidocrinidiB is generally circular transversely, though sometimes elliptical or pentagonal and even quadrangular. It is elliptical only in Platycrinua^ and the pentagonal form occurs only in Befeocrinus and some few species of the Glyptocrinites. The central canal varies from large to extremely small, and is round or pentagonal. In Platycrimis it is so minute that in columns of an inch or more in thickness on their long diameters, the opening will scarcely admit the point of a needle. In the Rhodocrinidse it is irregularly^ pentagonal, and as a rule small. Among the Actinocrinidte also, the passage is generally not aboA'e medium size, but in Megistocrinus it is remarkably large throughout the column and all its branches. B}' the earlier writers, new species were often based upon frag- mentary columns, a practice which ha^ fortunately been aban- 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 211 doner! , since it became known that the different parts of tlie column in the same specimens are often widely dissimilar. In the growing animal, new columnar joints were continuallj- introduced b}^ interpolation between the older segments, and these younger joints, which are found throughout the column in all stages of development, produce striking changes in the general aspect. The column matured from the root upward, and the upper part remained throughout the life of the crinoid in a kind of immature state, wherein the intercalated joints did not attain the width of the others. The uppermost joints, however, although they were probabl}' among some of the earliest developed parts of the col- - umn, are not separated b}" smaller joints. Gradually, sometimes between the third and fourth joints, new plates make their appear- ance ; the first one so thin as to be scarcely visible, the next which lies between the succeeding joints much larger, the third probaltl}'. reaching full size. Secondary intercalations follow between the new pieces, the intervening spaces between the larger joints increasing gradually to a maximum, from which point down tliQ column seems to be mature, for all succeeding spaces have a like number of intercalated joints. As a general rule, the column decreases somewhat in thickness from the calyx for a certain dis- tance down, after which it increases again towai'ds the root. In some species the primary joints are only longer, but not of greater diameter than the others. This is the case inPlatycrinus where the new joints seem to have been formed directl}- beneath the calyx, their number increasing in length gradually along the stem, and not in sections as in the Actinocrinid* and the Rhodocrinidte. Lateral cirrhi along the column have been rarely observed, and in this famil}^ probablj' existed only toward the root. The form . of the root is exceedingly variable, and depended evidently upon the conditions of its place of attachment. When living in a soft or sandy soil, it seems to have been provided with a great number of small rootlets which are given off both vertically and horizon- tally ; but when it was attached to a rock or other hard substance, the lower surface grew entirel}- flat and was often deeplj- grooved. The grooves pass out from the root, and apparently took the place of the vertical rootlets. The central passage extends to the smallest rootlets and is often of considerable size. "We have already noted this fact in Part I, and suggested that probably the :il2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. rootlets may have had respiratory functions by introducing water into the bod}'. In adult specimens of ActinocrinidiB and Rhodocrinidaj the column was long. We have never seen its full length, but have in several instances traced it three to four feet without seeing either root or body, and we suppose that it was in some genera very much longer. Of Plati/cri7ius, however, we have examined five complete speci- mens measuring from the tips of the arms to the extreme ends of the fine rootlets from t to 27 inches — the latter in a large species. In all these specimens, the column gives off for some distance large lateral branches, which decrease in size toward the end of the root, each one with irregular branches which divide again and terminate in hair-lilie tubes. We never saw a Platycrinus in which the root was flattened, as in some of the Actinocrinidae, and it seems possible that the crinoids of this genus only grew on a soft bottom, or possibly floated about with their column like an anchor. The same was evidently the case in the genus Glyp- tocrinus, in which the column was short, tapering to almost a needle's point, without lateral branches. 9. Mode of Growth and Pal^ontological Development. In the Pentacrinoid larva of Antedonj the calyx is composed chiefly of very distinct, rather large basals, alternating with which are five dots, which represent minute radials. The crinoid at this stage consists only of five, columnar joints, the large basals, the rudimentary radials, and of five large oral plates which cover the entire peristome. The succeeding radials, at first unrepresented, develop afterwards, and the arms make their appearance at a much later period. Of the Palaeocrinoids, the first stages are, of course, unknown, all the specimens we have discovered— even the very youngest — being already provided with arms, and hence were considerably advanced in the scale of growth. It can be ascertained, however, by a comparison of larger and smaller specimens, that their mode of growth must have been similar to that of Antedon. In the smaller, and as we consider them, younger specimens, the basals, compared with the other ])lates, are much larger, being almost the same size as in mature individuals. Next in size are the first radials, which are larger than the second and third. In the inter- 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 213 radial series the first plate is iiiueh the largest, and the number of interradial and anal plates is considerably less in }■ onng specimens than in the adult, thus indicating that the calyx in these crinoids was developed from the basals up, as in their living representa- tives. With the development of the first interradial, apparentl}^ simul- taneous with the second and third radials, the Platj'crinoid form, the simplest of the Sphaeroidocrinidoe was complete. The earliest tj'pes of the Platycrinidje known to us, but evidently not the earliest representatives of that group, are from the Upper Silurian. In Coccocrinus the body is composed of three basals, two by five radials — the first very much the larger — a single interradial, and five large oral plates, exactly as we must expect from analogy to find the Actinocrinoid in its earlier phases. The ra3's in the Platycrinoid are free from the primary radials up, but the first joints of the two main divisions are simple and constructed similar to the radials in the hodj of the Actinocrinidae. To transform the Platycrinoid into an Actinocrinoid, it only requires the inter- polation of one or more interradial pieces between the proximal plates of the first division of the ray. By this simple process, the plates which were before free in the Platycrinoid, were incorpo- rated into the body, and raised to the dignity of secondarj^ radials. Many of the earlier Rhodocrinidse and Actinocrinidse are char- acterized by highly elevated ridges, which extend all along the radial series of the body. They run verticall}^ along the middle of the primary radials, divide upon the third plate, and branch to the secondary and tertiar}^ radials, whence they pass very gradu- ally into the arms. The ridges are very prominent, rounded exteriorly, and as they approach the arm bases, assume nearl}^ the shape and size of the arms. The plates upon which they are extended, in their upper series, scarcely difier in length from the first free arm plates, and all graduall}^ diminish upward. The longitudinal ridges are evidently not accidental, nor a mere orna- mentation, but represent the arm joints as they were when first developed in the young animal. In this early stage they were round joints, the lateral wing-like extensions being developed afterward, when by reason of the upward growth of interradial and interaxillar}^ pieces, the plates became parts of the body. We find on the surface of many internal casts of forms belonging to this group similar but narrow ridges, which follow the same direction 214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. as those upon the test. The ridges in these cases are evidently the impressions of rudimentar}* grooves, indicating that the plates at that stage were provided with ambulacral furrows like regular arm plates. The}' also had pinnules attached, which like the arm plates were by the growth of the animal absorbed into the calj'x. The fixed pinnules, which Wetherb}- describes in Glyptocrinus Piichardsoni, Cincinnati Soc. Xat. Hist., 1880, and which we found also in Gl. decadactylus and Reteocrinus O^Xealli, confirms our views as to the mode of growth of the Palffiocrinoid, and throws light upon the palasoutological development of Crinoids generally. The number of secondary radials varies considerabl}' with age. In Reteocrinus O'Nealli we have observed as many as seven, but the number may be even more in some cases ; and on the other hand we found in some younger specimens onl}' three or four. The first and second of these plates, and the third and fourth seem to have been united b}' syzygies, at least the first and third bear no piijuules, while beyond the fourth pinnules are given off regularl}' from alternate sides as in the free arms. The proximal pinnule is given off toward the outer side of the ra^y, or, which is the same thing, toward the iuterradial area, the next one toward the interaxillary space. The plate which gives rise to the first pinnule has almost the form of a bifurcating plate, but instead of supporting radials of a higher order, it bears on its inner sloping side a tliird secondary radial, and on the outer a stout pinnule. The first fixed pinnule is highl}' elevated above all other plates of the interradial space, is rounded like the radials, and almost as conspicuous. In one of our specimens it consists of five plates, three of which are soldered into the bod}^, and the fourth appar- ently free. The fixed plates are nearly as strong as the radials and may be easily taken for them, having lik6 them winged exten- sions by which the}' are laterally connected with the interradial plates. The upper joint is much smaller and constructed like the joints of the free pinnules. The second pinnule has only two joints in the body, the third but one, which in either case are larger than any of the free joints, but which already attain some- what more the aspect of regular pinnules, and are gi^-en off in a similar manner. In a specimen of Glyptocrinus Richardsoni, kindl}' loaned to us b}' Prof. Wetherby, the first fixed pinnule is given off from the second plate above the first bifurcation, and consists of seven plates within the body, the third and fourth J881.J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 215 plates were joined by sj^zj'gies. The second pinnule, with but four joints within the body, springs from the opposite side of the fourth plate. The fifth plate, instead of a pinnule, supports a regular arm, and the sixth again a pinnule, but from the same side as the preceding pinnule. This is important as it suggests the idea that the pinnule may have here developed into an arm. That a transformation of this kind took place in some groups, is more than probable, as will be shown presently. In Glyptocrinus decadactylus only the second and third secondary radials are joined b}^ s^'zygies, all succeeding pinnules being given off regularly. The number of arms has been considered of specific importance among the Pal£eocrinid?e, and even genera have been based upon this character. The greatest variation in the arm formula is found among species of the tjpical Actinocrinidae, in which we include, besides the genus Actijiocrinus, also Strotocrinus^ Teleiocrinus, Physetocrinus and Steganocrinus. These genera agree in the style of their ornamentation, and in the construction of the anal area, which differs somewhat from that of all other Actinociinida?. It is to be noted that in this group the specimens have, as a rule, the same number of arms in the different rays, the few exceptions being due to deficient or abnormal development of these parts. The genus Actinocrinus has been ver}- appropriately separated by Meek and Worthen into two sections. The one, with Actino- C7-inus prohoscidialis Hall, as a type, has the arm-bases arranged in a continuous series all round ; the other, with Actinocr. midti- radiaius as tj^pe, has the ra3S formed into more or less protuberant lobes. A. proboscidialis of the first section, which represents the simplest form of this interesting group, has only four arms to the ray. The first departure is A. reticulatuii with four arms in all but the two posterior rays, which have five ; the fifth arm where it exists, being placed below the line of the others and appearing somewhat crowded. Next in order are A. limahrachiatus and A. clarus with five arms, in which one of the divisions in each ray divides again. A. sexoTinatus and A. ojjusc^dus have six arms or three to each division of the ray. A. muUihrachiatus and A. penicillus have probably six, seven or eight arms, without regu- larit}^ as to arrangement or distribution. A. ccelatus and A. spino- (entaculus have a greater number than anj' other species of this section, having normally eight arms to each ray. 216 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. On examining a large collection of the different species, it will be found that a separation according to the number of arms is not so satisfactory as might be expected, for only a few specimens will be found — except the four-armed ones — which agree with the given arm formula of the species. The majority will be found to have in one or more rays very irregularly, either a surplus or a deficiency of arms, and the greater the number of arms a species possesses, the oftener such irregularities occur. The difficulty of identifjdng these species is further increased by the similarity — we might almost call it identity — of general form and ornamenta- tion, which prevails throughout the group. The gradual increase of arms would naturally lead us to inquire whether it might be connected with the growth of these crinoids — an idea which seemed at first plausible, inasmuch as the above species are found exclusively in the Lower Burlington beds ; but an examination of specimens, with the arms in place, shows that such is not the case. Specimens with four arm openings in the body to each ray, have also four simple arms, while they should have, if representing a younger stage of the six- or eight- armed species, the same number of arms as the adult, with the bifurcations taking place beyond the body as in Platijcrinua. The fact is, however, that the arms of A. proboscidialis are not only simple, but from the base up, are composed of a double series of pieces, while the plates which should form the higher orders of radials in the adult are entirely absent. In Strotocrinus^ which is closely related to Actinocrinus, the variations in the number of arms are still greater, being among the different species from eight to twentj^-four to the ray. Strofocri- nus has also been divided b}^ Meek and Worthen into two sections ; the first including species with a simple anal opening directly through the vault, which they call the typical form, and the second, those with a large sub-central anal tube, for which we have pro- posed the sub-genus Teleiocrinus. The ornamentation among the different species of the two sections is remarkably similar, only that in some species the striations are more prominent, in others the nodes. The most important feature of the genus is the pecu- liar rim, which extends out horizontally from the body, formed of the higher orders of radials, which are connected by interradial, interaxillar}^, and some other apparently accessory pieces. In the allied Actinocrinus spinotentactdiis with eight arms to the ray, 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 217 the Slrotocrinus rim is alreadj' indicated, and in specimens in which the arms are preserved, their lower portions stand out hori- zontall}^ as in that genus; but the plates of these parts are not connected laterall}^ which feature, aside from the difference in the number of arms, constitutes the principal distinction between Actinoci'inus and Teleiocrinus. Throughout tliis group, all bifurcations of the ray — after the first — take place on the first plate in each order, only one of the branches dividing again, and this alternately from opposite sides, the other branch remaining simple. The arrangement is such that the bifurcating plates of each primary division of the ray follow each other in direct succession, forming two main trunks, while the plates which remain simple, and are succeeded by others to the edge of the rim, are given off alternately like pinnules. These lateral branches are separated from the main rays by small pieces, and each branch supports a free arm at the edge of the rim. Within the rim, the radial series are conspicuousl}^ marked by sharp carinae or ridges, which pass from plate to plate, and follow both main and lateral divisions, while the small accessor^^ pieces, which connect them, are formed into deep depressions. Comparing the ridges with the elevations we have described in Glyptocrinus^ and which are found in other Silurian genera, the resemblance is indeed very striking. The ridges in the latter extend over the primary-, secondar}', and sometimes over the ter- tiary radials, and pass gradually into arms ; but while we find in Glyptocrinus very strong arm-like pinnules, there are in Slroto- crinus and Teleiocrinus pinnule-like arms, both included within the body walls, and both springing off laterally like ordinarj'^ pin- nules. The lateral branches in the rim of Slrotocrinus were evidently pinnules in the young animal, and free as in the younger stage of Glyptocrinus^ but with growth gradually developed into regular arms; while those of the latter remained as pinnules during lifetime. This explanation accords with the construction of pinnules, which is so similar to that of arms, that it is in many cases exceedingly^ dilficult to draw a line between them. In Melocrinus the alternate pinnule-bearing appendages were called by some authors arms, by others pinnules. The branches in Cyathocrinus were called pinnules by Wyville Thomson, and arms by most other authors. Following out the observations, it seems probable that all arms 218 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. above the first bifurcation are metamorphosed pinnules, given oft' from the primary radials. Applying this rule to the case of Actinocrinus and Teleiocrinus, the idea is suggested that A. pro- boscidialis, which is the most common species of the group, and has only four arms to the ray, is in all probability the progenitor of all similar Burlington species, evidently of both genera. In A. recticulalus only the proximal pinnule toward the posterior side was transformed ; in A. clarus one pinnule in each ray ; in species with six arms the first pinnule on the opposite side was added ; in species with seven arms the first and second pinnules of one side, and the first of the other, and so on alternately on opposite sides. Although the increase of arms is frequently attended with some irregularity, the number of arms should here be considered of specific importance, and deviations from the normal number as intermediate steps between the species. During the Lower Burlington Limestone epoch, the number of arms never exceeded eight to the ray, but in species even of that number the arms are so crowded together, that they could not have been arranged side by side, were not their lower portions bent outward, in the same direction as we find the rim in Stroto- crinus. In s[)ecies of Actinocrinus with only a few arms, the arms are movable from the base up ; movement is less free in species with six arms to the ra}^, and the facilit}^ of motion is lessened with every increase of arms. This lack of mobility, of course, onl}^ extended to the lower arm joints, which for some dis- tance were so closely crowded together that they could not have moved in any direction, and it was probably in consequence of this inactivity that the proximal arm pieces, which in the simpler forms were free, became gradually connected by growth. This was evidently the first step in the direction of Teleiocrinus. After- wards, by still further increase of arms, additional plates became laterally attached, and in this way the rim was gradually developed. In Actinocrinus the rim was mereh^ indicated by the adhesions of a few plates to the calyx, the primary rays, and their main divisions being still distinctly separate. In Actinocrinus (Strofocrimis) serratus^ Meek and Worthen, which forms a kind of connecting link between Actinocrinus and Teleiocrinus^ only the two main ' This is the only species from the Lower Burlington beds which might be referred to Teleiocrinus. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 219 divisions of the ra3'S were laterally connected, but the rim is not continuous above the five primar}^ divisions of the ray. We have already noticed the presence of small plates inter- polated between the radial portions of the rim, forming sunken areas, and having altogether the appearance of accessory pieces (PL XVIII, fig. I,/)).). A closer examination, however, shows a marked regularity in their arrangement, and there can be little doubt that they represent pinnules, given off alternatelj^ from opposite sides, and soldered into the body walls together with arm joints. This interpretation is confirmed b}' the allied genus Steganocrinus, in which tlie corresponding parts, under more favorable conditions, instead of forming a rim, remained free (PI. XYIII, fig. 3). Steganocrinus Meek and Worthen is connected with the other section of Actinocrinus — tj'pe of A. multiradiatus — in the same manner as the A proboscidialis group with Teleiocrinus. In A. multiradiatus and allied species, the third primary radial is bent abrupt!}^ outward, its upper articulating faces which support the higher radials being directed almost horizontally, thereby forming the raj^sinto protuberant lobes, separated by wide and deep inter- radial depressions ; contrary to A. proboscidialis, in which the arms are more or less continuous, and the sides of the calyx nearly straight up to the tertiary radials. We should have sepa- rated the two sections upon these characters, at least subgeneri- cally, if Miller, in establishing the genus Actinocrinus, had not unfortunately chosen for the t3^pe a species which is intermediate between the two, thus rendering it difficult to determine the typical form. It is veiy evident that the structure of the rays of A. multiradiatus did not admit the development of a rim like that of Strotocrinus and Teleiocrinus, as even the most profuse growth could not well have filled the break between the rays, and the spaces between the arms within the ra}^ were amply sufficient to afford them free motion. This we think furnishes a reason wh}^, under similar conditi(ms, the arms and pinnules of this genus, contvar}" to those of Teleiocrinus, remained free during life. Steganocrinus and Teleiocrinus have very close affinities in their structure. In both of them there are five main raj^s — a succession of radials longitudinally arranged — which give ofl" arms alternately and from opposite sides; but, while in Steganocrinus the plates of the difi'erent order of radials are extended into free appendages, 220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. with free arms and free pinnules, the radials in Teleiocrinus and their branches and i)innnles, to a certain height, are laterally con- nected and included within the body walls. Strotocrinus bears the same relation to Physetocrinus as Actino- crinus to Teleioc7-inus, Physetocriniis differs from the A. prohos- cidialis form, mainly in having a simple anal opening through the vault, instead of a tube, and the same character separates Strotocrinus from Teleiocrinus. In E ucladocriniis of the Platycrinidje, the case is the same as in Steganocrinus. In that genus an indefinite number of radials, apparently intersected by syzygies, are formed into long radial appendages, which give off pinnule-bearing arms from opposite sides. It agrees exactly with Platycrinus in the construction of the body, and both have free lateral appendages, in which the arms originate alternately on opposite sides. The arms of Platycrinus., however, are only given off" close to the body, while those of Eucladocrinus, as in Steganocrinus, are given off continuously and the free rays extend almost to the height of the arms (PI. XYIII, fig. 7). Not less interesting is the case of Melocrinus, which we take to be a successor of Mariaci'inus (as amended by us). Both genera make their appearance in the Upper Silurian, but, while the former does not survive later than the Silurian, the latter flourishes in greatest profusion in the Devonian. Mariacrinus, in its simplest form, has but four arms to the ra}^, two of which are given off like pinnules from the body toward the interradial spaces, while the two inner ones stand erect, are parallel and lie close together. In other species of the genus, the inner arms give off from one to three additional arms, always directed to the outer side of the ray. The arms are composed of single joints, which bear pinnules in the usual way. The two median arms of the ray, which in Maria- crinus are placed side b}^ side, are connected in Melocrinus by a suture, and appear as a single arm composed of two series of plates, but the suture between them is straight, and the opposite . plates are scarcely ever alternately arranged. That a coalescence of two arms actually took place here, is best demonstrated by the fact, that in the calyx the two parts are not only separate, but often have interaxillary pieces between them, and that each one has a distinct passage. The compound arms of Melocrinus give off at regular intervals, instead of pinnules, lateral arms, which 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 221 are composed of a double instead of single series of joints, and bear pinnules. The difference from Mariacrinus thus actually consists only in the much greater number of lateral arms, and their being composed of a double series of plates. The increase of arms evidently took place under the same conditions as in Steganocrinus and Uiicladocrinus, the modifications in the arm structure, due originally to individual growth, becoming fixed as generic characters, and following a general rule, by which it seems that the arms in all genera of the Sphieroidocrinida?, on passing into the Devonian, change from single to double joints. Let us now consider some cases of Balocrinus in which an increase of arms took place in the species under somewhat different conditions. It has been shown b}- us (Proc. Acad. Xat. Sci. Phila., 18*78, p. 230) that Batocrinus Chnjsti, as a rule, has two arms from each arm opening, differing thus from other species of that genus. In the Acfinocrinites, and many other of the Spha.'roido- crinidse, the arm openings are mere breaks in the bod}', and the proximal arm joints consist of single plates, while in Batocrinus they appear more like passages penetrating the test, and the arms from their very base up are constructed of two series of pieces. We have in our collections several specimens, which in ever}'- other respect resemble B. Chrysti except that the}' have single arms. They were obtained exclusively from the lower strata of the Upper Burlington Limestone, the typical form of the species occurring in greatest abundance in the upper la^'ers. The specimens with double arms are generall}^ larger than the others, but we find them also very small, thereby indicating that the modified arm structure had passed beyond the stage of mere individual variation due to growth, and became a permanent character of specific value perhaps. B. Chrysti and its variety with single arms — for which we propose the name B. Lovei — have twent}' arm openings, but at the same time only twenty so called respiratory pores, which are located, as usually in species with twent}' arms, above the interradial and interaxillary areas. In both species the pores are placed at like distances from the arm openings, wliich seems to prove that the additional arm was given off from the opposite side alternately from the pores. The arm starts from the first free arm piece, which is changed into a bifurcating plate, but without materially increasing its size. Toward the close of the Burlington Limestone B. Chrysti underwent some changes, and '222 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the variety thus produced has ])een described by Meek and Worthen as B. trochiscus. It has a more spreading disk, a more concave dome, a comparatively lower body, is of larger size, and consequently has more interradials, but otherwise is not different from B. Chrysti. B. planodiscus Hall, which occurs still higher in the Burlington and Keokuk transition beds, and in the lower part of the Keokuk Limestone, is evidently a more mature form of B. Chrysti and B. trochiscus, which by enormous development in the radial regions, and a great increase of interradial and inter- axillary plates, attained a still greater expansion of the disk. In B. Chrysti and B. iyouez, interaxillary plates are wanting; they are occasionally represented b}' one or two plates in B. trochiscus, while B. planodiscus has from nine to eleven, with a similar increase of interradials. In the latter species, the small bifur- cating arm pieces, from which in B. Chrysti the second arms are given off, and also the two succeeding rows of pieces, in both arms, are enclosed within the body walls, the inner row as radials, the other as interradial or interaxillary pieces, which all attain the form and size of the associated plates in the lower orders. B. planodiscus has forty arms like B. Chrysti and B. trochiscus, but they are simple, branching in the body; while the other two species have twenty arms which branch in their free state. The increase of arms no doubt takes place in this group in a similar manner as in Actinocrinus and Strotocrinus, but while in the two latter, the alternate pinnules of onl^- the two main divisions of the ray became arms, in B. planodiscus the proximal pinnule of each arm was thus transformed. In B. Chrysti and its allied forms, we find an illustration of the difficulty we often encounter in discriminating between species and varieties. There are apparently four forms represented in that t_ype, of which the two extremes, viewed separately, are well defined specifically as well as geologically, but placed in connection with the two others, they form a series which might well be taken for variations of one species. A similar case is presented by a series of specimens obtained from the Keokuk Limestone of Indiana. The collection com- prises nearly two hundred specimens of Batocrinus. but contains comparatively few species. By far the greater number came from Bono, Lawrence Count}^, others from Edwardsville, Floyd Count}', a few from Canton, and the rest from Crawfordsville. The Bono 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 223 and Edwardsville crinoids, in their general habitus, resemble Burlington fossils, but we have so far not been able to identify a single Burlington species among them, while we found several identical with species from Crawfordsville, though generally smaller. The crinoidal fauna of Canton includes both Bono and Crawfordsville forms, but embraces also some of the huge forms so characteristic of the Upper Keokuk beds of Keokuk, Iowa, and Nashville, Tenn., and which are entirely wanting at Crawfords- ville and Bono. We have not been able to ascertain the exact reUitive age of each stratum, but are inclined to believe that the Crawfordsville bed occupies an intermediate position between those of Bono and Canton on one side, and Keokuk on the other. The crinoids to which we allude are easily separated into two groups. Those of the first have flat, somewhat spatulate arms, a subeonical or subturbinate calyx, and a variable arm formula, and are appropriately referred to the genus E retmocrinus, vrhile those of the second, which we refer to Batocrinus, have a globose body, round arms, with arm formula: II, rarely I4. Among thirty-two specimens of the first group, all from Bono tliere are twelve which have sixteen simple arms : 44, two others have at one side of the right posterior ray a pair of arms instead of a single arm — the formula may be graphically represented thus : 1 1 1 111 11-^, and in one specimen we find one of the anterior arms 1 1 represented by a pair, while all the others are simple. The last three specimens no doubt are abnormal cases, but they are inter- esting as showing a tendency of the species to an increase of arms in the postero-lateral and anterior ra3's. All the above specimens can be safely referred to a new species which we call Eretmocrinus originarius. There are thirteen other specimens, for which we propose the name Eretraocrinus iTj.termedius, which agree with the former in all essential points, having the same peculiar ornamentation, the same form and size, and being derived from the same layers ; but they differ in having, as a rule, in the anterior ray two, and in both postero-lateral rays three additional arms, while the antero- lateral rays are unchanged. The additional arms are given oflT alternately from the two main divisions of the rays as in Actino- crinus. They are simple and in most cases included within the body walls, except in the two posterior raj's, in which the arras arising from the last bifurcation are arranged in pairs. 224 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. In this lot of crinoids there are two more specimens, one having 112 111 twenty -one arms distribnted thus : 11111122, and the other twenty- 221,222 22 seven, thus: 22121112. Both agree with the two preceding species except in the arm formula, but even this is fundamentallj^ identical with E. originarius, the simple arms of the latter being in part replaced by pairs. None of our Bono specimens have the doubh; arm structure throughout all the rays, but we obtained from Edwardsville and Canton several specimens in which that feature prevails, and for which we propose the name Eretmocrinun adultus. The two irregular Bono specimens may not be the intermediate forms between that species and JiJ. originarius^ but this is probable, and they show how the double arm structure became introduced. Scarcely less interesting are some specimens of Batocrinus. Among sixteen examples of a form which we call B. Whitei — eleven from Bono, two from Canton, and three from Edwardsville — there are fourteen with the arm formula: II, while two of them have four arms to the posterior ray. No double arm structure has been observed in this species at Bono, but its apparent representative at Crawford sville has always two arms from each opening. B. Indianensis has the same form and ornamentation as B. Wliilei, and the same arm formula — with substitution of double for single arms — and it evidently bears the same relation to that species as B. ChrysH to B. Lovei, and E. adultus to E. originariui-. It would be interesting to pursue this line of examination further, and trace the relations subsisting among other groups similarly connected. But we have perhaps gone far enough to serve our present purpose. It is to be observed, however, that the import- ance of this kind of investigation, in its bearing upon sj- stematic classification, can scarcely be overestimated. It has to do with the principles which lie at the very bottom, and it is only by the study of these relations, of the exact anatomical changes which produced individual variation, and in time permanent modification of forms, that we can hope to arrive at a correct understanding of the groups in nature, or be able to make scientific discrimination of families, genera, species and varieties. Many species have been made, upon mere differences of growth; some upon unimportant variations in the arm formula; some upon abnormal development in certain parts of the bod}' ; others upon 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 225 slight modifications in ornamentation; while still others were founded upon material so imperfect that neither figure nor de- scription suflflciently defines the form. Our literature is so over- burdened with S3'non3'ms that we fear a veiy large percentage of so-called species ought to be eliminated. We have undertaken to point out such cases among the Burlington and Keokuk Crinoids, and although we have been obliged to throw out a considerable number of species, we have only done so where necessity seemed to require it, and we suspect we should not have gone amiss by reducing the list still more. Schultze undertook the same task for the Crinoids of the Eifel, and, although we cannot agree with him in retiring certain genera, we concur in his determination of synonymic species. There are no doubt, also many synonyms among the Subcarboniferous Crinoids of Belgium and England. One of us had an opportunity, several years ago, of studying the original collection of De Koninck in the Museum of Cambridge, and became convinced that the eleven Belgian species of Actino- crinus. described in the Recherches Crin. Carb. Belg., might be safely reduced to four or five. 10. The SO-CALLED "Respiratory Pores." In the first part of this work, on page 11, we called attention to certain pores, located in the body at the arm regions, on either side of the ambulacral openings, and we endeavored to show that they correspond in position with the so-called ovarian openings of the Blastoids. At that time we asserted that the pores were in some genera fixed at a definite number, independent of the number of arms in the species; that Batocrinus, for instance, had alwaj'S twenty pores, whether the species had twenty arms or more, and that one-half the pores were located radially and the rest interradially. In this we were evidently in error ; the pores probably alwaj's agree in number with the arms, and are really neither radial nor interradial, but are placed at the base of the arras. A specimen of Batocrinus subaequalis, now before us, with twenty -two arm openings, has twenty-two pores, and a specimen with twenty -four arms has twentj-four pores. In the former the vault became accidentally detached from the calyx, in such a manner, that we were enabled to follow up in both parts the direc- tion of the pores as they pass into the body (PI. XIX, fig. 4). Neither the pores nor the arm openings penetrate the plates, but 16 226 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OF [1881. both are placed between the sutures and appear as grooves situated witliiu the upper series of radials. The grooves in the calyx are opposed by similar grooves in the corresponding parts of the dome, and pores as well as arm openings enter the body horizontally. The grooves which constitute the arm openings follow the median course, while the smaller grooves, forming the pores, enter ob- liquely from the sides, and join the others at — or just before — the point where they enter the general cavity of the body. The pores which are given off toward the outer arms of the ray are deeper than the rest, and connect with the arm openings at the moment these enter the general cavit3\ Those of the inner arms meet midway in the test, and in case there is another arm between the two divisions of the ray, its pores join the arm passages close to the outer surface of the test. This explains the fact that the partition between the two last-mentioned openings is so rarely preserved, and that these openings are generally found united in the fossil. The arrangement of the pores is similar in other genera of the Actinocrinidae, the pores between the main divisions of the ray being universally more conspicuous than the inner ones. In the Plat3'crinid£e and other genera in which the upper radials are extended into free rays, the pores are located at the base of the arms, not at the base of the free ray, and hence are rarely observed. OUacrinus, so fer, is the only genus in, which, in con- nection with the pores, appendages have been observed. They there form heavy, arm-like extensions, often surpassing the arms in length, with a channel through their centre. The channels unite with the arm passages within the test in a similar manner as the pores in Batocrinus. The affinities which are apparent between the pores of the Actinocriuidaj and the ovarian openings of the Blastoids with regard to their position, suggests a probable analogy in their functions, and if the latter served as a madreporic apparatus it would seem reasonable to suppose that tlie pores in the Actino- crinidae did the same. But there are objections to this, and another interpretation is at least possible. From what is now known of the ontogeny of the Palteozoic crinoids, we are inclined to think that the pores maj^ have been originallj^ pinnules, wliich with progressing growth were soldered into the body. This would explain the fj^ct that all pores located beside tlie inner arms are located closer to the arm openings than those of the outer arms, 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 227 for tliey are pinnules of higher branches in the body, and hence were less deeply enclosed in the test. It would be interesting to trace the pores in genera like Glypto- crinus, in which the fixed pinnules retain their forms after they became fixed ; but in those genera the arms are unfortunately located at the edge of the ventral disk, and an examination is diflR- cult. In all carboniferous Crinoids in which the pores are clearly seen, no fixed pinnules can be traced externally in the test, and apparently no free pinnules were attached to the pores, or they should have been found preserved in some of our specimens. The proximal pinnules in the recent Crinoids contain the genital glands, and it is at least not impossible that the pores as rudi- mentary pinnules, served as genital organs. Tliis supposition is strengthened by a comparison with the ovarian openings of the Ophiiiridffi and Astrophytidse, which apparently occupy' a very similar position to the pores of the Actinocrinidae. Those, we believe, are said to be in part respiratory and so it is possible that the pores of these Crinoids had both functions. As a convenient summing up of our discussion of the Sphaeroido- crinidaj, we give the following Condensed Family Diagnosis. Body comparatively lar'ge, globular, conical or hiturhinate; plates solidly cemented together, immovable, separated only by sutures ; symmetry bilateral, sometimes almost pe?'fectly pentahedral. Calyx composed of basals, radials, inferradials and sometimes interaxillary plates. Underbasals present or absent. Radials in at least two orders, the upper one frequently extended into free rays. Posterior or anal area loider than the four interradial areas, and the arrangement of its plates generally distinct. Ventral disk more or less elevated, constructed of numerous plates forming a free arch, unsupported by oral plates. The plates of the vault are arranged substantially upon the same plan as those of the calyx, and consist of the same elements. Apical dome plates %i'ell defined. Anus inform of a simple opening directly through the vault, or prolonged into a solid tube, perforated at the distal end, but loithout respiratory pores. Arms composed of one or two series of 2'>i€ces. Pinnules long, slender, generally in contact laterally. Food grooves and ambu- 228 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. lacral vessels entering the body through openings in the test, whence they are continued beneath the vault by means of tubes. Digestive apparatus composed of a convoluted sac, surrounded by a delicate calcareous network. Column long; its cross-section circular, elliptical, sometimes ptentagonal or quadrangular; central perforation small to medium, rarely large. A. Sub-family PLATYCRINIDJE Roemer. (Amend. Wachs. & Spr.) The name Platycrinidiae has been used by most writers in a full family sense, and in this they seemed to be justified, as most of the genera are by their general aspect readily distinguished from those of the Actinocrinidie and Rhodocrinidae. The differences, however, which produce that particular habitus, are evidently not tlie result of marked anatomical modifications. The body of the Platycrinidaj, according to the views of other writers, is composed only of basals, primary radials, and vault pieces, all succeeding plates in a radial direction are considered by them to be arm plates. The rays in this group generally become free from the first axillary, but the extended parts are true extensions of the body, covered like this by regular vault pieces, and these arranged in the same manner, they are not arms in our sense, as they possessed no true articulation. If the respective parts in the Actinocrinidse are to be regarded as radials, then also are those of the Platycrinidse, they compose in the former the sides of the body walls only in adult specimens, in the younger state they form free appendages as in the mature Platycrinidffi. The plates of the extended parts are joined by suture, there is no hinge line, and the articulation was by ligament only, probably similar to that of the anal tube, which certainly was flexible to some extent. The distinctions between Platycrinidse and Actinocrinidffi are more readily perceived than described, and seem to be fairly ex- '^ressed by saying that the former represent a younger stage of = the latter, and remained as a persistent type of that stage of growth. The interradial regions are represented by a single plate, leaving the upper radials unconnected laterally as in the j'oung Actinocrinoid. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, 229 A close comparison of the three sub-divisions of the Palaeocri- noidea shows that the modifications which each undergoes, some- times in the same geological epoch, are moi-e or less repeated in all of them. This is particularlj^ the case as to the construction of the arms. The same development from single to double arm joints occurs in all of them, and simultaneously in the Upper Silurian. A similar analog}' is found in the arrangement of the arms. In each group there are simple and branching arms, arms which are given off directly from the bod}', or laterally from free rays, and even the pinnules are arranged in a like manner. The plates of the bod}^ are composed essentially of the same elements, but in the Platj^crinidse comparatiA'ely few plates are enclosed within the cal3'x, many of them, which in the Actinocrinidse form a conspicuous part of the body, being here found in the lateral appendages. In the Platj'crinidse, the calyx proper is constructed almost exclusively of basals and first radials, all higher orders of radials either forming a part of the brachial appendages, or, when partiall}'^ incorporated with the calyx, being insignificant com- pared with the other parts. In this respect thej' exhibit a marked difference from the Actinocrinidse and Rhodocrinidte, in which the higher radials are prominent elements in the calyx. In the Plat}'- crinidse, the interradial plate is pushed into a line between calyx and dome, and appears like a dome plate, though being in fact a part of the aboral side, and analogous with the first interradial in the Actinocrinidi:e, like this it rests upon the upper edges of the two adjoining first radials, which are generally notched for its reception, a position very different from that of the interradial dome plates. In Dichocrinus the radials are not notched, and the plate in question is actually pushed into the dome, but here also, as in all similar cases, a more profuse development of second and third radials within the calyx, would place this plate in posi- tion with the interradials in the Actinocrinidee. We have stated in our family diagnosis that the Sphseroidocrinidae have at least one ijiterradial plate; Pterotocrinus seems to be an exception to this rule, but in that genus the family relations are otherwise so clearly expressed, that it seems to us unnecessary to separate it on account of the absence of that plate. Pteroto- crinus is the last survivor, and probabl}^ the most mature and ex- travagant form of the family In its typical species there are not onl}^ secondary, but also tertiary radials enclosed in the 230 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OP [1881. calyx, and the plates of the different rays meet laterally in the body. The case is simihir to that of Slrotocrinus ; the arms, as in that genus, are crowded together, naturally producing at first a lack of mobility in the proximal parts of the rays, until eventu- ally the sides became attached. In P. crassus and P. Chester- ensis Meek and Worthen, in whicli the lower arm portions are comparativel}"^ narrower, the connection between the ra^^s is not perfect, especially at tlie posterior side ; while in P. depreasus Lyon, and in all of Wetherby's species, the connection between the upper radial is uninterrupted, and the arms are given off directly from the body, and not from brachial appendages or free rays. In Meek and Worthen's species, in which the first radial plate extends to the top of the calyx, it is apparent that the first plate above, thougli pushed into the dome, is the analogue of the regular interradial plate of the group, but in P. depressus^ in which that plate rests above the tertiary radials, it is probable that the interradial plate proper was pushed inwards, and either became obsolete, or is perhaps visible only at the inner side of the test. The construction of the dome has been already so fully dis- cussed that a few general remarks here will suffice. The vault resembles fundamentally that of the Actinocrinidse and Rhodo- crinidoe. The plates are comparatively large, and the apical dome plates very conspicuous. The radial regions are each composed of two rows of plates alternately arranged, which commence either close to the centre plate, or near the edge of the disk, and branch toward the free rays, following their direction, and paving their ventral surface. The interradial regions of the dome are comparativel}'^ large, composed of one, two or more plates. Anus in form of a small tube, , PI. 6, fig. 2 a, b. Mount limest. Mendip Hills, Eng., and Tournay, Belg. Syn. Engeniaorinites (?) hezagonus Miinster, 1839. Beitr. z. Petref. i, p. 4, PI. 1, figs. 6 a, b: De Kon. 1842, Desc. Anim. Foss. Carb. Belg., p. 39, PI. E, figs. 5 a, b, c. Syn. PI. laevis (in part) Miller. 1821, Hist. Grin., p. 74, PI. 1, fig. 4 (not the other figures). 1821. PI. striatus Miller. Hist. Grin., p. 82; Agassiz, 1835. Mem. Soc. des Sci, Nat., Neuchat. i, p. 196 ; Austin, 1842, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., x, p. 109; Blainville, 1834, Man. d'Act., p. 262; De Kon., 1842, Desc. Anim. Foss. Carb. Belg., p. 44; Milne-Edwards apud Lamarck, ii, p. 666; Austi^, 1843, Mon. Rec. and Foss. Grin., p. 37, PI. 3, figs. 3 p-u. Mount, limest. Bristol, Engl. 1858. PI. subspinosus Hall. Geol. Rep. luwa, i, Pt. ii, p. 536, PI. 8, figs. 9. 10; Meek and Worthen, 1866. PI, (Pleurocrinus) subspinosus, Geol. Rep. 111., ii, p. 173, PI. 15, fig. 6, and vol. v, PI. 11, fig. 2. Lower Burlington limest, Burlington, Iowa. 1860. PI, subspinulosus Hall. Supp. Geol, Rep. Iowa, p. 81. Upper Burlino'ton limest. Burlington, Iowa. Syn. Dichocrinus lachrymosus Hall, 1860. Supl. Iowa Rep., p. 84. 1865. PI, tenuibracMatUS Meek and Worth. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 168; also Geol. Rep. 111., v, p. 450, PI. 3, fig. 4. Upper Burlington limest. Bur- lington, Iowa. 1842. PI, trigintidactylus Austin (Pleurocrinus). Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., x, p. 69; also 1844, Mon. Rec. and Foss. Grin., p. 30, PI. 3, figs. 1 b-h (not a = PL auslinianua). Mount, limest. Bristol, Eng. and Tournay, Belo-. Syn. PI. triacontadactylus McCoy, 1844, Garb. Foss. Ireland, p. 177, PI. 25, figs. 2-7. 1858. PI. truncatulus Hall. Geol. Rep. Iowa, i, pt. ii, p. 538. Lower Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1821, PI, tuberculatus Miller.— Pleurocrinus— (not P. tuberculatus Phillips = Hexaoiniis). Hist. Crin., p. 81, figs. 1, 2; Schlotheim, 1822, Nachtr. z. Petref. i, p. 85, and 182.3, lb. ii, p. 97, PI. 26, figs. 2 a-b ; Agassiz, 1835, Mem. de la Soc. Nat. Sci. Neuchat., i, p. 197. Mount, limest. Mendip Hills, Eng., and Tournay, Belg. Syn. PI, ellipticus (in part) Phillips. Geol. Yorkshire, ii, PI. 3, fig. 19 (not 21); also Austin, Mon. Rec. and Foss. Grin, PI. 4, figs. 3, p to u ; McCoy, Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 177. 250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. 1858. PI. tuberosus Hall. (^col. Rep. Iowa, i, pt. ii, p. 534, PI. 8, figs. 7 a, b ; Meek and Worth., 1806, Pleuroor. tuberosus, Ueol. Rep. 111., ii, p. 172. Upper liiirlini;toii limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1849. PI. vesiculus McCoy. Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., p. 246. Mount, limest. Derbyshire, Eng. 1875 (?). PI. vexabilis White. Wheeler's U. S. Survey, West of LOOth merid., iv, Pal. p. 81, PL V, fig. 2. We doubt if this is a Platycrinus. 1858. PI. Wortbeni Hall. Geol. Rep. Iowa, i, pt. ii, p. 530, PL 8, fig. 4. Burlington limest. ]>urlington, Iowa. 1850. PI. Yandelli Ow. and Sh. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. (new ser.), ii, pt. i; also U. S. Geo*. Surv. Iowa, Wise, and Minn., p. 537, PL 5 A, figs. 6 a, b. Lower Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. Subgenus EUCLADOCRINUS Meek. 1871. Meek. Hayden's Rep. U. S. Surv. of Terr., p. 373. 1878. Wachsm. and Spr. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 243. Syn. Platycrinus White, in part. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 17. The name Eucladocrinus was proposed by Meek in 1871 (Hayden's Rep. U. S. Survey of the Territories, p. 373) to desig- nate a subgeneric group under Platycrinus^ of which PL pleuro- viviinus White is the t3^pe. In the structure of the calyx, this form presents no apparent difference from Platycrinus^ and it embraces species with a low, broad cup shaped, and with an elongate body. It is characterized, however, by having the radial series of the body, both dorsal and ventral, greatly extended in the form of tubular free rays, which bear the arms alternately on either side throughout their entire length. These rays, in all the known species, divide on the second radial into two branches, which remain joined by their inner sides for the length of three or four plates, after which they beoorne free, giving two free branches to each ray, or ten in all. A tubular passage, arched over by the extensions of the vault, runs the whole length of the rays, and these tubes, after uniting on the inside of the second radial, connect with the visceral cavity. The arms are composed of a double series of interlocking joints, and bear slender, single-jointed pinnules. This type bears the same relation to Platycrinus that Stegano- crinus does to Actinocrinus^ and Melocrinus to Mariacrinus ; and the two are ver^" closely connected by transition forms such as PL prsenuntius, in which the free ray structure is clearly begun, the radial areas being produced to the extent of ten or twelve plates. ]881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 251 The subgenus evidenth^ represents the mature and extreme form of the Platycrinoid tj'pe. Geogi-aphical Position, etc. — Found as yet only in the Subcar- boniferous of America, where the following species are known : — 1878. Eucladoorinus millebracliiatus Wachsni. and Spr. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 245. Upper Burlington and Keokuk Transition bed, ani lower part of the Keokuk limest. Burlington, Iowa, Nauvoo and Niota, 111. 1871. Eucladoor. inontanaeii<'is Meek. Ilayden's Geol. Rep. U. S. Surv. Terr., p. 373. Subciirb. Montana. 1862. Eucladocr. pleuroviminus AVhite (Platycr. pleuroviminus). Type of the subgenus. Proc. Bost. See. Nat. Hist., ix, p. 17; Meek, 1870, Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts; AYachsm. and Spr., 1878, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 249. Upper Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 6. (?) COTYLEDONOCRINTIS Casseday and Lyou. 1860. Casseday and Lyon. Proc. Acad. Arts and Sci., v, p. 26. 1865. Shumard. Catal. Pal. Foss. N. A. Trans. St. Louis Acad., ii, p. 360, 1877. S. A. Miller. Catal. Am. Pal. Foss., p. 74. 1879. Zittel. (DicJiocrinus.) Handb. d. Pal., i, p 365. Casseday and Lyon proposed the above name for a crinoid which agrees in every respect with Dichocrinus, except that it has no anal plate in line with the first radials. According to the description, however, there is a deeper notch between the radials on the posterior side, and the question arises whether the type specimen was not an abnormal Dichocrinus in which the anal plate was wanting or imperfectl}^ developed. The notch lies directly in line with one end of the suture which divides the basal disk, and hence the position corresponds to that of the anal in Dichocrinus. The bipartite base itself seems to indicate that there was normally a sixth plate above, for otherwise, according to the rule we have found to prevail among these Crinoids, one plate of the basal disk should be larger — while they are said to be equal in this form. As described, Gotyledonocrinus agrees essentially in the form of the body with typical species of Dichocrinus, and like them has three primary' radials, the first large and long, the two others small and supporting 2 X 10 secondary radials, succeeding radials forming parts of the free rays. There is a single interradial in connection with the first radials, two interradial plates above con- stitute a part of the vault. The specimen has long delicate arms, which do not bifurcate, 252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. and wliieh give off long pinnules, composed of a large number of short joints. Column cylindrical. Until other specimens are discovered, we must consider Cotyle- donocrinus an abnormal form of Dichocrinus. Casseday and Lyons' only species is : — 1860. Cotyledonocrinus pentalobus. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts, and Sci., vol. v, p. 26. Warsaw limest. Grayson Co., Kentucky. h. Hexackinites. 7. HEXACRINUS Austin. 1843, Austin. Mon. Rec. and Foss. Crin., p. 48. 1853. De Kon. and Leh. Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 160. 1855. F. Roemer. Letbaea Geogn. (Ausg. 3, Per. 1), p. 244. 1857. Job. Miiller. Neue Ecbin. Eifl. Kalk, p. 85. 1857. Pictet. Traite de Paleont., iv, p. 831. 1867. Scbultze. Mon. Ecbinod. Eifl. Kalk, p. 71. 1879. Zittel. Handb. der Palajontologie, p. 365. Syn. Platycr. Phil., 1841 (not 1836). Pal. Foss. Cornw., p. 28. Syn. Platycr. Goldf. (in part), 1838. Nova Acta. Ac. Leop., xix, p. 343. Syn. Platycr. Agas. (in part), 1835. Mem. Soc. Neucb., i, p. 197. Syn. Platycr. Aust. (in part), 1842. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., x, p. 109. Syn. Platycr. F. A. Roemer, 1843. Verstein. d. Harzes. Syn. Platycr. F. Roemer, 1851. Vei-h. naturb. Verein Rbeinl., p. 362. Syn. Platycr. D'Orbigny (in part), 1850. Prodr. Pal., i, p. 103. Syn. Platycr. Lyon, 1860. Trans. Am Pbilos. Soc, p. 459. Generic Diagnosis. — Body obconical, pear-shaped orsubglobose ; surface generally elaborately sculptured or nodose; symmetry decided 1^^ bilateral. Basal disk large, in form of a shallow cup ; hexagonal ; composed of three equal plates. Five of its sides support a first radial each, the sixth a large anal plate, which extends to the full height of the first radials. Primary radials 2 X 5, the first very large, apparentlj' quadrangular but actuall}'^ hexagonal; increasing in width from the base up; upper margin excavated. Second radials minute, triangular, rarely filling the whole excavation, which generally encloses a part of the first secondary radials, the latter forming the base of two free appendages to each ray. The free 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 253 rays and the arms proper have been rarely observed, but were apparent!}^ constructed like those of Eucladocrinus. In Hexacr. limbatus, the free rays attain three or four times the length of the bod}^, and each one consists of a row of short cylindrical joints, which give off laterally pinnule bearing arms. These arms originate on every fourth, fifth or sixth joint, according to position, and alternately from opposite sides. The free parts of the ray in Hexacr. brevis,^ are apparently more like those of Plati/crinus. Anal plates generally narrower, but often higher than the first radials; wider towards the top than at its junction with the basals, the upper side supporting two or thi:ee plates. Inter- radial series composed of a single large plate,, which rests within a notch between two radials. Yault low, hemispherical, more or less flattened, composed of comparatively few and large pieces, which are nodose, or covered with a number of small tubercles. Apical dome plates large. Anus subcentral or lateral ; in form of a simple opening through the vault, or supported bj"- a small tubercular process composed of small polygonal pieces. Column cj^lindrical, the larger joints nodose or sculptured after the style of the plates of the calyx; articulating face radicularly striated ; central canal small, round. Geological Position^ etc. — Hexacrinus is strictly a Devonian genus, and almost exclusively European, only fragments of a single species having been discovered in America. The following species have been described : — 1838. Hezaorinas anaglypticos Goldf. (Platycr. anaglypticus.) Nova Acta ac. Leop., xix, p. 348, PI. 32, fig. 4; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. anaglypticus, Mon. Echin. Eifl. Kalk, p. 72, PI. 8, fig. 1. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. Syn. Platycr. frondosus Goldf. Bonn Museum, undefined. Syn. Platycr. annulatus Goldf. Bonn Museum, undefined. Syn. Platycr. muricatus Goldf. Bonn Museum, undefined. 1867. Hexacr. bacca SchuUze. Men. Echin. Eifl. Kalk, p. 83, PI. 10, fig. 5. Devo- nian. Eifel, Germany. 1838. Hexacr. brevis Goldf. (Platycr. brevis.) Nova Acta ac. Leop., xix, i, p. 346, PI. 32, fig. 2; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. brevis, Men. Echin. Eifl. Kalk, p. 79, PI. 10, fig. 7. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1 We believe that Hexacr. brevis Goldf. (Mon. Echin. Eifl. Kalk, PI. 10, fi^. 7) is a young specimen of some other species. This is indicated not only by its small size, but also the immature character of the anns and column ; it may even represent an entirely different genus. 254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. 1843. Hexacr. Buchii F. A. Roomer. (Platycr. Buohii.) Hartzgcbirsc, p. 9, P). 12, fii;:. LS. Devonian. Ilartz, Germany. 1867. Hexacr. callosus Schultze. Men. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 8.^, PI. 9, fig. 3. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. Syn. Platycr. rosaceus Goldf. (not Roemer = Coccocrimis). Bonn Museum, undefined. 1858. Hexacr. costatus Miiller. Monatsb. Berl. Akad. Wissensch., p. 354; Schultze, 1867, Mon. Echin. Eifel, Kalk, p. 74. Devonian. Eifel, Grrmany. Probably a variety of Hexacr. anaglypticus. 1838. Hexacr. elongatus Goldf. (Platycr. elongatus Goldf. not Phillips.) Nova Acta ac. Loop., xix, i, p. 345, PI. 32, fig. 1; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. elon- gatus, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 74, PI. 9, fig. 4. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. Sijn. Platycr. Goldfussi MUnster. Beitr. z. Petrefactenk, i, p. 32, PI. 1, figs. 2 a, b. 1838. Hexacr, exsculptus Goldf. (Platycr. exsculptus.) Nova Acta ac. Leop., xi.\, i, p. 347, PI. 32, fig. 3 ; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. exsculptus, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 77, PI. 9, fig. 2. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1843. Hexacr. granuliferus F. A. Roemer. (Platycr. granuliferus.) Versteiner Nas.sau's, p. 397. Devonian. Lahnstein, Germany. ■'■■•I860 (?). PI. insularis Eichwald. Lethaea Rossica, i, p. 612, PI. 31, fig. 58. Devonian. Isle of Oesel. There is some doubt, whether this is a Hexacrimis. Eichwald describes it with five radials, one of them much larger and apparently composed of two pieces, which are said to be soldered together. One of the other plates is represented as being much smaller. 1841. Hexacr. interscapularis Phillips. (Platycr. interscapularis not Miller.) Pal. Foss. Cornwall, p. 28, PI. 14, fig. 39; D'Orbigny, 1849, Prodr. d. Pale- ont, p. 103; Austin, 1843, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., x, p. 109; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. interscapularis, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 79, PI. 8, fig. 5. Devonian. Near Plymouth, Eng., and Eifel, Germany. Syn. Platycr. granifer Roemer. 1852, Verb. Naturh. Verein Rheinl., ix, p. 281, PI. 2, fig. 1 ; Schultze, Hexacr. interscapularis, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 79. Syn. Platycr. melo Austin. 1843, Mon. Rec. and Foss. Crin.. p. 48, PI. 6, fig. 1; Schultze, Hexacr. interscapularis, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 79. Syn. Hexacr. depressus Austin. 1843, Mon. Rec. and Foss. Crin., p. 49, PI. 6, figs, 2 a-e; Schultze, Hexacr. interscapularis, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 79. *1860. Hexacr, Leai Lyon. (Platycr, Leai.) Trans. Am. Philos. Soc, p. 259, PI, 26, figs, g g'. Upper Helderberg, Dev. Louisville, Ky. 1857. Hexacr. limbatus Miiller. Neue Echin. Eifel, p. 248, PI. 2, fig. 1; Schultze, 1867, Mon. Ecbin. Eifel Kalk, p. 78, PI. 9, fig. 1. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1857. Hexacr. lobatus Miiller. Neue Echin. Eifel, p. 248, PI. 1, figs. 10-12; Schultze, 1867, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 84, PI. 10, fig. 6. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1843. Hexacr. macrotatus Austin. Mon. Rec. and Foss. Crin., p. 50, PI. 6, figs. 3 a-d. Devonian. South Devon, England. Syn. Platycr. Phillipsii D'Orbigny. 1850. Prodr. de Paleont., i, p. 103. Syn. Platycr. tuberculatus Phillips, 1839 (not Miller, 1821). Pal. Foss. Cornwall, PI. 60, fig. 39. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 255 1867. Hexacr. nodifer Schultze. Mon. Ecbin. Eifel Kalk, p. 84, PI. 10, fig. 3. I)evonian. Eifel, Germany. 1838. Hexacr. ornatus Goldf. (Platycr. ornatus not McCoy.) Nova Acta Ac. Leop., xix, i, p. 347; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. ornatus, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 82, PL 8, fig. 4, and PI. 10, fig. 9. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. Si/n. Hexacr. echinatus Sandberger, 1856. Verstein. Nassau's, p. 398, PI. 35, fig. 10. 1867. Hexacr. paterseformis Schultze. Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 87, PL 10, fig. 4. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1867. Hexacr. pyriformis Schultze. Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 76, PL 10, fig. 1. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1857. Hexacr. spinosus MuUer. Neue Echin. Eifel, p. 248, PI. i, figs. 13, 14; Schultze, 1867, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 75, PL 8, fig. 2. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1851. Hexacr. stellaris F. Roemer. (Platycr. stellaris.) Yerh. Naturh. Verein f. FiheinL, viii, p. 362, PL 7, figs. 2 a, b, c ; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. Stellaris, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 81, PL 8, fig. 3. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1867. Hexacr. triradiatus Schultze. Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 86, PL 9, fig. 5. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 1826. Hexacr. ventricosus Goldf. (Platycr. ventricosus.) Petref. Germ., i, p. 189, PL 58, fig. 4; Miiller, 1856, Monatsb. Berl. Akad., p. 354, and 1857, Xeue Echin. Eifl., p. 247, PL 1, figs. 3, 4; Schultze, 1867, Hexacr. ventricosus, Mon. Echin. Eifel Kalk, p. 85, PL 10, fig. 2. Devonian. Eifel, Germany. 8. DICHOCRINUS Munster. 1838. Munster. Beitr. zur Petrefactenk, , i, p. 2. 1843. Austin. Mon. Rec. and Foss. Crin., p. 45. 1850. D Orbigny. Prodr. de Paleont., i, p. 156. 1853. Owen and Shuniard. U. S. Geol. Rep. Iowa, Wis. and Minn., p. 589. 1853. De Koninck and Lebon. Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 146. 1857. Pictet. Traite de Paleont., iv, p. 333. 1858. Hall. Geol. Rep. Iowa, i, pt. ii, p. 654 (not 689). 1860. Meek and Worthen. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 381. 1860. Hall. Supp. Geol. Rep. Iowa, p. 83. 1860. Casseday and Lyon (in part). Proc. Acad. Arts and Sci., v, p. 16. 1866. Meek and Wortben. Geol. Rep. 111., ii, pp. 167 and 263. 1879. Zittel. Haudb. der Palaeont., p. 365 (not Sbumard, 1857, Trans. St. Louis Acad., i, p. 5). Syn. (?) Cofyledonocrinus Cass, and Lyon. 1860, Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., v, p. 16. Syn. Platycrinus Phillips (in part). Geol. of Yorkshire, ii. There has been some difference of opinion as to the number of primar}^ raclials in Dichocrinus. Austin represents his Dichocr. fusiformis, Rec. and Foss. Crin., PI. 5, fig. 6", with three small plates above the first radials ; De Koninck and Lehon, in their generic formula, fix the number of primary radials at 4 X 5, on 256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the strength of Austin's figure. On the other hand, Shumard described his two species, D. cornigerus and D. sexlohalus, with a single large radial, and none above it. Casseda}' and Lyon state the number of radials as 1 to 3 X 5, in which opinion Meek and Worthen coincide. We have no doubt that the latter statement is correct, and that Austin's species is incorrectly figured, and had actually but three radials ; but we have ascertained from several excellent specimens loaned to us by Prof. Worthen, that the so-called D. cornigerus and D. sexlohatus of Shumard both have a very minute second radial, which is sometimes not visible externally. These two species, however, like some others described by Casseday and Lyon, differ from the typical Dichocrinus in several other import- ant points, and this has led us to arrange them in a new generic group under Talarocrinus^ which includes every species of this form with only two primary radials. We have examined all known American species of Dichocrinus proper, and find they all have three primary radials. Revised Generic Diagnosis. — Cal^'X deeply cup-shaped ; plates delicate, rarely ornamented ; S3mmetry distinctly bilateral. Basals two, hexagonal, forming together an obconical or rounded cup. Radials 3X5. The five plates of the first series very large, their sides straight and nearly parallel ; two rest on each basal piece, the anterior plate in a notch at one end of the basal suture ; against the opposite end there rests a large anal plate, which is placed in line with the first radials. Succeeding radials very small, occupying scarcelj^ more than one-fourth the width of the first. The third radials are bifui'cating plates which support either the arms, or in species with more than ten arms, the higher orders of radials. Secondary, tertiary, or even quarternar}' radials occur according to the number of arms. These higher orders are generally in series of two plates each, exceptionally three ; they are similar in appearance to ordinary arm plates, but are easily distinguished by being single-jointed ; while the arm plates, from the base up, are composed of a double series of pieces. Arms rather delicate, but they give off" very long and stout pin- nules composed of large joints. The pinnules form a very char- acteristic feature of the genus. Anal plate almost as large as the first radials, often narrower 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 257 above than below; quadrangular. Interradial plate pushed up- ward to the ventral side of the body, resting upon two upper margins of the first radials, which are not indented ; several inter- radial dome plates follow in succession. Dome depressed, and so far as known, constructed, as in some species of Platycrinus, with a short excentric anal tube. Column cylindrical, with a small round canal. The genus is most closely related to Talarocrinus. Geological Position^ etc. — Dichocrinus is a Subcarboniferous genus, and is found in America from the Lower Burlington lime- stone up to the Warsaw, where it is succeeded by Talarocrinus. It is also rejjresented by a number of species in the Mountain limestone of Belgium and Great Britain. We recognize the following species : — 1862. Dichocrinus angustus White. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., ix, p. 19. Upper Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1860. Dichocr. constrictus Meek and Worthen. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 381; also Geol. Rep. 111., ii, p. 263, PI. 19, figs. 2 a, b, c. Warsaw limest. Bloomington, Ind. 1860. Oichocr. conus Meek and Worthen. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 381 ; also Geol Rep. 111., ii, p. 169, PI. 16, figs. 5 a, b. Lower Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1862. Dichoor. crassitestus White. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., ix, p. 19. Upper Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1860. Dichocr. dichotomus Hall. Supp. Geol. Rep. Iowa, p. 85, PI. 1, fig. 5. War- saw limest. AVarsaw, 111. 1853. Dichocr. elegans De Kon. and Leh. (not Casseday and Lyon = Talaro'-rinus elegans Wachsm. and Spr.). Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 153, PI. 4, figs. 13 a, b. Mountain limest. Tournay, Belg. 1836. Dichocr. elongatus (Platycr. elongatus) Phill. (not Goldf., 1838 = Heoca- crinns). Geol. of Yorkshire, p. 204, PI. 3, figs. 24, 26; Austin, 1843, Mon. Ree. and Foss. Crin. Mount. limest. Tournay, Belg. 1853. Dichocr. expansus De Kon. and Leh. (not Meek and Worthen = Dichocr. polydactylus Cass, and Lyon). Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 161, PI. 4, fig. 10. Mount, limest. Belgium and England. This species had been figured by Miller, 1821, among his PI. laevis (figs. 4, 5), and by Austin as D. radiatus. 1860. Dichocr. ficus Casseday and Lyon. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and So-., v, p. 24 ; Meek and Worthen, 1873, Geol. Rep. 111., v, p. 500, PI. 14, fig. 1. Keokuk limest. Crawfordsville, Ind. In their description, the above authors state that all of the six perisomic plates are arm bearing. This is a mistake, as the anal plate supports a narrow cylindrical tube somewhat resembling an arm. 1843. Dichocr. fusiformis Austin. Mon. Rec. and Fofs. Crin., p. 47, IM. 5, figs. 6 a-d; De Kon. and Leh., 1853, Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 148, PI. 4, fig. 7. Mount, limest. Mendip Hills, Eng., and Tournay, Belg. 18 258 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ACADEMY OP [1881. 1863. Dichocr. granalosas Dc Kon. and Leh. Rech. Grin. Carb. Belg., p. 152, PI. 4, fig. 12. Mount, liinest. Tournay, Belg. 1853. Dichocr. intermediuB Be Kon. and Leh. Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 150, PI. 4, fig. 9. Mount, limest. Tournay, Belg. 1853. Dichocr. irregularis De Kon. and Leh. Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 152, PI. 4, figs. 11 a, b. Mount, limest. Tournay, Belg. 1860. Dichocr. Isevis Hall. Supp. Geol. Rep. Iowa, p. S3. Lower Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1869. Dichocr. lineatns Meek, and Worth. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 69; also Geol. Rep. 111., v, p. 440, PI. 3, fig. 1. Lower Burlington limest. Burling- ton, Iowa. 1861. Dichocr. liratus Hall. Desc. New Sp. Pal. Crin., p. 5; also Boat. Jour. Nat. Hist., p. 290, Photog. PI. 2, figs. 7, 8. Upper Burlington limest. Burling- ton, Iowa. *1881. Dichocr. ornatus Wachsm. and Spr. (Dichocr. sculptus Lyon and Cass., not De Kon. and Leh., 1853). Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., v, p. 25. Keokuk limest. Hardin Co., Ky. We propose the above name, D. sculptus being preoccupied. 1850. Dichocr. ovatus Ow. and Sh. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. (new sr.) ii, Pt. i; also U. S. Geol. Rep. Iowa, Wis. and Minn., p. 590, PI. 5 A, figs. 9 a-b. Lower Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1869. Dichocr. pisum Meek and Worth. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 69; also Geol. Rep. 111., v, p. 440, PI. 3, fig. 2. Lower Burlington limest. Burling- ton, Iowa. 1861. Dichocr. plicatus Hall. Desc. New Pal. Crin., p. 4 ; also Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist, p. 288, Phot. PI. 2, figs. 9,10. Upper Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1861. Dichocr. pocillum Hall. Desc. New Sp. Crin., p. 5; also Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., p. 291, Phot. PI. 2, figs. 15, 16 (Fig. 14 is evidently Meek and Worthen's D. laevis, which occurs in the Upper Burlington beds). Lower Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1860. Dichocr. polydactylus Casseday and Lyon. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., v, p. 20. Keokuk limest. Crawfordsville, Ind. Syn. D. expansus Meek and Worth (not De Kon. and Leh., 1853). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 344; also Geol. Rep. 111., v, p. 500, PI. 14, fig. 1. The original description by Cass, and Lyon is somewhat erroneous as to the arrangement of the arms, and this probably led Meek and Worthen to pro- pose a new species. There is no doubt of the identity of the two. 1838. Dichocr. radiatus Miinster. Type of the genus. Beitr. z. Petref., i, p. 2, PI. 1, figs. 3 a-d ; De Koninck, 1842, Desc. Anim. Foss., p. 40, PI. i, figs. 6 a-d ; Austin, 1843, Mon. Rec. and Foss. Crin., p. 45, PI. 5, figs. 5 a-d; D'Orbigny, 1850, Prodr. de Paleont. i, p. 166; De Kon. and Leh., 1853, Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg. p. 149, PI. 4, figs. 8 a-d ; Pictet, 1857, Traite de Paleont. iv, p. 333, PI. 101, fig. 18; Bronn, 1860, Klassen d. Thierreichs, ii, PI. 28, figs. 9 a-b. Mount, limest. Mendip Hills, Eng., and Tournay, Belg. 1861. Dichocr. scitulus Hall. Desc. New Pal. Crin. p. 4; also Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., p. 289. Lower Burlington limest. Burlington, Iowa. 1853. Dichocr. sculptus De Kon. and Leh. (not Cass, and Lyon, 1860). Rech. Crin. Carb. Belg., p. 154, PI. 4, figs. 14 a, b, c. Mount, limest. Tournay, Belg. 1857. Dichocr. simplex Shmmard. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, p. 74, PI. 1, fig. 2; Hall, 1858, Geol. Rep. Iowa, i, Pt. ii, p. 654, PI. 23, figs. 12 a, b. Warsaw limest. Spurgeon Hill, Ind.; also St. Mary's Landing, Mo., and Sparta, Tenn. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 259 1850. Dichocr. Striatus Ow. and Sh. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. vol. ii, Pt. i, j also U. S. Geol. Kep. Iowa, Wis. and Minn. p. 590, PI. 5 A, figs. 10 a, b. Upper Burlington limest, Burlington, Iowa. 9. TALAROCRINTJS, nov. gen. , {ralapog a small basket, Kplvov a lily.) Syn. DicTiocrinus Shumard (in part) 1860 (not Miinster). Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. Syn. Dichocrinus Cass, and Lyon (in part) 1860. Proc. Am. Acad, Arts and Sci., v, p. 16. Among the species described by Shumard imder Dichocrinus there are two, which differ materially from that genus and from Pterotocrinus, with which they are nearest related. Meek and Worthen, in their generic description of Pterotocrinus (Geol. Rep. 111., ii, p. 290), recognized more than specific differences between the form represented by Shumard's Dichocrinus cornigerus and D. sexlobatus, and the genus Pterotocrinus with which these two species had been identified, and thej' proposed either to divide the genus into two sections, or to separate the above species from it sub-generically. Shumard afterwards and also S. A. Miller, in their catalogues placed both species under Pterotocrinus. Wetherby (Cin. Journ. Nat. Hist., 18t9, Apr. number) on the other hand, refers the above species to Dichocrinus and considers them altogether di!i*"nct from Pterotocrinus. In the latter con- clusion he is undoubtedly correct, but we cannot see that their relations to Dichocrinus are any closer. They evidently form a little group by themselves, which in nature occiapies a place between the two genera, forming a connecting link between them. We propose for this group the generic name Talarocrinus with D. cornigerus Shum. as the type. Generic Diagnosis. — General form of body ovoid ; composed of heavy plates. Calyx subconical ; plates convex, deeply im- pressed at the suture lines, and hence more or less protuberant ; surface smooth. Basals two, pentagonal, precisely alike, the suture running from the posterior to the anterior side. First radials large, quadran- gular, nearly as wide as high, aranged in line with the first anal plate, which is as large or larger than the radials, and of similar form. The upper edge is excavated, but not semicircular, there 260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. being an angular process in the middle. Second radials^ very minute, often not visible externall}^ and resting from within against the median angular process within the articulating depres- sion of the large radial. Their inner face is much larger, trian- gular in form, with concave sides. The arrangement is such that these sides, together with the outer portions of the articulating scar of the first plates, form two semicircular sockets, supporting each a small pentagonal bifurcating secondary radial, which here, as in Pterotocrinus and Ilan^upiocrinus, constitutes a part of the bod}-, and in turn supports two arms, or twenty arms in all. Form of the arms unknown. Vault generally of equal height with the calyx, decidedly lobed when viewed from above ; composed of numerous small pieces, some of them spiniferous ; toward the posterior side obliquely flattened, with a lateral anal aperture towards the upper end. Radial area elevated, and extending outward ; interradial portions depressed, posterior side much wider. Central vault piece large, nodose or spiniferous. The four large proximal plates occupy in four of the interradial spaces the upper portion of the depression, while the two smaller ones rest partly against the radial portions of the dome, with several small anal plates and the anal aperture between them. Interradial vault pieces three, rather large, and much higher than wide. The first radial vault piece is spiniferous in most species, the succeeding plates small and nodose, arranged longitudinally in rows, forming together regular arches over the ambulacral passages within the body. There is a large elongate brachial piece between the two divisions of each ray, which at its lower end connects with the upper point of the second radial, thus giving origin to two arm openings in each ray. The anal area has three large pieces in the first series, which rest upon the anal plate of the calyx, the median one has form and size of the interradial plates, the two others are smaller. In the second series there are two plates, followed by a number of minute pieces surrounding the anal aperture, which is protuberant. Column probably cylindrical and small, with a minute central canal. Talarocrinus differs from Dichocrinus in the greater promi- nence of the plates in the calyx ; its higher vault ; in having the ' Shumard described Dichoer. cornigerus with a single radial, but the second is present in the species though hidden from view exteriorly. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 261 secondary radials forming part of the calj^x, and in having the anal opening through the vault, and not at the end of a tube. It differs from Pterotocrinus in the very different form of the calyx ; in having no teiliary radials in the calyx ; in the form of the dome, and the absence of lobed processes. Geological Position^ etc. — The genus is known onlj^ from the St. Louis and Kaskaskia groups of the United States. We recognize the following species : — *t857. Talarocrinus cornigerus .^humard. (Dichocr. cornigerus.1 Type of the genus. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, i, p. 72, PI. 1, figs. 1 a, b ; Pterotocr. cornigerus Shumard, 1866, Cat. Pal. Foss. N. Amer., i, p. 393 ; S. A. Miller, Pterotocr. cornigerus, Catal. Pal. Foss., p. 89. Kaskaskia limest. Frank- lin Co., Ala. *1860. Talarocr. elegans Cass, and Ljon. (Dichocr. elegans.) Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., v, p. 22. St. Louis limest. Edmonson Co., Ky. *1857. Talarocr. sexlobatus Shumard. (Dichocr. sexlobatus). Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, vol. i, p. 6, PI. i, figs. 3 a, b, c ; S. A. Miller (Pterotocr sexloba- tus), Catal. Pal. Foss., p. 89. Kaskaskia limest. Russelville, Ky. *1860. Talarocr. symmetricus Cass, and Lyon. (Dichocr. symmetricus.) Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. v, p. 22. Ka.^kaskia limest. Edmonson Co., Ky. 10. PTEEOTOCEINTJS Lyon and Casseday. 1859. Lyon and Casseday. Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, xxix, p. 68. 1866. Meek and Worthen. Geol. Rep. 111., ii, p. 288. 1879. Wetherby. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. (April). 1879. Wetherby. Ibid. ( October No, ) . 1879. Zittel. Handb. d. Palaeont., i, p. 365. Syn. Asterocrinus Lyon, 1857 (not Miinster). Geol. Rep. Ky., iii, p. 472. Pterotocrinus was first described in 185T by Lyon under the name of Asterocrinus., which, being previously occupied by Miin- ster, was changed to the former in 1859 by Lyon and Casseday. Meek and Worthen, in revising the genus in 1866, indicated in their generic formula four series of interradial plates, which is evidently a mistake, as that order of plates is entirel}^ absent in the calyx. They further changed the term " wings or lobed pieces " of Lyon into " interbrachial appendages," In 1879, Prof. Wetherb}^, who had obtained very perfect speci- mens from Kentucky, published some new and interesting obser- vations on the genus, and described in the April and October numbers of the Journ. of the Cincin. Soc. Nat. Hist., three new species. He considered the small plates which had been recog- 262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. nized by Meek and Worthen as second radials, to be mere acces- sory pieces. These plates are exceedingly small and rudimentary in this genus, sometimes almost obsolete ; but in their minuteness they are clearly the analogues of the second primary radials in other genera, and should be so described. Generic Diagnosis. — Calyx depressed, saucer-shaped, much wider than high ; symmetry bilateral. Vault high, pyramidal, pentagonal in outline, crowned by five wing-like lateral extensions or processes, which form one of the most characteristic features of this remarkable genus. Plates without surface ornamentation, Basals two, large, of similar form, pentagonal, the suture run- ning from the anterior to the posterior side ; they form a shallow cup, with a central depression for the attachment of the column. Posterior side of the cup angularly excavated for the reception of a rather large, lance-shaped, subtriangular anal plate, the opposite side of which is similarly excavated, supporting the anterior radial. First radials almost twice as wide as high, increasing rppidly in width from their lower suture upward. The anterior radial is heptagonal, the two adjoining radials hexagonal. The two posterior first radials are of somewhat difierent form on account of the triangular or quadrangular anal piece which is inter- calated between them, and they are either heptagonal or hexagonal according as this plate is of equal height with them or shorter. The upper side of the first radials is excavated and more or less concave, it supports not only the second primar}^ radials, but also the two secondary ones, and, what is most remarkable, one of the first series of tertiary radials; all of which plates, with 1 X 2 X 20 additional tertiary radials, form part of the calyx. The second primary radial is placed within the concavity of the first plate ; it is very minute, sometimes invisible externally, of triangular form, and supporting on each sloping face a single series of bifur- cating plates, which rank as secondary radials. These latter meet above the apex of the small second radial, and rest by one side upon the large first radials, while their two upper faces support from 2 to 3 X 20 tertiary radials, or 2 X 4 to each ray. Of these plates, the two outer ones of each ray rest with one side upon the outer extremity of the margin of the first radials, with the outer side against one of the upper sloping faces of the secondary radials, the inner sides meet each other, while their upper faces support a second tertiary radial. The two plates toward the 1881. J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 263 inner ray are narrower, truncate below, resting upon the longer upper face of the secondary radials, and support like the outer plates one or two plates in succession, which in turn support the arms. The radials of the higher orders are almost of equal size, and at least twice as wide as high. There is no interradial within the calyx, and no other anal plate but the one described.^ Dome highly elevated, pyramidal, pentagonal in outline. The angles which are radial, are excavated for the attachment of the large radial processes. The sides of the pentagon are the inter- radial spaces, which seem to have faint grooves, running longi- tudinally, wherein the arms rest. Four of the interradial spaces are of equal size, the fifth somewhat larger. All five are similarl}^ constructed, and contain three plates in the lower series. The middle or first interradial plate is the larger, its two upper sides forming an angle. The two adjacent plates, as will be explained presently, are representations of radials of a second order. Above these and alternating with them, rests a second series of interradials, composed of two plates, larger than the first, and these meet laterally with corresponding plates of adjacent rays. The upper series, representing the proximal vault pieces, consists of a single plate in four of the spaces, and two slightly smaller ones in that of the posterior side, which all join laterally and form a continuous ring. In a few instances only, there appears to be a small anal plate located between the two smaller proximal plates. The first radial dome plates are enormously developed in the form of wing-like processes which form the most characteristic feature of the genus. Succeeding these outward, toward the rim, are two small secondary radial dome-plates, one on each side of the lower interradial, and two still smaller plates bifurcating from the last, which are tertiary radial dome plates, but which are rarely observed. Besides these there is a rather large, very peculiar interbrachial plate, beneath the winged first radial. The winged extensions of the first radial dome plate are very variable in form. They are, according to Wetherby, either spatulate, claviform, or cuneiform ; in some species thin and knife-like throughout their * In one of Wetherby" s specimens which he kindly loaned us, we found a little triangular piece resting upon the anal plate. Whether this is ab- normal, or a deviation from the general rule and of specific importance, we are as yet unable to say. 264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. length ; in others thickened and rounded above, and slightly thinner below ; in some terminating in thin round edges, in others tapering almost to a point ; while still others are bifurcate at the extremities. The monstrous plates, which rise to the full height of the summit, and laterally extending far beyond it, rest chiefly upon the surface of the vault, within grooves, bordered by elevated ridges along the interradial and proximal dome plates, and only a small portion at the lower end is wedged in between other plates. The ridges continue along the interbrachial plate, which for a plate of that order is unusually large. The interbrachial plates, together with the secondary radials and lower interradials, form the base of the dome. The summit leans somewhat to the posterior side, more espe- cially the upper portion, which in the best specimens consists of a small cone, composed of a number of small plates, which decrease in size ui)ward, leaving a minute anal opening at the upper end of the. cone.' In front of the anal opening, and in the radial centre, there is a pentagonal plate which is at once recognized as the central dome plate. To this plate converge not only the radial grooves in which the winged processes rest, but also the smaller grooves within the interradial spaces which receive the arms. These latter pass into the ambulacral or arm openings, which are rather large, and have an upward direction. The arms are short, simple, gradually diminishing in size up- ward, extending to the top of the vault, but not beyond it. They are twenty in number, divided by the winged processes into groups of four, each containing two arms of two different rays. They are constructed of two rows of short interlocking joints, moder- ately convex on the dorsal side. Ambulacral furrows, wide and deep. Pinnules short, stout, composed of five or six joints. The visceral cavity, as seen from one of Wetherby's specimens, (vertical section) is deeper than would be expected from the form of the body. The basal plates are very thin, while the radials, to the top of the third order, increase rapidl3^ in thickness. Column slender, round ; central perforation small. ' It is very possible that in some of the species the anus is not thus ex- tended into a tube-like cone, but this is the case in Pterotocrinus depressus Lyon and Cass. The anal aperture is but rarely observed, being generally covered by the shell of a Gasteropod. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 265 Geological Position^ etc. — Pterotocrinus is the last survivor of the PIat3^erinidse, and occurs only in the Kaskaskia limestone of America. The following species are known : — 1879. Pterotocrinus acatas Wetherby. Joum. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. (Oct. No.), p. 1, PI. 11, figs. 2 a, b, c. Kaskaskia limest. Pulaski Co., Ky. 1879. Pterotocr. Mfurcatus Wetherby. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. (Oct. No.), p. 3, PI. 11, figs. 1 a, b, c. Kaskaskia limest. Pulaski Co., Ky. 1857. Pterotocr. oapitalis Lyon. (Asterocr, capitalis). Type of the genus. Ky. Geol. Surv., iii, p. 472, PI. 3, figs. 1 a-k ; Lyon and Cass., 1859, Pterotocr. capitalis, Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. x.xix, p. 68. Kaskaskia limest. Crittenden Co., Ky. 1860. Pterotocr. Chestereiisis Meek and Worth. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 383; and 1866, Geol. Rep. 111. ii, p. 292, PI. 23, figs. 1 a, b, c. Kaskaskia limest. Hardin Co., 111. 1857. Pterotocr. coronatus Lyon (Asterocr. coronatus). Ky. Geol. Surv , iii, p. 476, PI. 1, figs. 1, 1 a. Kaskaskia limest. Crittenden Co., Ky. 1860. Pterotocr. crassus Meek and Worth. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. p. 382, and 1866, Geol. Rep. Ill , ii, p. 240, PI. 23, figs. 2 a, b. Kaskaskia limest. Har- din Co., 111. 1859. Pterotocr. depressus Lyon and Cass. Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. xxix. p. 68. Kaskaskia limest. Grayson Springs, Ky. *1858. Pterotocr. protaberans Hall. (Dichoor. protuberans). Geol. Rep. Iowa, i, Pt. 2, p 689, PI. 25, fig. 7. Kaskaskia limest. Chester, 111. 1859. Pterotocr. pyramidalis Lyon and Cass. Am. Joum. Sci. and Arts, xxix, p. 69. Kaskaskia limest. Grayson and Edmonson Cos., Ky. This species is evidently identical with P. depressus, and was described from a specimen showing the vault in place of the arms. 1879. Pterotocr. spatulatus Wetherby. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. (Oct. No.), p. 4, PI. 11, figs. 3 a, b, c. Kaskaskia limest. Pulaski Co., Ky. B. ACTINOCEINIDJE Roemer and Zittel. (Amend. Wachsm. and Spr.) The name Actinocrinidsfi was first employed b}- Roemer in 1855, who arranged under it Actinocrinus, Amphoracrinus, Dorycrinus and Batocrinus, genera without underbasals, with three basal plates, and in which the first anal piece extends to the line of the first radials. He placed Melocrinus and all genera with four basals and no anal plate within the first radial ring under his Melocrinidjfi, not including, however, Eucalyjjtocrinus nor Cteno- crinus, which latter, as he supposed, had only three basals. Periechocrinus ( Pradocrinus and Saccocrinus), which he thought differed in the anal area, and Ctenocrinus, he placed with Glypto- crinus — of which the underbasals had not been discovered — under 266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. the CtenocrinidiTe ; while Carpocrinus and Macrostylocrinus were referred to the Cyathocrinidae. Zittel amended Actinocrinidse by admitting Periechocrinus^ Erelmocrinus^ AUoprosallocrinus, StrotocriniiSj Sleganocrinus. Agaricocrinus and Megistocrinus, partly, however, as subgenera of Actinocrinus. He, like Roemer and Angelin, separated the genera with four basals, and ranged Stelidiocrinus and Harmo- crinus, which have five basal pieces, under a distinct family. Zittel further excluded Carpocrinus, Hahrocrinus and Desmido- crinus, species with single arm joints, for which he proposed the name Carpocrinidse, and he placed under the Dimerocrinidaa Marcostylocrinus and Dolatocrinus^ genera with three basals and no anal plate in line with the first radials, and among these he admitted Gytocrinus, which we have ascertained has four and not three basals, and Dirtier ocrinus, which has underbasals. The fact that in those classifications the least mistake or mis- conception as to the number of the basals, a diversity in the position or distribution of the anal plates, or a slight variation in the form of the arm joints, throws the genus from one family into another, is in itself sufficient proof, that the divisions are arbitrary and artificial. A classification based upon fossils should be as simple as possible, resting upon a broad basis, and the family di- visions should express important and evident structural features, and be not dependent upon such trifling variations as the number of basal plates, etc. We place among the Actinocrinidte all genera of the Sphan-oido- crinidfB, which are constructed of basals (without underbasals) ; 3 X 5 — rarely 2 X 5 — primary radials, all forming a part of the calyx; one or more higher orders of radials, with at least one, but generally several additional interradial pieces beneath the arm regions ; a vault composed of a large number of heavy plates in contact with each other ; and we include species both with single and double jointed arms. For greater convenience of study we arrange the genera under six sections. a. Stelidiocrinites: The simplest form of the sub-family. General symmetry more or less perfectly pentahedral ; calyx low ; basals five or three ; second radials short ; anal and interradial area scarcely distinct ; arms single or double jointed. h. Agaricocrinites : Symmetry decidedly bilateral ; calyx low ; 1881.] NATtJRAL SCIENCES OP PHILADELPHIA. 267 basals three ; second primary radials quadrangular and short ; the first anal plate in line with the first radials ; arms heavy, simple, composed of single or double joints. c. llelocrimtes : S3mmetry more or less uniformly pentahedral ; calyx large ; basals four or three ; second radials comparatively high and generally hexagonal ; interradials numerous ; anal side but little distinct and its plates not extending to the line of the first radials ; interaxillaries sometimes present ; arms given off laterally ; columnar canal pentalobate and rather large. d. Periechocrinites : General symmetry bilateral; calyx very large ; basals four or three ; second radials large, frequently higher than wide ; interradials and interaxillaries numerous ; first anal plate in line with the first radials, succeeded by three plates in the second series; arms branching; column large, and with a wide pentalobate canal. e. Actinocrinites : Symmetry slightly bilateral ; calyx large ; basals three ; second primary radials nearly as high as wide, hex- agonal ; higher orders of radials numerous, composed of one series of plates each, which give off the arms alternately from opposite sides ; interradials in two rows ; the first anal plate enclosed be- tween the first radials, supporting only two plates in the second series; interaxillaries generall}' present; arms long, double jointed. /. Batocrinites ; symmetry more or less bilateral ; calyx large ; basals three ; second radials short, linear ; higher orders of radials rarely exceeding three, the plates of the last order touching later- ally all around the body, except sometimes over the anal area. Interradials few ; interaxillaries absent ; first anal plate in line with the first radials, second series composed of three plates ; arms short, double jointed. These groups are founded upon the construction of the anal area, in connection with the form and arrangement of the radial plates and the arms. A division merely based upon the construc- tion of the anal area, as we have adopted among Platycrinidae, would bring together the Stelidiocrinites and Melocrinites as op- posed to the Agaricocrinites, Periechocrinites and Batocrinites, while the Actinocrinites would occupy a place somewhat between the two. A separation by means of the second primary radials brings into closer proximity Stelidiocrinites and Agaricocrinites, in which those plates are short, linear and quadrangular, against the three other sections in which the}^ are comparatively high and 268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. hexagonal. An exception is here found in Dolatocrinus and Stereocrinus^ in which the second radials are quadrangular or even absent, and which should perhaps be placed more properly in a group by themselves. The form of the second radials is no doubt of some importance in the structure of these crinoids. In species in which they are quadrangular and linear, the second and third radials together very often fail to attain the size of the first radial plate. In various cases of Dolatocrinus^ Alloprosallocrinus and Batocrinus, the second radials are so small that they are discovered with diffi- cult^' , and are not un frequently in single rays entirely absent. In species in which the plates of the calyx are tuberculous, they are often the only plates which bear no tubercle. All this hints at the conclusion that the second and third radials, which combined take the form of a single bifurcating plate, here take the place of a single plate joined by syzygy, with the epizygial part bearing an arm instead of a pinnule, and that in species which as a rule have only two primary radials, but otherwise agree with some other genus, the joints became perfectly anchylosed. Such was evi- dently the case with Dolatoci'inus and Stereocrinus, Eucrinus and Anthevwcrinus, Lecanocrivus and Pycnosaccus. In Platy- crinus, which also has only two primary radials, the division appears yet frequently in form of a shallow groove at the surface of the plate, where the earlier Platycrinidse have a regular suture. In species with more than ten arms, the rays are generally com- posed of two main divisions, of which each side gives off arms in opposite directions. The onl}' exception is Steganocrinus sculjytus Hall, in which the ray is undivided (PI. 18, fig. 3). In this species, the third primary radials, like all succeeding plates (radials of superior orders), take the form of pinnule-bearing plates, which, instead of bifurcating, give off" laterally arms in the same manner as the others do pinnules. This is of interest, as it leads to the conclusion that probably the secondary radials — the distichalia of Miiller — made their appearance in the young crinoid in form of a pinnule given off from the radials which at first formed the only arms of the ray. We have already shown in our general remarks on the family that the higher orders of radials were in the young animal free arm plates, and we have proved by many examples that the arms 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 269 spring off in exactly the same manner as the pinnules, and they evidently were pinnule-like in their earlier form. The earliest Actinocrinidae known to us are found in the Upper Silurian, but the species and even genera which already occur there are so numerous, and show such variety of form, and some of them appear to be so highly developed, that evidently the family had been represented at a much earlier epoch. It is possible that Schizocrinus Hall of the Lower Silurian, which is imperfectly known, should be referred to the Actinocrinida, but it may have underbasals. In the earlier representatives of this family, the underbasals form the criterion by which alone the Actinocrinidfe and Rhodocrinidfe can be distinguished, and as these plates in the earlier types are very minute, it is often exceedingly difficult to make the separation. In Glyptocrinus the underbasals may per- haps be absent in some species, but when visible they are exceed- ingly rudimentary. Species without them might be referred, almost with the same proprietj' to the ActinocrinidjB, and indeed, they have a remarkably close resemblance to species of IMocrinus and Mariacrinus yvith. four basal plates. A similar relation exists between Dimerocrinus and Stelidiocriniis, Glyptaster' and Perie- chocrinus, which can be distinguished only by the underbasals. In Stelidwcrinus and Melocrinus, we recognize representatives of two of the four divisions of the Actinocrinidse which occur in the Upper Silurian. The two differ essentially in the relative size of their body, and in the number and distribution of the plates in the calj'x, but agree in the arrangement of their anal area. Carpocrinus and Periechocrinus, which belong to the same geological age, are separated by the very same characters, the former agreeing closely with Stelidiocriniis, the latter with Melocrinus^ but both are readily distinguished by having a special anal plate in line with the first radials. The Stelidiocriniles disappear in the Upper Silurian, where they are first known. The Periechocrimtes and Agaricocrinites survived to the Subcarboniferous, the former to the Burlington, the latter to the Keokuk epoch. The Melocrinites became extinct in the Devonian. The Actinocrinites and Batocrinites are restricted almost exclusively to the Subcarboniferous ; a few aberrant forms are known from the Hamilton group. The Actinocrinidse became altogether extinct after the age of the Warsaw limestone. 270 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OP [1881. We arrange the six sections as follows : — a, Stelidiocrinites. 1. Briarocriiius Angelin. 4. Macrostylocrinus Hall. 2. Stelidiocrinus Angelin. Subgenus Centrocrinus 3. Patelliocrinus Angelin. Wachsmuth & Springer. b. Agaricocrinites. 5. Carpocrim/s Miiller. 6. Agnricocrinus Troost. Subgenus Desmidocrinus Subgenus Alloprosallocrinus Angelin. Lyon & Casseday. c. Melocrikites. 7. Mariacrinus Wachsm. & Spr. 10. Scypliocrimis Zenker. 8. Teehnocrinus Hall. 11. Dolatocrinus Lyon. 9. Melocrinus Goldfuss. Subgenus Stereocrinus Barris. d. Perxechocrinites. 13. Periechocrinus Austin. 14. Megistocrinus Owen & Shumard. 13. Abacoc7'inus Angelin. e. ACTINOCRINITES. 15. Actinocrinus Miller. 19. PJiysetocrinus Meek & Worthen. 16. Teleiocrimis Wachsm, & Spr. 20. Strotocrinus Meek & Worthen. 17. Steganocrinus Meek & Worthen. 21. GenncBocrinus Wachsm. & Spr. 18. Amphoracrinus Austin, /. BatocRinites. 22. Batocrinus Casseday. 24. Dorycrinus F. Roemer. 23. Eretmocrinus Lyon & Casseday. a. STEMDlOCRliJITES. i. BRIAKOCRINTJS Angelin. 1878. Angelin. Iconog. Crin. Suec, p. 1. 1879. Zittel. Handb. der Palseont., i, p. 367. Briarocrinus represents the simplest conceivable form that can be admitted among the Actinoerinidoe. It has two interradial plates, and these, in the typical species, are situated above the line of the third primary radials. Its perfectly straight arm joints suggest an immature crinoidal structure. B. angustus Angl. is too plainly distinct from B. injiatus Angl., in the construction of the plates of the calyx, and particularly in the interradial portions, to be admitted into the same genus, and as it agrees with no other, we should propose it as the type of a 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 2^1 new genus, if we had before us specimens instead of a single figure. For want of material, we leave it here for the present. Angelin and Zittel arranged Briarocrinus under a separate famil}', in which the latter includes Gulicocrinus. It is true that B. injiatus deviates from all other Actinocrinidse in its interradial parts, but it differs fully as much from Gulicocrinus in the same characters, the latter being decidedly a Platycrinoid Briarocrinus, in our opinion, leans rather toward the Ichthyocrinidse, with which it agrees in the alternate arrangement of the radial plates, but it has evidently not their pliant body. Generic Diagnosis. — Calyx cup-shaped ; symmetry pentahedral, with some inequality in the sides due to irregularities in the radial series. Basals three, usually large, two of them equal and larger than the third. Primary radials 3X5, wider than high, joining laterally. The third is a bifurcating plate with very obtuse upper angles, supporting in almost vertical succession 3 X 10 secondary radials, which are half the width of the primary radials, and interlock up to the second plate ; the third pair being separated by a small axillary piece. The radials are generally irregular in form, even those of a like order or series are differing markedly among each other in height and width. In some of the ra3'S, the first radials are larger by half than in others, and in these the second radials are much higher and generall}' wider ; in others only one side of the plate is lower, a construction pro- ducing a sort of alternate arrangement of the plates, which extends up to the secondary radials. The plates of this second order are separated from each other, laterally, by a line of two small interradial pieces, which in alternate rays, respectively, rest upon the upper corners of two of the third primaries, or upon the upper sloping side of the first secondary radial. Arms ten, supported directly upon the secondary radials ; heav}^ simple, composed of single transverse round joints, with parallel sutures and long pinnules. Posterior or anal side, so far as known, not distinct. Column round. In the absence of interradial plates between the primary radials, and in the alternate arrangement of the latter, this genus differs from all others of the family. 212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. Geological Position^ etc. — Found thus far only in the Upper Silurian of Sweden. 1878. Briarocrinas inflatus Angelin. Iconogr. Grin. Suec, p. 1, PI. 10, fig. 23. Upper Silur. (rothland, Sweden. (?] 1878. Briarocr. angustus Angelin. Iconogr. Grin. Suec., p. 1, PI. 10, fig. 22. Upper Silur. Gothland, Swei'en. 2. STELIDIOCRINTJS Angelin. (Amend. Wachsmuth and Springer.) 1878. Angelin, Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 21. 1879. Zittel. Handb. der Palajont. , i, p. 345. Syn. Harmocrinus Angelin. Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 23. We are obliged to include Angelin's genus Harmocrinus in Stelidiocrinus. A few additional interradial or interaxillary plates do not alone warrant a generic or even subgeneric separa- tion. According to Angelin and Zittel, StelidiocrinuH and Harmocrinus, with Hall's Schizocrinus, form a distinct famil}'. The genus now under consideration is in more than one respect an interesting form with reference to the Palaeontologic history of the Crinoids. It is the only genus of the Actinocrinidae which has five basal plates, none of them being anchylosed, and as this is one of their earliest representatives, there can be little doubt that the basals in this family, whether composed of a single piece or of three or four, were derived originally from five. The rela- tions also between this genus and Divierocrinus of the Rhodo- crinidse are so close, that it may be asked whether the presence of underbasals, which form the only distinction, should be considered of more than generic importance. It shows, at all events, the very close relations that exist between the two sub-families. There is also to be seen within the limits of this genus, a modification of the arms from interlocking single joints to a double series of plates. Generic Diagnosis. — Body small. Calyx subturbinate or sub- ovate, without surface ornamentation ; radial plates prominently elevated above the interradial areas, but not producing sharp carinae. Basals five, equal, quadrangular, upper angles acute. Primary radials 3X5; the first large, wider than high, lunate, hexagonal ; the second quadrangular, shorter and much narrower ; the third pentagonal, almost as wide but not as high as the first. Second- 1881. J NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 2t3 ary radials 2 to 4 x 1^? wider than high, supporting in direct line a single rather stout arm or ten in all. It is possible that the number of secondary radials varies with age, and that there are four in the adult. Arms composed either of a single row of cuneiform plates slightly interlocking, or of two rows of short plates alternately arranged. Interradials four to eight ; the first large, resting upon the sloping sides of the first radials and between the second and third of adjacent ra3's, the succeeding plates much smaller and connect- ing with the vault pieces. Posterior area wider ; the first anal piece in line with the first interradials, the second and third ranges consisting of two instead of three pieces. Anus in form of a simple lateral opening similar to Dorycrinus. Vault compressed, conij)osed almost exclusively of the apical dome plates, which are unusually large. In Stelidiocr. capitulum, the vault is constructed of only twenty-three pieces, the smallest possible number of which a species with ten arms can be composed in accordance with the rule prevailing among these crinoids. It consists of the central piece, the six proximal plates, a single anal, , and three radials to each ray. The two secondary radials of the dome are exceedingly small, while the proximal vault pieces occupy almost three-fourths of the entire summit. Column round, articulating faces crenulated. The genus resembles PatelUocriyius , but differs from it and all similar genera in the number of basal plates. Geological Position^ etc. — Restricted to the Upper Silurian of Europe. We recognize the following species . — 1878, Stelidiocrinus capitulum Angelin. Type of the genus. Iconogr. Crin. Suec., p. 21, PI. 17, figs. 5a-g. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. *1878. Stelidiocr. longimanus Angel. (Harmocr. longimanus). Iconogr. Crin, Suec, PI. 21, figs. 6, 7. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. 1878. Stelidiocr. Isevis Angelin. Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 21, PI. 15, figs. 20, 20a; also PI. 27, figs, 3, 3a, (not PI. 28, figs, 7, a, b). Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. Angelin's figures are not so reliable as could be wished. Those of S. Isemg on PI. 15 have single jointed arms, while those on PI. 27 have a double series of plates. It may be possible that the former are taken from a young specimen. The figures 7 a b, on PI. 28 are evidently referred to this genus by oversight, , as they are clearly of Desmidocrimis maerodactyhia, 19 274 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. 1878. (?) Stelidiocr. ovalis AnKclin. Iconogr. Grin. Suec, p. 21, I'l. ID, fig. 6. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. This species differs from Stelidiocrinm in several important points and ought to be separated from it. To judge from the construction of the anal plates it should be removed to the Agaricocrinites, but it is possible, if the figure is correct, and the interradial plates, as there represented, extend to the basals in all five areae, that it possesses underbasals, and properly belongs to the RhodocriMidae. We refrain from proposing new generic names for these straggling forms, as we cannot altogether depend upon the figures, and we hope they will be taken up by investigators more familiar with these types, and who have access to the specimens. 3. PATELLIOGIIINUS Angelin. 1878. Angelin. Iconogr. Criu. Suec, p. 1. 1879. Zittel. Handb. der Palaeont, p. 368. Several of these species referred by Angelin to this genus belong, in our opinion, to very distinct genera. His Pat. duplica- tus has not only four arms to the ray, but as we judge from the shape and size of the basals, evidentlj' had underbasals ; also the first anal plate is in line with the first radials, while in all other species of PatelliocyHnus those plates are ranged with the second radials. In Pat. fulminatus the calyx is but imperfectly pre- served, but we judge from what is exposed, that this species was closely allied to another figured in Iconogr., PI. 18, fig. 16, as Melocr. Volhorth.i.^ Both species have branching arms, unlike Patel- lioci'inus, and are probably generically identical. We should propose for them a new genus, if we had more perfect figures for description. Zittel made Patelliocrinus a synon3'm of Dimerocrinus Phill., wliich, however, has five basals instead of three, and underbasals. In his classification he arranges Dimerocrinus with Dolatocrinus, Cytocriniis with 3Iacrostylocrinus, and all under the Patellio- crinidae. Patelliocrinus is one of those genera in which the arms as a rule are neither single- nor double-jointed, and sometimes scarcely interlocking at all, resembling herein Eupachycrinus and Eriso- crinus of the Cyathocrinidse. Generic Diagnosis — General form oblong. Calyx patellifonn ; symmetrj^ almost perfectly equilateral. ' We take it that Melocr. Yolhortld is represented by PI. 7, figs. 7 to 11, which is an entirely different thing from PI. 18, fig. 16. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 2^5 Basals three, unequal ; two of them pentagonal, the third smaller bj' one-half, and quadrangular. Primary radials 3X5; the first ones forming laterally a continuous ring, larger than those succeeding, heptagon'al, the lateral margins very long ; the second quadrangular, wider than high ; the third axillary of medium size, ui)per angle obtuse. Secondary radials 2 X 10, which directly support the arms, or sometimes the second plate is the bifurcating piece, and supports upon the inner and wider sloping side an arm ; upon the smaller side an extraordinary large pinnule, which takes the direction of the arm, being more erect than the succeeding pinnules, and twice as heavy. The arms are large, heav}' at the base, and towards the tips gradually tapering hito a sharp point. The proximal arm plates are large, resembling secondary radials, and like them are decreasing in height up- ward ; succeeding joints cuneate, gradually passing into two rows of interlocking pieces. In P. pinnulatus they pass scarcely beyond the earliest stage of interlocking arms ; in P. chiastodac- tylus the arms remain single-jointed throughout, but the joints are strongly cuneiform. Pinnules long, rather strong, and com- posed of single joints. Interradials three, the first very large, with a small one in the second, and a still smaller triangular one in the third series, the latter abutting against the large proximal arm-like pinnules. There ai'e some species with five interradials, having two plates in the second, and two in the third range. Anal side not structurally distinct. Yault unknown, anal aperture apparently lateral. Column cylindrical. This genus, in its general habitus, resembles Agaricocrinus, particularly its earlier and smaller species ; but the two genera are very distinct in the construction of the anal area. Geological Position, etc. — Patelliocrinus, so far as now known, is confined to the Upper Silurian of Europe. We recognize the following species : — 1S7S. Patelliocrinus chiastodactylus Angelin. Icongr. Grin. Suec, p. 1, PI. 19, fig. 12. Upper Silur. Gvjthland, Swede n. 1878. Patelliocr. interradius Angelin. Iconogr. Grin. Suec, p. 2, PI. 22, fig. 10. Upper Sihir. Gothland, Sweden. 1878. Patelliocr. leptodactylus Angelin. Iconogr. Grin. Suec., p. 2, PI. 16, figs. 26, 31. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. 2t6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. 1878. Patelliocr. pachydaotylus Angelin (type of the genus). Iconogr. Grin. Suec, ]<. 1, PI. 16, figs. 24, 25. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. 1878. Patelliocr. pinnulatus Angelin. Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 2, PI. 24, fig. 5 and PI. 26, fig. 18. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. 1878. Patelliocr. plumulosus Angelin. Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 2, PI. 22, figs. 8, 9. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. 1878. Patelliocr. punctuosus Angelin. Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 2, PI. 23, fig. 26. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. The two following species, which were described by Angelin under this genus, cannot be brought with satisfaction under this or any other established generic form. (?) 1878. Patelliocr. duplicatus Angelin. Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 1, PI. 19, fig. 5. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. (?i Patelliocr. fulminatus Angelin. Iconogr. Crin. Suec, p. 2, PI. 26, figs. 14, 14 a b. Upper Silur. Gothland, Sweden. 4. MACROSTYLOCRINUS Hall. 1852. Hall. Paleout., New York, vol. ii, p. 203. 1863. Hall. Trans, Albany Inst., p. 207. 1879. Hall. 28tli Rep. New York St. Cab. Nat. Hist. (2d ed.), p. 129. 1879. Zittel. Handb. der Paleout., p. 368. This genus has been frequently identified with Gtenocrinus Bronn,^ and with Gytocrinus Roemer.^ It has been shown, however, by Schultze (Mon. Echin, Eifel Kalk, p. 62), that Gtenocrinus has four, and not three or five basal plates as supposed by previous authors,^ and we can state positively, that we have also found four instead of three in Cyto- crinus lasvis Roemer. This discovery leaves no doubt tliat the two genera are identical with each other, as well as with Melo- c/'irtHs Goldfuss, but distinct from Macroatylocrinus. In the construction of the calyx, Macrostylocrinus resembles the preceding genus, the two varying only in the proportionate size of the different plates ; but this gives them a totally' diff'erent appearance. In its general habitus 3Iac7'ostylocrinus approaches the PeriecJio- crinites, while Patelliocrinus is a step in the direction of the Agaricocrinites. *We are sure that the vault of Macrostylocrinus when found, will prove to be constructed of a great number of minute pieces, while we shall expect in Patelliocrinus a summit ^ Broun' s Jahrbucb, 1840, p. 253. 2 Silur. Fauna, West Teun., p. 46. ^ Compare our notes on Melocrinus. 1881.] NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 271 more like that of Stelhliocrinus, which is composed of but few and large plates. Zittel places Ilacrostijlocrinus with Dimerocrinus, Dolatocrinas and Cijtocrinus under the Dimerocrinidfe. Generic Diagnosis. — Cal_yx subglobose to urn-shaped, as high or liigher than wide ; surface granulose-striate, or only granulose ; the five sides almost perfectl}^ equilateral. Basals three, comparatively lai'ge, forming a more or less shallow cup, two of them equal and pentagonal, the third smaller by half and quadrangular. Primary radials 3X5; the first series large ; the second hexagonal, less than half, sometimes scarcel}^ one-third the size of the first, wider than high ; the thii'd pentagonal, smaller than the second, supporting one or more secondary- radials in a direct line, which support the arms. Arms only known in M. ornatus, where thej^ are long, simple, composed at the base of a single row of alternately arranged wedge-form pieces, which, from the sixtli or seventh plate up, interlock with each other, and gradu- all}' pass into a double series. Interradial area more or less depressed, deeper between the arm-bases, in consequence of which the radial portions of the calyx, and especiallj^ the secondary radials, are somewhat lobed, which is characteristic of this genus, and which distinguishes it readily from the related form PateUiocrinus. First interradial large, hexagonal, supporting two small plates in thft second series. Anal area slightly wider, and with three plates in place of two in the second range. Geological Position, etc. — 3Iacrostylocrinus is confined to the Niagara group of America. The following species are known : *IS64. Macrostylocrinus Meeki Lyon. (Actinocr. Meeki). Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 411, PI. 4, figs. 4 a b. Niagara gr. Jefferson Co., Ky. Syn. Cyathocr. fasciatus Hall. 28th Rep. New York St. Cab. Nat. Hist. (1st ed.), PI. 13, figs. 5 and 6 ; Wachsm. and Spr. Revision i, p. 85. AValdron, Ind. Syn. Macrostylocrinus fasciatus Hall. lb. (2d edit.), p. 130. 1852. Macrostylocr. ornatus Hall (Type of the genus). Paleont., New York, ii, p. 204, PI. 46, figs. 4 a-g. Niagara gr. Lockport, N. Y. 1863. Macrostylocr. Striatus Hall. Trans. Albany Inst., iv, p. 207; also 20th Rep. New York St. Cab. Nat. Hist., 1867, p. 327, PI. 10, fig. 7. Niagara gr. Waldron, Ind., and Racine, Wis. 2'78 PllOCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF [1881. iiuh