> >, PeD>>> De i>» »»> Pe) 22» = Dy») ; >> OD. > > ve! MWY “LUN UMS ANG RAINY NGG : ; ‘ fi ’ AS} ISIN wy I ‘ iy Oe - WI Sal ; : W / y ea a ta | hs i ; \ | | iN ‘ » 2 hed | ThA A tl IR ANNI SND Wak } { LMI WWW Y y UY J V = > 22 SS Kivu MWY Uv. Wy “Wviewuwe, H : 1 ff LAL ft AY) Neve | Ney, pA Benge Pye ) Nad) Nad Nal dl) NOP ’ Ah =: NE q | fad 4 A JA A\ J) NA). i yi, ! iy t Hl LNG] iy | 7 | Jk iv ) | UUW ‘i K j WV j J USS, ISN Y oi N V\ | WM A i di Al\ i YA ag RY a asi a y ee a Wek Ne woogie. | | iy VY W Wy ’ V Niitiver WW MY yi vv wey yy WHITNEY LIBRARY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY. URE GUE OlF 5 ID, WY ILI TO IN 1B) NC Sturgis Hooper Professor IN THE ay MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY VAS a) 2 : D. _»> ib ee ED > yf ‘ AMA vs UWS y y Wyld Yui us 2 Yew yyy Vyeys RNY ViVi U Y prt VY VyUVUNy Yu. WN & ea \\- { NG wb LZ \~] 4 I\ \~ Wi gw bal a . i io a ae ot Ne eae a Pee heh Aw Vi NG Ae Ah yi : ft ¥| | rAd a g \ BSED 1) | \ rei Wh Ye hae ale A™ \ 1 a ih. E , 4 PVA i t r) we bi ; at \" ad Cee fi 4 ) WJ \ Reavy UMM UN Vi d N Vi Wy PROCEEDINGS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Al BRIDGE f HELD AT PHILADELPHIA PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE Vol. XIV. JANUARY 1874 TO DECEMBER 1875. PEE AD Hine? HT AY: PRN Ean OR LP ES O'OlE Dy BY M’CALLA & STAVELY ath 8 7 6. PNG YOOIOOY CMG8 eUl? CCAM EACIROM EO PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Vou. XIV. 1874. No. 92. Stated Meeting, January 2d, 1874. Present, 14 members. Vice-President, Mr. FRAuEyY, in the Chair. A letter announcing the death of Dr. Carl F. Naumann was received from Dr. Ernst Naumann, dated Dresden, Dee. 4th, 1873. A letter requesting information was received from Capt. J. Herschel, dated 21 Sumner place, Brompton, London, W. A letter respecting copies of Mr. Henry Dexter’s bust of Agassiz was received, dated Cambridge, Dec. 18th, 18753. A letter requesting the completion of series of the Trans- actions and Proceedings was received from the Secretary of the K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, dated Vienna, Sept. 20th, 1878. On motion, the request of the Institute was granted, and the missing parts of the series ordered to be sent. Letters of envoy were received from the Prince Jablon- owski Society at Leipsig, dated Aug. 12th, 1873, and from the Department of the Interior at Washington, dated Dec. 22d, 1878. Donations for the Library were received from the Academia dei Lincei; the Geological Institute at Vienna; the Prince Jablonowski Society ; the German Geological Society ; the A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. A | 2 Revue Politique; London Nature; the Royal Geographical Society ; the Nova Scotian Institute; the Boston N. H. Society ; Cambridge Museum; Prof. O. C. Marsh ; the Connecticut Academy; Commissioners of Fisheries of New Jersey; Penn Monthly ; Medical News; Mr. Geo. W. Childs; the U.S. Chief of Engineers; Librarian of Congress; and Wisconsin Historical Society. The death of Prof. Carl Naumann, at Leipsig, on the 26th November, 1873, was announced. Prof. Cope stated that the species figured and described by Prof. O. C. Marsh, in a paper received for the Library to-night, under the name of Brontotherium ingens, is the --one described by himself under the name of Symborodon ‘trigonoceras, in the Synopsis of Extinct Vertebrata of Colo- _rado, issued in October, 1873, by the U.S. Geological Survey of the Territories. Professor Frazer said: “ A few meetings ago I referred to ‘the fact that the white color of the moon by day was due to the fact that the dispersed blue light of the sun just supplied the dispersed blue ight of the moon, and I suggested that the solar origin of these otherwise missing rays might be demonstrated by choosing the first or third quartering of the moon (when lines joining the sun and earth, and the earth and moon, meet nearly at right angles), and regarding the moon through the Nicols prism. As under these cireum- stances the solar light would be polarized, a change between white and yellow ought to be perceived. The experiment bore out this hypothesis, although, owing to the perfect reflection from suspended particles of greater size than those which reflect the blue light, the color was not a perfect yellow.” Professor Lesley exhibited a recently executed large manu- script map of a hundred square miles of the surface of Centre, Huntingdon, and Blair Counties, in Middle Pennsylvania, with three vertical sections crossing the district—one along the Little Juniata River; another two miles further east, along Warrior Run; and a third five miles further east, ) along Half Moon Run. These sections extend across the Valley of Lower Silurian Limestone, with beds of brown hematite iron-ore, and across the bounding mountains of the Middle Silurian Sandstone, Bald Eagle Mountain on the west, and Tussey Mountain on the east, the great anticlinal upthrow of Bellefont being seen in all three sections at the east foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, the Limestones dipping east away from the fault at a uniform dip of about 54°. He then explained the theoretical difficulties which have hitherto beset the dynamic questions raised by a phenomenon of this kind, an overthrown and faulted anticlinal ; especi- ally the question why a dip of just above 54° should follow one side of the fault for many miles, when the rocks on the other side of the fault stood vertical. This question he thought he had just succeeded in settling by a discovery which resulted from the construction of a fourth section, which he exhibited, extending from the Bald Eagle Mountain westward to the summit of the Alleghany Mountain, taking in the vertical Middle Silurian rocks, the steeply inclined Upper Silurians, the Devonians dipping regularly less and less (from 28° to 8° where observed at different points along the section), and the almost horizontal Lower Coal Measures at the summit of the Alleghany Mountain. By a system of co-ordinates, the exact curve of the up- throw on the western side of the Great Fault was displayed, using the observed dips along the line of section as elements of construction. The country west of the dip of 15° was as. sumed to be in its original condition. Last of this point, or of the “hypothetical limit of stability,” the steeply upturned strata were supposed to slide upon each other with a shear- ing motion. The basset edges of the vertical strata must be considered as rising in steps above each other westward at the plane of fault, the slope thus obtained facing the east, many thousand feet in the air, over the Bald Eagle Mountain. On calculating the angle of this slope, which is not a per- fect plane, but a slightly curved surface, it turned out to be +t an angle of 51° high up, 52° lower down, 58° just over the the mountain, and still steeper where it descended to the present surface of the country, that is, along the line where the vertical rocks are covered by the limestones dipping uniformly about 54°. It seems impossible to resist the conclusion that this dip of 54° shows that the whole mass of Paleozoic formations on the east, about 20,000 feet thick, rose and rode up the plane formed by the basset edges of the mass upturned vertically on the western side of the fault, and rested thereon at an angle due to the bevel of the western mass, a bevel geometrically determined by the shearing movement among the members of the upcurved western mass. Mr. Lesley considered the discovery of much importance for structural geology, and that it may prove to be the first real step towards a satisfactory conclusion respecting the slope, or underground (and in the air) angle, of great faults ; also proving the negative against a common belief that the great anticlinals of disturbed regions must be reconstructed in air sections as if gaping. It lends great support also to the doctrine of vast erosions, a doctrine taught by Pennsyl- vanian geologists for many years,and more recently contended for by Jukes, Ramsay, Geikie, and other advanced geolo- gists abroad, on unimpeachable and irresistible evidence. The report of the Judges and Clerks of the Annual Election was read, by which it appeared that the following officers and members of Council had been elected : President, George B. Wood. Vice- Presidents, John C. Cresson, Isaac Lea, Frederick Fraley. Secretaries, Charles B, Trego, E. Otis Kendall, John L. LeConte, J. P. Lesley. 5 Councillors to serve three years, Isaac Hays, Robert E. Rogers, Henry C. Carey, Robert Bridges. Curators, Joseph Carson, Hector Tyndale, Charles M. Cresson. Treasurer, Charles B. Trego. Mr. Lesley was nominated Librarian for the ensuing year. Pending nominations Nos. 740, 741, 742, 743, 744 were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, January 16th, 1874. Present, 15 members. Secretary, Prof. Treo, in the Chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Dr. Franz Joseph Lauth, Prof. Accad. Conservator, dated Munich, Blumenstrasse, No. 2413 rechts, Dec. 16th, 18738 (see printed Proceedings). Letters of envoy were received from the Greenwich Ob- servatory, Dec. 31st, Royal Institution, Liverpool, Dec. ist, and the Société Nationale des Sciences Naturelles de Cher- bourg, Sept., 18738. On motion, the last-named society was placed on the list of corresponding societies to receive the Proceedings. Donations for the Library were announced from the Royal Prussian Academy; the Geographical and Anthropological Societies of Paris; Ecole des Mines; Revue Politique; San Fernando Observatory ; National Society of Science at Cher- bourg; and Mr. Le Jolis; the Society of Physics at Bordeaux ; 6 k. Astronomical, Geographical, and Antiquarian Societies in London; the editors of Nature; the Geological Society in Glasgow ; Boston 8. N. H.; Mr. W. E. Dubois; American Academy of A. and 8.; American Journal of A. and 8.; Prof. F. L. O. Roehrig; American Journal of Pharmacy ; Mr. J. W. Nystrom ; and the Chief of Engineers, U.S. A. The Committee appointed to draft a minute of the death of Professor Agassiz presented the following report, which was adopted : The Committee to whom was intrusted the duty of pre- paring resolutions expressive of the sorrow felt by the mem- bers of this Society for the death of their distinguished fellow-member, Louis John Rudolph Agassiz, respectfully report the following minute to be placed upon the records : In removing the name of Professor Agassiz from its list of living members, the American Philosophical Society loses one of its most valued connections with the active world of science. But this name, transferred to the list of thedeparted, will always stand upon its records to its honor as an associ- ation of men of many nationalities for the promotion of useful knowledge. Of such men Louis Agassiz was a conspicuous leader, a powerful coadjutor, a genial and inspiring companion. The loss lamented by this Society is keenly felt in every part of Christendom. His investigations have been pursued in so many regions of modern research, that scientific men in all branches sympathize with one another at his death. Great as a Comparative Zodlogist, he was specially unrivaled as an Ichthyologist. He was profoundly versed in the science of the beginnings of life He was the accepted expositor of glacial phenomena in their geological connections. His collections were made on an unprecedented scale of grandeur, and studied with boundless ardor, wisdom and success. He knew how to induce civilians and legislators to a noble dis- charge of their obligations to physical science. He knew how to train original investigators in their youth, brighten their hopes, and enliven their aspirations in riper years; tiding them safely over the shoals of literary vanity and scientific ambition, and inspiring them with a loftier enthusiasm for truth itself. Coming to a new world as an Apostle of Original Investigation, every man of science in America sooner or later felt the influence of his presence. He charmed T all by his manners; he endeared himself to all by his frank and genial spirit ; he awed the rash and fortified the timid; he bound the leaders together, and gave laws to their followers ; he spread the love of nature through classes of society which had been insensible to its influence before; and as he lived, so he died, devising and executing new measures for laying a solid foundation for American science in the heart of the American people. His death is, therefore, a national bereave- meut. This Society would tender for the acceptance of the family and intimate friends of Professor Agassiz this solace: the conviction that his fame will stand with that of the great discoverers, investigators, teachers and inspirers of past and future generations, and the assurance which we here express, that, in our belief, no man of science could have lived a more noble and useful life. Professor Houston communicated a Note on a Supposed Allotropic Modification of Phosphorus. (See Proceedings). Professor Cope illustrated with drawings and specimens his views of the comparative osteology of the camel and other artiodactyles, living and extinct, and concluded his remarks with a discussion of the Cretaceous age of the lignite and coal formations of the Rocky Mountains. (See Proceedings.) Dr. LeConte expressed his gratification that his own views of the age of this formation, published some years ago, were now receiving such powerful support. Mr. Lesley was appointed Librarian for the ensuing year. The Standing Committees for the year were voted as follows: Finance, Messrs. F’. Fraley, E. K. Price, and B. V. Marsh. Publication, Messrs. Trego, Carson, W. M. Tilghman, H. C. Baird, and (. M. Cresson. Fall, Messrs. Tyndale, Hopper, and S. W. Roberts. 8 Library, Messrs. Coates, E. K. Price, Carson, Krauth, and Whitman. On motion, the reading of the list of surviving members was postponed. Pending nominations Nos. 740, 741, 742, 743, 744 were read, spoken to, and balloted for, and the following declared duly elected members of the Society : Mr. Joseph M. Wilson, C. E., of Philadelphia. Dr. Wm. I. Wahl, See. Franklin Inst., Philadelphia. Mr. I. A. Lapham, State Geologist of Wisconsin. Dr. Hermann Kolbe, of Leipsig, Prof. Chem. University. Mr. J. E. Wootten, M. E., of Reading, Pa. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, February 6th, 1874. Present, 10 members. Dr. LE Conte, Secretary, in the Chair. Letters accepting membership were received from Mr. I. A. Lapham, dated Milwaukee, Wis., Jan. 27th, 1874; Mr. Jos. M. Wilson, dated Philadelphia, Jan. 21st, 1874; and Dr. Wm. H. Wahl, dated Philadelphia, Jan. 22d, 1874. A letter enclosing a photograph was received from Dr. Kd. Jarvis, dated Dorchester, Mass., Jan. 28th, 1874. Letters of envoy were received from Mrs. Isabella James, dated Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 6th, 1874, and Boston Nat. Hist. Society, dated Boston, Jan. 22d, 1874. (88, 89, 80.) Donations were received from the R. Academies at Turin and Brussels; the Geographical Society in Paris; the R. Astronomical] Society,and London Nature; the Essex Insti- tute; the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge ; Mrs. Isabella James, of Cambridge; the Boston Public Library; Dr. Jarvis, of Dorchester; the American Journal of Arts and Sciences; the American Chemist ; American Journal of the Medical Sciences; Med. News and Library 9 Franklin Institute; American Journal of Pharmacy ; Penn Monthly ; the Department of the Interior ; the California Academy of Natural Sciences; and Prof. 8. 8. Haldeman. Prof. Cope offered for publication in the Transactions a paper entitled, “ A Supplement to the Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of North America.” On motion, the paper was referred to a Committee, con- sisting of Prof. Leidy, Dr. Newberry, and Mr. Lesley. Dr. Genth communicated some valuable results of recent analyses of limonites and limestones of the Lower Silurian district of Centre, Blair, and Huntingdon Counties, Penn- sylvania. (See page 84.) Mr. Lesley communicated the results of his recent topo- graphical and structural study of the same district. Prof. Chase developed some views of the relationships existing between the velocity of light waves in ether, and the velocities of the sun and planets, entitled, ““ A note on the Origin of Attractive force, Identifying the Velocity of Primitive Gravitating Impulse with the Velocity of Light.” New nominations Nos. 745, 746, and 747 were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, February 20th, 1874. Present, 18 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the Chair. Mr. Wootten, a newly elected member, was introduced to the presiding officer, and took his seat. A letter of envoy was received from the American Insti- tute of Mining Engineers, dated Feb. 12th, 1874. Donations for the Library were received from the R. Prussian Academy ; Revue Politique; London Nature; Mr. A. J. Packard, Jr.; Boston Soc. N. H.; New York Lyceum ; A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. B 10 Franklin Institute; American Chemist; American Institute of Mining Engineers; Department of the Interior, U.S.; and Mr. G. R. Croteh, of Cambridge, Eng. The Committee to which was referred the paper of Prof. Cope, entitled, “Supplement to the Extinct Batracbia,” &c., reported in favor of its publication in the Transactions ; which, on motion, was so ordered. The death of Dr. Wm. Proctor, February 10th, at Phila- delphia, aged 57, was announced by the Secretary. Dr. Cresson exhibited the action of Thompson’s Calori- meter, and stated the close coincidence of its results with those obtained by trial trips on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Dr. Cresson exhibited the triangular piece of galvanized iron, once the pinnacle of a cowl on the roof of a building struck with lightning. The point had been melted and elongated upwards and inclined towards an approaching cloud, into which the discharge from the earth through the building took place. The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers and Members in Council were read. Pending nominations Nos. 745, 746, 747 were then read. Mr. Fraley reported that he had received the last quarterly interest on the Michaux legacy, due January Ist, through Drexel and Co. Mr. Price reminded the Society that half of the interest is appropriated by act of the Society to the planting of the Michaux grove. During 1873 about $300 has been spent in setting out about 100 foreign varieties of oak procured by Prof. Cresson. Dr. LeConte suggested the future planting of such trees within the Zoological Grounds. Dr. Horn stated that many of the foreign trees had already succumbed to the attacks of native parasites, two varieties of larvee having been submitted to his inspection by the Chief of Park Police. Dr. LeConte, referring to the well known fate of our foreign syeamores and lindens, urged the necessity of plant- 11 ing trees with the side to the sun which had been so situated in their native sites, and under similar conditions ot growth otherwise, so as to reinforce their resisting powers. Prof. Cope informed the meeting that Prof. Orton’s expedition to the Upper Amazon, organized at Vassar Col- lege, New York, had returned with copious collections, zoological, botanical, mineralogical and archeological, hav- ing reached 17° 8. latitude. The meeting was then adjourned. Stated Meeting, March 6th, 1874. Present, 11 members. Secretary, Prof. Kunpatt, in the Chair. Donations for the Library were reported from the Societies at Moscow, Upsal, Gorlitz, Emden, Erfurt, Frankfort on Main, Chemnitz, Bonn, Geneva, Liverpool, Bath, and Madison, Wis.; from the Academies at Berlin, Vienna, Brussels; from the Observatories at St. Petersburg and Upsal; from the Geological Institute at Vienna; School of Mines, and Revue Politique at Paris; Society of Arts and Institutions in Union, Astronomical Society, and Meteoro- logical Office in London, London Nature; Prof. Cooke, of Cambridge; Public Library of New Bedford; Silliman’s Journal; Journal of Pharmacy; Penn Monthly, Deaf and Dumb Institute, Hospital for the Insane, House of Refuge in Philadelphia; U.S. War Department; and Mr. George Davidson. Dr. Allen offered for publication in the Transactions a memoir entitled “ Life Forms in Art,’ with many illustra- tions, and described the subject and its treatment. On motion, the paper was referred to a Committee con- sisting of Mr. Whitman, Prof. P. EH. Chase, and Dr. Brinton. 12 The Secretary exhibited a round bar of cast phosphorus- bronze, left for that purpose in his care by Mr. Hector Orr, who reported it broken under a tensile strain of 63,000 Ibs. to the square inch. Its diameter at the place of fracture was slightly diminished.* Mr. Marsh read a communication, illustrated by diagrams, entitled, “ The Luminosity of Meteors due to Latent Heat.” Pending nominations Nos. 745 to 747, and new nomina- tions 748, 749, were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, March 20th, 1874. Present, 12 members. Vice-President, Mr. Fratey, in the Chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Dr. Hermann Kolbe, dated Leipsig, Feb. 15th, 1874. Letters acknowledging the receipt of Proceedings were received from Dr. Renard and the Public Museum at Moscow, June 26, 1672, Jan. 1, 1871 (86); Dr. Stralkowski, St. Petersburgh, July Ist, 1872 (86); Prof. A. Braun, Neuschon- bron, Berlin, Oct. 12th, 1873 (88, 89); the R. 8. Upsal, Nov., 1873 (86, 87, 88, 89); the N. H. S., Emden, Oct. 15, 1873 (88); Prof. Sandberger, Wiirtzburg, Nov. 12th, 1873 (88, 89); the Miinich Observatory, Dr. W. V. Lamont, Dee. 6, 1873 (88, 88); R. Library, Miinich, Jos. Aumer, Dec., 1878 (88, 89); R. Soc., Gottengen, Oct. 4th, 1873 (88, 89); N. H. Ass., Bremen, Oct. 31, 1873 (88, 89); Prof. Loomis, N. Haven, March 14th, 1874 (90, 91); N. Y. Hist. Soc., G. H. * Original diameter of bolt (circular) .75 inch ; original area, .4417 in. ; reduced area at breaking point, .3067 in.; strain on bolt at breaking, 19,550 lbs. = 63,100 Ibs. per square inch. Alloy of tin 10, copper 90, less phosphorus, which is found to give useful properties within the limits of 2.5 and 0.1 per cent. 13 Moore, March 14th, 1874 (91); and many postal card receipts for 91, the number recently published. Letters of envoy were received from the R. S., Upsal, Nov., 1878; the I. Acad., Vienna, Oct. 21st, 1878; the R. Library at Miinich, Dec., 1873; the 8S. P. et H. N., Geneva, Sept. 15th, 1873; U.S. Naval Obs., B. F. Sands, Feb. 21st, 1874; C. P. Obs., St. Petersburg, Jan., 1874. A letter requesting a set of Proceedings was received from the Silesian Society for Fatherland Culture, Breslau, March 5th, 1873. A letter with three photographic pictures of Indian sculpture was received from Dr. C. H. Soulblos, Wakefield, Pa., purchased by the Society. “These pictures are taken from the northern face of a rock in the Susquehanna River, near Bald Friar, Md., on which are more than a hundred characters, diagrams, or figures, supposed to have been carved during the stone age. The rock is of quartz, mica, and anthophyllite. Dimensions of figures 12 x 6 and 10 x 6 inches. Photographed in July, 1871. Sets in the Maryland Academy of Science, Lancaster Linnean Society, and Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.” Donations for the Library were received from the R..Obs., Turin; Mun. Govt. at Linz; R. Acad. and Obs., Munich ; J. Acad., Berlin; R.S. Melbourne; Geog. S8., Paris; Revue Pol.; London Nature; Mr. W. J. Henwood, Truro; the American Acad., Boston; Franklin Institute; Acad., N.5S.: Am. Chemist; Medical News; U.S. N. Ohie oy econean Acad. Sciences ; and Minnesota EF ionitcal Secicu The death of Charles Sumner, Senator U.8., at Washing- ton, March 12th, aged 68, was announced by the Secretary. The death of M. C. Quetelet, pere, at Brussels, Monday, Feb. 16th, 1878, aged 77, was announced by the Secretary. Prof. Cope communicated some facts revealed by Lieut. Wheeler’s last year’s explorations on the 100th meridian, in the valley of the great Colorado, and described some new types of living fish belonging to the fresh-water family of Cyprinide, and characterized by a great development of the 14 predorsal fin spine, a double spine, not co-ossified. Three new types were described, two of them uaked of scales, and the third covered only with rudimentary scales. Prof. Cope communicated a short note entitled, “On the Zodlogy of a Temporary Pool on the Plain of Colorado.” Mr. Blasius, of Philadelphia, present by invitation, exhi- bited maps and pictures of the tornado of August 22d, 1851, in Cambridge and Medford, Mass., and described his survey and study of the same, the impossibility of applying Red- field’s theory except to its central, and Espy’s to its ultimate track; for the initial division another explanation was requisite. This led him to the study of the general pheno- mena attendant upon the meeting of the equatorial and boreal currents, the determination of the shape of land and ocean gales, the use of clouds and their shapes and positions for indicating the nature and position of approaching storms, and the construction of practical sailing directions for vessels in. danger. Mr. Briggs said that he happened to see the tornado referred to, and gave an account of its aspect, effects, and the part of the track which he afterwards examined, by which he was led to the conviction that it was locally deter- mined, like other similar storms, by the low ground of Charles River, heated to an unusually high temperature in a calm day. Mr. Lesley replied that the constant eastward movement of these tornados, and their sometimes immense length, together with their well known repeated occurrence along the same lines of country, proved them items of an extensive system of physical conditions in the atmosphere on the shift- ing line of meeting of the equatorial and polar currents, as Mr. Blasius had so well described, and that he hoped the acknowledged defects of the present tornado sailing direc- tions would be corrected by those indicated by the theory of Mr. Blasius. Pending nominations Nos. 745 to 749, and new nomina- tions 750, 751, were read. And the meeting was adjourned. 15 Stated Meeting April, 8d, 1874. Present, 14 members. Mr. Ext K. Price in the Chair. Mr. Snowden, a recently elected member, was presented to the presiding officer, and took his seat. A letter was received from Samuel V. Summers, M.D., dated New Orleans, March 26th, 1874. A letter was received from Erastus W. Everson, See. and Lib. Un. 8. Carolina, acknowledging receipt of Proc. No. 91. A lithographed letter was received from G. Beck, Miinchen, March 22d, respecting Gemminger and Harold’s Cat. Coleop- teorum. A letter inviting discussion of J. R. Meyer’s doctrine of heat applied to gravity, at the ensuing meeting of the D. N. Versammlung, was received from five commissioners ap- pointed at the last meeting, dated Breslau, March 5th, 1874. Donations for the Library were received from the Societies at Erlangen and St. Gall; the R. Acad. at Brussels; Paris Geog. Soc. and Revue Politique; London Ast. Soc. and Cobden Club; Essex Institute; Silliman’s Journal; Prof. W. P. Trowbridge; New England Soc., N. Y.; Penn Monthly ; Am. Jour. Pharmacy; Dr. R. J. Levis; Mr. Isaac Lea; Mc- Calla & Stavely ; Maryland Hist. Society ; U.S. Dep. of the Interior; University of 8. Carolina; Minnesota Academy ; N.S.; and Mercantile Lib. Ass., San Francisco: The Committee to which was referred the memoir of Dr. Allen on Art Forms, reported in favor of its publication in the Transactions. On motion, the paper was referred to the Publication Committee to report on the propriety of publishing it with its numerous illustrations. The death of Mr. Joseph Harrison in Philadelphia, March 27, aged 64, was announced by the Secretary, and on motion, Mr. Coleman Sellers was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased. 16 Prof. Chase communicated a plan of Life Insurance Com- panies, which would relieve them of the burden of canvassers. Dr. LeConte expressed the wishes of the officers of the U.S. Mint to have the council and advice of men of science as to the best device for a commemorative medal of Agassiz. The subject was, on motion, referred to Dr. LeConte, Dr. Wilcox, and Mr. Fairman Rogers. Prof. Haldeman exhibited a coin of Sumatra, found in a bag of coffee in Philadelphia. On one side was the legend, “ Tsland of Sumatra, 1804,” on the other, in Malay, “sa teng wang,” one-half piece, and used it to illustrate the difficulties encountered by decipherers, and the methods of overcoming them. The coin he gave to the Museum of the Mint. Prof. Houston exhibited. specimens of an apparently igneous rock from the banks of the Schuyllxill, above the Serpentine quarries. Pending nominations No. 745 to 752 were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, April 17th, 1874. Present, 14 members. Vice-President, Mr. FRauny, in the Chair. Mr. Wilson, a lately elected member of the Society, was presented to the presiding officer, and took his seat. A letter was received from Mr. Coleman Sellers, accepting his appointment to prepare an obituary notice of the late Mr. Joseph Harrison. Letters of acknowledgment for No, 92 of the Proceedings were received from the New York Lyceum and Salem Institute. Letters of envoy were received from the Royal Saxon Society, dated Leipsig, November 18th and 29th, 1873. sh Donations for the Library were received from the R. Asiatic Society of Japan, at Yokohama; the Royal Acad- emies at Copenhagen, Berlin, Leipsig, Gottengen; tbe Societies at Basil, Salem, Montreal; the Royal Bavarian Library, the Revue Politique; and London Nature; the London Royal 8. Meteorological Committee ; Geographical, Chemical, and Zoological Societies ; Amherst College; State Geologist of New Jersey; Franklin Institute; American Journal of the Medical Sciences ; Medical Newsand Library ; American Pharmaceutical Society; Prof. E. D. Cope; U.S. Department of the Interior ; and Prof J. Lawrence Smith. The R. Asiatie Society of Japan, at Yokohama, was ordered to be placed on the list of correspondents to receive the Proceedings. The Committee to which was referred the subject of a proper device for the Agassiz medal, reported through Dr. LeConte that they had considered the subject, and suggested a device to the officers of the U. 8S. Mint. At Prof. Cope’s request, the Secretary exhibited parts of a scull of Hobasileus galeatus, one of several specimens obtained by Prof. Cope last year, on the Bitter Creek, Wyoming. The posterior wall of the cranium is in this specimen very perfect, and retains one of its horns. The two middle pair of horns were in separate fragments, as also the two nasal horn-cores. ~ A walrus fossil cranium from Accomae Harbor, in Vir- ginia, was also exhibited. The fragment was about nine inches long. Three well-worn teeth remained in their sockets on the side, and two on the other; one socket was vacant on one side, and two on the other. The front margin of the roof of the mouth was perfect, and both sockets for the tusks. The nasal cavities, separated behind and united in front with the partition, were well shown. The fragment terminated with the front wall of the brain cavity. The whole was thoroughly fossilized. This is the most southern specimen of walrus yet dis- covered on the Atlantic coast, and must have been washed A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. C 18 ashore from glacial drift bedded beneath the actual sea sands of the Virginia coast. A specimen in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, at Philadelphia, was found much further north, on the New Jersey shore. The discovery of fossil walrus in Virginia is important, as indicat- ing the extension of the drift deposits further southward than was supposed. ~ Prof. Chase read a note relative to Meyer’s theory of heat in its application to theories of gravitation, and explained the present attitude of the discussion. Prof. Fraser explained a possible improved method of notation for classifying organic compounds in chemistry, taking the compounds of carbon as a theme for illustration. Pending nominations Nos. 745, to 752 were read, spoken to, and balloted for, and on scrutiny of the ballot-boxes the following were declared to be duly elected members of the Society : Dr, William Camac, of Philadelphia. Mr. John Coates Brown, of Philadelphia. Mr. Frank Thomson, of Altoona, Pa. Rev. Robert Ellis Thompson, of the University of Penn- sylvania. Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, of England. Mr. Richard A. Proctor, of England. Mr. Raphael Pumpelly, State Geologist of Missouri. Prof. Charles A. Young, of Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire. | And the meeting was adjourned. Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, 1874.] 19 { Lesley. Tue Brown Hematite Ore Banks oF SPRUCE CREEK, WARRIOR’S Mark Run, AND Hair Moon Run, In HUNTINGDON AND CENTRE CounTIES, PENNSYLVANIA, ALONG THE LINE OF THE LEWISBURG, CENTRE CoUNTY AND TYRONE RAILROAD. By J. P. Lesuey, Proressor GEoLocy, UNIVERSITY OF PENNA. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 2 and Keb.6, 1874.) PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. The district under examination, with an area of about one hundred square miles, is bounded on the west by the Bald Eagle Mountain, on ‘the east by Tussey Mountain, and on the south by the Little Juniata River, and the Pennsylvania Central Railroad. The Huntingdon-Centre County-line crosses it transversely from moun- tain to mountain. The Huntingdon-Blair County-line follows the river. Spruce Creek flows southward along the foot of Tussey Mountain. Its branches, Warrior’s Mark Run and Half Moon Run, cross the country from Bald Eagle Mountain, along the foot of which their head waters flow. Logan’s Run flows at the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain into the Little Juniata River near Tyrone. See large Map. The river and the two runs afford fine opportunities for three cross- sections, represented in figs. 1,2 and 3. These sections have been photo- lithographed (like the map) to a very reduced scale for convenience of publication, but were carefully constructed on the same vertical and horizontal] large scale, so that their geology may be relied on. The map was plotted with great care from the survey notes of Mr. Franklin Platt,* (as were also all the reduced local maps of the Ore Banks, figs. 8 to 44) and adjusted with almost no variation to the rail- road survey maps in the office of that experienced and most reliable Civil Engineer, Mr. Leuffer, who located, constructed and has in charge the completion of the L. C. C. and T. R. R., to whose courtesy I am in this as in other cases, so largely and gladly indebted. The map is drawn in ten foot contour lines, determined by aneroid ob- servations, based on the spirit levels of the railway lines, preliminary and adopted. One set of aneroid observations was carried to the top of Tussey from Pennsylvania Furnace; the rest of the mountain being drawn in by rough trigonometrical observations from the Spruce Creek road. The gaps in its terrace are all properly placed and their characteristic features given: but slight variations in the almost dead level crest of the moun- tain could only be indicated. The survey of the Spruce Creek Valley was made rapidly and only for the purpose of assigning a proper value to its topographical features, a new township survey by a corps of odometer ‘surveyors being the basis. Here a considerable adjustment had to be made, which renders this part of the map of no authority, as against *Formerly an Assistant on the U. S. Coast Survey. 6) Lesley. ] 20 (Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, careful future surveys. The adjustment affects the whole southeast corner of the map, viz.: the interval between the mouth of Warrior’s Run and the river. It is none of it accurate. The rest of the map is very accurate and reliable. Various former surveys of the Juniata were compared in plotting Mr. Platt’s survey along the Pennsylvania Railroad, and all were found to be discordant in details, but the topographical features of the deeply eroded bed of the Little Juniata are portrayed with sufficient precision. Time failed for a careful survey of the mouths of Canoe and Sinking Valleys south of the river. I leave these and the interesting synclinal mountain (Canoe Mountain) which separates them, for a future oppor- tunity. Canoe Valley leads south into Morrison’s Cove, a reconnoissance survey of which I made some years ago for the Pennsylvania R. R. Co., to determine the economical value and geological attitude of its brown hematite iron ores, the analogues of those to be described in this report. Three sets of aneroid levels were carried to the top of the Bald Eagle Mountain, and two of these were continued to its western base, along which flows the Big and Little Bald Eagle Creeks, and runs the Bald Eagle (Tyrone, Bellefonte and Lockhaven) Railroad. A much more care- ful study of Bald Eagle Mountain than of Tussey Mountain had to be made ; first, on account of the Great (Bellefonte or Tyrone Forge) Fault which runs along its east foot; secondly, on account of the vertical attitude of its rocks and the very irregular erosion to which it has therefore yielded ; thirdly, on account of a deflection of trend, due to the little synclinal crimple shown in two of the Cross Sections; and fourthly, on account of the outcrops of fossil ore on its western slope. Yet, I should be glad to make a complete hypsometric projection of this very interesting mountain, with its dentated double crest, for scientific purposes. Its character is, however, well portrayed in my map and will tell the whole story to any geologist. A second map (also reduced by photolithography from its original scale of 100 perches to the inch, ) is appended to this report. It is a copy, cor- rected to date, of the land line map* of Lyon, Shorb & Co.’s ore and other lands in Huntingdon, Blair and Centre Counties, covering about 200,000 acres in the valley and on its two bounding mountains, and stretching westward beyond the Bald Eagle Creek to the coal measures on the crest of the Alleghany Mountain. It was impossible to transfer the numerous and complicated land lines of this map to my topographical map without concealing its features beneath a net work of irrelevant indications. I have gone even farther in my anxiety to show with unobstructed clearness the geology by the topography ; I have abstained from introducing local names upon my map, trusting to the intelligence of those who consult it, guided by a small key map in its southeast corner, and by the descriptions I give of localities with reference to the numerous ore banks which are numbered. The key to the numbers will be found in the northeast corner * The original is in the office of Mr. Lowrie, at Warrior’s Creek, Huntingdon Ca., Pa, roy el ae: geek ae SERENE ACS Seek NS Be Sait S PSSEai RSE . Ss Bae r 3 S$ > . sy by Peak TD SSadk ie fO at TG Te ere SS 4G Bu soabee sop soe wor pya.ihley uso TPLYIDG LO Diz LL Pu? HSI eT f° uUas, -soQ uphupins yea Ug PUD Baa Y7P, fassn DIUDAY suite, g AML UYU. 7 bug pe FS ‘$1777 unopy- PONY, MODES PHOpIPDIY ly Slop Dr. ‘1 pla Lesley.] 22 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, of the map. The numbers follow rudely the ore belts, but not on any strictly scientific principle; they are arranged for the convenience of the reader. A third map, heliotyped from a large original study of Brush Moun- tain (Bald Eagle Mountain continued southward across the Little Juniata River) is also appended, to show the outcrop of the Fossil Ore on that part of the property which extends in that direction. But the descrip- tion of these Upper Silurian Fossil Ores must be kept separate from my discussion of the Lower Silurian Brown Hematites, or Limonites of the Nittany Valley. GENERAL GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The country specially examined in this report covers outcrops of the following geological formations, designated by the numbers of the old Pennsylvania State Survey, and the names given them by English and by New York Geologists. No. V. Upper Silurian. ' Clinton Red Shale. Upper, white. \ c dstone. No. IV. jedi fea eect anoeeone Lower, grey. Oneida Conglomerate. No. III. Lower Silurian. { Hudson River Slate. Trenton Limestone. Black River Limestone. No. II. Lower Silurian. { Birdseye Limestone. Chazy Limestone. Calciferous Sandstone. No. I. Lower Silurian. ' Potsdam Sandstone. The Iron ore horisons described in this report are as follows: In No. V. The upper or soft fossil ores. The lower or hard fossil ore. In No. II. The first horison at the bottom of the Trenton Limestone : Pennsylvania Furnace and Spruce Creek ores, and ores of Cale Hollow. In No. II. The second horison: the whole Dry Hollow Range of ore banks, including Huntingdon Furnace and Dorsey Bank. In No. II. The lowest horison, far above the top of the Calciferous : the Warrior’s Mark and Lovetown Range and the Pennington Range. The dip of the rock, of the whole country exhibited on the map, from the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain to the crest of Tussey, is towards the §. 8. E., with one or two undulations of no great moment. This is plainly shown by the three cross sections, figs. 1, 2, 3. Lesley.] 24 {Jan. 2and Feb. 6, A great fault runs along the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, and on the west side of this fault the same formations are seen descending vertically. They then curve sharply, and pass horizontally N. Northwestward under the Alleghany Mountains, as shown in diagram section fig. 4. This diagram section is constructed from the dips of the Upper Silurian, Devonian and Coal Measure rocks, observed on a survey of the road from Bald Eagle Furnace up Emigh’s run and Laurel Creek to the crest ef the Alleghany Mountain. The measurement of the curves of the different layers of this upturned mass, taken at every thousand feet, as shown in the diagram, result in giving a slope of 50° to 54° to the bassett edges of the broken mass. It is evident that the upslide of the other section of the broken mass las conformed to this slope, and that the uniform dip of 54° + observ- able for miles along the 8. 8. East foot of Bald Eagle Mountain (as repre- sented in Juniata Section, and Sections AB and UD) is perfectly ex- plained by the diagram. This is the first time, I believe, a solution of this difficult problem in structural geology has been reached ; and its bearings upon similar phe- nomena attending upthrow-faults and broken anticlinals in other regions will be noticed by geologists. The theoretical deductions from this solution are important. It proves that the original fault was in a vertical plane, and not on a slant. It proves that the lower Silurian Limestone mass has ridden upon this slope to a considerable height, probably several miles, in the air above the present surface. It illustrates the great erosion of the country, amounting to thousands of cubic miles of earth crust, including the coal measures (which are preserved on Broad Top, 20 miles to the southeast,) and gives us the source of the Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits of New Jersey and Delaware. It leads me even to suspect the existence of a subterranean range of Laurentian Mountains (with their usual magnetic iron ores) at the bottom of the fault ; this range determining the line of fracture. It accounts for the general 8. 8. E. dip across the whole valley, 'Tussey Mountain, and as far as Huntingdon. It assures us that the brown hematite ore beds of the district studied in this report belong to rocks of different ages, and are ranged in parallel belts according as the formations which carry them descend successively (S. S. Eastward, ) beneath the present surface. It confirms the opinion that the quantity of ore in these belts is not a local accident at each of the ore banks, but bears a fixed relation and proportion to the outcrop run of the ore-bearing limestones, lengthwise of the valley ; and, therefore, that any estimate of the quantity of ore we may make by examining the diggings, must fall short of the actual quantity of ore to be mined in future years in this valley. Fig. 3. “fossilore of V. — SS SS eee Sects tine C.F. CRESS Aoross Nittany Valley, Nest of Kalfracon run, PSS hirough the Uiye and Jéostlee Iren-cre banks, SSSA fs Lyx, Short and Company. hh = 8 $ : g BS Ra ~~ O& EX; S Nz 3 = = SS = ai x oS 3 S Shh sis 8 ach SSS 5 ES => 3h SS SSS y By SS DS south S =, => s as = S < Ces uy SSS a Scale of Mées. % 4 7 Scale of Heel, 3 ply it i YOY Witia LA ff For want of exposures Che exact redationships of the Wrye and Pond cutcrops with the Hosller and Pennsylrane banks remains doulljul; bal their proxtuely explains the grea breadth of the Ptnnsylransva vutcrop. The dtstance of the latter from the line of Section must also be Laken inlo consideration. JPL. Lesley. ] 26 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, The original source of the brown hematite iron ores of our Lower Silurian limestone valleys has been speculatively sought for without sufficient investigation in the field ; and much practical mischief has re- sulted from the errors promulgated. Most persons have looked upon them as accidental and local inwashes from unknown sites. Some have more systematically defined them as a residual precipitate from the dis- seminated iron-sand grains of the surrounding Middle Silurian mountain rocks during their erosion. All such vague speculations might have been avoided had the results of Dr. R. M.S. Jackson’s survey of the Nittany Valley ore beds in 1838 or 1839 been published by himself. As assistant on the geological survey of Pennsylvania he obtained the data necessary for concluding, at that early day, that they were deposits in loco originali, of the iron (as hydrated peroxide) set free from the limestone or dolomite rocks during their -gradual erosion and dissolution. I have myself, during the last twenty years, had ample opportunities for arriving independently at the same conclusion; and an intelligent study and comparison of the aspects of the ores and rocks in our iron ore banks will, I think, satisfy any good geologist in the same sense. The precise modus operandi of the process is not yet well understood ; for it involves chemical considerations not thoroughly worked out. But a general statement of the operation can be made without risk of serious error. The rocks of the Lower Silurian Age were originally sea-muds, com- posed of rounded grains of dolomite (derived from previously existing Laurentian Land), cemented togeiher with a paste of carbonate of limee Some of the beds consisted also of rounded grains of quartz. Some of the layers were nearly pure carbonate of lime. All contained a larger or smaller percentage of iron, lead, zinc and other metals, precipitated either chemically, or by the agency of organic beings, from the solutions of their carbonates, chlorides, &c., in the river-and sea-waters. The orderly explanation of all the chemical and organic features of this complicated operation is still to be given to the scientific world. But all will agree that the general character of the calcareo-ferruginous muds, the sediments of that early geological age must have been much as above described. During the long Upper Silurian, Devonian and Carbiniferous Ages, these Lower Silurian sediments were buried toa depth of over 16,000 feet, beneath the later sediments. They remained wet. Their great depth raised their temperature 16,000 ~ 50 = 320° Farenheit’s thermometer ; which added to the mean temperature of the surface, would keep them under the influence of a moist heat of nearly 400° F. through what to man is a small eternity of time. Dr. Genth’s discovery of the amorphous or gelatinous condition of a part of their silica is thus explainable. Varied reactions must have ensued. The carbonates of lime and magnesia combined as dolomites, Fie. 4. ABT co oe) : auf ane ane . : Lesley. ] 23 {Jan. 2and Feb 6, which in part crystallized in rhombohedral crystals, the forms of which we now see, in the outcrops, emptied by dissolution. The silica hardened (without crystallizing) around these rhombs, so that we see the same cavities in it. The iron became peroxydised as fibrous hematite and the silica can be obtained by dilute nitric acid also in the same fibrous form. All this points to the first formation of the iron ore while the rocks were still at a great depth, wet and soft and warm. But at the end of the coal era the Middle States rose from the waves and have never been covered by the ocean since that time. The edges of the Bellefonte Fault stood as a mountain range as high as the Alps (see Fig. 4), and the backs of some of the great anticlinals of Pennsylvania must have formed plateaus then as high as Thibet and Bootan are now. Fie. 5. SSS = a = “ —— —-—_— _. SUMMIT GCUTZ— —— oO = Erosion commenced and has continued through the Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Ages to the present day, and still goes on. The high plateau was gradually worn down to the present surface. Moun- tains once 80,000 or 40,000 feet high are now but 2,000 or 3,000 above sea level. The valleys were excavated as the mountains lowered, and the outcrops of the Lower Silurian limestones of Nittany Valley are but 800 to 1300 feet above tide (see the contour lines of the map). This slow erosion gives us the second part of our explanation of the brown hematite iron ores. It explains the innumerable caverns and sink holes and dry hollows of this Nittany and other limestone valleys. It leads us to expect to find traces of such caverns and widened fissures and sink holes of the last preceding age, filled up with a wash of clay, sand, and iron ore from outcrops lately existing not far above the out- crops which run along the present surface. The erosion now still going on, and the special activity of the last 1874.] 29 [ Lesley. or glacial age, may very well explain that outspread of surface wash-ore which makes so large a feature of the case. It may also explain the corrugations of the clay and ore strata in these superficial wash-ore de- posits as represented in Figures 5, 6, 7; the localities pictured being on the line of the railroad near the East Pennington Ore Banks. Thus the different theories in vogue among our iron men are harmo- nised. Each theory has its own basis of truth, its own set of facts, but does not embrace all the phenomena. Those who contend that the brown hematites lie in pockets are cor- rect ; but they must confine the assertion to that part of the ore which now occupies former caverns and fissures and sink-holes. Those who contend that the brown hematites are surface washes caught by the accidental variations of the earth’s surface, are correct ; but they SS SE ai Summit Cul, in stena-colered Wash-Ore, exhibiting erostore (!)& déibres of pulverized Caleef: J. 5. must limit the application of their theory to banks which show rolled gravel and rolled ore, and a confused and mingled mass of ore and sand and clay. A third view is equally correct and much more important. It must be accepted as probable, that in spite of later movements, and in addition to cavern-deposit ores, and surface-wash ores, there are interstratified beds of brown hematite, still in their original places, although not in their original condition, descending with the general slope of the forma- tions between undissolved limestone, dolomite and sandstone rocks to undetermined depths, and ranging lengthwise of the district, so that rows of ore-banks can be and have been opened in continuous beits of Lesley.) 30 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6, many miles length, and on continuous outcrops of ore ground of every conceivable variety of character, quality and quantity. It is provable by reference to sections Figures 1, 2, 3, and other illus- trative drawings in this report, that there exists several of these belts ; representing different geological horisons ; and due to an extra charge of iron given, we know not how, to sediments of different ages. As, ona grand scale iron-bearing rocks occur at various stages of the column of paleozoic rocks from No. I, Potsdam 8. §., to No. XII, Coal Measures, —so, within the narrower limits of one subdivision of this column, viz., in the Lower Silurian system, iron bearing rocks occur at various stages, separated by from 500 to 2000 feet. These have already been stated. TG Summit Guten Waushore with Ore-slreaks One : foot Chick, The measurements will be given in my Detailed Description of the Ore Banks, and no repetition of them is here nhecessary.* I will only give in tabular form the thickness of the Lower Silurian Limestone formation so far as visible and as measured along Warrior’s Mark Run :— Hudson River Slates....... ESO Soo a EO ce acti Idea one s55000¢ feet. Trentom Aimestomen Geese acto cede eye erste se clare ere 2500 Pennsylvania Furnace and Cale Hollow Ore Banks : lhMaveN! Ore WrbeNROVIS Googc606600050000000000000006 ates 700 Huntingdon Furnace Ore Banks : Intervalxof Mimestonest: o-oo cin teeta etre rer eerie 550 Pipe-ore Range near Toll-gate : Interval of Limestones........ Sb lopeuars earemlt tereherenetcoke one hareee ab duereisis 1500 Pennington, Town, Lovetown Banks: Interval jot bimestoness.jrar aya ckels eles ickereore eto Steeyoetstaporskatoe 3000 The edge of the Fault stops further measurement downwards: . —— Total visible thickness of Limestones............ ROOD 7750 * See No. 31, Huntingdon Kurnace Banks. 1874.) 31 (Lesley. PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE OREs. The experience of sixty years has demonstrated the exact values of the brown hematite iron ores of all the Lower Silurian Valleys of Pennsyl- vania : on the Lehigh; in the Great or Cumberland Valley ; in Kishico- quilis Valley ; in Morrison’s Cove, Canoe and Nittany Valleys. The general resemblance of ores from all the Banks is striking. The local variations are still more striking. The key to those variations was only got when the true geological theory of structure was studied out. But it is still a perplexing question why red-short, cold-short and neutral ores should lie so near each other. There is scarcely an ore bank in Pennsylvania in which the chemist will not find some infusion of sulphur and phosphorus. But some ores have been so slightly charged with one or other, or both of these elements, that they rank in the first class. Others are so heavily charged, that they are useless for Bessemer work ; take a low rank as anthracite or coke iron ores ; and only make good pig- metal when smelted in small quantities, with charcoal and a feeble cold- blast. . This is especially true of those of the lowest geological horison or oldest in age, belonging to rocks of Pitsdam age, rocks which rise upon the flanks of the South Mountain. Fortunately, these ores nowhere reach the surface in Nittany Valley, being buried in the jaws of the Bellefonte Fault. Even the Pennington horison is too high for these ores. The consequence is, that most of the ores of the district under notice here yield a practically neutral ore and make the best possible iron in cold blast charcoal furnaces, and good iron with the hot blast, and, min- eral fuel. The appended analyses of Dr. Genth will make this fact evi- dent. Phosphorus, however, is found in all known Silurian Brown Hematite ores (with some rare exceptions) in quantity enough to prevent the man- ufacture of steel. But in some cases mixture with other ores will rectify the ore. In other respects the per centage of phosphorus is too small to do hurt. Dr. Genth’s analyses will give the figures in this case also. The reputation of Pennsylvania iron was greatly made at Pennsylvania Furnace. Its quality could not be surpassed. Neither the older Swedish, nor the best English, when English iron was still good, nor the more recent magnetite pig-metal of Lake Champlain and Missouri, have ex- celled it ; and it shared this reputation with furnaces smelting similar ores. There are parts of the deposit in almost every Bank, which are sandy and lean. These have been hitherto fastidiously rejected by the charcoal coal blast furnaces of the district. Such ores are, however, in demand ' for our anthracite and coke furnaces, and the ever-increasing market for them will require the mining of the whole. I believe that carefully se- lected ore from these banks will even furnish iron fit for Bessemer use. Lesley. | 32 |Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, PROBABLE QUANTITY OF ORE. Estimates of the quantity of Brown Hematite Ores are among the most uncertain of all earthly things. Hence I give special statements of the size of excavation and prisms of ore ground in sight for each of the ore banks, in the chapter of this Report devoted to their local description. The surface ore wash is of various depths from 1 to 30 feet. The ' breadth of surface covered is sometimes but a few yards; sometimes several hundred yards. Intervals occur where all traces of surface ore vanish fron the belt. The thickness of the underlying clays varies from a few feet to a hundred and more. Sometimes these clays are loaded with scattered pieces of ore, fine or coarse; at others they do not show a trace of ore. Some- times the mass of clay is interstratified with layers of rock ore yielding richly. The rock-ores and pipe-ores, bedded or in packets, under the clays are also excessively irregular, and nothing but actual mining can teach us the quantities concealed. But any one who reads carefully the following descriptions of the ore banks taken up in succession, must arrive at the conclusion, that the Railway line connecting the ore deposits of Nittany Valley with Western Pennsylvania over Tyrone, and with Eastern Pennsylvania over Lewis burg, will have within the limits of my map, at its command for freight to distant iron works, many millions of tons of prepared ore of the choicest character. One of the most noticeable features in the iron history of this district (and of others similar) has been denials of the existence of any ore just where the deposits were proved by subsequent diggings to be most copi- ous, and predictions of the speedy exhaustion of ore banks which steadily grew in magnitude and richness as the excavations spread. The history of Pennsylvania Furnace Bank affords a notable instance, and not an isolated one. There are not less than 100,000 linear yards of ore belt on my map. If the ore were continuous, and only 50 yards wide by 10 deep, we should have 50,000,000 cubic yards of ore ground. If only one-tenth of this were ore, we have 5,000,000 cubic yards of ore. It only needs to look at the number, breadth and depth of the diggings, and their distribution on the map, and to remember that none are noted there but the princi- pal cuts ; that large spaces of ore belt have for various reasons never been explored ; that in some the ore is seen going down to unknown depths ; and that in all the banks water has stopped work—to appreciate the inadequacy of the above calculation. SPECIAL DESCRIPTIONS. I postpone further economical considerations to introduce here the data upon which what I have written above is founded. The situation and . character of the principal mines, are given succinctly, but sufficiently in detail to permit others to form their own opinions. 1874. ] 33 [Lesley. THE PENNINGTON RANGE. Cross section A B, fig. 2, shows the ore-bearing limestones at the Pen- nington Banks dipping northwest, and the hard limestones in the quarries on Logan’s Creek dipping also northwest 23° to 27°, increasing (as we descend the creek) to 90°, and in some places overturned; then, rising at 5380, 54° (S. E. dip), to shoot over the Bald Eagle Mountain. Cross section A B shows the same ore-bearing limestones at a point on the road to Huntingdon Furnace, a mile and a quarter southeast of the Fia. 8. Soca Mow j | ei thu “by | Casts West: Punrungton s $row Ore Bames Lyon Shor bo of Pittsburg / Onthe Live cf the Sanisbueg : Centre és:amd } Byrone Rarleoad 48X13. fs Sumayed Ary S rowiiin PLabic Banks, and on the opposite side of the Ridge, dipping gently southeast, and making a strong outcrop of ore ground. These are our elements of structure. Taken in connection with those of the Little Juniata River section, fig. 1, the geology is evident. There is a low anticlinal arch in the Pennington Ridge, and a sharply plicated little synclinal trough in the Valley of Logan’s Creek. A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. EB Lesley. 1 34 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6, The Pennington ore rocks descend into and beneath Logan’s Creek Valley, at first slowly, then steeply, at last vertically, and before reaching the surface again on the other side of the little synclinal, are cut off by the great fault, and are sent down by it to a depth of many thousand feet beneath Bald Eagle Mountain. On section line C D, fig. 8, no such structure appears ; consequently the little Logan’s Creek synclinal does not range away northeastward along the foot, but cuts across more northward into the flank of Bald Eagle Mountain.* As for the Pennington Ridge anticlinal, it loses itself in the hill north of Warrior Mark Village, and in the great fault further on. Obscure dips} of 75° to 80° (N. W.) are seen in calc. sandstone at 500 yards north- west of the village, and 80° (N. W.) in blue limestone, at 450 yards further up Warrior Run; but the universal slant in the country, from here onwards, is southeast ; all the outcrops beyond or northeastward of ‘Warrior Mark Village belong to the southeast side of Pennington Ridge. t The Pennington Bank ore range is therefore a short one, whereas the mext ore-range to the south of it runs continuously through Warrior -Mark Village and Love Town for ten miles within the limits of our -Map. The Pennington ore rocks are also of an older age than those of many -other banks in the Valley, as the sections show. They belong rather to «the lower than to the middle division of the Great Limestone Formation. The Pennsylvania, Hostler, and other banks on the Spruce Creek side -belong to the middle division. Any constant difference of quality-ob- servable between the ores is of course to be ascribed principally to this ‘fact, viz.: that the ore bearing rocks being deposited in two successive ages, and therefore under different conditions, their present dissolubility -and receptivity (as regards soluble salts of phosphorus, sulphur, &c.), -have bestowed on them peculiarities of individual character. I consider it possib e that the Pennington Range corresponds in age with the Bloomfield ore range, in Morrison’s Cove, thirty miles to the - south. The Pennington Range proper consists of a line of outcrops commenc- ing about two miles from the Juniata River, and extending two miles to the railroad, a mile west of Warrior’s Mark Village. The northwest face of Pennington Ridge is covered with wash-ore to a variable depth, below which lie sheets, belts, and masses of rock ore, between ribs of still un- dissolved siliceous limerock. The more argillaceous lime beds have left intercalated sheets of white clay. * The Map shows how it swings the mountain a little out of its otherwise straight course, and also how Logan’s Creek takes its head just where its synclinal terminates in the mountain slope. .+ The cross cleavage of the rocks near the fault makes the direction and strength of these dips doubtful. They look like 30° to 609 (S. E.) { As will be abundantly evident to any one travelling along the road from Warrior Mark to Love Town. 35 [Lesley. 1874.) No.1. The Old or East Pennington Bank, supplied Bald Eagle Furnace with stock for many years. The ore was hauled about four miles over the mountain. It was chiefly got from the large open-cut shown in Local Map, fig. 8; but also from underground gangways following the ore down the dip (N. W.) beneath a clay covering ; and from shafts sunk on that side, tunnels or rooms being driven from the bottoms of the shafts irregularly in every direction at the caprice of uneducated miners, who groped always in the dark, without correct geological ideas to guide them, following what they imagined to be the thickest beds and belts of the Fia. 9. ~ Meg emewn, =e en . PENNINGTON ORE BANK k 1857 1866 % ‘6y. cul Sey suue widened ¥ cleebenids. & LY a 0, Smatt old open 508” gecceeca Se o* best ore, and leaving all the rest to stand and be covered up again by the annual tumbling in of their shallow works. Most of these miners were Irish laborers paid by the ton. Water invariably stopped them, and limited the range of workings to a comparatively narrow belt down hill. The great deposits of ore unquestionably lying to the deep (N. W.) are unexplored. Neither maps nor notes of the old works exist. Lesley.] 36 {Jan. 2and Feb. 6, Fig. 9 is areduced copy of maps made by Mr. H. V. Bécking, mining manager of the Company, to show the position of shafts and direction of tunnels executed under his direction, in a more systematic way. At the east end of the Old Bank, Mr. Bécking did much sinking on lower ground. One old shaft which had been abandoned at the depth of 30 feet on account of water, he sunk 30 feet deeper to the sandstone floor of the ore, which drained the mine. A cross-cut from this shaft 75 feet long struck the ore descending (N. W.) but where it was nearly level. Galleries were then driven and much ore won in an irregular way. But the heavy spring rains of 1857 filled the works to the top of the shaft. At this time the large deposit at McAtear’s (West Pennington) Bank was discovered. In 1865 a new shaft was sunk, in a dry season, a little north of the caved-in works, reaching the bottom of the ore at 45 feet. The shaft was 60 feet deep, and a steam-pump kept it dry by two or three hours work per day. A good vein of ore had been abandoned (on account of water) in a smaller open cut, near the last mentioned shaft, with only 3 or 4 feet of dirt covering to the ore. That the rich deposits of ore in the old open cut pass down northwest - ward, in irregular but continuous. floors and layers between the clays, was proven by galleries driven by Mr. Bécking west from the pump-shaft, see fig. 9. He describes these galleries as driven in wavy ore, meeting several good bodies of ore. No pillar mining was done, as the sinkings were merely tentative. In all this no account is made of anything but the better streaks of hard lump or rock ore, which alone a small charcoai furnace is willing to smelt. Great quantities of saleable ore and wash-ore are ignored. My assistant, Mr. Franklin Platt, obtained the following imformation on the ground while making his map :— : Beginning at the Railroad, the first and smaller pit (now filled with water) 70 yards long, by 15 wide and 5 deep, yielded about 5000 cubic yards of wash-ore, without any solid lump ore. Shaft No. 1, sunk near it, (N. W.) is said to have passed through all. VR OPIWwasl=OLE wa o1.1osderorayecss cious erode etetentoreran arsine 15 feet. Ze layKelo nyany PCR, GoogooadcodcauedodooddD0ONed Sores Once oon Olay awathelittle onmoloremermme eerie caer erie a 6 A Gooddump-OLe sree eee eric ily CS the bottom not reported. Shaft No. 2, (W.) had lean wash-ore on top ; clay to 40 feet ; good lump-ore thence to bottom at 50 feet. The main open cut is 230 yards long, with an average width of 35 yards, as shown in fig. 8 ; depth from 5 to 8 yards. Wash-ore, sometimes lean, forms the wall of the pit, from the surface to an apparent depth of 15 feet. A shaft midway of the eastern edge, ‘‘struck a layer of ferro- manganese ore, 5 feet thick, at a depth of 15 feet.”’ Two-thirds of the distance from the southern to the northern end of the pit, a massive crop of half decomposed calciferous sandrock charged with more or less of ore, juts from the wall, dipping gently northwest. 37 1874.] ( [Lesley. Some of this rock is genuine iron ore; the rest ferriferous or merely ferruginous sandrock. The excavated ore lay over, under and around this rock, having been freed from other similarly dipping, but more ferriferous and more dissoluble strata.* It is a place where the genesis of our brown hematites may be studied to advantage. Ore was found in some of the shafts to the south-west of the main open cut. The whole N. E. and 8. W. extent of this uninterrupted expanse of wash ore, from the railway track to the shafts last mentioned, is about 500 yards, and its width, say, 100 yards. A considerable percentage may be too lean to wash.{ Estimating the depth of soft and hard ore at 10 yards, we have 500,000 cubic yards. Rejecting one half for leanness, we are safe in supposing 250,000 cubic yards of ore in sight. Fiag. 10. Sod Mea of the Nest Semmrugenr Ore Danks. 4B13 Seok of Uarads ; 4 220 3 aan Zi Ui Sea by Srowile Platt Wo. 2. The West Pennington Banks. An interval of half a mile separates this open cut from the East Pennington Banks last described. t The railroad, curving across a slight hollow in the side of the ridge, see local map, fig. 3, approaches within two hundred yards of the north * The strike of this rock is across the open cut, here very narrow. The ore of the northern end of the cut is therefore above these rocks, and that of the southern portion of the cut belongs below these rocks. + The “ black ore,’ which is very rich, is in some places abundant; in other places it becomes very thin. { Mr. Bocking, speaking of this interval, says that after passing a low place at Mc- Atear’s, the main body of good ore was discovered in 1857, at the surface, on ground into which old pits had been sunk, the miners having previously condemned the whole local- ity. The very rich deposit then discovered lay higher up the slope of the ridge, and had thus been entirely missed. Mr. Platt remarks: ‘‘ What the original shape of the ore on the face of this ridge was, it is now hard to say; but the two Pennington ore deposits are at present separate and distinct, not necessarily connected in any way. I presume that the original limits embraced them both, and much of the ore lying between them which is now gone.”’ This agrees with what is seen at the Pennsylvania Ore Banks, to be described here- after, and it is a strong argument in favor of the wholly outcrop character of these brown hematite deposits. On the other hand, the ore has never been properly followed to the deep, and the distance in that direction to which the dissolution of the ferriferous limestones and the precipitation of peroxide of iron has extended is unknown, Lesley. ] 38 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, wall of the excavation, see fig. 11, which is 180 yards long, by 40 wide on an average, and shows nothing but wash ore in its banks. Its very ir- regular depth may be called 10 yards ; water standing in the floor. This cut was worked to a depth of 40 feet during seven years, and yielded richly. The first maps are lost. Mr. Bocking’s underground works on the north wall, commenced in 1865, are represented by his Local Map, fig. 12, and thus described by him :— An old whin shaft was pumped out, and pillars robbed. The galleries then caved in, and work stopped. Ore can still be reached from other shafts, two of which are timbered. One body of ore lies between the old cut and the underground works. It is not very rich, but is ‘‘good natured,’’ and mixes well with more refractory ores. Another body of good rich ore remains standing to the deep of the works, and has a heavy covering. Another body of very good ore, fifteen feet thick, occupies a trough below the level of the pump-shaft, estimated at say 500 tons. Shaft 5 has ore around it. Shaft 4 is in a fair vein of rock ore. The deposit at shaft 3 is variable, and part of it stands. Old cuts and pits show that the deposit runs on southwestward. That the ore extends northwards is shown by the late railway cutting 200 yards north of the open cut (see fig. 10), where ten feet of wash ore is seen overlying white and red clays. Seventy yards southwest of the main open cut is another, 110 yards long, 15 wide, and 8 deep (13,200 cubic yards), nothing now showing but wash-ore in the side walls. It was originally much deeper, slides having partially filled it. Three hundred yards west of the main open cut is the Old Phillips Bank, 100 « 30 6 yards (18,000 cabic yards), full of water. It was once deep, and drained by a tunnel, the mouth of which is shown on the Map (fig. 10), 140 yards from its west end. Calling the length of ground occupied by these three open cuts, with their imperfect underground workings, 400 yards, and its breadth 100 yards, and assigning an average depth of ten yards for wash and lump- ore, we get an original mass of 400,000 cubic yards, one-half of which may be considered rich and accessible enough to work to advantage. But it must be considered that this Pennington Range of deposits shows a much stronger tendency to develop lean layers and sandy masses than the Dry hollow, Red, or Gatesburg Ranges, hereafter to be described. Estimates of workable quantities are, therefore, hazardous. We are here geologically at the bottom of the limestones, and close on the top of the ‘¢calciferous sand-rock ’’ formation, which accounts for the tendency to sand-rock and sandy ore exhibited in these banks. Of the old Phillips bank Mr. Bocking says that it holds purplish easy smelting ore, mixed with clay, and without discernible regular veins. Quantities of wash-ore can be got here ; but dry screening is impractica- ble. This gives the key to the problem of the future. The near presence of 1874. ] 39 [Lesley. the railway makes systematic mining along this range a very different affair from the ‘‘ground hogging’’ of the surface hitherto pursued, un- Fie. 11. systematic, wasteful and costly as it of course was. A regular stoping of the deposit on a large scale and the washing of all the ore ground must yield a profitable revenue. Lesley. ] AQ [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, Mr. John W. Harden, an experienced Superintendent of mines, con- siders the extensive dry tailings, which cover the slope to the north of the cuts, erpable of being profitably washed, while being got out of the way of future open cuts. Traditional accounts of such old ore mines as these are to be credited with due caution and large allowances. But they have their value. It is of great importance, then, that shafts of over a hundred feet have been repeatedly sunk along this range ; for they are proofs that experience has justified them ; proofs that bodies of ore had been found lying very deep beneath the surface. The open cuts exhibited by the maps (figs. 8 and 10) were once very deep and were stopped by water, as has been the case with all the ore banks of these valleys. The miners were always driven from fine beds of rich rock-ore by the influx of water which they had no ade- quate machinery to keep under. We can easily believe it therefore, when we are told that in the Old Pennington Bank a floor of massive rock-ore from 8 to 16 feet deep underlies 50 feet of a covering, consisting cf wash ore and scattered lump ore intercalated between white variegated sandy clays ; and that in the West or New Pennington banks the deposit con- sists of a surface soil with a little ore 5 to 10 feet thick ; then wash ore in- terstratified with layers and masses of white, brown and red tight clays and loose sands from 50 to 80 feet, and a floor of red rock ore underlying all. My own belief is that when pumping machinery of adequate power comes to be applied to these deposits, and an approved system of mining adopted, many hundred thousand tons of ore will be raised and sent to the eastern furnaces at a living profit. The southwestward extent of the deposits is unknown. But on the southwest of the ravine and hill spur beyond it a pipe-ore and a good deal of “barren ore’? mark the continuation of the Pennington outcrop through D. Bronstetter’s fields, and then across Gyer’s farm. It is cut by a gap ; and then is again visible crossing Weight’s farm, and (on the west land line) reaching to the hill-top. Hence to the Juniata it is hard to trace ; but becomes visible again west of the river in Sinking Valley. No. 3. Beck Bank (marked ‘‘nameless’’ by mistake in the Key List on the large map). The eastward extent of the Pennington deposit has not been carefully explored ; but at the entrance of a R. R. cut, half a mile east of the Old Pennington Bank, Huntingdon furnace mined ore 10 years ago. This Bank shows 40<20<5=4000 cubic yards of excavation, with water in the floor, and wash ore walls, rather lean in quality and quantity, as now visible. Wo. 4. New Town Bank, also called Beck’s (and so designated on the large map), lies 13 mile east of Old Pennington Bank, and was worked for Bald Eagle furnace, and abandoned for want of pumps to [Lesley. 41 1874. ] NEW PENNINCTON ORE BANK VOL. XIV. F A. P. 8. Lesley. ] 42 {[Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, keep down water, ‘‘good ore being left standing in the floor.’’ In the woods behind Beck’s and Aul’s fields, north of it, small shafts were once sunk on fine sized ore. In Beck’s Bank wash ore is seen in the walls, showing rather lean. At present there is not much evidence of the presence of a considerable deposit, and no encouragement is felt for looking for it. The road to Warrior’s Mark Village descends to Warrior’s Run, past New Town Bank, which seems to be the remains of a surface deposit once covering the flat top of the Pennington Ridge Anticlinal. It is the only mine on this southeast dipping outcrop that has ever been opened west of Warrior’s Run. But, that the ore belt extends in that direction, towards the Juniata, is proved by the heavy outcrop of ore ground, shown on the large map and on Cross Section A B, fig. 2, 14 miles due south of the Old (east) Pennington Bank. The vein of ore pursued by those who worked the New Town Bank is described as small and irregular in thickness, and not traced successfully downhill and westward ; but much coarse ore covers the ground in Jer. Berk’s fields, on which the Furnace had no right to enter ; slight shaft- ings showed small veins of ore. Further west also, in Adelberger’s fields, some ore was raised ; and outcroppings occur on P. Cooken’s farm. WARRIOR’S MARK AND LOVETOWN RANGE. From Warrior’s Run, north-eastward we have almost a continuous series of shafts and open cuts for a good many miles; viz: Old Town Bank (V) is } mile east of Warrior Run ; Romberger’s Bank (VI) 13 miles; Hannah Bank (VII) 13 miles; Waite’s Bank, 23 miles; Lloyd Braunstetter’s Bank (IX) 22 miles (with pipe ore outcrops to the south of it); Disputed Bank, 4? miles, (X); Hannah Furnace Bank, 5 miles; Hannah Furnace and Beck Banks half a mile north of the last two, and less than a mile west of Lovetown ; the pipe ore out- crops half a mile south of Lovetown ; croppings near the sawmill, 2 miles east of Lovetown ; Hannah Furnace Bank and Bryan Bank, 22 miles east of Lovetown, and the Curtin Bank 5 miles east of Lovetown, and 11 miles from Warrior’s Run. The ores of these Banks, when rich, are black or dark colored, much of it of a pitch-like lustre, and often inclining to cold-short in quality. Dr. Genth’s analyses in my appendix will give their chemical constitution. When lean, they are of a lighter color, brown, or liver colored ; clay pre- dominating over sand in the deposit, as compared with the Pennington ores proper. Some of them may occupy a slightly higher geological posi- tion, being still further removed from the upper layers of the Calciferous Sandrock, and lying, therefore, still more in the body of the Trenton Group* of Limestones. * See sections A B and C D. The Trenton Limestone proper, of the New York Geologists is considered to be the top member of the Trenton group. Our ores are far below it, and in the lower members of the group, viz. the Chazy, Bird’s Eye and Black River Limestones. 1874.] 43 [Lesley. No. 5. Old Town * Banks, are shown on Local May, (fig. 13,) ; two old open cuts, one on each side of the main road, and groups of shafts, principally north of the road. There is a decided ore-show on the surface for 470 yards. Opposite the new church, an old shaft reached a maximum depth of 110 feet, touching ‘‘a vein of ore.’’ (Bécking.) Contradictory accounts are now given of this work. Some say, that the quantity of ore was enormous, timbers 30 feet} long being used to support the chambers, the ore dipping steeply N. W.; and that massive Fries. 13, 14. Fie. 17. reo No OU dogmas at ats Noawir sao S33. 3 > ZZ, ore stands in the sides and at the bottom of the deserted mine. Others say, that the ore mass, 25 feet thick, descended vertically with undimin- ished size when the shaft was abandoned. It is may be a deposit in one of the ancient caverns or cross fissures of the Limestone Formation. Shafts sunk to depths of 30 and 50 feet sometimes went through clays without ore. Mr. Bocking sunk one 80 feet deep to find a mass of ore said to exist between three old shafts, but found nothing. The surface wash ore is sometimes only 2 or 3 feet deep ; in other places 20 feet. No * Called Town Bank, on the Local Map. + The rocks of the neighborhood dip 25° to 35° S, E. Lesley. ] 44 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, estimate of quantity is possible with such information. The visible area measures about 67,500 square yards.* A little pipe ore has been found higher up the hill north of the road. Regular and progressive stoping from the south-west, along the belt, may produce large results in the future. But the oreless clay of great thickness intervening between the surface wash and the deep hard ore will make mining expensive. No. 6. Rumbarger’s Bank, (Local Map, fig. 14,) is an open cut in the south bank of the east branch of Warrior’s Run, the surface of the ground only rising 6 feet above the bed of the stream. A cross-road separates the excavation into two ; that on the southwest, 40 < 40 < 10 yards deep; that on the northeast, 30' 30 < 10 yards deep ; 25,000 cubic yards in all. These pits reached a depth of 40 feet, wholly in wash-ores and clays, without striking solid limestone. The rock ore left in the bottom when the work was drowned out, is reported to be less abundant than that found above it. But as the ore streaks “dipped fast to the southeast,’’? and the limestone out-crops of the neighborhood dip from 22° to 34° in that same direction, (see Large Map, ) good mining will probably yield well. Plenty of good ore has been won here, and nothing but the lack of pumping machinery stopped the win- ning. Thos. Funk worked the Banks at one time for the Milesburg Company. The ore belt passes on eastward under Is. Buck’s (now Smith’s) lands, where Messrs. Green of Barree raised ore, but took no sufficient means for establishing a mine. Thence it enters and underlies $8. Hanna’s farm, with its numerous ponds and sink holes, full of promise for the future. “A mine for Bellefonte Iron Works has just been opened (August, 1878, ) at a point 300 yards northeast of Rumbarger’s Banks, ‘see Local Map, fig 14,) where a very heavy outcrop exists. Every cubic yard is washed profitably. The cut is yet only 4 or 5 feet deep. As a heavy surface show extends 150 yards beyond Hannah Bank, we have here an area of 450 >< 50 = 2250 yards of wash ore of undetermined depth ; besides the rock ore undoubtedly existing further down. Mining and washing will here be cheap, and the railway runs along the hillside at a distance of 200 yards, and at an elevation of 35 feet, (fig. 14). Further on, the surface show is slight, or wholly wanting,+ util we reach the next excavation. No. 8. Waite Banks, shown in Local Map, fig. 15, consist of two pits, 100 « 20 « 7, and 90 * 20 X 7 = 26,000 cubic yards, in size, * Ore is found in the soil of Petershoff’s farm on the south of the Town Banks. There is an old digging on the Hyskel (B. M. Thompson) farm; and further west outcroppings on Thom. Gano’s, whose trial pit on a small vein near his orchard was stopped by water; lively outcroppings show in several fields up the slope of Dry Hollow ridge. + A shallow pit 14 mile from Hannah Bank yielded some ore. The Waite Bank is 400 yards northeast of this shaft. ~ 1874 ] 45 [Lesley. more than 20 feet depth of good-looking wash ore being seen in the sides, and much lump-ore having been won by still deeper shafts in the inter- vening ground. The entire ore prism must therefore exceed 150,000 cubic yards. The Railroad is a mile distant. No. 9. Braunstetter’s, or the McGlathery Bank, is situated about 1200 yards beyond (N. E. of) the Waite Banks, and the interval shows little on the surface; yielded only some lean ore to one or two trial Fies. 15, 16. Sova, Noor of the Noike OrePamk Vrvad ede AG . pits. This Bank, (see Local Map, fig. 18,) is only 30 < 20 « 10 = 6000 cubic yards large. It is said to have been worked to a depth of 40 or 50 feet, but is now fallen in and full of water, and no one seems to know much about it. Overlying Limestones crop out 150 yards southeast of it, dipping 27° 8. 43° E. Further on is the old Disputed Bank, on the high divide, between Warrior and Half Moon waters. Here are several small shallow open- cuts and shafts in surface ore; but no deep mining has ever been attempted. The ore seems to dip south, and is sandy. The crop traced westward, becomes good and plenty on Jos. Bronstetter’s farm, who has never made Lesley. ] 46 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6, judicious trials of the deposit, and through the hollow leading to Patton’s (now Waite’s) and the Lloyd Bank, above mentioned. No. 10. The Lovetown Banks, consist of numerous open-cuts and shafts from which large quantities of ore have been extracted and extensive preparations are in progress for regular mining of this important part of the ore field. The principal outcrop occupies a vale watered by a small branch of Half-moon. The old shafts of Abram Love were stopped by the influx of water. Pipe ore is visible near Love’s barn. Halfa mile west is an old ‘‘exhausted’’ Hannah Furnace Bank. On the north slope of the ridge west of Love’s, ponds and sink- holes abound. Hannah Furnace had a Bank in David Berk’s fields, and abandoned a good deposit of ore in its floor, merely on account of water. Surrounding shafts were also sunk, but no pumps were ever planted. A few hundred yards west of the open-cut, some of these shafts went through a pretty good ‘“‘top vein”’ into a regular deposit 20 feet beneath the surface. Southwest of this other shafts were sunk for the Milesburg Company, in Abed. Stevens’ fields, in good rich, sandy, black ore, close under the sod, the poorer clay ores lying down on the limestone foot of the hill. South of this, John Stine gathered much loose heavy ore from his fields, and hauled it to Bald Eagle Furnace, many years ago; but no sinkings were done. The outcrop is noticeable in Jos. Bronstetter’s lane (leading to Wrye Bank) and in his fields on Cronister’s line. The Lovetown Banks are shown on Local Map, fig. 20, occupying two vales, descending eastward to the Half Moon Run, at the mill-dam. A rib of solid blue limestone strata, dipping 8S. 30° E. > 56° to 579, forms a low hill, up the south slope of waich the wash-ore rides on to the flat summit. Natural ponds occupy, at points, the beds of the two vales. The north line of the Love property commences near the Beck Banks, and runs down the northern vale to the corner of the mill-dam. The ore has been open-cut at Station 37, 165 yards west of where this line crosses the road. This once deeper old cut is now only ten feet deep, showing in its walls liver-colored, somewhat lean, wash-ore. West of it is a series of shafts for 450 yards, formerly sunk 60 or 80 feet (without timbering) until water was reached, and after a little side-drifting, abandoned. Hannah Funace ran for some time entirely on the ore got in this primitive fashion from these holes. In one of them (St. 39) pipe-ore was found. Nothing more is now known of them. They are evidently on a continuation of the Beck Bank deposit, the result of decomposition of ore-bearing strata underlying the rib of blue limestone at Station 56. The rest of the ore on the property belongs to the series of rocks above the blue limestone, and to the southern vale. The first shafts are sunk near Love’s house. Shaft A struck ore at 35 feet ; B, pipe-ore at 35 feet. Ore has recently been found southeast of A, on the foot of the opposite hill. From Station 44 there extends east and southeast down across the Lesley. ] 48 [Jan 2and Feb. 6, bottom of the vale, and west and southwest along the hill-slopes and hill- top, a universal surface deposit of wash-ore. In this area are numerous old shafts, pits, and open-cuts, and some new shafts sunk this summer and fall. The old works were always abandoned on striking water at various depths down to 80 feet, and are now filled up, and no records preserved. Much ore was certainly mined from them. The new shafts show that from 8 to 15 feet of wash-ore in clay under- lies the surface at the depth of a few feet, and that under the yellow and white clays there lie separate deposits of ore-lumps, the geographical in- tervals being barren. ‘There seems to be no regularity of the ore layers. The old shaft at Station 48 is said to have passed through twelve feet. of surface wash, then (ore-bearing ?) clays to a depth of 80 feet, into lump-ore, which was mined for several feet, and left in the bottom when water stopped the works. The new shaft, only ten yards southwest of the old shaft, is down 80 feet, and found no ore in the clays. The ore got seems rich and rounded, as if water-worn. It may be safe to give twelve feet of wash-ore tothe whole area, under which are hard ores, yielding sometimes richly and sometimes nothing. The surface ore extends 850 yards along the top of the hill. Most of the pits were shallow, but one at Station 59 is said to have been 115 feet deep through wash- and lump-ore, with ore left in the bottom. The general appearance of the deposit is the same as at the Dry Hollow and Wrye Banks.* No regularly interstratified ore is noticeable. No estimate of quantity can be relied on. Taking only the area of heavy surface show, and calling it 850 > 300 yards, and the depth twelve feet, we have 1,020,000 cubic yards of seemingly good wash stuff, which, at 3 cubic yards to the ton, gives 340,000 tons. To this must be added the very uncertain quantities here and there scattered through the under clays. As these have been sometimes locally considerable, it is possible that one or two or even three hundred thou- sand may thus be obtained. As the principal part of the lump-ore is evidently at the bottom of the clays, no knowledge of the quantity can be got until systematic mining reveals the truth. Wash-ore ground here must be considered as the main reliance for the present. Washing here is easy; abundance of water is struck at 50 or 60 feet, and there is plenty of room for settling dams. The railroad line, adopted for a branch to the main railroad, rises one mile on a 92 feet gradient, and descends one mile on a 46 feet gradient. The ore has a much more extensive range than that above described, for Mr. Fisher has opened three small pits on ore just beyond the north- eastern preperty line; and the Beck Banks show that it passes south- westward into the adjoining properties in that direction also. An analysis of Lovetown ore, from the large pit at Station 49, fig. 20, made at my instance by Mr. Persifor Frazer, Jr., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, shows a percentage of phosphorus low * Hereafter to be described. 1874, ] 49 (Lesley. enough to bring this ore within the limits of safe use in the manufacture of iron for the Bessemer process. The specific gravity of the specimens was 352. The calculated percentage of metallic iron was 45.36; alumina 16.53 ; silica 6.63 ; lime 0.58; sulphur 0.04; and phosphoric acid 0.05. Between Lovetown and Stormstown (a distance of 3} miles) no ore is visible near Bald Eagle mountain, although considerable quantities of ore lie in the fields just northeast of Lovetown; but on a line parallel with the mountain, and about a mile from its base, in a hollow leading from one branch to the other of Half Moon Run, a very fine outcrop Fies. 21, 22. Fies. 23, 24. | McKinney ee it Bain ait a B = 8 N XN 9 8 SO [\ Sur: by F Plate. range of tolerably big pieces of ore, closely covering the surface, runs past the sawmill. It leads directly to the two Bryan Banks, and is there-~ fore important. No. 11. Lytle’s Bank; No. 12. McKinney’s Bank. These are - the old Bryan Banks, 23 miles N. E. of Lovetown, as shown at the eastern limit of the Large Map, and in Local Map, fig. 22. The Lytle Bank was worked a long time ago for Hannah Furnace, and measures about 70 « 20 « 10 — 14,000 cubic yards. Very little lump- . ore is now visible, the walls showing about 25 feet thickness of wash-ore. . A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. G Lesley. ] 50 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, McKinney's Bank, worked for Pennsylvania Furnace, is much smaller, say 20 < 20 « 10 = 5,000 cubic yards, and exhibits the same aspect. Shafts sunk between the two excavations on both sides of the road, leading south from Stormstown to Gatesburg and Pennsylvania Furnace, always struck good ore, dipping to the southeast ; as do the limestone outcrops of the neighborhood. We have here a prism of ore deposit at least 300 100 > 10 = 350,000 cubic yards in size; probably, after all due allowances, quite that many tons of ore. The Curtin Bank, a long, narrow open-cut on a prolongation of this outcrop, beyond the limits of the map, 23 miles N. E. of the McKinney, and the Lamborne Bank, 1? miles further in the same direction, have yielded cold short ores, similar in appearance to the Pennington. These and other works of less importance show the persistent straightness ,of the outcrop of the ore-carrying strata, parallel with the Bald Eagle Mountain, at the foot of which flows the east or main branch of Half Moon Run, with a limestone ridge* between the Valley of the Run and the ore. The Valley of the Run marks, of course, the line of the Great Bellefonte Fault. At McKinney Bank we are three miles from the railway, where it strikes and begins to descend Half Moon Run. The Lovetown Banks require a rail- way two miles long, descending the west branch of Half Moon, witha grade of 40 feet to the mile, or else a railway across the ridge 1? miles long, with gradients 90 feet to the mile, as described. The line of the road was originally located to Lovetown, and thence down Half Moon ; but it was considered more desirable to carry it across the Dry Hollow, among the ore-banks to be hereafter mentioned. Before returning to these banks and the neighborhood of the railway, I will describe a group of banks lying south of the Lytle and McKinney Banks, at the east edge of the map, and on outcrops somewhat higher in the Lower Silurian Series. Dry HoLtiow RANGE. Wo. 13. Hannah Furnace Bank No. 2. Two hundred yards east -of the Gatesburg road is a hole 40 « 20 x 10 = 8,000 cubic yards in size, excavated on the broad, flat top of a ridge, as shown in Local Map, fig 25. It was long ago abandoned. The ore seems good and abundant, 15 to 20 feet of wash-ore showing in the side walls, and coming close to the surface. All the down-slid stuff may be washed. Massive sandy limestones, 180 yards N. W. of it, dip 8. 80° E. > 28; 150 yards further N. W., massive white sandrocks dip the same. Wo. 14, Bull Banks, half a mile east of the last, and in line with it, consist of two excavations on the south brow of the ridge ; see A and B, local map, fig. 27. Much sandy ore was formerly taken out before these banks were abandoned, 20 years ago. A—60><50><10=30,000, and * This ridge, by an oversight, is not represented on the Map, no surveying having been done north of the McKinney Banks. 1874.] 51 [ Lesley. B=80<40<10—82,000 cubic yards. A shows wash ore in the side, which is 30 feet high above the water in the bottom. B shows about 30 feet of reddish wash ore, with very little lump ore, from the water to the sur- face of the hill. A neighbor who had worked in the pits, reports that several feet of deep brown richer ore was found lying everywhere in Fie. 25. Jannah Furnace |! ore Co : 1S ,1 9 ja is Vy 8 || S ik is 100 paces. Natuzal pond : H S : ative by Tranklnkla 4 both banks beneath the mass of reddish leaner ore. All this awaits the time of improved mining with pumps and washers. Fig. 27 shows other old workings in the same deposit from 600 to 800 yards to the south-west of A and B. From two of these there have been taken about 15,000 cubic yards of wash-ore, which still exhibits itself 20 feet deep in the walls; the one furthest to the north-west in fig. 27, has been deep, say 40 feet, but now, like all the larger cuts, has standing water and mud in its bottom. Numerous shafts, all yielding ore, give ® Lesley. } 52 {Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, us data for calculating an ore prism in sight of, say 150 200><10 ?=800,- 000 cubic yards. No. 15, Pond Bank, No. 1, worked for Pennsylvania Furnace, lies in the hollow at the foot of the ridge, 3 mile south of the Bull Bank, see local map, fig. 20. Its honeycombed, rather light, easy smelting ore, (mixing well with the more sandy ores of the Bull Bank Hill,) dips also south-east, and therefore belongs to a limestone out-crop still higher in the series, which is sufficient to account for its different quality. A great deal has been removed from this Bank ; but much still remains to be won, and water to wash it is abundant. This is included in the prism of ore calculated last above. No. 16, Red Bank, (Floyd’s Old Bank) at the road side, half a mile south-west of the Pond Bank, (see Local Map, fig. 25,) is a cut in the same out-crop. The amount of ore is therefore very great; for the con- tinnity of the deposits has been fully proven. The red rock-ore (35 or 40 per cent.) descendsin a solid stratum from 8 to 10 feet thick, at a dip of about 25° to the 8. E. Over this lies a stratum of white clay, 3 feet thick. Over this black ore in solid masses and great lumps scattered thickly or thinly through several yards of wash ore, to the surface. Some of these lumps are 2 feet long by 11 feet thick. This Old Gatesburg Bank, as it is sometimes called, was worked 40 years ago, and has been re-opened now to show its character. The red ore was too siliceous, and hard to work in the small cold blast charcoal furnaces of the region ; but it will be eagerly sought by modern hot blast coke or anthracite furnaces. The black ore masses were selected for charcoal cold blast use, having 50 to 55 per cent. of iron and being fusible ore. It is impossible to say how deep these strata descend on their 25° dip ina peroxide condition. But allowing only 100 feet, we have in a mile of outcrop 150,000 cubic yards of red rock ore; and as the wash ore ground holding the black lump ore descends with it, and spreads over a belt of surface more than 100 yards wide, there must abe half million cubic yards of it at the lowest computation.* The old cuts at the elbow of the road west of the two ponds in fig. 27, have had about 8000 cubic yards excavated and are now filled with water to within 10 feet of the urface, showing that much wash ore without lumps. The two larger cuts 150 yards north-west of them, measure about * I have described above only what I saw. Mr. Platt was informed that under 12. feet of clay holding black lump ore, lay 4 feet of white clay without ore, under which lay 14 feet of red rock ore in red clay, and ore was still underfoot. I give this report for what it is worth. Mr. Bocking speaks of red rock ore only 6 feet thick, ‘‘and another fair layer in the clays above, all workable; red ore not very rich; silicious, but with visible sand ; rich black ore in the top vein, [the word he always uses for a stratum of ore] ; on the whole, proper for coke furnace use; mining requiring pumps ; deep workings at hand; an im- portant locality.” 1874.] 53 { Lesley. 15,000 cubic yards, with 21 to 25 feet of wash and lump ore in the walls ; abandoned 20 years ago. No. 17. California Bank, 200 yards west of the Red Bank, and on the same slope and outcrop (see Local Map, fig. 25, (received its name from Fic. 26. Fic. 27. GY Shaft on ore the richness of its ore, before it was abandoned 20 or 25 years ago, on ac- count of its distance from Pennsylvania furnace, the abundance of water and lack of pumping apparatus, the refractory quality of its mineral in the cold blast charcoal stack, and especially the abundance of Lesley.] 54 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6, good ore at the Furnace itself. Pits of standing water show 20 feet of wash ore in their walls. This completes my sketch of this ‘“‘dry hollow’’ ontcrop east of Half Moon Run. It is a dry hollow because the whole limestone underground is cavernous, and water springs up abundantly in every excavation, but does not flow over the surface. This is a prime factor in the problem of he genesis of these ores, and must be taken into consideration in all speculations respecting the depths to which the brown hematite ores descend in a minable form. The outcrop belt of surface wash ore and regular rock ores in which the Hannah Furnace, Bull, Pond, Red and California Banks are excavated, passes on north-eastward into the untried wilderness of the Barrens, where we find upon it the Floyd Bank, an open cut on highland ; ore very sandy for charcoal furnace use, but good and abundant for hot blast coke or anthracite; and good charcoal ore could be selected from it still. No. 18. Reider’s Bank, half mile east of Gatesburg, is a small sur- face opening of 30205 = 3000 cubic yards extent. On trial at Cen- tre and Hannah Furnaces it was refused. The surface of the broad low hill north of the village is a sheet of wash ore. The roads north to Stormstown and west to Warrior Mark expose ore ground at the surface, on the slopes of the dry hollow: in which the village stands, and to the north and south of the village. The old opening on the roadside 250 yards south of the village, is entirely filled up. Considerable quantities of very rich lump ore were taken out here many years ago, mostly from underground galleries. Much ore ground occupies the surface for more than 100 yards north-eastward. Limestone crops out 300 yards west of it dipping S. 30° E. > 20°, and 300 yards north of it dipping S. 300H Sse No. 19, Whorrel Bank, (see Local Map, fig. 17,) is a continuation south-west across Half Moon Run of the Gatesburg outcrop, which is here nearly 500 yards broad. The open cut on the north side of the Gates- burg road is about 40135 — 2600 cubic yards ; that on the south side 30203 = 1800 cubic yards. Both have standing water in the bottom, and wash ore in the walls, while very heavy outcrops appear along the road, as well as along the cross-road leading up the ridge north to Love- town, beyond which an old shaft has struck the underlying sand rocks. The double excavation in fig. 10, 110407 = 30,800 cubic yards large, is separated by a stratum of limestone dipping 8. 380°E., >26°, (one expo- sure looking like >509,) the ore underlying, overlying and surrounding one end of it. 'The wash ore in the sidewalls does not look rich. It is reported that these holes were dry 40 feet deep and yielded good ore. * The horizon of this and the Whorrel bank is still higher in the series than the last, 28 Section O D (fig. 3) will make evident. AAR 1874.]: vod [Lesley. The length of the surface show 7. ¢., 8. W.—N. E. is only 50 yards, to be terminated by the erosion of Half Moon Creek Valley. The railroad is only 400 yards distant. Nisa", walt Ngets Q@ANGH Aro ie) 17 >t af No. 20. Pond Bank, No. 2. is a small excavation 35 105 — 1750 cubic yards, at the head of the hollow, or rather on the divide where the south branch of the long Dry Hollow proper begins to descend towards - Lesley. | 56 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, Warrior's Run ; and along side of one of the summit cuts of the railroad. Good wash and lump ore show in the walls. No sandy ore is seen. The R. R.cut shows 10 feet of wash ore for a length of 100 yards. Altogether we have here say, 40,000 cubic yards of ore in sight. No.21. Wrye Bank. The local map, fig. 23, shows this extensive group of shafts commencing 450 yards northwest of the railway track, at an eleva- tion of 40 feet above it, and continuing along the road up the slope to an elevation of 100 feet above the R. R., a distance of 400 yards. Over most of this surface the show amounts to little, proving how little we can rely on the surface indications as negative testimony. For, these works were ex- tensively driven from 1852 to 1857, and yielded some very rich ore, while the surface showed only poor sandy ore. There is one open cut, 2520 10—5, 000 cubic yards large, showing wash ore in the walls from top to bottom, none of it rich, decidedly sandy, holding ironstained calc. sandstone masses, as at the east Pennington Banks. Very good open ore, bluish, and heavily charged with manganese occupied the west end of this open cut (Bocking). An old miner reports, that in the shafts they went through 26 feet of pretty worthless loose stuff and then worked 18 feet of good lump ore, without getting through ; that the shafts up the hill were dry ; those lower down quickly filled with water, and were therefore abandoned, one after the other, before they could get out more than 10 or 12 feet of lump ore. What the charcoal furnace miners called worthless is now valuable for hot blast, especially anthracite furnaces, and the whole of this great deposit will be washed and sold. The breadth of the belt of shafted ground is about 100 yards, but must be considered as in- definitely greater along the strike. I am informed that in these old diggings the body of ore sank to 50 feet beneath the surface and thinned away, but came in thick again lower down, and approached the surface. Two good pillars are known to be left standing in the old works, under a top covering of sand, one at the lower end, the other at the upper end of the works. In the last, solid rich rock ore lies 45 feet beneath the surface. All the shafts are now caved in. The ore layers were traced for several hundred yards east- ward by trial shafts. The appearance of this ore differs from that of the Pond Bank No. 2 so much that we should suspect them to belong to a different geological hori- zon. This suspicion is almost confirmed by the general southeast dip of the outcropping rocks here and there exposed at the surface. This import- ant structural question is clearly expressed by my Section C D (fig. 3), which passes through these banks. It is quite certain that the rocks which on dissolution delivered these ores, are the mother rocks also of the Kerr and Bredin, Hostler and Pennsylvania Furnace ores to be described here- after. The great breadth of the Dry Hollow Outcrop belt corresponds with that of the localities just named, and I think it pretty evident that we have here two horizons of Lower Silurian ore-bearing limestones close together. The old Sandy Bank is a group of small shallow pits, in very sandy 1874. ] 57 [Lesley. surface ore, but rich and good when washed, on the hill slope a few hundred yards northeast of the Wrye Bank, showing the continuation of the outcrop in the direction of Half Moon Run. In the other direction, the outcrop has been exploited at the old Pond Bank of Bald Eagle Furnace, 500 yards southwest of Wrye Bank, and nearly in the bottom of the vale, which deepens rapidly.* It lies closeto the foot of Hickory ridge; ore light but good, not sandy, and easy to smelt. A pond, dry in dry seasons, covers some of the old diggings. Much surface ore covers the neighborhood, and it will hereafter be an im- portant mining ground, with heavy clay cover to the ore, requiring hard pumping. Top ore of large size abounds around a sink-hole in Isaac Gano’s fields, on the north slope of Hickory Ridge, a mile S. W. of the pond. The pieces seemed rolled from an outcrop of good ore seen half-way up the hill, in the Huntingdon Furnace woods. At Simpson’s Bank (3 mile further west) the wash-ore is good and easy to smelt. Whereas at Andrew’s Bank, adjoining, (the Warrior’s Mark and Pennsylvania Furnace Road separating them,) sandy ore only has been taken from the open cuts, but no shafting done. Jos. Krider’s fields are covered with very rich scattered pieces of ore, some lumps weighing 400 pounds. Attempts to find a bed at a little gap near by, have failed thus far. The shafts were tried in thick woods ; others were too low on the hill slope, and encountered only wash ore. There is undoubtedly a heavy rock-ore deposit somewhere. Similar shows are again seen half a mile further on (west) opposite the old wash- machine, and Huntingdon Furnace has picked off the surface much of this loose block-ore. A small layer was found in two or three shafts, but never followed up to see what would come of it. No. 22. Dixon’s Banks are only a few small holes, fallen shut, with a slight sandy ore surface show, 100 yards west of the road, where it crosses the head of the middle branch of the Dry Hollow. Here ‘a small irregular vein yielded good ore a little west of it, on a detached knoll, a thicker vein of poorer, flinty ore was found, at the edge of a pond, and was thought not to pay for pumping, to get for charcoal fur- nace use.t * This and the following named Banks are not exhibited on the Large Map, because not accurately located. Their descriptions I got from Mr. Bocking’s notes. + Mr. Bocking thinks he remembers that this vein had a decided northern pitch, and distinguishes it thus from all the other veins of this range. This must be either a mistake or a mere local accident. Mr. Platt’s field notes also mark a doubtful N.30° W. > 384° dip of the limestones in the through-cut 240 yards northwest of Railroad section stake 81-80. But 100 yards N. E. of the same stake, soft rotten limestone strata dip S. 30° E. > 20°. Other Railroad exposures show that the S. E. dip dominates the struc- ture. Thus at Railroad station 4145, is a thorough-cut in blue limestone, dipping S. 30° E. > 34° with regular cleavage planes N. 60° W. > 70°; at 4151, a good exposure of limestone gives S. 30° E. > 26°. In Railroad cut at 4164, sandy and blue limestones the layers seem to dipS. 60° E. > 31°; inthe cut 180 yards S.W. of Railroad 4180 hard, sandy limestones dip S. 45° to 50° E. >> 26°. A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. H Lesley. ] 58 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, The old Kelsey Bank yielded much good ore, years ago, in funnel shaped pockets, not continuous. No. 23. Little Dry Hollow Banks (see Local Map, fig. 14) are near the crest of the low hill dividing the middle from the north branch of the Dry Hollow. No. 1, 1s a small hole on a small outcrop reported to have yielded six to eight feet of sandy lump-ore, soon running out No. 2 consists of a group of small pits and trial shafts on a slight outcrop. Some ore was got from shafts A, B, and C. The appearances here are not favorable for future mining prospects.* No. 24. The Dry Hollow Banks are the central figure in the broad expanse of outcrop which seems to fill the hollow and its three head branches, and to cover the dividing slopes, in many places if not continuously, north of the Railway. They are shown in map, fig. 29. Fi4. 29. Local Map of the Dry Soollow Ore Banks, F Halt; In the south-east corner of this map, the railroad ¢urve ought to have been designated, the distance of the track from the principal excava- tion A, being less than 400 yards. The cut on the south side of the township road is pictured by Mr. Harden, in fig. 28; that on the north of the road in fig. 80; and the road itself in fig. 31; the wash-ore in the R. R. cutting at the curve, south of the banks, is shown in fig. 32. The Dry Hollow Bank, } mile north of the R. R., 2} miles E. of * Mr. Bocking reported some years ago that these works merely won small veins and top ore, while the body of ore is undoubtedly left under the little ponds, &c., at the foot of the hill. Good ore used to be raised from the Little Dry Hollow Bank, but efforts to ‘“‘ recover the vein ’”’ some few years ago failed, although the ore here rides to the top of the hill, where it is pipe-ore (as it also is pipe-ore on the northern side of the hill). 1874. ] BO [Lesley. Warrior’s Mark Village, is an extensive system of open cut excavations, from which great quantities of excellent ore have been got in past times. The term ‘‘system’’ is however inapplicable to the process of mining here employed, for it resembles rather the burrowing of animals. No Fie. 30. Part f Dry Hotlew Rawk . South side of Rood. one can estimate how much of the precious ore has been left untouched, for there are neither maps, nor records, nor traditions of the work. The old miners merely say that the ore runs out against a bank of clay. But such reports are good for nothing ; and even if literally true teach Fie. 31. Read te Worries Mon through Dry Wetlew Powk . nothing, for they are sure to relate to single points, and fail of applica- tion at others. Fifteen years or so ago, some of the old pillars of ore were taken out by sinking shafts and driving short galleries at a few points. The ore is mostly wash-ore, that is fine ore disseminated through Lesley. ] 60 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, clay. The dip is southward (towards the great central synclinal) and deep workings and powerful pumps are needed, in future, south of the old shallow surface workings. From Dry Hollow Summit Cut for the Railroad to the first shafts, a dis- tance of about 400 yards, there is a decided outcrop. The shafts extend over 200 yards to the edge of the big open cut A, fig. 29. They seem to have gone down* through wash and lump ore 60 feet to water, which in all cases stopped the works. The lumps alone were carried to the fur- nace. The wash-ore was not valued then ; now it ismerchantable. The sinking was done at random and ore was always got. Mr. Platt’s estimates on the ground are as follows : 110«40x10 = 44,000 50x15xk 8 = _ 6,000] 76,000 50x15« 6 = 4,550{| cubic 602510 = 15,000{ yards of 50K10* 5 = 2,500| excavation 10010 4 4,000 J done. The main bank A, shows wash-ore of very variable richness from top to bottom, 50 feet. The shafts at B are reported 60 to 70 feet deep, through wash andlumpore. From shaft C, onthe roadside, 60 feet deep, 1600 tons of excellent lump ore alone was selected for use. About 300 yards north-east of the Banks, the railroad line has exposed a mass of lump and wash ore of excellent quality. The Old Red Bank of Bald Eagle Furnace is on a continuation of the Dry Hollow deposit south-west, but higher up the hillside. It is shown in local map, fig. 19. Mining was confined to the surface ore which was sandy and without ‘regular veins ;’ but no one knows how the deposit of ore is to the deep. The surface show between the Dry Hollow Banks and the Red Bank is not so heavy as where the old excavations were made ; but the deposit underneath is really continuous and unbroken, as is shown by the cut- tings through the ridge made by the railway between the two localities. See fig. 19. Here wash ore has been exposed for 100 to 125 yards along the track ; sometimes 10 feet thick resting on clay ; sometimes 20 to 25 feet of wash ore holding larger lumps. The varying thickness of the red clay and ore layers in this cut is an instructive example of what the miners found in their shafts. Some of the lumps weigh 300 to 400 lbs. Very few pieces of silex appear ; and on the whole, this deposit looks freer from silica than any in the valley. Little or no soil covering exists. The Red Bank pits and shafts are very numerous, and all shallow. The ore when smelted alone, at Bald Eagle Furnace, made first class iron. From the south-west end of the Red Bank to the north-east end of the Dry Hollow Bank is about 1000 yards. The breadth is 200 (say 150) *25 years ago, more or less. 1874. ] 61 (Lesley. yards. The worked depth {to water) varies from 20 feet at Red Bank to 100 feet at Dry Hollow Bank. Taking anaverage of 10 yards, we have 1000 <150<10—1,500,000 cubic yards of wash and lump ore. Discard one- half of the leaner interval between, and allow one ton to the yard in con- sideration of the size and quantity of lump ore, and we have 750,000 tons. Fie. 32. old fashioned rude mining, it is impossible to say how near this estimate approximates accuracy. : No. 25, Bean Bank lies a mile to the S. West of the Dry Hollow Bank, where many tons of surface lump ore were scratched out and Lesley. ] 62 [Jan. Zand Feb. 6, sent to Huntingdon Furnace ; as was done in other places along this part of the range on the South Slope of Dry Hollow Ridge. No atten- tion was paid to the great body of wash ore forming the deposit, and no effort to mine to the deep. A vast body of ore.ground awaits future ex- ploration and excavation, within a mile of the railroad. Quartz occurs in this ore bank. No. 26, Bressler Bank, (see fig. 16) is a collection of small holes, on the north-west side of the ridge, in a ravine descending to the east branch of Warrior’s Run, and distant from the railway, half a mile. About 2500 cubic yards of excavation seems to have been made in past years. The pits are fallen in, showing sandy wash ore in their sides. Hight feet of lump ore is reported as mined in this locality. No geo- logical indications of the structure appear. This completes all I have to say here of the Dry Hollow outcrop. For, although ore has been found further south-west along the south side of the ridge towards Warrior’s Run, no mining has been done ; and the Old Seat Bank, (No. 37,) is so out of line with the Banks ASR described, that it may be left for notice in connection with the ores west of Warrior’s Run. But I shall describe, further on, the continuation of this range where it crosses Warrior’s Mark Run and at the Huntingdon Furnace and Dorsey Banks. I pass over, therefore, to the Cale Hollow (Kerr & Bredin, Hostler and Pipe-ore) Panis further south-east. THE Cate Houttow RANGE. Cale’Hollow is divided from Dry Hollow by Hickory Ridge, as shown in the Large Map ; and its ores lie in a deeper and narrower synelinal than the ores in the gentle and wide synclinal of the Dry Hollow as shown by section CD. They are, however, ores once carried by the same lime- stone strata, and ought therefore to be of the same general character. It is therefore remarkable that so little pipe ore has been found in Dry Hollow, while an abundance of pipe ore characterises the Cale Hollow Banks. : No. 27. Kerr & Bredin Bank, (see local map, fig. 24, and wood cuts 33, 34, 35,) is a small excavation of about 5000 cubic yards, show- ing in its walls lump and wash ore, 25 feet deep. Much of the wash ore seems leaner than in other Banks. A shaft has been sunk for explora- tion in the bottom of the eld cut, and the report of it is favorable to future mining on a systematic scale. (See wood cut, fig. 35.) The ore from this bank won for itself a high reputation at the furnace. It was called ‘‘gun metal ore,’’ and was said to bear a striking resem- blance to the Bloomfield ore of Morrison’s Cove, south of Holidaysburg in [Lesley. 63 1874.) Blair Co., from which was made by preference the ordnance of the U. S. Army during the civil war 3. Fie. 3 t of the He rr and Bredin Lank, sketched by J WHardere. Dr.Genth’s analysis of the Kerr & Bredin ore, given below, when com- pared with Dr. Otto Wuth’s analysis of Bloomfieid ore, made June 9, 1871, compare as follows : Lesley.} 64 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6, Kerr & Bredin. Bloomfield. Merric Oxidesaseeeeaereeicee. 70.67 Perox. Iron 78.63 Manganese Oxide............ 0.36 Manganese 0.29 Cobaltic Oxide............... trace FATA TAAL TN Ree Weal eyreigrale Sears 3.91 2.50 Mao mesiaaersciavehverveleyiroreresexs 0.26 0.38 Daim @eeeiee eee tare ees trace 0.34 Phosphoric Acid............. 0.19 0.134 DilicicwAtcid haw 5 ase 5.48 7.02 QAO Ze tier oversee sae evencreve clete 6.80 — Witter ee mero) sie) caiaus Geese 12.38 10.71 The extra quartz determined by Dr. Genth, diminishes the percentage of iron oxide in his specimens, and reduces the percentage of iron from 55.04 (Wuth) to 49.47 (Genth). Otherwise the ores are strikingly alike. The Kerr & Bredin Bank lies at the foot of the south slope of Hick- ory Ridge, one mile W. N. W., of the Hostler Bank. Ina dry autumn Mr. Bocking was directed to sink south of the old cut, and to mount a pump. He reported a 12 inch “vein of ore”’ at 40 feet, and water at 44 feet. A tunnel-way was commenced in the direction of the old cut, which caved in, and the works were stopped. The continuation of these ores along the foot of Hickory Ridge, on the north side of Cale Hollow, is proven by arange of ‘‘ lively outcroppings.” In some places the surface is sufficiently rich wash-ore. One or two pits (Bronstetter’s) were worked, for Huntingdon Furnace, 13 miles west of the Kerr & Bredin Bank, in ‘‘ an irregular vein.”’ Northeastward the ores continue to show themselves to Half-moon Run, where ‘‘ pipe-ore’’ is marked upon the large map. See Little Bank, below. From a small cut at Eyer’s, on the east side of Half-Moon Run, pipe-ore was raised many years ago. The limestone rocks at Eyer’s house, 100 yards south of the spot, dip to the 8. 30°, E. > 21°. Another old pipe-ore locality shows now fair ore on the surface, near two small trial pits. No. 28. Hostler Bank (see local map, fig. 26, and wood-cut fig. 36). This excavation occupies the northern slope of the Spruce Creek anti- clinal ridge, as a large open cut, from which the ore was in old times hauled to Pennsylvania Furnace, two miles due east of it. The recorded history of this important mine reveals the following fea- tures. Wherever the diggings were made they went down through ‘‘pipe’’ wash-ore which was occasionally mixed with lump-ore, to depths of 60 and 65 feet, in all the shafts. One of these shafts passed through this wash-ore 65 feet, and then passed through a stratum of solid limerock, varying in thickness from 10 inches to 2 feet. Below this limestone lay lump ‘‘ pipe’’ ore, into which * 1874. ] 69 [Lesley the shaft was sunk 6 feet further and then the flow of water stopped its further descent. From the bottom of the shaft a five inch auger hvule was then drilled through a continuous bed of pipe ore to an additional depth of 39 feet. Fie. 34. prez ) ¢ q t Awe: Ree anti ‘iti He aia iN aE the Ue bi > 4 5 boxes —_—__ — : ees —— A PART OF KERR ABREDIN BK The percentage of iron in the pipe ore is uniform ; or varied only by the chemist’s including in his analysis adherent or enclosed clay. It is a constant feature of the Pipe ore banks of the southern range that they do not furnish the ‘‘lean ores,’’ so-called, which are met with A. P. S.— VOL. XI¥Y. I L2eley.] 66 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, in the Banks opened along the more northerly and geologically lower outcrops of the ‘‘ Barrens”’ in this valley. It has been the uniform ex- perience at the Pennsylvania, Hostler, and other Pipe ore banks that shafts and borings have always passed through lump-ore, after having been sunk or drilled below water level. But as pumping apparatus on a sufficient scale has never been applied to such deep shafts and borings, they have in no case passed through the deposit of lump ore, the thickness of which i- therefore still a matter of conjecture. I give the history of these operations as an evidence of the insufficient extent to which the development of this iron-ore district has been car- ried; to show that only its surface has been scratched, but its deposits not mined. Regular, systematic, efficient operations are yet to be begun. They await the completion of the railroad and that demand for large quantities of ore from distant furnaces which is already become so urgent. The underground drainage all through the Valley is immense, and the largest bodies of ore, and especially of pipe-ore, can only be won with heavy pumping and systematic stoping. The Hostler open-cut Bank must be sunk in air to the lower ores, and ‘through them to the bottom floor of all; then with powerful pumps to keep the water down, the clay stripping above can be washed, and the heavy face of ore below can be stoped and the top stuff thrown back into ithe abandoned ground as the ore-face advances. As Mr. Bocking justly remarks, ‘‘35 feet of ore will well pay for stripping 65 to 75 feet”’’ of -clays above it. He adds, and I agree with him heartily: ‘‘ The time for shallow digging and ground-hogging is pretty well past in these barrens, and the exploration of the richer banks may require in future prepara- tions that will take some capital, and may need in some cases two or more years before yielding a return.”’ The Hostler Bank excavations measure about 120 50 < 10 = 60,000 -cubic yards. The ore lies like that to be described in Pennsylvania Fur- nace Banks, as a mass of clay and wash-ore separated by ribs of un- ‘decomposed limestone. The walls are about 30 feet high, but the high northwest dip of the measures prevents this figure from being used as a -datum of calculation. It only shows in a general way the depth below ‘the sod to which the weathering action had gone, as exposed by the miners. “The late sunk shafts passed alternate soft beds of ore and hard ribs of ‘limestone, all on a steep dip; 38° to the N. 35° W. Imashaft at the ‘northwest end of the open cut one shaft went down through 75 feet of ‘wash-ore ground before striking the solid limestone rocks and water. It is impossible from such data to estimate the future yield at this locality, but the amount of ore to be won must be very great. Nor is it confined to the neighborhood of the old works. The ore-belt runs on southwestward for at least five miles. 1874. ] 67 [ Lesley. At the distance of 1,900 feet there are somewhat less than twenty old shafts in one group, quite forgotten until recently discovered by Mr. George Lyon. They were mostly shallow pits in the surface of the pipe- ore bearing clays ; but some of them look asif they had been sunk to a considerable depth ; and their number proves that the search for ore was remunerative even at that day. This part of Cale Hollow is a wide, flat, slightly undulating,. dry vale, every part of which shows a top-dressing of fine ore. It is a virgin district. Mr. Lyon sunk one trial-shaft in it, and struck an ‘‘ore- Fie. 35. SETIPPLN wil. Some wash Ore. Se dhe wae z sa a ola as sunk a) i) oe at Kew. & Gredin Ove Poe vein.’’ There was a similar accidental discovery of another group of five or six pits from which some top-ore had been scraped. I have no doubt that a continuous belt of mining ground runs the entire length of Cale Hollow. The Red Bank, 13 miles from the Hostler, on the same slope of the Spruce Creek Ridge, is old and disused, the ore in the top clays was stripped, but no attempt at deep mining was made. Another old bank in line with it, but across a little ravine issuing from the ridge, furnished some pipe-ore to Huntingdon Furnace. Still further west,* in a similarly * 414 miles from Hostler Bank. Lesley. ] 68 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, situated bank, near Huntingdon Furnace, a vein of good, red-short ore ' was struck, and abandoned on account of water. On working one part of this pit the ore became too sulphureous to use. It will be again re- ferred to after describing Bank No. 29. The belt of Cale Hollow Ores may be traced northeastward with the same general character. Little Bank, for instance, lies two-thirds of a mile northeast (near the Warrior Mark Pennsylvania Furnace Road), 12 miles west of Penn- sylvania Furnace. Here very rich top-washings cover a high flat area connected with Hickory Ridge. Seams of the ore penetrated the limestone rocks all the way down a 40 feet shaft, under which the main body of ore dips northward. The Eyer Bank (already mentioned) is an old excavation one mile still further east, on the east side of Half-Moon Run. Going on northeastward across a dividing ridge, the ore appears again along Tadpole Run, in Sleepy Hollow, and at the head of the Beaver- dams, for a distance of more thana mile. Years ago, some pipe-ore was raised, for Centre Furnace, east of B. Crane’s, but the surface was merely scratched. At the Pennsylvania Furnace old surface-pits, sunk at the beaver-dams, the body of ore probably lies under the bed of the run and would require heavy pumping. The ‘‘dry hollow’ which carries the Valley of Tadpole Run on ina straight line northeastward, and is a geological prolongation of Cale Hollow shows plenty of out-croppings of ore, just as Cale Hollow does, and the ore is of the same kind—pipe-ore. In fact the ore belt continues to McAllister’s and the School House cross-roads, eight miles northeast of the Hostler Bank, and far beyond the limits of my large map. Between McAllister’s and Pinegrove Mills, the country spreads out into a plateau two or three miles wide, through which runs the Brush Valley Anticlinal. Here, far beyond the east limit of my map, are the Old Weaver Banks; two open-cuts and several shafts near them, abandoned years ago. No systematic mining was attempted in that early day, the work being done by the farmers. Tradition speaks of ‘‘ore veins’’ being reached, but probably too well watered for the natives to cope with them. ‘‘The ore lying around the holes is not a regular pipe-ore, but is mixed with liver-colored ore, and reported red- short.’’? We have here, then, ores not belonging to the Hostler and Penn- sylvania Pipe-Ore Bauk system connected with the sandstones of the anticlinal, that is, ores belonging to the underlying limestone. SPRUCE CREEK RANGE. No. 29, Pennsylvania Furnace Ore Bank. For about fifty-eight (58) years Pennsylvania Furnace has been supplied with its stock from the extensive excavations on the gently-sloping south side of the anti- 1874 ] : 69 [Lesley, clinal ridge facing Tussey Mountain ; Spruce Creek, above the Furnace, flowing between the ridge and the mountain. See local map, fig. 37, in lieu of further description ; and the landscape sketches of the excavations, to illustrate their extent and character : fig- ures 39, 40, 41, 42, 43. The geologist can here study the theory of the formation of the Lower Silurian Brown-Hematite ores of Pennsylvania to great advantage. I know no better place, and few so good. The ores are evidently not washings from a distance ; neither from Tus- sey Mountain, nor from the present surface of the anticlinal ridge ; nor from any formerly existing surface in past geological ages, when the sur- face stood at a much higher elevation above sea level. They are evi- dently and visibly interstratified with the soft clay and solid limestone Fic. 36. ae THE HO STEER ORE GAN layers, and obey the strike and dip of the country ; the strike being along the valley, and the dip about 49° towards the southeast. Thousands of minor irregularities prevail; the streaks of ore and masses of clay, are wrinkled and bunched, and thin out and thicken again in various directions. But all this irregularity is owing to the chemical changes of the strata, and to the changes in bulk of the differ- ent layers during the protracted process of solution and dissolution, during which the looser calciferous and ferriferous sandstone layers have lost their lime constituent, packed their sand and clay more solidly, and perhydrated their iron. In this long process cleavage-planes have been widened into crevices ; caverns have been excavated ; pools or vats have been created ; precipitates of massive (rock and pipe) ore have been thrown down; and a general creeping and wrinkling of the country been effected. But the original general arrangement or stratification has been preserved ; aud those portions of the whole formation, which had but little lime, have Lesley. ] 70 | Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, been left standing as sandstone strata; while others having but little sand remain as solid and massive limestone strata ; those which had an excess of alumina are now in the condition of streaks, masses, or layers of white or mottled clays ; and only such as were properly constituted clay-sand-lime-iron deposits originally have so completely dissolved as to permit the lime to flow off, and the iron to consolidate into ore. Every stage of this interesting operation, and every phase which it presents in other parts of the Appalachian belt of the United States, from Canada to Alabama, may be seen and studied in these old and extensive ore banks of Pennsylvania Furnace. At first sight of the bank the ore deposit looks as if it were a grand wash or swash of mingled clay and fine and coarse ore grains and balls, occupying hollows, caverns and crevices in the surface of the earth and between the solid limestone rock ; and some of it undoubtedly has been thus carried down into the enlarged cleavage partings of the limestones ; and into sink holes and caverns formed by water courses ; where it now lies, or lay when excavated, banked up against walls or faces of the undecomposed lime rocks. But as a whole the ore streaks and ‘main vein”’ of ore must oc- cupy nearly the same position originally occupied by the more ferrugin- ous strata after they had got their dip and strike. See fig. 40. The ore is taken out with the clay, and hauled up an incline, by means of a stationary steam engine at its head, and dumped into a large wash- ing machine, with revolving screens; whence after the flints and sand stones have been picked out, it is carried on an ironed tramway, to the bridge house of the Furnace. See fig. 48. The ore forms from 10 to 50 per cent. of the mass excavated, and the small amount of handling makes the ore cheap. The floor of the excavation is about sixty (60) feet below the “oral of the wash machine. Shafts sunk from 30 to 35 feet deeper, in the floor, to a permanent water level, have shown that other and even better ore deposits underlie the workings, covered by the slanting undecomposed lime rocks. This is an additional demonstration of the correctness of the theory above stated. The upper ores will furnish stock for yet many years. After that, orin case more furnaces be erected, or distant markets call for the shipment of ore by railway, deep shafts or bore holes must be sunk to drain the un- derground, and the lower ores may then be lifted to an extent which can hardly be estimated now. The prism of ore in sight, technically speaking, if calculated roughly from the areas exposed by the old and new open cuts, and by shafts sunk at various times and in various parts of the floor, gives several millions of wash-ore, lump-ore and pipe or rock ore. Thus taking the area exposed at say 550 > 450 yards, and the depth at only 15 yards, we have 3,612,500 cubic yards, which on washing would yield 602,000 tons of prepared ore. [ Lesley. 1 Ul Fig. 37. 1874.] a er focal Vo aj of- the en nsylvania Suwinace Gran Ore Banks, ee Yeeaily NS Scale ofpaces. 100 200 370 Zoo" =f, é = ‘ r Surveved by MF Flatt N | 6 Lesley.1 72 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, Of this, about 100,000 tons have been passed through the furnace, yield- ing nearly 50,000 tons of neutral cold blast charcoal iron of the best quality, leaving 500,000 tons of ore to be excavated. But this is only a portion of the deposit; for the ore ranges away beyond the high walls of the open cuts into the surrounding laud an un- known distance. The large area stripped last year towards the north- east shows how extensive the deposit is in that direction. Add to this the great depths to which the ore is known to descend, and it seems to me certain that a million of tons is as probable an estimate as a half a million. Large quantities of ore are left standing between the hard limestone ledges exhibited in figure 40 (taken from ain local map fig. 88), and in figure 34, which is an enlarzed view of the sharp promontory seen in fig. 33, sketched to show its geological structure. The dip of these limestones is to the 8. 35°, E. > 35° to 40°; and they are exactly on range with the limestone outcrop along the road, at the quarry, and Fie. 38. iy 4 F Re § no a a & = Ss L \ past the Furnace, as shown in fig. 37. Slight crumplings of the limestone vary the dip from 18° to 65°; but these are due either to movements in the yielding ore mass or to a deception caused by mistaking cleavage planes for bed plates. No such variations are apparent at a distance from the banks, the whole limestone formation descending uniformly beneath the foot of Tussey Mountain with a dip of something under 40°. The pictures figs. 41 and 42 are views of the deep cut looking east from a in local map fig. 37. The view in fig. 43 is taken looking northward into the main ore bank, from near a; aud it shows the new incline, the washing house, and the ridge above it, along the crest of which the aqueduct is carried on tressels, for 2000 feet. Fig. 38 shows the end of the aqueduct where it is mounted by the pipe leading up the hill-side from the double Worthington pump in the engine-house, fed by another pipe from the dam. Behind the hill seen in fig. 43, in a hollow on a level with the northeast end of the banks, is the settling-dam. Lesley. ] 74 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6, The height of the walls of the various excavations may be seen by reference to the ten foot contour lines in fig. 37. These also show that the ground now so deeply excavated once formed a high divide between a vale descending southwest to Spruce Creek, and a corresponding but shallower vale descending northeast to the settling-dam hollow. It looks as if the ore once filled both these vales, but has been excavated by the natural drainage into Spruce Creek, from the one which descends in that direction, and, perhaps from the valley of Spruce Creek itself, down to and beyond the Furnace. The entire walls of the cuts are of wash ore, and it is all torn down and taken to the washing machine. But the tops of pyramids of solid pipe ore are exposed in the floor, and some reached to, or nearly to the sod above. At one of the deepest places in the floor, 60 feet below the sod a shaft was sunk 40 feet further through solid pipe ore, and then limestone, and was stopped by water. Water does not stand in the present floors on account of the free circulation, at a still lower depth, through crevices and caverns communicating with Spruce Creek, which itself issues from a cave. The books at the Furnace show as an average for some years, 6 tons of wash ore to 1 ton of ore; 2 tons 1 cwt. of ore to 1 ton of iron; and $2.25 per ton of ore delivered at the Furnace, represents the cost of min- ing, inclusive of all expenses. Ishall give in an appendix, the opinion of Mr. Harden on some prac- tical points which I requested him to study, for which purpose he visited some of the Banks described above. Outcroppings of ore occur east and west of the Pennsylvania Furnace Banks on the southern slope of the anticlinal ridge facing Spruce Creek and'the Tussey Mountain ; but no excavations have been made, because sufficient stock was always procurable at the Banks near the Furnace. It is not to be supposed, therefore, that equally large and important de- posits may not be exposed by future systematic mining operations, when the completed railway shall make demands on this ore belt for supplying the furnaces of Eastern and Western Pennsylvania. Some of these surface-shows of ore are near the top, others near the bottom of the hill slope. The ore surface is commonly high up on the slope, or on the flat rolling back of the anticlinal ridge. John Ross has in his fields, north of Pinegrove Mills, ( miles east of Pennsylvania Furnace,) an old funnel shaped hole, from which very rich pipe ore was taken, and more can be seen in its sides, but no surface- show ; and I have no data on which to base an estimate of quantity. The ore was sent to Monroe Furnace ; was rich; but very red short : lumps of pyrites being visible in the bombshell ore lying about the hole ; which is also coated with white sulphates. Surface ore can be traced all the way from Ross’ to Pennsylvania Fur- nace, but no search underground seems ever to have been made or called for. 1874.} 75 (Lesley. In the other direction, down Spruce Creek, south-west of the Furnace, a few outcroppings on the surface appear, but lie neglected for the same reason. A few trial-pits seem to have been sunk near the school house, | < YS 2 DPUDALPS U2, i | ‘\ RN arnt, gi sho DilIr rtd f and near Mr. Geo. Lyon’s mansion, south of theturnpike. Large pieces of pipe ore lie in the east corner of Mr. Thos. Lyon’s fields, at. the foot of Tussey Mountain. Ore has also been noticed in Mr. Stewart Lyon’s north fields. Lesley. ] 76 {Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, All the above are on the south slope of the anticlinal of Brush Valley, facing Tussey Mountain. The anticlinal may be studied where the lime- stone rocks are seen dipping both ways (N. W. and §. E.) in the end of the hill at the Furnace, and in the railway rock-cuts as the line makes its semicircle down Half Moon Run and up Spruce Creek and Tadpole Run. Three miles further down Spruce Run a pipe ore bank was commenced on the south slope of the Anticlinal, to supply works erected at the mouth of Spruce Creek, for a patent process to convert the ore directly into wrought iron; but the patent process failed and the mine was never worked. It sufficed to show that the ore belt or outcrop follows the ridge along the north side of Spruce Creek towards the Juniata, but coalesces with that of the Cale Hollow, or north dip, beyond Huntingdon Furnace, and sinks beneath the surface, for no trace of it is found in the Little Juniata River section, where the Canoe Valley anticlinal may be seen replacing this of Brush Valley. Returning thus to Warrior’s Mark Run, and the: neighborhood of Huntingdon Furnace, I have little to add to finish this report, except concerning an ore belt, west of the Run, on the south slope of the ridge in line with the Dry Hollow Banks. But before speaking of it, I shall give the following section up Warrior’s Mark Run :— At the mouth of Cale Hollow, in the north dipping rocks of the Spruce Creek Ridge anticlinal, and 150 yards east of the mill-dam, or a mile east of Huntingdon Furnace, there is marked on the map an old pipe-ore bank, now fallen in. Lime rocks here dip N. 30° W. > 50°; but, by the road-side, 300 yards to the west-southwest only 38°; and in the hill-side, 650 yards to the west-northwest, 12° in the other direction S. 30° E. The Old Seat Bank, No. 30, is 1,100 yards distant (up Warrior’s Run towards the N. N. W.) from this old bank. The Cale Hollow is thus seen to be synclinal, and, allowing for the different strength of dips observed there can be no reasonable doubt that the same ferriferous limerocks out-crop- ping here outcrop also at the Old Seat Bank ; and I have so drawn the Section A.B. The ore at this old bank is reported to have been extraordinarily charged with sulphur ; but I could not learn exactly in what form. No. 30. The Old Seat Bank, on the east bank of Warrior’s Run, 24 miles below where the railway crosses the run (at Warrior’s Mark), is an old open cut with ore in its floor, abandoned many years ago for want of pumping machinery of adequate power. What little liver-colored ore is visible, looks lean, and much flint lies about. The area of the cut may be 4000 square yards. Water stands in it to within 10 or 12 feet of the top. It has been worked to a depth of 40 feet. About 30,000 cubic yards of ore-ground has been taken out. Although much liver colored ore like Pennington ore lies about, no pieces of sandstone are visible ; but a good deal of flint is among the ore, as at Pennsylvania Furnace Bank. Not much surface-ore shows in the neighborhood. -, 1874.] (7 [Lesley. 92 “WDWIYY 2D Z (, "2 a fen ee wy J if a ; 1 / , Vay Ly Bia iJ a A Y ( 1 # ‘3 | to biel | L By. it /d ‘a \ i} ff yh PVA 2 ¢ y iy ) Hy 1 ri “ ye WW re s SE ofp EU: ; = i i . a B mma | . i a t ry 4 AY f fy y "B27 FP es EL ff ry run, limerocks crop out, dipping also S. 30° E. > 9°; and 300 yards fur- Lesley. ] 78 {Jan. 2and Feb. 6, ther, sandy limestones, S. 30° E. > 10°. 500 yards further up the run, pipe-ore is reported, ploughed up in the fields. This belongs to an ore- bearing strata about 700 feet lower in the formation than the ore horisou at the Old Seat Bank. The dip is continuous and equable ; there can be no mistake. 500 hundred yards still further up the run, at the forks of the road, still lower sandy limerocks are seen dipping the same way, 8. 380° KE. > 13°. Other exposures occur in this interval dipping also 8. 30° E. > 18°. No dips are noticed in the next 1000 yards, to the toll-gate and cross-roads and forks of the Creek ; but there is no reason no doubt that a southeast dip fills the interval, becoming ever more gentle. Five hundred yards southwest from the toll-gate, and 50 yards off the road (towards the northwest) on land 70 feet above the water, is an old deserted pipe ore bank 50 < 10 yards. This lies just 1000 yards due northwest of the pipe ore last mentioned as ploughed up in the fields ; and if a continuous southeast dip of 10° be supposed, we should find in it an evidence of a third and still lower pipe ore horison, 550 feet below the second and 1250 feet below the first, or Old Seat ore horison. But it would be very unsafe to consider this the simple state of the case. The place where ore was ‘‘ploughed up over aspace of 600 yards ”’ is worthy of a thorough investigation, but the surface show is slight. The other locality where lumps and pipes of solid ore were got 25 years ago from the open cut and underground works, is reported to be rich still. None of its wash ore was taken away. This place is very important. It proves conclusively that pipe ores occupy a geological range of at least 1250 feet of the Lower Silurian Formation. And these exhibitions on Warrior’s Run connect the rich Dry Hollow Group of Banks already described, with the Huntingdon Furnace and Dorsey Group next to be described. The toll-gate is only 800 yards down the run from where the railway crosses it. And the southeast dipping Beck and Town Bank ores (Nos. 4 and 5) are only 400 yards further up. The Beck and Town ore horison therefore underlies the toll-gate ore rocks (unless there be some concealed disturbance in the interval), at a geological depth of at least 1200 feet, and probably 1500 feet. For there are 20° dips (to the southeast) in the rail- way cut, and 35° dips in Warrior’s Mark Village. If I am anywhere near the truth, the Pennington Range ore horison (Becks, Town, &c.) underlies the Cale Hollow Pipe Ore horison at a geological depth of 2500 to 8000 feet; which may well explain their different qualities. And this result is in harmony with features of my cross-sections AB and CD.* * The Pennington and Lovetown ores being on the same geological horison, and there being a breadth of limestone outcrop (dipping S. 30° E, > 50°), between Lovetown and the Bellefonte fault at the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, at least 700 yards broad, we have about 5000 feet of Lower Silurian measures visibly exposed underneath the Cale Hollow (= Pennsylvania Furnace Bank) ore horison. Adding to this the 2500 feet of limestones between Pennsylvania Furnace bank and the foot of Tussey, and we have a total thickness of Lower Silurian Limestones from the bottom of No. 111 (the Hudson River Slate) down to the jaw of the Bellefonte Fault, of 7750 feet; a very great thick- ness; but quite in harmony with all that we know of the Trenton, Black River, Bird’s Bye, Chazy and Calciferous in the Great Valley of Reading, Harrisburg, Chambers- burg, Winchester and Knoxville. This, so far as I know, is the first approximately ac- curate measurement of these formations in mass south of their New York outcrops, which are very thin in comparison with these. (Lesley. es 1874.] These lie along the south- No. 31, Huntingdon Furnace Banks. erly slope of a prolongation of Dry Hollow Ridge, west of Warrior’s Fie. 42. Run, and within a circle swept around Huntingdon Furnace with a radius of two miles, as shown on the land-map. The Dorsey Banks are outside Lesley. ] 80 {[Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, this circle, but are excavated in the same belt of outcrop. The outcrop is very broad because, as we have just seen along Warrior’s Run, the southeast dip is very gentle, about 10°. This has allowed a very large dissolution of the ore-bearing rocks. The Wilson Bank is two miles west of Warrior’s Run; no ore has been found in this interval, the slopes being sandy. Here limestone begins to come in, overlying the sandstone, and ore-bearing clays take posses- sion of the surface. This sandstone has been mistaken for the Calciferous Sandrock ; but must be one of the numerous interealations of sand in the great limestone series. The Keefer Banks follow, in the next half mile, and, although ex- hausted as to the wash ore of the outcrop, can be mined to the deep if proper pumping apparatus be mounted to keep the underground water down. Fig. 44 gives a local map of these excavations, which severally measure, as they come in order along the line of Mr. Platt’s survey :— Ge lO <3 0 < 25 <-10 — 10,000 by de ee l20)<4A0 78 = 38, 400 ag 6 Sp LOO 408 —— 32,000 oF je So BD Ka xX & = 4,500 “ Total excavation, say, 161,000 cubic yards. No. 32, Dorsey Banks, see fig. 44. These works lie just outside the two mile circle around Huntingdon Furnace Stack (see Land-line Map), and are used for Barre Forge, dis- tant three miles due west on the Little Juniata River ; the nearest distance to the river by the Township Jine in a southwest direction being two miles. There is first an open cut on the south side of the road, see fig. 44, measur- ing 65 & 25 & 6 = 9,750 cubic yards of excavation, with wash ore in the walls. Then, a shallow open cut, ten or twelve feet deep, 75 & 30 x 4 = 9,000 cubic yards, the floor being everywhere wash ore. The Main Bank, in the southwest corner of fig. 44, is divided by a slide of the southeast wall into two open cuts, 200 « 70 « 15 = 210,000 cubic yards, with wash ore walls and floor (now generally 30 feet deep), but excavations have been made much deeper. * These jie south of the road, on the large map. Eight yards is taken as the ayerage depth of both, but they may have been worked deeper. Wash ore forms the walls. + Also south of the road and beyond the limits of fig. 44. t North of the road, at the northeast corner of fig. 44. It has not. been worked for years. Wash ore forms the walls. t § North of the road, and of the Dorsey Bank, fig. 44. Both have fallen shut. Wash ore forms the walls. | Lesley. sl 1874.] Furnace Ore Wace His A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. K Lesley. J 82 [Jan 2and Feb. 6, From the northeasternmost Huntingdon Furnace Diggings to the last Dorsey Digging is a stretch of about 2000 yards, with ore shows filling up the intervals between the banks. There isa maximum breadth of 500 yards. But if half that be adopted for an estimate, we have an area of wash ore here equal to 100,000 square yards, in all respects like that of the Dry Hollow Bank district (on the same range) described above, and representing, at least, one or two millions of cubic yards of ore ground, besides whatever deeper deposits of pipe ore exist. As in Dry Hollow, so here much lean ore is mingled with the rich, and ‘much dead stripping will be required in places. There is this distinction: the ore of the barrens, that is the liver- colored and more sandy ore ranges along the northwestern side of the belt of outcrop, up the hill-side ; pipe ore characterises the down hill, or southeastern side of the outcrop. The main bank is wholly in the top or vwash ore covering, and has merely revealed the principal deposit of rich ,rock ore and pipe underlying it. Those who worked the pit describe a jlayer of ore 6 to 8 feet thick as apparently creeping downhill, overturned, .and covering itself. What this description means I do not know. : he «ore makes excellent iron. It is unnecessary for me to say that the ferriferous limestones described iin the above details, and crossing the river (S. W.) into Sinking Valley, carry the ore ground outcrops with them, and that these have been mined . to some extent at various places south of Barre Forge, yielding both rich and lean wash ore, and rock and-pipe ore, of the same general character. The same statement holds good as to Canoe Valley, although its nar- /rowness does not permit its anticlinal to bring the lowest horison of ore to the surface. In Sinking Valley the two sides of its dying anticlinal bring the ore- outcrops together about three miles south of the river. The following are some of the ore banks: ou the south side, Pine Hill Bank (} mile from the river); Moore’s Pipe Ore Diggings (1 mile) ; Galbraith’s Pipe Ores (13 mile); Robinson’s Bank (23 miles). On the northwest side are .Gentzhammer’s and other outcrops. ‘It is a serious question why mines of Brown Hematite Iron Ore have 1 not been opened on the Juniata River above the mouth of Spruce Creek. This question seems to be answered by my section along the river, fig. 1. i It is evident that the horison-of the Pennsylvania Furnace or Cale Hol- i low ores scarcely rises on the back on the Canoe Valley axis to the level -of the valley bed, and is.immediately carried down again by the syncli- 1874.] 283 [ Lesley. nal of Canoe mountain. It is then visible in Sinking Creek Valley, as just stated. Whether any large quantities of ore underlie the river bed Fie. 44. Socal Meo § the Dorsey Group of Ore Sdanks ast of the, Juniata Sema Scok 4% Yards. Survayed Ly Swandua Plakt below Union Furnace and above Spruce Creek Station remains to be de- termined by future trial shafts along the line of the Pennsylvania Rail- road. Genth.] 84 [Feb. 6, INVESTIGATION OF IRON ORES AND LIMESTONES FROM MESSRS. LYON, SHORB & CO’S IRON CRE BANKS ON SPRUCE CREEK, HALF MOON RUN AND WARRIOR’S MARK RUN, IN CENTRE, BLAIR AND HUNTINGDON COUNTIES, PA. % By F. A. GEenra. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 6th, 1874.) NO. 1. EAST PENNINGTON BANK. The greater portion of thirteen specimens, received for examination, was compact, dull, of various shades of brown and had like,No. 1 an ad- mixture of dark brown pitchy ore; other portions were porous and had the cavities lined with botryoidal fibrous brown limonite, others were stalactitic. Some of the ore had lost a part of its water of hydration and had changed into turgite and even into hematite. Many of the pieces showed a considerable admixture of manganese minerals, such as wad, minute quantities of pyrolusite and perhaps psilomelane, some con- tained a large quantity of rounded grains of quartz. An average of the whole showed the following composition : Ferric oxide = 65.88 — 44.77 Metallic Iron. Manganicoxide = 6.00 = 4.18 Metallic Manganese. Cobaltic ‘ 0.34 Alumina trace Magnesia 0.26 Lime trace Phosphoric acid 0.22 = 0.097 Phosphorus. Silicic acid 6.38 Quartz 7.87 Water 13.05 100.00 100 Iron and Manganese contain 0.197 Phosphorus. NO. 2. WEST PENNINGTON BANK. Five specimens were submitted for examination. The ore was mostly of various shades of yellowish brown to dark’ hair-brown and without lustre ; in some was an admixture of a dark blackish brown ore with sub- conehoidal fracture and a resinous lustre ; some portions had a slight waxy lustre, others were earthy and dull. It was amorphous, but in places the cavities were lined with a coating of brown fibrous limonite. On being breathed upon, it developed a strong argillaceous odor. 1874.] 85 [Genth. An average of the five specimens contained : Ferric oxide Manganic oxide Cobaltic ‘6 Alumina Magnesia Lime Phosphoric acid Silicic acid Quartz Water 100 Iron contain 0.32 Phosphorus. No. 6. a 70.93 = 0.38 trace 2.81 0.14 0.08 0.37 4.38 7.91 13.00 100.00 49.65 Metallic Iron. 0.16 Phosphorus. RUMBARGER BANK. A sample of ore was taken from a pile alongside of the Bank. It is mostly amorphous and compact, also somewhat porous, and has the cavi- ties lined with a thin coating of fibrous limonite ; the cavities are also coated with red ochre and at times with yellow ochre. The composition was found to be as follows : Ferric oxide Manganic oxide Alumina Magnesia Lime Phosphoric acid Silicic acid Quartz Water 100 Iron contain 0.80 Phosphorus. No. 11. = 74.16 trace 3.06 0.24 trace 0.36 6.11 3.94 12.13 100.00 51.91 Metallic Iron. 0.158 Phosphorus. LyTLE BANK. The sample received for examination consisted mainly of amorphous compact brown ore, intermixed with fine fibrous limonite. The fibres are from } to 3 of an inch in length and form botryoidal coatings ; sometimes divergent. The outside covered with yellowish ochreous ore. The analysis gave : Ferric oxide Manganic oxide = Alumina Magnesia Lime 82.00 trace 1.94 0.17 trace 57.40 Metallic Iron. Genth.] Phosphoric acid Silicic acid Quartz Water 86 0.37 = 2.98 0.44 12.10 | 100.00 100 Iron contain 0.278 Phosphorus. [Feb. 6, 0.16 Phosphorus. No. 14. Butt Bank. The samples for investigation, five in number, were taken from piles of ore taken out about thirty years ago. One consisted of a beautiful fibrous limonite of a pale hair-brown color and silky lustre, much resem- bling that from the Lytle Bank, but of fibres two inches in length. The others represented the amorphous ores. They are compact, of various shades of brown, without lustre ; they contain more or less cavities, partly filled with ochreous ore of a yellowish or reddish color. The amorphous ores have, on being breathed upon, a strong argillaceous odor. Ferric oxide Manganic oxide Alumina Magnesia Lime Phosphoric acid Silicic acid Water 81.48 0.07 0.49 \ traces. 0.08 3.98 13.90 100.00 a. Pure Fibrous Limonite. = 57.04 Metallic Iron — 0.035 Phosphorus. 100 Iron contained 0.061 Phosphorus. b. Average of the five Samples. Ferric oxide Manganic oxide Cobaltic oxide Alumina Magnesia Lime Phosphoric acid Silicic acid Quartz Water 74.85 0.29 0.21 2.42 0.12 trace. 0.24 4.15 5.92 11.80 100.00 52.40 Metallic Iron. Il 0.105 Phosphorus. 100 Iron contained 0.20 Phosphorus. 1874.] 87 [Genth. No. 15. Ponp Bank No. 1. Two of the four specimens received were of a dark brown porous amor- phous ore with very little lustre, more or less mixed with yellowish and reddish ochreous ore; the third piece was of a paler brown and con- tained small quantities of fibrous ore, the fourth was an ochreous ore of a pale brown and yellowish color. An average of the four samples con- tained : Ferric oxide = 78.68 2 55.08 Metallic Iron. Manganic oxide = 0.42 Cobaltic 6¢ trace. Alumina 2.89 Magnesia 0.20 Lime trace. Phosphoric acid 0.16 == 0.07 Phosphorus. Silicic acid 3.17 Quartz tye Water 12.77 100.00 100 Iron contain 0.127 Phosphorus. No. 16. Rep Banx No. 1. Five samples of ore received. It is generally an amorphous compact . ore, with a considerable admixture of sand. Some is more porous, and has the cavities lined with fibrous limonite, and more or less filled with clay. Emits, when breathed upon, a strong argillaceous odor. Part of the specimens had lost a portion of their water of hydration. The analysis of an average sample gave: Ferric oxide = 65.44 = 45.81 Metallic Iron. Manganic oxide == 0.13 Cobaltic oxide trace Alumina 5.31 Magnesia 0.16 Lime trace Phosphoric acid == 0.21 = 0.09 Phosphorus. Silicic acid 6.76 Quartz 12.78 Water 9.21 100.00. 100 Iron contain 0.195 Phosphorus. Genth. | 88 [ Feb. 6, No. 19. WHoRELL BANK. Two pieces of a fiue brown porous amorphous ore of various shades, between yellowish and dark-brown; some portions showing a slight pitchy lustre ; the greater part is dull. Has a strong argillaceous odor when breathed upon. The analysis of an average sample gave : Ferric oxide = 69.71 ose 48.80 Metallic Iron. Manganic oxide 0.46 Cobaltic oxide trace Alumina 3.37 Magnesia 0.08 Lime trace Phosphoric acid == 0.97 = 0.43 Phosphorus. Silicic acid 3.51 Quartz 9.60 Water 12.30 100.00 100 Iron contain 0.87 Phosphorus. No. 21. Wryr BANnkE. Five specimens received. The ore is amorphous, porous, and scori- aceous. Some of the cavities are lined with a thin coating of fibrous ‘ore. The more compact pieces contain a large admixture of rounded quartz grains. An analysis of an.average sample gave : Ferric oxide = 77.00 — 53.90 Metallic Iron. Manganic oxide 0.36 Cobaltic oxide trace Alumina 2.15 Magnesia 0.14 Lime 0.15 Phosphoric acid 0.19 = 0.08 Phosphorus. Silicic acid 2.60 Quartz 5.08 Water 11.88 100.00 100 Iron contain 0.15 Phosphorus. No. 24. Dry Hottow Bang. Amongst the eight specimens received for examination was one of a beautiful variety of fibrous limonite ; the fibres are of about one inch in 1874. ] 89 [Genth. length, also divergent and radiating ; color dark brown, lustre silky ; the other ores were both compact and porous amorphous brown limonites, some with the cavities lined with fibrous ore, others having them filled with ochreous clayish ores. Some of the pieces give a strong argillace- ous odor, when breathed upon. a. Pure Fibrous Limonite. Ferric oxide == 2 68h1183 = 58.19 Metallic Iron. Manganic oxide = 0.15 Alumina — 0.74 Magnesia 0.09 Lime trace Phosphoric acid 030k aa —— 0.22 Phosphorus Silicic acid 2.47 Water 12.92 100.00 100 Iron contain 0.37 Phosphorus. bo. Average of the eight Specimens. Ferric oxide == 75.90 = 53.18 Metallic Iron. Manganic oxide = 0.16 Cobaltic oxide = trace Alumina — 2.44 Magnesia 0.20 Lime trace. Phosphoric acid | 0.54 == 0.24 Phosphorus. Silicic acid 2.74 Quartz = 7.84 Water 10.18 100.00 100 Iron contain 0.45 Phosphorus. No. 24. 6. RED Bank or Dry Ho.utiow. An examination of six specimens, showed the general character of the ore to be amorphous, of a dark brown color, and compact ; some pieces have cavities lined with yellowish brown and dark brown fibrous limonite ; others have rounded quartz grains disseminated through the mass. 5.08 PAULTAMIAIM Ae Py oteveiokoren ols cicie sterateretan sional onchersnomnstoteha) chereberoleneronerete 1.34 Carbonateyot Troni.? Gta te ie nicsciee ce eee eee 69 us G6) TOLIM cies eters let oratecc eter ster etato tes hei a Rr Oren 91.53 ee OS MiG PANENE GoogbodoosuodooopooHoGNCKECDE 1.31 Sulphaterofslbhimess sere citer ier reer trace. OrcanicmMattersae ere. a ertcciiecrrienecil ere ileeiers 05 From Ore Bank Rail Road Cut —a partly crystalline drab-colored stone : SiliGiGwNei digest ees we ec Ua Mien aampa iene ey eyes 4.93 ING SiN b0t SoG Ree eA Sere GEIOMe Oto crc Ob otion oO Ore 24 Carbonaterof Tron es:2 sees aon Eee 87 66 Can Dinca Reine a Sar er anos wie Haan alo osiacrc.o-c 84.66 s SUMMA onesiaae rarer rae TE OCHS Oo a Oe 8.98 Sulphate wofbimes.:...3 05 tate ee ee oe me Orr ailil Organic Matter.......... ee AAA brolo ih oro Ce 21 1874.] 99 [ Lesley. Gray Crystalline Stone, sou h side of road from Half Moon Run to Hostler Bank, near the Half Moon Run. SMI CECA CT etapa ett crenmpenete te nihicy shay sa er ns Ane Aa, lea IC ad Be 2071 Ja OUST HUE ashes seek oes crete hart ly Co a ued eta ta esa AE 11 Carbonateofulromayanyace esc ece se Sonor lector ce leieunele 1.80 UG GG (| pita ae ia ie nati tea RN Sle it cree ete ata oda 83.91 ee PRR NUAOMCSI A ere i ac ya Ne tae ae lesa teint 11.14 Sulphaterotseimresaem sc mec matte me aichoseva ce uevsnrycneres: 12 OroamicyMlatbereeminctr rare niet iis acon rela tee he 21 Smooth Grey Stone from north side of road near the foregoing : SilciePArc i cl eeres pas yee ea re aoa NA I OG ala Be 1 ls 6.87 AUTUMN Arar eyecare Cy Me a asta eA 1.35 Carbonaterof brome ees ae nae Settee teeta eee 75 os SUT DROVE Heresies erat tn amine et ia. el erie ose 86.42 a SO NGAONES TA han Nuk taae aerate staierceey estore acai 4.24 Suljlatexopeuinn es mie ww eis cyl hh ee Nae e aahe 21 OrganicMMlattersaeteyeeetisc ces eaten Meee Senn trae .16 Mrnine Mernops. It will be seen from the above descriptions, that mining operations have been mostly carried on in this region in an irregular and primitive style. I requested Mr. John W. Harden to give me the benefit of his large and varied experience as a mining engineer and superintendent, both in the English and in the American collieries and iron mines, in stating what ought to be the most economical mode of entering on and exhausting the Nittany Valley limestone deposits. lis recent success in increasing the export of limonite from Pinegrove Furnace banks south of Carlisle, by a judicious application of a system of regular approaches, justifies me in placing a high value on any practical suggestions he has to offer respecting similar deposits. He therefore visited the Pennington, Dry Hollow, Kerr & Bredin, Pennsylvania Furnace, and other Banks above described; and the follow- ing extracts from his report will show that there is but one, conclusion to arrive at, and that a very simple one ; viz., that the system to be almost universally adopted is that by open-cuts, approached from the direc- tion of the railway, at the lowest possible levels, and worked to the right and left, in advancing slopes, one above the other ; that the deep rich-ores should be worked at the same time with the upper wash-ores, or not greatly inarrear of them, so that the wash-ore thus won may pay the expenses of uncovering the richer lower ores; and that where surface water is scarce, bore-holes should be sunk to serve the double purpose of exploration and water supply. Whether additional and larger furnaces be erected in the Valley, or whether the ores be sent by rail to the Iron Works in Eastern and Lresley.] 100 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, Western Pennsylvania, in both contingencies an exploitation of ore must be provided for, amounting annually to many hundred thousand tons per annum. The largest mining operation in the Valley being that of the Pennsyl- vania Furnace, Mr. Harden takes the account book of the works at that point for a practical basis of calculation of the cost of exploitation. It is evident that mining conditions through the Valley are very similar. No system of between-rock mining will be required for many years. But exploring drifts and shafts will be necessary, and under-cutting where the clays are destitute of ore and too thick to remove. Most of the work however must be done in opencuts of great extent, with simple machinery for obtaining water and washing the entire mass of ore- ground to the very bottom, or to the deep rock-ores, which can be quarried and used without washing. In many cases the rock-ore, and in some cases the clay-ore, can be followed downward between solid masses of limestone rock ; but this must be done in connection with the open-cuts. At the Pennington Banks there appear to be from 50 to 80 feet of wash-ore and clays overlying from 8 to 16 feet of rock-ore. At the Dry Hollow Banks there is a stripping at the surface from 5 to 15 feet deep containing but little ore; then wash-ore with sands and sandy clays to a depth of 20 or 30 feet before reaching rock-ore., At the Hostler Banks a top stripping of 5 feet or more, covers 50 to 60 feet of wash-ore in clay, under which lie the pipe-ores, which are re- ported as having been in one place over 40 feet deep ; limestone layers covering and dividing the mass. The miner who sunk the last shaft in- formed Mr. Harden that it went down 60 feet through wash-ore, 5 feet through solid limestone, and 7 feet in pipe-ore on one side of it, and wash-ore on the other side ; water stopping further sinking. At the Pennsylvania Furnace Banks, the entire mass from the surface to the floor of the quarry is wash-ore mixed with clay and sand. The whole of this mass has been washed. ‘In one place a 13 feet face of excavation gave 3 to 4 feet of surface soil and sienna-colored sandy-wash, the remainder below it being a sandy, whitish ochre, and sienna colored clay, streaked and marbled with red and brown, and some, not large lumps of ore. Scattered through the whole, in considerable quantity in some places, are small pieces of quartz which are picked out after the ore has passed over the trays. In another part of the diggings this quartz, from the size of shot to lumps 3 or 4 inches thick, is scattered through the mass.* Some masses of this quartz, of one or two cubic feet in size, lie about the quarry. ‘‘Ina deeper part of the diggings where the face of iron and work measures 45 or 50 feet, in two heights of 15 and 30 to 35 feet, now being moved to the inclined plane for washing, the face is made up of sand and various colored clays holding ore, all of which is washed. Limestone appears at the bottom and pipe-ore has been found underneath it.”’ * Mr. Harden gives an analysis of this quartz: Water, 0.50, Silica, 96.00, Iron and alumina, 1.76, undetermined, 1.68. 1874. ] 101 [Lesley. Mr. Harden advises that the stripping of wash-ore be not carried on far in advance of the lifting of the rock and pipe-ore at the bottom; be- cause, even where the farming interest does not interfere, such a plan ‘disturbs the equal distribution of dead work’’ and prevents the re- jection of those parts of the stripping which do not pay well for washing. Ample room ought to be got early for lifting the entire mass of rich bottom ores. ; ‘‘With a good roomy open cutting the mass of wash ore should cost no more to move than so much ordinary excavation.’’ ‘‘The ore-earth is loaded into cars carrying 294 cubic feet, led by horses to the foot of the incline, 300 to 500 feet, whence it is lifted 37 feet on a grade of 14°, toa level with the washers, by a 12 inch cylinder steam engine, 2 foot stroke, ard pair of 8 foot drums. The car load is again dragged 150 feet and dumped into the washing troughs, in which revolve three Archimedian screw-propeller shafts 20, 26, and 26 feet long respectively. The shafts are of decagonial timber, 15 inches in diameter on the facets of which are screwed cast iron blades. The ore travels 72 feet, and is dropped into two classifying screens, the sand and mud being floated otf to the settling dam. The screens have } inch and ;, inch meshes. The ore falls on sheet iron trays where the quartz is picked out. ‘The washers are driven by a 16 inch cylinder engine, 54 inch stroke; the steam being generated in two double flue boilers 30 feet long and 40 inches in diameter. The water arrives by an aqueduct 2000 feet long mounted on tressels arranged along the top of the hill. Itis fed by a pipe of 12 inch diameter laid up the hill side to a vertical height of 110 feet above a double Worthington pump with 20 inch steam and 15 inch water cylenders ; the fall of reser- voir is 1 foot in 250. The steam boilers for the pump are also 30 feet long by 40 inches diameter, driving also a Blake stone-crusher, used for the flux. The digging of the ore is said to be done by contract at half the price - of ordinary earth. Six cubic yards of earth has been found to produce an average of one ton of washed ore, the diggers being paid 16 cents per car-load of 29.58 cubic feet = 23.67 of solid earth. < 12. THE FOSSIL ORE BELT. On the north-west flank of the Bald Eagle Mountain the Medina Red Sand-stone and the Clinton Red Shales and Marls, all standing vertical at the out-crop, (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4,) bring up to the surface the Upper Soft and Lower Hard Fossil Ore Beds, long and extensively worked at Frankstown in Blair County, 15 miles south of Tyrone City. One or other of these out-crops may be noticed at three points marked on the west flank of the Bald Eagle Mountain in the Large Topographi- cal Map accompanying this report. On a separate and smaller Map of the same Mountain, continued to the south of Tyrone under the local name of Brush Mountain, both out-crops may be seen in the same relative positions. On the sheet containing this smaller Map are three geological cross sections, two of which show the vertical attitude of the fossil ore-beds at Tyrone City Gap, and the third their more inclined attitude at Dysarts Mine, at the south limit of Lyon, Shorb & Co.’s lands, four miles south of Tyrone City Gap. By the time the beds reach Frankstown they get to be nearly horisontal. Beyond Hollidaysburg they become vertical again, owing to the Morrison’s Cove fault (which exactly simulates the Bellefonte fault), and again they die away to the horisontal on Dunnings Creek. At Bedford they are again vertical; and so they alternately stand and fall through Virginia and Tennessee. In the other direction from Tyrone City, north-eastward, the vertical attitude of the fossil ore-beds is pretty well maintained for forty miles ; past Bellefonte, Lock Haven and Wilkesbarre, to Muncy, where they fold almost horisontally around the east end of the Bald Eagle (Muncy) Mountain. Wherever the out-crops of the fossil ore-beds of No. V. have been ex- amined, along their out-crops to the north-east of the Tyrone neighbor- hood, they have been found too thin to work; at least, for cold blast 1874.] 103 [Lesley. charcoal furnace use, in the presence of the magnificent deposits of brown hematite in the Lower Silurian Limestones (No. II). But from the neighborhood of Tyrone City Gap southward, past Frankstown, Holidaysburg and Bedford, they have paid well for mining, and continue to furnish an apparently inexhaustible fund of 30 per cent. to 40 per cent. ore to the large coke-furnaces of Blair and Cambria Counties. By comparing my larger topographical Map with Mr. Lowrie’s Land Map it will be seen that the out-crops of Fossil Ore on Lyon, Shorb & Co.’s lands range in an unbroken line from the Abner Webb tract to the Shippen tract, a distance of ten and a half (103) miles, and always in an attitude nearly or quite vertical ; falling off at the south end to 60° W. N.W. The geological order of the beds at Frankstown, where they are exten- sively mined, is by careful measurement as follows : Red Shale of No. V. (Clinton Group.) é. Soft fossil ore, small single bed, 3 to 8 inches. Red Shale, 100 feet. d. Soft fossil ore-bed. Yellow ochre, 10 feet. In all 25 to 40 inches. c. Soft fossil double ore-bed. Red shales and some thin sand stones, 400 feet. Chocolate slates, 20 feet. b. Frankstown main soft ore-bed, 14 to 16 inches. Grey and dove colored slates, 17 feet. Red sand stones and shales, 155 feet. a. Hard fossil ore-bed, about 10 feet. Red and grey sand stones of IV, to the crest of the Mountain, say 700 feet. a HARD FOSSIL ORE BED. This is a layer of sand charged with peroxide of iron and full of minute fossil shells and encrinal discs the calcareous parts of which are dissolved away. It forms a bed of ore yielding by analysis about 30 per cent. of iron ; and in the furnace 3; to 33 tons of it make a ton of metal, always cold-short, and therefore chiefly valuable when mixed in proper propor- tions with other ores. Prof. Persifor Frazer’s analysis of specimens taken from the middle bench in Dysart’s Mine recently opened (see smaller Map), made for me in his laboratory in the University of Pennsylvania, is as follows : Specific gravity : 3.26. SeSqwWOxtdevoriTOnlsice 1. cyyse ae eel ety sane 38.48 Metallic iron JORG WOOD WIE THONG SoodasopcooqoUC Nb auenooouEaoe 4.37 30.34 SHUN Soup osdc Shoo sco soon osobo oo rosAGodeuSde bo 37.99 Nini pocododuen se cbansoonopecéos COLO oUGdeS 9.56 Lesley. ] 104 [Jan. 2and Feb. 6, Maen esas ei Rt skate Stas earths els et-n tals hace a trace. VALUE AIUG'S iyi ya« sjsusiays syciele peste cerns ley indie OI c 2.54 EPhosploric&kcid\ aiacctitemccare es 5 oe ee eae 1.48 Sul phin aioe aecioac attend tebe aires wives 0.05 (trace.) Wossibypignitioniiy) +c) i ee ee ere eee cesta e see ies 4.50 MO bali: pare eckrd pahele ere ee rete ere oe ane aiaioie 100.00 At Howard Furnace the ore was analysed, &c., some years ago and found to contain 28 per cent. of iron. The bed was here found standing at 80° towards the N. N. W. avd only 22 inches thick. tn the end of the Mountain south of Tyrone City this bed has been re- cently opened at a height of 260 feet (by barometer) above the Juniata River, the slope of the surface being 40°, and the pitch of the bed at the out-crop 609 into the mountain (S. E). But this is due to the creep of the out-crop down hill. The body of the bed stands vertical. There is 63 feet of rock-ore between overlying sandy shales and under- lying foot shales; only the upper 22 inches of the bed in six plies is here workable. At Dysart’s, 4 miles south of Tyrone city, a tunnel 20 feet long, 575 feet (bar.) above the level of the Juniata, strikes the bed pitching 50° to 60° (at the two headings, right and left)* towards the N. 50° W. About six feet of ore is here mined and sent to Pittsburgh, v/a. Tipton Station on the Pennsylvania Railroad at the foot of the mountain opposite the mine. At the heading in Oct. 1873 was seen the following order of layers : Fossil ore, at mouth of tunnel in soft rotten shale.............. 6 inches. Rockinitunneleseces-m eso ene: SP Puede usr eng 16 feet. Hard Weanfossiliore csc cec eens UO On Mole oe 1 ‘* 5 inches. Hardytossil, Ones teecene nce oeke aL ohn eens 2B id 6 Chay apar time ein ie reyeror tei iste sieisl eo enetent dete ie ceekey eons Bees Ear fossil “ORS aoe oS a Me ass ae aoe otatenarae tis eine unk ae Papacy Wai (D) 6° GG Soft shale floor rotted into compact mud, the water bearing stratum. In October 1873 a Pittsburgh furnace was doing good work mixing 3 of this Tipton (Dysart) ore with 3? of a very pure ore, deficient in silica and alumina, which deficiency the hard fossil ore supplied; and that, without any marked prejudice to the run of the furnace as to quantity, although two-thirds of the Tipton ore went below 40 per cent. and one-third below 20 per cent. of iron; the Tipton ore making good cinder, and thus re- lieving a part of the pure ore from that duty. The quality of the pig- metal produced after the mixture was adopted remained unchanged. This aspect of the future utility of this lowest deposit a of the fossil ore series of N. V. is important. At Frankstown the bed sometimes reaches a thickness of ten feet. * Higher up, red sandstone at the surface dips 78°. ay 1574. ] 105 [Lesley. On the southeast flank of Tussey Mountain at R. H. Powell’s mines, ten miles southeast of Frankstown, the same bed varies from 15 to 25 feet in thickness, and shows three well-marked benches, an upper and a lower of sandy rock ore, and a middle bench, 5 or 6 feet thick, of soft rich fossil ore, which is mined by the Cambria Iron Co. and transported in large quantities ninety (90) miles by railroad via. Huntiogdon and Tyrone city across the Alleghany Mountain to the Company’s furnaces at Johnstown in Cambria County, for mixing with coal-measure ores (mined back of the furnaces) and high grade ores from Lake Superior and Missouri. This is another practical evidence of the importance of this deposit to the pig-metal make in America. The bed is absolutely continuous and uninterrupted. Its outcrop can always be found at a well-defined elevation on the flank of the Upper Silurian Mountain, and about two-thirds of the distance from the base towards the summit. But the bed is very variable in thickness even in distances of a few hundred yards, and ought to be opened in many places along its run of nearly eleven miles through Lyon, Shorb & Company’s lands, before any extensive mining plant is made. Its solid contents above water level is very large. Southwest of the Tyrone gap it contains above water level from one to three million cubic yards of ore, according as its thickness varies from three to nine feet. Northeast of the gap, it contains one to two millions more, allowing for the probable general thinning of the bed in that direction; but as ex- perience has taught us that sections of its outcrop are very likely to show an exceptionally great thickness, the estimate may be indefinitely in- creased. Along the whole 10} mies of outcrop it runs parallel to and within less than a mile of first-class railways, (the Pennsylvania Railway, and the Bald Eagle Valley Railway,) which offer facilities for distributing it to furnaces in northern, eastern, and western Pennsylvania. It is also exposed on both sides of the Tyrone Gap, on the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, so that a main gangway a mile long can be driven in just high enough above grade to allow of shutes on a siding. This bed in its descent beneath the surface and water level probably suffers no such change as that which the soft fossil ores (to be next described) suffer, and it can therefore be mined hereafter to an indefinite distance downwards by shafts and slopes. This fact adds many millions of tons of available ore to the estimate given above. Sort Fossin OrE BeEps. About 40 inches of this ore may be looked for along its outcrop where- ever the deposit c, d, is in good order. Sometimes its three beds are near enough to mine in one gallery. Oftentimes one or another of them is want- ing. Often they lie ten, twelve or more feet asunder. The variations are frequent and rapid. Several hundred feet beneath the triple bed c, d, A. P. S.— VOL. XIV. N Lesley.] 106 [Jan. 2 and Feb. 6, occurs at Frankstown bed 0, so thick as to be called there the main bed. A hundred feet above the triple bed c, d, at Frankstown is still another layer a few inches thick. It is important to note the order in which these deposits occur to the explorer descending the mountain side from the outcrop of the hard fossil ore, because it is very evident, that the occasional openings made along the range on one or other of the three principal soft fossil ore out- crops, viz. b,—c, d;—e;—are very misleading. The Bald Eagle Moun- tain was for many years condemned by geologists as destitute of workable fossil ore, because the number of beds was not known ; no comparison of localities was made ; no complete section down the mountain slope, at any one place. Since the different beds vary in thickness constantly acd rapidly, and apparently under a law which may be rudely stated thus : when one bed thickens it is at the expense of the others, as if there was but a certain quantity of iron at command and sometimes one bed would get more than its share, and sometimes another, —it follows that the value of any tract on the mountain side can be determined only after a thorough trial of all three (five) outcrops of soft fossil ore has been made; and in no instance has this been done, in the range of 10} miles upon the Lyon, Shorb & Co.’slands, nor between them and Frankstown, nor east of them. Every road decending the west face of the mountain exposes one or more of these outcrops; the highest (lowest geologically) being always 50 or 60 yards below the hard fossil outcrop, where the sandstones of the crest commence. The red sandstones of the crest and first steep pitch of mountain side between the crest and the hard fossil outcrop, send a multitude of frag- ments down over the soft yellow and red shales forming the middle slope of the mountain, and under these the soft fossil outcrops lie concealed. The gentle foot-slopes of the mountain are occupied by limestones, marls and red shales. One of the soft fossil beds has been opened 1,300 yards northeast of Tyrone city, as shown on the Brush Mountain map accompanying this report, at an elevation of 370 feet above Railroad grade. A limestone bed crops out 70 yards down the slope (above it geographically) at 320 feet above railroad grade. The ore-bed is opened by a tunnel and ‘‘is 18 inches thick,’’ including some thin layers of ferriferous fossil limestone. It stands ‘‘vertical,’’ or overturned slightly so as to dip into the moun- tain in a direction S. 48° E. Nothing is known of the other beds. Experience at Danville and Bloomsburg in Eastern Pennsylvania has proved that the soft fossil ore can be extensively mined when only 16 or 18 inches thick (on a general average of the workings) as may be seen by reference to the very important chapter written on this subject by Prof. H. D. Rogers at page 440 and onward in the first volume of the Final Report of the Geology of Pennsylvania. Experience at Franks- — 1874.1 107 [Lesley. town has been similar. But at these localities the gentle dip has its bearing upon the economy of mining, and perhaps upon the question of depth to which the softening of the fossil limestone into soft fossil ore has gone. I say perhaps, because it was Mr. Rogers’ fixed opinion that the fossil ore would not be found fit for mining operations along those runs of outcrop where the beds stood at a steep augle, or vertical. This opinion must be set aside, since the long horisontal gangways, at water level, at Bedford, have yielded the soft ore ina perfect condition at a depth of several hundred feet vertically beneath the outcrop. It is safe therefore to expect, in the ten or eleven miles of ore-range to find one or more of the beds at other place, of workable thickness and in good condition, with an average breast above water level of from 200 to 400 feet. If only 18 inches of proper ore can be got from all five beds, along the whole 10} miles, there exists practically 925,000 cubic yards of the ore above water level. If the average thicknesses mined at Frankstown extend to Tyrone city, then there exists in the four miles of mountain side along the Pennsylvania Railway alone, and above water level alone, 42 to 64 inches 7,040 x 100 = 2,464,000 to 3,731,- 200, = say three willions of cubic yards of ore.* It is not to be expected that all the bedscan be mined at any one place; but a million of tons of good merchantable soft fossil ore to be won from the southwest division of the Lyon, Shorb & Co.’s lands, above water level cannot be an unreasonable estimate. This ore is greatly esteemed and extensively used by all the furnaces of Pennsylvania which can get it. as an enriching flux for leaner iron- stones, and asafusable mixture for refractory highgrade magnetites. At Frankstown and elsewhere it has furnished the greater part of the burden ; and at other furnaces it is mixed in large proportions with brown hematites. It always holds lime in the condition of undissoived fossil shells, and works kindly with the sandy rock fossil (a) of the same (Upper Silarian) formation. Nors. March 4, 1874. My. Stewart has just made the important dis- covery, by running-in horisontally a monkey-drift, west of Tyrone Sta- tion, that four layers of soft fossil ore occur there in a space of seven feet, measuring respectively 18, 10, 5 and 2 inches. This affords nearly the normal quantity of 40 inches, and more than the quantity required for profitable exploitation. It is an especially important trial work, in- asmuch as it casts an encouraging light on the untested and hitherto despised range of outcrop east of Tyrone. do Je Joy * Mr. Rogers’ formula of 50,000 tons of ore from each running mile of outcrop was based upon his then assumed maximum depth of no more than 80 yards for the soft ore in a stratum 18 inches thick, two tons of ore going to a cubic yard. Houston. ] 108 [Jan. 16, ON A SUPPOSED ALLOTROPIC MODIFICATION OF PHOSPHORUS. By Pror. Epwin J. Houston. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 16, 1874.) In connection with Prof. Elihu Thomson, of the Artizan’s Night School, the author his undertaken a series of experiments, resulting, it is believed, in the discovery of a new allotropic modification of phos- phorus. It is well known that when phosphorus is boiled in strong solution of potassium hydrate, and then allowed to cool slowly, it retains its liquid state for some time; but that if shaken, or touched with a sharp point it instantly solidifies. We believe that in the cases heretofore observed, the property of retaining the liquid state is probably owing to the admixture with the ordinary phosphorus of an allotropic modification, having the property of retaining its liquid state indefinitely, and that, therefore, if this modification were obtained sufficiently pure, it would exhibit properties strikingly distinct from the common variety. We have undertaken the experiments, with the following results : Good stick phosphorus is taken, and boiled for some time in strong solution of potassium hydrate, and water occasionally added to replace that lost by evaporation. Care must be exercised, by cautious stirring, to prevent the melted phosphorus from being carried to the surface by bubbles of disengaged gas. After boiling for five or ten minutes, the liquid phosphorus is carefully washed by replacing the alkaline solution by a stream of cold water. In this way the hypo-phosphates are removed, as well as the liquid and gaseous hydrides of phosphorus. The liquid modification thus obtained possesses the following peculiarities, which we believe entitle it to a place as one of the allotropic states of phos- phorus: 1st. That of retaining for an apparently indefinite time its liquid con- dition, at temperatures far below the melting-point of the ordinary material. A carefully prepared specimen has been kept by us beneath a water surface for the past four months. It is still in the liquid state, at the time of making this communication and seems to promise to keep this state for an indefinite time. To make the retention of its liquidity still more striking, it may be remarked that the room in which the speci- men is preserved has been for several weeks without a fire, the tempera- ture probably reaching 40° F., a point far below the melting-point of ordinary phosphorus. The specimen in question was poured into a.small test tube, and covered with about an inch of water. The test tube was then hung by a string in a place where it was secure from sudden jars or shaking. We have every reason for believing that this specimen, in common with numerous others experimented upon, will instantly solidify upon being touched. A specimen of the liquid modification was placed beneath a water surface, and exposed to artificial cold produced by the evaporation of 1874. | 109 { Houston. ether. It solidified at about 38° F. With larger specimens and under more favorable conditions, the reduction may possibly be carried still further. 2d. Another peculiarity of the liquid modification is that of its non- oxidation when exposed to direct contact of air. 3d. As a result of this last mentioned property, the liquid does not shine in the dark. Ordinary and liquid phosphorus were exposed under the same circumstances to the air in a dark room. The common variety emitted the well known light, the other was entirely non-luminous. There result apparently two distinct varieties of solid phosphorus from the solidification of the liquid modification. One is tough and waxy, like the ordinary material, the other is quite brittle and crystalline. We have noticed that in all cases well prepared specimens of the liquid produced on solidification the second variety, while poor or indifferent ones the first. We, therefore, regard that from which the second is produced as the true liquid modification. The brittle crystalline solid thus produced conports itself somewhat differently from the ordinary variety. It oxidizes rapidly in the air, and raises its temperature so rapidly as to melt down into a liquid state, in which it is very easily inflammable. In order to test whether the liquid modification underwent any! change of volume at the moment of solidification, the following experiment was made: A small specimen was placed in a test tube, and covered with water. of the mean velocity of the radial oscillation. 2. A body would oscillate from a circumference to the centre and re- turn, in (a)? of the time of orbital revolution. 3. A body would oscillate through a diameter and return in (4)? of the time of orbital revolution, or in the time which would be required for revolution through the same orbit, with the velocity acquired by in- finite impulsion to the circumference. 4. If the velocity of orbital approach to a focus of central force is so retarded, by collisions or otherwise, as to change the orbit from a para- bola to a circle, the velocity of the circular oscillation will be £ of the mean velocity of the retarded radial oscillation. Let us suppose that the planetary groupings, as well as the velocities of planetary revolution, solar and planetary rotation, and solar motion in space, are all resultants of successive infinitesimal impulses, moving with a uniform velocity, and propagated through the medium of a universal zether. *Proc, A. P. S., Sept. 20, 1872. Chase. ] 1] 2 [Feb. 6, If, in consequence of points of inertia, centripetal undulations are es- tablished, resulting in a motion of zthereal particles around the centres of inertia, and an accompanying impulsion of denser particles towards the centres, the mean velocity of the circular motion would be one-half as great as that of the originating impulse, and ~ as great as the mean 7 velocity of centripetal impulsion. If a homogeneous rotating globe were aggregated under such centri- petal impulsion, the angular orbital velocities of all the particles of the globe would be equally retarded. Rotation is, therefore, merely retarded revolution, and in endeavoring to trace them both to their source, we should compare them at the point of equality. We know that the hypothetical universal medium is susceptible of undulations, which are propagated with the velocity of light. Therefore let— vi = velocity of light, = 2 X hypothetical mean velocity of ethereal primary rotation, the velocity communicable by the infinitesi- mal impulses varying between 0 and VA. Wie ek apes as 2c —. mean velocity of a perpetual radial oscillation, syn- T as 2 chronous with a circular orbital oscillation having a velocity yh ie V'/ = — = velocity of planetary revolution at the Sun’s equator, under 77d A the volume due to internal work. A ps Grae a zn? c = velocity of solar equatorial rotation, under the volume due to internal work, — mean velocity of an oscillation through Jupiter’s radius vector synchronous with Jupiter’s revolation around the Sun; Sun and Jupiter being regarded as constitu- ting a binary Star. Vi — 4V’’ = mean velocity of a perpetual radial, or infinitely eccen- tric oscillation, synchronous with the revolution of the binary Star around its centre of gravity (374335329 seconds) = mean velocity of the binary Star in space. T’,T’’ — time of revolution, rotation, for V’, V’’. t,t! = ‘c 6c ce Earth. tw, 7) = i Me oe Jupiter. ae Me aN — equatorial g, at Sun, Earth, Jupiter. t// Vv Tis = ratio of the integral of infinitesimal impulses during revolution in a circular orbit, z’, to the integral of similar impulses during fall from circumference to centre of same orbit. 1874. ] 113 [Chase. a ~ = — Neptune’s mean heliocentric distance, in units of Earth’s mean ool re § distance. 5 52 = Saturn’s mean distance. 3 = Asteroidal mean distance, or twice the mean distance of Mars. — Earth’s secular mean perihelion distance. 32 = Mercury’s G6 oe 66 = z — Major axis of Sun’s orbit about centre of gravity of binary Star. ii = Heliocentric distance of linear centre of oscillation of secular mean perihelion centre of gravity of the binary Star. The ritio of V’ to V’’ was determined by supposing Sun’s radius to 1 1 vary from 7 to n?r. In such case, Vx ,,3 VX 7, 2. In the following table, A represents the theoretical values of T/’ and Bl V’’ as estimated from V/; B, from Jupiter’s distance (vv = an C, the observed values. For T’’, C is the mean of the six several estimates by Bianchi and Laugier, Lelambre, Petersen, Sporer, Carrington, and Faye. The Sun’s annual motion is given in units of Earth’s radius vector, C being Struve’s estimate. For V’, A, B, C, are respectively deduced from g at Sun, Earth, Jupiter. A B C SRL NE SB ey eee 2203645 sec. 2163907 sec. 2162802. sec. Nee ies eae ae 265.66 mi. . 261.79 mi. 261.56 mi. AU \ LOSS ILA) Sone Nie 1.678 r.v. 1.754 r.v. 1.623 r.v. The slight discrepancies in these values seem to be attributable to the mean orbital eccentricity of the binary Star, but they are all within the limits of uncertainty of observation. The heliocentric distance of the mean perihelion centre of gravity of the binary Star, is 1.0188 x solar radius; Jupiter’s mean orbital eccentricity is .04316. The correspendence betweea the theoretical and observed values of the ~- 7 series is given below, in units of Sun’s radius. It is specially notice- able that the series groups the principal planets into pairs. The values of the secular mean apsides are taken from Stockwell’s ‘‘ Memoir on the secular variations of the orbits of the eight principal planets.”’ cx| to Theoretical. Observed. Neptune, mean................ 6450.776 6453. 731 Saturn Sper ds 2a al scebarah cravat 2053.346 2049.514 PAYS GENO CUM ancammeesteraeten sel sievereraiete 653.600 654.760 Bachhperihelionerre eee 208.048 207.583 INTO. CUTay ppb meetin ablevoierctotetsarceeret stat 66.224 68.483 SIHua, WaNeH OI Bd oo ocooGoboCodde 2.186 —~ 2.132 Primary centre oscillation....... 679 679 A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. O Marsh.] 14 [March 6, ON THE LATENT HEAT OF EXPANSION IN CONNECTION WITH THE LUMINOSITY OF METEORS, ETC. By B. V. Marsu. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 6, 1874.) In 1863, in a paper published in Silliman’s Journal (vol. xxvi. p 92), IT attempted to show that the luminosity of meteors is probably due to the effects of latent heat. An abstract of my results was made by the ‘‘ Luminous Meteor’? Com- mittee of the British Association, and published in 1864 with their report. The paper was also favorably referred to by Haidinger ;* but it evidently has not been accepted as furnishing a satisfactory solution of the problem. My explanation was based upon the assumption that when air is heated “under a constant pressure,’’ the heat required to produce a given elevation of temperature, in excess of that required to produce the same change of temperature ‘under a constant volume,’’ remains latent in the expanded air. But according to the dynamical theory of heat, the most of this excess is employed in lifting the weight of the atmosphere ; a glance, however, at the tabular statement in my paper, shows that a very -small fraction only of this excess is actually required to produce all the -effects which I attributed to it. Hence, although ‘latent heat of -expansion’’ seems to be generally ignored, I have always—in view of the remarkable correspondence of the observed phenomena with what might be expected to occur, supposing my explanation to be correct— > felt an assurance that it must have some foundation in truth. The fire- balls of December 24th and January 2d having prompted me to re-examine ‘the question, I find this impression strongly confirmed, and therefore venture again to call attention to the subject, hoping to make it appear probable, not only that “latent heat of expansion”’ is a reality, but that it plays a leading part in all the luminous phenomena of the upper .regions of the atmosphere. ‘Tyndall, in his treatise on ‘‘ Heat as a Mode of Motion’’ (New York, * Memoire-sur les relations qui existent entre les étoiles filantes, les bolides, et les -essaims des météorites; par M. Haidinger, Associé de l’Académie—Bulletins de l’Academie Royale de Bruxelles, 2e series, T. XVII., 1864, p.1383 ‘‘M. Quetelet, dans son important ouvrage sur la Physique du Globe, publié en 1861 (p. 5), désigne ces couches par les noms d’atmosphere mobile ou dynamique, et d’atmosphere immobile ou slable. Les considerations publieés par M. Benjamin VY. Marsh dans le journal americain du Professeur Silliman ont grande importance relativement 4 l’existance de deux couches atmosphériques de nature différente.” 1874.] 115 [ Marsh. 1863, p. 83), says: ‘Let C be a cylindrical vessel, with a base one square foot in area. Let P P mark the upper surface of Fes Daeg cco ke P® a cubic foot of air at a temperature of 32° F, The height A P will then be a foot. Let the air be heated till the volume is doubled. To effect this it must, as before explained, be raised 490° F. in temperature, and, when expanded, its upper 120/485 edie ere a pz surface will stand at P! P!, one foot above its initial position. But in rising from P P to P! P', it has forced back the atmosphere, which exerts a pressure of 15 lbs. on every square inch of its upper surface; in other words, it has lifted a ree ee een pi Weight of 144 15 = 2,160 lbs. to a height of one foot. The capacity for heat of the air thus expanding is 0.24; water being unity. The weight of our cubic foot of air is 1:29 oz., hence the quantity parent as P of heat required to raise 1.29 oz. of air 490° F, would raise a little less than one fourth of that weight of water 490°. The exact quantity of C water equivalent to our 1°29 oz. of air is 1.29 0.24 = 0.31 oz. But 0.31 oz. of water heated to 490° is equal to 152 oz., or 94 lbs heated 1°. Thus the heat imparted to our cubic foot of air, in order to double its volume and enable it to lift a weight of 2,160 lbs. one foot high, would be competent to raise 94 lbs. of water one degree in temperature. The air has been heated wnder a constant pressure, and we have learned that the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a gas under constant pressure a certain number of degrees, is to that required to raise the gas to the same temperature when its volume is kept constant, in proportion of 1.42 :1; hence we have the statement 1.42 :1—9.5 lbs. : 6.7 lbs., which shows that the quantity of heat necessary to augment the temperature of one cubic foot of air, at a constant volume, 490°, would heat 6.7 lbs. of water one degree. Deducting 6.7 lbs. from 9.5 lbs., we find that the excess of beat im- parted to the air, in the case when it is permitted to expand, is com- petent to raise 2.8 Ibs. of water one degree in temperature. ee oS As explained already, this excess is employed to lift the weight of 2,160 lbs. one foot high. Dividing 2,160 lbs. by 2.8, we find that a quantity of heat sufficient to raise one pound of water one degree F. in temperature, is competent to raise a weight of 771.4 lbs. a foot high. This method of calculating the mechanical equivalent of heat was followed by Dr. Mayer, a physician of Heilbron, Germany, in the spring of 1842.”’ : Now, since equal additions of heatmake equal additions of volume, this Marsh. ] 1 1 6 [March 6, process of heating and expanding might be continued indefinitely, with like results. That is to say, P!, P?, P’, &c., being at intervals of one foot, the upper surface of the air will stand at P? when the temperature has risen twice 490° ; at P* when it has risen three times 490° F., and so on; one volume being added for each rise of 490° in temperature, and the expenditure of heat being the same for each. If we take for our unit, the heat required to raise the temperature of one volume of air 1° under constant volume, the total expenditure of heat whilst one volume is added to the bulk, will be 490° 1.4—686°; and the heat expended, in excess of that required to produce the elevation of temperature alone, will be 686°—490°—196°. This expenditure has enabled the air to accomplish two results ; to lift 2160 lbs. one foot high, and to fill an additional volume. Prof. Tyndall assumes that the space-filling was accomplished without the expenditure of any force whatever, and that the whole 196° were employed in lifting the weight. But, inasmuch as this may be considered an open question, we will take x to represent the heat, if any, employed in producing and maintaining the change of bulk ; that is to say, the ‘‘latent heat of ex- pansion ;’’ and proceed to consider what must be the relation of latent heat to volume, independently of any particular value of x. Since both the expenditure of heat, and the weight lifted, are precisely the same, during the addition of each volume, the remainder,—repre- sented by x—must also be the same. Hence, when one volume has ex- panded so as to fill 2 vols.—these contain x degrees of latent heat, the No. in each being 3x 3 66 66 9x 66 66 66 66 3 x 66 ce 66 66 66 66 3 4 3x BOR 100 66 66 99x 66 66 66 66 99 and so on. Whence it appears that the less the density of the air, the greater will be the amount of latent heat, in a given volume; although, for air of considerable rarity, the change is so slight that the latent heat per volume may be considered as sensibly constant. We have treated only of the heat rendered latent during the expansion of air of standard density, which must already contain latent heat. If, however, we start from the liquid condition of air, a similar train of reasoning leads to the conclusion, that the total amount of latent heat per volume is absolutely the same for air of all densities. It must also be the same for all tempera- tures. For if, when the surface of the air is at P! we suppose the top of the vessel to be prevented from moving, and the whole to be cooled down until the temperature of the air returns to 32°—the specific heat under constant volume being the same for all temperatures—the heat given out during each degree of cooling will be the same ; being exactly equal to that which, under constant volume, would be required to raise the tem- perature one degree. Consequently, the latent heat must remain un- 1874. ] 1 Uy [Marsh. changed during the process. In other words, the latent heat is inde- pendent of temperature, and is therefore the same per volume for air of any given density, whatever may be its temperature or previous history. Hence, as this heat represents the force which is employed in main- taining the volume of the air, and as its amount depends upon the volume alone, it may perhaps more properly be termed the ‘‘latent heat of volume ’’—or briefly, the ‘‘ volume heat’’ of air. It is evident that we may readily determine, in terms of x, the amount of latent heat (in excess of that rendered latent between the liquid condi- tion and the standard pressure) contained in a given volume, or in a given weight, of the atmosphere at any height. The known law of variation of density is such that at the height of 3.48 miles the density is half that at the level of the sea—-at twice that height, }—at three times, 3, and so on—the density diminishing in a geometric, as the height increases in an arithmetic ratio. Whence we see that one volume at sea-level, at the height of 3.43 miles becomes 2 vols.—containing x deg. of latent heat the No. in each vol. being 3X 6.86 66 4 6 66 8x 66 66 66 8x 10.29 66 gs & &6 Wx $6 66 66 dx 34.30 sem 24 ec GG ilQpziie | 66 “ oREx 1, 048, 675 68.60 £6 1,048,576 “6 1,048, 575x 1,048, 676 and so on. The volume, and consequently the latent heat, of a given weight of air being doubled by each addition of 3.43 miles to the height, it is evident that each molecule of air, near the upper limits of the atmosphere, has, associated with it, an enormous amount of latent heat. But this need not excite great surprise : for when we consider that 4 of a grain of air at the surface of the earth occupies only one cubic inch, whilst at the height of one hundred miles the same occupies one thousand millions of cubic inches, every part filled completely and equably, each molecule being held in its place’ at a certain definite distance from its fellows, we cannot doubt that it has abundant use for all its stores of energy, in constructing | and maintaining the framework of this vast edifice ; unless, indeed, we conclude that space-filling is a kind of work which—unlike every other— does itself. We may form some idea of the value of x, by comparing the heat ex- pended with the work done, in the experiment already quoted from Tyn- dall. He shows that the expediture of heat, in excess of that required to raise the temperature under constant volume, is competent to raise 1° the temperature of 2.8 lbs. of water. If we take 772 foot-pounds as the mechanical equivalent, the same would be competent to raise 2.8 < 772 = 2161.6 lbs. one foot high, showing an excess of 1.6 lbs. over the weight actually lifted. The amount of heat applicable to the work of expan- sion or space-filling, for this value of the equivalent, is therefore very Marsh. ] 118 [March 6, small. But there is some evidence in favor of a larger value of Joule’s equivalent, and, consequently, in favor of a larger value of x. In his final paper,* Joule announces the following results from his experiments : From 1st Series, consisting of 40 experiments from friction of water, value of equivalent. 772.692 6B 8) 66 Gs 20 << mercury “ 772,814 66 BY 1G 66 30 66 66 66 775.302 Scena an Nader “ 10 = ** cast-iron 36 776.045 06 6 6 10 “ “6 66 773.930 Whence we see that the mean result from the whole 110 ex- EPL WESoogoaobodoGoasc0sbnoOOGHBOOoeobacOGOdONCOS 773.857 Joule adds, ‘‘I consider that 772.692, the equivalent derived from the friction of water, is the most correct, both on account of the number of experiments tried, and the great capacity of the apparatus for heat ; and since, even in the friction of fluids, it was impossible entirely to avoid vibration, and the production of a slight sound, it is probable that the above number is slightly in excess ;’’ and he concludes by adopting 772 as the most probable value. Now, inasmuch as, in the case of cast-iron, he had made an experimental determination of the heat expended in the production of sound, and had allowed for it; and since no further explanation is given, we must look upon his final conclusion as based upon the 40 experiments with water alone ; the fractional part being rejected in consideration of probable loss from the noise produced in that series of experiments. Although Joule thus ignored nearly two-thirds of a series of experi- ments, all of which had been conducted with equal care, and each of which would therefore seem to be entitled to some weight, he placed their results upon record ; and we may certainly be permitted to inquire what conse- quences would have followed the adoption of the purely experimental value which the whole series indicated—773.857. Adopting this as the mechanical equivalent of heat, we find the force competent to lift 2.8 x 773.857 — 2166.8 lbs. one foot. But the weight actually lifted was 2160.0 lbs. one foot. Hence, a force competent to lift 6.8 lbs. one foot has become latent, having been employed in producing and maintaining the expansion ; but, inasmuch as the quantity of heat necessary to augment the temperature of one cubic foot of air (weighing 1.29 oz.) at a constant volume, 490°, would heat 6.7 lbs. of water 19, it would be competent to lift 6.7 x 773.857 = 5184.8 lbs. one foot high ; whence we have the statement : Foot-pounds. Foot-pounds. as 5184.8 : 6.8 >: . 4909 : 0.6429 = x, showing that sufficient heat was rendered latent, to raise the temperature of the whole mass of air (1.29 oz.) at a constant volume, 0.642 degrees. * Philosophical Transactions 1850. 1874.] 119 [Marsn. Owing to the uncertainty as to the exact ratio of the two specific heats of air; and as to the exact value of the mechanical equivalent of heat, an accurate determination of the value of x cannot yet be reached ; but since the above value is based upon the complete series of experiments made by Joule in 1849, it must be entitled to consideration as a first ap- proximation, and may be used to illustrate the action of latent heat in the production of luminous phenomena. But we are here met by the assertion of several standard writers, that. the existence of latent heat of expansion was positively disproved by a c2rtain experiment performed by Joule, who announced in the Philos- ophical Magazine for May, 1845, that ‘‘no change of temperature occurs when air is allowed to expand in such a manner as not to develop me- chanical power.”’ : Although the interpretation thus put upon Joule’s words seems to be perfectly natural and legitimate, an examination of the memoir in which he describes his experiments, and announces this conclusion, seems to show that he did not intend them to be so interpreted. Prof. Balfour Stewart, in his ‘‘ Treatise on Heat ’’ (1871, p. 317) says: ‘Many familiar experiments show that when a gas is suddenly com- pressed, there is a production of heat, and that when suddenly expanded there is an absorption of heat. Séguin and Mayer had already suggested the use of gases and vapors for the purpose of determining the mechanical equivalent of heat; and air, the substance chosen by Mayer, was no doubt very good for such a purpose ; nevertheless, the suggestions of these philosophers do not seem to have been accompanied with a clear appreciation of all the data necessary to a complete proof. Joule, however, in his experiments, supplied what was wanting in order to derive a good determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat from the known gaseous laws. By compressing air forcibly into a re- ceiver surrounded by water he found that the water was considerably heated. It is not, however, correct to infer without further experiment that the amount of heat produced in this case is the exact equivalent of the energy expended in compressing the air. A familiar instance will make this clear. By a blow of a hammer upon a small quantity of fulmi- nating mercury, it is exploded, and produces a considerable amount of heated gas, but we are not at liberty to suppose that all the heat thus developed is merely the mechanical equivalent of the energy of the blow, as will be evident by supposing such an extreme case as a ton of fulmina- ting powder. Evidently the substance is in a different molecularcondition at the end of the experiment and at the beginning, and it may be supposed with much truth that the heat produced is nearly all due to the conversion into a kinetic form of a certain potential energy present in the compound. Now in the experiment above described, in which air is compressed, the air is evidently in a different molecular condition after compression, fur Marsh. ] 120 [March 6, the particles are much nearer together. The first thing, therefore, is to determine how much, if any, of the heat produced may be due to this change of the molecular condition of the air, and how much to the work expended in compressing the air. The following very ingenious experiment performed by Joule is con- clusive in showing that the mere change of distance of the molecules of a permanent gas neither produces nor absorbs heat to an apprecia- ble extent. In the figure, we have two strong vessels, of which A contains compressed air, say under the pressure of 20 atmospheres ; B, on the other hand, is a vacuum. The two vessels are connected with each other by a tube having a stop-cock, which we may suppose to be shué. The whole apparatus is plunged into a vessel of water. After the tem- perature of the water has been very accurately ascertained, open the stop-cock, aud thus allow both vessels to have the same pressure. WAM ae I | nn When the experiment is finished it will be found that there is no change in the temperature of the water. The prevalent idea is that when air expands it becomes colder, and that when condensed it becomes hotter ; but Joule, by this experiment, has shown that no appreciable change of temperature occurs when air is allowed to expand in such a manner as not to develop mechanical power.”’ Prof. Tyndall (‘‘ Heat considered as a Mode of Motion’’—1863, p. 88,) in introducing this experiment, says: ‘‘Is it not possible to allow a gas to expand, without performing work? This question is answered by the following important experiment, which was first made by Gay-Lussac,”’ and, after describing it, he says ‘‘ Weare taught by this experiment that mere rarefaction is not of itself sufficient to produce a lowering of the mean temperature of a mass of air. It was, and is still, a current notion, that the mere expansion of a gas produced refrigeration, no matter how 4 1874.] 121 [ Marsh. that expansion was effected. The coldness of the higher atmospheric regions was accounted for by reference to the expansion of the air. It was thought that what we have called the ‘‘capacity for heat’’ was greater in the case of rarefied than of unrarefied gas. But the refrigera- tion which accompanies expansion is, in reality, due to the consumption of heat in the performance of work by the expanding gas. Where no work is performed there is no absolute refrigeration.’’ A sufficient answer to both these would seem to be found in the fact that the ‘‘vacuum’”’ spoken of is stated by Joule to have been obtained by means of an air pump ; whence it appears that both vessels were filled with air; that in the exhausted receiver having already, during the pro- cess of exhaustion, absorbed and rendered latent, all the heat necessary for its expansion ; and since we have already seen that the amount of latent heat in a given volume of air is almost entirely independent of density, we have no reason to look for any loss or gain of latent heat by the operation. The mixing of the two is quite as much a process of con- densation as of rarefaction ; in one receiver the air in expanding absorbs heat, whilst in the other the air being compressed gives out the heat which it had absorbed during the process of exhaustion—the two effects counter- balancing each other. The air, as a whole, just filled the two receivers at the beginning of the experiment, and it filled the same at the end; so that the effects of expansion and of condensation were completely eliminated : even more so than those of mechanical power, which Joule had especially in view when contriving this experiment. Whilst the above seems to show that this experiment proved nothing as to the existence or non-existence of latent heat of expansion, any one who will read Joule’s paper will probably be convinced that he never in- tended to claim that it did. He makes no allusion to any such question ; and the limit which he gives of the sensitiveness of his thermometer shows that an amount of heat seventy-five times as great as that which could be expected to be rendered latent by doubling the volume of only two quarts of air, of any density, would be required to produce any appreciable change in the temperature of the 163 lbs. of water through which, he tells us, it was distributed. He was dealing with mechanical power, and took care to have it in quantities large enough to be traced ; his aim seeming to be, to solve the general question of their convertibility into heat, rather than to determine whether the results miglit, or might not, have been modified in some degree, by latent heat or other disturbing cause. These considerations seem to justify us in concluding that the question of the existence of ‘‘latent heat of expansion ’’ has not been expériment- ally decided in the negative, and that we may therefore proceed to inquire into its applicability to the explanation of meteoric phenomena, * * When this paper was read, I was not aware of the language of Joule himself on this subject. Part II. of the article ‘‘On the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion,” by J. P. Joule and Prof. W. Thomson, (Transactions of the Royal Society, 1854, vol. 144 p. 337) speaking of the ‘‘ Relations between the Heat evolved and the Work spent in Compressing A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. P Marsh.] 122 5 {March 6, using the above value of x. But, the luminosity of meteors is usually attributed to atmospheric resistance. Kirkwood, in his Meteoric Astro- nomy (Philadelphia, 1867, p. 81), says: ‘‘Several hundred detonating meteors have been observed, and their average height at the instant of their first appearance has been found to exceed 90 miles. The great meteor of February 3d, 1856, seen at Brussels, Geneva, Paris, and else- where, was 150 miles high when first seen, and a few apparently well authenticated instances are known of a still greater elevation. We con- clude, therefore, from the evidence afforded by meteoric phenomena, that the height of the atmosphere is certainly not less than 200 miles. It might be supposed, however, that the resistance of the air at such altitudes would not develop a sufficient amount of heat to give meteorites their brilliant appearance. This question has been discussed by Joule, Thomson, Haidinger, and Reichenbach, and may now be regarded as definitively settled. When the velocity of a meteorite is known, the quantity of heat produced by its motion through air of a given density is readily determined. The temperature acquired is the equivalent of the force with which the atmospheric molecules are met by the moving body. This is about one degree F. for a velocity of 100 feet per second, and it varies directly as the square of the velocity. A velocity, therefore, of 00 miles ina second would produce a temperature of 2,500,000°. The weight of 5,280 cubic feet of air at the earth’s surface is about 2,830,000 grains. This, consequently, is the weight of a column one mile in length, and whose base or cross section is one square foot. The weight of a eolumn of the same dimensions at a height of 140 miles would be about a Gas kept at a constant temperature,” says, ‘- This relation is not a relation of simple mechanical equivalence, a8 was supposed by Mayer. * * * The first attempt to determine the relation in question for the case of air established an approximate equivalence with- out deciding how close it might be, or the direction of the discrepancy, if any. Thus ex- periments ‘On the Changes of temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Condensa- tion of Air,’’ (Philosophical Magazine, May, 1845) showed an approximate agreement between the heat evolved by compressing air into a strong copper vessel under water, and the heat generated by an equal expenditure of work in stirring a liquid ; and again conversely an approximate compensation of the cold of expansion when air in expanding spent all its work in stirring its own mass, by rushing through the narrow passage of a slightly opened stop-cock.”’ Whilst this language fully confirms my interpretation of Joule’s experiment, the inference drawn by the authors from their subsequent experiments upon air forced through a ‘‘ porous plug,’’ composed of compressed cotton-wool or silk, is incompatible with the theory which I have advanced. They showed that when air was forced through such a plug, its temperature was lowered; and that the cooling effect was in proportion to the difference in the pressure of the air, on the two sides of the plug. For reasons previously stated by Prof. Thomson, (Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xx., 1851) they assumed that this cooling effect represented the amount of heat rendered latent by expansion ; and hence concluded that this, also, varied directly as the difference of pressure, It is, however, by no means self-evident, that the mechanical energy of the condensed air would be exactly balanced—neither more nor less—by the work done in overcoming the friction of the plug, and thus completely isolate the effects of latent heat of expan- sion This being only a theoretical deduction, cught not to have the weight of a direct result from experiment. Hence, perhaps, the omission of Tyndall and of Stewart to allude to it. If standard writers thus fail to recognize it as conclusive, we may fair'y consider the subject as still open to discussion. 1874 ] 123 [Marsh. szs000uth of a grain. Hence, the heat acquired by a meteoric mass whose cross section is one square foot, in moving one mile, would be one grain raised 7+ degrees, or one-fifth of a grain 2,500° in 70 miles. This temperature would undoubtedly be sufficient to render meteoric bodies brilliantly luminous.”’ The above is a very clear statement of the resistance theory, which is the only one which seems to have met with general acceptance. But when we consider that the heat resulting from the collision of the atmos- pheric molecules with the surface of the meteorite, being developed at that surface, must be to a great extent absorbed by the meteorite ; and that, in the case supposed above, a body more than one foot in diameter had to travel seventy miles, to develop heat competent to raise one-fifth of a grain to a temperature less than that of melting iron, we must con- clude that, at the height of 140 miles, the resistance theory utterly fails to account for any luminosity whatever. In order to give some definite form to the discussion of the compara- tive effects of resistance and of latent heat in the production of meteoric luminosity, let us, with Kirkwood, suppose a globular meteor of one square foot section to enter the atmosphere with a velocity of thirty miles per second. In traveling one mile, it will sweep a cylindrical space one mile long containing 5280 cubic feet, all the air in which will be compressed to a density at least as great as that of air at the surface of the earth, and be carried forward in front of the meteor. When in approaching the earth denser strata are reached, some portion of the air will of course be merely pushed aside and left behind, the air piled up in a conical mass in front of the meteor, dividing the atmosphere, just as the sharp bow of a vessel divides the water and thus diminishes the resistance ; but at great heights, if the velocity be great, this effect may be neglected. Heat will be developed at the forward surface of the meteor, firstly— from the resistance of the air, which converts into heat a portion of the ki- netic energy or motive power of the meteor ; its amount, at any given velo- city, depending upon the wezght of the air met ; secondly—from the release of latent heat, the amount of which depends only on the bulk of the air met. The mere mention of the fact that the heating power of ‘‘resistance’’ depends upon the weight ; and that of ‘‘latent heat’’ upon the bulk of the air encountered, shows the great advantage which the latter has at extreme heights. ‘‘Latent heat’’ is at its maximum at the extreme upper limit of the atmosphere, where there is no appreciable weight of air to absorb the heat developed at the surface of the meteor. Its whole energies are therefore expended on the meteor, the surface layer of which may be so heated as to cause it to burst out in full splendor very soon after entering the atmosphere, and at a height where the weight of air encountered is so infinitesimally small that the effects of ‘‘ resistance ”’ are not perceptible : but no luminosity can be expected from either source until the heat developed is sufficient to produce incandescence, both in the surface layer of the meteor, and in its atmospheric envelope. 124 Marsh. } March 6, The comparative, as well as the absolute effects of ‘‘resistance’’ and of ‘‘latent heat’’ are illustrated in the accompanying tabular statement ; from which we see that at the height of 103 miles, the latent heat is suffi- cient to raise the temperature of all the air met, six hundred millions of degrees ; at sixty-eight miles, six hundred thousand degrees ; at fifty- one miles, twenty thousand degrees; at thirty-four miles, six hundred HEIGHT WEIGHT HEATING POWER HEATING| HEATING POWER IN IN OF POWER OF OF MILES. GRAINS LATENT HEAT LATENT HEAT RESISTANCE of air metin1 jin 1 grainof air at differ- of air met in 1 of air met in 1 mile mile by meteor mile at any | at a velocity of 30 1 square foot ent heights. considerable | miles per second. cross section. velocity. w al v? seeds n a gn ips gn | eangurrax0.24 3.43 1491500 #| 957548 3138839377500 17.15 93219 20; 1855240 196175882730 34.30 2913 657) 1918216 6128260320 51.45 91 21250) 1915028 191508134 68.60 3 673200} 1915084 6318454 85.75 ea 21474800) 1915086 197296 102.90 rine 687195000} 1915086 6166 120005) 9 eae 21990233000; 1915086 192 130620 eee cee 703687442000) 1915086 6 BASS) Beers 22517998137000| 1915086 vs WiLGO) saae leas 720575940380000) 1915086 eile 188.65) sa3sa3ssses | 23058558092137000| 1915086 Be 205.80 :gsasriexr77¢| 737873858948446000, 1915086 oes Explanation :—M = mass of air. m = 3.48. v = velocity of meteor in feet. nm = height in miles. w = number of grains of air in 5,280 cubic feet at level of the sea — 2,983,000. x — heat rendered latent by each addition of 1 vol. = 0.642° Fahr. 1874. ] 125 (Marsh. degrees (about the temperature of melting lead) ; whilst at the height of seventeen miles, the whole of the latent heat would be required to raise the temperature of the air only twenty degrees. From this it is evident that ‘‘latent heat’’ fails entirely as a source of Juminosity at all heights below forty miles. On the other hand, whilst at great heights the effect of ‘‘resistance’’ is insignificant and altogether inadequate to the pro- duction of any splendor, its power at the height of forty, or even of fifty miles, seems almost unlimited. ‘Latent heat’’ and ‘‘resistance’”’ to- gether cover the whole field. Luminosity from ‘‘resistance’’ would commence at a height of eighty-five miles, more or less, according to velocity, and would increase rapidly with decrease of height, so that at the height of thirty-four miles it would be more than thirty thousand times as great as at eighty-five miles ; whilst ‘“‘latent heat’’ would cause the meteor to burst out in full splendor as soon as it had penetrated the atmosphere far enough to develop an amount of heat competent to vapor- ize its outer layer: and to disappear entirely, at a height of more than forty miles. It is a significant fact, that very few meteors have been known to re- tain their luminosity below that point. Indeed, whilst some of the observed phenomena are such that ‘‘resistance’’ alone cannot afford any explanation whatever, they are all in perfect accord with the require- ments of the ‘‘latent heat’’ theory. Hence we seem to be justified in concluding that ‘“‘latent heat’’ is the principal source of meteoric lu- minosity. The second column in the table gives the heating power of a unit of weight of air at different heights: showing, that one grain at the height of three and a-half miles, if compressed until its density equals that of air at the sea-level, will give out only enough heat to raise the tempera- ture of one grain of air under constant volume about two-thirds of one degree ; but that at the height of eighty-five miles the heat given out will suffice to raise the temperature of one grain twenty millions of degrees ; at one hundred and thirty-seven miles, seven hundred thousand millions of degrees; whilst at the height of two hundred and five miles the - umber would exceed seven hundred thousand millions of millions. This implies a condition of things somewhat similar to that suggested by Mr. Birks in his chapter on the ‘‘Jyneous condition of matter,’?* when he says, ‘‘ There will thus, according to the present theory of the laws of matter, be more truth than has latterly been recognized, in the old arrangement of the four elements, which placed a fourth region of fire, above the solid, liquid, and gaseous constituents of our globe. In fact above the region where the air, though greatly rarefied, is still elastic, there must be a still higher stratum where elasticity has wholly ceased, and where the particles of matter, being very widely separated, condense around them the largest amount of ether. All sensible heat, in the * On Matter and Ether or the Secret Laws of Physical Change, by Thomas Rawson Birks, M. A., Cambridge, (England) 1862. Marsh. ] 1 26 [March 6, collision or oscillation of neighboring atoms of matter, will thus have disappeared : but latent heat, in the quantity of condensed ether or re- pulsive force, ready to be developed on the renewed approach of the atoms, will have reached its maximum, and may be capable of producing the most splendid igneous phenomena, like the northern lights or tropi- cal thunder storms.”’ Quetelet, in view of the phenomena peculiar to the upper air, proposed to consider it as a distinct atmosphere, and says* ‘‘This upper atmos- phere, favorable to the combustion and brilliance of shooting stars, would not necessarily be of the same nature and the same composition, as the lower atmosphere in which we live.”’ Sir John Herschel also seems to recognize something not unlike what I have suggested, when, in writing to Quetelet of shooting stars, in August, 1863, he says,+ ‘‘ As to their great elevation above the earth, it leads us to suspect the existence of 4 kind of atmosphere higher up than the aérial atmosphere, lighter, and, so to speak, more igneous than our own.”’ The train of reasoning which I have suggested leads to the conclusion that this ‘‘more igneous’ condition commences at a height of forty or fifty miles, and extends to the utmost limit of the atmosphere ; its in- tensity increasing with the height in a geometric ratio—the outer shell of air being so completely saturated with heat, that, like a sponge filled with water, it responds to the slightest pressure. It is evident that this fiery envelope may prove a most efficient shield to protect us from the effects of collision with all sorts of fragmentary missiles which the earth may encounter in its journeys around the sun; and the proof of its efficiency is found in the fact that of the immense number of meteors visible, only a very few have been known to reach the earth. Fortunately, the enormous velocity—vastly exceeding that of the swiftest cannon ball—-with which these missiles are hurled at us, usually causes their almost instantaneous destruction. Were they simply dropped from $ or } of the height, falling with the velocity due to the earth’s attraction only, it is probable that every one of any appreciable weight, would reach the earth. Without this protecting envelope, we might well dread the effects of such a bombardment as was witnessed in Italy on the 27th November, 1873, when we encountered some of the debris of Biela’s Comet, and when the number of meteors seen by the Italian Astronomers in the course of a few hours was estima- ted by them at near forty thousand. The fact seems to be, that the planetary velocity with which a meteor enters our atmosphere, soon causes it to develop, by compressing the air before it—heat sufficient to vaporize its surface layer, and, to communi- cate to it the most dazzling brightness. Time not being allowed for the *Meteors, Aerolites, Storms and Atmospheric Phenomena. From the French of Zurcher and Margolle, by Wm. Lackland. New York, 1870, p. 229. +Bulletins of the Royal Academy of Brussels, vol. XVI., p. 320. 1874. } 127 [Marsh. heat to distribute itself through the body of tbe meteor, the whole of its effect is confined to the surface; extremely thin layers of which are, in succession, heated, rendered intensely incandescent, and yapo.ized, how- ever refractory the material. The black ‘‘crust,’’ of the thickness of letter paper, with which the stony meteorites are coated, shows the limits for any one instant, of the melting process ; and the fact, that beneath the crust there is no trace of the action of fire, is proof, both of the extreme intensity of the heat, and of its entirely superficial distribution. Another disintegrating process may, perhaps, be mainly confined to the smaller meteorites and to the ordinary shooting stars, which are so com- pletely dissipated that no trace of them reaches the earth. Although, in any individual layer, the three states—solid, liquid, and vapor—exist al- most at the same instant, they must in reality succeed each other in the order named ; sothat there must always be a layer in which the material, although not melted, is so intensely heated as to exert an expansive energy tending to split the mass into fragments. The amount of de- crepitation thus produced must, of course, depend upon the brittleness and other peculiarities of the meteor, as well as upon its velocity and upon the density of the air encountered ; but the effect must be similar in character to that which takes place when coal being thrown upon the fire of a locomotive, minute fragments split off by the sudden expansion, are carried up the chimney and fall upon the car-roof in such numbers as to remind passengers of the rattle of a shower of hail. It can scarcely be supposed that combustion has much to do with the splendor of meteors, or with thair destruction, since these mainly occur at heights at which there is not air enough to maintain combustion to any considerable extent. Their disintegration must therefore be mainly effected by heat alone, unaided by chemical action. Frequently, after the disappearance of a meteor of extraordinary splendor, a luminous train or cloud remains for a few seconds, sometimes for several minutes, and in some very rare instances they have remained visible for an hour or more. A remarkable example of this occurred on the 14th of November, 1868, when, shortly after midnight, a meteor ap- pearing over Northeastern Pennsylvania, left a cloud which remained visible to observers at Washington and New Haven and at all interme- diate poincs, for about three-quarters of an hour. According to Prof. Newton,* the observations indicated for this cloud ‘‘a real diameter of one mile, and a volume of a dozen or a score of cubic miles,’’ and that whilst visible it moved about forty miles, showing an average velocity relatively to the earth of nearly a mile per minute. What was its velocity relatively to the air is not known. This cloud was, no doubt, the debris of the meteor, a cloud of meteoric dust, moving rapidly through the air, compressing the air before it ; and, of course, if the above views be cor- rect, developing heat and light, just as, on a grander scale, heat and light * 3illiman’s Journal, vol. 47, p. 406. Marsh. ] i 128 [March 6, had before been developed by the motion of the meteor itself. The intensity of the light must of course, diminish with the loss of rela- tive velocity, and altogether cease whenever the cloud and the air are relatively at rest, or nearly’so.* The motion of a meteoric cloud, relatively to the air, may result either from its own momentum, from atmospheric currents, or from the diur- nal rotation of the atmosphere, in which the meteor, of course, had not participated ; or from any or all of these causes combined, so that it must in almost all instances be very considerable. The light of the aurora may perhaps in like manner be due to latent heat; for although rarefied air is a very good conductor, it probably offers resistance to the passage of electric currents sufficient to produce a momentary condensation quite competent to illuminate their paths. It is evident that if the upper air be in the condition suggested, the track of every mechanical impulse, traversing it with considerable velocity, must become luminous. This igneous condition of rarefied air necessarily implies a definite limit to the atmosphere of each member of the solar system : otherwise, meteors —being constantly subjected to the action of latent heat—would be lumi- nous, not merely when within one or two hundred miles of the earth, but at all distances. The depth of highly rarefied air which a meteor can traverse before becoming luminous, must of course, depend upon its velocity, tempera- ture, and conducting power ; but the height at which their luminosity is seen to commence must afford some clue to the determination of the height to which the atmosphere extends. The great comet of 1843, when in perihelion, Feb. 27, passed within sixty thousand miles of the surface of the sun, at a velocity of about 350 miles per second, and the next day was seen ‘‘as a brilliant body within less than two degrees of the sun.’’+ It was not seen again until about seven o’clock on the evening of March 7, when although the tail was a very conspicuous object, the brilliancy of the nucleus did not exceed that of a star of the third magnitude. This change, so much greater than could reasonably be expected to re- sult from increased distance from the sun, occasioned great surprise, and has not been satisfactorily accounted for. Is it not possible that its splendor was temporarily increased by the latent heat developed during its passage through the solar atmosphere ? The great day-light meteor of Nov. 15, 1859, was seen at 9 o’clock in the morning, in full sunshine, by persons who were not within two hundred and fifty miles of any portion of its path, appearing so very bright that they thought it close at hand. Comparing the probable size *Prof. Newton remarks (Silliman’s Journal, vol. 47, p. 407,) ‘‘ What kind of matter it is which remains visible in the cold upper air for three-fourths of an hour until, by gradual dissipation, the light fades out, I leave for others to say.” +Kirkwood’s Comets and Meteors, Phila., 1873, p. 17. 1874. ] 129 [Cope. of the comet with that of the meteor, and remembering the prodigious velocity of the former, may we not well imagine that its collision with the highly attenuated upper atmosphere of the sun might develop latent heat sufficient to enable it to rival the sun itself in splendor ? Although much of the evidence presented in favor of the existence of ‘latent heat of expansion,’’ and of its agency in the production of lumi- nous phenomena, may be said to be circumstantial only,—I trust that it will be found sufficiently cumulative, and accordant throughout, to enti- tle it to examination. PHILADELPHIA, Marcu 257Tu, 1874. ON THE PLAGOPTERIN.A AND THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF UTAH. By Epwarp D. Corsz, A.M. Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 20th, 1874. The observations recorded below are based on the collections made by the naturalists attached to the United States Geological and Topographical Survey west of the 100th meridian, under direction of Lieutenant Geo. M. Wheeler, and are published by permission of that officer. To Dr. Henry C. Yarrow, in charge of the department of zoology, and to A. W. Henshaw, assistant, the survey is indebted for material more fully illustrating the character and distribution of the cold blooded vertebrata of the vaJleys of the Colorado River and of Utah than any heretofore brought together. As one of the results derived from a study of it, it appears that the basin of the Colorado River is the habitat of a small group of fishes of the family Cyprinide, which may be called the Plagop- terine, which embraces three genera—Plagopterus, Cope; Lepidomeda, Cope; and Meda, Girard. The group differs from others of the family in the possession of two strong osseous rays of the dorsal fin, the posterior of which is let into a groove in the hinder face of the anterior without being codssified with it, thus constituting a compound defensive spine. The rays of the ventral fin, excepting the first and second, are similarly modified. The greater part of their length consists of an osseous dagger- shaped spine, with grooved posterior edge, which overlaps the border of the succeeding ray, when the fin, like a fan, is closed up. The articulated portion of the ray either emerges from the groove below the free acute apex of the spine, or appears as a continuation of the apex itself. It is worth observing that the only other instanceof this ossification of the ventral rays is to be seen in the extinct family of the Sawrodontide of the cretaceous period, the nearest approach among recent fishes being the internal spine in the ventral fin of Amphacanthus. 'The dentition and intestine of these fishes show them to be of carnivorous habits. Interest A, P. S.—VOL. XIV. Q Cope.] 150 [March 20 attaches to the Plagopterine as the only type of fishes not known from other waters than those of the Colorado basin. PLAGOPTERUS, gen. nov. Pharyngeal teeth, 2.5—4.2, raptorial uncinate, without masticatory surface. A terminal maxillary barbel. Scales, none; lateral line well developed. Dorsal fin with a strong spine composed of two, the posterior received into a longitudinal groove of the anterior. Ventral fins origin- ating (in the type species) a little anterior to the line of the dorsal, attached to the abdomen by a wide basis and length of inner radius. Superior labial fold continued round the end of the muzzle. This genus resembles Meda, Girard, in the presence of the dorsal spine, the adhesion of the inner border of the ventral fin, and the absence of scales, and differs in the presence of barbels, and the inner dental series being 5—4 instead of 4—4. Physiognomy of Rhinichthys. PLAGOPTERUS ARGENTISSIMUS, Sp. NOv. This is a small fish of slender proportions, with a rather broad head, with slightly depressed muzzle overhanging by a little a horizontal mouth of moderate size. The caudal peduncle is of medium depth, and the caudal fin is deeply forked. The eye is somewhat oval, and enters the length of the side of the head 4.2 times, and the interorbital width 1.5 times. The greatest depth (near the ventral fin) enters the total length nearly six times, or five and three quarters, exclusive of the caudal fin. The latter measurement is four times the length of the head. The origin of the dorsal is entirely behind the proper basis of the ventral ; its first spine is curved and longer than the second, and its basis is inter_ mediate between the base of the caudal and the end of the muzzle. The dorsal rays behind the spine have the basal two-thirds to one-half thickened and completely ossified, the articulated portions issuing from the apices of the spines. Radial formula, D. II. 7; C. 19; A. I 10—9; V.2.V; P. 16. The first or osseous ray of the anal is rudimental ; the fifth spinous ray of the ventral is bound by nearly its entire length to the abdomen bya membrane. The pectoral rays from the second to the sixth exhibit a basal osseous spinous portion, which is not nearly so marked as in the ventrals. The pectorals reach the basis of the latter. The lateral line is complete and is slightly deflexed opposite the dorsal fin. The lips are thin, and the end of the maxillary bone extends to the line of the front of the orbit. Total length M. 0.071; ditto to middle of basis of caudal fin .0565 ; ditto to anterior basis of anal fin .040; ditto to basis ventral .021; ditto of head .0145; of muzzle .004; width at posterior nares .006; at middle of pterotic .0078. Color, pure silver for a considerable width above the lateral line. Dorsal region somewhat dusky from minute chromatophore. Numerous specimens from the San Luis Valley, Western Colorado. 1874.] 131 [Cope. MEDA, Girard. Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1856, 192; U. S. and Mexican Bound. Survey, Ichthyology, p. 50. This genus resembles Plagopterus in the absence of scales, while it differs in the absence of barbels and the reduction of the number of teeth of the larger pharyngeal series to 4—4. Girard also asserts twice that the dorsal spine is ‘‘ articulated,’’ a character not observed by me in any species of the group. His figure of M. fulgida represents the ventral radii as articulated; but as there are other points in which it differs from the description, it is probably inaccurate. MEDA FULGIDA, Girard. A small species from the Rio San Pedro, a tributary of the Gila, in Southern Arizona. LEPIDOMEDA, gen. nov. Dorsal fin originating behind the line of the ventrals, which adhere to the belly by the inner ray. Body scaled, lateral line present. Pharyngeal teeth 4—4 in the inner row. No barbels, premaxillary series complete. This genus has the physiognomy of Clinostomus. The presence of scales distinguishes it from Meda. The spinous rays are not articulated. LEPIDOMEDA VITTATA, sp. nov. Form moderately stout, the greatest depth (at the first dorsal ray) entering the length to the basis of the caudal fin four and a quarter to a third times. The head is wide and flat above, with decurved pterotics, —and slightly depressed behind the interorbital region. Muzzle obtusely descending, not prominent ; mouth terminal and descending to a point below the anterior line of the pupil. Length of head, 3.75 times in total length to basis of caudal fin. Orbit round, 3.75 times in length of head, and 1.5 times in interorbital width. The latter is not uniform, but the middle plane is elevated a little above the superciliary ridges, and separated from them by a shallow groove. Nares sublateral. Teeth, 2.4—4.2. Preorbital trapezoid. Scales small, covering the whole body, except a space behind the pectoral fin, in twenty-six series above the lateral line, and fifty-six transverse in front of the dorsal fin. MRadial formula, D. II. 7; C. 19; A. 1.8; V. 1. VI.; P. 15. There are several peculiarities in the consti- tution of the spines of the fins in which the species differs from Plagop- lerus argentissimus. ‘Thus the second dorsal spine is wider than the first, and so deeply grooved behind as to represent a V in section; it also extends to the extremity of the first, while it isshorterin P. argentissimus. The remaining dorsal spines are less distinctly enlarged and ossified ; those of the ventrals are less developed, and their apices, instead of being free, continue into the terminal articulated portion. The pectoral radii Ye Cope. } 132 [March 20, are szarcely enlarged at all. The base of D. I. is nearer the basis of the caudal fin than the end of the muzzle, by the length of the latter to the posterior nares. Caudal fin deeply, forked. Total length M. 0.085 ; ditto to basis caudal fin .0685 ; ditto to basis anal .047; ditto to basis ventral .0325; ditto of head .018; to orbit .043; width at posterior nares .006; at middle of pterotic .009. Color, silver to half way between lateral and dorsal lines, the upper part of it underlaid by a lead-colored band ; a median dorsal black band from front to caudal fin. Numerous specimens from the Colorado Chiquito river, Arizona, col- lected by Dr. Newberry, Jr., (5x). The largest species of the group. LEPIDOMEDA JARROVII, Sp. nov. A species resembling the last in many respects, but differs in a greater elongation of form, weakness of squamation and peculiarity of ‘coloration. The fin radii are similar in number and character, but the - -dorsal is furnished with more slender spines. The chin projects a little beyond the upper lip when the mouth is closed. The depth of the body at the ventral fins enters the length to the basis of the caudal 5d to 5.25 times, and the head enters the same four times. The eye is larger than in ZL. vittata, entering the length of the head 3.25 times and equalling the -interorbital width. The end of the maxillary bone reaches the line of the anterior border of the orbit. The pectoral fin reaches the ventral, but the latter does not attain the vent. The scales are difficult to detect ; there are 51 transverse series between the head and the dorsal fin. Total length, M. 0.081 ; do. to caudal fin .065; do. to anal .0465 ; do. to ven- tral .082; do. of head .0165; do. to orbit .C0048 ; width between orbits .005 ; do. between middle of pterotics .008. Color olivaceous above with a median black vertebral band ; sides to above lateral line silvery, leaden edged above. Bases of ventral fins red. From the Colorado Chiquito river, Arizona. Dedicated to Dr. Henry C. Yarrow, Zoologist of the survey under Lieut. Wheeler (No. 505). The following species were also obtained by the expedition from Utah Lake, the largest body of pure fresh water in the basin of the Utah, _ others of equal size being alkaline or salt. SALMO VIRGINALIS, Girard, Maintains its distinctness from S. pleuriticus, Cope, from the streams -which flow from the mountains on both sides, in its more slender form of ‘head and body. The depth enters the length 5.75 and 6 times, and -equals the length of the head to the preoperculum. In S. plewriticus of equal size, it enters the length 4.66 times, and nearly equals the length of the head. CoREGONUS VILLIAMSONI, Girard. SIBOMA ATRARIA, Girard. The largest of the lake Cyprinide, specimens procured weighing one and two lbs. 1874. ] 133 [ Cope. ALBURNELLUS ? sp. Scales 77. Anal radii I. 8—7. Teeth 2.4—4.2 without grinding face. 9 From Beaver River, Lake Utah, and the Rio Grande, in Colorado. ALBURNELLUS RHINICHTHYOIDES, Cope. Tigoma rhinichthyoides, Cope. Hayden’s Ann. Report U. 8. Geolo. Survey, 1871, p. 1478. Teeth 1.44.1. Scales =35— Abundant at Provo. CLINOSTOMUS HYDROPALOX, Cope. In Hayden’s Geol. Survey Terrs., 1871, p. 475. Abundant. CLINOSTOMUS TENTA, Sp. Nov. A smaller species than the last, distinguished by the smaller number of anal radii, the elegant coloration and other characters. Body of - average proportions, its depth entering the length without caudal fin four and one-third times, and exactly equal to the length of the head. . The head is compressed and the lips equal: the mouth is oblique, the end of the maxillary attaining the anterior line of the orbit. The orbit is large, entering the head three times and a fifth, and equalling the width of the convex interorbital space. Scales Bs, thirty-three in front of dorsal fin ; lateral line complete, deflexed between pectoral and ven- tral fins. Radial formula D. I. 9. A. I. 10; V.9; P. 11; reaching ventrals, which reach vent. Dorsal first ray equidistant between the basis of the caudal and the anterior nostril. Total length .073 ; do. to anal fin .042 ; do. to ventral .031 ; do. of head .014; do. to orbit .0036 ; width to posterior nostrils .004 ; do. at middle of pterotic .0062. The sides are pure silvery to the lateral line of pores, above which a blackish vitta extends from the end of the muzzle to the caudal fin. Above this is a narrow very white line which extends to the base of the caudal fin, and above this the entire dorsal region is blackish. Fins unspotted. Numerous specimens from Provo, near the Lake, (No. 666, 8.) RHINICHTHYS HENSHAVII, Sp. noy. An elongate species with small scales and overhanging but obtuse muzzle, resembling a Cerdtichthys of the group of C. nubilus (Rhinicl- ' thys,) Girard. The depth enters the total length 5.5 to 6 times, the head entering the same five times. Eye 4.3 times in length of head, 1.5 times in interorbital width. The base of the D.I. is intermediate between the base of the caudal fin and the anterior nostril. The ventral fins reach the anal, but are not reached by the pectoral. Dorsal fin originating behind the base of the ventrals. Radii, D. I. 9; A. I. 7; V. 8; P. 12. Seales rae Color white with a few dark clouds on the caudal Cope. ] 134 [March 20, peduncle. Inferior fins reddish. The more anterior position of the dorsal fin is one point of difference from R. mavillosus. From Provo; No. 48, a. Var. If, back dark ; a dark band from end of muzzle to caudal fin. Fins and lips red. D. I. 8 Provo; 204 a; 281 a; Colorado Chiquito, 5x., 240 Twin Lake, Colorado. Var. III. Back dusky ; numerous large black spots all over the sides and head; fins and lips crimson, D. I. 8, No. 754, from Apache, Arizona. HYBOPSIS TIMPANOGENSIS, Sp. nov. A rather compressed species with mouth obliquely descending, and teeth 2.4—4.2, with strongly developed masticatory surfaces. The lateral line of tubules is imperfect in all the specimens, often only repre- resented by a short series in front of the dorsal fin. In larger specimens it is better developed, and in still larger it may be complete, a point which remains as yet uncertain. In thesmaller specimens of Myloleucus parovanus, the series is imperfect for a short distance in front of the caudal fin, while it is complete in adults. I have observed the same in the Hypsilepis anolostanus, Girard. Scales small Fe The dorsal fin originates a little in front of a line drawn from the base of the first ven- tral ray. The pectorals do not reach the ventrals, while the latter attain the vent. Radii D.I.9; A. 1.8; V. 8. The depth is one-fourth the length, less that of the caudal fin, and the length of the head enters the same 3.66 times. Orbit 3 3 times in length of head, 1.2 times in interorbital width ; longer than muzzle. Preorbital bone trapezoid. Total length M .047; do. to basis of dorsal .0215; of head .011 ; width at pterotics .005. There is a narrow leaden line from the pterotic region to the base of the caudal, below which the color is yellowish, and above brownish, all dusted with black points. Cheeks silvery. Fins dusky. Numerous specimens were taken at Provo by Messrs. Yarrow & Hen- shaw, and at Gunnison (No. 668) by Mr. Klett. MInomus PLATYRHYNCHUS, Sp. NOV. This Catostomoid belongs to the genus Minomus, Girard, as defined by the writer in Hayden’s Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey for 1870, p. 484. It is of very elongate form, the depth of the body at the dorsal fin entering the total length seven and two-fifths times. The head is short and wide, with expanded and depressed muzzle; its length en- ters the total five and three-quarter times. The scales are materially larger on the caudal peduncle than on the post-scapular region, and the dorsal fin originates considerably nearer the end of the muzzle than the basis of the caudal fin. Radial formula, D. I. 11; C. 18, openly emar- ginate; A. I. 7; V. 9 not reaching vent; pectoral reaching half-way to ventral. Scales cae The orbits are excavated at their superciliary border, 1874, ] p 135 [Cope. and their diameter enters their frontal interspace 1.66 times, and the length of the head 4.6 times, twice in the length of the muzzle in front of its border. The muzzle considerably overhangs the mouth. The lip folds are tubercular and largely developed, forming a discoidal funnel. The posterior is deeply incised behind ; and there is a notch where it joins the anterior lip. The commisure is transverse and abruptly angu- late to the canthus, and covered with a cartilaginous sheath as in Chon- drostoma. Isthmus very wide. Total length M. 0.168; do. to basis caudal .149; do. to basis ventral -082; do. to basis of dorsal .070; do. of head .029; width of muzzle at mouth .0115; with head at pterotics .0156. Color blackish, belly and ventral fins yellowish (? pink). This species resembles the Catostomus discobolus, Cope, but has larger scales, besides presenting generic diffei- ences. Several specimens from near Provo. Messrs. Yarrow and Hen- shaw. MINOMUS JARROVII, sp. nov. A less elongate species than the last, with a much less enlarged muzzle. The anterior scales are smaller than the posterior, and the first dorsal ray is nearly intermediate between the end of the muzzle and the basis of the caudal fin. Radii D.9; C.18; A. I. 7; V. 9, well removed from both vent and pectoral fin. Depth at dorsal fin 5.75 times in total length, into which the length of the head enters 5.3 times ; orbit small, 4.6 times in length of head ; twice in interorbital width, and 1.75 times in muzzle, the latter projecting a little beyond mouth, not depressed, but nar- rowed viewed from above. Labial folds well developed, tubercular, the anterior rather narrow, the posterior deeply incised. Commissure with acute cartilaginous edge, regularly convex forwards. 14 Seales 5. 14 Total length M. .107; do. to basis of caudal .0933; do. to basis ver- tral .052; do. to basis dorsal .047; do. of head .0205; width muzzle at mouth .075 ; of head at pterotics .011. Color light brown with numerous dusky spots and clouds; a narrow abdominal band light ; fins and chin ? red. Two specimens (204a) obtained by Messrs. Yarrow and Henshaw at Provo. Dedicated to Dr. Yarrow, whose zoological explorations in vari- ous portions of the United States have been productive of many inter- esting results. CaTosToMuUs ?GENEROsUS, Girard. U. 8. Pacific R. R. Surv. X, p. 221. From Provo, Utah, specimens of two and a-half pounds weight. Cope. ] 1 36 [March 20, Recapitulation : The fishes of the Utah Lake above enumerated, number twelve species, as follows: Salmonide. Clinostomus hydrophlox, Cope. Salmo virginalis, Girard. Clinostomus tenia, Cope. Coregonide. Hybopsis timpanogensis, Cope. t Ea Pah ee Rhinichthys henshavii, Cope. Coregonus villiamsonii, Girard. Cyprimde. Catostomide. Siboma atraria, Girard. Minomus platyrhynchus, Cope. Alburnellus, sp. Minomus jarrovii, Cope. Alburnellus rhinichthyoides, Cope.| Catostomus ? generosus, Girard. The following species were obtained at other localities in Utah and Arizona. CERATICHTHYS BIGUTTATUS, Kirtland. Baird, Girard, Cope Cyprinide of Pennsylvania, p. 366, Tab. xi., fig. 5, var. cyclotis, Cope, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences, 1864, p. 278. Dr. Yarrow obtained a number of specimens of this abundant eastern fish at Harmony, in Southern Utah. This is an unexpected discovery, giving the species the greatest known range of any of our Cyprinide, the Semotilus corporalis accompanying it to the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. The Smoky Hill River was the most western locality for the C. biguttatus up to the present time. CERATICHTHYS VENTRICOSUS, Sp. NOV. Allied to C. henshavii, Cope, but distinguished by its deeper body and more numerous scales below the lateral line, which exceed in number those above it, contrary to the rule usual in Cyprinide. Depth at ven- tral fin one-fourth length exclusive of caudal fin, and a little less than length of head, orbit a little less than one-fourth length of head and 1.383 times in length of muzzle and interorbital width. Muzzle compressed, projecting beyond the horizontal mouth ; maxillary bone reaching the line of the anterior nostril. Radii D. 1.7; A. I. 7; V. 7. Dorsal origi- nating behind line of ventrals. Scales a. The specimens are bleached by the action of spirits, but they appear to have been of uniform color, excepting an irregular dark band from the end of the muzzle to the caud- al fin. Length of a specimen to base of caudal M. .061; do. to base of anal .048; do. to base ventral .033 ; do. to base dorsal .035 ; length head .0162; width do. between orbits .0045; do. at middle of ptero- tics .0078. Number cccl ; from Arizona. MYLOLEUCUS PAROVANUS, Sp. Nov. With a general similarity to Clinostomus montanus, this fish may be readily determined by the generic characters of the teeth and fins, as: Or 1874. ] 137 {Cope. well as by the reduced number of radii of the anal fin. The genus Mylolewcus was established by the writer in 1871* for species resembling Siboma, in having the pharyngeal teeth of the longer row 4—5, and the origin of the dorsal fin situated in advance of the ventral, but differing in the possession of well-defined masticatory surfaces on the teeth. The typical species is WZ. pulverulentus, Cope, from the warm springs of Utah, a fish which differs from the present one in the greater stoutness of form and smaller and more numerous scales. Form moderately stout ; muzzle short, conical, lips even, mouth very oblique, maxillary bone reaching anterior line of orbit. Profile of head and back gently arched. Depth of body equal length of caudal fin and measuring 4.25 in the total length less that fin; length of head, 3.5 or 6 in the same. Orbit large 3.1 times in length of head; greater than muzzle, equal interorbital width. Scales 4s, the lateral line decurved in front, and continued to base of caudal fin. Radii, D. 1.9; A. 1.8; V.9. The pectorals reach little more than half way to the ventrals ; the latter just attain the vent. Caudal well forked. The color is transparent, with a plumbeous lateral band, the ventral and pectoral fins dusky, the dorsal and caudal shaded with the same. Total length M. 0648 ; ditto to base caudal, .053; ditto to anal, .038; to ventral, .0288; of head, .014; to orbit, .003 ; width at middle pterotics, .0064. Numerous specimens were obtained by Dr. Yarrow from Beaver River, in Southwestern Utah. This stream flows into the Sevier Lake, a very alkaline body of water, in which no fishes were found by the naturalists of the survey. CLINOSTOMUS PHLEGETHONTIS, Sp. nov. Teeth, 1.5—4.2; body, deep, short ; scales larger than in any other species of the genus, viz.: eleven longitudinal and thirty-seven transverse series. There is no lateral line, which may be due to the immature state of the only specimen at my disposal. The depth enters the length with- out the caudal fin 3.5 times, while the length of the head is counted in the same four times. The orbit is large, entering the head 2.75 times, and .2 greater than interorbital width ; in older fishes the orbit will be found as usual relatively smaller. The lips are even, and the mouth quite oblique, the end of the maxillary reaching the line of the orbit. Radii, D. I. 7; A.I. 8; the ventrals originate in front cf the line of the dorsal, and extend to the vent, and are not nearly reached by the pectorals. Length without caudal fin, .034; ditto to basis of dorsal, 0186; length of head, .008; width ditto at pterotics, .0088. A broad plumbeous band on the side, below which the color is golden, above it probably translucent in life, with a dusky median dorsal line. Discovered in Beaver River, Utah, with the Myloleucus parovanus, by Dr. Yarrow. * In Hayden’s annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, p, 475. A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. R Q Cope. ] 138 {March 20, CATOSTOMUS ALTICOLUS, Sp. nov. A stout, rather short species of sucker, with elongate head and narrowed muzzle. The scales are larger behind than anteriorly, and number sixty transverse, and nineteen longitudinal rows. The radial formula is, D. 10; C.18; A. 7; V. 10, originating below the middle of the dorsal fin, and neither extending to the vent nor reached by the pectoral fin. Caudal with shallow emargination. The depth enters the length with caudal five times, which is three and two-thirds the length of the head. Orbit 4.33 times in head, 1.66 times in interorbital width. The muzzle is long (1.66 times orbit), but is not produced much beyond the mouth, but is truncate and narrowed viewed from above. Lip-folds well developed; the superior pendant, the inferior full but incised to the symphysis, the surfaces tubercular. Vertex flat. Total length M., .0868 ; ditto to origin caudal fin, .070; ditto to origin anal, .0546; ditto to origin of dorsal, 0365; width head at posterior nares, .008 ; ditto at middle of pterotics, .010; color silvery, upper part of sides and back dusky. In specimens of this size the lateral line is in- visible, but in adults of eight inches obtained by my friend, J. 8. Lip- pincott, it extends to the basis of the caudle fin. Numerous specimens from Twin Lake, Colorado, obtained by Dr. J. T. Rothrock, botanist of the survey. This lake is situated in the South Park, at an elevation of 9,500 feet above the sea (no. 120). CATOSTOMUS DISCOBOLUS, Cope. (Hayden’s Annual Report, U. 8. Geological Survey, 1870, p. 435). Numerous specimens from the Zuni River, Arizona, and from another not specified locality in Arizona, (No. 504), obtained by Messrs. Henshaw and Newberry. HAPLOCHILUS FLORIPINNIS, Sp. Novy. First dorsal ray standing above the second or third anal; formula, D. 10—11; A. 183—14; V. 7. Scales large in ten longitudinal and 29 trans- verse series. First dorsal ray half as far from base of caudal as from end of muzzle. Length of head 4.66 times in total, a little less than 4 times to basis of caudal fin. Orbit large, 3.2 times in length of head and 1.6 times in interorbital width. Mandible projecting a little beyond pre- maxillary ; one external series of teeth in both jaws larger than the others. Total length M. .0595 ; do. to anal fin .0335 ; do. to basis of ventral fin .027; do. of head .0138 ; width of head at pterotics .008. Color olive gray, the scales with ochre borders. Fins yellow, broadly edged with crimson. Numerous specimens from the Platte River, near Denver, Colorado. No. 65. A species with large scales. URANIDEA WHEELERI, Sp. NOV. The only Physoclystous or spinous rayed fish as yet found in the Great Basin of Utah. 1874. ] 139 [Cope. Radial formula, D: VIL. 17;:A. 12; P. 15 allsimple; Br. VI. The head is depressed and enters the length minus the caudal fin, three times. Orbit large one-fifth length of head, and twice the width of the frontal interspace. Greatest depth (at first anal ray) 6.75 times in length less caudal fin. Anal commencing opposite the third ray of the second dorsal. Lateral line deflexed opposite last ray of second dorsal. The recurved preopercular spine strong, the decurved small and obtuse. Palatine teeth present ; end of maxillary reaching line of pupil. Isthmus as wide as length of muzzle and orbit to front line of pupil. Skin every- where smooth. Total length .084; do. less caudal fin .069; do. to anal .042; do. to first dorsal .031; of head .022; width at maxillaries distally .0125; at preopercular spines .0185. From Beaver river 8. W. Utah. The other species of the Rocky Mountains, U. punetulata, Gill, has, according to that zoologist a much wider head, especially in the frontal region. This character is well ex- hibited by specimens in Dr. Hayden’s collections. Dedicated to Lieut. Wheeler, Director of the U. S. Survey west of the 100th Meridian. ON THE ZOOLOGY OF A TEMPORARY POOL ON THE PLAINS OF COLORADO. By Pror. E. D. Cope. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 20th, 1874.) Some years ago, Thomas Kite, of Cincinnati, observed an Entomostra- cous crustacean swimming in a temporary pool of rain-water. A species no larger than a pin’s head is abundant in horse-troughs, springs, &c., and belongs to the genus Cypris. That observed by Mr. Kite is much larger, and is not known to occur in flowing water. It was named Limnadella Kitei by Girard. I have since observed it in Pennsylvania, in rain puddles standing in the ruts of roads in woods; and in New Jersey Dr. Knieskern found it in similar pools alongside of roads in the open country. The wonder naturally is, how strictly aquatic branchiferous animals can be propagated under the circumstances, and how they can be distributed from place to place. A similar species has been recently observed by M. Tissandier in pools in the valley of the Seine. These were left by a flood of the river, and before drying up became populous with a species of the Cypridide. The most remarkable examples of this kind are, however, to be ob- served on the plains of Kansas and Colorado. Here rains create temporary pools in depressions of the surface, which may remain for a few days or weeks, but are all dried up by the end of September. Nevertheless, some of them at least swarm with a population of branchiferous crustaceans, worms and larvee of insects, with the adults, which, in their developed state, come to the surface for air, or live on Cope. J 140 [March 20, 1874. the adjacent banks. Observations on a pool of this kind determined sixteen species which lived in or on the water, which had an area of thirty feet by fifteen, and a depth not exceeding a foot. Three of the species were worms, six insects, one arachnid, and eight crustaceans. The insects were a bluish fly, with a pale bloom, which ran rapidly over the surface, aiding its progress by its wings ; a slender beetle, that clung to the submerged stems ; two species of actively swimming water- beetles, one beautifully varied with white ; and a sluggish, pale-green species, which swam readily. There was also that cosmopolitan boatman who swims on his back, the hemipterous notonecta. One of the worms was delicately striped with lines and rows of dots, another was soft and jointless, and could contract itself into a mere lump or extend itself to considerable length. It was no doubt a planarian, and was of a pea-green color. Another planarian was white, and some of its internal organs showed as a milk-white zigzag figure through the body walls. It swam freely through the water. Of the crustaceans, four were the shelled Cy- prides. One was very sinall, short oval, and green ; another, still small, was a long oval, straw-colored, and covered with hair ; a third was large as a small pea, almost globular, and brilliant green. It was very abund- ant, swimming in twos and threes among the grass-stems or near the sur- face. The fourth was a gigantic species, large as the thumb-nail, and of « pale-reddish orange color. It was frequently observed in encounters with others of its species. The water was alive with shoals of what appeared to be at first sight the translucent fry of some fish. On closer examination they proved to be elongate crustaceans allied to the Branchipus, their delicately-fringed gills hanging suspended from the hinder segments of the body. They were covered with a jointed coat of mail, and darted about with great activity. They were elegant creatures, with a crimson tail setting off the glass-like clearness of the body. The most singular of these forms is the Cyclops. It resembles superficially the king crab of our sea-shores, truly, indeed, in the great buckler or shield covering the head and thorax. It has a single elevation on the middle of the top of the head for two eye windows or cornee, and an inferior pair of widely- separated eyes look downward to the bottom of the water. The tail or body is soft, jointed, and worm-like, and bears a pair of feelers at the end. These curious creatures swim on the bottom, chasing each other here and there, resembling in their motions and form diminutive cat fishes. Some other forms were minute crimson, and strangely formed creatures. The common arachnid was a round-bodied Hydrachna, or water- tick, of a bright red color. This population evidently has a short life, and it is probable that their existence is only secured bythe long preservation of the eggs in the bottom of the dry ponds, which may be readily carried from place to place by winds during the dry season. April 17,1874.) 141 [Chase, COSMICAL THERMODYNAMICS. By Prov. Piiny EARLE CHASE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 17th, 1874.) A committee* has been appointed to invite the participation of Students in the discussion of a paper which will be presented at the coming autumn meeting of the Association of German Naturalists and Physicians. The paper is entitled ‘‘ Losung des Problems uber Sitz und Wesen der Anziehung,”’ its object being the identification of gravitating force with thermo-dynamics, by means of the thermal equivalent and Carnot’s law of thermo-dynamic energy. In compliance with the invitation, and as a contribution to the general theory of unitary force, I submit the following Theses, together with references to portions of my communications to the American Philo- sophical Society during the past eleven years, in which some of them are practically exemplified and verified. 1. If Force is unitary in its origin, it should be omnipresent in its manifestations. 2. In a supposed universal, material, elastic and therefore slightly compressible, luminiferous ether, we may reasonably look for such omnipresent, primitive manifestations. 3. Ina universally undulating ether, any gross inertia of points or particles, must establish special systems of both centripetal and centri- fugal undulations. 4, The gross, inert particles, in an ethereal ocean, would be impelled towards each other with velocities varying directly as the sum of their inertias and inversely as the square of their distance. 5. As soon as a revolution is established around the common centre of gravity of three nearly equal particles, under the influence of ethereal undulations, there should be a tendency to discoid aggregation with a central spheroidal nucleus. 6. On account of ethereal elasticity, there should also be a subordi- nate tendency to aggregation along lines of logarithmic parabolas or spirals. 7. In an infinitely diffused nebulous mass, all work would be internal. 8. In a finite, condensing, nebulous mass, there would be external work, especially manifested in attraction, revolution, and rotation. 9. As condensation progresses, v/ (the velocity of revolution of a free jz equatorial particle) oc V p3 0’ (the velocity of rotation of a constrained 1 equatorial particle) oc 7, o (v’)?; g (the velocity of centripetal impul- 2 : i 2 4 sion) (;) a (0!) x (0/). *Aurel Anderssohn, President; E. Fritsch; Dr. med. Magnus, privat-docent, Univ. of Breslau; von Schmidt, 1st Lieut. in 6th Regt. Artillery; Dr. med. Luiwig Hey- mann. Chase. ] 142 [April 17, 10. The foregoing postulates are all equally true, whether the centri- petal impulse originate in a thrust, orin a pull. 11. We have no direct evidence of any primitive pull, but we have evidences of radiating thrusts of light and heat from stellar centres. 12. IJInall known cosmical motions, the centrifugal and centripetal forces act under such laws of equilibrium, that the apparent pull of gravity may be explained by the difference between external and inter- mediate radiating thrusts. 13. We know of oscillations in the «ethereal sea, propagated with te (the velocity of light). The communication of an exceedingly minute portion of that velocity to inert particles, would be sufficient to produce all the phenomena of gravitation. 14. The greatest manifestation of gravitating force in our system (g at Sun’s surface) — 875.618 ft. — 875.618 & 584,400 = 511,711,159 mean light. waves per second. There being 592 (10) mean light-waves 511,711,159 1 592 (10) 1157 (10) per second, that force could be produced by of the mean velocity of each light-wave. 15. If gravity were propagated with infinite velocity, and any inert mass were concentrated in a point, a body falling to that point would obtain an infinite velocity. 16. If gravity is the resultant of oscillations of finite velocity, and if solar rotation, planetary revolution, and solar motion in space, are all resultants of gravitating action, their velocities should‘all be limited by y” (the velocity of the primary efficient oscillation). 17. In a homogeneous circular disc, of infinitesimal thickness, g « dis- tance from centre. 18. If such a disc were revolving in a circular orbit, under the combined influence of tangential and centripetal thrusts, in a slightly compressible ethereal ocean, it should rotate as well as revolve, the limit of possible rotating velocity being 0”. 19. If the supposed dise should acquire such a velocity that at the periphery v/ = o// = ;/gr, the same equations would be true for every particle in the disc. 20. In a sphere or spheroid, the superficial centripetal thrusts should produce an increase of density at and towards the centre. 21. The ratio of the rotating action of an ethereal stream on the equatorial plane of a nebulous sphere, to the propelling force of the same stream acting on the spherical surface, is art An , or 1:4. 22. Ina rotating and revolving star, planet, or satellite, each equa- torial particle oscillates in waves which have a height equivalent to twice the distance of the particle from the centre of gravity of the rota- ting body. 1874.] 145 [Chase. “3. If t// — time of rotation, the integral of the impulses communica- . . = : th ted during each rise or fall of the rotation-wave, is Ge R >) ~ 24, If the rotating body were to expand or contract uniformly, 1 9 e . Ol ee p and t/” o¢ r° OC ee gt’ is .*. a constant quantity for each par- 2 ticle. 25. At the trough of the rotation-wave, the accumulated retrograde velocity is exactly equal to the originating velocity of tangential orbital impulsion. In other words, J“”’ — y*- 2 26. The velocity of rotation would become equal to the velocity of t!/ t! . 7 suntlhs LO ans wT Dire iv wie revolution, when the sphere had contracted so that T limiting velocity of inertial aggregation is, therefore, such as would carry a body through the equatorial diameter of a spheroid, while ad would describe its equatorial circumference. 27. The elasticity of the «ther should give rise to harmonic vibrations, and especially to vibrations which involve multiples of 1/2,* 3,+ V 4, | and <§. 28. In consequence of the harmonic vibrations, there should be a tendency to the establishment of points of inertia, and the consequent aggregation of planets and satellites, at harmonic nodes. Such a ten- dency is illustrated by the Chladni plates, and the 14th Thesis shows that the supposed cause of aggregation is more than adequate for the production of the supposed effects. 29. The blending of different harmonic vibrations should produce secondary vibrations of a lower order, giving rise to varying orbital ec- centricities. 30. The influence of harmonic vibrations should be traceable, not only in planetary positions, but also in their masses, momenta, and moments of inertia. ; 21. The «ethereal action upon inert masses or particles, should be followed by a reaction of the particles upon the ether. Subordinate _ rotating impulsions should thus be established among the planets, and satellites, and particles. - 32. The same harmonic laws which introduce order among the various bodies of the macrocosmic system, should also be operative in various forms of orderly arrangement, within each of those bodies. *The velocity of fall from infinite distance — V 29". {Centre of linear oscillation = 2 J, Centre of spherical oscillation = V2? ire §See Thesis 26. Chase. ] 144 [ April 17, 30. The superiority of the wave-theory over the equilibrium theory of tides, demonstrates the importance of considering the cumulative effect of successive impulses, both in molar and in molecular investigations. 34, The height of the atmosphere is sufficient to give the total wave tide a position identical with the equilibrium-tide, with the crest verti- cally under the disturbing body. 30. The stratification of the atmosphere, indicated by the various currents, should often produce tides in the lower couches of the air identical in position with the ocean tides, with the trough vertically under the disturbing body. 36. The resultant of the tangential and radial orbital impulses upon the elastic atmosphere, combined with the resistance of the earth’s surface, should produce daily barometric fluctuations, of such general form and magnitude as have been observed. 37. All tidal influences upon the atmosphere, whether thermal or gravitating in their immediate dependence, should be modified in accord- ance with Ferrel’s laws. 38. There should be cumulative annual as well as daily barometric tides, and in consequence of the tendency to maintain ‘‘ equality of areas,’’ the two should be so connected as to furnish data for approxi- mate estimates of the Sun’s distance. 39. Local temperature should be a measure of the work accomplished by the various local ethereal impulses. The average temperature of different latitudes should, therefore, be determinable by a priori mathe- matical calculation. 40. The barometric tides, if they are dependent upon elastic sthereal waves, should furnish some indications of the elasticity and resistance of the ether. 41. If the disturbances of the moon and planets upon the atmosphere, are produced through the intervention of undulations, and therefore cumulative, evidences of such disturbances should be found in the cycles of meteorological phenomena. The disturbances should be of a greater magnitude than any that are attributable to mere differential-tidal attraction. ; 42. The velocity and length of sound waves should bear some definite harmonic relation to the mean velocity of the atmosphere, as well as to the velocity and length of the waves in the primary efficient undulation. 43. The daily and annual variations of magnetic needles, should be similar to those which would be produced by mechanical vibrations simu- lating the thermal currents in the atmosphere. 44, Harmonic analogies should afford probable bases for astronomical, physical, and chemical anticipations. 45. Harmonic relations should be traceable, between gaseous oscilla- tions relatively to the Sun and any given planet, which are dependent upon the relative masses of the disturbing bodies. 46. If gaseous particles are uniformly distributed along a given line le 1874.] 145 [Chase. in consequence of an explosion, a secondary centre of linear oscillation should be established between the primary centre and the centre of gravity, [2 — 2 of (¢ — 3) =]. 47. Planets and satellites, oscillating under the combined action of centrifugal and centripetal forces, and subject to disturbances from mutual interaction, should tend to arrangements analogous to those of the particles in an exploded gas. 48. The force of superficial gravity, at the Sun and at the principal planets, should be in simple harmonic relations to other elements of planetary motion. 49. The laws of mechanical arrangement, in the particles of a homo- geneous elastic ether, should give rise to polar forces. 50. The velocity of primary oscillation (Theses 16, 25, &c.,) which satisfies the foregoing theses, by explaining all velocities which are the result- ants of gravitating force, ts the velocity of light. These Theses seem to me to be all rigorously and mathematically connected with the hypothesis of a universal elastic ether. In my accounts of the successive tentative steps, inductive, deductive, and anticipative, by which [have been brought to their recognition, there has necessarily been much that was crude, and some things that were perhaps merely visionary, but the steps have all led towards the same goal. While endeavoring to learn caution from my mistakes, I have never ceased for a moment to believe that the many harmonies and coincidences which I have pointed out, were indicative of important but unknown laws. The identification of 0” and o', (Thesis 50), is perhaps the most important conclusion of the whole, and its importance may render some- what fuller details desirable. The common explanation of planetary motions, assumes a primitive tangential impulse and a constant gravi- tating pull, the resultant of the two forces determining the path at every instant. But it should be remembered that the efficient tangential im- pulse is by no means the one which was originally communicated ; that it, as well as the pull of gravity, is continually shifting its direction, and continually renewed ; and that all the known cosmical motions can be as readily accounted for by the impulse of waves upon particles differing in their relative amounts of inertia, as in any other way. In any case of free orbital revolution around a centre of gravity, every infinitesimal pull of gravitation is assumed to be efficient, in some way or other. If the orbit is circular, the orbital velocity (;/g7) is renewed, as often as a portion of the orbit, equivalent to radius, has been described. This fact is, of itself, suggestive of equal oscillations, either alternately or simultaneously centripetal and tangential, and it may well justify us in looking for some equally simple relationship to an invariable velocity of primitive and continual impulsion. The only presumably invariable velocity that we know, being that of A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. § Chase. ] 146 {April 17, light, and the only mode of viewing gravitating action, under an inva- riable relation to a uniform velocity, being the one which I have pointed out in Theses 23 and 24, there seems to be an a priort probability that vo may be represented by some simple function of the constant velocity gt’, and that gravitating motion, as well as light motion, may be undu- latory. Since gravitating fall acts, in orbital motion, until the sum of successive gravitating impulses has communicated a tangential velocity equal to ;/gr, thus renewing the orbital velocity, it seems natural enough to suppose that the same fall may also act, in rotary motion, until the sum of successive impulses has communicated a centripetal velocity == o = vo, thus renewing the velocity of primary impulsinn. If the gravitating thrusts or pulls are supposed to be all efficient, it is not only right, but itis even our duty, as earnest truth-seekers, to try to trace their efficiency as far as possible. In the oscillation described in Thesis 22, each equatorial particle is al- ternately approaching to, and receding from, the orbital centre of gravity, during intervals of a half rotation. The integral of gravitating im- pulses, at the centre of our system, during each wave rise or fall, is, perhaps, as closely identified with the velocity of light, as is the integral of gravitating impulses, during the orbital description of radius, with the orbital velocity. For, from the equation os ag” vy we deduce, for the time of solar rotation, ¢/’ — jaime A a < (sa38 iy This ; 2 x 497.827 ~~ \214.86z/ © value differs, by less than 2 of one per cent., from the estimate of Bianchi, Laugier, and Herschel, and by less than 34 per cent. from that of Spérer, which is the lowest estimate hitherto published. From the // constant solar equation, aes at we readily obtain, by introducing the 9 variable 7, the general equation for planetary velocity, ‘gr == ee of t// The following references are to the published volumes of the Proceed- ings of the American Philosophical Society, except when otherwise specified. The Arabic numerals, prefixed to each set of references, denote the Thesis which they verify or exemplify. 2. ix. 871, April 15, 1864 ; ix. 427, 482, Oct. 21, 1864; x. 98, April 21, 1865; xii. 392, Feb. 16, 1872 ; xii. 411, July 19,1872; Trans, Amer: Philos. Soc., xiii. Art. VI. - 8, xi. 108, April 2, 1869; xiii. 140, 142, Feb. 7, 1873. 4, xiii. 245, May 16, i873. 6. xii. 518-22, Sept. 20, 1872; xiii. 193, 244, April 4, May 16, 1878. 9 . xiii. 146, March 7, 1873; xiii. 243, 245, May 16, 1873. 12. xiii. 193, April 4, 1873. 1374. ] 147 [ Chase, 13-26. ix. 408, July 15, 1864; xi. 103, April 2, 1869; xiii. 148, March 7, 1873 ; xiii. 245, May 16, 1873; xiv. 111-3, Feb. 5, 1874. 27-32. x. 261-9, Sept. 21, 1866; x. 3858, Nov. 15, 1867; xii. 392-400, Feb. 16, April 5, 1872; xii. 403-17, May 16, July 19, 1872; xiii. 140-54, Keb. 7, 16, March 7, 21, 1873; xiii. 193-8, April 4, 1873; xiii. 2387-48, May 2, 16, 1873; xiii. 470-7, Oct. 3, 1873; xiv. 111-3, Feb. 5, 1874. 38. ix. 283-8, Dec. 18, 1863 ; ix. 292, Jan. 1, 1864; ix. 346-9, March 4, 1864 ; ix. 367-71, April 15, 1864; xii. 178-90, Aug. 18, 18715 et passim. 34-5. x. 523-33, Oct. 2, 1868; xii. 180, Aug. 18, 1871; xii. 525, July 19, 1872. 36, ix. 284, Dec. 18, 1863. 37. Mathematical Monthly, i. 140, sqq.; January 1859, and continued in subsequent Numbers, some of the results having been published about two years before, in the Nashville Journal of Medicine and ' Surgery. 38. ix. 287, Dec. 18, 1863. 39. ix. 346-8, March 4, 1864; ix. 395.9, June 17, 1864; x. 261-9, Sept. 21, 1866. 40. ix. 292, Jan. 1, 1864; ix. 408, July 15, 1864. 41. x. 261-9, Sept. 21, 1866 ; x. 439, June 19, 1868; x. 530-3, Oct. 2, 1868 ; xi. 118, May 7, 1869; xi. 203, Oct. 1, 1869; xii. 38-40, March 38, 1871 ; xii. 65-70, March 17, April 7, 18715; xii, 121-3, May 5, June 16, 1871; xii. 178-90, Aug. 18, 1871; xii. 400, April 5, 1872; xii. 523-9, Ocs. 18, 1872 ; xii. 556-9, Nov. 1, 1872. 42, xi. 109, April 2, 1869; xiii. 150, March 21, 1873. 43. ix. 359, 367-71, April 1, 15, 1864; ix. 427-40, Oct. 21, 1864; x. 98, 111, sqq., April 21, May 19, 1865 ; x. 151-66, Oct. 6, 1865 ; x. 358, Nov... 15, 1867; xiii. 153, March 21, 1873; Trans. Amer. Philos. Soe., xiii. Art. VI. 44, ix. 284, Dec. 18, 1863 ; xiii. 140, sqq., Feb. 7, March 21, 1873 ; xiii. . 237, 202, May 2, 16, 1873; xiii. 470, Oct. 3, 1878. 45. xii. 392, sqq., Feb. 16, 1872; xiii. 142, Feb. 7, 1873. 46-8. xi. 103-7, April 2, 1869; xii. 392, sqq., Feb. 16, March 1, May 16,.. July 19, 1872 ; xiii. 140, sqq., Feb. 7, March 7, 1873. 49. ix. 399, 367-9, April 1, 15, 1864; xii. 407-8, May 16, 1872. 50. ix. 408, July 15, 1864 ; ix. 427, 4382, Oct. 21, 1864; x. 261-9 ; Sept. 21, 1866 ; xi. 108, sqq., April 2, 1869 ; xiii. 149, March 7, 1873 ; xiii, 245, . May 16, 1873; xiv. 111-3, Feb. 5, 1874; et passim. Chase. | 148 [ April 3, SAVING-FUND LIFE-INSURANCE. By Priny EARLE CHASE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 3d, 1874.) Hiizur Wright, the eminent Actuary and formerly State Commissioner of Life Insurance for Massachusetts, has proposed a combination of Saving Fund and Life Insurance, to dispense with the extravagant com- missions of canvassers, and with other enormous expenses incident to the present competitive system. If sufficient business could be secured, there can be no doubt that such a combination would work admirably. In order to float a company until a paying business is established, Mr. Wright proposes to start with a capital of $500,000. But capitalists are timid in regard to untried enterprises, especially when it is proposed to enter a business field without resorting to any of the customary methods for inviting business. It may, therefore, be well to inquire if there be no other way, in which some analogous ex- periment may be tried safely, cheaply, fairly, beneficially, and in every way satisfactorily. Life Insurance is the safest of all kinds of underwriting. The risks are known with greater certainty, the contingencies of extraordinary misfortune are fewer, the margin reserved for unforeseen calamities is more liberal, and the interest of the beneficiary in guarding the risk is greater, than in any other of the many forms of protective insurance. The only case in which a guarantee capital would be of any advantage, ‘is when heavy losses occur before sufficient accumulations have been provided to meet them. Saving Funds, notwithstanding their occasional failure, have long been, and will doubtless continue to be, more popular than Life Insu- rance Companies. They require no expensive corps of agents or can- vassers, and but little advertising, especially if the interest of the benevo- lent can be enlisted in their behalf. This may be easily done if other advantages are added to those of an ordinary Savings Bank, and es- pecially if the depositors and friends of the Institution can be brought to feel that the money can be withdrawn in case of pressing personal necessity, while, in case of early and unexpected death, the bereft family will be specially benefited. The proper way, therefore, to inaugurate the proposed experiment, would seem to be, to add new inducements to a system that is already cheap and popular, rather than to enter into the field of direct competition with the cumbrous and expensive organizations and appliances which have been thought necessary for the successful working of a system that is costly, and, ia many respects, unpopular. In order to secure such added advantagesas I have suggested, I submit the following outline of a plan, which may, perhaps, be so modified by hints derived from the study or experience of others, as to be deemed worthy of practical trial. 1. Credit all depositors with four per cent. simple interest, and give them the right to draw upon their accounts, either under the usual re- 1874.] 149 [CLage. strictions, or subject’ to such regulations as may from time to time seem desirable. b 2. Credit all profits to a general fund for the benefit of the family, or other specified persons, at the death of each depositor, the interest of each contributor, in the common fund, being proportional to the amount of his average deposits. 5d. Encourage beneficial contributionships, of stated sums per week, month, or year, for the payment of fixed sums at the time of death, the payments being further guaranteed by a sufficient stipulated tax upon all the survivors. 4, Open accounts in accordance with the ordinary principles of Life Insurance, crediting each deposite with the amount of a fully-paid policy to which it would be entitled. These accounts will facilitate the determination, at the death of each depositor, of his interest in the com- mon fund, and they will prepare the way fora final safe assumption of all the risks of specific Life Insurance, Endowments, Annuities, Tontines, &c. 5. Allow the beneficiaries, if they desire it, to continue their partici- pation in the accumulated profits, for ten years after the death which gives them an interest in those profits. 6. Convince merchants, manufacturers, clergymen, and benevolent individuals generally, that the depositors in the proposed institution will receive a greater return, in case of early death or other unforeseen calamity, than they could obtain from any other source. The voluntary, unpaid recommendations, thus secured, would soon command a large and profitable business. 7. Enlist the co-operation, in the Board of Directors, of men whose reputation for tried integrity and disinterested philanthropy, will be a sufficient guarantee of wise and equitabls administrations. 8. Invite an examination, by the wealthy and charitable, of the claims of the Institution for their consideration, and for a participation in their bounty. Contributions thus obtained should be added to a permanent fund, the income being used for the benefit of all the depositors. After a sufficient capital has been accumulated, all the specific under- takings of Life Insurance and Annuity Companies could be assumed with perfect safety, and with the assurance of larger returns than any Company can now afford. A large amount of the best class of business would come from intelligent, careful men, who are influenced more by their own judgment of the merits of a system, than by the representa- tions of canvassers. There would be no forfeiture, no anxiety from fear of inability to meet the yearly increasing burden of a large yearly pre- mium, no doubtful hesitation about investing the unusual profits of pros- perous years, no fears of pettifogging attempts to evade payment in case of death. The young, strong, industrious and prudent, whose risks are least, while their need of insurance, in case of unexpected calamity, is greatest, would contribute so large a part of the deposits, that the accumulations of the benificiary fund would be unusually great, and all the participants would be proportiouately helped thereby. Blodget. ] 150 [May 1, A DOWNWARD ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION, AS ONE CAUSE OF EXTREMES OF COLD. By Lorin BLopGer. (Read before the American Philosophical Sciety, May 1st, 1874). The system of atmospheric circulation which gives us a general easterly movement in temperate latitudes, scarcely needs further explanation, yet the recent establishment of observatories en Mount Washington and on Pike’s Peak, are found to afford positive evidence in verification of such movement that is full of interest. The easterly current on the top of Mount Washingon, at least, is almost constant and with extreme velocity, in a direction the resultant of which is almost due east, and there are no conditions apparent to throw doubt on the general assumption that this is the returning current of a vast system of atmospheric circulation to and from the tropics, primarily, through which the heat and humidity of the tropics are widely diffused at both the northern and southern tem- perate belts. But I propose only to refer to some deductions that have for some time past impressed me with great force, as to the origin of certain almost in- explicable facts of our climate, at points near the northern border of this system of circulation ; and particularly ‘in the colder parts of the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, in winter, and indeed, in all the cold months. I had the honor to lay before this Society on a former oc- casion, some suggestions as to the origin of the extremes of cold observed at various points, chiefly of the northwestern interior, and to express the conviction that these extremes were not propagated, or transferred along the surface, as a part of what is usually thought to be the surface circu- lation from the west; and also that they do not move down—that is, along the surface—from the north, or from any other point of the com- pass. On the contrary, they appear to be instituted or established at the point of their most extreme existence, as if brought down from the upper atmosphere, or as if the result of the action of causes extraneous to the earth’s atmosphere. The recent extension of observations to the territories of the plains, and to posts on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, has given us a new basis of facts for the discussion of the symmetrical climates of the eastern United States, as I may call them, since their principal changes are usually quite symmetrical ;—and it has disclosed the fact that no sym- metry or correspondence of phenomena can be traced across the Rocky Mountains, connecting any great storm, or any area of excessive heat, or excessive cold, with any like condition at the east. I have been particu- larly observant of such facts as I could obtain in regard to this point along the northern belt, for the purpose, first, of tracing, if possible, the origin of the remarkable extremes of cold occurring in Dakota and Min- nesota ; and have spent much time in examining these cases, with the result of coming to the conclusion that there is absolutely no connection 1874 } 151 [ Blodget. or movement from Oregon or Washington Territories eastward to the country of the Upper Missouri, or to the line of Red River of the north. There is no progressive march of a refrigerated area, or of a barometric depression, along that line from west to east across the mountains. And the line of separation is far east of the mountains themselves, apparently as far as the Yellowstone, nearly, though of course, there is some partial correspondence of phenomena west of this line, and some general relation of the principal conditions. And here I anticipate the more precise re- sults I hope to obtain, in explanation and corroboration of these positions, in order to put forth a view of the causes of these phenomena which ap- pear to me new, and which I hope others will examine also. It is that in the system of atmospheric circulation before referred to, there must be a general descent of atmospheric volumes to the surface at or near the northern border of the belt ;—that this descent may be of masses sometimes large, and depleted of both heat and moisture before they de- scend ;--that descending volumes may come also from the adjacent at- mosphere on the north, not containing heat or moisture brought from the tropics ;—and that, as a general fact these cold, dry masses of air, sink- ing quietly, or poured down with force and violence, to spread over the ‘surface as cold and violent winds, do cause many otherwise inexplicable extremes of cold in the winter and spring particularly. The descent of masses of heavy, cold air, must often be induced simply to fill the void caused by contraction of the volume of air from which rain and snow fall. All along the belt of westerly winds this contraction is going on, and this very rapidly during all the colder months. Moving with a constant motion toward the earth, as well as along the surface, it is only a natural vicissitude of this condition, that the descending mass should, at intervals, be poured, like a mass of cold water, over the border of the humid belt, producing the extremes that so often appear to strike down from above. I do not remember seeing much reference, hitherto, to descending vol- umes of air on the northern border of this belt of circulation, yet as the trade winds steadily withdraw the air beneath, toward the tropics, it must necessarily return above ; and it must descend as it returns. If all these movements were perfectly regular, we should see no spasms of se- verity, but as, in fact, there are many days of steadily expanding heat in spring, the days on which the contraction occurs are only the more vio- lent. Hence those heavy pouring winds, that bring such severity of cold during the spring months ; winds which are neither winds of propulsion, nor of aspiration, but merely the forcing down of cold masses of air from the upper atmosphere, to spread along the surface to some extent, but to be perpetually recruited and renewed from above. An easy experiment will illustrate the condition, by dropping the upper sashes of high win- dows in a heated room on a cold day,—the downward movement will prove unexpectedly tangible and heavy, and as conspicuously marked, almost, as if water were poured through the windows. Blodget.j 1 D 2 [May 1, On several occasions during the present month of April, the weather in he seaboard States has exhibited this phenomenon. All of the severely cold weather, for the season, has been initiated at the point where its greatest severity was experienced ; not being transferred along the sur- face from any point at the west, or at the north. For many days of the present month (April) these cold and heavy winds have been felt in the country east of the Alleghanies, when in no single instance that I can trace, has there been any connection or conformity of movement from the western or northern interior. Like severity has often existed there, but the fact, and all its relations, was local in this sense, or was not connected or continuous with other districts. When the enormous friction of atmospheric contact with the surface is taken into account, it must be apparent that there can be few winds of propulsion. I think it may be fairly assumed that the greater number of winds in cold weather particularly, are winds that descend, and that to this descent most of their continued force is due. On Saturday, April 11, and Sunday, April 12, the thermometer fell at Washington under the in- fluence of these obviously descending winds until in the night of the 12th it reached a minimum of 19°, while for three days previous no place west of the Alleghanies in the same latitude was below 50°, and the average temperature at Fort Sully, on the Missouri, 1200 feet above the sea, and in latitude 45° north, was as warm as at Philadelphia, at sea level, in latitude 429 N. This remarkable depression of temperature could not have been due to radiation, since all the areas west and north were even more exposed to radiation, being clear and calm ; nor was it due to north or northwest winds propagated along the surface, for there had been no cold winds from these points at the west or north for several days. Nor was there any general storm to effect a displacement or shrinkage, at least no storm on the continent. There may have been some general storm, or shrinkage at sea, however, facilitating or inducing @ descent of heavy masses of cold air from above to supply the partial vacuum. I venture to assume, therefore, a large measure of influence in causing extremes of cold in these latitudes to the descending volume of air inei- dent to the shrinking and wasting of heat and moisture from the atmos- pheric current eastward in the course of traversing the continent. Its northern border is perpetually invaded by fitful alternations of displace- ment; sometimes getting calm and intensely cold, to reduce the tempera- ture in winter to 10°, 20° or 30° below zero; and in spring, when the general accession of heat gives a more free play of the forces, a frequent recurrence of heavy northwest dry winds poured from above, and from the north, displacing and condensiny the local, or surface atmosphere ; and this overflow is almost constantly repeated until the whole system of circulation has been swept beyond our limits at the north, by the advance of summer. During most of the summer months the rarifying and ex- panding forces prevail so completely, as to remove all these phenomena far to the north, or possibly to another hemisphere. 1874.] 153 [ Blodget. We shall undoubtedly be compelled to revise our views as to the pri- mary or leading condition of general storms. The barometer is by no means a certain guide, and instances of severe storms with continuing high pressure throughout are frequently recurring. The recent severe storm of Saturday and Sunday, April 25th and 26th. This storm began with the barometer .15 above the mean, and scarcely fell below the mean (of 30. inches) after ten or twelve hours of continued severity, and when at its height here, on Saturday evening. At Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Louisville, &c., there was also no perceptible depression below the mean, the barometer being generally at almost exactly 50 inches. No storm was anticipated by the signal office, nor were there any evidences such as usually appear, justifying anticipations of a severe storm. Yet few storms have been as severe, the N. EH. wind of Saturday night being ex- tremely heavy here, while northeastward, to Nova Scotia, the slow but certain progress continued throughout the day and night of Sunday. On Monday morning, it is true, a considerable barometric depression appears in Maine and Nova Scotia, of half an inch, or more, in places, but this appears to have set in eastward of New York, almost exclusively. The storm was violent and long continued at New York and southward, with very little barometric depression, not enough to warrant expectations of a storm, or any severity of winds. There have been several conspicuous instances of a similar character since the Signal Service observations gave us such excellent opportunities for observation. I repeat, that the evidence is cumulative in support of the position that the atmospheric movement in the colder seasons in these latitudes is one of constant descent of volumes ; that the cold gales of the spring months, strike in at areas east of the Alleghanies from the northwest, when they are unknown west of that line ; and occur in repeated instances not only when by no possibility they could be continuous, or connected with like movements propagated from the northwest, but also when the winds, even so near as Pittsburgh, blew all the time in an opposite direction. The almost inexplicable phenomena presented by the severity, the per- sistence and force of these winds, with the low temperature they bring, become easy of solution, under the view that their volume is perpetually renewed at all points where they prevail, by constant pouring from above, as if a current of cold water was renewed and enforced in its movement by so pouring a stream downward, as well as along the surface. On each of the last three days the facts of such forcible descending winds were experienced here, and during the full period of ten days preceding there was, as the Signal Office charts will show, a marked absence of west or northwest winds at all points of the western or northwestern interior, from which it is usually supposed these high cold winds are derived, and propagated eastward along the surface to the Atlantic Coast. In fact, for a week from April 25th to May 1st, the weather was warmer at Pem- bina, lat. 49° N., than at Philadelphia, in 42° N., being 44° for the 1 a. M. observation at Pembina, to 42° for the same at Philadelphia. A. RP. S.—VOL. XIV. T Channing. ] 154 [May 1, 1874. METEOROLOGICAL PECULIARITIES OF NEW ENGLAND. By WILuiAM F. CHannine, M. D. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 1st, 1874.) — For twenty years I have noticed au invariable coincidence between the appearance of ice in quantity on the Newfoundland Banks or neigh- borhood, and an unusual, often constant rainfall in New England. This rainfall appears to be in proportion generally to the amount of ice, and it is followed, I think always, by a dry period, perhaps a drought of several weeks, the drought apparently having some proportion to the ex- cess of previous rainfall. | The appearance of ice on the Banks or neighborhood varies in differ- ent years, from April to June, and the wet spring and summer drought are early or late accordingly. Many years the quantity of ice is small and the disturbance of the rainfall is hardly noticeable. I am aware how many observations are‘required to establish a meteorological law for any part of the earth’s surface. I therefore only venture to ask attention to these coincidences. There is another obvious peculiarity in the meteorology of the New England coast, due to its geographical position. The projection of Eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island into the Ocean may be com- pared to a nose on the Atlantic profile of the country. It happens hence that storms following a course parallel with the coast, but either just inside or outside the coast line, will in the one case pass entirely inside the projecting shore of New England, and in the other, sweep over Eastern New England, without warning, while the rest of the country enjoys average clear weather. From these two proceedings, land storms passing inside, and sea storms extending over the coast from Cape Ann to New London, it results that the weather predictions are more fre- quently falsified over this region than perhaps on any other part of the coast or interior. And yet no part of the American Coast is more densely thronged with vessels in both the coasting and foreign trade. It would seem desirable, for the study of the ocean storms, which sometimes thus touch New England, {as well probably as Hatteras), to extend the Signal Service to the Bermudas (by a special cable) and also to Nantucket, and generally to extreme outlaying points on the coast. and May 1, 1874.] 155 (Frazer. NOTE ON THE COLOR OF THE MOON. By Pror. PERSIFER FRAZER, Jr. (Read before the American Philosophical Soc.ety, May, \st, 1874.) On the 19th of September, 1873, I presented to the Society certain views which as it seemed to me offered a satisfactory explanation of the change of color undergone by the moon during the passage of the twilight circle overher disc. i stated at that time that since what light we get from the moon is reflected solar light, which so far as we can discover has suffered no change on the surface of the moo ,, it would be natural to suppose that the color of the light would be the same as that of the Sun’s light. The Sun’s light is weil known to be orange, and the Moon’s in the day time white, while at night the latter exhibits the same color as the Sun, though the light is vastly more feeble. « That this change of color in the Moon depends upon the position of the observer relative to the Sun there can be no doubt, and it is equally certain that the phenomenon is of atmospheric origin, for the moon still remains white for some time after the Sun has set. If, as Tyndall supposes, the blue color of the sky be due to the scat- tering of the smaller waves of light by the infinitessimal particles or motes of the upper atmosphere ; and if the paths pursued by these re- flected blue waves be, as experiment proves, in all directions from all parts of this attenuated matter, the change of color may be easily ex- plained.* Thus the Sun appears to us orange or yellow, because, of the waves constituting white light, which impinge upon our atmosphere, a greater proportion of blue than of red and yellow waves are scattered. Of these waves thus scattered, a large proportion is thrown out again into space, while what remain are sent in all directions—even directly towards the Sun. This is one cause of the blueness of the sky, if not the only one. When the Moon is shining at night the same conditions are fulfilled. A small fraction of the Sun’s light is thrown unchanged into our atmos- phere and suffers the same filtering which his beams in daylight undergo; with this difference, that as the blue rays are very inferior to the yellow in luminousness, the more the amownt of light is diminished, the brighter relatively to the whole amount will appear these scattered rays; and *The objection that if the waves of light were thus sifted by tenuous matter, those of least length (or the ultra violet) would impart their color to the sky is invalid be- cause Tyndall has shown, and every one can demonstrate for himself, that the earliest appearance of color in a medium in which infinitessimally fine particles of matter are suspended is blue. Vide ‘‘ Blue color of sky,”’ &c., Tyndall, Fe Frazer. ] 156 [May 1, 1874. thus it happens that in a clear moon-light night the sky is much more strikingly blue than the same sky would be at mid-day. When the Moon shines in the day-time we must suppose that the rays she sends to us are affected in precisely the same way as at night. If she appear white (as is the case) it must be owing to an addition to this light of the constituents which it has lost, viz., blue. We know that these waves are coming to the eye from every part of the sky, and there- fore from that part occupied by the disc of the Moon, and hence the in- ference is natural that this contribution from the store of the Sun’s light just makes up what was necessary to produce white light, and that as this accession can go on after the setting of the Sun, and until the twilight circle has passed over the Moon, the whiteness of the latter will commence to fade as the thickness of shell of direct rays diminishes, and the maximum of deviation from the color (under given conditions of the atmosphere) will be reached just after the Sun has reached a point in the heavens whence the last direct ray tangent to the earth’s surface falls in the upper limits of the atmosphere on a line joining the Moon with the eye of the observer. But there is a practical mode of testing this hypothesis, which is de- pendent upon the polarization of the sky light in direetions perpendicu- lar to the Sun’s rays. When the Moon is in her first quarter she lies in just this direction from the observer; and since the blue light from the Sun, which, added to her own, causes her to appear white, is polarized, the Moon when viewed through a Nicols’ prism by day ought to appear orange. This observation has been many times repeated by me, and the results are precisely those anticipated. Owing to the fact that there is always some unpolarized light received in this direction the change of color is not quite so marked as is that from day to night, still the change is very striking and unmistakable. There is another cause for the blue color of the sky which is the effect of contrast in the eye. If all the light which was reflected was white light and very generally diffused over the firmament, the effect of the bright yellow orb of the Sun or Moon would be to tinge this light with blue so far as the subjective phenomenon was concerned. But that this does not explain the whole of the phenomenon is evident from the fact that the blue light obtained by Tyndall from his decomposition tubes was also polarized in a direction perpendicular to the path of the beam. LS7 May 1, 1874.] vl [Fulton. NOTE ON THE SOMERSET COUNTY COAL BEDS IN PENN- SYLVANTA. By Jonn FULToN. (Lead before the American Philosophical Society, Muy 1st, 1874.) In a recent professional visit to Somerset county, I obtained a vertical section of a portion of the Lower Coal Measures. As this part of the State has been, until quite recently, shut out from investigation, I pre- sumed that this scale would be interesting, and I respectfully submit it. The section was obtained from recent coal exploratians, near the village of Garrett, on the Pittsburg and Connellsville Railroad. At this place, the Seral Conglomerate is very clearly developed, rising gently westward on the eastern flank of Negro Mountain. Negro Mountain, or rather the Anticlinal bearing this name, plows up the middle of the first great basin, dividing it, at this place, into two shallow troughs having their greatest depth of coal measures near Meyer’s Mills and Bear Creek—the whole lying between the Alleghany Mountain on the east, and Laurel Hill on the west. Over the back of Negro Mountain, the coal measures and conglomerate have been swept away, leaving uncovered the red back of this large anti- clinal. Castleman’s River cuts deeply across the Negro Mountain anticlinal, unfolding a natural geological section, which has been further elabora- ted by the railroad cuttings along its northern bank—the whole affording unusual facilities for studying Formations XI and XII, with the posture and stratigraphy of the coal measures shoreing on either flank. Beginning in the railroad cutting, immediately west of Garrett Sta- tion, the Seral Conglomerate can be studied up to its floor. In this cut- ting, a thin seam of impure coal has been brought to light. It also ex- hibits a rather unusual plunge of the strata eastward, carrying the measures down 300 feet in three quarters of a mile—-with this exception, the measures exist under very gentle dips. : The Conglomerate, in its mechanical structure and general appearance, resembles very closely Broad Top and Clearfield. I did not obtain its total thickness but examined over 300 feet of it, which indicates a greater depth than at Broad Top. The floor line is distinctly marked in a bold cliff outcrop, 10 feet deep, of rather massive Conglomerate, slashed with clearage planes. On this rests a belt composed, at its base, of thin plates of sandstone graduating into shales and blackslate as it approaches the (A) coal seam. The division has been terraced with a flat slope, from the brow of the Conglomerate to the coal seam, profiling the two horizons very dis- tinctly. The first coal seam rests on a thin floor of fireclay. The coal bed has Fulton. ] 158 [May 1, 1874. two benches, the lower, 18 inches thick, is an impure cannel coal inclin- ing to block structure—the upper is a medium quality of semi-bitumi- nous coal with the well marked columnar structure peculiar to the Alleghany coals. The interval between this and the next small coal seam is composed of thin plates of sandstones with olive colored shales. The second workable seam (B) is pre-eminently the bed of the Lower system of coal measures. Not perhaps so much from its size and good quality of coal, as from its ready and sure identification, wherever it exists, by the massive bed of limestone on which it rests. The farmers trace it from hillside to hillside, regarding it with peculiar affection as a double gift—not only supplying fuel for domestic use, but also lime to en- rich the ‘‘glades”’ in their mountain farms. The coal in this bed is columnar in structure with plates of mineral charcoal disseminated. In structure and quality it is closely associated with the best Clearfield coal. It will be found a superior fuel for iron working. The third seam (C) is all pure coal of an excellent quality, but as the bed is high in the measures and does not occupy a wide area in this portion of the field, it has as yet received little attention. From seam B to the top of the scale the measures are composed of very soft flesh and olive colored shales, which have been rounded and softened into easy rolling slopes and rounded hills. Some pieces of the blue and drab colored carbonate iron ores of the coal measures were shown me, but their places in the scale were not clearly made out. The coals from the Lower Measures have thus far only found a local demand. Evidently the time has not come, or the right channel been opened to this great ocean of mineral fuel. It is yet like the Dead Sea, it has no outlet. True, the Pittsburgh and Connellsville railroad has opened channels to the markets east and west, but the law of supply from the large and excellent ‘‘ Pittsburgh seam,’’ west and east, is found as inexorable as the law of gravity, in holding back the Somerset lower coals, for the present at least. There is one channel to market which is being discussed, that is, by the opening of a railroad connection of 35 miles from Berlin to Mann’s Choice on the Bedford Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. This would furnish a channel for these coals to flow into market side by side with the Broad Top, Clearfield and Cumberland Coals. Saxton, BEDFORD Co., Pa., April 17, 1874. May 15, 1874.] 159 [Chase. COSMICAL EVOLUTION. By Piiny EARLE CHASE, PROFESSOR OF Puysics IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. | (Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 15, 1874.) We may reasonably assume, that natural laws which are the most general and the most constant are also the oldest, and that increasing specialization is an indication of increasing, and comparatively recent, development. The relation of luminous undulation to gravity may, perhaps, be most satisfactorily formulated in the following terms : At any point in space, perihelion velocity in a parabolic orbit (or its equivalent, the velocity communicated by infinite gravitating appulsion to the same point) 7s a mean proportional, between the variable mean velocity of the vector-radial oscillation due to solar rotation,* and the con- stant velocity ef light. In other words, if t/’ = time of solar rotation under a volume of any assumed radius, 7, 4dr ea = a Qy/ Faas WHR 3 8! aV/ RGR 8 VO OS = IE Since this formula, with the modifications indicated by Thesis 21,+ is applicable to all possible orbital motions about the Sun, as wellas t> solar rotation and solar motion in space, it seems to represent the most gene- ral, and, therefore, the oldest physical law yet discovered. t Next in point of generality, appears to be the relationship of orbital belts to the point, towards or about which every particle of our system is perpetually oscillating or tending to oscillate, viz., the mean-peri- helion centre of gravity of our binary star§ (Sun-Jupiter). The m-series of multiples of the primary radius which is determined by that centre, § fixes the major axis of solar revolution about the stellar centre of gravity, decides the relative masses of the Jovian and Telluric systems, || and groups the planets into pairs, the points of division corres- ponding with such apsides of Mercury, Earth, and Saturn, as recent in- vestigations have shown to be actually correlated, through mutual plan- etary interaction. The next steps inthe development of planetary order, were, perhaps, the fixing of an outer limit to the system, at such distance that the passage of a light-wave, from its linear centre of oscillation to the sun, is synchronous with the time of planetary revolution at the Sun’s sur- face ;** the establishment of new centres of inertia at harmonic nodes ; * The Sun’s volume being supposed to expard or contract, homogeneously, to the given point. + Proce. Amer. Philo. Soc., April 17, 1874. £ DWN MIDS TY DIN WN Genesis, i. 3. § xiii. 471, sqq. || xiii. 240, (3). ** Xili. 248, et ante. Chase. ] 160 [May 15, and the determination of orbital eccentricities by the blending influence ~ of linear, vircular, spherical, and harmonic undulations.§$ It is evident that every planet, satellite, or other rotating and revoly- ing globe, may have its principal motions formulated by the continued proportion, ar Bypie Dp) x gu’ x 5 yi: i GP 8B WW AOR & ( = =| ; » being constant for each body, 2 under every possible variation of g, 7, and ¢/’. The various primary cosmical velocities having been determined by the general ethereal undu- lations, and the arrangement of the planets being dependent on subor- dinate harmonic undulations, we may reasonably look for various second- ary values of v% having a similar dependence, indicating a relation- ship to solar centrifugal impulsion, analogous to that of the primary velocities to ethereal centripetal impulsion, and marking a further pro- gress in development. The equilibrium of solar centrifugal and centripetal forces, indicated by the equation » — j/gr, is a maximum at the Sun’s surface. This maximum velocity is equivalent to the constant determining velocity (0) for Jupiter and Earth, the controlling planets of the extra-aster- oidal and intra-asteroidal belts. There is still some uncertainty about the value of ¢’’ for any planet but the Earth. But Proctor’s discussions seem to leave no room for any important error in the case of Mars, and the lengths of days at Jupiter, Saturn, Venus and Mercury, are known accurately enough to furnish data for satisfactory comparisons. If we compute the values of 0 = = " from the commonly accepted elements, and regard dimin- ishing velocity as an evidence of increasing inertia and lapse of time, the order of planetary development, after the two principal planetary centres had been fixed, appears to have been Venus, Mercury, Saturn, Mars, the inner system, as a whole, being older than the outer. Evidences of increasing complexity are found, not only in the varied simple relationships to the primary radius,+ but also in mutual planetary associations. The points at which the reactionary centrifugal undula- tions would have communicated velocities equivalent to v” for Jupiter, Earth, Venus, and Mercury, are all within the asteroidal belt. The car- dinal point, that for Jupiter and Earth, is near the outer asteroidal limit, nearly midway between the orbits of those two controlling planets, and at nearly a mean proportionate distance between the Sun’s surface and Saturn, as well as between Mercury’s perihelion and Neptune’s aphelion. Venus and the Moon are related to the Earth, nearly as Neptune and * If m = mass of any planet or satellite, in units of Sun’s mass, we have the gene- amv t!’ + xili. 246-8. § xiii. 471, sqq. ral formula g = , t’’ being time of solar rotation for radius r. April 15, 1874.] 161 [Chase. Mercury to the Sun,* and their geocentric motions, as well as the terrestrial value of gt’, (¢’/ being the time of orbital revolution), are in simple relationships to the velocity of light.+ The determining point for Saturn is in the orbit of Mars; that for Mars, near Earth’s perihelion. My discussions of explosive oscillation§ have indicated a probable de- pendence of the chemical laws of combination and dissociation, upon the same forces which have determined planetary mass, motion, and arrange- ment. They may, therefore, help toward the further extension of the study of universal evolution. The almost inconceivably minute portion of the mean light-wave velo- city Geert Thesis 14) which suffices to explain all the gravitating motions of our system, seems to confirm the theory of M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who attributed weight to the longitudinal vibrations of the ether. The views of Cauchy and Moigno, who find in those vibrations the origin of heat, point to a still more complete identification of ther- modynamic and cosmical laws, while the enormous excess of apparently unused velocity, may account for Laplace’s conclusion that the propaga- tion of attractive force is at least six or eight million times as rapid as that of light. I am indebted to Abbe Moigno for a copy of Father Leray’s ‘‘Con- stitution de la Matiére et Ses Mouvements,’’ with a valuable historical Preface by the Abbe himself. This very interesting essay, like the some- what earlier dynamic discussions of Challis and Norton,{t demonstrates the plausibility and the adequacy of Newton’s ethereal hypothesis. I hope that the accordance of that hypothesis with the facts of Nature, which I have pointed out, and the simple mathematical basis upon which I have rested that accordance, may lead other competent analysts to labor in the same field. Even while ending this note, I find some new and interesting correla- tions of mass, density, time, and harmonic undulation, which may prove to be important. If we call the distance, at which a satellite would re- volve about a planet in the time of the planet’s orbital revolution, the isochronal radius, we have: 1. The mass of the Sun, is to the mass of any planet, as the cube of the pianet’s radius vector, is te the cube of its isochronal radius. 2. The perihelion radius vector of Jupiter, is nearly equivalent to 7? times its isochronal radius. 3. Jupiter’s radius, is to its isochronal radius, as its mass, is to Sun’s mass. 4, Earth’s isochronal radius is a mean proportional between its own radius and Jupiter’s perihelion radius vector. * xii. 398, (1), 409; xiif. 246-7. + xii. 392-417, &e. { xiii. 246. A, P. 8.—VOL. XIV. U DuBois. ] 162 [May 15, ELECTRICAL SPECTRA OF METALS. RESULTS OF AN EXAMINATION AS TO THE PRACTICABILITY OF ASSAY- ING METALS USED IN COINAGE, BY MEANS OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS, MADE IN AND FOR THE ASSAY DEPARTMENT OF THE U.S. MINT at PHILADELPHIA. By ALEx. E. OUTERBRIDGE, JR. Communicated to the American Philosophical Society, by Mr. W. E. Du. Bors, Assayer of the Mint, May 15th, 1874. It must have occurred to many, when this brilliant method of scientific research succeeded in detecting the presence of metals, in any given sub- stance, even to an infinitesimal nicety, that the next step must be to de- termine the proportion of such presence ; in other words, the qualitative must certainly lead to the quantitative, as in other chemical processes. The Annual Report of the Royal Mint at London, for 1872, (dated 15th of April, 1873,) contains an official memorandum of Mr. W. Chandler Roberts, Chemist of the Mint, from which it appears that he was engaged in examining this subject, at the suggestion of, and in connection with, ‘the distinguished spectroscopist and astronomer, Mr. J. Norman Lockyer. ‘No decided results had been reached ; but Mr. Roberts concluded by ex- -pressing the belief ‘‘that every effort should be made to render the in- strument serviceable in the operations of minting.” The present modes of assaying gold and silver, both in alloys and in eres, have been brought to such perfection, such_accuracy, delicacy and dispatch, that it seemed almost a matter of regret to have them super- seded or disturbed. And yet, there issomething captivating in the idea of a determination, as it were by a flash of lightning, or in the twinkling of an eye, what proportion of gold or silver is present, in any bar, or coin, or native ore. It therefore seemed desirable that our own Mint should maintain its character for examining and adopting real improvements, and not to wait indolently to hear what might be done abroad. One of the assistants in the Assay Department, Mr. Alexander HE. Out- erbridge, Jr., had for several years given special attention to spectrosco- pic studies, both in theory and in practice ; and to him therefore, the subject was committed ; with what propriety, and what success, will sufficiently appear from what he has written. This will be found in the two following communications addressed to the Assayer. The details he has given are well worth a careful study ; but we can- not help noticing, in a few words, the astonishing paradox at which his experiments arrive ; namely, that this method is, in one respect, by far too sensitive and minute ; and in another respect, far from being minute enough, to serve the uses of assay. It was worth all his patient labor many times over, to come to this conclusion; as we must come in the present state of this branch of science. And it is likely, that the natural and necessary imperfections of metallurgy, the want of complete atomic homogeneity in the mixing of metals, will forever prevent the spectro- scope from taking the place of the present methods of assay. As Mr. Outerbridge has been careful to give facts rather than suppo- 1874. ] 163 [Outerbridge, sitions, he has omitted any explanation of the anomalous results in the final part of his report. And yet it seems evident that where two metals are present, the spark will to some extent elect for its vehicle the one which is most rapidly vaporized. This is notably shown in alloys of gold with copper. It is also very striking in the alloy of nickel and cop- per, of which our five-cent piece is made. The nickel, which constitutes one-fourth, controls the color of the alloy entirely; and yet, being far more difficult of fusion than the copper, scarcely shows a trace in spec- trum analysis. This result is particularly regretted, because a shorter way of assaying this mixture for coinage is very desirable. These experiments, it is believed, will be of use to show what may, and what may not, be expected from the spectroscope in the way of analysis where several metals are components. They may also be of use in other departments of investigation. D. Philadelphia, October 30, 1873. Wm. E. Du Bors, Esq., Assayer U. §. Mint. Srr :—In pursuance of instructions received from you, to examine the subject of the ‘‘ Electrical Spectra of Metals’’ with a view to its possible application to assaying, I beg respectfully to report, as follows : With a small induction coil, and with a two-prism Browning Spectro- scope, I tried some experiments to obtain the effects recently discovered by Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, of England, viz., the discernment of difter- ences in the lines of the Spectra of different Alloys of Gold and Silver. In other words, to utilize the Spectroscope as a means of quantitative, as well as of qualitative analysis. I had several interviews with Professor Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania, (a recognized authority on the Spectroscope), who had re- cently met Mr. Lockyer in England, and to whom I am indebted for valuable information pertaining to the subject. I soon found that although I was able to distinguish clearly between the spectra of pure gold, 1000 fine, and of an alloy of gold and copper 900 fine, inasmuch as the copper Jines appeared in the one case, and not in the other, the induction coil was quite inadequate in its length of spark to exhibit any appreciable differences between two alloys of gold and copper. I then applied for, and was accorded by my friend President Morton, of the Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken, the privi- lege of conducting my experiments at that Institution. Professor Morton most kindly placed at my service the elaborate apparatus in his collection ; and I visited New York on Monday last, the 27th inst., returning this evening. During these four days, I experimented very critically with known alloys of gold, silver and copper, previously prepared for this purpose, and I obtained some very interesting results. Many practical difficulties Outerbridge.] 164 [May 15, presented themselves in the outset, and it was some time before I succeed- ed in obtaining a special adjustment of the apparatus appropriate to my purpose. Using one-half of the largest Ritchie induction coil, throwing a spark of eleven inches, (fed by a powerful battery and reinforced by four large condensers) in connection with a two-prism Browning Spectroscope, I found that upon gradually separating the metallic electrodes, certain of the lines broke in the middle ; and, upon further increasing the distance between the electrodes, the hiatuses in the spectral lines increased pro- portionately, but unequally with different alloys. This, as I am informed, is the novelty in spectroscopic research, dis- covered by Mr. Lockyer, upon which the theory of possible quantitative analysis is founded, and I was much gratified at having verified the ex- periment. Repeated trials with various alloys, gave similar effects. Having proved this general incident, a systematic series of experiments with alloys enabled me to map the difference of fineness between specimens 500 and 750 fine and even to recognize the variation between ingot-slips 895 and 902 fine. These results were observed by Mr. Andrew Mason, of the New York Assay Office, and by several members of the National Academy of Sciences, then on a visit to the Stevens Institute, as also by other gentlemen, to whom some of the experiments were shown. ‘The varia- tion within seven thousandths above referred to, was by no means marked—indeed, over-cautiousness prevents my relying upon its certainty —although a more delicate adjustment of apparatus and further expe- rience would probably render the distinction more decided. Of course, in these experiments, it was necessary to eliminate the numerous air lines which appeared in all the spectra. A difficulty which presented itself in the exact comparison of certain characteristic lines of gold, silver and copper, whose positions in the spectrum are in close proximity, was Overcome by using a pure metal as one electrode and another pure metal as the other electrode. The effect thereby produced was very curious. With pure gold and pure copper as the electrodes, the gold lines extend across only one-half the field of the spectrum, and the copper lines extend across only the other half, the medial termini of both sets of lines being perfectly sharp and bright. By this means a double spectrum of copper and gold is obtained, or rather, a section of a complete gold spec- trum and a section of a complete copper spectrum are visible in imme- diate juxtaposition, thereby enabling a most accurate comparison of lines, which in reality are not identical in position, but which by the pre- vious method were apparently so. By a slight modification of the experiment, substituting pure copper as one electrode and an alloy of silver and gold as the other, the proxi- mate lines of these three metals are presented mapped, as it were, on a SiR 1874.] 165 [Outerbridge. natural scale. Further modifications of this principle suggested them- selves and were tried with indications of valuable results. (Fig. 1.) By using as one electrode, an alloy of gold and copper of comparative fineness, and a baser alloy of the same metals as the other electrode, a result not before observed presented itself. The lines of both copper and gold crossed the entire field of vision, but in the section representing the fine alloy, the gold lines were strong and bright, while in the section rep- resenting the base alloy the gold lines were very faint. (Fig. 2.) uw tac Sw te Aus Bo ocodpcoScoodiséecotoodibas Isailoocooco ODO bOIoo oem Docc opooeonooomoOGOoonGD 45'do0 By now gradually increasing the distance between the electrodes, the faint gold lines of the base alloy cease to join their bright counterparts of the fine metal at the central line. (Fig. 3.) Ew Cw Ge A Aw dw The intervening space is at first minute, but as the electrodes are further separated, the ends of the faint lines gradually recede towards the outer edge of the spectrum until they finally disappear altogether. A scale was constructed of the distances at which the electrodes were withdrawn during the several trials, and careful notes were made, but time did not permit an elaboration of these experiments by accurately testing the results when alloys of approximate fineness formed the elec- trodes. I had wished to use a spectroscope of greater dispersive power, (in order to observe as many distinct lines as possible), and also to magnify the lines by projecting the spectrum through a lantern upon a screen. Outerbridge.] 166 [May 15, The general principle was satisfactorily proved, however, that where two alloys of different grades are subjected to this treatment, the gold lines of the baser compound are noticeably the fainter of the two, and, what is more important, they may be reduced in length by separating the poles, until they disappear. This points to the possibility of the future application of Spectrum Analysis to Assaying, at least as a test method. For, if an alloy of abso- lute known fineness were adopted as one electrode, and an ingot-slip assayed by the old process to an equal grade of fineness were inserted as the opposite electrode, in case the assay were correct, the gold lines in both sections of the spectrum should appear of equal brightness, and more especially, should begin to recede from the central line of the spec- trum at the same moment, and should disappear at the same moment. The spectra being inevitable natural effects of physical causes, a varia- tion between two specimens of supposed equal fineness would, in theory, be necessarily indicated by the respective lines failing to correspond in their reciprocal action. 'To use the method as a means of original assay, it would be necessary, among other things, to construct scales of delicate measurement which, if possible at all, could only be done by a long course of laborious investigation. The experiments of which the foregoing is a resumé, involved many matters of practical detail to which it is unnecessary to allude, and having been conducted at short notice and within the brief period of four days, they must be considered as simply preliminary. Respectfully submitted, ALEX. E. OUTERBRIDGE, Jr. Philadelphia, May 5th, 1874. Wm. EH. Du Bots, Esq., Assayer U. 8. Mint. Sir :—Since submitting to you my report of the 30th of October last, I have continued at intervals the investigation of the ‘‘ Electrical Spectra of Metals,’’? with a view to the practical application of the spectroscope to Mint assaying. Having repeated and proved the correctness of the experiments pre- viously recorded, using a three-prism spectroscope and an induction coil capable of throwing an eight inch spark, (kindly furnished me by Dr. R. E. Rogers of the Medical Department of the University of Penna.) I found it necessary to devise a special apparatus for manipulating the electrodes when under examination. This was made for me by Mr. Saml. James, the machinist in the Mint, and admirably fulfilled its object. A photo- graph and description of it are appended hereto. Its peculiarity consisted » 1874. ] 167 [Outerbridge. in an automatic combination of accurately proportioned screws, acting in opposite directions, by which a single motion of the hand sufficed to cause the upper and lower electrodes to approach or recede from the cen- tral line of contact in an equal degree. The electrodes, which consisted of small strips of metal cut to a point, were held by a suitable arrange- ment on the outer circumference of two metallic rings insulated from each other, the upper one slotted to receive a series of twelve electrodes of varying known fineness, and revolving horizontally, so that each elec- trode might in turn be adjusted to face a single electrode of unknown fineness fixed on the lower ring. Its object was to admit of the electrodes being separated to any desired extent, while preserving the line of vision, through the spectroscope, directed to the centre of the spark. This is a point of much importance. A systematic series of experiments was now commenced, in which the behavior of the more volatile metals was at first studied, viz: Lead, Zine, Bismuth, Tin, Antimony, Cadmium, Mercury, Aluminium, &c. All these give more decided spectra than the less volatile precious metals, and some interesting results were noticed. Approximate illustrations cf some of these spectra are appended. Proceeding to the examination of gold alloys, and starting with base poles—making the lower pole 250 fine and the upper pole 500 fine—the gold lines from the upper half were both longer and brighter. Now sub- stituting in place of the 250 pole one 700 fine, the lower half showed the brighter gold lines. Then, changing the 500 pole for one 800, the bright- ness of the gold line was again reversed. This alternating effect may be continued, decreasing in degree as the fineness of the poles approach more nearly together, until both poles are of the same fineness, when the lines will be equal in length and intensity. These experiments proved satisfactorily that comparatively wide varia- tions in the composition of gold alloys were discernible. I now had pre- pared at the Mint a series of graduated alloys of more approximate fine- ness, viz: GOLD AND COPPER. GOLD, SILVER AND COPPER. 938. 940.1 91%. 918.7 906. 866.8 888.3 888. 883.5 884.1 876.5 883. These alloys were carefully prepared and assayed closely. With one electrode pure gold and the other 938 fine, the difference be- tween the respective spectra was of course very marked, the copper lines appearing in the one and not in the other. Substituting for the pure gold the ailoy 876.5, the difference was still very marked, for, although both gold and copper appeared in each, the copper lines were much brighter and somewhat longer in the baser alloy, while the gold lines were Outerbridge.] 168 [May 15, brighter and longer in the finer. But on comparing the alloys 876.5 and 883.5, (reducing the variation to seven thousandths) I was both surprised and disappointed to find the visible difference of result but slightly appre- ciable. And the same with regard to the alloys 883.5 and 888.3, and the same with other alloys with equal or less comparative variation of fine- ness. : KO north-east oS the Liltle Suniata River tn Sountingdon and C5eutre Cos. Seunsylvania. 5 ie Mustrate a Report on the Mines of Yon, Short, andl Co. of Litisburg; ly I PSesley, Py of. Sel. Univ! Penns é : = ; — ay © Hield-work by Arankln Platt of Philadelph J : : - > ee Key Sist of the Sron Ore Mines on this Map. 4. West Pennington. 2. East Pennington. 3. nameless Skeleton Map, giving the names of the principal ridges, valleys a uns of the Ure Region. Hanna p10 Red 47. Galifornia : I8. Reiders. >] | 19. Whorelis 20. Pond. N=2. RR 29. Fennsylvania 30 Old Seat of FE Fra: 34 Kunlngden Furn: 30 Sorsey Cre Bank ae oats Fash aka ey, rn Sei nest Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. XIV. Woodburytype, A. P. R, P. Co., Phila. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. XIV. Woodburytype, A. P. R. P. Co., Phila. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. XIV. te Om Coe | apes o 250 Woodburytype, A. P. R. P. Co., Phila. ae a “! Ph SE: is PRN ey 177 London Nature; and Society of Antiquaries; State Board of Health, Mass.; American Journal 8. and A., New Haven ; American Journal of Pharmacy; Medical News and Library ; Penn Monthly; Board of Com. of Pub. Charities, Harrisburg ; and Mr. J. H. Nourse, Washington. Mr. Whitman reported progress for the Committee charged with estimating the cost of publishing Dr. Allen’s paper. On motion, the committee was continued. Prof. Chase read a note on Cosmical Evolution. Mr. W. E. Dubois communicated through the Secretary the results of an extended examination recently made in and for the Assay Department of the Mint at Philadelphia, of the practicability of assaying metals used in coinage by the spectrum apparatus. The paper was read and the drawings of the apparatus and spectra exhibited, and on motion, it was referred to the Secretaries, with power to publish the same with proper illustrations. Mr. J W. Harden exhibited a model of a part of Big Sewell Mountain, Fayette Co., West Virginia, showing the ‘number and position of the coal beds and limestones beds on the lands of the Langdale Coal and Iron Co., on the Kanawha River and Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. In the absence of Mr. Harden on account of illness, the Secretary explained the model and associated maps and sections, giving a descrip- tion of the general geology of the lower coal measures in Virginia. Pending nominations Nos. 753, 754, 755, 756 were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, June 19th, 1874. Present, 9 members. Dr. RuscHENBERGER, in the chair. Photographs for the Album were received, of Mr. F, Rogers, and of Senator Sumner. A. P. 8.-—-VOL. XIV. W 178 A letter was received announcing the removal of the Societe des Sciences Naturelles from Strasbourg to Nancy. A letter was received from M. T. Leorgre, informing the Society of his election to succeed M. Quetelet, as Secretary of the Royal Belgian Academy. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the N. H. 8. at Zurich, (87), Aug. 20, 1873; the Royal Society at Edinburgh, (89), Dec., 1873 ; the Victoria Institute, London, June 5, (Proce. 13 Vols. and 1 part); and Smithsonian Insti- tution. (XV, i.) Letters of envoy were received from the Centra! Physical Observatory at St. Petersburg, April, 1874; Natural His- tory Society, Zurich, Aug. 20, 1873; Victoria Institute, London, June 5, 1874; Department of State, U. S., Wash- ington, May 23, 1874; and Coast Survey Office, Washington, May, 1874. Donations for the Library were received from Mr. B.S. Lyman, Chief Geologist of Japan; Royal Prussian Academy, and Horticultural Society at Berlin; Natural History Society, Zurich; Societé des Sciences, Nancy (Strasbourg); Flora Batava at Leyden; Royal Academy, Brussels; M. L. G. DeKoninek; Holland Society of Sciences, Harlem ; Geo- graphical Society, Anthropological Society, and Revue Politique, at Paris; Royal Observatory, and Royal Academy of Science, at Turin; Royal Institution, Royal Geographi- cal Society, Royal Astronomical Society, and London Na- ture; Mr. Alex. J. Ellis, F.R.S.; Royal Society, Edinburgh ; Essex Institute, Salem; American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and Natural History Society, Boston; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge; Anderson School of Natural History, Penekese; Rhode Island Society for the Encourage- ment of Domestic Industry, Providence ; American Jour- nal of Science and Arts, Prof. Jas. Hall, Academy of Nat- ural Sciences, Historical Society, Franklin Institute, Jour. nal of Pharmacy, Penn Monthly, American Chemist, Medi- eal News and Library, Woman’s Medical College, Water Department, Mr. E. D. Cope, Mr. H. C. Carey, and Mr. Isaac Lea, Philadelphia; Mr. T. J. Bingham, Harrisburg ; Com- 179 mission for attending to Observations on the Transit of Venus; Engineer and War Departments, Washington. The Committee to which was referred the cost of publish- ing the illustrations to Dr. Allen’s Memoir, reported that it would cost $400. On motion an appropriation of $400 was ordered for that purpose. Prof. Chase communicated two brief notes entitled— 1. On Rainfall in cyclonic years of Jupiter, at Greenwich, Philadelphia, Lisbon, San Francisco and Barbadoes. 2. On the Lunar Cyclical Rainfall at Barbadoes, for 27 years. Pending nominations Nos. 758, 754,°755, 756 were read, and the Society was adjourned. Stated Meeting, July 17th, 1874. Present, 8 members. Vice-President, FRepERICK FRALEY, in the Chair:. A letter from Dr. DaCosta, requesting the completion of his set of the Proceedings was read, and referred to the: Committee on Pubheation, with power to take order. Donations for the Library were received from the Royal Society of Tasmania; the Imperial Russian Academy, the. Central Physical Observatory, the Natural History Society, at Riga; the Imperial Academy, Geological Institute, and. Zoologico - Botanical Society, at Vienna; the Imperial Academy, German Geological Society, and Physical Society,, at Berlin; the Societies at Bremen, Frankfort and Offen-. bach, the Hague, Lausanne and Bordeaux; the Musée Tey ler; the Royal Academy, at Bruxell; the Academy of Medicine, Ecole des Mines, National Society of Antiquaries, and Revue Politique, at Paris; Mr. H. 8. Munroe, of Yeddo; the Geo- graphical Society of Mexico; the Royal Astronomical Sc-. ciety, Meteorological Committee, and Nature, in London ; the Victoria Institute ; the Philosophical and Literary So- ciety, at Leeds; Boston Soviety of Natural History; Yale College, Peabody Museum, Silliman’s Journal; the New Jersey Historical Society; the Penn Monthly, American Chemist, Journal of Pharmacy, and Franklin Institute, in Philadelphia; Veabody Institute, in Baltimore; War De- partment, Washington, and the Buftalo Society of Natural Sciences. The death ot Dr. Gouverneur Emerson, July 2, aged 78 was announced by Dr. Ruschenberger. Dr. Genth read a communication in answer to criticisms by Dr. Hunt upon his paper upon Corundum, published in the Proceedings of the Society. Dr. Charles M. Cresson communicated the results of an examination of an exploded locomotive boiler, with detailed accounts of experiments in reference to the causes of explo- sion. Prof. Fraser communicated a note on certain formule of minerals, with reference to the question whether separate chemical compounds can co-exist in the same crystallized mineral. Pending nominations, Nos. 753, 754, 755, 756, 7a7, 768 were read, and Nos. 753, 754 and 756 balloted for, and the following named persons were declared by the presiding officer duly elected members of the Society, viz. : Sir Wm. George Armstrong, of Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr. Franklin Platt, of Philadelphia. Mr. Henry Woodward, F.G.S., of London. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, August 21st, 1874. Present, 3 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frarey, in the chair. Dr. Genth presented a paper for publication in the Pro- ceedings, entitled :—‘ Contributions from the Laboratory of 1381 the University of Pennsylvania, No. 2. On an improvement of the Burette Valve.” By Geo, A. Konig, Ph.D. Dr. Genth communicated a paper entitled :—* Contribu- tions from the Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania, No. 8. On American Tellurium and Bismuth Minerals. By F. A. Genth.” And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, September 18th, 1874. Present, 8 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Mr, J. Norman Lockyer, dated 5 Alexandra Road Fenchly Road, London, June 25, 1874. A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. Franklin Platt, dated 139 South Fifth street, Philadelphia, Sept. 8, 1874. Letters acknowledging donations and exchanges were re- XII, ii, 67, 73, 74, 75, Catalogue II); the Society at Riga, Oct. 31, 1873, (XIV, iii, Proc. XII, 1, 2); the Imp. Academy at Vienna, Dec. 1, 1873, (88, 89); the Zoologico-Botanical Society, at Vienna, Jan., 1874, (Proc. XII, up to 89); the Royal Pontifical Academy d. N. L., at Rome, Dec. 9, 1873, (88, 89); the British Association, London, June 12, 1874, (XVI, 90, 91); the Royal Observatory, at Greenwich, July 21, 1874, (90, 91); the Royal Society, London, June 25, 1874, (IL; XOLV5 11, XV, 1, 62,88, 895, 90,91) ;) the Meteo- rological Office of the R. 8., London, June, 10, 187+, (90, 91); the Zoological Society, London, July 8, 1874, (XV, i, 89, 90, 91); the Society of Antiquaries, Somerset House. London, June 25, 1874, (XV, i, 90, 91); the Statistical Society, 12 St. James Square, London. June 17, 1784, (XV, i, 90,91); the Ratcliffe Observatory, Oxtord, June 19, 1874, (XV, i, 90,91); the Literary and Philosophical Society, R. 182 Inst., Liverpool, Dec. 31, 1873, (0.8. I to VI, N. 8., I to XIIL); the Literary and Philosophical, Leeds, June 8, 1874, (ACW, Ty Sieg Sa), Letters of envoy were received from the Physical Society, Berlin, April 15, 1874 ; the Imperial Academy, Vienna, Feb. 23, 1874; the Zoologico-Botanical Society, Vienna, Jan. 7, 1874; Royal Hungarian Academy, Pesth, Nov. 10, 1873; Holland Society, Harlem, Dec., 1873 ; Society of Emulation, Aboeville, June 1, 1874; Teyler Museum, Meteorological Office, London, June 23, 1874; Literary and Philosophical Soe. Manchester, June, 1874; Literary and Philosophical Soe. Liverpool, Dec. 29, 1873; National Academy, B. Aires, May, 10, 1874; Museum, B Aires, April 20, 1874; Metro- politan Museum of Arts, New York, Sept. 16, 1874. A letter was received from Mr. Alex. Agassiz, respecting his father’s European Publications, to be distributed, dated July 22, 1874. A letter was received from Mr. Geo Travers, dated New- stadt, A. H., July 4, 1874, offering for sale the Shai-n-Sinsin papyrus, price £120 sterling. Donations for the Library were reported from the R. and Imp. Academies at Berlin and Brussels; the Societies at Riga, Gorlitz, Leeds, Glasgow, and Salem, Mass; the Ob- servatories at Prague, San Fernando, and Oxford ; the Ge - logical Bureau, at Stockholm ; the City of Pesth; theS. d N. L, at Rome; the Geographical Society, American Society for the encouragement of National Industry, Museum of Natural. History, School of Mines, Weekly Gazette of Medicine, Revue Politique, and Chev. Leopold Hugo, of Paris; the Royal, Chemical, Asiatic, Astronomical, Zoolo- gical, and Antiquarian Societies, Victoria Institute, Cobden Club, Meteorological Committee, and Nature, of London ; the Geological Museum, at Montreal; the Amerivan Anti- quarian Society ; Silliman’s Journal; Dr. Jarvis of Dorches- ter; Prof. Roehrig, of Ithaca; the Naturaliste Canadien, of Quebec ; the American Chemist, New York; che Metropoli- tan Museum, of New York; the Franklin Institute, Penn 183 Monthly, and Dr. R. J. Levis, of Philadelphia; Prof. 5. 8. Haldeman, and the University of Missouri. The death of Dr. Jeffries Wyman, of Cambridge, Sept. 4, aged 60, was announced by Dr. LeConte. Mr. Eli K. Price, as Chairman of Committee on Nursery, &e., communicated “ A list of Oaks imported by the Fair- mount Park Commission, in 1874, for the Michaux Grove, being the selection of John C. Cresson, Esq., when last in Europe, showing which of them are living.” Mr. Lesley described an upthrow fault recently discovered by Mr. Chance, volunteer assistant of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, crossing the Schuylkill river in the gap of the Kittatinny Mountain, below Port Clinton. Pending nominations, Nos. 755, 757, 758, and new nomi- nations, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, October 2d, 1874. Present, 11 members. Secretary, Dr. LeContr, in the Chair. Photographs for the Album were received from Mr. Thos. Meehan, and Prof. Stephen Alexander. A letter from the Rantoul Literary Society, dated Ran- toul, Champaign County, Ill, Sept. 28th, 1874, requesting the publications of the Society, was read, and on motion, the Society was ordered to be placed on the list to receive the Proceedings. A letter from the Ohio State Librarian, dated Columbus, O. Sept. 22, 1874, requesting a copy of the Catalogue of the Library was read, and on motion, the request was granted. A letter from Dr. Fredk. Krauss, on behalf of the Verein fiir Vaterland. Naturkunde in Wiirtemberg, dated Stutt- gart, Aug. 10, 1874, asking for the completion of their set of Proce. A. P.S., and a complete set of Transactions A.P.S., and promising to complete the set of V. f. V. N. in W. 184 Jahrgiinge (30 years in 3 parts) for the A. P.S., Library, was read, and on motion, the request was granted. Letters of acknowledgement were received from the R. Academy, Copenhagen, (XV, i, 90, 91); K. K. OC. Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna, (90); Prof. Hochstetter, (89); Dr. Jos. Hyrtl, (88, 89) ; Linnean Society, London, (XIV, ii, XV, i, 88+); New York Historical Society, (92). Letters of envoy were received from the Linnean Society, and N. Y. State Library. Donations for the Library were received from the Editor’s of Revue Politique, Paris; Nature, Royal Society, and Lin- nean Society, London; Prof. Silliman and Dana, N. Haven, N. Y. State Library, Regents of the University, Buffalo Society of Nat. Sciences, Penn. R. R., U. S. Naval Observatory, and National Educational Association. _ The death of M. Elie de Beaumont, at Paris, Sept. 24, 1874, aged 75, was announced by Dr. Genth. Mr. Delmar, late director of the U.S. Bureau of Statistics, read a communication on the resources, productions, and social condition of Egypt. Pending nominations, 755, 757 to 763, were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, October 16th, 1874. Present, 12 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauny, in the chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., dated British Museum, London, Oct. 3. 1874. A letter was read from Mr. Jared P. Kirtland, dated Hast Rockport P. O., Cayahoga County, Ohio, Oct. 1, 1874. Letters from B. Westermann & Co. and E. Steiger, Book- sellers, and on motion made, it was resolved to instruct the Secretaries not to sell single numbers of the Proceedings, 185 lest the stock of Proceedings be so diminished as to make it impossible to supply corresponding Societies. The request: of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society for Nos, 75 and 79, to complete their set, was on motion, granted. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Society at Riga, Feb. 28, 1874, (90, 91); Boston Public Library, Oct. 12, 1874, (XIV, 92); and War Department, Washington, Oct. 5, 1874, (92). Letters of envoy were received from the Swedish Geolo- logical Bureau, Stockholm, Nov. 15, 1873; and the Prussian Academy, Dec., 1878. Donations for the Library were received from the Acade- mies at Berlin and Brussels, and Salem, Mass.; the Society at Zwickau; the Paris Geographical Society, and Revue Politique ; London Nature; Boston Natural History Society; Journal of Medical Sciences, Journal of Pharmacy, Medical News and Library, Mr. H.C. Carey, and the Hon. B. H. Brewster, of Philadelphia. Mr. Lesley described the marked change in the aspect of the northern and northwestern counties in the State during the last thirty years, and the progress of the Geological Sur- vey of that region; the facilities afforded for it, and the private collections of fossils in it, at Mansfield, Warren and Titusville; the discovery of the Devonian (No. LX) fish- beds at various places from the Hudson to the Alleghany rivers; the differentiation of the Conglomerate from the oil region sand rocks, and of the Marshall group from the Che- mung, &e. Pending nominations, 755, 757 to 763, and new nomina- tion No. 764, were read. Nominations 755 to 763 were balloted for, and after scrutiny of the ballot boxes by the presiding officers, the following were declared duly elected members of the Society: Rey. James Freeman Clarke, of Boston. Franz Ritter von Hauer, of Vienna. Rawson W. Rawson, Governor of Barbadoes. A, P: S.— VOL. XIV. X 186 Prof. 8. P. Sadtler, of Philadelphia. Prof. G. A. Konig, of Philadelphia. Prof. C. F. Himes, of Carlisle. Dr. R. 8. Kenderdine, of Philadelphia. Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn, of Montreal. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, November 6th, 1874. Present, 16 members. Secretary, Dr. LeConrs, in the chair. Letters accepting membership were received from Prof. Samuel P. Sadtler, dated Philadelphia, Oct. 19; from Prof. George A. Konig, dated Philadelphia, Oct. 19; from the Rev. James Freeman Clarke, dated Jamaica Plains, near Boston, Mass., Oct. 20; and from Prof. Charles F. Himes, dated Carsisle, Pa., Nov. 4, 1874. A letter was received from the relatives of M. F. P. G. Guizot, dated Val Richer, Sept. 18, announcing his death on the preceding day, Sept. 12, at the age of 86. Letters of acknowledgment in receipt of Proceedings A. P.S., were read from the Observatory at Munich, Aug. 7, (Nos. 90, 91); Astronomical Society, at Leipsig, July 20, (90, 91); Royal Society, at Gottingen, July 6, (XV, 1, 90, 91); Lyceum of Natural History, N. Y., Oct. 12, (92); and University of Toronto, Oct. 19, (84, 92. Wants 86 to 91. Donations for the Library were announced from the Asia- tic Society of Japan; the Swedish Statistical Bureau and Geological Survey ; the Danish Archeological Society ; the Academies at Berlin and Copenhagen ; the German Geolo- gical Society ; the Imperial Institute at Vienna; the Acade- my at Dijon; the Geographical and Anthropological Socie- ties, and Revue Politique, at Paris; the Victoria Institute, Royal Geographical Society, and Nature, at London ; the Geological Society of Glasgow; the Geological Survey of Canada; Essex Institute; Yale College; Silliman’s Journal ; 187 Franklin Institute; Penn Monthly; Gen. W. A. Stokes; Smithsonian Institution; Bureau of U. §. Engineers; Dr. Ilayden ; Mr. Outenbridge; the Medical News; and the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. The death of Prof. Samuel J. Gummere, President of Haverford College, at Haverford, Oct. 22, aged 63, was an- nounced, and Prof. Thos. Chase, was on motion, appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased. Mr. Britton exhibited to the members present large speci- men pieces of coals sent for metallurgical analysis from the Luray Mine, Carbon Mine, and mines near Rocky Spring Station on the Union Pacific Railroad, 830 miles west of Omaha. The character, age, and relationships of these coals with the so-ealled Lignitic beds of Hayden, the Denver and Raton and Santa Fe coals, were discussed at length by Dr. Genth and Dr. LeConte. Pending nomination, No. 764 was read, and the meeting was adjourned, Stated Meeting, November 20th, 1874. Present, 17 members. Vice-President, Mr. FRraey, in the chair. A Photograph for the Album was received from Prof. Traill Green, of Latayette College, Easton, Pa. A letter respecting the cataloguing of Libraries was re- ceived from Mr. W. C. Flagg, Secretary Ill. S. Farmer’s Association, dated Moro, Ill., Nov. 10, 1874. | A blank to be filled was received from the Secretary of the Bureau of Education, at Washington, dated Nov. 11, 1874. Letters acknowledging the receipt of the Society’s Publi- cations, were received from the Hungarian Academy of Sci- ences, Oct. 17, (XV, 1, 88, 89, 90, 91); the R. Bavarian Academy, Sept. 15, (XV, i, 90, 91); the Philosophical and Literary Society, at Leeds, Oct. 28, (75 and 79); Prof. C. E. Anthon, New York, Nov. 18, (81 to 92); Prof. Traill Green, 188 Easton, Pa., Nov. 12, (81 to 92); Dr. Robert Peter, Lexing- ton, Ky., Nov. 9, (81 to 92); and the Ohio State Library, Columbus, Nov. 13 (Cat. Pt. I). Letters of envoy were received from the R. Bavarian Academy, Munich, Sept. 18, Mr. Stan. Meunier, Professor of Comparative Geology in Natural History Museum, at Paris, Oct. 28; the Meteorological Office of the Royal Society, London ; and the Smithsonian Institution. Donations for the Library were received from the German Geological Society, the R. Prussian Academy, the Geolog’- eal Association, at Dresden; the Vaudoise Society, at Lau sanne, the Batavian Society Ex. Phil., at Rotterdam, the Revue Politique, M. Stan. Meunier, the R. Astronomical Society, London Nature, Boston Public Library, Academy of Natural Sciences, Franklin Institute, American Journal of Pharmacy, U. 8. Coast Survey, Department of the Intc- rior, and Mr. Adolph Schmidt, Jefferson City. The volume on Comparative Geology presented by M. Meunier, was on motion, referred to a committee to be ap- pointed at the next meeting. The death of Mr. Charles B. Trego, Treasurer of the So ciety, at Philadelphia, Nov. 10, aged 80 years, was announced by the Vice-President, and on motion, Mr. 8. W. Roberts was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased. Mr. Britton exhibited and explained a model illustrating his method of keeping a laboratory free from the gases evolved when metals and minerals are dissolved in acids. He dissolves in test tubes supported in position on wire gauze frames. The tops of the tubes are covered with glasses shaped like tubular funnels inverted, the tubular end of which being bent at nearly a right angle are made to pass horizontally into a long wooden chamber four inches wide by six inches deep. The chamber may be of any length ; it connects at either end or in the centre with a wooden chimney, six by twelve inches in the clear, passing from the laboratory up and above the roof of the building. Heat is applied to the lower end of the tubes by moveable Bunsen burners. The gasses are carried away as fast as evolved by the constant current of air which passes through the chamber and up the chimney. So completely have the gasses been conducted away, that several very delicate Becker balances have been in use for some years within a few feet of the tubes, without being perceptibly affected. He uses tubes va- 189 rying from cne to two inches in diameter and about ten inches long—and also flasks. Any number may be used at the same time, set about six inches apart. He has frames for thirty-six. It is best to make the fun- nels pear-shaped, to allow their edges to slip into the tubes that any drops of condensed moisture may not fall outside. Mr. Britton also exhibited several mounted burettes for volumetric analysis of the kind described in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, for May 1870, and which he has had in use for more than nine years. He exhibited them to show that the one exhibited by Dr. Geo. A. Koenig, at the meeting of the Society, held August 21st, 1874, diftered in no es- sential feature from them. Mr. Britton had tried wood, leather, lead, tin, glass,-india-rubber and cork, for the stopper or valve. He preferred close-grained cork when using solutions of per mangenate and bichromate of potash, and this after five thousand iron determinations with it. Glass he preferred to all other substances when using acids or strong alkaline solutions. The graduation was on white paper behind the tube. The thumb knob of the screw was behind the frame, but the spring and valve was in front. This arrangement he preferred. The contents of the tube could be discharged much faster than necessary fer analytical purposes, or so slow that only a fraction of a drop could be caught on the stirring rod and conveyed to the solution to be tested in the vessel beneath. He also exhibited an adjustment of the spring and screw to the rod- stoppered burette. The burette was mounted on a stand. A spring lever was on the top and connected at one end with the rod-stopper, and at the other end with a metal rod. The latter extended down the back of the instrument to near the bottom, and had attached to it a thumb- screw arrangement. By simply turning the screw the stopper could be completely controlled while the eye watched the flow. Mr. Britton referred again to the Recky Mountain coals exhibited at the last meeting, simply saying in advance of analysis that they were all coking coals. Mr. Poole obliged the members present with descriptions of the coals of Nova Scotia, and of the character of the gold quartz, veins, and present condition of the gold-mining in- dustry of the province. Dr. LeConte offered for publication in the Proceedings, a list of North American Jepidopteree (platypterices, &c.,) with notes by Augustus R. Grote, of Albany. Minutes of the last meeting of Officers and Members in Council, were read. Pending nominations, No. 764, was read. Mr. Fraley nominated in behalf of the Committee of Finance, Mr. J. Sergeant Price, to fill the vacancy left by the 190 death of the Treasurer. On motion, Mr. Price was elected to fill the vacancy. Mr. Fraley reported that he had received and was prepare’ to turn over to the Treasurer elected, the quarterly interest on the Michaux Legacy, due Oct. 1. 1874. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, December 4th, 1874. Present, 17 members. Vice-President, Mr. FrAtry, in the chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Baron Franz von Hauer, dated Nov. 7, 1874. A letter requesting additional copies of Proceedings and Transactions, was received from the Holland Society -of Sei- ence, at Harlem, Nov. 3, 1874. Letters of envoy were received from the Entomological Society, of Belgium, and the State Department, at Washing- ton. A letter was received from the Baron de la Ronciere le Noury, V. A. President of the Geological Society at Parir, with documents, asking for the concurrence of the A. P.8., in the International Congress of Geographical Sciences to be held next spring, in Paris. Donations forthe Library were received from the Editor of Flora Batava, Leyden; the Entomological Society, Bel gium; Annales des Mines; Revue Politique; London Na- ture; Geological Society, and Society of Antiquaries, Lon- don; American Chemist ; Prof. James Hall, and the Regents of the University of New York; Siliiman’s Journal, Frank- lin Institute, Penn Monthly, Mrs. Emma Seiler, of Phila- delphia ; and Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, of Boston. The death of John Meredith Read, Ex-Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, Nov. 29, aged 77, was announced by Mr. HE. K. Price, who, on motion, was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased. 191 Prof. G. Guyot, of Princeton, N. J., Prof. Cook, of New Brunswick, N. J., and Prof. Lesley, were appointed the com- mittee to report on M. Meunier’s book, received at the last meeting. Mr. Britton reported analyses of Rocky Mountain coals, and exhibited the cokes obtained from them. Dr. Cresson reported on their gas producing and heat pro- ducing qualities. Mr. Goodfellow said that before the next meeting news would be received of a rare event, for which astromomers had been waiting and preparing for a century. Next Tues- day the Transit of Venus would again occur, the times of which as calculated for Washington he gave. So extensive and costly are the preparations for observing this event in distant parts of the world made by various Governments, that it becomes evident the time has arrived when public sentiment is alive to the value, and government action is ready to supply the needs of accurate science, for the benefit of society at large. Mr. Goodfellow then gave a sketch of the history of the Observation of the Transit of 1769, and showed, from Dr. Smith’s memoir in the Transactions of the American Philo- sophical Society, that Dr. Smith’s calculations of the sun’s parallax, while they widely differ from the results of Encke, approximated much nearer to the truth. Dr. Konig explained again by diagrams, the essential points of difference between Mr. Britton’s burette, the high value of which he acknowledged, and his own published improvement upon it. Mr. Brinton insisted that they were essentially the same. Mr. Fraley said that the decision of such a question must be left to the practice of Chemists. Dr. W. I. Hoffman’s letter to Dr J. L. LeConte on the practice of Cremation by the Pah-Ute Indians, of Eastern California, was then read by the Secretary, and Dr. Horn confirmed Dr. Hoffman’s statements, adding that the practice was common to all branches of the Pah-Ute Tribe. Mrs. Seiler’s recently published investigations on the voice in speech were then described by the Secretary, and the 192 two capital points which the learned authoress considers to be new discoveries were pointed out, namely, the fixed pitch of the consonant, and the duplex instrumentation of the voice; the mouth and the “ vocal organs” commonly so- called, being two entirely different and independent in- struments acting in harmony, but the mouth being entirely capable of speech after the destruction of the larynx and cords. Prof. Frazer described by diagrams the phenomenon of exfoliation in the syenite-like rocks of Gettysburg. A dis- cussion ensued in which Dr. Konig expressed his dissent from Naumann’s views respecting the cause of granitic ex- foliation being the sun’s heat. Dr. Genth also called atten- tion to the fact that southern boulders were evidently not produced in the same way as northern boulders. The report of the late Treasurer of the Society as made out by his administrator, was read by the Treasurer, Mr. Price, and regularly referred for examination to the Finance Committee. Pending nomination, No. 764 was read. On motion of Mr. E. K. Price. it was Resolved, That the Treasurer be directed to pay one half the income received and to be received from the Michaux Legacy, to the Treasurer of the Fairmount Park Commis- sioners, for the Michaux Grove, &c, agreeably to arrange- ment of March 18, 1870. The appointment of a Standing Committee of Botanists on the purchase of trees for the Michaux Grove, in Fair- mount Park, was moved by Mr. Price, and laid over by the rules, to the next meeting. The Curators, on motion, were authorized to permit Mr. Herbert Welsh to copy the portrait of Washington, in pos- session of the Society, under such regulations for its safety as the Curators may provide. And the meeting was adjourned. June 19, 1874.] 193 [Chase, JUPITER-CYCLICAL RAINFALL. By Puiny EARLE CHASE, PROFESSOR OF PHysics IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 19th, 1874.) The records of daily rainfall for twenty-seven years, at ‘‘ Husband’s”’ Station, Barbadoes, for which I am indebted to the courtesy of His Excellency Governor Rawson W. Rawson, C. B., have enabled me to extend my cyclical researches, and to discover some new and interesting features in the cosmical disturbances of local meteorology. Although my previous investigations have convinced me that each of the planets exerts, on our atmospheric currents, an appreciable influence, which might be usefully formulated for any given station, provided the observations were enough extended, I have thought it best to confine myself mostly to the study of such weather modifications as are depen- dent upon Jupiter and the moon. Those who are accustomed to think of simple tidal disturbances as the only ones to which we can reasonably look for planetary influence, and even those who are also willing to attach some importance to the modifi- cation of atmospheric elasticity by direct attraction, are doubtless pre- pared to believe, on sufficient evidence, that the moon may affect our winds and storms to a slight degree, while they are extremely skeptical}, TABLE I. Normal Percentages of Rainfall at Barbadoes in Jovian Synodic Years. 1847-55. 1855-63. 1863-72. 1847-58. 1859-72. 1847-72. 124 132 82 111 110 112 110 151 88 107 125 116 102 156 93 101 131 116 98 151 89 94 131 112 102 137 78 91 119 105 107 124 70 99 102 100 106 121 73 108 91 100 95 122 87 110 91 101 75 121 102 101 95 98 62 120 109 94 92 96 67 123 119 101 102 101 77 117 132 107 109 108 86 95 139 105 107 106 99 75 139 102 104 103 100 70 137 101 104 103 99 69 129 99 100 99 92 65 124 94 94 94 83 64 123 88 92 90 74 69 114 81 90 86 68 i) 100 74 87 81 68 17 90 72 84 78 82 76 84 80 81 80 109 82 84 97 87 92 135 90 89 113 98 106 141 84 97 116 100 108 126 76 99 105 98 102 114 82 94 96 99 98 122 85 82 102 96 99 142 88 78 120 87 103 142 104 76 126 91 108 A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. Y Chase. ] 194 [June 19, or altogether incredulous as to any traceable influence exerted by either of the primary planets. But if we admit the possibility of ethereal rotation, or tendency to rotation, and especially if we consider how much we have yet to learn concerning the properties of elastic fluids. we may reasonably look for important disturbances from the cumulative effects of the undulations which are exerted by planetary action. Those disturbances, however, may be so modified by the daily fluctuations of the lunar tides, by differ- ences in the stratification of the atmospheric currents, and by abnormal local influences of various kinds, as to obscure, either wholly or in part, all traces of cyclical regularity in their alternations of maxima and minima. In the accompanying comparative tables there are both accordances and discordances, for which I can account in no other way than by the hypothesis of cumulative aerial waves, excited by the combined action of the two constituent orbs of our binary star, Sun and Jupiter. The magnitude of the flexures in the several rain-curves seems too great, the resemblances and gradations in order of magnitude too marked, the approximations to consistent regularity too uniform to be merely acci- dental. The deviations, however, from seemingly normal curvature are TABLE II. Normal Percentages of Rainfall at various Stations in Jovian Synodic years. ff c S m Gs e -. n é oO Se ee ES eal BS & Qe crete LE OR aS | 2D os mH () ao S| Ha a | is 5 Ay , a oG0000000 79 69 183 61 86 89 155 124 88 104 51 148 16..5...... 80 75 123 56 86 719 150 107 80 85 54 123 a WfapoeoodKd 88 85 82 61 86 17 118 75 68 71 67 97 18...-sc00- 105 87 87 67 94 88 90 58 59 72 74 109 W)so6006600 116 89 83 87 89 104 79 68 61 76 88 127 740500000000 108 98 70 114 70 105 78 78 (©) 82 107 105 tlopeco0G0G 93 99 64 131 51 94 87 75 89 91 110 66 Z2inc ccc sce 86 88 65 141 42 85 92 79 86 93 96 47 QS. ccccrcee 96 90 58 134 61 17 88 93 69 88 85 46 Zh... enone 109 99 65 92 1lu 74 83 101 62 85 94 53 Poo50 000000 101 98 96 44 149 79 83 95 81 86 113 71 26.00 o se ne 89 100 117 46 130 93 92 95 101 96 116 92 Diao cine 88 111 115 122 89 107 107 112 101 113 98 112 28 84 122 109 218 96 96 102 126 94 123 88 126 98) g0G00000 75 122 105 257 138 73 79 118 92 120 88 121 1874. ] 1 99 [Chase. If these accordances can be properly interpreted as indicative of lunar influence, they represent results analogous to those we might look for from the simple means of observation extended over a period of about one hundred years. When theaverage daily temperature is most settled, near the Summer and Winter Solstices, the lunar curves seem most ac- cordant, while they are most opposed when the changes of season and temperature are most rapid and in the most opposite directions, near the Vernal and Autumnal Equinoxes. Having thus shown that the general agreement is too great to be re- garded as merely accidental, and that there are valid reasons for im- portant differences in the curves for different months, we are prepared for the sixty-six comparisons of entirely independent curves, for which Table III. furnishes the data. The sums of the agreements and dis- agreements between the curves for each month and for all the remaining months, are as follows: A D A D. A D. January, 173 157 May, 170 160 September, 198 132 February, 200 130 June, 198 1382 October, 202 128 March, 190 140 July, 196 1384 November, 188 142 April, 148 182 August, 180 150 December, 179 151 Here again we find convincing evidence, and in some respects more satisfactory than before, of a uniformity of lunar action that is obscured by the preponderating variations of solar action, only in the single month TABLE IV. Normal Percentages of Rainfall at ‘‘ Husband’s,” on Lunar Days of each Calendar Month, for Independent Comparisons at Intervals of Five or Siz Months. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 90 111 126 102 86 86 98 99 90 81 81 91 94 102 97 89 95 109 108 94 83 85 95 87 89 93 92 98 113 117 110 98 96 96 91 91 97, 97 98 109 118 115 166 100 104 105 99 104 104 99 101 109 111 104 96 114 113 101 104 107 102 99 103 108 106 100 110 102 97 102 108 109 105 106 112 116 115 101 86 91 102 111 116 116 116 122 129 130 98 79 89 105 113 119 124 126 132 136 136 107 83 90 109 117 120 125 132 138 188 136 120 99 98 U7 125 120 118 124 128 129 131 125 116 110 125 132 120 108 108 111 116 120 116 119 112 118 125 118 105 104 100 103 107 105 111 102 102 114 120 113 102 Cy Ot 97 95 98 91 93 110 123 li 102 90 85 83 86 84 88 87 103 115 106 91 80 (6) 81 85 79 17 83 90 90 81 73 70 72 79 94 85 84 88 86 17 67 65 69 77 88 100 89 90 93 90 80 70 69 76 87 10L 99 93 89 89 88 83 79 80 87 95 103 91 92 85 81 83 83 83 87 93 109 93 83 90 83 76 80 84 85 87 90 88 8L 86 90 86 79 80 85 85 82 82 80 77 92 91 94 91 87 86 85 81 82 83 84 93 91 99 102 94 88 RT 88 91 95 96 95 94 97 102 99 96 98 98 102 104 102 105 110 106 102 104 107 108 107 107 195 103 114 136 135 113 104 108 111 110 119 105 103 112 151. 159 124 96 93 12 106 106 103 101 99 154 151 119 87 3 9+ 100 98 93 90 Chase. ] 200 [June 19, of April. If we examine still more closely for clues which may be of possible future service in the study of the reasons for accordance and discordance, we find that in nineteen instances the discordance‘is greater than we should expect if it were merely casual; in five, it is the same ; and in forty-two it is less ; as will be seen by the following statement of the numbers of discordances, and the curves by which they are severally shown: Excess OF DISCORDANCE. 20, Aug.—Nov.; 19, Jan.—Mar.; Apl.—May, Apl.—Oct., May—Jul., May—Dec., Nov.—Dec.; 18, Jan.—Apl., Apl.—Jul., Apl—sSep.; 17, Jan.—Aug., Jan.—Oct., Apl.—Aug., Apl.—Nov., May—Jun.; 16, Feb. —Aug., Mar.—May, Apl.—Jun., Sep.—Dec. AVERAGE DISCORDANCE. 15, Jan.—Feb., Jan.—May, Feb.—Dec., Mar.—Apl., Jun.—Aug. Excess OF AGREEMENT. 14, Jan.—Sep., Feb.—May, Mar.—Aug., Mar.—Nov., Apl.—Dec., Oct. —Nov.; 13, Jan.—Dec., Mar.—Sep., Mar.—Dec., Aug.—Sep.; 12, Jan.— Jul., May—Aug., May—Nov., Jun.—Dec., Jul.—Sep., Jul.—Dec.; 11, Feb.—Apl., Feb.—Jun., Feb.—Jul., Feb.—Sep., Mar.—Jun., Jun.—Oct., Jul.—Aug., Jul.—Nov., Oct.—Dec.; 10, Jan.—Jun., Feb.—Oct., Feb.— Nov., Mar.—Oct., May—Oct., Jun.—Jul., Jun.—Sep.; 9, Mar.—Jul., TABLE YV. Normal Percentages of Rainfall at ‘‘ Husband’s,” on Lunar Days of each Calendar Month, for Forecasts. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dee. 110 117 106 91 89 95 97 90 81 82 95 99 96 92 97 105 105 95 86 86 1874.] 201 [Chase. Jun.—Noy., Jul.—Oct., Sep.—Oct., Sep.—Nov.; 8, Aug.—Oct.; 7, Jan. —Nov., May—Sep., Aug.—Dec.; 6, Feb.—Mar. The greatest amount of change produced by the lateral smoothing is shown in the following summary of comparisons between Table III. and Table V.: ; Jd5 Db A. D. dis) 10% ALD: Jan. 22. 8 AyD Al Y Jul. 26 4 Oct. 24 «66 Feb. 26 «4 May 19 11 Aug. 23 7 Nov. 23 7 Mar. Bp Ml) diay BB fe Sep. 23 7 Dec. 18 12 Table V. is formed from Table IV. by taking two additional successive means. I am inclined to think that its normals would best represent the means of observations extending over indefinite long periods, but Table III. would perhaps more nearly indicate the disturbances of mean lunar influence that might be expected at different seasons of the year. It is possible that by systematically comparing monthly observations with each of the tables, probable causes for any marked deviations from the nor- mals might be found. Table I. presents three sets of solar and six sets of lunar normals, each of which is derived from observations extending over equal, but non- correspondent, periods of one hundred and eight months. They there- fore furnish data for three entirely independent solar, as well as for seven entirely, and three nearly independent lunar comparisons. The lunar columns cover twenty-seven years’ observations in the following months: Summer Solstice, May to August, inclusive ; Winter Solstice, November to February, inclusive ; Vernal Equinox, February to May, inclusive ; Autumnal Equinox, August to November, inclusive ; Vernal and Autumnal Equinox, March, April, September, October ; Summer and Winter Solstice, June, July, December, January. The solar columns exhibit, as we might expect, the closest accordance. The lunar, in spite of the great irregularities in Spring and Fall, also exhibit a predominance of accordances in each of the ten comparisons, whereas, if there were no well-marked lunar action, we ought to have found a predominance of disagreements in five of the comparisons. The accompanying curves illustrate some of the more important results of the foregoing discussion : Curves 1-12 (Lunar), illustrating Table IY. 1. January. 4. April. 7. July. 10. October. 2. February. 5. May. 8. August. 11. November. 3. March. 6. June. 9. September. 12. December. Curves 13-15 (Lunar), illustrating Table I. 13. Summer Solstitial, continuous line, Winter . oC broken line. 14. Vernal Equinoctial, continuous line. Autumnal ‘6 broken line. 15. Mean Equinoctial, continuous line. ‘¢ Solstitial, broken line, A. P, 8.—VOL. XIV. Z Chase. ] 202 (June 19, Curve 16 (Solar), illustrating Table I. 16. 1847-55, continuous line. 1856-’64, broken line. 1865-—’78, dotted line. Curve 17 (Solar and Lunar), illustrating Table I. 17. Solar mean, continuous line. Lunar ‘broken line. The horizontal line in each figure represents the mean daily rainfall for the entire period represented by the curve; the abscissas, the times ; and the ee the normal es of excess or deficiency of rain- HEUeRceRcged fall. The origin of the abscissas is at New Year in the solar curves, and at full moon in each of the lunar curves, except figure 17, where it is taken at new moon in order to show the analogous effects of increasing radiation, both in the solar and in the lunar curves. At Lisbon, where the prevailing winds are from an opposite quarter, the lunar influence is also opposite, increasing lunar radiations and decreasing solar radiations, each bringing increase of rain. ‘“‘Husband’s’’ Station is in St. Lucy’s parish, northwestern part of Barbadoes, not far from the coast, 184 feet above the sea. In the follow- ing tables, new moon, first quarter, full moon, last quarter, are respec- tively marked by, n, a, f, b. 205 1874. ] [ Rawson. RAINFALL AT “ HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. ] | | | | | | | | Days.’ Jan. Feb. Mar |Apl.)May June. 'July.|Aug. Sept.) Oct. | Nov, | Dec. | Total i} | | | 1 jf 23 .06 05! .02b .48b .03| .25) 06) 2 .80 | 10 © 01) .01| .£0 .04| 2.90) 3 10 .07 01 b .23' 1.28 AO} al} 4 On|) ko 01 AIG) GB : 5 .05 07) 11 b .06)b 1.67 LO .0T Oil MO) ol) OR) = Par mn 7 01 .07) Db 102 TSS e381) evden In .02 ofeey BB .03 D ib 36) 04) 01 & 9 |b 01 b .07| .07| —.03! in .64.n 03]. .01 2 610 .06 .05) 84) 63 .03n .09) 1.55) .73) OL & 11 .23| 01 .26} Ls onl a all) | kos ol a 12 16) .05) .01 n lin .51 .09 14 B 613 14 02} 12! | 12 Sg 14 19} .15) .05) .16n.48) 01) 25) 1.34) .40/ .994 .01 Q 15 05 n .06} n .03 08 | 04 .0y) 09a .79 63 So 16 m 01 n .10 .05| 1.89} .09| .03] 24 ay 28] .01| .10 .€8 10a 04a .04 2 18 .06) .10! .11) .03 a .05) 66) 04) 45 mx 19 02) .09 .01 05) -.36} OL Pp 20 25) 02) 01) .27 a a 102228 a 21 23a .02 06 a 05 .03 \f EOD .06/ .02} .0la .10 .04| .04 27 .03|f 2 253\ 1) 08 S 2 a 20) .10! .50)f 01) .26 24 |a 13 MODs fae 22) eel ee 25 .02 01; 16} = 25] —.07| 26 .04 AT .36 t We BB 27 04 f a! 08) Ol BP) 8 28 01; .01 t 1.80) .57| .66 29 13 f .04' 42! 02} .45| .43b .61b .03 30 .02 .01f .06 .06, .08| .05) .OL b .94) .50! 01 31 |f .05 f 01) .30| 199) Sum | 2.62) 0.75! 1.00! 1.85! 0.68! 1.58 3.45 5.00) 12.37! 6.78] 8.25' 2.72 Desa liem Feb.|Mar | Apl.|May |June.| July.| Aug. Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total 1 «30 n -40 2 | 1.34 zit aS | eee 48 3 01 n fo .13| .20| 3.75 a 4 .03'n 04; 689 1.54 a : 5 .05 n 37 a a + 6 n.28 27 \a 1.50 es 7 .03 .10 18! 10/2 82] 2.95 rs .02 13 a a 1.62) 3.30 a 9 08) .01 a NP (F = 10 .05 a .09 19, f if fe} ll a .02|a .05 ( 2 j 49 2 12 .05| .09) .06 | f a 13 Ia 43 ; { £.28 9 14 .03 L .15!f I Tee .31 A 1 01 .09 (e25 als 1.78 a 16 15) .07 if f .86 \2 .038 ; = ily 36] .48) .31 104 .13 b b = «18 .08/f .01/f f .36 .19 = 19 45) .01/f .04 1.25) ( .36 b |b bP 20 |f .05) .10 37 | 1.50, 1.50 .35 a 21 15 b 1.75 .59 OP 09] .07 45 a 23 .03 .16 b 03) 1.80)0 .13 = OM .08 b .21 10 ( 50 25 .05| 08 .30/D .35 +35} In |n .23 26 01 b .31 n 115 2 27 b .03,b 1.16 in .65 28 |b .09 1.07 n .20 { 60] .37, 29 .08 1.10 .78 30 381 n .05n .05 31 14 94 allyl) cal 2.25 21 ES ar | OM Pal | Fe | RE | | ee | | Sum! 3.68. 1.12! 0.96] 0.90] 4.03! 255! 5.70! 9.201 7.50 16.23! 3.27| 3.78 204 Rawson. ] [June 19, RAINFALL AT **HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. Days.|Jan.|Feb.| Mar. | Apl.} May.|Jun.| July} Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total 1 20: (a .05 .07 .78 Be ; 1.20] ye llyg| | (Cs ae 3 .19 f.40 07 4 13] 670, ( .85 .03 ca tb RAR gale 01 S 6 1.20 .30 b .26 cy \f f f 14) 2.10) 1.50) =.07,-1.75/b 54 ne eee f. 12) .49 } b .42 81 Gg | | 30) 23 (b.50) —.90 01 * 10 .04. | .30 .38| .89] 75 230 05 @ tbl 20. | L.74'( .11 b 14; 05 2 12 54) 45 02 a 13 | b |b .26 01 9 14 .82 ) b 11 .87 n .04\n .04 i) WB |} b a 387! 36 1.98 .87 > 16 |b ‘| L.97) Lb.84) 42) .67| 11) = .84.n n S/T (i 1.00 233) <05|) 405 18 14n fas? — 19 42 n 1.20 b> 20 333 n 15 25 3 21 -60 BD tn | L104 n n 1.40 a .02\a @ 23 2.12 | 87] .03} Do n n .18 a a 25 52! L .05) .05) a .08} .12) | .55 .36 26 .87| 14 44) 22) 1.35 a 27 a .95| .14 .02 28 .04 a .58 04. 29 57 a 85) .05f 14/f .01 30 36) 14.58 .60 .05 31 |a .67 1B 56 f Sum! 4.00! 2.25 4,12 1.60 296) 6.94 5.80) 4.97| 5.25! 7.54 1.40, 3.03 Days.|Jan.|Feb.|/Mar | Apl. |May June.|July|Aug. |Sep.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |Total — f | 1 2-08] .06; .08 ey 5 ib .02! 09) 2.70 2 ll 02 b .05.b .20) 27 2.10 3 49D 51] .25) 11in n .03 4 .04 b .03.b PE Py eA | SxS Gg) 28} ‘ 5 |b b 08) 15 n .26) .16 3 6 02) .16 07) +.95n 125 e) 7 .02} .40 02) .42 m .15) .09) .02 .05 es 8 01 2.75 .02) 4.35} .05 a 9 15)n 28) -05| 18! .07 2 10 In .45) 1.13) .28] .14! 11 ny 11 10 n .14 .28 a .55a 11 2 12 n n 10 dies Oa cilly By 13))|ne25 n .06 .02 a .07 02 g 14 -30 2.90| .48a .10) .17| .18 qQ 1 .16 N65) eee 22 |23 a .09 a i 44) 06 a.45a .04 .84| .08| .16 .07 abe .04 49} 62 10] = 82 = 18 .05)a .22 .02 f x 19 16a a 3.00] .10 18 ALlf 08 mb 20 a .08 .06! { .08] = .12 a 21 |a .30 -30) .12\f 15] 08] + ~—-.02 See .08 f .01 -50 a 23 1.67 .06 1.74 MA £25 03} .02/ .06 .13) .04' 25 § .08 f WA, TG 25 .02|b .10 26 ea fess .38 AS b .06 i 27 \f f .24| 15) .09] .73' .19 b 54] 15! 28 .80) .35| .82b .33| 05) 3.82 29 02} .11| .04) 3.00) 1.50 30 05! 80 b 2.40} .10| 3.20) .67) .07 31 15} 16) BA) LOY .15 .04 Sum)! 1.12) 3.50} .80) 4.36] 2.72 7.80 8.28] 928 2.36) 15.92 10.97) 6.39 205 1874. ] [Rawsor. RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES. Days. Jan.|Feb ‘Mar Apl. May June.! July.| Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |Total i} | | | 1 n .06 in in 18 a 2 in 03 n a | 1.05) 2.02) .41 3 .08 73 a 15} 610) 1] 24 4 .04| 31] .03 | .02 ano .04| a 250) SOS 22) Sail a G 07 ay 65 54 f .82 coi 03) .24 31 .04 0.18} = .08]—.08 en: 03) 04) la 15 f a 9 04/a, a 09 -03) _ .80 10 ja 12 a Se) Ga) | Loy f fe 020) 218) sen Ei) aigl 19] = .04 2 £2.69 2 1 50] 18] .90, .36 08 .03 Bereta eet 2ie elle. 5y Kee all 94) 2.78) .48, 80 9 14 25] 07 265" 18 .77| 1.46/ — .83! a 126 Ont al2|) -2af Nf .08 | 8.74 b .11 5 1G 03] .25| 04 82) .73| 44 bd .10) .39 = 17 |f .03| .26f 1.25 .67 b 27 s 18 .09 st TG) my b .09 = 19 04. | 82) .09b .04 1.21 19 P20 05) 04) 64 -24 ll eS Al ‘Db .23'b .24') 58 14 El 22 b .42 DD Pe aI OE Gare Qa ein n .28 a 23 04 20! eo OL OL Ba 11 | EL May Oy b 22.04 1.86 n.57| 05 25 10) 03 .03| 81; 08n .26 .20 26 | 15.18 n_ .05! .86 15 27 .08 02] 1.02; .70 1.10 40 25 28 Ol 17) = 212) a5) 2-15} .16 29 .05| | .08) n 42) | 202 30 In .09 64 08) 04 a .05a .09 a | aa | | 50 a Sum| 1.05 2.36 1.12 1.72 3.45! 6.01| 4.72) 8.80) 8.38 9.98 5.56 402 4 Days.|Jan.|Feb.|Mar | Apl.|May'June.'July.) Aug. Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. Total 3 .03 45/f .04 04.09 2 01 f 01) —.07| Wi oe .05)| f S12 es .15' 1.10 4 35| 16 f 11; 03) ~=—.86) Ss. 04 b .85 b a. «OG f 122 04) 22 82 2105 eZ oS 6 f .13) fO7| 204) db) 22) :87| .01| Mi 14) .05) .10/b .27| 1.65) 1.15} — .05} = 8 30) .12/ .02 .03} 10 51] 1.21] 3.78] —_.08] a -12| 038 b .18\/b 68} .02| 2.74| .60, .06 0 32) 08 b 13) n Bib 30) 04 b .09} .01) 1.40 .03 n .05 el b jb 48) . calls .04| 3.30) 1.20} .20 @ 18 |b .27| .18 .36) .01) .03 16} .02in .94n 1.76) 104 o 14 10 16) 96] .14) 23 01; 84 1.30 A 15 .01 n .09} .01 Ss 16 24 14'n .26, .07 4.05 a) Ly .05 .02 n .03, .07 21 @ 18 06] .02| 25] n .05 04) = 01 a 52a = le .02 n .20 n .27| —-.08 a .06 QD A .07 in .02'a 2.86 So Gail tin ae 14/02 BR 22 .08 66) 06 = .1d4/a 41 Saez8 35) 01 ii) Bile, OA) Gl SP 24 12) .09 a 15| 09 25 .19 25/04) 01] .03 .05 26 03} .19) .27!— .08) 10) 21 f f 27 .07 a 1.70) .02) 01 f .26 28 a 0la 3.22) .76) 14 if 29 |a .07| .15 f .09} .26] 1.31 35 30 10 .10 01} 03} 1.09] .07| 4.37 .03 31 t .05 Sum | 2.55) 1.88] 2.02! 1.37] 664! 2.78 2.38 7.81! 6.03) 10.13! 18,29! 5.24! Rawson. } 206 [June 19, RAINFALL AT ‘ HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES. | | | Days.| Jan. ee Mar |Apl. May. |June.| July.) Aug. | Sep. | Oct.) Nov. | Dec. | Total 1 (b .27| 81 20) .06| .03! .82n 20) .05 2 |b .08: .16!b 1.14, .02! 11] .04n .01 DO 5 3 Os) fa) 3a} 69 1.64n 82 20| .55 4 .03 n .10 05 an) 0 23 12st 6 AO)” 8 02) + .08 82) .01 8 6 12 n n .57 10 02) & T 14 04 nm 23\) (02 26, la 1.09 a Rens n 26 n .04 A ey) ae 06.01 20! BO ka Tn OAT 09) PPR OR) a) ae) SG OA) Lee oo 10 85| 89} .06| 2.28) 12) 03a 73 31 fh .82| 10 Mia SO) Ae a 12 KS! 0) 2A BB .08| .02| .05) 01) 518 20 01 21 a 09} .37 85 | 2 14 08 ( la .04 05) .07 04 eB a 201) 218! 205 08} =.05 O1if if Z SG) a a .05 fy 48) Soa STAY OH 02'a .03| .01 iy) aig} f .65| .68| .20| 4.50 = 18 08] 02: a .60 re OR) SAH OA 0) SEL = Ae) a7 204 | Se cial 10 p> 20 08} 14 .03/f 1.20 08 01 a 21 29 f .03 1.16 80 zp 05 03 rave Ou 14 05| 46 18 Gr OB 02 f 06 f .34 1.20 11 10 07 b .36|b ey 2d 05] .13| 03 4g] 15) 01, 25 if f 01; 01 .02 b .05|b .35 09 26 08) 02 04 11/ .09/b .20 02) .85 45) 64 Oy 06 .03 .09\b .85 40| 3.23 33) 28 12 O2 arse 25 11/b 22 3.61 01 29 28) 09 GEM {O Q1| 1.42 15 30 b 1.10} .02) .02 06| n .01n .01 31 .69 b 4.28 03] 89 -—— Sa ee — ———_ =e oe Sum| 2.48) 2.97! 2.62) 2.46] 13.59] 5.55} 4.26] 6.75] 12.26) 7.75 7.27! 6.17 1 | Days. Jan. Feb. Mar Apl.| May. |June.| July.| Aug.| Sep. | Oct.| Nov. | Dec.| Total 1 LO) 223 57 2 204) 60 45 22274 2 15 205 03' 40 14 20 3 1G}, als a .40a .63 .02 24 1.21 rs 4 a 01) 03 .0'8 .29 23.f rae) ; 5 ja 03 04 a 13a 03) Lis (Of), OBI By ob res 6 a 01) .01 05 f .o3if 28 07 a u 04 62| .02| 14] .30 16 Te 58 1.35 f .02| .09) aero) oilat| .05 .58 1.64 6 0 16 08 fa ONE 06 65 250 3 i 32 40} 08 01 8.25! 12 28 f t 15| .19 7b 2.99 b el ie .O1lf (01, 115 02 b1.07| .65. 8 14 If .40 f 05) 1 01) b 30/07 yeas 29} 11) .01) .25 ally .28b .22) 19 87 a 1G .02 1514 ee O2ibe cOD Ml Olli eOll 09 ee it 01 .02,b .20/ —.01! 23) ell plZ = 18 05! .08 06} .02 44 a 8619 0T|b Db 1.84) n mb 20 b OL 08 .02 n .20 .24 § 21 |b b 1263) gee 1} ood ll (3a) O17) esl Gi) .27| —.05| n .09 & 23 19, .14 15! 39m .09 07 24 n195 18 04 25 15 n 04 ae} oly 06 26 l1\n mM Me 0 19 1.21.4 a Q7 16} .04! n .07 .68 68] 44 28 |n .21) .03.n .86 44) 15) .0l'a 29 .05 07| .40\a 04) 21 30 .30 90' .23/ 01 31 .02 04 la .16 Sum] 1.85! .84| 1.12] 1.02) 1.55 5.49 829! 412) 3.67| 8.64) 1476 3.21, 1874 ] [ Rawson. RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES. January 1st, to December sist, 1855. - uo Apl. May June. July. Aug. | Sep. | Sum! 148 2.05 January Ist, to December 31st, 1856. rr .| Feb. Mar | | .16 f .70 ‘foe | eeleG 24 f 55 09 a5 19 | ox b | 06 b .05 b .20 | 14 08 Bl | 28 | .l4n in n | 20) 02 | .18 08} .05 20! 18} 06 la. 09 28 a .14 .38 a 50 | .05 .10 1 0; 220. DOO ot if .14 212 393 518 .| Mar Apl.; May, 12 05 18 .02 27 ay n 40; .440 .80/n .18 10) 02 18] .04 03 | OT a 10! .35a .20 40a .02 12! 625) if f 09 f AM BX | .39 Ol 41! | .02| 50 | b 1b .22 Al b 85 T5129 242 | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total | 22 .60b .09b .60 b .48 .33 05. 15 82 24 64 1.21 30, 64) 1.22} .06 1.05 in n on 73 | 86 28) .50 03! 09 .38l 26 10 .69 a 16a 2.10 10 05 & .05 .86 5 04 10 60f .81f .05 55) | 05, fame) 10. 73 81 CO, PB ds -O1} 1.06 04 10 .3l 50 26 08 10 ib .18 834! 540 6587, 425 Sept.) Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total 11) a 18) 1.08 53! -15| «12 a .25a .16 2.34 a 03 -73 08 | Td 73 04 18 27 13) 2.23)/f | 08 f .02} 12 f .29 234 25) 25 .02 .05 22 .22; = =.09 01 32 85 b b \b .07 13 05 .02 45 .80 36 25) 08 .03 .27) 96 .02 -02| n n .05 .06 n .07 02 04) 74] 1.12) 1.01 14 .36| 4.8), 3.04) 8.14, 4.41 Rawson. } 208 [June 19, RAINFALL AT ‘“*HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. j | Days. Jan.|Feb.| Mar| Apl, May, June. July, | ian | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total | | 1 09 a a 09 14) 1,80 f .65f .10 2 07a 2.75) 28 93 8 |a 02) .03/ .05| 05, 80 lf .06f .07; OL 4 26) 16 .08] -.17/ .68 .24/ 1.00; .28 | ee .05 £38] | 410) f .58 41 & 6 87/ .29| 3.80 3.86 4.60| .28 = 7 12 .02 f 12f .07 | 04 msi f .03) .09 .46f se D> = OR b b a2 9 19, f 20) ca! .20 67 1.00 31 oo 10 if 88 f AQ) | .30 b b 08! 03 vemesliieng| 10! | C6 1.42) .06 .70 .08| 16 5 12 50| .68 17; .v0b .25 1,35 A 13 .01| 07 28 p18 01! 28 10 gS 14 | 38) .52 Db | dil 19) Oy je) 1 15! 26 | | .21ib .06 | 02) 121' 18 25 S 16 |, b .20) 11 b 1) 85) 682) 8. n = iy lon ib 10) 1.08 | 142n .08 95 C1 | + 18 10 b 05) .06n .16 .48 | - 19 04! 72 41n | 07 06 pb 20 .06 151 1.42 | | 09 cS Oil ll} .08 10) n n .47 40 19 | OP 14) .22 10 i ook PO | 106 eg 2 400, cll mn OU OD OP oN LO | 24 Nn .34 n 45 | ol .07 a it 25 In n 66 i 0m | | .05 26 11 10| 86 02a .80 | 60 27 102 23 la .75| | | .07| 28 la a .16 .66 tal? .20) 29 105 WearoiNuio2| aencewsin aire! | 150 BD -10 a 27a | 20) 17) 20 .08) 186 <¢8 1 12 | 114 .08 f 22) Sum | 1.84] 5.51) 2.52| 4.87. 7.48° 6.09 7.66) 11.67 9.01 4.99] 10.17 2.15) i Days. Jan.|Feb.; Mar Apl.| May|June.| July.) Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Tota | | | | 1 54 1.21 2 15) 14 .20 10) .04 1.00} 01 3 03) .40) 19 18 .18 4 .60 ‘b b b 40) 13 Ue 3B .10|/b .10 02 65 040 n (3 @ .15| 04 ib .08 b .81| 20] ~—-.05 1.57; 58) Cyt Me es b .08| .05 14'n Tl 240s sxe aS 10 10.07} 34] 35 30 07 Be 30/n .81 40 54 = 10 01| 09/n 01 35] 12 fl algh 02) OL 02in .23) 422) 13] 686) 142) 703) 302 2 2 10} .10 .05) 1.01) .23/ .16 Jo] 11) 08 z 13 08\n rey pa 10} .30) 47) «1.€0) —_.16/a a .16 g id 30} 80, .08 33} .07| .25] 1.30) 01) .08 qQ 15 |n n 15) 25a a .61 28 ene 21 205 10\a 10 = aly .09 a STO |e s 18 09) 1.60) .02| .02! a .08 | 02 10} —-.36 19 a .14 .04 07) 05 Pp 20 a a 06} 15 28 19 f .52 g 21 02 18 03) 90 f Ee OB In @ .25| .26 f a 23 .29 f .10 rm 24 108 f .04| .46 10 25 .05 f NO gig oil 26 05) PP .79 .80 27 02 £ f .02 16} .77/b 1.30\b .12 28 f 123 ati) li 29 ‘| f f 11} .03] ~—-.55 b 1,00 .65 30 40) 40D .12) 04 113 31 17 b | “72 .01 Sum | 1.28 2.89' .75| .85| 194/ 2.62) 4.92) 330' 4.70) 9.07/ 5.80! 405 209 1874. ] [ Rawson. RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES. Days.| Jan. Feb, Mar Apl.|May June. July. Aug. Sep. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total | | | | 1 04 02) lume 08 06 80 © 04a 2 EOSm 25) in .08 65, a .60 3 n .03. n 08 rc O2|ioeOi7| a 48 4 |n .04 10n .06 Pasay OT el Olen leo4 ie Wei) 6 5 .U3| 01 | a i) = oat 1 40 44) BO il Oy .03 15) 64) 21 ye 102; .05 Deel Sanees .20 | OR oa SH) 01 .15} 2.19 708). 14 eG 27) a sP)| 08) 50 12 enO2 ° 10 a a .07| lf f old 14 16 2.00 f .08 .08 2 12: Ja 05 a 31 f 14 S58 02 08 f {BRI g 14 .23} 01) .06 .28 AIS uplesd aoe ey 18 04! elie Of f 40 hig 08) 08 B 1G .05 feel Seam 30, 0G) BO WR ADD Sy f C3) f .45 .18 b .09 2 18 |f 03) 07 f 09.24 PD ACH 0S rm 19 03) BP 0 b b | b> 20 08, 05 23 22! .05 al Oil .05 £2022 05: byae 26 || el Simi OS LD oD 17 i (03 EB! BS | 3 98 b .36 b 1.35] 10 = of .20 b 'b 5201 R07 1.00. n n 25 |b Da ole 68 oe oa ON Oe 26 b | 01) 83, 415.02 n In .64 .10 27 18) 53] 54 24 i ea Oar als 28 09) .68 10328 cOk 207i eee OSimim22 |g 08 29 06) Oln I, E00) 204) + Slow 16 30 .65'n .68 | 01 18, 31 TD .20 | 08 08. “41 ee SS ee : i | —_ Sum) 1.31] 1.04 0.50 3.70 283' 6.31| 4.57 3.90 486 7.02/ 6.22! 2.73 Days. Jan. Feb.|Mar|Apl.|May|June.| July.; Aug | Sep. Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |Total | | il ley 0B)” la ol 09 05) 06 2 fos ale | OS — BOS ~ Wy LES | 3 A265 |e | f if 10; ) > Ol Oy ae oe 4 O83 PA JG OA) Ol 2B op 1.34 & 5 I BG) f if | 39. 1.96] .75b | Siee i 205 14 | 4305 (02) 10; | Ta i 04f .04|f .06 p19) eee se | Ola) 206] -35| NS Bhelife eel e220 .09 | leusi42/be Ot)» 04 24. eh wee) .03 505 eee sou bin 02 Bde 05 02) pau 0 26 | | | -T7| | @ Tul .25 ald 227) ib 86 24 3 12 26.04 .09 b 23) Ly a4 n a ie b b 01; .09 .69 20n Se-14 || 02 b | 09, 04 22 2) i168 iy Or Aor ol | 07) 2138 m32 14 a iB 01 .04' m Ge A OOS Son foul 15.04 07, $33\1 ole 00m LO 4.35] 02 = ig .03 .04 63 0 | .06] .02 30 .03 i a) | gl 02) m On) ste. blll 2H snl «= O)] m 20 | 02 in 7, 23 6) aO GOm Wa a3 eg 21 n .30 nee .08 a .02a .11|/ .05| .40 Zz OD \in .28\n eee 20, | Gr Or, GSU S23 Oi or | Bla 170 05. 208) | 204 ro | | 45) AB iil (0S 25 -20| la a 80! 34! 04 | 26 “15 51005) eee 02/07) 27 .08 05 a .08 E2002 | 28 .10 a .13| | 42) .08if f | 29 a .70 } call 1.05) | 2A LB oo 80 a | A) PRY HE) | | Shey | | .87 jf .68 .20| Sum! 1.48 2,.97| 0.31) 0.98; 0.741 2.99 3.99, 10.98| 11.70) 8.021 810 4.94! A. P. §.— VOL. XIV. 2A Rawson. ] 210 [June 19, RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. Days.) Jan. Feb. Mar | Apl. May June.) July.) Aug.) Sep. | Oct | Nov. | Dec. |Total 1 15 | 01) .46b 21) .08 10 11| 2 | .01b .42 b .07 04) 2.54 n n .03) 3 .06 ib 01] .20, 1.14) .68 4 |b .16 .02 .09 Oe | | zim n | eye DEST lly <6 peel 4 ties O4' 220) eG 70) 11] 118 n .17/ .18 50 on 22/8 1635s! |e 05) el 2 291i ds 37 | aes 04) .20 .29n .60n 05 08.60 | Be O| Oy a 285 n .03/) 210) .42 43} 1520 a c 10 n 08} 14) 46 aol | ai jm 64 n Ol] 285 .77)a .05| .15 2 12 | 03 .36 .04| .08 03) 04 Bish ines | 16} .10 46a .02/ 120) .08 04 g 14 .05 1 OS). 105) 435 2.94, 120 2.21) .28 a 165 137) 215! 9 102|) 1450 a1.85a .03 30, 2.00 1.46 5 16 14 .01] 02] —.06 Bs) al Gy) “oily ay 08 a .10 .20)a 53 258 | 55f .03)f .50 = 18 | a .08 Os ee ee ou®) 59 ra 19 Ja a .04 abl) ls 10st 151430 anen Od Pp 20 80| .20) .06/ .09) .16| .10f 13° 4.00 | 3 21 21) .01 C2 01 21| —.08} | Dp 06) .65| .19/f .o4|f 41| .06 | S 23 79 Ol] .55| .22 .40 2.24 105 mM 03 O5|f |f .38] 01] 1.20 10} 80) = .11jb_ .08 25 31f .08 A) 08) aG) 0B b .82 26 |f .25 f .04| -.05| 03 52 b 32 | yf i | 20] .01 20 |e 00] eal A b | 28 .20| 80 1.50; .26 b .02 05) 64 29 .05 03} .10} .87| .02Ib | 1.73.40 E86) 30 | 14) .27| 2.28 'b 6083 (ees 23) 31 13, b1.00; “30/0 288 | 4.00 n .46 Sum! 2.96 3.18! 1.80) 7.50! 8.17) 8.89) 907 3.25! 10.29 16.62 901] 5.21 Days.| Jan.) Feb.|Mar | Apl.) May'June.| July | Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov.| Dee. | Total | i} 1 04) .02! .08| ja .380) .07 -09 2 .06 .04 1,00} .04 .03 | 8 | 1.56 02 02 a 2335 4 .02 10 a 47) 01} 600) .05) —-35] ili 236| -09ran cS) 23210960) Oz enka 05 So Gg 15a 36 | 1.61/f .3sif 2) 7 |a 14 a a .06 O7| = =.17 15 f 12 ue 8 10} 02a 200 .07| .09/f 02 ae) .04 a OD? OBS | & 10 02) .04| .06 | 123 2.10} .38] .49 abl .02 .06, .06 he oil} 15 .69 2 12 10} .40) f .06 10) 1.05 i & 13: | 16 f 07 04 06) 2.05 g 14 14f .38 .07/f 57 31) b 303'b e 6 11 | .44 10} = .13|b) 070 9-60| aye 02 B iG We? ts) WoL | .46 .05)D 1.85] .04 seenly/ 05 04 -75b .15/ 1.00 04) .70) .07 = 18 03 | |b’ .22) 06 25 m= 19 06 | 06 ib .29) 38| 25) .09, P 20 £05) b .03, .06/ .06) .26] .04 3 21 \b .03 b .16, [04 3430) eeOs 2m 20m GB 205) b | st 1.50/)) “iro 28 |b 46) | 0 2B) 08 13 0 n 82 Ps Uh 74 12; .18 .51/ .02) 2 65| 25 | 1.00) 42, .91| _ .45| n 2.06.64 02 26 | 04) .08.n .30 Ol 27 | .05 | | In 94: 20) 03. 28 .25 n my jhn 75) 18 07 a | 29 | .05 .03) .80 160a 01 30 in n 04 | ja \a 04. ot | | | .07| | Sum) 5.40) 1.72 0.34 1.34| 2.43 572 368! 840 3.01' 18.84! 10.98 2.65 211 1874.] [Rawson. RAINFALL AT “HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES. | | | \ | | ! Days. Jan. Feb.) Mar |Apl.|May|June.' July. Aug.| Sep. | Oct. |.Nov.) Dec. (eigice | | 1 ‘atl L035 f f 1.67; 64 2 .02} .01| .68 35 3 f 06, |. Loe 04 14 «414 b 1.20 4 | .09 f 57) 24 b | 1.54) .01! 3 BR .06 f .02) .03| EO) al) OA) Br S 6 01} 80, .04| HOSE BI) oO! ] .29 mt Mi .02| 04b .04, .07; .02 .65) «30 aon 18 02) 01 b 10) | .05] —-.80 2 2 Syl} 46.16} 05, + .02 29) 14 10 06] .10) .12,b .71 20; 05 .06 n .06 A iil | b 09 b .03) 11 al 2 tier OS ened, n .08 12 |b b .05 .05) 10] —.03| n -08 a 18 .06 | 11 .05'n Sie ae lil Al 15! .20'n -07 A 15 .02) .65 .08 n 1.35) .04) .24 1.80] .18 o. «16 .20| 08 2 n 04 8 Ball a Oe aah 205 n .10 .15| 1.50 10a .05 + 18 n .02 n .08) .02 “15 | 45a 12 val aK) tha n | 14 04a 04, .58 Pm 20 .08} .02) .02) .08 a 17, 45 gs 21 04] .08| .38) .23 7, .02| 105| 204 zB oD .05' .06| 06) 45|a .02| .05' .03] 42) 50} S 23 09} 09 03} .04/a 11) 1.11 20) he | Ore 04 a 1.07 04 25 .09/a .33 03 a .82 sf .0¢f 26 |a 65) a .10 a) GH 8B f 17; —-.05) 27 |) 209) .50.a 04° 20, 48 f 12) 28 cil abt .03f .40| .08 .10 29 £09. .29) 11/40 12! 30 .05 - 02) fem O2 02) 47 Sila ee 02 25] 05 | | Sum! 0.86 413/119 2.20) 113) 1.66 4.20) 5.99! 4.66] 2.68) 7.84: 3.21 } | | Days.|Jan.|Feb.|Mar | Apl.| May June, July. Aug.|Sep.| Oct. | Nov.| Dee. |Total Pues ee | | | 1 05 b .03 n 05, 14.02 2 40) .18 .01'n oH oR | BO 3 44! 07 09 83, 84 12, 02 4 30 n .4¢n 12 230) act ehipits .20 18) 08 .66| 1.45) .88| .02/ Ss 6 14 myn! cllll @ ..01.a .07| a: 7 n .05 .03 54 .02! 02.10) = 8 .05| .04.n .09 a 4.16, .05) Si iin (08) .02 Ay SO)! oy GB ON 2 10 04 .06 | .06 a .79 03} 80, .80 itl -03 Lil 18 01 30! g 12 03 a .06a 22) 1.54) 08] 28 645 o 13 -28| .07 a 03, .46 £33 f ie Py aA 10a la E20 ee O2 21 1.75) . 4.55 04 Clee loa| 208 |i-05|a 1.25 10/f .40 01 e iG ail ib 8} 15) .80 Sy igl'T -12| .50|f 1.30] .46) .61/ 1.24) .20 om ig 16] .20) .20 06} 22 532) 146) s05|) 02) 201 ia) ai) .05 12\f .04/f .48] .06) .38) .02) 08 a. AD aay eal Wy wa ae OS PA) ODL lll BO Se ol 3) Se f 20M) 202) 207! 90|/b .43b .38 A 22 \f .32 i 12A| LBD PAip WAH] Pall ae Seema 03] 06) .64| 1.45] 15] 26) .08 24. 05 1.31/b .18) 1.23) 56) 2.41 25 09 b .75| 56) .06 26 .03} .08 b .06] 2.20 -10 27 12 54 1,14) .34) .82 n 28 06 or-03 lee O3 e023 32) = .20/n 29 05} 02 1 | -10 66] .02 30 b .05} .01 -04 n n 16) 31 |b -21 25 Sum! 3.07| 1.62| 0.26) 0.29) 2.93] 1.19! 7.11' 8.92] 10.47| 12.55) 12.121 3.57 212 Rawson. ] [June 19, RAINFALL AT ‘‘HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. Days. Jan.| Feb.|Mar|Apl.| May' June.| July.| Aug | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec | Total 1 LOSE 25 .08 a 19a 253 | TAO) iO 2 a a eH) Gly OB OP RE IG 3 05! .07\a 290). 288)) > 18] esti 3585: 14 4 ja 10} 04a ON BP GS) ae IBS 0 - Sie entero .01 aly) IR A ae, 8} 3 6 02) .05 04 09} 3.25 a 7 .05, .01 Mi BO Shes Op OS! PES BAS 14, 50) .15] .10/f .08 .30 .01 a 9 .29| 1.42.f A083 |e 02 55 soe 110 f 15/f .15 8) (08 b b Omelet 07 f 26] 02 23] 45 .18 E 12 f .26 29} .27\b 56 a | 18 .038 2345) 1.20) {0b 241) agi 35 .05 dl 5083} — {alll 108) eSSiiee vale 56 .39 je 16 56] .02 10 15,b .70) .04 aly ee .50 -70 b 1.58] .17) 1.91 al sah cis hi 204k 0S! 05 | pelezh ne 2| ue O04 eam Ol 3 = 18 .16)b .01/b .07/b .02) 48) .04! .03 n n fl 5G) .03 .80 15} 80) « -04n .88'n .20)) .16) .48 > 20 |b .03 b 54) .01| 03 eal Ol BB g 21 .06 .05 mo .82| 38] 1.65 a 22 05} 70 02} .0ljn .06) .35 ‘All| '.04 & 23 AO LS elon) 208 eee e209 21 “24 389, *.04n all), “20 25 n .22.n .17 .38| .08 .20/ .05}a .28 26 04.04) 09] .50) .45! 37] .osla 27 In 07n oll .68 104) ) 482 a .03 28 .02} .29 Oly Cra] eal 29 105) eel 7 a 28) 50 52 30 17 .05 FLO} 2582: 1.03] .05) 3.25 1.41 31 .02 .29 .10 37 2.69 0.28 ——— -— —----— —— _———d Sum | 2.94] 1.44! 1.37] 2.08] 7.77) 9.08} 6.05] 9.80| 3.33! 16.421 5,52] 6.20 | Days.! Jan.'Feb.| Mar, Apl.|May|June.) July.) Aug. Sept.| Oct. | Nov. Dec. | Total | ees aaa | Sache I (pe Pal f £03) 203m O|nee0G | 54 2 16} .03 lil a7 ‘b 199 ees tae 3 .20 sil) Orally ks 145 ee gee so ¢ 4 04 AO} Of SI) oe SB é 5 .04 aalal £03) Joye Ol aepeatsTl eae ON eT 7 .10 S 6 03} 14 .03'D .29| 04 .01 .09 ee 7 b b .67 01] 2:30] .26:n a a U8) e)|b)209| #1800 b all 08) OR BI 0 Oe az 9 .26|b 41! .03'n_ .03} | oo 10 ROS ame .05| .05/n .76] .07 20.49 al Onl) cil SO! OT TA {60}) | OLIN ve76 2 12 .30| .43 n in 2.40, .43 10) 04. a 18 34 SOME OL 1eSaeeero eee: OD! OI ay n .30 04 elo q 16 .39/n .02/ .80n .11] .30 .01 a .02a .12 = 16 |n .03/! .10/n | Ws Gl, BB a! Bw 06 .08 Se aly( 64 03! .07/a 02 0}, ill = 18 .13 a .05) 15 18 .03 a 19 .04 .07| .02} ae e08)a 24D 0682] Oll pe 20 03) .01) .06) .13 i) AG .66 a 21 04! 02) .07/a .01'a foul) 125) 30 10 f = BD .88 a .02 .05 S16) eae eee OL | bree | ame. a 3 la .07|a .03] .18 .89 06) 71 PA iy. 105) pen25 nO aenecO pts fip35|ameOr 25 04 25; 14) 2:10) 64 26 .09 .06 23) .06|f oli 27 O1/f f .01); .49 .05 28 .21 .07|b 29 CO fe nena fi .08 oll} by 268) .50 30 |f 19} .05 156|( Se ebb | 08 Bill ill 31 f .07 b .40 Sum | 2.44] 2.57) 1.51) 0.98] 2.49] 2.77] 7.15] 9.86! 4.88] 5.80] 5.11] 6.44 213 1874.] [ Rawson. RAINFALL AT ‘“‘ HUSBAND'S,” BARBADOES. Days.| Jan.| Feb.|Mar | Apl.| May|June.| July.) Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee. | Total 1 01] .02 -13)n .12 -21 -01 02) 2 40 12; .17) .13) .43/n .18 .03 oil 09 10 3 16 ietOSi ar tOo euro -05 16 18 1.67 4 .03 2 n .10/n .22 21 06 04;a .65a .08 s 5 02.10} = .21 -08 04 03 67)a .23 OL 07 = 6 jn n .08: .22) .OL 44 14 .83)a .OL; 2.62) z 7 02 .20! -77| 1.65)a .51 50 ‘79 aS 8 20 .03) .06 -67\a O01 45 01 -93 = 9 a 12 .21|~ .12/ 68] + ~—_.09 Go 10 -08| .02) .04'a AL 02 04 48) 03 .05 =) il :03) .02/ a .03 45 1.00: f .01 = 12 a -09 1.21 oll 09 f .36) Sf 13 |a .08| .07/a .53) 2.01 46f 03 2 14 -16] 1.20) .OL) .01 .03 -13/f 1.04) on -97 fox) 15 01) .79 08: 06f .O01 01! 2.90: 25 } 16 -18) 01) .35 | .05)f 12 -06 27 = 17 -O1! .o4/ .10)f .10 07 06 .06 -02 Ss ig feeo2ie 207 f .08) 01) 41.01 1.25 b b .03 a 19 -O1 f .21 06 -07) 3.10 -80 10 20 f 07 -10 oul 01)b .16 Ss 21 -20 13 b .64! -08 .05 | 22 236 14 1.94 -14\b .08 13 01 34 & 23 .29 16) OL oll 1.40 06 24 -01| -.30) 15 b .07 1.68 25 38 b 1.69 -08) 59) -56 n .03 26 05 | 'b .05 67 -67| 1.21 15 n -O1 27 «|b .01 01 b .02) .01 82, 36n .25 30 06 28 01j)b .07)b 1.20 im .04 14 02 29 OL 01 48 n .06 -05 30 35 15) 1.17 -O1} 1.22 03 3 43) 09 -09) n .28) 1.24 ll Sum! 3.13] 3.82 0.62 2.10) 1.80 10.63] 7.88! 11.20! 9.72! 10.43] 3.55] 3.88 Days.| Jan | Feb.|Mar | Apl.| May) June.|July.| Aug. | Sep. Oct. | Nov. | Dee. Total Ee ee US| el Pel eee eee Leas ib a .17ja 21 -01 .04'f 3.00 f 2 ja 13, .01 OL -56| 18 3 :02| 01 f .04 1.10 04 11 4 03! 200) .04/f 03 04 5 -61 -O1! f 03 oT ro 6 13 01 f 22 22 .10\b es i -O1 f -03 .03) 06 10/b .20 -02 aS 8 f .11/f 07) .08 -10 05 16) 1.17) 1.85 02 ia 9 16) .01) .08) .038 04 .01.b A3 ac} 10 10 .00) 4.77 13 1.75 fal 11 14) 01 06D .08 01 2 12 .02 b .01 .01 a 13 OL 03) 3) Ole. 29) i 04 93) Oln .22 S 14 18] .16 b b -05) 1.24 15 .04'n . .03 02 @ 1 | 25d 1b 01] 17) (06 n.15 BS 16 12) 03) .02 n 09 12 eZ 17 |b -06 07 -08 04 wale aks) 07 .02) 01 OT n .09 07 .06 baal 19 01 13 n .10 ol 240) -O1L n .04 -30 03 15 -05 20 S 21 AT 42) 64 -01 ‘a .30 gq 22 -08) .19) .01/n .19n -02 08) a = 23 n 04 04 14 20 03\a .27.a .10 24 jn .05' .0ljn .20) .15) .03 17 a 18 .02 25 AT 08 21 27 04 26 Ol'a .01 02 .22| 16 27 .03 -02) .05 ja .09| -06 37 12 12 28 12 a ll .20 02 Al 01) 29 13 12a -63 .04| 1.60 ol f f 30 12 07 04, AT 01 87 01 3l “TL ‘a 01 f 2.50 ee ee ey ——— Sum| 3.09] 0.96: 0.89] 0.77) 1.541 2.82| 7.60 3.941 8.40] 5.61| 2.73! 3.60 214 Rawson. ] [June 19, RAINFALL AT ‘“‘HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. Days.| Jan. Feb iar Apl.|May|June.|July.|Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov.} Dec. |rotal | | 1 10, .01! .28] .02) — .09 81] 3.07) 1.80 .01] 2.45 2 52 63 03 b 1.20,b 1.05 277 aste20) 8 .04b 11! .01/b b .04| .03/ .08] .06 n n 4 A)" abl! 16} 06 | .29| ‘ 5 |b .03) b .75 24. me22 dO} g 6 26 .02 n x a 07 05 ag Al n st 18 04 Or 75 a 9 .05 .09} .14In .49] .03) .17 84 & @©610 01 n .09} .03) 1.66] 02) Biol 06 n 22) n .03] .63) 1.90 18a .01| 1.23 2 127° | n 01 07 ilatl 08 a a 47 el 6 n .02 02 Peal) alk 5 14 17; — .06 837) Olay L03\e 207), 2960). 205) uee29 ras 15 04 16 09 | .03 16 02a .20 04 OL 2B iy 27 a .01 01} .30 1.73! a 1G} 07 04/a .04 .07 Ky ai ©) 14'a a 106|sone12ieeee Ol 203 £ .01|) 03! > 20 06) .01 .02 f 1.45 f OO Baia ol a .24/ 01 84 Se, 01) .09 .02 19f .01} .04! .48 .08 el 9B .03 .05| 01 f .82/ 35) 22) 118 1.20 = GA .03 f 1.20) 01] —.08 25 .06} .02 04f .46) 11 05] .40, 11! 1.20 26 £ 501) {01 f1255;) 219} 204) 10) 289 85 Db b .02 a7 | 15 fa ROQNINGT, 06 4.56 .20, 37 28 if .18 4 -06) 04} b 4.10 .02) 29 16] .01| .26 On|. orl 19 30 .02 .20. 01b 103) 205|nan ow 31 19 b .01 Sum 1.45! 1.17] 109] 2.62 2.21' 38.70] 3.60’ 6.52) 10.28 12.58) 4.95! 6.00 Days.|Jan |Feb. Mar ‘Apl. May|June.| July.| Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total 1 .25| 03 n 01 2a 45 2 |n n 87 a 1.50 .69 -O1 .05 3 14 .05| 01 04 4 17| .01 202 |ese 68a .34 .02| .49 : 5 .05| 123 ; 035) eS ee 02 13 S 6 a .09a .01] . .02) 2.30 10 ce T 01 .07 .02 1.81 01 ee 8 .05)a .10) 15 la oly Olt Ailey f m= 9 |a 01 a .04 16] .07) =.05/f Re ol 8 & 10 | 1.80) .02\a 01 05] 1.61) .83 isl .380 .02 02 f 02 = 1) .39 f 245 ese q 1B .40 f 14) .06) = .25 S 14 .01| .37 19, 1.20) 1.38] .25) 32 .31! .09) 06 Ss 15 .60 .09 f ON PB) aI) Sa b .04 6 f .09 aly) afl BB .70.b .21 = 17 |f .25| .O1/f .04! 5) 15 55D .66 = 18 05} .03) 01! .18 01 1.80) b .60 = ie) .13| .0a b .19) .15| — .45) 01 bP 20 .16 .01| .10b 1) gil 09} 26 10 & 21 .03| 05 106) 31) 12 OH) SO) el Bs a 22 b D> fs Onl oil) -10 13] .12n .18 @ 23 aa)” 083 16, .90| .19 3.00n .27| .23 em 24 |b b .09) 9.00} .28) .14, n 1.30) .59 25 .26 AON Oy) OR EY) BEB RAT .95 26 11) 01 .06} .0ljn .06 1.05 27 .13 01 .13 54 28 01 n .06/n 03} 03] 10 j 29 01 1.49) 10] .05) .28] .04 a 03a .72 30 n (|n.23 .30 HO 08 ee25 eat) 31 |n .02 205 a 1.64 74. ee eee aes Sum! 4.78! 1.18) 0.33! 0.52' 4.50’ 13.59] 5.03! 9.04 6.19] 12.92' 5.76) 3.56 215 1874. ] {[ Rawson. RAINFALL AT ‘“* HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. | | | ae Days.| Jan. Feb.|Mar | Apl.|May|June. July.) Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total ae Beate tr | 1 ZI OT ROL 17) .02} .36 2 .03 .01 f .99| 20 leo 3 .05 01) .03f .06| .05) .01/ .09 30, .06 4 01] .02| .07\f 18) 84 40 tM 01 f f .09 07, .18 'b b oe One | 01} .09, b b .02 ee 7 f £01 SG) AB) Gl 17) 1.26] 1.11 ee .20 b 12 | 19 Pap ce 9 £89 b 3.15) .05 | So) alg % 10 sill) ail b BLO OZ OS fal os" 08 b £02 eee Onin eee G4 smell 2|/sn85) 2 12 49 dD .06 b Z03 |) 202 {67| 22m N03 424 g 13 03, .04,b 16) 1.54| 1.20! 16; .24 S 14 |b .50, 20; .81jn n .48 01 a 2 519) 205 £20 |e O5 OB | Bog 60.10] .09 12 n 3335. 68I. 03) = ily 20, .09 n 50 .05 = 18 | OB] cal ra) abil) | 08 15) .06 a .04 i) .05 n ln |n -29) .17/ 03) 40, 03 a -08 Pp 20 03, | WA oll) ale) Oey OD aos 3 21 jn 40: .0ljn | .08} 10 a Oil] | = .08 205) 16 | aL E 2B .02, .09 01 a .09| ness 1 Bi 12) £05} .35] 78.20 .05 } ls SG) 25 04) .01| .05) 02 a a We aul 21.02 26 .69} 02 (0 ABU = 08, 0B) > gilt | ar 27 .05 a lala 65 1.47) nf 28 |a .32) .06 #35) tee Olt ee 02 if .o7f | 29 | a 1 A aly | 01 30 11) 15 i ABP ily a BIS 31 05! .038 Ou al | 08 Sum | 4.34 1.51] 1.77: 0.14 1.83 2.86) 3.09) 9.60 4.81) 453 4.58 38.48 Days. Jan. Feb. Mar | Apl.|May June.) July.) Aug.;Sept. Ot. | Nov.| Dec. | Total \ | | | | | 1 b 02.09 | n .05 2 b 6 |b | 02 n 15 08 3 |b | .l4n 32, 32 4 16; .62 270 06) 10} 02 ‘ 1 OM 3B) 05 .0ln | 178] = 208 a ellail| (BY ' pn Balls alg} 038 11) .40 ES 7 .04 ral | exe | 04 6) SOE eat 38 07 n 1) Or 8&8 O° folly, a cee 9 n n 16) 2.08 a 05 5 10 |n .86| .70; eon | ola lB es Fab 02! | 01’ 68) 25 2 12 05) 01 .02 | .01 la .30 -.01' » .03| 1.50 A. 13 1.05] .05| 01 | a 09 HletlO)| (051 o 14 15 Oye, i .09 dif je 6 05ja ja .02} 04 15/f Syetels a 03) .24 .01f | = il Ie a .03 82 IQs ne OlimmncOD s 18 18 | B30 a Oe 40 = 19 02 .02 8 atl) 0S 1.74] —.03 | > 20 02 OT | 06 f 05 | 02 4 Sie .02 07 f 1.60, (Nima 03 femenee 07 OH Bil ze AT f 05 Hae 02 105) .04 GE 2 .05 22)f | b .15\b .14 2 OM f 15 'b b #36 |mneOo, 2 |f f 01 ! b 20)'-35| 0] 26 26 01 BT 120 ..05] 01] 1.05] 15) 16 27 | .05 b b .01| .05, .16| A7| 28 03) 10 | 07 01) 16) 29 b .05 AL 30 b AT .20n n 2.63 B1 | 23 19 01 BIg 13 Sum | 1.04] 3.16] 0.78 0.10] 1.83 4.238 1.45 2.031 3.25 3.91 8.46 4.98! Genth.] 216 [July 17, RAINFALL AT ‘‘HUSBAND’S,” BARBADOES. Days.| Jan.| Feb. Mar.) Apl. May|June./ July. Aug. Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total | | 1 ee lla 61 2 01} 01 03.06) a | 105) walk20 |) 265i 3 05) .01 | aye 03) 03 |e 26) | 4 12/a .31 a 07a fl Wl GA me Or >< Ble fom 0B] .26 06 59| 08) .06 @ 8 .T1) .09 & .07 2.73 f f 54 oa sual gO) nes .02 91 | 25 ens. 05.05 10\f Of 14 2 9 .80 .03 15 1.28 12 % 10 .09 P ) (OBI .68) 3.09 20 04 aol .13] .06 sa ED Ae b 2 12 fe £1.00 f 05} 07 |. 1.20;b .O4 ah Ry 33 5a 22 Dees |D g 14 06] .16f | .05 eae 14 .05 b 18, 6.30 Be 16 .02 el 08 oil {OI SL 01 2 ily .01 b b 50. .08) ©.02 37 > 18 slit .03 11 .038 x 19 15 .02 [oe 07|| eee 5) 03 .07 10n .06 pb 20 b b || 17 09 n a 21 |b b din .03n | gq 22 227) 08), 246) 82:20) 18) 027 05 3B 23 .73 01 104! 250in' 132 -76| =) AL 8 n 14 02| .33] | 25 04 01) -20 n alah 21 1 26 -20! In |n .07 .30 23 10a .06 27 -03 2 06) 25 15 la .03 28 in n .25 .01 -28| | 29 .08 10|a .05)a .02) 038) .17 30 .06| .01 1 20 24 01 31 -10 ja .20) «18 1.08) 05) ———||__—.— es ee | | —— Sum] 3.55| 1.32! 0.37: 1.24! 1.88] 0.08] 5.41) 7.08! 18.35| 14.29] 1.67| 2.15] REPLY TO DR. T. STERRY HUNT. By F. A. GENTH. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 17, 1874.) Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has published in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. XVI., March 4th, 1874, an article, enti- tled: ‘‘ On Dr. Genth’s Researches on Corundum and its associated min- erals,’’ in which he charges me—in.common with many others—of having falien into errors and of having been led to conclusions wholly untenable, for a lack of a clear understanding as to replacement, alteration and asso- ciation in the mineral kingdom. He then gives an outline of the manner in which the various alterations in a mineral species may take place, by replacement, envelopment and epigenesis with examples for each, and dwells at more length upon the fallacy of considering the alterations of many minerals and rock masses as the result of an epigenic process ; a doctrine which has been embodied in the dictum of Prof. Dana: “regional metamorphism is pseudomorphism on a broad scale.”’ He then refers briefly to the results of my investigation on corundum, in which I have shown that by ‘‘epigenic’’ pseudomorphism this min- eral has been altered into numerous more complex species and rock masses—and winds up by stating that he not only has carefully studied 1874. ] 217 [Genth. my paper, but had also examined the extensive collection of specimens upon which my conclusions were based, and that—all the phenomena in question are nothing more than examples of association and envelopment, and that the corundum-bearing veins had their parallels in the granitic veins with beryl and tourmaline in the White Mountain rocks, and the calcareous veinstones with apatite, pyroxene, phlogopite and graphite of the Laurentian rocks. I may be permitted to say a few words in reply to Dr. Hunt’s asser- tion, that I had fallen into errors and had been led to wholly untenable conclusions. When [ had the good fortune to obtain a few years ago the first real pseudomorph after corundum—the spinel from India, and afterwards brought together numerous specimens of analogous alterations, showing from the same locality crystals of corundum without any, and others re- presenting all stages of alteration from a thin coating to the complete disappearance of every vestige of corundum, and when I proved that such changes have resulted in the conversion of corundum into about two dozen mineral species; I could not understand how any unpreju- diced mind could arrive at any other conclusions, but that these extraor- dinary occurrences which I have described, were the result of epigenic pseudomorphism. This opinion has been adopted almost without exception by all who have had an opportunity to examine my specimens, or who have studied my paper. If Dr. Hunt differs from me, I certainly will not deny to him the right to believe what suits his own notions, but when he boldly charges me with having committed errors, I want better proofs than a repetition of his views, with which we were familiar long ago. He cer- tainly has not a single fact which could show the fallacy of my conclu- sions, or he would have produced it. The corundum alterations have nothing in common with the Fontaine- bleau crystals, or with stanniferous orthoclase ; the green and red tour- malines from Paris, Me., or the beryls filled with orthoclase, or the zircon and galenite filled with calcite, and cannot be explained rationally as ex- amples of association and envelopment. To give strength to his statements, however, Dr. Hunt says that he had “examined”? with me ‘‘the extensive collection of specimens upon which my conelusions were based.’’ When Dr. Hunt favored me with a visit, I was in hope that he would examine my specimens, but his time was so short that he saw only about one-third of them, and the ‘‘erami- nation’ (! ?) of these was finished in about five minutes. As to his last sentence, I must confess that I am unable to discover the least parallelism between the corundum-bearing veins and the granitic veins, with beryl and tourmaline, so common in the White Mountains, and the calcareous veinstones with apatite, pyroxene, phlogopite and graphite of the Laurentian rocks ;—but can see in the former nothing but A. P. 8S. —VOL. XIV. 2B Koenig. ] 218 {Aug. 21, the product of a partial, and in many instances of a pretty thorough al- teration of the original corundum into micaceous and chloritic schists or beds, or, as Prof. Dana would express it: ‘‘a pseudomorphism on a broad scale.”’ ; UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, July 4th, 1874. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE LABORATORY OF THE UNIVER- SITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. NO. II. ON AN IMPROVEMENT OF THE BURETTE VALVE. By Gro. A. Kornie, Pu.D. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 21, 1874). Strictest simplicity of construction must be considered as the first re- quirement of any tool or apparatus, besides fitness for all work within its sphere of action. Frequently we meet with constructions in which fitness has been sacrificed to a considerable extent for the sake of sim- plicity, and quite as often the reverse. There are cases, indeed, in which circumstances demand even a certain degree of one-sidedness, but in my judgment a more complicated apparatus, overcoming defects of working attached to a simpler device, is practically the more desirable of the two. When Frederick Mohr gave his rubber tube valve to volumetric analy- sis, he had indeed hit, like a true genius, upon the simplest contrivance imaginable. To this piece of apparatus must be ascribed the rapid adop- tion of volumetrical determinations by analytical chemistry. No matter how simple the volumetrica] reactions might be, if they had to be exe- cuted by an unhandy manipulation, the practical chemist would rather keep on with his accustomed precipitations and weighings. Let us consider now the conditions under which the burette will satisfy all demands which can be made upon it, 1. The instrument must not engage the hands of the operator during the operation. This condition requires the burette to be fixed and its position to be quite independent from the person of the manipulator. 2. The instrument must allow a rapid discharge of tts liquid contents to any desired volume, without the application of another force than that of gravitation. This condition requires the tube to be fixed vertically and to be fur- nished with a valve. 3. The valve must allow to interrupt the current instantaneously and completely, and also the regulation of the liquid current from the.smallest drop to a full stream. 4. The working of the valve must be easy, not require any effort on the 1874.] 219 [Koenig. part of the operator, by which the latter’s attention is necessarily detracted from the observation of the reaction. 5. The apparatus must not come out of order easily under ordinary ctr- cumstances and attentive manipulation. 6. The instrument must be applicable to all solutions used in volumetric determinations. The present forms of the burette are of two types: a, the dropping bu- rette, which in its simplest form is a graduated, lipped glass vessel, from which the solution is poured out by the lip. Gay-Lussac improved this primitive instrument by the appendage of a capilar tube, which although preventing a sudden stream, when but a drop is wanted, still does not come up with the above given conditions except the last, and is altogether an unhandy piece of apparatus. b, The valve burette. The very imperfect instrument just mentioned stimulated invention, and we find as the next step the graduated tube fixed to a stand vertically, and furnished with a glass ground perforated stop-cock. This instrument is very nearly perfect. if well executed, but from the nature of things it cannot fill the conditions 4 and 5. The rough surface produced by grinding is exceedingly disposed to capilar action and soon the effects from this show themselves by a layer of crystals ce- menting the cock completely. These working defects are, however, so well known, that I need hardly dwell any longer upon them. The same ‘applies to Geissler’s glass-rod stopper. Then, Mohr showed how simply these difficulties could be overcome by connecting the neck of the tube and the mouth with a piece of India rub- ber tube pressed together by a spring clamp, or pinch cork. Comparing this device with the 6 conditions, we find, after a long practice, that it is far from being satisfactory. If the spring is strong it requires a remark- able muscular exertion to open it, besides destroying the elasticity of the rubber ; if weak, it will not close the valve completely. I find, moreover, that the rubber tube becomes soon deteriorated chemically, especially by alkaline solutions, and that many volumetric solutions cannot be brought into contact with such a large surface of rubber without undergoing a change in their docimastical value. The substitution of Hoffmann’s screw clamp for the spring clamp is not so very happy ; it requires both hands for the adjustment just in the moment when one hand is most needed for stirring the liquid, besides it acts too slowly, several turns of the screw being needed to overcome the elasticity of the comparatively thick rubber tubing. J. Blodget Britton described an apparatus (Journal of the Franklin In- stitute, 1870,) which is undoubtedly a considerable step forward. He re- cognized that the valve had to be placed externally, and that it had to possess a screw movement. He draws his burette at the lower end into a capilar tube, bends it slightly, so.as to bring the orifice in contact with a cork plate, which itself is fastened to a steel spring, opened by a screw bolt. To prevent splashing, the opening must be very narrow, and con- 220 [Aug. 21 Koenig. ] sequently the emptying of the burette requires a considerable extent of time. But otherwise the apparatus is quite perfect and neat in its exe- cution. I shall proceed now with the description of a device, which has realized my expectations as to the possibility of combining the advantages of Mohr’s principle with universal applicability and convenience of hand- ling. 1, The burette. I take a Mohr burette tube, as it is furnished by the a Gt KKK yD 1874. ] 221 [ Koenig. trade, hold the inflated part of the neck (serving for a hold to the rub- ber) over a Bunsen flame and let it contract slowly at a dull-red heat, un- til the channel has become capilar as shown in figures la, 1c and 2a of the accompanying plate. It needs hardly to be remarked, that during the process, the tube has to be kept revolving, and allowed to cool slowly. The glass wall has become very thick and strong, facilitating the next process of grinding. This is done upon an ordinary rotary grindstone in from 8 to 10 minutes. I grind off one-half of the inflation at a steep an gle, as shown in the figures. The orifice is not required to have a definite size and is naturally given by the points a, 6. The grinding is contin- ued until the elliptic section of the channel has come with its lowest point from about 1-16 to 1-8 of an inch above the lowest point of the in- clined ground plane. A very short practice affords sufficient skill to grind a very nearly plane surface. Absolute planeity is not required. The sides and back are ground next to produce a point, which is necessary for the letting out of small drops of liquid. The ground face stands at right angles to the graduation and may be put either on the right or on the left side, accord- ing to the convenience of the operator. Fig. 1c represents a front view of the ground face, with the capilar orifice at 0. The size of the latter depends on the kind of work which is to be done with the burette, as it influences the size of a drop. On my 20cc burette, divided into twen- tieths, I have a very narrow orifice, a drop corresponding to one-half a division. I use this burette exclusively for argentum nitrate solution. For ordinary alkalimetric work I use a burette (50cc) graduated into one- fifths and allow the drops to equal one-tenth cubic in. This opening empties the burette in one minute and a quarter, when running at full stream. 2, The valve. Platinum in form of a smooth plate is not acted upon materially by any of the solutions now in use for volumetrical analysis. The valve consists of a platinum plate p of elliptical shape, 3 and 3-16 of an inch being the respective parameters. Thickness about 1-32 of an inch. To the centre of this plate is soldered the platinum stem i, the end of which is pierced by an eye. The spring t, made of brass or Ger- man silver and platinated, is screwed to the clamp c, and has a fork at its other end for the insertion of the platinum stem i, forming thus the hinge h. It carries a nut n, through which the screws passes. In order to open the valve, the screw head is turned, when the screw bolt comes into contact with the glass tube and forces the spring backwards. The valve plate assumes then a position as represented in figure 1d, allowing the full stream to run straight downwards without the least splashing. The capilar orifice being elliptical, with its long axis parallel to the stream, it is evident that by reversing the screw, the orifice will close gradually, the lowest point the last, allowing a most complete regulation, and when once reduced to dropping a quarter of a turn of the screw will close totally. The only objection to this arrangement of the valve, which has presented Koenig. ] 222 [Aug. 21, itself thus far, is the delicacy of the hinge. Yet I have had one in use con- stantly for six months past, and it works as satisfactorily as on the first day. In the hands of beginners it may come out of order sooner. The clamp c is made of brass tubing, with the flanges ff and the block g sol- Taaddddidadaadaadaddsaddiddddddds WU LLL h ddd id ddidasilddisddidddiddddddaddk dered on. It is made sufficiently large to admit of variation in the diam- eter of the burette tubes, a strip of paper being used as a filling. The delicacy of the hinge, and to some extent the cost of the apparatus ($2.50) have prompted me to substitute a simpler construction. Figures 22 and 20 represent this device. The platinum plate is replaced by a piece of pure rubber sheeting, the thickness of strong paper 3 by 3-16 of an inch, which is attached to the end of the spring by means of a solution of rubber. The lower part of the spring may be rendered proof against chemical action by galvanic platinum plating, or by a coating of rubber. The former is certainly the best, but I found by several months’ experience, that a spring coated 1874. } 223 {Genth, with rubber, will resist the action of standard acids, and shows no sign of oxydation and dissolution. The rubber coating is done very quickly with a concentrated chloroformie solution. The dipping in and drying is repeated several times. I have furnished now all the burettes used by my students with this simpler contrivance ($1.00) and have found my ex- pectations more than realized. The surface of contact between the rub- ber and the standard solutions is so small, that a deteriorating influence on the latter could not be noticed. I must acknowledge my obligation to Mr. J. Zentmayer, the well- known optician and mechanician, of this city, for the practical execution of m; ideas and for many valuable suggestions in the course of my ex- periments. Any further information that may be deemed necessary shall most gladly be given. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE LABORATORY OF THE UNIVER- SITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. No. III. ON AMERICAN TELLURIUM AND BISMUTH MINERALS. By F. A. GENTH. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 21st, 1874.) On several occasions I have given descriptions and analyses of tellurium minerals, which have been found associated with the gold ores of this country. Since my last paper on this subject (Amer. Journ. of Science [2] XLV., 306-319) several highly interesting discoveries have been made, which not only augment the list of species, but also corroborate some of my former observations. Most important is the occurrence of the tellurium ores at the Red Cloud Mine, near Goldhill, in Boulder County, Colorado. Prof. B. Sil- liman (Journ. of Science [3] VIII. 25-33), has given a very accurate and careful description of some of the minerals found at this locality, and au exceedingly interesting account of the geological position of the vein. Through the liberality of my friend J. F. L. Schirmer, Esq., Super- intendent of the United States Mint at Denver, Colorado, I have been put in possession of a considerable quantity of very pure and excellent material for investigation, including several varieties not mentioned by Prof. Silliman. Another interesting locality of tellurium minerals is the Briggs or King’s Mountain Gold Mine, sometimes called the Gaston Mine, in Gaston Co., N. C., where I noted this occurrence about two years ago. A third one is in the neighborhood of Highland, Montana. Several others of minor importance will be mentioned under the different species. The following are the results of my investigations : Genth. ] 224 [Aug. 21, 1. Native TELLURIUM. The occurrence at the Red Cloud Mine is fully described by Prof. Sil- liman. I have observed it on several specimens in small, very indistinct crystals, with rounded edges; also in one splendid cleavage piece, show- a plate of 2 of an inch in length, and nearly 3 of an inch in width, from which I have obtained a hexagonal cleavage crystal of 3%; of an inch in length, and } of an inch in thickness. Generally it is disseminated in fine grains through quartz, cleavage perfect, color tin-white, inclining to gray. Associated with sylvanite, altaite and pyrite. Without destroying my best specimens, I could not get enough of pure material for analysis. 9, TETRADYMITE. The sulphurous variety of tetradymite has been observed at several new localities : associated with gold ores in small Jead-colored scales at Spaulding Co., Georgia ; also in York District, S. C.; in quartz from the gravel deposits of Burke and McDowell Counties, N. C. ; in gray quartz with gold at the Montgomery Mine, Hassayampa District, Arizona ; and at the ‘‘Uncle Sam’s Lode,’’ in Highland District, Montana. At the latter place it is found associated both with quartz and gold, and in dolomite. Part of it is oxydized into montanite. The latter, however, is not ina state of sufficient purity for analysis. That the tellurium is present as telluric acid, and not as tellurous acid, is proved by the large evolution of chlorine, when it is heated with chlorhydric acid.* The tetradymite occurs here in considerable quantity, in foliated masses with folize sometimes ? of an inch in width and scaly-granular. Its color is between lead-gray and iron-black. It is often tarnished with pavonine colors. The gold, which is often interlaminated with it, shows the striation of the tetradymite, and is evidently the result of its precipitating action upon the gold in solution, in the same manner as already stated in my notice of the pseudomorphous gold after tetradymite from the White Hall Mine (Amer. Journ. of Science [2] XXVIII., 254). It is an interesting fact that the tetradymite from Uncle Sam’s Lode contains sulphur as an essential constituent, while that from the gold placers of Highland, which I had received from Mr. Kleinschmidt, and described in the Journal of Science [2] XLY., 316, is free from it. My friend Mr. P. Knabe has made some very important observations on this subject, which are contained in his letter, dated Highland, Mon- * I notice the following misprints in Dr. Burkart’s paper, ‘‘ Uber das Vorkommen verschiedener Tellur-Minerale in den Vereinigten Staaten yon Nord-Amerika,’’ Leon- hard & Geinitz Neues Jahrbuch der Mineralogie, etc., 1873, page 491, line 5 from bottom : Tellurseure instead of Tellurige Seure, and on page 492, line 15, Tellurige Saure in- stead of Tellurseure. 1874. | 275 [Genth. tana, Dec. 26th, 1870, of which I translate that part which refers to this subject. He says: ““T have discovered the tetradymite which I sent you in Uncle Sam’s Lode, in Highland District. Two years ago Iexamined a fragment of tetradymite from Highland Culch, which I found to be the sulphurous variety, and was therefore very much. surprised to find from your pamphlet that the tetradymite from Highland Gulch examined by you was the variety without sulphur. After I had repeatedly examined pieces of the said mineral, I made the discovery that both varieties of tetradymite are found together in Highland Gulch. This was the more interesting, since there occur tin tt also two different varieties of gold, which, fact gives pretty con- clusive evidence that the gold of the Gulch comes from two different forma- tions. The finest gold of the Gulch originates undoubtedly from the garnet which occurs between the dolomite and granite. I then examined the differ- ent trial pits in the dolomite, and found in this formation at the head of the Guleh in the Uncle Sam Lode the specimens which I sent you. In the garnet rock which adjoins the Gulch on its left side, Ihave not yet found any tetradymite ; butin a piece of garnet from the Gulch I found gold and tetradymite without sulphur. In all the samples of the sulphurous variety, of tetradymite from the Gulch, as well as in that from Uncle Sam’s Lode. I found a trace of selenium.” The following are the results of my analyses of the tetradymite from Uncle Sam’s Lode : Broadly foliated. Smaller scales from dolomite. Sp. Gr. ss Uoaee — 7,542 Quartz = 0.05 — 0.58 Gold = 0.21 —— Bismuth = 60.49 _— 59.24 Copper = trace — 0.47 Tron = 0.09 — Tellurium (by diff.) = 34.90 — (by diff.) 34.41 Selenium = trace — 0.14 Sulphur = 4.26 — 15.16 100.00 100.00 At the Red Cloud Mine, Colorado, tetradymite seems to be one of the rarest minerals. The first indication which I had of it was the observa- tion of a small quantity of bismuth in the analysis of one of the varieties of petzite. After a great deal of search I discovered, associated with pyrite and auriferous hessite, a very few minute iron-gray scales, some of them with a bluish tarnish, which on examination proved to be the sulphurous variety of tetradymite. 3. ALTAITE. I have discovered this rare mineral at two new localities—the Red Cloud Mine, Colorado, and the King’s Mountain Mine, Gaston Co., N. C. A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2¢ Genth. ] 226 [Aug. 21, At the latter locality it is found in sugary quartz associated with gold, galenite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, antimonial tetrahedrite, and more rarely with nagyagite and a greenish micaceous mineral resembling fuchsite. It occurs in small quantities only, and is so much mixed with the other minerals, that I was unable to select enough for a quantitative analysis. It is easily recognized by its tin-white color, with the greenish-yellow hue, and its great lustre. It is found in particles showing the distinct cubical cleavage, but also finely granular. A very interesting but quite small piece shows a cleavage mass, part of which is altaite, part galenite, without any interruption in the cleavage plane, both minerals being easily distinguishable by their color. The altaite at the Red Cloud Mine, Colorado, is found in larger masses, generally, however, very much intermixed with other minerals, espe- cially native tellurium and sylvanite. It is associated with pyrite, siderite and quartz. Sometimes it is found in indistinct cubical crystals, appar- ently coated with a thin film of galenite ; rarely in larger cleavage masses. I have a cleavage cube of 3 of an inch in size of distinct cleavage : some of the planesare slightly coated with galenite. The most frequent occur- rence is that in granular masses with indistinct cubical cleavage, a frac- ture inclining to subconchoidal and a yellowish tarnish. * The analysis of a portion of the cleavage cube gave the following results : Spec. Gr. = 8.060 Quartz = 0.19 — 0.32 Gold = 0.19 — 0.16 Silver == 0.62 — 0.79 Copper = 0.06 —_— 0.06 Lead = 60.22 — 60.53 Zine = 0.15 _ 0.04 Tron = 0.48 — 0.383 Tellurium = 37.99 —_— 37.51 99.90 99.74 4, Hussite, AURIFEROUS HESSITE, PETZITE. Varieties of telluride of silver with variable quantities of gold are the principal minerals which give the ores of the Red Cloud Mine their value. I believe that I was the first to whom specimens of the rich auriferous variety were sent by Mr. Schirmer. These I have determined as petzite. Prof. Silliman mentions a variety (1. c.) containing 7.131 per cent. of gold and 51.061 per cent. of silver, of which he gives a very accurate descrip- tion ; he evidently had only this one, and therefore comes to the conclu- sion that the Red Cloud Mine contained no other varieties. It will be * In Dr. Burkart’s paper (1. ¢.) p. 487, line 12 from the bottom, read: hexaédrische instead of hexagonale. +) 1874.) 227 [Genth. seen from the analyses which I give below, that there are several, from almost pure hessite without gold, up to the highly auriferous of the same composition as that from the Stanislaus and Golden Rule Mines in Cali- fornia. a. HESSITE. The pure hessite appears to be very rare. I have received only one small piece, which Mr. Schirmer distinguished as ‘‘black tellurium.”’ It is of a dark iron-gray color, inclining to black, granular structure and uneven fracture ; powder dark lead-gray ; sectile. Its spec. gr. = 8.178. It contains some cavities lined with minute crystals of pyrite and barite. The analyses gave : Gold = 0.22 — 0.20 Silver = 59.91 — 60.19 Copper = 0.17 —_ 0.16 Lead Ss 0.45 _ 0.18 Zine = trace — trace Tron = 1.35 — 1.20 Tellurium — 37.86 by diff. — 38.07 99.96 100.00 In all the other varieties, the difference in the appearance of the mineral is so slight that it is almost impossible to distinguish them. They all have an iron-gray color, and frequently assume by tarnishing a darker or purplish color, a subconchoidal fracture ; the more argentiferous are somewhat darker, the more auriferous lighter and more brittle. 4. AURIFEROUS HESSITES. a, Sp. gr. = 8.789. B, Sp. gr. = 8.897. Quartz = 0.18 — 0.18 — 0.70 Gold = 3.01 — 3.34 — 13.09 Silver = 59.68 — 59.83 — 50.56 Copper = 0.05 _— 0.06 — 0.07 Lead = — _- — 0.17 Zine a —_— — — — 0.15 Iron = 0.15 — 0.21 — 0.36 Tellurium a 37.60 — 36.74 — 34.91 100.97 — 100.31 100.02 ¢ PETZITE. a B Sp. Gr. = 9.010 — 9.020 Quartz = 0.62 — 0.05 Gold = 24,10 — 24.69 Silver = 40.93 — 40.80 Genth.] 228 . [Aug. 21, Copper = trace — trace Bismuth = 0.41 — —— Lead = 0.26 _ Zinc — = 0.05 — 0.21 Tron = 0.78 — 1.28 Tellurium = 39.49 by diff. 32.97 ‘ 100.44 100.00 The above analyses, to which add for comparison those of Prof. Silli- man and the petzite from Nagy-Ag, give the following atomic ratios between gold, silver and tellurium : b a = 1 9 32.7 : 34.3 Siliman = 1 : 14 b B — 1 8 ti : 8.2 Nagy-Ag = 1 : 4,7 : 5.9 Petzite) .— 1 : Sali : 4,2 From which it will be seen that gold and silver appear to replace each other in indefinite proportions, while the mixture of the two combines atom for atom with tellurium. 5. SYLVANITE. The Red Cloud Mine isthe first American locality at which this mineral bas been found. It was observed by Prof. Silliman, but his stock was not sufficient for a more minute description. The specimens which I have are massive, showing eminent cleavage in one direction, giving it a plated appearance. In one piece it occurs in quartz, which is penetrated by crystalline aggregations arranged in a line of ;over one inch in length and =, of an inch in thickness, resembling the real ‘graphic tellurium”’ from Transylvania. Its color is silver-white, with a strong gray tint; brilliant metallic lustre. It is associated with pyrite, which, in very small crystals, is often so thickly disseminated through the mass, that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to obtain pure material for analysis. Sp. gr. — 7.948. a P) if Quartz == 0.32 — 0.86 — 0.59 Gold = 24.83 — 23.06 — 25.67 Silver = 13.05 — 11.52 — 11.92 Copper = 0.28 _ 0.57 —_— 0.21 Lead == — — — — 0.46 Zine = 0.45 — 0.11 — 0.06 Tron =— 3.28 — 4.84 — ie Tellurium — 56.31 — 54.60 — by diff. 58.87 Selenium == trace — trace — trace Sulphur = 1.82—by diffi 4.44 — 1.05 100.29 100.00 100.00 1874. ] 229 (Genth. The atomic ratios between gold, silver and tellurium, and the com- bined gold and silver and tellurium are as follows : Gy AUS JN 3 Ney = Lg (O08 8 sls) —S (en VGe)) SYN) ae RG Bi) CO eC BGO al ie (Onl 3 Wet es 8G ee ol ose Tae ewe — wl et ESA mr Oso) —— Ge Siicate——allecete ee) 6. CALAVERITE. I have observed one very minute specimen of this rare mineral amongst those from the Red Cloud Mine, which Mr. Schirmer sent me. It fully answers the description which I have previously given (I. ¢.). It is associated with sylvanite and quartz. It contains a somewhat smaller percentage of silver than that from the Stanislaus Mine in Cali- fornia. The scarcity of the material did not allow me to obtain for analysis more than 9.1654 grs., from which 0.0050 grs. of quartz were deducted. Dr. G. A. Koenig reduced 0.0332 grs. before the blowpipe, and obtained 42.32 per cent. of gold and silver, which I then separated with the results given below. It contains : Gold a= 40.59 — 39.76 foe Silver = 2.24 — 2.56 ; Tellurium = 57.67 — by diff. = 57.68 Copper andiron = traces — 100.50 100.00 I was in the hope that I would find in the oxydized specimens of the tellurium ores from the Red Cloud Mine interesting products of decom- position, but observed hardly anything else than native gold, sometimes in very minute scales in the partly decomposed petzite, and small quan- ties of cerargyrite. There is also a minute quantity of what is probably tellurate of silver present, because if the oxydized minerals be treated with ammonic hydrate, and the ammonic solution be filtered and boiled, and subsequently acidulated with nitric acid, the argentic chloride be precipitated, the filtrate from this contains both s¢lver and telluriwm. I also observed among the oxydized pieces, one which had a yellowish coating, probably montanite ; the quantity, however, was too small for any investigation other than a determination of the presence of bismuth and tellurium. %. TELLURATE OF COPPER AND LEAD—A NEW MINERAL. This new tellurate has been discovered by Mr. P. Knabe, in the ‘‘ Iron Rod”? Mine, Silver Star District, Montana. He had sent me a small quantity of the same, which consisted of an apparently uniform siskin- green powder. Genth.] 230 [Aug. 21, I had intended to make a full investigation of the same, but unfortu- nately it has been mislaid or lost. However, I will give the most important part of the information about its occurrence, which I have received in Mr. Knabe’s letter, dated High- land, March 26th, 1871. “‘T send you enclosed a mineral from the Iron Rod Mine, Silver Star District, Montana, which I hope will be interesting to you. The same sub- stance apparently is found in the Silver Star District in all the veins which occur in the crystalline states. I have not examined that from the Iron Rod Mine, because I did not want to use up a portion of the already small quantity—but in a mineral of exactly the same appearance from the ‘‘Green ‘ampbell”’ Mine, in the same District, Ihave found oxides of copper and lead and tellurie acid. I shall try to obtain it from different mines in order to ascertain whether it is constant in its composition or is a mixture. In the Green Campbell Mine it is found as a thin coating upon the seluage of the footwall, whilst in the Iron Rod Mine tt occurs in the fissures of the rock.” Tn the same letter Mr. Knabe mentions the interesting fact of having examined a graphite from the Harvey Lode, occurring in the dolomite, which contains 2.1 per cent. of silver. This is the last information which I have received from Mr. K.; in it he states that in the latter part of May, 1871, he would make explora- tions in the wilderness, 40 miles W. of Highland. 8. BISMUTHINITE. Dr. Burkart states in an appendix to his observations (1. c.) on the American Tellurium Minerals, (Leonhard & Geinitz Neues Jahrbuch, etc., 1874, 9,) that in the Las Animas Mine on the Sugar Loaf Mountain, Colorado, bismuth ores are found—either native, or in combination with sulphur and tellurium. The few small pieces of bismuth ores which I have seen from this lo- cality were bismuthinite, in stout columnar aggregations, in great part converted into bismuthite, but with still a large percentage of undecom- posed tersulphide. It contained a small percentage of silver, but not a trace of tellurium. 9. SCHIRMERITE—A NEW MINERAL. Massive, finely granular, disseminated through quartz; no cleavage could be observed ; fracture uneven ; soft, brittle. Sp. G. = 6.787; lead- gray inclining to iron-black, lustre metallic. B. B. fuses very easily and gives the reactions of bismuth, lead, silver and sulphur. After deducting 1.00 per cent. quartz in analysis I., and 1.07 per cent. in II., the results are as follows : 1874.] 231 [Genth. a, ite Lead = 12.69 12.76 Silver = 22.82 24.75 Bismuth == 46.91 by diff. AT.27 Zine — 0.08 0.15 Tron = 0.08 0.07 Sulphur =e 14,41 15.02 96.94 100.00 The atomic ratios of Pb : Ag: Bi: S are very nearly = 1: 4:4: 9, corresponding with the composition : PbS, 2 Ag, 5, 2 Bi, 5,, which gives Pb = eal Ag == 24,45 Bi =— A754 5 — 16.30 100.00 It is allied to and closely resembles cosalite. Dedicated to J. F. L. Schirmer, Esq. P.S. Since the reading of my paper an article has appeared in the En- gineering and Mining Journal, of August 29th, 1874, on “ Tellurium Ores of Colorado, by Fred. M. Endlich,’’ which I must not pass unno- ticed, as it contains several statements which I cannot endorse. The paper shows that Dr. Endlich had not a sufficient quantity of pure material for his examinations, and therefore based his new species upon a partial examination of mixtures. His ‘‘ Schirmerite’’ is evidently nothing else but a mixture of petzite, either with pyrite or perhaps with a telluride of iron—a mineral which has not yet been found in its pu7'e state, the existence of which, however, is probable from the fact that both the true and the auriferous hessites, which are quite free from sulphur, invariably contain a minute quantity of iron—which according to my analyses varies from 0.15 to 1.39 per cent. If Dr. Endlich had given his name to a good species, I would very cheerfully have adopted it and given another to my new sulphbismuthide of silver and lead—but as the mixture which he describes is not entitled to a name, that of ‘‘Schirmerite’’ must remain for my species. His * Henryite”’ is undoubtedly nothing but an altaite, with an admix- ture of pyrite. Knowing from Mr. Schirmer, that he has given me for this investiga- tion the purest and best of a// the minerals which have occurred at the Red Cloud Mine, I can state without hesitation that Dr. Endlich’s spe- cies have no existence. Delmar. ] a0-4 [Oct. 2, ON THE RE3U0URCE3, PRODUCTIONS AND SOCIAL CONDI- TION OF EGYPT. By ALEXANDER DELMAR, Late Drrector oF THE Unirep States BUREAU OF STATISTICS. (Read before te American Philosophical Society, October 2, 1874.) INTRODUCTION. The United States of America produce annually about 275 million bushels of wheat, or about 64 bushels per capita of population. Of this amount, they consume over 230 million bushels, or about 55 bushels per capita; and have about 42 million bushels surplus left for sale. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland produces annually about 95 million bushels of wheat and consumes 190 million bushels, or about 52 bushels per capita. It has therefore a deficit to purchase, amounting to as much, of wheat, as all it produces, or 95 million bushels. Thus, England has two bushels of wheat to buy where we have one to sell. As wheat forms the daily bread of the two countries, and, unless in ex- ceptional or extreme cases, no substitute for it will be accepted by the people, the purchases of these vast quantities of wheat on the one side, and their sale on the other, form, naturally enough, occasions for the ex- ercise of a good deal of what may be euphemized as commercial diplo- macy. In plain English the grain trade abounds with misrepresentation, and, as it happens, at the present time, this misrepresentation has, to a certain extent, centred itself upon the agricultural resources and wheat crop of Egypt. Treating, as it will pretty fully, upon this topic, the present paper therefore claims to possess something more of scientific value than one which might have related less directly to the affairs of our everyday life; and although this claim might pass for nothing among peoples whose lives and thoughts are more in the remote past or remote future, than the present, I trust that it does not imply too great assurance if I venture to hope that, if made good, it will lose nothing at the hands of my own countrymen, on account of this utilitarian basis. The gist of the present dispute about Egypt is as follows: A school of British agricultural writers at the head of whom is Mr. Kains-Jackson, estimates that during the ensuing harvest year 1874-5, the United King- dom, instead of needing to purchase, as usual, about 95 million bushels of wheat, will require but 64 to 72 million bushels ; and, on the other hand, instead of having to rely, as usual, mainly upon the United States, has by reason of the present year’s abundant wheat harvest throughout the civilized world, the option of purchasing as much wheat—perhaps more —elsewhere, as she will need to purchase from us. Among the countries specified by this authority, as having this year a surplus of wheat to dispose of, are France, Germany, Russia and Turkey. 9 99 1874.] vo [Delmar. Mr. Kains-Jackson’s statements with regard to the wheat crops of all of these countries, as well with regard to that of his own country, have al- ready been shown to be excessive ; while as to Turkey, he was reminded that, so far from possessing a surplus crop of wheat, the people in Ana- tolia were dying from starvation, literally in myriads. To this, the re- sponse.has been made that by Turkey was meant Egypt, and as none of the writers upon the subject appeared to know anything more about Egypt than that it was a land of pyramids, ruined temples and ‘‘back- sheesh,’’? Mr. Kains-Jackson has remained more or less uvimpeached ; and our manufacturers, our shipping and our railways, all of which, as things stand, depend largely upon the prospects of the grain trade, are thought to have indicated some symptoms of distrust with regard to the prospect before them for the coming year. Should such distrust exist, I hope that it may tend at least in some degree to dispel it, if I here express the strong conviction that it is en- tirely groundless, and that during the ensuing harvest year, as hitherto, in the past, our surplus wheat will find as ample and profitable a foreign market—aye, in England, too,—as can be reasonably desired, and that, therefore, neither our domestic industries nor carrying trade, by land or water, should suffer anything from the misrepresentations that have been made. And now to Egypt. HIsTory. Of the ancient history of this most interesting country, I need only say that it began in the remotest past and ended with the Persian conquest about 500 years before our era. About 200 years later, Egypt became a Greek province, under Alexander, and about 300 years later still, or at about the commencement of our era, it fell beneath the arms of Rome. This was the period, when, with reference to its function of supplying the markets of the city of Rome with corn, it was called the granary of the world. It was estimated by Greek and Roman writers to have contained at its most flourishing period a population of 7,000,000. With alternately Pagan and Christian rulers, as one or the other Roman faction succeeded in obtaining control of its government, Egypt remained in an anarchical state until the year A. D. 616, when the Persians again took it. They held it for ten years and surrendered it to the Arabs, who held it for 900 years. At length, in 1517, it was conquered by the Turks, who—not without having for a time lost it to the Marmelukes, who in turn lost it to the French—have retained it to the present time. Thus, from the most ancient period, Egypt has been an enslaved country—a favt whose reflection can be seen at all times in the extreme misery and abjection of her people. For the continuance of this wretch- edness, England—but for whose interference forty years ago, the Pasha would have liberated his country from the Turkish yoke—is chiefly re- sponsible. When that yoke is cast off and the Pasha, deprived of his A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2D \ Delmar. ] 234 [Oct. 2, present excuse for the tremendous exactions he imposes upon the people, is rendered clearly responsible for their condition and welfare, Egypt may for once in almost countless years breathe the air of freedom. But until then it is impossible. Napoleon reminded his soldiers that forty centuries of historic time looked down upon them from the pyramids. Let us, of England and America, whose heritage for over 600 years has been the largest freedom, and whose boasted mission it has been to place this priceless boon within the reach of all the men of earth, remember that from the appealing eyes of this unhappy people forty centuries of suffering look up to us. After the departure of the French from Egypt, the Turks and Marme- lukes were embroiled in civil war. This ended with the accession of Me- hemet Ali, as Pasha, in 1805. In 1811 this usurper treacherously slew 500 of the Marmelukes and since that time Egypt has been in peace. In 1848, at the age of 80, Mehemet Ali became imbecile, and his eldest son [brahim reigned in his stead. Ibrahim died in two months and was succeeded by his brother Abbas, a profligate. Mehemet Ali died in 1849 and Abbas in 1854. To these succeeded the fourth son of Mehemet Ali, Said Pasha, who reigned until his death in 1863, when his nephew Ismail, the present ruler, ascended the throne. Ismail Pasha, granted the title of Khédive by an imperial firman dated 1867, is the son of Ibrahim Pasha. He was born in 1816; educated at the Paris Polytechnic School: speaks French and a little English; owns or manages everything in Egypt, among the rest, it is said, 27 palaces for his personal use; lives precisely the same despotic and luxurious life that his predecessors, the Pharaohs, did, thou- sands of years ago; like them he surrounds himself wita foreign adven- turers ; like the Pharaohs, too, he builds the most astonishing and useless works of art ; and like them crushes his unhappy people—the great bulk of whom are of the once warlike and progressive, but now despised Arab race—crushes them to earth with a disdainful and merciless scorn that finds its only fit expression in the bastinado and death. NATURAL RESOURCES. Egypt has but a single natural resource—the Nile. There is no other river in the country ; nor has this one a branch or affluent between its mouth and the Nubian desert. Beside the almost shelterless date-palms, there are no trees; the few wooded parks planted by order of Mehemet Ali, the ornamental trees of the cities, of which it is said Cairo and its suburbs contain 40,000, and the mulberry trees raised for silk worms— scarcely deserving to be mentioned in this connection. There is littie or no rain ; the agriculture of the country depending almost entirely upon the irrigating canals connected with the Nile. Number of rainy days at Cairo from A. D. 1798 to 1800, about 15 a year ; from 1835 to 1839 about 12; in 1871, 9. Quantity of rain in 1835, 1874. ] 235 {Delmar. 17 millimetres ; 1838, 11; 1839, 8; in 1871, not recorded, but the rain fell altogether only 9 hours during the year. Same climate throughout all Lower Egypt ; while in Upper Egypt it is nearly the same. There is no wood for fuel or building purposes, neither is there any coal. In day-time it is often bleak; at night-time chilly; though, for the most time the temperature is warm and sometimes uncomfortably hot. Moneys, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 1 para equal to of 1cent U.S. gold. 1 piastre rs s* 5 cents si “ (a) : 1 feddan os ‘¢* 1.0328 acres. (0) 1 ardeb, measure, “s CEES Say bushels. (c) ec Welg ht, Wo SEDs Ibs. avoir. 1 oke, oque, or occue sé SO ee) re uf (d) 1 cantar, cantaro or quintal ‘‘ SO eO2e oe SS (2) 1 kilometre carré £ POR SO sq. miles. 1 square mile GG ‘¢ 640. acres. c (a). The U.S. Treas. Reg. 1874, p. 486, fix tl.e value of the Egyptian silver piece «* 20 piastres at $1.0039. U.S. Consul Thayer (C. R. 1862, p. 582) says, 2114 piastres equal one dollar. The Treas. Monthly Stat. Mar. 1872, say that the Egyptian copper coinage has been recently much debased, but this does not necessarily affect the value of the sil- ver or legal tender or ‘‘ custom-house”’ piastre of Egypt. There was debasement of the inferior coins in 1837, also.—MacGreggor. (6). The Alm. de Paris, 1869, says a feddan equals about 4200 métres carrés. As a métre carré equals 10.7064 square feet (Craig), 1 feddan equals 44,967 square feet ; and as 43,560 square feet equal 1 acre, therefore 1 feddan equals 1.0323 acres. The U. 8. Com. Rel. 1878, p. 1083, says a feddan is less than an acre. The M.S. 1872, say “about 144 acres.’’ Buckle, Hist. Civ. (ed. Harper) v. 1, p. 61, says 134 acres, and Sirmond’s Com. Dic. says ‘‘ about 11% acres.”’ (c). The U.S. Com. Rel. 1859, p. 358, and 1873, p. 1083, and the general weight of au- thority. On the other hand, Buckle 1, 62, says it is less than 1-15th of a bushel; Kelly’s Cambist says 14 to14; Simmonds says 14 to 734 to 914, while the U.S. Com. Rel. 1571, p. 1107, say an ardeb is 16 bushels! The truth is it varies in all parts of Egypt. There are the Alexandria (used in the text on account of its greater universality), the Cairo, the Damietta, the Rosetta and many other ardebs. The Cairo ardeb is 1.821 hectoli- tres.—MacGreggor. (d’. U.S. Com. Rel. 1859, p. 358. But the C. R. of 1871, p. 1107, say 2.75 1bs.,and Mar- tin’s Year Book and Kelly’s Cambist say 2.832 lbs. It has not been used to obtain any of the numbers in the text. (e). 1 cantar or cantal equals 44 okes or 100 ‘‘ rottolis”’ or ‘‘rolls.’’ Kelly’s Cambist and the generakweight of authority. But the Com. Rel. 1859, says 100 Ibs. ; Kelly says 95 Ibs., which contradicts his previous statement, while other authorities say, variously, 97, 9834, 112 Ibs., and other equivalents. Delmar, ] 236 [Oct. 2, ToraL AREA OF EGYPT. [Excluding the Soudan. (f) ] CITIES AND PROVINCES. AREA—ACRES. Ge ae om. Cities of Alexandria, Rosetta, Dami- etta, Port Said and Suez, including 83,000) fOrel@nerse cy jee ee ese eee oe 654, 569 Lower Hgypt, including 4,483 for-) (oe eigners....- 2.22222. 2 eee eee 160.866.560 v Middle hoypi | a a yee, | 599,596 Op per HiGy Dt vanities ER eerie: J 1,333,442 UGGS OAS EES Ea eA EA rhe FOES 230,440, 960 SAUMUR CHG) WAROD oe 5 5abo8600n0 80000 130,692,480 = Massawa, Souakin and Taka, Pro- or 2 nego vinces on the Red Sea, say........ 70,896,000 otal Toco cinthoor noonon 592,896,000 8,442, 000 Eaypet PROPER. Egypt proper consists of Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt. It contains 160,866,560 acres of area, and a population (in 1871) of 5,208,405. It is to this country only that the following statistics appertain, the outlying provinces and protectorates being omitted, as desert or savage countries. ARABLE AREA. The arable area of Egypt is confined substantially to the inundable portion of the valley of the Nile. As the river closely hugs the hills and palisades on its right bank, this area is nearly altogether on its left. In some places the arable lands are eleven miles wide; in others they dwindle to a mere strip of bank. For the most part, however, this area extends westward from the river about five to eight miles, where it is terminated by the Libyan hills and desert. Every year it is extended by the rise of the river upon its own bed. This rise was found to be, at the close of the last century, 4.960 inches per century. Some thirty years ago it was computed at 5.736 inches per century. From this source it is said that about 65,000 to 70,000 feddans of area are annually reclaimed from the desert (C. R. 1873, p. 1070) ; but, as will presently be shown, there may be as much or more lost from other causes ; the area of culti- vable land depending more upon social and industrial, than natural events. (f). The Soudan Provinces include the Valley of the White Nile to the great N’Yanza Lakes and extend across the Continent of Africa westward from Nubia and south of Sahara. Their entire area is estimated at 1,600,000 square miles (about one-half the area of the United States), and it is said to contain 14 million feddans of land sus- ceptible of cultivation (C. R. 1878, p. 1081), and a population of 60 millions, negroes. The south-eastern extremity of the Soudan was recently taken possession of by Sir Samuel Baker in the name of the Egyptian Government. It is accessible by small steamers from the lower Nile, and a railway is projected via Khartoum and Gondokoro. 1874.] 237 (Delmar. In 1833, Egypt was estimated to possess 3,500,000 feddans of cultivable land, ‘‘if cultivation were pushed to its utmost extent.’’—-MacGreggor. The official survey of 1843 comprised 6,984,135 feddans susceptible of cultivation ; but this included the superficial surface of the Nile and canals. The cultivated, and, doubtless, the cultivable, portion (at that time) consisted of 3,826,340 feddans as follows : Se Oni No. a Feddans) un A ddans| cultivated, i - Provinces. eultivatedallt We SuniacoouNile and Canals. ILOnyGie WEAF incom oas CUD ED GOO DD POR OU ODO cos 2, 749, 106 1,551,011 NGG Weaihede hes SboBU se oooN Bu Sseoce 750,409 843, 608 UID OEH IBAA Degas Aono dmouDanodoDoaboauoK: 826,825 763,176 HOGA eerirctete daar AS Se ANE a ete ORE 3,826, 340 3,157, 795 The report of 1843, and also a late report of the British Consul, are so worded as to convey the impression that there is almost as much cultiv- able land uncultivated as there is cultivated ; but this is not the fact. The so-called cultivable land, not cultivated, consists, and has always consisted, for the most part either of the surfaces of the Nile and the . canals, or of lands in the Delta and elsewhere, which from various causes have become barren or unavailable. ‘‘A perpetual struggle is carried on between the desert and cultiva- tion. In many parts of the Delta the desert has invaded and mastered the soil.’”’—MacGreggor, 1833. “‘Tn the Faioum, which was formerly the most richly cultivated part of Egypt, the desert has made many inroads.’’—Jdid. ‘In * * * places on the western border of the Nile Valley, the shifting sands of the desert have encroached on the domain of cultivation.’’— Com. Rel., 1863, p. 5382. ““When the land, as has happened in Lower Egypt and the Delta, from the despotic appropriation and thriftless husbandry of * * * rulers, has become what is called aladish, and gone to waste, light plows (such as are used here) are powerless to improve it. Villages, for example, often deprived of laborers to furnish recruits for foreign wars, were at one time depopulated by the government, and their lands exploited (used up) by a short-sighted and ruinous system of agriculture, from the effects of which the country still suffers. In order to have an uninterrupted succession of crops, the inundation (of the Nile) was excluded by dykes, irrigation being supplied from the brackish water of wells.’ The deposit of salt after evaporation, added to that which would be pushed to the surface by the upward filtration of the Nile, would soon convert a once fruitful tract into a desert, where nothing would grow but a rank crop of ‘halfa,’ a deep-rooted, tough grass, which, with the ordinary farming implements of Egypt, it is almost impossible to extirpate. It has thus Delmar. ] 238 (Oct. 2, been considered an unprofitable undertaking to attempt to improve these barren lands, raised, as they frequently are, by the deposits left by former growths of this pestilent grass above the level of inundation, and from this cause one-half of the Delta is said to be uncultivated.’ —Ibid. This alone would dispose of some two millions of acres. “Part of the (barren) territory (now being reclaimed by the Suez Canal Company) was known in ancient times as the fruitful land of Goshen.’’—Ibid. ‘‘A large part of the land formerly cultivated in Egypt is to-day sterile.’’—Jbid. ‘*Tn the present cotton region the land has become so poor that now only two cantars a feddan are produced where five used to be gathered. * * * There is plenty of land ; it only wants moisture to make it fertile ; and we would like to see a number of irrigating canals,” etc.—C. R., 1866, p. 435. The accounts are the same to the present day. The following table shows the cultivated area at several dates, from 1812 to 1874 inclusive : COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF CULTIVATED AREA IN EGYPT. YEAR. FEDDANS. ACRES. {SSA camellia NR eceeee 3,218,736 | 3,322,701 TTP Ca SPARES IE ETI oe teenie Bee tO 1,856,000 | 1,915,950 TASB RRR AES URES pena ebibeGnnee Rey ict iat 2,000,000 | 2,064,600 TOTO ee any ten eer nee ne inte corr ey eer 3,826,340 | 3,949,931 LSEGE Ly JOSIE EON rah FR aia oT 4,296,736 | 4,435,521 1873), Sede. aeihen aah a an ale ee wae 4,624,221 | 4,773,583 1Sidieee yin age i cde els ce se ic Plait 4,625,000 | 4,774,388 This table shows, that from the time of the accession of Mehemet Ali, to the close of the war in Syria, the cultivated area in Egypt rapidly de- clined. It then suddenly increased until, in 1843, it attained its former extent again. From that time to this it has slowly increased. The causes of this extraorinary movement will appear when the progress of the population has been examined. POPULATION OF ALL EGYPT. (Excluding the Soudan.) | ESTIMATED YEAR. E eet ee AUTHORITY. SG 2peehme hase siske vc eiseeepe els versuehar a uote 7,465,000 Dr. Schnepp. Coane Rn 8.442.000 | Dr. Wagner. 1874. ] 239 [Delmer. The Almanac de Gotha for 1873 gives the population, at a recent date, at 8,000,000, and appears to quote Mr. E. de Regny, the official statistician of Egypt, for authority. POPULATION OF EGYPT PROPER. YEAR. ‘POPULATION. AUTHORITY. MUS NPN eee Hh oa ete daar a) Syacenciausisiaisteveiene 3,000,000 Estimate. GO (Been stecee tee corer te aise era allel as 2, 500, 000 Morse’s Gazetteer. GBD Ciamacebotpe Cuoose coeur ea 2,000, 000 MacGreggor. WS er eieerayert aici cic hevoatacs) casievevete al ove ae 3,300, 000 Alm. de Gotha. CAM Pasir steno cj tee nad a aaeauamone 4,542,620 Census. ICH) cniptae Gena Some S a PRA ate 5, 125,000 Census. IGGS oaaeeeercoe teeter pao 4,709,116 Com. Rel., 1873. QRS ogo d ocaee soar eon ape acEneacas 4,848,528 Br. Con. Ret., 6-1867. AIS Gligererermctcrerasre: cov sys cust sire(vowstajetes ana aus 4,888, 925 Com. Rel., 1873, NSM te acces tees MONE Tegan nate 5, 208, 405 56 56 aC ALS iesieay ee cpoa Sue ces) sash ak aickorevas te voteroraveseremste 5, 250, 000 GG ue GG This table exhibits a decrease of population from the time of Mehemet Ali’s accession, to the close of the Syrian war, similar to that shown with regard to acres of cultivated area. It likewise shows the same sudden growth immediately afterward, and even a slower growth since. These coincidences are undoubtedly due to the same causes—the wars of Me- hemet Ali, particularly those in Syria ; the abandonment of the country for the desert, in preference to participation in those wars ; and the sub- sequent return of the people from the battle-fields and the wilderness. Says MacGreggor, ‘‘ Almost without exception the laborers mutilated themselves by cutting off the first finger of the right hand, destroying the right eye, or pulling out the front teeth, in order to avoid the cuonscrip- tion,’’ p. 231. COMPARISON OF POPULATION AND CULTIVATED ARBA, If the large estates worked by the Khédive and his relatives, or the nobles of his court, be deducted, there will not remain in Egypt over one-half an acre of arable land to each person; and even if the land cul- tivated at presept were divided equally among all, there would still be not over nine-tenths of an acre per capita. To show how comparatively small an area this is, I give the statistics on this point relative to the countries with which we are most familiar. Delmar. ] 240 : [ Oct. 2, RELATION OF CULTIVATED LANDS TO PoPULATION IN Four DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. | Cultivated Lands, in- | Cultivated Lands. | cluding pasture and | Acres per Capita. forest lands in use. Acres per capita. Country. Year. 1850 | 4.9 ee) United States (g)........ 1860 | 5.2 Average, 13 0 L Average, 1870 (2), 4.9(h) 3.38 |10.6(h) 6.5 United Kingdom........ 1873 | 1.4 iss Erance as eee Ba ange ents PST 29 A\2222 Bpil J yen OL Sle sd 6 Olu ECE 1875 0.9 0.9 The United States is an agricultural country, which furnishes other countries with breadstufts out of its own surplus. The United Kingdom is a manufacturing country, which has abandoned the policy of attempt- ing to raise its own breadstuffs, and relies largely upon foreign supplies. The quantities of the latter—that is to say, all breadstuffs (not wheat alone)—usually exported by the United States, do not materially exceed those usually imported by the United Kingdom; hence an average of the amount of cultivated land per capita in the two countries shows very correctly the true amount needed to support each head of population. According to the table above, this average is over 64 acres. In France, whichimports breadstufts as often as it exports them, and whose population and means of subsistence are running a close race, the average number of acres to each head of population is over three. Imagine how small, then, must be the portion of an Egyptian laborer, who, if even he had a fair share of all the cultivated land in his country, which is far from being the fact—who, if that land were as productively tilled as are the lands of the other countries named, which, as will be presently shown, is not the case, and who, if all the food-products of that land were kept at home instead of being shipped abroad, as a large portion of them are, would still possess but one-seventh the heritage of an American or English- man, and but one-fourth that of a Frenchman. RURAL AND Civic POPULATION. There are few towns in Egypt beside those already specified. Among them is Syout, with a population estimated in 1874 at 25,000 (Contemp. Revy., Feb. 1874.) The total civic population of Egypt is estimated at ‘(g) The lands classified in the United States census as ‘‘improved farm lands,” are treated above as ‘cultivated Jands,’’? and the ‘‘ unimproved farm lands”’ as ‘“* pasture and forest lands in use,”’ as adjuncts to agriculture. ‘‘ No farm of less than three acres, not unless $500 worth of produce has been sold off it during the year,’ is included in the United States census returns—a very absurd and misleading exception. (h) The United States census of 1870 was the worst ever taken, and is palpably defi- cient in almost every respect. The census of 1860 is much more complete and reliable. 1874.] 241 [ Delmar. 700,000, or 18 per cent. of the whole, leaving the raral p»pulation to consist of 4,503,405, or 87 per cent. of the whole. OCCUPATIONS. There are no manufactures in Egypt except those owned and managed by ‘‘the government,’’ or, in other words, Ismail, son of Ibrahim. The principal ones are the two cotton cloth factories which supply the coarse white cotton clothing used by the soldiers, and the blue stuff of cotton and wool worn by the peasant women. One of these is at Boulac, the other at Choubra, near Cairo. Together they employ 1,438 workmen, and produce annually $122,970 worth of cloth and $138,740 worth of linen —an average of $95 per workman. There is a manufactory of tarboocbes (these are the national cap) and carpets at Fueh; a printing establishment at Boulac for Turkish and Arabian works, which employs about 150 work- men; a paper-mill at Boulac, which employs 50 workmen, and produces annually 850 cantars of wrapping, and 66,500 reams of printing, writing and colored papers ; two gunpowder-mills worked by mule-power, near Cairo ; several large bakeries at Cairo, which together consume about 800;000 barrels of flour per annum ; and some other small works. These, with the salt-works monopoly, which turns out some 360,000) bushels of salt per annum; the fisheries, which employ 3,760 persons on salt, and about 6,000 on fresh, water ; seventeen short railways and. branches; the telegraphs, the Nile steamboats, and a few navigable canals, are all the industrial works in Egypt, unless the manufacture of native sugar and ginning of native cotton are included in the same cate-- gory. They are all owned and managed by the Khédive, who, by thus engrossing all the branches of trade, effectually crushes native, and shuts out foreiga, capital and enterprise. Mehemet Ali made strenuous efforts to become a cotton manufacturer, and at one time had 44 factories and 20,000 operatives, consuming annually 30,000 cantars of cotton, at work ; but the enterprise was abandoned. A considerable portion of the persons employed in the present industrial works in Egypt are foreigners; even the fisheries, employing many Maltese, Greeks and Italians. The number of those employed in agri- culture, including their families, is estimated at 4,400,000, or about 85. per cent. of the whole population—a number and proportion nearly ident- ical with those of the entire rural population. e SIZE OF FARMS. The Viceroy, or Khédive, and his family cultivate one-fourth of all the arable land. A farm of the late El Hami Pasha consisted of 39,368 acres,,. of which 13,344 were let. There are other large estates. The holdings among the fellahdeen, or peasantry, range from one-eighth of an acre to one acre in size. LAND TENURES. Theoretically, all lands were held of God by the Sultan of Turkey. In Egypt the Viceroy stood in place of the Sultan, and had. power to grant A. P. &.—VOL. XIV. 2E Delmar. ] 242 [Oct. 2. tenancies in fee, cstates for life or a term of years, metayerships and other tenures, except to the mosques, which held directly from the Sultan. But Mehemet Ali simplified all this by seizing the lands of the mosques, confiscating all the private titles, and appropriating the entire land and its people to his own use. Certain nobles and foreign adventurers have since been allowed to obtain doubtful tenures of the land, the basis of which is, however, in all cases, the Khédive’s will. The portions not managed directly by the latter and his beneficiaries are cultivated by the wretched fellahdeen, and held, properly speaking, by no tenure except that which naturally attaches itself to compulsory service. The Turkish laws of succession, designed by Mahmoud II. and Abd-el- Mejeed to put an end to the great feudatories which existed in their days, imperatively command equal subdivision of land among the heirs of the first degree in descending or ascending line, male and female alike ; fail- ing these, in collateral line, etc. Entails were abolished ; transfers of real estate were to be made by entry at a public registry, and the trans- action heavily taxed ; private deeds between the parties were not to be recognized. How far these regulations have been applied in Egypt it would be difficult to say. SYSTEM OF CULTURE. The system of culture hardly deserves the name, and simply consists of waiting upon the annual overflow of the Nile to fill the irrigating canals, and when ‘he river has subsided, of maintaining the level of the canals and reservoirs by pumping, baling and ladling. This last-named work and ‘‘ the digging of fresh canals engross the labor of the people for mouths,’’ writes the British consul, Mr. Stanley, in 1873. Without this incessant struggle with nature, the lands would become uncultivable, and -even with it the result is doubtful ; for if the next overflow of the river exceeds thirty feet in height, everything on the land is demolished and swept away; while if it falls short of eighteen feet, the harvests fail and famine ensues. Of the 66 inundations between 1735 and 1801, 11, or 17 per cent., were high and devastating ; 16, or 24 per cent., were feeble ; 9, or 14 per cent., were insufficient ; and only 30, or 45 per cent., were good. The chances, then, appear to be about even, as to whether, after all his labor, the Egyptian gets a harvest or not. Such a system does not admit of fallows, rotation or manuring. ‘The irrigating canals or reservoirs of the large estates are supplied with water from the river by steam power, the coal being imported from England ; but for the most part this work, and the digging and dredging of the canals, ditches and reservoirs, are done by hand, and with the rudest implements. Sometimes two, three and even.four shadoufs or baling machines are placed close to each other and employed to raise the water by the pitcher- ful at a time, to as many reservoirs at different elevations, until it reaches the highest. Each shadouf requires two men to work it. ‘‘ During many months of the year the whole Arab population appears to be engaged in bringing water from the Nile to the adjacent fields.’’—MacGreggor. 1874 ] 243 [ Delmar. The tot il number and kinds of machines now in use for the purpose of irrigation will be shown further on. The Nile usually rises late in May. In August it reaches such a height that the canals are opened, the entire valley is soaked and the reservoirs are filled with water. It continues to rise until October, and then falls so rapidly that, in some parts, pumping and baling commence in November or December; though, in others, not until February, when they continue until May or June. FERTILIZERS. As a general thing no fertilizers are employed; the deposits of mud left by the river during its overflow being the main dependence of the hus- bandman in this respect. An analysis of this mud gives the following results : silica 53.04; sesquioxide of iron 18.43; sesquioxide of alumina 8.76 ; carbonate of lime 4.19; sulphate of lime 0.75 5 lime 2.25 ; magnesia 0.66 ; potassa 0.69; soda 2.16; chloride of sodium 0.04; organic matter 9.03 ; total 100 per cent. Owing to the extreme scarcity of trees and en- tire absence of coal, fuel, for all purposes, is exceedingly dear. For this reason animal manure, and during the cotton excitement 1862-1867, even cotton-seed, the price of which had at former periods exceeded that of wheat, were used for fuel; and the former contiaues to be thus employed yet. Cotton-seed, however, degenerates so rapidly in Egypt that, except for this purpose, or the superior ones of extracting oil from it or using it for cattle fodder, it possesses little value there, unless it is freshly im- ported from other countries. The Khédive has promised a large pecu- niary reward and the title of Bey to whomsoever shall discover paying deposits of coal in Egypt. On the sugar estates the culture exhausts the earth so rapidly that pigeon-guano is largely used te enrich it; about half a ton being em- ployed to the acre of land. In order to obtain this fertilizer the keeping of a flock of pigeons is part of the felluh’s duties to the state.. The birds are simply provided with the shelter of a mud-cote and left at liberty to provide their own sustenance. This, of course, is derived, one way or another, from the fellah’s corn-field, and in this way the birds constitute an additional agency of taxation upon the wretched peasant. About 267,- 000 tons of this guano are now annually produced in Egypt. In justice to the Egyptian system of agriculture, it should be stated that there 7s a certain rotation of crops observed, but unlike any other system known, except that of the despotic President Lopez, who runs a government in South America which is somewhat ironically styled the ‘republic’? of Paraguay, the order of that rotation is governed altogether by the will or caprice of the Khédive. Rice and maize used to be largely cultivated in Egypt; but the government ordered wheat to be planted in their stead and the latter became the principal exporting crop. It was grown one year after another, until nature gave out and the grain grew so poor that it could scarcely find a market. That exported to England ‘Delmar. ] 244 [Oct. 2, was used only in the distilleries. The American war occurring at this juncture, the government prohibited the cultivation of wheat and nominated cotton in its place. The culture of this staple was pursued until the fall of prices occurred after the war, when it was superseded in turn by sugar, which is the present favorite. The exports from Alex- andria, the shipping port of the country, which will be given further on, will furnish a close guide to the fluctuations in the product of these arti- cles, occasioned by this capricious, ruinous, and sometimes mortal policy. SEEDING. The seed is thrown broadcast, the use of the drill being wholly un- known. About 35 bushels of wheat are sown to the acre, the produce be- ing 111 bushels, or scarcely more than 3 for 1. Even ploughing was for_ merly dispensed with in many parts, the seed being thrown upon the mud left by the receding river, and domestic animals turned loose to trample in the grain. This and other wretched features of Egyptian agriculture are giving way before better methods. The cotton and sugar-cane which now constitute the chief products of the country, are cultivated mainly by the large proprietors and sown, or planted, as in the United States. Domestic ANIMALS. Previous to the cattle disease in 1863 and 1864 which destroyed in a single year 800,000 head of horned cattle, and, in Lower Egypt, nearly every other animal also, and which, together with the cotton mania of that period, contributed to occasion the famine of 1865, the number of domestic animals must have exceeded one million. At the present time it barely amounts to two-thirds of that number, as follows : Horned cattle (including buffaloes, the main dependence of the peasant for the work of the farm)... -..-2.....2---- +--+ 292,100 FIOrseS|—)). 2 - «/doeree ee Fe Ace Oe ATCO OS. RCTS caeeKO EEO 2 ROS ML ssi ch. iee ae eB re eA AC ALAS Ae 2,105 INSSOS i sree claus RR eR EO sn EON Susi tears 94,641 (OPW taVel IN mniniio co pat acon ore ROD oe ain Con Soo Onan co mores 6 35,978 Sheeppanr aa eens nerrtiriacctsren. he os emnnort iateeer eee ane 172,657 Gooaites ccna atv Bied eid eee RRR ce 23,907 Toba gic. stecesctesc hn, Fc) SA) PRUE ER lee eI Meroe ce 1chtereret peter 639,191 These numbers do not include the animals in Alexandria and Cairo. During the year 1872 there were imported at Alexandria 14,185 head of cattle and 200,087 sheep, chiefly for slaughter. In 1871 the average prices of 71,400 animals sold at the fairs of Tantah in the Delta, were reported by the American consul as follows: Cattle $200 each; buffaloes $175; camels $200; horses $100; asses $25; and sheep $6.25. (Doubtful. ) 1874. ] 245 [Delmar. W AGES. In common with many European and all Oriental countries, women in Egypt are employed in field labor. The following were the prices of labor current at four different epochs. Men’s wages per diem are always meant unless otherwise specified. Year 1837. : Lower Egypt $0.02? @ .05 MCLAG LAD OLeNStet cata sis clas tetclaree ai roechatter ear { Upper Ny, 024 (@ .022 Boysiandycirls, sugar plantationssriqeerree ae oo: eae 013 @ .08 : Year 1841. Laborers, at Cairo, average...............-0 BERANE Gs 05 Kecnersoniganoleaders. (5 sau it sehtee teen Mera c ne oe 10 Year 1868. Night operative in cotton-gin at Mansurah................ 242 Day operative, same work, boy or girl.................--- 12 WGalboreronu Suezy Camaliciry carne > 2s comeelsae site sic as Ferstersvere 20 This was the period of the cotton mania. The American consul, writ- ing at the time, said, ‘‘ within a year wages have been doubled.”’ In 1865 the American consul reported that there had been an important rise in wages in late years, mainly due to the redundance of specie caused by the high prices at which cotton sold. In 1867 the British consul reported that “‘wages and land had quad- rupled.”’ Between this period and 1873 there seems to have been a fall in wages. Year 1873. Lower Egypt, 15 Bieldplaborersss 2 ccclaaciain cident ache .\ Middle “‘ .10 jt us 07 Unskilled operatives in factories and at salt works, accord- ing to age and ability, 15c. @ 40c. per diem, average..... 224 Mechanics, such as masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, etc., VANS CEN! OR TENNOMGs oeooe Goodedbanuoeraerooucese .60 @ 1.00 The American consul reported in 1873 that wages appear to have de- clined since the cotton mania, but that they are said to be now rising again. EFFICIENCY OF LABOR. An Egyptian laborer is considered to have done a good day’s work when he picks 15 to 18 pounds of cotton. The American negro slaves usually picked 50 pounds in the same time. An Egyptian with the aid of a shadouf (pole and jar, or bucket) can raise for irrigating purposes an average of about seven gallons of water per minute ; an American with an improved hand pump can raise 100 gallons per minute, or 14 times as much. The constant use of the stick and bastinado is necessary to keep at work the fellahdeen on the Khédive’s estates (C. R. 1871). This fact Delmar, } 246 [Oct. 2, may, however, be due to other reasons than mere physical infirmity. The immediate labor of about 15 persons out of every 100 in the United States produces more than enough food for all ; whereas in Egypt the same result calls for the immediate labor of at least three times as many persons ; while the result itself is greatly inferior in quantity, quality and variety. That this great comparative inefficiency of Egyptian labor is due less to natural inaptitude than to. poor food, rude implements and other cir- cumstances over which he has no control, is manifest from the recorded observations of very intelligent persons. Says MacGreggor, writing of Egypt, “‘The Arabs, if brought young to the cotton factories are of quick intellect and easily learn any branch of themtrades77 ks eo * «They show considerable dexterity.” Says Dr. Riippel: ‘‘The young Egyptians show great skill and often surpass their masters in cleverness.”’ TAXATION. The tax system of Egypt is contrived to keep its unhappy people pre- cisely at the point where it is a matter of the utmost unconcern to them whether they live or die. It is impossible to ascertain what this burden amounts to in money, but substantially, it deprives the population of all the fruits of their industry, leaving them but a bare and most wretched subsistence, without lands, homes, clothing, security, justice, or education —and, but for dates and dourra, even without food. The peasant’s home is far less comfortable than that of some wild animals—for instance, the beaver. It is of the same character as the latter—a mud hut—and teems with vermin. Great numbers of the people live in the ancient tombs, with darkness and the bats. —Stephens’ Travels 1837. The dress of the people hereabouts (at the First Cataract, the confines of Egy.pt proper and Nubia) consists of a piece of leather about six inches wide, cut in strings and'tied about their loins. I bought one from a young girl of 16, whose sweet mild face and exquisitely charming figure the finest lady might have envied.—Tbid. Men are seized in the streets, the bazaars, anywhere, ‘‘the iron bands put around their wrists, the iron collars around their necks,’”’ and forced to work for the Pasha.—Jbid. ‘‘People are taken away in gangs from their own ground to do work for powerful land-owners, which in no wise benefits their districts.’’ —British Consul Stanley, 1873. ‘‘A man was convicted of stealing an amber mouth-piece from Abbas Agga. His punishment was to be bound to a cannon and blown to atoms. The same official pressed 600 fellahs into his service to dig him a canal; made them work 12 hours a day ; lashed them unmercifully, and did not pay them a single para.’’— Dr. Holroyd’s Travels, 1837. The Koran is the only book in the land and that it is considered sacrilegious to print. Those few who can read and write are called fickees or saints.—/ bid. The people are strictly temper- ate, exceedingly docile and naturally intelligent. 1874.] 247 [Delmar In 1887 the mérz or land tax was from $1.75 per feddan per annum on ordinary lands, to $5 on sugar lands. It is at present, 1574, about $5 per feddan on all lands. Beside this, there is a poll tax ; a tax on date trees, which, as elsewhere explained, is equivalent to an additional poll tax ; octroi taxes on the principal articles of consumption ; tolls to support the irrigation canals; taxes on the fisheries (one-third) ; on salt ; on the con- sumption of wheat ($1) and barley, beans, Indian corn, and pulse (75 eents per bushel in 1837); import and export duties; monopolization of all the branches of industry by the government ; forced service ; debase- ment of the copper coinage and every other device of a vicious and mer- ciless finance. Beside these, there are dues to the mosques and various local exactions. The total revenues of the Viceroyalty in 1821 were about $6,000,000 ; in 1833 about $12,500,000; in 1850 about $20,000,000 ; in 1872 about $36, - 500,000. This last sum is equivalent to 10 cents per day for every fam- ily in the country, or the whole value of the labor of every father, or head of family. The same rate of taxation—that is, the whole value of one man’s labor exacted from each family in the land—were it possible in the United States, would amount to 8,000 million dollars per annum, or four times the whole sum of the national debt. But thank God, it és7’t pos- sible. The taxes are raised in Egypt through a Sheik-el-belled or head of village commune, chosen by the people and against his will, for although armed with arbitrary power, should he fail to colleet the heavy tribute, his life is generally forfeited. The government sends him in chains to the South- ern frontier and he is seldom heard of again. INTEREST. The Mahometan law, like the canon law of Christianity and the ancient Jewish law, forbids the taking of interest; but like those laws, it has fallen into disuse in this respect. In 1837 the Viceroy allowed 6 per cent. for advances to him from European houses.—MacGreggor. At the same time the market rate for money among mercantile houses in Egypt was 10 to 18 per cent. per annum. At the present time the rate of interest ranges between 10 per cent. on the most desirable class of government securities, to 60 and even 100 per cent. per annum on fair commercial risks. These excessive rates appear to result less from high profits than great insecurity and the lack of a basis of individual right for an admin- istration of justice. The prevailing insecurity is susceptible of being il- lustrated by four striking examples. ist. The tenure of lands is merely the will of the Viceroy. 2d. In 1866 the Viceroy informed the European resident creditors of the rural population that, in future, it would be use- less for them to claim against the natives.—Br. Cons. Rep. 6-1867, p. 296. dd. In 1864, though gold was at that time pouring into the country to pay for cotton, so overwhelming was the general instinct to hoard and bury money, that little or none of it remained in cirenlation. ‘‘On one 248 (Oct. 2, Delmar. ] occasion, when the French packet from Marseilles arrived in the after- noon with seven millions of francs in specie, I was informed by the agent of the company, the same evening, that he had reason to believe that not a single coin of the whole amount had remained in Alexandria. It had been taken to the villages where it is generally buried in the earth.’’— Com. Rel. 1865, p. 424. 4th. The monopolies. In 1864, during the high price of cotton, the Viceroy refused permission for the cotton of other cultivators to be brought to market until his own was first shipped.— Ibid. In 1865 and 1866, though there was a famine in Egypt, corn fetched a higher price at Jidda, in the Hedjaz, a province of Arabia on the Eastern coast of the Red Sea. The merchants, who hastened to ship corn to Jid- da, were stopped by the Viceroy ; who, disregarding the famished con- dition of his own people, hastened to sell his corn to the Arabians and obtain the higher prices which necessity compelled them to offer.—Br. C. R. 6-1867, p. 134. The following quotations exhibit the rates of interest current in Egypt of late years. 1863. Three to five, and even seven, per cent. a month was paid by fellahs to the Levantine traders who lent them money wherewith to pay their taxes. Same year, five to ten per cent. a month was paid on good security.—C. R., 1863. 1864. ‘‘Minimum rate, ten per cent. per annum. Two and three per cent. a month often paid by parties of the first position for temporary loans.’’—C. R., 1864 and 1865. 1872. Seven to ten per cent. per annum on government s2curities.—M. 5., 1872. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. On the estates ot the Khédive and other large planters, modern imple- ments are in use; but the natives appear to be so ill-fed as to lack the physical strength and skill to wield them. Hence their reluctance to work on these estates, and the cruel practice of forcing them by blows ; for, as things go, the Khédive pays them well. (C. R., 1871.) In 1862-3 the Khédive employed steam irrigating machinery in Upper Egypt. At the same time there were in operation eighty steam cotton-gins; steam pumps were used by other large proprietors, and steam plows were tried on the barren ‘“‘ halfa ’’ lands of the Delta. (C. R., 1863.) Since that time, other improved implements have come into use on the same class of estates ; but ihe peasants continue to employ the antique and inefficient implements c »mmon to the Orient from the most ancient times, the causes for this preference being poverty, physical infirmity and, above all, polit- ical insecurity. These implements consist of the plow, which is merely a crooked stick, sometimes barbed with iron ; the mattock, the hoe, the spade, the dulab or hand-gin for cotton, and the sakye or sakia, the chadouf or shadouf, and the tabout, for irrigating purposes. The sakye is a horizontal wooden cog-wheel, turned by oxen and working into the perimeter of a vertical wooden cog-wheel, which, in revolving, elevates 1874. ] 249 [Delmar an endless rope chain, to which are attached earthen jars. Filling with water at the bottom of the well or shaft, these jars empty themselves at the top as they begin to descend. The shadouf is an upright forked pole in which turns a beam with a bucket or jar at one end and a lump of mud to balance it at the other. The tadout is a basket, to be handled by two men, and only used when the water is to be raised but a few feet. The number of the various im- plements used for irrigating purposes in 1873 was as follows : Steam=pumipssail. 1 Soles See yaa ys eee Dae 476 SERRE) (Oa aio Rein Sa Garros GOT ns Dindh oa am semis aame 30, 084 FS MENA IGR ULES Sec cstcs ceria Gee rm rR a Os CHa ele) DH or er ACR 70,508 LA OOWES o's dao eedds Slay arabe aussie nes sui crnistanavsierere eters sisi 6,926 107,994 CHIEF ARTICLES OF NATIONAL DIET. Dates and dourra constitute the chief dietary of Egypt. It is a re- markable fact that the number of date-trees under cultivation has gener- ally coincided with the number of inhabitavts and the number of acres of cultivated lands. The causes of this correspondence with reference to the number of date-trees are doubtless the coincidence of their period of bear- ing with the ordinary duration of a man’s lite, and their yield of fruit with the capacity of man to consume it, which for each tree and each man is alike one pounda day. These circumstances combine to render the tax, (now yielding about $700,000 per annum) which is placed upon date-trees, really a tax on polls, of both sexes and all ages, amounting to about 14 cents per capita. There are now about 5 million date-palm trees in Egypt. The trees are raised by shoots, arrive at their vigor in about 30 years, and con- tinue so for seventy years afterward, bearing yearly fifteen or twenty clusters of dates, each of them weighing fifteen or twenty pounds. After this period they begin to decline. Upwards of 200 trees are sometimes planted on a single acre (Buckle, 1, 61). Wilkinson, from whom Buckle quoted, said 400 toa feddan. Accepting the lower number as nearer the truth, it would follow that 25,000 acres of land are devoted to the growth of date-palms in Egypt. The average annual yield in 1878 was four cantars of dates to each tree (C. R,, 1873, p. 1086). This would make the aggregate yield about 20 million cantars. All but 30 thousand cantars, or one-sixth of one per cent., which is the amount annually exported, are consumed in the country. Dates are not used for human food alone, but (4) The number of sakyes in use in 1838 was estimated at 50,000, costing 3'4 million dollars a year to work them, the power employed on each machine being that of two cattle and one man (C. R., 1853, p. 533). In 1837, for want of pruning-hooks or knives, the fellah- deen engaged in cultivating cotton in Upper Egypt, broke off the branches instead of cutting them; while for want of a press, the bale of cotton was packed with the foot (MacGreggor). The absence of so common an instrument as a knife is due to the fact that the government prohibits the bearing of arms by the populace. The prudence of this precaution is evidenced by the following extract from Stephens: ‘‘ Speaking of the general poverty of the Arabs, the Sheik said that if one-fourth of them owned a musket, one charge of powder and one ball, before morning there would not be a Turk in Egypt.” A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2F Delmar. ] . 250 [Oct. 2, are also fed to horses, asses, camels, sheep, fowls and dogs, the animals consuming all the abortive fruit, and even the date-stones, when softened in water and ground up, the latter being often collected for the purpose by indigent persons. The young shoots of the date-palms are used as a delicate vegetable, resembling asparagus; the leaves afford couches, baskets, bags, mats, brushes, etc. ; the trunk affords wood for fences, fuel, etc. ; the fibrous part, cordage and thread ; the pith, starch ; and the sap, a fermented liquor. Dourra (7), indian-corn, blé ture, millet, sorghum (8%. vulgare), or Guinea corn—for it is known by all these names—is a species of holcus (allied to broom-corn, etc.), and the principal grain of Egypt next after wheat. Varieties of this grain are grown in Africa and Asia, and it has been tried in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, California and elsewhere in the United States, for use as cattle-fodder, but abandoned (except in Cali- fornia, where its cultivation was only begun a few years ago) in favor of oats or barley. Next to dates, it forms the staple food of the Egyptian peasant, and in Upper Egypt and Nubia particularly. Indeed, in Nubia it is used for the purposes of currency. Wishing to prove the prolificacy of dourra, and quoting Hamilton’s Hyyptiace, Buckle says (vol. 1, p. 62) that ‘‘it yields to the laborer a return of 240 for 1.’’ It is possible that a single grain will yield a plant bearing 240 grains; but this degree of prolificacy is exceeded by maize and many other cereals. Therefore, ° taken by itself, this fact means nothing. But if Hamilton meant that the average yield of large areas sown in dourra is 240 for 1, which is what Buckle took it to mean, this statement is as wild as his other, that an ardeb is 16 bushels. Nor does it signify, in this connection, that, to quote another author (Appleton’s Encye. Art. Millet) a bushel of millet has been grown on six square rods of land, which is equal to 262 bushels to the acre. The practical fact is, thatin Egypt, at the present time, dourra yields on the average about 12 bushels to the acre (the C. R., 1873, p. 1085, say 24+ ardebs per feddan), or somewhat more than wheat in the same country. Its preference to the latter is doubtless due either to the lesser amount of seed and care required in its cultivation, or to the lesser trouble required in its preparation for use. It is ground between two stones and made into a brown bread, said by an enthusiastic traveler to be of ‘‘admirable quality’? (Contemp. Revy., Feb. 1874), but is greatly deficient in flesh-forming materials. Hamilton says, that “in Upper Egypt the dourra constitutes almost the whole subsistence of the peasantry ;’’ but this is so far from being correct, that they eat several pounds of dates to one of dourra. Although its use in Egypt is less common as one proceeds from Nubia to the Delta, it is nevertheless still largely consumed in Middle Egypt. The lotus, which was used for food in the time of Herodotus, is now almost a rare plant. Beside dates and dourra-bread, the food of the Egyptian peasants con- sists largely of beans and lentils, which are made into soups and other (j) Spelled variously, as dourra, dourrah, dhourra, dhurra, dourah, dowrah and durr 1874.] 251 { Delmar. dishes. A very little fish is obtained, but no meat, except on rare occasions, when asheep is slaughtered and consumed, even to the entrails. The total cost of an adult peasant’s subsistence in 1837 ranged from 1 to 24 cents per day. It is now, 1874, 3}. to 74 cents. So effectually does the government deprive the people of the means of subsistence, that says MacGreggor: ‘If the poor fellah does not secrete some of his produce, it sometimes happens that nothing is left him at the conclusion of autumn to maintain himself and family through the winter.”’ NAVIGABLE RIVERS, The Nile is navigable by light draught boats from its mouths to the rapids or cataracts, about 600 miles above. The draught of water in the Rosetta mouth is five feet, and in the Damietta, eight feet, at low tide. During the inundation, the draught is often forty feet, and large vessels can ascend to Cairo. NAVIGABLE CANALS. Miles long. Mahmoudy, Lower Egypt .................-...+.------- 50 Ismailia, as OSE Rae ENsEty Wana Rarcnmerty total Sreneie oN ceers alter oe 61 Beherah, ce SE ai egarsla alte eye rar eters eReye Ios ore relic Van's sets 30 orale, Wjajee! SS. geeasbebcododoonsshadigooves dice 93 Beside these, there is the Suez International Ship Canal, 69 miles long; the Bahr Yusuf, or ancient irrigating river of Joseph, some 300 miles long ; and hundreds of irrigating canals, many of them of great size, not to count innumerable runnels and ditches, for the purposes of irrigation. RAILWays. The following table shows the progress that has been made in railways in Egypt Year. Miles. ISGBesdooas boos odnooe oceedocbeudcagGuapenos JoupmoOUp oS 245 UGiles.ds 6oc8 Sosdoo bor soBbo ne dobro ocwscue Rs oemuD Osos 654 Si Sepe tate PEN ey etait toes cuca tien sey Ketens, Sen pe ketal eke ve eyes yaiore stache 7363 In 1873 there were completed twenty-one railways, aggregating 7365 miles, of which about 200 miles were double track ; also, in progress, 208 miles and a single railway of 600 miles to the Soudan. But with all this progress, says British Consul West, in 1867, ‘‘the trade of Suez is ona most limited scale, and is almost exclusively confined to the supply of the daily wants of its few inhabitants. The imports from the Red sea or from Indiaare all on account of the Cairo merchants, and the goods are received here by native wakeeis, or agents, simply as forwarding agents. The duty is paid on them, and notwithstanding the line of railway between Cairo and Suez, they are transmitted not unfre- quently on camels !”’ The Consul explains that there are several reasons for this singular preference, neither one of which is creditable to the existing government, which not only lords itself despotically over the people, but owns, mono- polizes and administers the railways. First. ‘“‘ The natives avoid coming into contact with the government ofticials,’? who manage the railways. Delmar. ] 252 [Oct. 2, Secondly. ‘‘ Time is of but little object, aud the saving of it, if any, by rail, is questionable, owing to the delays in forwarding and obtaining delivery of the goods.”’ Thirdly, ‘‘The rates of railway freights are so high as to make but little, if any, difference in the cost.”’ Though it should be remembered, in mitigation of this charge, that all of the materials, some of the personnel, and, most important, all of the coal for the railway service has to be imported from Europe; yet the Consul’s reasons for the avoidance of the railways involve reproaches to the Khédive’s system of rule, which appear te show that even with cheap fuel, railways and despotism will not work well together. The converse of this induction, that railways need a free government for their development, is strikingly shown in the great progress which the former have made in this country, and the relative progress they have made in all countries. When it is remembered that thousands of years ago Egypt possessed stone railways, and perhaps also wooden ones, it is rather a dark stigma on the Khédive’s rule that, with all his efforts to imitate European pro- gress, the government he has established is so distasteful to his people, that rather than employ his boasted engines of progress, they find it preferable to return to the camels and the old paces and slow ways of their forefathers. Of telegraphs there were in 1863 about 360 miles, and in 1873 about 3,460 miles. These works all belong to the government. RATES OF FREIGHT. In 1868 the freight on baled cotton by railway from Mansurah to Alex- andria, a distance of about 100 miles, was 48 cents per cantar, or, say, 55 cents per cwt. Rates of freight from Alexandria to Liverpool in 1878, for wheat and beans 61 cents @ $1.34 per quarter of 8 bushels ; to Mar- seilles, 60 cents per 100 kilos., or, say, 17 cents per bushel. Having now very fully examined Egypt’s resources, natural, artificial and human, we turn to the practical results of these means and forces, which are summed up in her AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. In 1834 the produce of Egypt was stated to Dr. Bowring as follows : Wheat, bushels........... Sy BE OOO MSs COwilise soacoousscuobco 32,000 Beans, OSes Ne eM UE GAS OOO | Commo, °F 6 sesacdooooodce 206,000 Lentils, CO dea css Semmens 231,700 | Flax, BOE ES, CF a Ceara 55,000 Barley, OO isto auayielis eiene Infos OO | tsepatworm, 8% 5555 G090 co0noKc. 3,500 Maize, SO bbe odo bode U0) INOUE, CF Gesodeccocanues 100,000 Dourra, VEC RERINNI DIO, Rie Ato o00) | lalernngin, OF pop ogaanccascooe 30,000 Chickpeas oo thos < 175 = 0.21525 inch as the depth of water converted into steam, and which, under the conditions stated, would give a pressure of nearly 37 atmospheres in addition to that already existing within the boiler by the transfer of heat from the iron. This leads to the conclusion that the substitution of a crown-sheet ;'; inch thick, stayed without girders, would require the contraction of the space between the crown-sheet and the roof of the boiler to an average of 23 inches, to allow of the sudden production of a pressure of steam equal to that capable of development in a boiler constructed as was the one exploded, or the effect of an equally overheated crown-sheet would be reduced to + of that which would otherwise have been produced. That such is the fact was clearly shown by the result of a recent accident to another locomotive in which the crown-sheet was simply forced down, as by a gradual increment of pressure tearing out the stay-bolt and permitting the steam and water to escape into the fire- box and extinguish the fire without further injury to the boiler or engine. C.—LEVEL OF WATER IN Borters. (How AFFECTED.) There are several conditions under which an engineer may be deceived as to the level of the water in the boiler of a locomotive-engine. The most important are : 1. Priming or rise of water-level. 2. Changes of grade. 3. Variations ia the speed of the engine. In all boilers the level of the water is somewhat raised whenever steam is taken off. The amount of the rise is varied by the rapidity with which steam is conveyed away : the form of the boiler and the manner in which heat is applied for the production of steam. In boilers in which there are narrow water spaces surrounding the fire- box, and those in which heat is conveyed to the water locality, that is, the heating surfaces are small in extent as compared with tre whole vol- ume of water, and are very hot, the lift of the water is very considerable whenever an outlet for steam is opened, amounting in some instances to as much as 12 and 14 inches. In ordinary locomotive boilers the rise upon opening the throttle or safety-valve averages about 4 inches. The presence of oil in the boiler greatly increases the foaming. The 1874.] PG [Price. influence of changes of grade is rarely considered by locomotive engineers. The change from a level road to an ascending grade of 100 feet per mile would cause the water in the boiler to flow back to the fire-box end so as to raise the water-level about 13 inches, depressing the water-level for- ward by the same amount or a total variation of 35 inches. If the level of the water be found at the top gauge whilst the engine is running with unvarying velocity up a grade of 100 feet per mile, and the engine be stopped upon a descending grade of 100 feet per mile, the actual level of the water over the crown-sheet of the fire-box would be 113 inches below the top gauge-cock. If the first observations had indicated one gauge of water only, the actual level of the water, after the engine had been stopped on the descending grade, would be far below the level of the crown-sheet. | From observations made upon an engine by means of a glass gauge on the water column, I have found that the water-level is greatly dis- turbed during the running of the engine by every change of speed. Whilst at rest the water surface is level ; upon starting the engine the water does not take up the motion immediately, but is crowded to the back part of the boiler, and remains so ina greater or less degree until the motion is checked, when the water at first becomes level and then crowds towards the front end of the boiler until the engine is stopped, when its surface becomes level. Running at a speed of about 25 miles an hour, first forward and then backward, the variation at the water-level was about four inches. D. A record has been made of the effect of injecting fresh water into boilers containing hot concentrated solutions of various salts; but as analysis of the water supplied to this engine show that they contain but a moderate percentage of salts in solution, it is unnecessary to give the resuits of the experiments, as the effect produced in practice would add but little to the destructive forces already fully explained, and which are of themselves more than sufficient to account for explosions under the conditions stated. AN OBITUARY NOTICE OF CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MEREDITH READ. By Ext K. Price. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, December 18, 1874.) It is within the scope of our comprehensive charter to commemorate the life and character of our deceased members. To do so is to promote knowledge, and to render service to science and society. It is thus the dead shall yet speak, and through our press speak to the most intelligent of the civilized world, and to such in future times. He whose memory we would perpetuate to-night was a most diligent student and able administrator of the science of jurisprudence; that OF Price. ] 2 6 2 [Dec. 18, seience without whose protection no other science could be cultivated ; nor civilization, or happiness, be maintained amoug mankind. John Meredith Read, Lu. D., a member of this Society, died on the 29th of November, 1874. He was son of John Read, a former Senator of this State, a member of the Bar, and a long time President of the Bank of Philadelphia; and a grandson of George Read, a signer of the Dec- laration of Independence and the Coustitution of the United States; and Chief Justice of the State of Delaware. Our fellow member was born in this city July 21, 1797, graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, A. B., in 1812; was called to the Bar in 1818. He was elected to the House of Representatives of this State in 1822 and in 1823. He was afterwards City Solicitor and member of Select Council, and in the latter capacity drew up a full and connected account of the finances of the city. Yet later he was successively District Attorney of the United States, and Attorney-General of the State of Pennsylvania. An enumeration of numerous pamphlets containing his reports and arguments may be found in the second volume of Allibone’s Dictionary of Authors, under his name. Long before his elevation to the Bench Mr. Read stood among the leaders of the Bar of Philadelphia, at a period when it was greatly dis- tinguished; when his cotemporaries were the Sergeants, Binney, Chauncey, the Rawles, the Ingersolls, Williams, Meredith, and other eminent coun- sellors and advocates. His arguments can be here described but by their general characteristics. These evinced the most careful and thorough preparations, both as to facts and law, with an ample brief written by his own hand. From this he spoke with great earnestness and power, with a strong voice. His own strong conviction preceded and was potent for the convincement of court and jury. You never perceived that he spoke because he was employed to speak, but because he felt it his duty to speak ; and he no doubt did generally speak according to his actual conviction. In the celebrated trial of Hanway, in 1851, for treason, Mr. Read was engaged with Thadeus Stevens and J. J. Lewis for the defendant. His preparations for that trial were thorough, and the defence was masterly and successful. In preparation he studied the slave laws of the South, and the law of treason as held in England and the United States. Mr. Stevens afterwards said of that argument. ‘‘This speech was never fully reported ; if it had been it would have settled the law of treason in the United States for a century.’’ The alleged treason consisted in defending fugitive slaves from capture. Hanway violated the law, but did not levy war against the United States ; therefore, did not commit treason. Though Mr. Read belonged to the Democratic party, he always had a repugnance to slavery ; and when the Missouri Compromise was annulled, and that party sought to extend slavery over the territories, it was of necessity that he should soon leave it for the ‘‘Free Soil’? movement. In a Democratic Convention held in Pittsburgh, in 1849, he offered a resolu- 1874. ] 273 [ Price, tion against the extension of slavery, which concluded in these words : ‘‘Esteeming it a violation of State Rights to carry it beyond State limits, we deny the power of any citizen to extend the area of bondage beyond its present dominion ; nor do we consider it a part of the Constitution that slavery should forever travel with the advancing column of our ter- ritorial progress.’’ From that time he became the zealous opponent of the slave power ; and when the time came to form the Republican party he was prepared for the work, and from the first, and always, was a sup- porter of its principles and policy. Even on the Bench political and Constitutional questions will arise which judges must decide, and will decide according to their political con- victions ; and this happened several times during the war of the rebellion, when it was in the power of the Courts seriously, if not disastrously, to hamper the action of the National Executive and Congress, for the sup- pression of the rebellion. In those cases Judge Read was one of the majority of three who uniformly sustained the acts of Congress and the measures of the Government to suppress the rebellion. When the subject of consolidating the many corporate districts round the old Philadelphia of two square miles into one enlarged city, during: the middle years of this century, was agitated, Mr. Read was an earnest. advocate for that measure. Though he took no part in framing the new charter, he had prepared statistics of population and finances, which,. with the influence of his name, were important tu help carry the measure: with the people, and the bill in the Legislature. Mr. Read was elected a Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. in October, 1858, and commissioned for fifteen years from the first Mon- day of December of that year. He entered upon the discharge of his. judicial duties with an earnest zeal, and performed his full share of the onerous duties of the Court, with exceptions when prostrated by ill health. His opinions are peculiarly characterized by a full history of matters having a bearing upon the cause, and the full citation of judicial authorities applicable to the case. The act of 1810, prohibiting the read- ing of British precedents, had been repealed in 1836; so that all the in- vestigations and learning of the British Courts were at the service of counsel and the Court. Judge Read, who always desired the fullest light upon the subject of decision, made, while at the Bar, and expected. as a Judge, a full citation of the relevant authorities by the counsel, and he carefully availed himself of all that could assist the judgment of the Court. His opiaions, therefore, were full of learning, and he brought into our courts, from England and the other States, views and principles that without him would not have enriched our law. His library was ex- tensive, and he kept it furnished with the latest publications ; that is, with the most recent editions of elementary law, and the English Reports, and those of other States, as fast as they came from the press. The opinions of Judge Read ran through forty-one volumes of the: Reports ; that is, from the 32d to the 73d volume, both inclusive, of our: A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 21 Price. ] 274 [ Dec. 18, State Reports. In the first of them we find the evidence of his ardent. love of justice, in the severe reprobation of any one being removed from office without notice of the charges made against him, and an oppor- tunity of being heard in his defence. (82 St. R. 478.) In the see nd of them he delivers the opinion of the Court on the will of Stephen Girard, which decides the city of two square miles to be that preferred in the admission of boys to the College, and that a fatherless child is an orphan within the intent of the will, though the mother be living. It gives the early history of Philadelphia ; refers to the customs of London; with a brief biography of Girard, and then he interprets his will, with the aid of lexicons, and Biblical and legal authorities. Judge Read was always strict in,his requirements that trustees should faithfully execute their trusts, both as respects the selection of the proper objects of investment, and as to proper care in making them. (345t. R. 100.) While he favored the creation of trusts for proper purposes, he was stern in the protection of trust property from insecurity and loss. (46 St R. 494; 41 St. R. 505; 51 St. R. 292.) As to the power of the United States to levy troops, he held that ‘‘Every citizen is bound to serve and defend the State as far as he is capable. No person is naturally exempted from taking up arms in defence of the State; the obligation of every member of society being the same. Those alone are exempted who are incapable of handling arms, or supporting the fatigues of war. This is the reason why old men, children, and women are exempted.’ (45 St. R. 285.) His opinion was potential with members of Congress to induce the pas- sage of the act of Congress of March 3d, 1863, authorizing the President, during the rebellion, to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. A letter from Senator Sumner declared his argument conclusive, and it was effec- tive in passing the act. The labors of the Judge were mostly in the well trodden highways of the law, and his merit consists mainly in knowing well, and keeping to that beaten track. The charm of novelty and new discovery are seldom to reward the industry of the Judge. The merit of adherence to precedents will be easily understood by the layman who has invested the earnings of his life on the opinion of counsel, which opinion must be based on judicial decisions, if succeeding judges can declare the law to be otherwise than it had been held ; for such decision pronounces the law for the past as well as for the future, and the citizen may thus lose the law that protected his title by the decision of a cause in which he was not heard. Judge Read was a faithful adherent to established precedent, and hence was an eminently safe and conservative judge. This is not the place to enumerate the many contributions made by him from the great treasury of British and American law, to the body of the law of Pennsylvania. A notice of a few of these must suffice for an estimate of the value of the judicial services of Judge Read. The pro- fession and the public are indebted to him for the first step made for the 1874.] 275 [Price. security of title, under our modern acts of limitation, in holding when sitting alone, that a purchaser will be compelled in equity to take a title dependent upon the statutes of limitation for its validity. (6 Pha. R. 185.) One of these statutes removed all exceptions on account of the disability of the claimant, after thirty years’ adverse possession. That decision was followed by corresponding decisions by the Supreme Court. (17 St. R. 396; 65 St. R. 55.) When Pittsburgh City and Allegheny County made default in the pay- ment of their bonds, Judge Read united heartily with his brethren of the Supreme Court to compel those municipalities to meet their obligations, requiring them to lay taxes for that purpose. In his opinion on one of those cases, he says, ‘‘ Whatever may be said as to the individuality of acts of officers and agents owtside of their authority is wide of the mark, when attempted to be applied to defective execution within the sphere of authority. The one may be void, but every principle of justice, as every presumption, forbids such conclusion in the other case.’’ Those dealing with officials are not to suffer by their irregularity. ‘‘ Public business could never be done under such a system. There must be faith in public servants within the scope of their authority, or public business must stop. For defective execution, the public, whose servants they are, must suffer, not innocent parties.’ (387 St. R. 287-8.) Judge Read is entitled to especial praise for the part he took in saving special trusts to the jurisprudence of Pennsylvania. Since 1829 a series of decisions made by the Supreme Court had established the law giving validity to special trusts to protect the improvident, helpless, er inca- pable, by the interposition of trustees. In 1856 there was commenced a counter course of decisions that threatened to deprive parents and bene- factors of the power of safely making provision for the unfortunate and helpless. This is a power that all considerate persons would be likely to consider an indispensable one for the welfare of civilized society ; yet its existence in our law was threatened. In 1864 the Supreme Court had the opportunity of arresting the downward course of decision, in the case of Barnett’s Appeal (46 St. R. 392.), and to Judge Read was assigned the duty of writing the opinion of the Court. He says: ‘‘The principal error is in laying down as the law of Pennsylvania, that a trust to receive rents and pay them to another is executed, although not an use executed by the Statute of Uses, but arising from some general principle inherent in the common law of the State. This is not supported by authority.” The Judge then proceeds to review the course of decisions prior to the innovations, and restores them into authority ; and, with slight modifi- cation or exception, these remain in authority down to the latest decision of the Supreme Court. The opinion concludes: ‘‘The question then is, shall the settled law of Pennsylvania, as to trusts, remain as it was un- derstood by all our tribunals and the Bar, and had been received since the foundation of the Province to within the last eight years, or are we, without the sanction of the Legislature, entirely to uproot it, and substi- Price.] 276 [ Dee. 18, tute a new system which has been the subject of serious criticism and constant complaint? We donot approve of such judicial legislation, and are therefore of opinion that the Auditor and the Court below erred in declaring that there was no estate vested in the trustees of the testator’s will, and, so far, the decree must be reversed.’? That is, the Court de- cided that the trustee should hold the title and manage the estate, for the benefit of the beneficiaries ; and must hold and protect it upon the trusts specified by the testator. Another occasion of Judge Read’s delivering the opinion of the Su- preme Court had a direct interest for this Society ; and is also interesting to the science of jurisprudence, though the occasion for its citation as authority may not be frequent. When the square upon which this hall stands belonged to the Commonwealth, the Legislature granted to this Society the perpetual use of this lot for the purposes of this Society, esteeming our objects to be of such public benefit as to comport with those for which the square was held by the State. Though this is a per- petual right in the Society, it was not such a title as could be aliened by the Society to others to be held on other uses, without the authority of the State. This title is, therefore, unique; is unlike any other title in the State. It is a great principle of the common law that titles shall be freely alienable, so that they shall best subserve the interests of civilized society. This is the reason of the rule of law against perpetuities, established by judges who were wisest of British statesmen. The exception allowed by this rule is limited by the duration of designated lives in being and a minority or twenty-one years thereafter. During that period titles may be limited into a succession of limited interests, or clothed with trusts for the maintenance of those deemed incompetent to manage their property for themselves. A special exception was created by the British Parliament, when the nation granted Blenheim and its princely domains to the Duke of Marlborough, to guard the country’s gift from alienation by his heirs ; and to that immunity it is owing that that splendid castle and domain have not been sold to pay the debts of the heirs of the great Duke. A partial exception exists in Pennsylvania, by an act of the Legislature of 1871 (P. Laws, 879), under which the descendants of the Indian Chief, Cornplanter, now hold their lands in severalty, but inalienably to any but Indians, so that white men may not defraud them, or intermix in the colony. Such a feature should be in- corporated into the titles of our Western Indians, when they also shall have lands allotted to them in severalty; a step of progress that must soon be reached if they are to be preserved in existence. The purpose of the restricted grant to this Society was to preserve the property forever for public uses; for in public and charitable uses lands may be held unalienable in perpeturity. The opinion gives a history of this society, and the following extract will show the grounds of the decision of the Supreme Court, with the friendly estimate of Judge Read, when our library was levied upon for taxes assessed upon the lot and hall : 1874. ] 217 [ Price. ‘It is clear, then, that the Society could not charge this lot by any recognizance, mortgage, judgment, debt, obligation, or responsibility, nor could they create any lien upon it; because it could not be sold by any form of execution, and this being the case, no taxes could be a lien upon it, and no form of proceeding to recover the same could create a lien upon this lot, because it could not be sold under any such judgment. It seems stronger in the case of taxes levied under the authority of the very Government that has expressly prohibited any sale of it, except in the cases specially pointed out, and by the character of its public uses as expressly declared. The uses for which it was given are public, and can neither be affected nor destroyed by the adverse action and process of acourt of law. The court below were therefore right, and their judg- ment must be affirmed. ““This Society numbers amongst its members many distinguished foreigners of great scientific eminence, and it corresponds with public bodies and private individuals devoted to the pursuit of science in every country in Europe; one of its latest correspondents being a Hungarian Society, whose Transactions are published in their native language. It has a most valuable library of about 27,000 volumes, of which a complete catalogue is now preparing at a very heavy expense, including a great many manuscript letters and papers of a most valuable and rare charac- ter, relating to the early history of this Province and country. A Jarge number of the works in the library are of a searce and rare kind, and are not to be found on this side of the Atlantic, including a complete set of the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, commencing two centuries ago. The first President of this Society was the originator of the first fire company, the first public library, the first hospital, and the first academy, now the University of Pennsylvania, a signer of the Dec- laration ‘of Independence, Minister to France, one of our Ministers Pleni- potentiary who signed the provisional articles and the definitive treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain, and finally one of the framers of the Constitution of the United States. “This was Dr. Benjamin Franklin, the patriot and the Philosopher ; and I cannot but express a confident hope that the City and the State of which he was so distinguished an ornament, will never permit the hands of the tax-gatherer to diminish the fund devoted to the interests of science in every part of the world, both in peace and in war, and belonging to a Society of which he was the founder.”’ Judge Read, in an opinion concurring with his brethren on the bench, held the Southern Confederacy to be ‘‘an entire and complete nullity : The country and the people embraced by this unholy rebellion are simply in a state of rebellion, and are rebellious citizens, but at the same time they are enemies, and may be treated as such. They may be tried as traitors and pirates, and may, under the laws of the United States, be convicted and punished as such, and no man or nation could complain of it as an unjust or illegal act.’”’ Yet it was held that we could and should Price. ] 278 [Dec. 18, recognize so gigantic a rebellion as belligerents, from motives of human- ity, that the war might be conducted upon the principles of civilized war- fare, to prevent indiscriminate slaughter, and that there might be an exchange of prisoners of war. This, he held, might be done without “‘recognizing the rebel leaders, or their organization, but constantly denying them to be a government de facto or de jure, or as possessing the powers to issue letters of marque and reprisal, or to fit out privateers, or armed vessels, or to make captures, or to establish prize courts which could condemn as legal prizes the vessels captured by their cruisers.”’ (47 St. R. 180.) An opinion of the Supreme Court, delivered by Justice Read in 1865, is interesting to science and to every one who travels by railroad. It was a suit by a widow and children against a railroad company for the loss of the life of a husband and father, by alleged negligence, under one of the modern statutes in such case. It is held that at the common law no action was maintainable against a person who caused the death of another; also that an opinion of the value of the life lost, by competent judges, is lawful evidence. The loss to be computed is simply that which would be compensatory to the surviving family, in the ability of the deceased to provide for his family. It is therefore held to be a proper inquiry of a witness, from his knowledge of decedent’s age, habits, health, and physical condition, how long he would have been useful to his family. From liability for the company’s negligence they cannot stipulate for exemption. (51 St. R. 315.) This seems a very mercantile estimate of the value of human life; yet, considering the ready sympathy of juries with the bereaved family, it is the only one that carrying companies can endure and live. In 1866 several cases involving the validity of the legal tender act, came before our Supreme Court, and its constitutionality was sustained. Judge Read’s opinion gives a history of paper money in America. (52 St. R. 71.) In 1819 the Supreme Court of the United States had decided that Congress had the power to create a bank whose bills or notes should be receivable in all payments to the United States. If Congress could do this, the logical inference was that Congress could directly create a currency. In making such issues a legal tender Congress did but what the dependent Colonies had done. The Constitution, while denying the like power to the States, gives expressly to Congress the power to coin money, to regulate the value of domestic and foreign coins in circulation, and, as a necessary implication from positive provisions, to emit bills of credit. Congress was expressly clothed with power to enact all laws _ hecessary and proper for carrying into effect the enumerated powers; and this act was necessary to that end. ‘‘This was done at atime and under circumstances which admitted of no other means to carry those great powers into full and effective operation.’’ It was a measure re- quisite to save the Government and protect the people, in the war of the rebellion ; and will be a measure necessary to save and protect them in 1874. ] 279 [Price, all future great wars. Every government must be sufficient unto its own existence ; otherwise it must perish. The Supreme Court of the United States, in 1870, Justice Strong, who had concurred as one of our Supreme Court in the opinion of 1866, de- livering the judgment, also decided the validity of the legal tender act. (12 Wal. 457.) That Court held that Congress, besides those specified, had express power to make laws necessary to carry into effect ‘‘all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States ;’’ and say, ‘‘It was certainly intended to confer upon the Govern- ment the power of self-preservation.”’ (p. 533.) The import of all the Constitution is to be regarded in the ascertainment of the powers of the Government ; and it certainly acquired the universal right of self-preser- vation. It may not then by self-restrictions and abnegation destroy itself, and thereby tail to fulfill the purpose intended by the American people, and extinguish the fairest hopes of mankiad for republican liberty. In 1867 Justice Read delivered the opinion of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, protective of our City’s Water Supply, in restraining the pollution of a tributary of the Wissahickon, in which several salutary general principles were applied: No one has a right to foul a stream and make it unfit for domestic use to those below: If the upper riparian owner claims right by prescription hs can only succeed for the extent of pollution which existed twenty-one years before: The prescription requires the strictest proof, because it is against common right. The opinion is learned and able. (54 St. R. 40.) In the same year Justice Thompson and Justice Read wrote concurring Opinions, and the majority of the Supreme Court refused the strong remedy of injunction to prevent the running of passenger cars on Sunday. In this case Judge Read uses the language, ‘‘ We have public squares and a great public Park owned by our fellow citizens, and intended for their benefit, and that of their wives and children. Clergymen, lawyers, physicians, merchants, and even judges have six days in the week in which they may enjoy all these and other advantages, and which they may do cheaply by means of the passenger railways. The laboring man, the mechanic, the artizan, has but one day in which he can rest, can dress himself and his family in their comfortable Sunday clothes, attend church, and then take healthful exercise; but, by this injunction, his carriage—the poor man’s carriage, the passenger car, is taken away, and is not permitted to run for his accommodation. The laboring man and his children are never allowed to see Fairmount Park, a part of his own property.” (54 St. R. 451.) In Jannary, 1871, the opinion of the Supreme Court was delivered by Justice Read upon the act which authorized the Public Buildings to be - erected on Penn Square. Holme’s first plan of our City laid out a Centre Square, and one in each of the four angles of the city: the first for buildings of public character, the others to be for the like uses as the Moorfields in London, A history of the location and uses of Price. ] 280 [ Dec. 18, Moorfields is given in the opinion, and also that of Penn Square; and the Court had no difficulty in sustaining the validity of the act, as ‘‘the Legislature is simply appropriating the square and the streets to the purposes to which the square was originally dedicated.” (63 St. R. 489.) But a few more cases illustrative of the judicial character of Judge Read must suffice. One isa new application of an equitable principle, made necessary by modern legislation, enacted with purpose to favor women’s rights. By statute a widow may reject her husband’s will, and may elect to take her intestate share in both real and personal estate. Her doing this disturbs the plan of the will, and usually disappoints other legatees. It is just, and so decided by our Supreme Court, that the ben- efit intended by the will for the wife shall be sequestered to compensate those legatees whom her election has disappointed. (65 St. R. 314.) Again: one under equal obligation to make contribution, as where one co-surety has paid the whole debt, the other is held bound to refund a rateable proportion ; but this rule does not hold between joint wrong- doers where one has paid the whole damage, from a policy to discourage such combination to do wrong. But this is confined to cases where the plaintiff is presumed to know that he was doing a wrongful act. There- fore, where a traveller has recovered against one or two counties, bound to maintain a county-line bridge, owing tothe bridge breaking down, the county paying the whole damage may recover contribution of the other. (66 St. R., 218.) A testator must be of sound mind to make a valid will; but if the unsoundness does not affect the general faculties, and does not reach his capacity of testamentary disposition, he may make a valid will. Physicians and unprofessional witnesses may state their opinion of the sanity or in- sanity of the testator, with the difference that the former are heard as experts. (68 St. R., 342.) You may perceive from these decisions that a philosophy of practical wisdom pervades the law ; and those who knowit best are the most ready to assent to the boast of Lord Coke, its greatest ancient authority, when he speaks of ‘‘The law, which is the perfection of reason.’’ In it are found the wisdom of all practical life and morals, the rules of conduct, of individuals, society, and governments, and, consequently, it contains the larger and most useful share of the philosophy of the human mind. You have not, therefore, been led into foreign fields, but into those where we should find our more familiar range. The law itis that must preserve the peace and well-being of ourrace. Its philosophy and progress are worthy the study of the highest intellects. As perfect as Lord Coke thought it, the law has ever since his day been improving towards a higher perfec- tion ; and generally the progress has been made in manner to preserve intact the obligation of contracts and the vested 1ights of property. When Chief Justice Thompson’s term of office expired in December, 1872, Judge Read as senior judge became Chief Justice. This highest udicial office of our State Chief Justice Read held for one year, when his 1874.] 281 [Price. term expired. For some years his health had been failing, and at times he was unable to take his seat on the Bench, which fact increased the labors of his brethren. At the Bar meeting held for Judge Thompson, after his sudden death while speaking in Court, Judge Read made acknowledgement of the kindness of his brethren. He said: ‘‘I have known my deceased friend intimately for fifteen years, for fourteen years of which we were members of the same Court. He was a most kind and considerate associate, and I am personally deeply indebted to him for his thoughtfulness and attention to myself when ill-health called for the indulgence of my brethren. He was a good man, an honest and upright man, an admirable Judge, and a learned lawyer, with great good sense. I was warmly attached to him, and I deplore his loss. I believe every word of the resolutions offered by Judge Porter to be true and eminently just, and a proper tribute to the virtues, talents and great ability of our deceased friend.’’ Within a day or two after his retirement from office, the late Chief Justice Read called upon the writer of this notice, who had been writing against the new Constitution, and said, ‘‘I am again a free citizen, and can speak my mind freely. I also am opposed to this new Constitution, and have an objection to it you have not taken: it is destructive to the secrecy of the ballot.’? His article appeared December 8th, 1875. The numbering of the voted ticket with the same number set against the name of the voter in the list of voters as required discloses how he voted. The late Chief Justice says, “The freedom of elections depends entirely upon the ballot and its inviolable secrecy, so that no man shall know how any elector has voted. This secrecy enables all men, in all the walks of society, to deposit their ballots in perfect security that the knowledge of their vote is strictly confined to their own breasts.’’ The officers of elec- tion in the State he stated to be 12,795, who know on the night of the has election how every man in the Commonwealth voted. He also takes objection to the great invasion made upon the elector’s franchise when there are two candidates, which prevents him from voting against any candidate, and makes the voting for the other a useless form. This able article, the last written by him we commemorate, shows his undying love of liberty and justice ; his sacred regard for the equal rights of the citizen ; his anxiety to protect the humble and poor from dictation and oppres- sion ; and his desire to preserve the value of the elective franchise to the citizens. I would here give the testimony of his associate on the Supreme Bench, Judge Williams, at the Pittsburg Bar meeting, on receiving the news of the death of the late Chief Justice: ‘‘ He possessed talents and learning of a very high order, and his personal and official influence was very great. He was a gentleman in every sense of the word ; a gentleman of the old school, of the very highest sense of honor, of great dignity of character, and in social intercourse kind, affable and courteous.’”’ ‘‘He had an accurate knowledge of American History, especially of the times A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 25 Price. ] 252 [ Dec. 18, in which he lived, and was familiar with the personal characteristics and history of the men who have been prominent in our State for the last sixty or seventy years, and it was this accurate knowledge which made his conversation so charming and instructive. He was a true friend ; strong and unswerving in his attachmeats ; ready to make any sacrifice for his friends, and when in trouble was untiring in his efforts to serve them. He was a man of the strictest integrity, and despised everything that was low and vile. With him the equity and justice of the case was the law of the case.’’? ‘‘ He wasa man of chivalrous courage, persistent purpose and inflexible will. He did not know what fearis.” ‘It isthe will power which gives executive ability and persistency of purpose, and enables one to achieve great results. Judge Read had this power to a remarkable degree.’’ Such testimony from such a source is very strong, for judges sitting together for many years, discussing and decid- ing the many diversified and important cases which come before them, at the same time settling the law of the State, must make them thorough judges of the attainments and qualifications, and of the temper, disposition and self-control of their associates. There is to be added to the above delineation of personal traits, the fact that the characteristic courage and determinate will, were not exercised without the careful re- search and thought which produced certain belief of rightful action. The characteristics of Judge Read’s judgments were a plain and terse simplicity, without attempt at ornament. Itis no exception to this to admit that many of his opinions are long. As a general rule they are short ; and when not so, their length is owing to a full history, or state- ment of facts, and an ample citation of authorities ; but all are given in brief language. His practice was to state the facts fully and clearly, and then without process of argument, to apply all the law, British and American, applicable to the facts ; and it is at once seen that these war- rant the conclusion announced. So conservative was he, that in his hands the law, as well-read lawyers are trained to understand it, was felt to be safe from innovation, while he fearlessly attacked recent innova- tions, and sought, with large success to restore our jurisprudence to its ancient foundations, except as these had been changed by statute, or the constitutions ; methods of progress which could have no retrospective operation to divest vested rights. Judge Read seemed to have selected no especial branch of the law in which he became more authoritative than in others. His general prepa- ration in all was full; yet he never argued or decided a cause without a special and full study of the case, applying all the proper authorities ; hence he was always accurate, and his opinions are mines of erudition for the student, lawyer and judge. In whatever branch of the law the ques- tion arose he met and disposed of it with the like able grasp and learn- ing. He was equally familiar with Civil and Criminal law and their practice ; with International and Municipal law ; with Law and Equity ; with the Titles, Limitations and Descents of Real and Personal Estates ; 1874. ] 283 [Stevenson. with Wills, Legacies and Intestacies ; with the Constitutions, Charters and Statutes of the United States, the State, and of our Cities. With the Laws, Ordinances and Usages of Philadelphia he was especially familiar. His love for his native city was intense,and he was ever ready to devote his time and talents to her service. His zeal continued to the last ;.and he was earnest in his efforts that this should be the place of the Centennial Celebration, and that it should be a great success. His patriotism never grew cold or suffered loss from the chill of age ; but he was always young, progressive and ardent for the progress and improve- ment of the City. The Park, Public Buildings, and wide well-paved streets, and the water supply were objects of his lively sympathy. The State and United States, their welfare and prosperity, were also very near to his sympathies, and he was ever alive to all that concerned their well-being and safety. This is shown in all the acts of his life, both as citizen and judge. That he lived and labored in the law as he did, and was the able and patriotic citizen that he was, make the name of Chief Justice Read an honor to his family, his City, his State, and Country, and by them all his memory will be held in respect and honor through future time. The late Chief Justice Read left to survive him, a widow, and his only heir, John Meredith Read, who ably represented our Country, as Consul General to France, and resided in Paris during her fearful investment by the German armies, in 1870; and who now again represents our Nation as Minister to Greece. Chief Justice Read lived and died in the Christian faith ; and was ever an opponent of those false philosophies of France, Germany and Great Britain, and more sparcely of our own Country, which seek to undermine the Christian religion ; that religion which gives to life its greatest con- solations, and enables man to triumph over the fears of death ; that re- ligion whose immortal faith, alone, gives adequate meaning to the Universe. ? ON THE ALLEGED PARALLELISM OF COAL BEDS. By Jno. J. STEVENSON. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 18, 1874.) That coal seams are approximately parallel, is a common belief among persons residing in the coal fields of our country. The more ob- serving of our coal operatives, however, long ago discovered that the assertion of parallelism is a fallacy, and that the interval between any two given beds of coal is liable to vary many feet in thickness within comparatively short distances. So general is this variation that it amounts toa positive law. Until this was accepted as a fact, to the utter exclusion of any notion of parallelism, the coals of southwestern Pennsylvania remained a worse than Chinese puzzle to Geologists, and Stevenson. ] 284 [ Dee. 18, every attempt to tabulate them was a failure. For many years the re- ports of all observers led us to accept the divergence or convergence of coal seams as part of the necessary arrangement of things, a phenomenon quite as ordinary as the occurrence of sandstone or shale in the inter- vals. Quite recently, Prof. E. B. Andrews, an assistant on the Ohio Survey, has re-asserted the parallelism of coal-beds, and admits of such excep- tions only, as result from the greater or less compressibility of the ma- terials occupying the intervals. He concedes, it is true, that when large areas of any coal field are examined, it may be found that some portions have had a more rapid subsidence than the rest; but he maintains that as a rule the subsidence was so regular that two seams are found to pre- sent an almost perfect parallelism. He doubts whether it is possible for a seam to separate into two or more parts, or if separated, for the parts to diverge indefinitely, that is to say, I suppose, for several miles hori- zontally or to any great extent vertically. This is no matter of merely theoretical interest. Involving, as it does, not merely the whole question respecting the deposition of coal seams and the intervening rocks, but also, as a consequence, the identification or tracing of the beds over extensive areas, its exact determination is equally important to the economic investigator and to the purely scien- tific student. It is true, that the question has been a settled one for many years, but long acceptance of a doctrine does uot prove its truth. It has been disputed by a Geologist of standing, whose statements deserve and receive consideration. There is need then, that the matter be presented in such a manner as to leave no doubt in the mind of any that the idea of parallelism over even limited areas is utterly fallacious except for rare localities. In geology an erroneous theory is of necessity a pernicious theory. Coal seams do divide. That is to say, the numerous partings in a coal bed are liable so to thicken as to become distinct strata of shale or sand- stone, and in many cases they do so thicken. In his memoir upon the South Staffordshire Coal Field, Prof. Jukes gives an illustration, especial- ly interesting because of the ease with which the bifurcation of the vari- ous seams is proved. The coals begin their separation in the southern portion of the field and the divergence continues northward, the coals never coming together again within the area embraced in the memoir. In Plate 1, Prof. Jukes compares two vertical sections, one taken in the south-central portion of the field, and the other in the north-central por- tion, the distance between them being about five miles. In the first sec- tion, which represents a vertical thickness of 350 feet, there are seven beds of coal, each made up of several distinct layers separated by their part- ings. In the second section, whose thickness is 850 feet, there are eighteen beds of coal, some simple, but most of them compound. The character of the coal from the several seams in the second section shows at once the relation to the beds of the first section. \~ 1874 ] 285 [Stevenson. To give all the details leading to the conclusion offered by Prof. Jukes, would be impossible here. I therefore present only a few sections, showing the variations of a single bed within a limited area, sections ob- tained in such proximity to each other, that no possible doubt remains respecting the identity of the coals : bee pam cath eR ee = Plying-reed Coal,.........2.-+-++- 4! 4! 4/Q17 4/4/"| Q/6/\ 8/ IbnweInyell, os oteodaddooocpooccd9SCos Q |10/6/7\45/9/7/55/4/7/118" 128" Tiel OCAlbe ose dodleedpopodeoUbeos 125/4/\25/417 22/617 24/3!" 24! 22/8! Further sections* show that the Thick Coal finally breaks up into nine beds, the whole occupying, with the intervening rocks, a vertical space of 390 feet. The sections given above show that, within a distance of less than one mile, the interval between the two benches of the seam in- creases from zero or a very thin parting to 128 feet. The extent of area forbids the supposition that this occurred ina petty lagoon. It is, as I hope to show hereafter, in full accordance with the law of coal deposition in our own country. Other instances might be cited from Great Britain. Thus Mr. Green- ough} states that near Ashby de la Zouche, the bend, separating the second and third seam of coal, is in the easternmost coal-pits, thirty-three yards thick ; in the next toward the west, twenty-five ; in the most west- ern, only fourteen; and that in the Budworth Collieries, half a mile further toward the west, it vanishes entirely, the two seams running together. Another instance is mentioned by Capt. Portlock in his report on Londonderry, etc., pp. 600-601. In our own country, such marked illustrations though rare, are by no means wanting. The bifurcation of the Mammoth Coal Seam isa well ascertained fact and susceptible of absolute proof. At Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania, one of the most important beds divides, and its branches can be traced for a considerable distance, rapidly diverging. On the Great Kanawha River, in West Virginia, as I have shownt the celebra- ted seam worked at Coalburg, shows this tendency to divide. At the east end of the property of the company these partings are thin, rarely exceeding three inches. Followed westward, they increase, until at the western boundary of the property the lower one is two feet thick. About ten miles further down the river, three thin coals are found occupying the horizon of this bed. In all probability, they are simply the subordinate coals, separated by the greatly thickened partings. Cases of distinct division of coals, attended by marked divergence of the benches, must * For the sections given above, see The South Staffordshire Coal Field, by J. Beete Jukes. 2d Edition, 1859, pp. 87 and 38. + A Critical Examination of the First Principles on Geology, by G. B. Greenough, President G. S., &c., 1819, p. 22. } Annals of Lyceum Nat. Hist., Vol. X, p. 276. Stevenson. ] 286 [ Dee. 18, remain rare in our coal fields until the workings become more extensive and in closer vicinity than now. At present, it is possible only to show the marked changes in the intervals between our coal beds. In doing this, I shall draw all illustrations from the northern portion of the Great Bituminous Trough, which includes Western Pennsylvania. Lower Coal Croup.—The total thickness of this group is subject to great variations. In Pennsylvania it is from 270 to 650 feet ; in West Virginia from 200 at the Pennsylvania line to nearly 700 in Randolph County, and nearly 900 on the Great Kanawha, in Ohio from to In each case the Mahoning Sandstone has been omitted. For heated examination, I choose the two coals known as the Upper Freeport and Kittanning, in Pennsylvania, and as Nos. VI and IV in Ohio. Along Yellow Creek, in Ohio, the varying interval between these two coals is finely shown in a continuous exposure from the Ohio River to Irondale, a distance of seven miles. The coals are known locally as the ‘‘Big”’ and “Strip”? veins, and between them occurs No. V, locally known as the ‘‘Roger.’’ I give only four sections for comparison : | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 (Geavaa ric Wel Basis Bee EO aoe is oad cea M eb scl dal 7 3/7)! 5/6// 2 Iimeyeyeall ROC oooobessccsonoooosscoal . NG? 60/ 60/ 100 COals NWS NAG AEE ie ibis 3/ ? 2/6// ? ImtenvalbRockSHee eee eee nee 60/ 52/ 65/ 60 COGS TRV elie iran otra can tratie 2/6// ? 2/6// ® These show a variation from 80’ to 160’ within five miles; the most marked change being in the interval between V and VI. In Guernsey and Muskingum Counties, Ohio, a much more interesting series of changes occur along Wills Creek and the Muskingum River. This line of section is animportant one, as the coals can be traced almost without break. Coal IV is accompanied by its Gray (fossiliferous) Limestone, and YI is everywhere seen in the hills. Beginning on Wills Creek, in Guernsey County, about seven miles north from the Central Ohio Railroad, we find near the Salt Works, the two beds 8 feet apart. Somewhat more than a mile further down the Creek, IV is mined by shaft and is 28 feet below VI. Near Liberty, the interval is 40/ ; at Bridgeville, 105 feet. Still following the Creek and crossing into Mus- kingum County, we find the interval at Johnson’s Mills, 40 feet; at Frew’s Mills, 90 feet; at the Salt Works near the Muskingum River, about the same ; near Dresden, about 100 feet, and further down the river 110 feet. The line of least interval seems to run northwestwardly through Guernsey County, from the starting point to a little east from Johnson’s Mills, the beds diverging on each side of this line. The struc- ture in a cross section is somewhat as appears in this figure, the upper line representing VI, and the lower LY. At some distance further, northeastward, a similar relation exists between the coals. Across the intervening space VI can be traced quite 9Q7 1874. ] 25 ( [Stevenson, readily, but the exposures of IV are far from being continuous, and for miles it does not reach the surface. It is impossible, therefore, to demon- strate the structure, which seems to be as follows: What the complete structure of the western portion in the first figure ~ may have been cannot be determined, as erosion has removed all the material beyond the Muskingum River. The direct union of the two beds has not been seen, nor is it likely to be seen, since at all localities where the beds approximate they have a heavy cover. Crossing into Pennsylvania, we take the same beds and carry the sec- tion down to the Ferriferous Limestone. Tle following sections are taken from Rogers’ Report * Uppersiirecnorie Oana By Gy — | 5/8 —-— |\— lmternvalMiRockss sae vsue eee ses ae | 35/ | 84!’ | 20! 50! 73/ Lower Freeport C................ | Af 3! | + 147") 5! 416!) 1/61 Himi crave OCKSissyastpy py stotereaecrarens is 104’ | 55’ 84’ 180 |28/6”” LCHORMRG Os ascesscssoocsoonoaccc 3! 3! 3/91) Br | 2/61") 2! Iimtenvyalgivocksierctsracilssicvereisierraie 25! | 80! | 33/6/7120! | 55’ |30/ Merriferous Limestone. .......--..- pay MI ME I OVATE SY 6! 8/ In these six sections we find the interval between the two beds varying thus : 184, 148, 142, 117, 109, and 103 feet, while the interval between the Kittaning and the Limestone varies from 55 to 20 feet. The accessible records of observations in West Virginia are few, but some of them are of interest. Ina report upon Property belonging to the Pridevale Iron Company, and situated a few miles above the junc- tion of Cheat and Monongahela Rivers, Prof. W. B. Rogers gives the in- terval between Upper Freeport and Kittanning, as 160 feet, and between the Kittanning and the Ferriferous Limestone as 50 feet. On Decker’s Creek, barely five miles away, I find only 26 feet between the Freeport Coal and the Limestone. The whole group is about 400 feet thick on Cheat river, and only 200 on Decker’s Creek. This notable variation oc- curs chiefly between the upper Freeport Coal and the Limestone, as the section below the latter is substantially the same as both localities. Going southward, we find the thickness of the whole group rapidly in- creasing beyond the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the Upper Freeport Coal still retaining its proper place under the Mahoning Sandstone, and readily traceable to Randolph County, beyond which I have not followed it. Near the State line at the north, the thickness of the group is 200 feet, in Randolph County it is not far from 700 feet. Whether or not the coal resting on the conglomerate in Randolph County is the same with that resting on the same conglomerate on Decker’s Creek, is quite immaterial. It is quite certain that the interval between the conglome- rate and the Upper Freeport Coal has increased from 200/ on Decker’s Creek, to nearly 700 feet on the Beverly road in Randolph County. The Upper Freeport Coal itself shows a marked tendency to break up * Geology of Pennsylvania, Vol. II, Chaps. 18, 19, 20 and 22, ¢ Stevenson. ] 288 [ Dec. 18, and in Upshur and Randolph Counties it does divide. Its partings thicken up and from mere flimsy plates become layers of shale several feet thick, so that the coal usually only three or four feet thick further north, is gradually converted into a mass of shale and coal upwards of twenty feet thick, which at one locality includes a thin layer of sandstone. Lower Barren Group.—-So interesting is this group in itself, and so irregular are its rocks, that it deserves consideration only because it occupies the interval between the Upper Freeport and Pittsburgh seams, two beds, which seem to be the most persistent of all found in the Coal Measures. It is separated into two divisions by a well marked stratum which in Ohio is known as the Crinoidal Limestone, and in Pennsylvania as the Possiliferous Limestone. ThisI have traced from the Muskingum River round through Pennsylvania into West Virginia, where, like nearly all the Coal Measures Limestones, it disappears in the vicinity of the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad, south from Grafton. At the western exposure of the Pittsburgh in Ohio, this limestone is 140 feet below it. Northeast- ward the interval becomes successively 140, 160, 175, 190, 200, and near Steubenville and along the Ohio River 225 feet. In Pennsylvania on the Monongahela River, it is 320, and near Morgantown, West Virginia, 270. In like manner we find a varying interval between it and the Upper Free- port. At the most western exposure of the limestone this interval is 225, further east 280, at its northerly exposure 260, and at Steubenville, on the Ohio, 280 feet. At Morgantown it is 172 feet. The total interval betweeu the Pittsburgh and Upper Freeport, varies in thickness in Ohio, from 420 feet at the west, to 505 at Steubenville, the increase being regular toward the east. [n Pennsylvania it is 200 feet, at Ligonier, 220 at Elk Lick, and on the Monongahela River from 450 to nearly 600 feet. In West Virginia, along the Monongahela and Tygarts Valley River, it varies not much from 420 feet. Upper Coal Group.—The following table shows the synonyms of the coals of this group. Chio. Pennsylwania. West Virginia. XIII. Top at Waynesburg. Not identified. XII. Second Waynesburg. Brownsville. AI. Waynesburg. Waynesburg. X. Uniontown ?? Absent. IX. Absent. Absent. Ville. Absent. Absent. VIII. Sewickley. Sewickly. Villa. Redstone. Redstone. VIII. Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh. In this group the wedge shape of the strata is more distinctly shown than in either of the lower groups, partly because of the persistence of the coal seams and partly because of the long continuous sections which can be obtained over a great extent of country. In it too, there is a 4874.4 289 [Stevenson, nearer approximation locally to parallelism, while at the same time, the parallelism is apparent rather than real, as the beds converge on each side of the trough. So gradual is this convergence, however, that for all practical purposes most of the beds might be regarded as parallel for short distances. If we ascend the Central Ohio Railroad from the river to the summit, twenty-two miles west, or better yet, ascend Wheeling Hill, on the Na- tional Road, four miles from the river, we count nine well-marked beds of coal, beginning with VIII. If we descend westwardly from the rail- 1ruad summit or from the National Road on the west side of the Wheel- ing Creek divide, we find only six beds to and including VIII, the top- most bed in each case being XIII. Let us compare the two sections. 1 2 il, SRINCHONE, Cut, cocadabocescaGoccaauar | 50/ 50/ Os DRIES Ie Renee cree Pans Oke MiaPH A enero | 1/ 1/ 3. Shale and Sandstone ............ Sul 70! 70/ AR ANG UTRR Set Si aL EM SW ERR tie Fees She SEES U2 1/677 1/3// Dp SCGISKOINS 5 cuss aeuoudus oon apopsaudoT | 4()/ 30/ Be ae) Ie ee ae ee PAS Ce UG Me OE Be | 2/6/7 Q/ To TSENNOISUOINES EWE a dooocceassogeoacasone 98/ 100/ SOMO NGS rds cris eccecnestovcralcseturste xerstseus cwnleners Crake 3/ AVES Ow Sandstone ss snes AOR oA ee 30/40! 40! BLL) RAIONG OFC se 7 RR SO al ara hones eee te 2/6/7 2/6” 11. Limestone and Calc. Shale............ 70/ 70! TAOS NY TEN iS a eRe ere eee cae as 4! 0 GY SEHNGINOINGS s boob coS0dn Ripa 8 Pia Oe nea aes Q-35/ 0 14k, WAG DD acted ie been tao ois cromemrciaieenole oe 0 -6” 0 Lo webimestoOnGsc vier Ss) Sosa Sees ek 20/-380/ 0 Go) WADU saa con ees Ras cera oe ono 1/-6”" 0 PmlIMNeSTOMe) ais Sui jcra era orcs Lene 12/—25/ ) 1G. Giese SSR ESAS 6 Aine laeuiaursictss 5/—10/ | 4/ Che WDD Ls eats ieee eee Bee Peake ae 6/ | 5/ Osa Claygande limestone jar sisee cele selects 10/ | 8/ 21. Sandstone and Limestone............ 90/ | 96/ om S All CSAC LCMAE MIN cer steaes feces etorucyePevepetonetcte | 46/ Om Orinoida laine stoneneeneec een ce | 4) The first section is that obtained on the railroad east from the summit. The second, to No. 21 inclusive, was obtained by descending from the summit across the National Road to Stillwater Creek. Nos. 22 and 238 were obtained on the railroad. This section differs from that obtained on the railroad west from the summit, only in Nos. 9 and 11, which are there 60 and 45 feet respectively, the latter being principally sandstone.* Respectiug the identity of No. 19, in bothsections there is no dispute. It is beyond all doubt coal VIII, (Pittsburg). Aside from internal evidence furnished by the seam itself, there is abundant stratigraphical proof of identity. I have traced the bed, with the Crinoidal Limestone * See Annals Lyceum Nat. Hist., Vol. X, p. 282, where I have described the action of the current causing this alteration, A. BR S.—VOL. XIV. 2K Stevenson. | 290 [Dee. 15, below, all the way round its western and northern out-crop, from the Central Ohio Railroad to Steubenville, on the Ohio River, and thence down the river to Belleair, the iaitial point of the first section, where it proved to be the No. 19 of that section My ideutification of No. 8, of the second section with No. 8 of the first has been called in question by Prof. Andrews, * who regards the former as equivalent to No. 12 of the Section I. No. 8, of Section II, is known as the Upper Barnesville Coal, and No. 12, of Seetion I, is the Glenev Coal. As 1 take it, Coal X at Glenco, is one hundred and ten feet above VIIIc (Glenco), while at Barnesville it is one hundred and five feet above VIII (Pittsburg). There should be no dispute respecting this matter. It is not so complex as to require much skill for its determination. At Glenco, on the Central Coal ewes — Ohio Railroad, nine miles west from Bel- leair, the coals are shown in the hill as in Intervals: .oevieiet 109’ | the section on the margin, and hold the same relations as in Section I. VIIIe dis- (SGalleXe ey Rate ee aes | appears under the railroad about two miles | west, and IX at about seven. X and XI re- Lntervalec cy. eee 40’ |main above the railroad to Belmont, . 20 ‘miles from Belleair, where the road rises Coal Exes eee |. |above X. Inthe meantime XIT is caught by the hills near the railroad. Weare now Tritervale cc ee 70: |seven miles from Barnesville and the rail- road summit intervenes. Ascending to the Coal) W100 obiconocke __ |summit and descending thence to Barnes- ville, we obtain the following sections. 1. Shales and Sandstones } LIMES Me eerie oe BO! Summit 2, Coal XIII, renee: 1! SuGhaleandi sandstonereseee eee 70/ 70’ AEC GAL NILA: URE SURE plc tanen 1/ | 13" 5. Sandstone and some Shale............. 40’ 30/ (Rina Ofay HED) (hein ay eee Nts ai ota craven ane 2/617 Bee Ye Seinclsnome, GWGscoccascaedo0csan0se00eD 98/ 100/ (SISA OXO CH his Gee raraae ees Gta Ee Ue eee oi ee aes eee 3/ 4 + -No. 8in the second pecnon is, the. upper aeoal at Barnesville, and it cer- tainly is the same with No.& i in the. first, which is the one marked X at Glenco, where it clearly lies 110 feet above VIlIle, the Glenco coal. It is evident then, since X is 110 feet above VIIIc at Glenco, and 105 feet above VIII at Barnesville, that somewhere between these two points, the strata below No. 11 of Section I, to No. 17 inclusive, of the same section, have disappeared, bringing X about 90 feet nearer to VIII than it is at the river. But thisis not the full extent of this interesting alteration of relations. If, starting from the railroad, we go through Belmont aud Jefferson % See Prof. Andrews’ rejoinder to Prof. Newberry, Amer. Journ. Sci., July, 1874. OQ) E874.) 29 l [Stevenson. Counties to the extreme northern exposure of the Pittsburg coal, we ob- tain a beautiful series of sections fully illustrating the wedge-shape. of nearly every stratum between coals VIII and X. Inthis series Goal LX does not appear, as it thins out eastwardly and does not reach the line of section. Itis present, however, in the sections, taken four miles west from this line. The localities-of the sections are as follows : 1. GC. O. R. R. 2. Crossing of Little Short Creek by Wheeling Plank Road. 3. Near Mt. Pleasant. 4. Between Short Creek and Smithfield. 5. Between Smithfield and Little McIntvre Creek. 6. Near Smithfield Station on P. C. & St. L. R. R. 7% Near Knoxville. Of these, the first two are in Belmont County, the rest in Jefferson County. I | ey UO a LO V Woe Wal KOO Kivi. 15) Wee es }. 37 | —*| = Pet Bey ee Bp SEINOISONSG go sa 5500505 40’ | 50/7); — — | 60/ 60’ | 30’ Bs CORN IDIG eS a eer ace 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. Limestone and Shale... 70/ | 64’ | 43’ | 45/ | 6/ 0 0 he IOI SS eences cre atti [yeaa se al Sal piel 0 ) OPGSANASTOME AS, sts ier ctae = 25 ROMS 207 8/ 0 0 Tos MUU OES See Eero ste Fila Opal ve O 0 0 0 0 SeuIMes tone reese ecto BOP | alae) ilay Yi Oo 0 0 Ds WUD Grp eta ee Ree ie 1/ Ne alli the | 60 0 10. Limestone and Shale..| 25’ | 30/ 13 | 10’ 6/ 0 0 = UALS AG es 98 eet Bea i BL | 5/6/09) 4/97 | = At) 5 4" The Knoxville section, by Mr. H. Newton, is of further interest in that it shows Coal XI to be only 78 feet above X, whereas, in Belmont County this interval is from 95 to 105 feet. This series shows that the interval between VIII and X, which at the railroad is almost 200 feet, is reduced to only 30 feet at Knoxville, and that the reduction is comparatively gradual, the distance being say thirty miles. Passing inte Pennsylvania I select four sections} from a mass which are equally illustrative, and arrange them, beginning with the most western and going.eastward. I take only those showing the relations of the Pittsburg to the Redstone and Sewickly, as the sections containing the higher coals are for the most part imperfect in the lower portion. UPintervalbnocksseeeeeee enter ~{ 1277+ |. 150/+ 307+ 50/ 2. SewnGshy Com cessecpoocasoaboc 6/? Al 3/ = Bo Ihara ROG. 6coccococucno0s 47! 30/ 23/ d Ame Redstomey Coal rece ericin ace — 14 3/ 0 7 40’ 5. Interval Rocks.........02 ss. 50/ 35/ | 20/ f GrabittsburoyCoaleen jesse ceem rsa 103 10/ 9! 9/ These seem to show a diminution in the thickness of the intervening rocks toward the east. In connection with the fourth section it may be ' * In the Sections, a dash signifies that the exposure is such as not to admit of accu- rate measurement. + Geology of Penn., Vol. II, pp. 630, 625, 661, and 651. 6 Stevenson. | 292 [Dece. 18, well to refer to one given on p. 640, lying much further toward the west. In the latter the interval between the Pittsburg and Uniontown cvals is said to be 245 feet, while in the former coal is only about 50 feet above the Sewickly and consequently but 90 feet above the Pittsburg. In West Virginia the conditions are somewhat peculiar. In the narrow Panhandle at the north, [IX and X of the Ohio section are absent. They thin out before crossing the Ohio river, VIIIc. is seen on Wheeling Creek, W. Va., but does not reappear on the east side of the trough. Otherwise the Panhandle section offers little of interest and shows no material vari- ation near Wheeling from that obtained just west from Belleair. In Monongahela Co., near the State line, we find on the east side of the Monongahela R. the following section: Sewickly Coal, 1 ft. ; interval, 40 ft. ; Redstone Coal, 4 ft. ; interval, 60 ft. ; Pittsburg Coal, 6 to 8 feet. On the opposite side of the river, and barely thcee miles away, the section is Sewickly Coal, 5 ft. ; interval, 45 ft.; Redstone Coal, 4 ft. ; interval, 14 ft. ; Pittsburg Coal, lower member, 10 ft. This change results from the disappearance of the heavy sandstone overlying the Pittsburg on the east side of the river. ; The limestones of this group disappear some what abruptly southward, and give place to shales and sandstones, so that satisfactory sections are by no means frequent. I give for comparison the average sections for Monongahela, Marion Harrison and Upshur Counties : 1. Waynesburg Coal......... sanot OF oy 3/ ENG DoulntenvaluRocks, een eee nee 1193/2077 ’ 937 NOLeau es Be Poeunalhy OMMlessoacscosaods oss | 1’ -6/ 240 Bie) , Avmlngervall ROCKS abr p idence teers AQ! —49/ | Al! 207 He. lmaclsrome OGalecosaceodsccogeo00 Pe | i ae el 1/ — 2? 6. Interval Rocks.,9..-.--. % Palaces | 147 —60/ 70/-80’ 20’-25') 40’ —60/ Yi. Jenvislooues Oeil, aodaacocooneboue | 6! —14/| 8! -9' 67 -9'| 37 O”/—47 I feel much hesitation in identifying the Redstone Coal in the last sec- tion, and think it much more likely to prove the Sewickly. The differ- ence between the Marion and Harrison sections is very marked, the interval between the Pittsburg and Wayoesburg being in one case 320/ and in the other, at most, 190’. Conclusions. —After a careful study of the barren and upper coal groups throughout the northern portion of the great bituminous trough, I am convinced that as a whole the subsidence was regular, approaching uni- formity, but that locally there were bulgings or other irreguliarities, such as could not fail to accompany any operations so extensive. The lack of parallelism results from the conditions of deposition, which rendered par- allelism impossible. The two groups referred to were deposited in a great trough whose eastern boundary was the Alleghany Mountains ; the west- ern, the Cincinnati axis.* They diminish quite regularly in thickness, east and west, from a central area between the Ohio and the Monongabela * The substance of this portion of the paper was published March 4, 1873, in Annals Lyc. Nat. Hist., Vol. X. pp. 247, et seq. 9 1874. ] 293 [Stevenson. rivers. We may compare each group to an enormous bowl, somewhat elongate and with flattened base. At the beginning of the upper coal era this trough was a great arm of the sea, closely land Jocked and communicating with the ocean at the southwest by a comparatively narrow outlet. On the east and southeast sides, rivers brought in their loads of detritus from the highlands to be spread over the bottom, which gradually declined toward the west and northwest. On the opposite shores few streams flowed out, and such as came were sluggish, bearing no coarse material. The place of quiet, pure water is marked by deposit of limestone in the north, while a similar mass, traceable through Ohio southwestwardly, marks the direction of the outlet. The low shore of the southeast is marked by the shallow water detrital deposits and the utter absence of limestones in West Virginia, south from the N. W. Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Ruilroad. The wedge-shape of the rocks intervening between the coals of this group has been shown both in Pennsylvania and Ohio, east and west, as well asin West Virginia, where the tapering is southeastward toward that edge of the trough. The structure of the trough may be illustrated as follows : Let a basin with gently sloping sides be lined with some black sub- stance ; then filled with some material which will become hard, in which a similar black substance is arranged in layers, some of them covering the whole surface, and others extending only part of the way from the border toward the middle. Now break away the bowl, remove the black exterior to near the base, at the same time cutting off portions of the hardened mass around the border above, so as to give the whole an irregular sur- face. Here we have a rude representation of the upper coal group, per- haps as good as any that can be made on a small scale. If this mass be divided vertically in two, the face of each piece will rudely resemble a vertical section across the group from Harrison Co., Ohio, to the eastern portion near the Pennsylvania and West Virginia line. In Ohio, VIIIa, VIII, VIIIc and IX are traced directly to where they have disappeared, while X and XI have been found successively approach- ing VIII. In Pennsylvania similar conditions exist, but the extensive erosion along the Alleghany slopes prevents us giving so full a presenta- tion as that from Ohio. In each case we find the underlying Pittsburg reaching farther east and west than the immediately overlying beds, and continually approaching the higher ones, until, on both sides of the trough, farther study is cut off by the completeness of erosion. Iam, therefore, compelled to believe that all the coals of the upper coal group are off-shoots from one continuous marsh, which existed jrom the beginning of the era to its close, and which inits full extent is now known as the Pittsburg Coal Seam. During the whole time of formation of the upper coal group the general condition was that of regular subsidence interrupted by longer or shorter intervals of repose. During the time of subsidence the marsh advanced up the sides of the trough, as new Stevenson. ] 294 [ Dec. 18, land was continually becoming fitted for its support. During repose, deltas were formed in the bay, and the marsh pushed outward on the newly-formed land. If the period of repose were long enough to permit the bay to be filled up, the marsh would cross to the other side if begun on only one, or, if pushing out from all sides, it would reach the centre. The Pittsburg, Redstone, Sewickly and Waynesburg originated at the east, for there they attain their greatest thickness, while westward they diminish. VIIIc, IX and X of the Ohio section are thickest westward and then eastward, the first barely crossing the Ohio river ; the others disappearing before they reach it. It may be objected that a marsh requires an almost level plain for i's existence. Nothing could be more erroneous than such a supposition, for all necessary conditions may exist on a hill-side with not too steep a slope. In Colorado, I found on Arkansas Pass, near the head of the Arkansas river, an immense morass covering the whole surface between the cafion walls, a distance of more than one-fourth of a mile. It reaches for several miles down the canon, whose floor has a fall of nearly two degrees. This is no petty swamp. To all intents and purposes it is a bottomless morass, almost impassable to mounted stock. There is every reason to suppose that previous to the upper coal epoch, the conditions were by no means so regular throughout the basin. It is highly probable that just before the beginning of that epoch, the trough was narrowed and the eastern border, at least, much raised. Otherwise it would be difficult to explain why it is that the Pittsburg Coal does not distinctly overlap the lower Barren group. At times during the lower coal epoch the folding process must have been carried on quite energeti- cally, much more so than during the epoch of the upper coals. In the latter there are found no subordinate folds such as are exhibited in the former; such, for example, as occurred previous to the formation of the Kittanning so as to produce the secondary troughs in which that coal lies causing so great variations in the thickness of the interval between it and the Upper Freeport. It seems quite possibie, judging from some obser- vations in Ohio, that similar subordinate foldings may have taken place previous to the formation of Coal III, the next below the Kittanning. In view of the facts given in this paper, I feel justified in extending my statement that the Indiana and Appalachian coal-fields were not con- nected during the lower barren and upper coal epochs, by asserting that there is no reason to suppose that they were ever united north from Ken- tucky. Whether or not they were united farther toward the south must be determined by others. Thus far no reference has been made to the tr gach or basin lying east from the Alleghany Mountains and holding the Barren and the Upper Coal Group. The terrific erosion which this region has suffered, only fragmentary areas of coal remaining, renders the collection of details a work of great difficulty, and few observations exist, which bear upon the question under discussion. This basin and the Great Bituminous Trough 1874. ] 295 [ Frazer. seem to have been branches of one great basin during the Upper Coal epoch. They were separated by a tongue of land tapering southwardly and terminating in West Virginia, not far from the Maryland line. The eastern basin rapidly lost its width, and near the union was quite narrow. The relation between the two basins, as I understand it, is rudely repre- sented in the accompanying figure, ia which A, is the western, and B, the eastern, which latter now contains the fragmentary areas of semi- bituminous and anthracite coal. Whether or not this division of the coal-field existed from the begin- ning of the period, [ am unable to conjecture, as my material respecting the Lower Coal Group is not sufficient. But that it had occurred before the formation of the Barren Group admits of no doubt, as that group has a well-defined saucer-shape in the Great Trough, and thickens eastwardly from the dividing area. In like manner the Upper Coal Group thickens east and west from the same region, the Pittsburg, Redstone and Sewickly Coals being as well marked in the eastern basin as in the west- ern. The eastern basin, as might have been expected, shows littie limestone amid its strata. Surrounded on all sides by highlands, it was fed by numerous streams, which brought down sufficient detritus to render its waters turbid throughout. Its mouth was obliterated topographically by the final convulsions of the Appalachium Revolution, so that its precise position is to be ascertained only by close exploration. The common basin, below the junction of these branches, was broad and never completely filled with detritus so as to permit the marshes to cross it ; certainly at no time after the formation of the Pittsburg in that region. This bed cannot be traced across the basin, owing to the fact that it is deeply concealed in the centre, but the Waynesburg and Brownsville thin out rapidly toward the west, and in West Virginia, have almost disappeared before reaching the disturbed region known as the ‘‘Oil-break.’’ Limestones are almost unknown, and for four hundred feet on top, the rocks are entirely sandstone and shale, all the limestones and coals belonging to that horizon being absent. = ON EXFOLIATION OF ROCKS NEAR GETTYSBURG. By P. FraAzmr, JR. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 4th, 1874.) During an examination which I made of the Syenite boulders whi:h compose that part of the battle-field of Gettysburg, called the ‘‘ Devil’s Den,’’ (a collection of great blocks of this rock piled one on another in the wildest confusion and lying about i mile west of ‘‘ Granite Spur ”’ or Little Round Top, the ravine where Vincent’s Brigade held their ground so manfully on the afternoon of Thursday, July 2, 1863, and z = ¢ } Pi - Frazer. | 296 [ Dec. 4, 1874: Round Top proper, where the Sixth Corps of the Army of the Potomac intrenched during the night of the 2d and the morning of the 3d,) my attention was directed to a singular example of weathering which was so entirely novel to me, that I determined to secure specimens of it for ex- hibition to this Society as well as the Academy of Natural Sciences. It seems to open to me a new view of concretionary structure as well as surface weathering, and is an important item for consideration when the rock is intended jor building purposes. The fracture of these rocks (and indeed of all rocks) should be sub- divided into— 1. Fracture on large planes. 2. Fracture on small planes. It is essential to know whether reference is made to large or small planes when the kind of fracture is described in all rocks, for though the general habit of the large plane may be a curved surface where this is shown in the original boulder, the smaller fragments may exhibit splin- tery, earthy, or any other fracture. Several of these large boulders are visible in the ‘‘ Devil’s Den,’”’ which present 100 square yards or more of surface, and in one or two cases where the fracture seems to have been recent, the surface is very homo- geneous, the curve very smooth, and the rock very sound and hard, and with a bluish gray color entirely different from the brown which it assumes in places where it has been more exposed to the weather. In some of these latter specimens it would be difficult to persuade the eye that the object was not a Cyclopian wall of rounded and square blocks built up by the hand of man, nor is the delusion dispelled by a close ex- amination of the rock. The spaces between the apparently separated blocks are seemingly in need of ‘pointing up,’”’? but otherwise there seems to be a material at the junction different from the mass of the rock. At one blow of the hammer a shell varying in thickness from ; to # inch and discolored by weathering, though not friable, falls off and the surface beneath is seen to be of noimal structure, texture and tenacity. One curious part of this phenomenon is the tendency of the weathered surface to become conchoidal, even where the face of the rock is plane. It results from the gradual sinking of the outside surface towards the depressions that form the divisions between the separate blocks. The mode of formation of these curious false walls appear to be first, the gradual solutions of parts of the Labradorite matrix between the horn- blende crystals. Certain lines are more readily soluble than others, and these gradually deepen as the troughs that are-formed conduct more water over the most yielding parts. The small crystals of hornblende in such troughs after losing their support falls out and are washed away, and at the same time ~ the sides of these miniature troughs being constantly subjected to the sol- vent action of running water and the trituration of the suspended matter 297 wear away, formive curved sides deepening towards the axes of the troughs. As to why the whole texture of the rock should become concretionary and the whole outside surface peel off in one large scale, thick enough to preserve this wall like appearance, ] am not know prepared to express an opinion, but hope to be able to submit some hypothesis after further study. I have observed a similar though not entirely identical phenomenon near the Real Doleres in New Mexico, where an apparently plutonic rock was divided on the exterior in a similar manner, but in this case the whole mass was concretionary. It appears to open an entirely new question as to whether thick plates of igneous rocks (and @ fortéord sandstones, &c.,) may not be weathered into concretions. PAH-UTE CREMATION, (Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dec. 4th, 1874.) ReEavDineG, Penna., Nov. 25th, 1874. Dr. J. L. LEContrx, Dear Sir: —In the last issue of the ‘“‘Popular Science Monthly,’”’ I noticed an editorial alluding to your paper upon the subject of ‘‘ Crema- tion,’’ as a custom of one of the tribes of Indians inhabiting California. The same custom prevails amongst that sub-tribe of Pah-Utes, known as the Cottonwood, Corn Creek, Spring Mountain and Pah-rimp Spring Indians. ‘The varying local names are due only to the locality they in- habit, and they are one and the same tribe in reality. While attached to Lt. Wheeler’s Expedition of 1871-2, I had ample opportunity to investi- gate anything pertaining to scientific subjects, and I took special care to . collect all facts relating to the habits, customs, and superstitions of the Indian tribes through whose territory we passed. The tract of country alluded to, as occupied by this sub-tribe of Pah- Utes, lies between 115° and 115°35’ west longitude, and latitude north’ 35° and 36°. Spring Mountain being their stronghold, and is located just north of the ‘‘old Spanish Trail.’’ By means of an interpreter, I obtained the following information. Upon the death of one of these Indians, a pile of wood is prepared in the immediate vicinity ; this is se arranged as to form a rectangle, to the heighth of from two to three feet. The corpse is laid upon this, wheu the fire is started, after which wood is continually thrown across the pile until the body is reduced as much as possible. Mesquite, pine and cedar is usually employed, and forms excellent coals and an intense heat. All the remaining property,—as wearing apparel, arms, blankets, dogs and horse, (if the deceased pos- sessed any)—is also burnt. These last named valuables, I have no doubt, es 2 RAO, MAY, Vik 29' DM may be represented to have been burnt, as the number of horses among the tribe is very small. Although, according to their belief, when an Indian dies, his spirit goes to the East, which they consider the ‘* White Man’s Hunting Ground,” and where he would be unable to hunt, were his spirit deprived of these valuable aids. The remains are then covered with earth, whether really buried | could not ascertain. Amongst the Sioux, when an Indian hands to another a stick, it im- plies a horse, and as soon as the recipient hands the stick to the. donor (when at the latter’s camp) the horse is given in return. This custom is only observed while a party have collected to dance, and the object is, that when an Indian is rich enough to be able to give away a horse, his vanity is so immense, that he must relate his brave deeds, (Count his Coos) and for the purpore of having at least one admirer upon whom he can depend for applause, and flattering notices, as “‘How brave!’ a noble Dacotah ! etc., etc., he looks over the assemblage in a dignified manner and presents some one present with a stick of wood (aloons a foot in length, and thick as a finger,) for which a horse will be given on the following morning. A similar custom might, partially be used, to, soto use the term, burn a horse in effigy, thereby saving a poor tribe a valuable member ; for I must say the horses are the better of the two. I have seen aad been amongst probably thirty sub-tribes, but the Pah-Utes, of the above named region are the only ones with whom we came in contact, who “¢Cremate.’’ Very sincerely, W. J. HOFFMAN, 103 S. Sixth street. Stated Meeting, December 18th, 1874. Present, 17 members. Vice-President, Mr. FRAuEy, in the chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. = Selwyn, dated Montreal, Dec. 8, 1874. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Royal Observatory, at Prag, Oct. 8, (XV, i, 90, 91); the Batavian Society, at Rotterdam, Sept. 26, (89); and the Victoria In- stitute, London, Nov. 28. A letter inviting subscription to three sheets of photo- graphic portraits of members of the Hungarian Academy, was received from M. L. Aigner, Buda-Pest. 299 A letter of envoy was received from the Linnean Society, at Bordeaux. A letter declining to sit upon the Meunier Committee, on account of necessary and imperative engagements, was received from Prof. Guyot. A similar communication being received from Prof. Cook, the committee was dis- charged from consideration of the subject. Donations for the Library were reported from the Royal Batavian Academy and Observatory; the Society at St. Gall; the Revue Politique; Nature; the Meteorological Committee of the R. Society ; Essex Institue; Boston Nat- ural History Society, and Mr. Edmund Quincy ; Prof. Alfred Mayer; American Chemist ; Penn Monthly ; Medical News; College of Physicians; College of Pharmacy ; Mr. Isaac Lea; Historical Society of Maryland ; U.S. Commission of Fishe- ries ; Engineer Department, U. 8. A. ; and Surgeon General, Wl, Saat An obituary notice of Chief-Justice Read was read by Mr. EH. K. Price. . A communication on the alleged Parallelism of Coal-beds, by John J. Stevenson, was read by the Secretary. The appropriations recommended by the Finance Com- mittee were adopted. ~ Pending nomination 764, and new nomination 765 were read, ear? On motion of Mr. EK. K. Price, a Standing Committee of Botanists to supervise the purchase and planting of trees for the Michaux Grove, in Fairmount Park, purchased out of the Michaux fund proceeds, was appointed, consisting of five members—Mr. A. H. Smith, Mr. C. E. Smith, Mr. Thomas Meehan, Dr. J. A. Leidy, and Dr. J. L. LeConte. On motion, a committee of three was appointed to consider the subject of the communication made to this Society by the Baron de la Ronciére de Noury, at the last meeting, con- sisting of Prof. Lesley, Mr. Briggs, and Prof. P. E. Chase. And the meeting was adjourned. 300 Tho following letter furnished for the minutes by Mr. Price, will ex- plain the history of the purchase of the oaks in Europe. OFFICE OF CHIEF ENGINEER, or FAIRMOUNT PARK, Philadelphia, Dec. 10th, 1874. Hon. Er K. Price, Chairman Com. on Nurseries, &c. Dear Sir:—One of the objects aimed at in establishing the Michaux Grove and Nursery, was to have in the Park not only a school for study, in which might be seen trees, of valuable quality, but also the means of detecting the spurious and unreliable varieties which are sold for pure species. In order to do this, we should be able to show every variety of Oak that will live inthis climate, including the sports with the names attached by respectable nurserymen at home and abroad. This is just what I have endeavored to do. Immediately after the resolution by Park Commission, of May 14th, 1870, authorizing the expenditure of $500 for Oaks, several respectable arborists were consulted as to where a collec- tion of Native Oaks could be had, and the result was to get some 12 or 15 species of American Oaks, being all that I found in American Nurse- ries differing from well-known species already growing in the Park. Several young trees of each of these species were bought and planted on the site selected for a Michaux Grove. Catalogues were then procured from several foreign Nurseries, naming over 100 species and varieties of the genus Quercus. On my visit to England, in 1872, Dr. Hooker, the learned Director of Kew Gardens, was consulted, and several of the largest British Nurseries were visited, and over 80 so-called species and varieties of Oaks were examined. On my next voyage in 1873, other nurseries were visited, and then the first order was given for foreign trees, embracing from 3 to 6 plants of each of some 100 species and varieties and sports, with the names they bore in the catalogues of the most respectable Nur- series. When the invoices were received, it was evident that some of the names were misspelled. As the requisite corrections could not be made at the time, the bills were laid before the Park Commission for payment, the names forwarded ia the English invoices were unchanged with the expectation of having the proper corrections made at an early day. The work of correction was commenced, but has been interrupted by my illness, and thus the uncorrected lists were unexpectedly laid before the Philosophical Society. The examinations made during my illness, show that a large proportion of the names are to be found in the list published by Paxton in his Botanical Dictionary, and also in that most complete descriptive work, the Arboretum, of London, and also, elsewhere. While I have been preparing this statement in a condition of great suffering and almost of helplessness from the violence of continued pain, my wife has kindly marked 49 of these identified names with descriptions from which any expert Botanist may recognise the plants. This work of identification, Mr. Estabrook is quite willing to undertake as soon as the spring shall bring out the foliage. Truly yours, JNO. C. CRESSON, Chief Engineer. SECOND LJ ECLOLOEICAL SURVEL of PENNSWVSYANIA, J.P. LESLEY, DIRECTOR A SURVEY ofthe SCHUYLKILL WATER CAP IN THE COUNTIES OF Sthaylkill and Berks PENNA. SSSHAOS yy) oN NX . REFERENCE aS & AB Line ofSfeclion VIS. acdanas0a000 pooob0cQ0IROGD00GD 1803 10,351,000 Macgregor Elev fodsicveveiatelcTeie lave] sfevevesvaverats Census, Spain proper. 1803 10,351,075 |U. Ss. Census, USOS 105 XO rogodanas Spain and Balearic Isles. 1820 IH OOO,O00) Coun, IRC. WH ccoccodesoobodsoodnallesoooecoseeo coocds390G0n00R000 1821 11,248,000 Macgregor Ieee ya ever eravase eto natelotos Census, Spain proper 1821 THLE GAG NOs SIs Ceinems, WIAD, ocococndocecoscec : 1823 12,000,000 |Com. Rel., 1865............ 0.2 cece elec cere seme ert eetecc eet eeeene 1826 [BS fal: 25000))|| Miacoxer ont eeneee er aeieieniciccces Cadastral ret’ns, Spain pro’r 1827 [18,953,957] Oe? Goud ado obosonnduopadcece Cadastral ret’rn, Spain and Balearic. 1828 [18,698,000]|Com. Rel., 1865..................2-- Martin says 13,698,029. 1833 12,087,991 |Ency. Amer., vol. 14............... Official. Excludes Balearic. . 1833 12,386,841 |Alm. de Gotha, 1850................ Official. Includes Balearic and Canary Isles. 1834 (45660000) Maconeporseecae ssc eee Estimated. 1834 12,232,194 |U. S. Census, 1850.................. From Guibert. 1834 12,168,774 Cs A ally ah ena AMEE From M’Culloch. 1837 12,222,872 |Martin ............. cece cence eee cel ee eect cence este terete tcceeas 1842 12,054,000 STi Metate vate nave Ceyerararatarete uvaieceieveiey ofelersvevel l elaisusieveteietevereleieleret sieaieleisisiavets seleee 1846 12,166,774 Foie Mteere strc soe ersinneerciacteleatee Includes isles. 1849 1337005900) All na dies Goth arse. veces eeciels lee ctelele Spain proper. 1850 [10,942,280]|Br. Rep. Sec. Leg...........0ce.00- Incorrect. 1857 14°95", 010) |) Alm: del Gothaonecc- sss ose sence cee Spain proper. Tey || (ENO EST NNN 5 so sco5 cadonaoosusbogcesodoec Spain proper. Details given. 1859 A SYABOLOOON | eeracmys tease arti atari mon manioinie ese Estimate. 1860 15,673,481 |Rep. 7th Inter. Stat. Cong., vol.3..|) 1861 15,867,304 oe rs Ob Of 6G The enumeration dates 1862 16,043,703 se 00 06 aC we Dec. 31 in each year. 1863 16,180,183 ee ce OG G6 6 1864 [5,752,607]|Br. Stat. For. Coum................ Spain proper. 1864 16,302,148 |Rep. 7th Inter. Stat. Cong, vol. 3 1865 16,378,481 & ot ce The enumeration dates 1866 16,526,474 ee mo OG Ob 06 Dec. 31 in each year. 1867 | 16,656,879 ‘“ Bh Ge Cola 1868 TO GPHUEYS | NIG tS), PALS EGER) oe Congoudsoeoonoocilacosc0asnooedoanbogecaGaGOdeODG 1868 [16,090,550]|Br. Stat. For. Coun................ Spain proper. 1869 16; S00\0008 EStimateran cece eee eee Spain proper. 1870 16,935,613 |Br. Stat. For. Coun................ Spain proper, census returns. 1871 MAOOOLOOOR EIStimabene eens eeeee eee eee eene Spain proper. 1872 17,100,000 SEEM Set eietopainy daierar davetereciebetinaien Spain proper. 1873 _ | 17,200,000 LOL SEP ONA ATSC BUSES ECO n OO hot Spain proper. 1874 17,300,000 SOE ans AT a rae alert ote avalpreoaveieerees Spain proper. * It is believed by some writers that the population of Spain again retrograded subse- Delmar. } 310 [Jan. 15, This is a most instructive table. First. It shows an extraordinary decrement of the population of Spain from about the beginning of the fifteenth century until after the beginning of the eighteenth. This is attributed chiefly to the Moorish and Jewish exo- dus which commenced to take place in the year 1492, the same year in which that New World was discovered in which eveatually so many of the exiles found both homes and religious liberty. From first to last it is supposed that no less than 300,000 Moorish and 300,000 Jewish* families, or nearly three millions of intelligent and industrious people were driven from Spain, and amidst the most shocking cruelties. These, together with the num- bers who fled after the conquest of Grenada and the colonists to America, contributed to reduce the population from nearly 22,000,000 in the four- teenth century to little more than 7,000,000 in the seventeenth. Notwith- standing the persecution of the Moors and Jews, it is stated that consid- erable numbers remained in Spain, professing, if not believing, in the doctrines of the Church, and forming the bulk of the agricultural and industrial classes in many localities. This is affirmed by Macgregor and denied by Buckle, but I think the weight of evidence is with the former. M’Culloch, p. 845, says there were 60,000 Moriscoes in Grenada in his time, about the year 1840. Evidence of the large population that dwelt in Spain under the Moorish régime is found ina class of facts, of which the following are examples: “« Before the Conquest in 1487 (the city of) Grenada had 70,000 houses and 400,000 inhabitants, 60,000 of whom were armed. It was defended by ramparts flanked by 1030 towers and two vast fortresses, each of which could receive in garrison 40,000 men. “The kingdom (of Grenada) of which it is the capital, was only thirty leagues in breadth by seventy in length, but it contained thirty-two large cities and ninety-seven towns and 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The whole population at present does not exceed 83,000. ‘The city of Cordova under the Moors occupied nearly eight leagues of the banks of the Guadalquiver, and contained 600 grand mosques, 3,837 small mosques or chapels, 4,320 minauts or towers, 900 public baths, 28 superbs, 80,455 shops, 213,070 dwelling-housegs, 60,300 hotels or palaces.”’ Moreau de Jonnés, 1834. ‘The last official census states that 1,511 towns and villages were then totally uninhabited and abandoned.’’ Macgregor, 1850. For further evidence on this point, consult Buckle’s Hist. Civ., Draper’s Hist. Civ. and Civil Policy of America. Second. The table of population shows a very slow increment from the quent to the year 1830. This opinion is probably based on the cadastral returns of 1826, or thereabouts, and the smaller numbers of the census returns of 1833. It may be well-founded; but I have ventured to disregard it in arranging the figures of the text. * This is the highest estimate. Buckle, who quotes a number of authors, states that the number of Jews actually expelled is differently estimated at from 160,000 to 800,000. —Hist. Civ., ii, 15. 1875.] dll [Delmar. beginning of the seventeenth century to about the year 1850. The popu- lation is stated to have been 7,500,000 in the year 1618 and 138,705,500 in 1849. This is an increase of but 82.7 per cent. in 231 years! Third. The table shows a comparatively rapid increment of population since about the year 1850, to-wit: from 13,705,500 in 1849 to about 17,300, - 000 in 1874, an increase of 26.2 per cent. in 25 years. This is the period of recent progress in Spain to which attention has been directed, and it is believed no better proof can be adduced in support of this allegation of progress than the rapid increment of population which, in spite of foreign and civil wars, has taken place. RURAL AND CIvic POPULATION. The cadastral returns of 1826 gave the rural population at 80.4; the civic at 18.5, and the ecclesiastical at 1.1 per cent. of the whole. The proportion of rural population therein shown is probably correct at the present time. AGRICULTURAL POPULATION. Spanish statistics, at least as they reach compilers outside of Spain, are proverbially incomplete, contradictory and obscure, and they are no less so on this simple subject than on any other which I have found it neces- sary to examine. The agricultural population of a country but half cultivated, and that portion but indifferently tilled—a country, which, as a rule, has forbidden the importation of breadstuffs, while it had none to export ; which is neither a pastoral nor a new country ; and in which the struggle for subsistence is so great that a local and temporary drought is enough to stimulate what is else a constant but sluggish stream of emi- gration to other countries—ought to be uncommonly large. On the con- trary, my information states it to be comparatively small. If the latest figures before me are corrret, the agricultural population of Spain is but 59 per cent. of the whole ; whereas I am confident it is not less than 65 to 70 per cent. The following is the statement : OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION OF SPAIN, 1857. Non-AGRICULTURAL MALE ADULTS. NUMBER. Army, Navy and Military functionaries................... 241,335 OfticialseaStateien peccisca er nee ees ean ase 22,362 VUTICIpall evr erencwe canis see wes eierienetaioe 62,976 JERR PUL O Rr Oe WG SoU COO A ere Aten Re, 4,693 —- 90,031 INTO O BIN ie oa ra G mip UDG Orn oc TOR CODE OTICn ET hus ot EE Aee an 478,716 (ONG (oie ap Rech ac co Ge OOO A DRA ACO nm COMBE oH OAC Deon ee 125,000 SLUG LS Eno onan BAG GE oy oe HER eEO Ae apeneecnay ola ior 47,312 IAC OCALES tara isverapicirerer er stareeret Sch amietn near aut 5,673 \WanlighS soieoe-aameoddodiadd an Fan Uenaneecr i ial ack eae seae ees 9,551 — 62,336 Delmar. | 312 [Jan. 15, ison AcmcTmnTEAD A Aum. om, STE NOLES 8 Ct R IGA ace IES AO SD OS GUIS Ree GOCE mn am uma a | 206,090 ENTE TCHATUES To terc ate cee ntere ronnie CareiSta ees wid oid Ble Gee bea ene eceveumucrenereieets eye 119,234 SS CONIM A DTG) 9d ois CARI SIC ERS ClcLAecn Siei At eure reat Ein Bee ayn unas Pa 39,736 Artistsimd; mechanics eric scree tera eoielererere 88,728 Miata Cher ire. cies ces ysuccave seu sraxeisepsie auevswaremeusicgsnes suesererane aucteaedecene 67,327 Miners, (1864) ........ 2... 2c eee cece ee eee eee eee eee 32,201 Workmen in refining and smelting vos (USO): cB Sibo cies 9,945 Fishermen; S665. e i ened ceed. WO) Lyin Rae cna 39,440 Seamen in ports, harborsetcaml| SGserce rarer mornin nies er 11,285 ae foreign trade, (SG5 ne Mer acc ae 16,181 eS Coastine trade SG3. aceite iret ice 21,606 Mt Na) ee) Ee ene AE I haa Hn Ng eT he em Gey oln h aa ato | 1,645,191 Total able-bodied men, 3,803,991. This would leave, at the most, but 2,158,800 agriculturists. At an average of four inhabitants to each able- bodied man, this would imply, at the most, an agricultural population of 8,632,000, which is 55 per cent. of the whole. Add to the 2,158,800 male adult agriculturists about 340,000 female laborers, and we have in round numbers 2,500,009 persons actually employed in agriculture. This num- ber forms less than 16 per cent. of the whole, a proportion that, taking into consideration the rude state of tillage in vogue, would seem entirely inadequate to produce the requisite amount of food for all. Macgregor (p. 944) publishes the details of a cadastral return of the population for 1826, concerning the correctness of the total sum of which there is perhaps some doubt. The total figure is 13,712,000, while the total of the table of details is but 15,211,301. In this table the agricul- tural population is placed at 1,836,520 heads of families and others, and 6,777,140 women and children, the first-named figure being 13.9 per cent. of the whole and the latter 65.2 per cent. The details of heads of agri- cultural families and others are as follows : Proprietors, 364,514 ; farmers (middle men), 527,423 ; laborers, 805,235 ; proprietors of herds and flocks, 25,530; and shepherds, 115,628. I am inclined to believe these proportions to be nearer the truth, and the truth at the present time, than those deduced above. The discrepancies have doubtless arisen less from any material changes in the occupations of the people than from the fact that in many districts the agricultural laborer often alters his trade during the year; so that the agreement of two censuses would depend largely upon the time of the year they were taken respectively. (See on this point, L. T., 24, § 9.) FEMALE LABORERS. In Galicia and Asturias the number of female laborers is nearly equal to the male. These districts comprise about one-fifth of the population. In Carthagena, province of Murcia, population 380,969, female labor is seldom or never employed for field work. In Minorca female labor is employed hardly at all. In Majorca it is employed. Female laborers are 187d. ] 313 [Delmar. employed, but not generally, in Guipuzcoa, Basque Provinces, population 162,547. In Biscay, Basque Proviuces, population 200,000, all the females work in the fields at times, and female labor is largely employed. In the Provinces of Malaga, Granada, Almeria, and Jaen, population 1,565,979, female labor is hardly at all employed in the cultivation of land, only in gathering olives and cutting grapes. From these and other reports (Land Tenures, Part III), I have ventured to estimate the number of female laborers in Spain at about 340,000, though I dare say the true number is upwards of 500,000. LAND TENURES. The laws of 1820 abolished the right of primogeniture and all other species of civic entail (mayorazgos); then followed that of 1841 on ecclesias- tical benefices, and finally that of 1855, which declared in a state of sale land and house property belonging to the State or appertaining to corporations of towns, beneficence, public instruction, clergy, religious fraternities, pious works, sanctuaries, etc. Like many other reforms which have taken place from time to time in Spain, certain provisions of this one were rescinded, and it was not until 1865 that the Crown lands were finally decreed in a state of sale. It is, however, from the year 1855 that the freedom of Spain from religious and feudal tenures really dates. When it is considered that these tenures were abolished in France by the Revolution of 1789, in the United States, generally, during the ear- liest days of their history as independent Commonwealths, and in Prus- sia in 1820, it cannot be deemed strange that a country which did not succeed in throwing them off until 1855 should have failed to show any signs of progress until within very recent years. The condition of affairs in 1840 is thus described : “‘Mr. Townsend (ii, 238) mentions that the estates of three great lords —the Dukes of Osuna, Alba, and Medina Coeli—cover nearly the whole of the immense Province of Andalusia ; and several in the other prov- inces are hardly less extensive.’’ M’Culloch, p. 837. ‘The great estates belonging to the corporations, or towns, are held in common ; and in consequence are wholly, or almost wholly, in pasture.”’ —Tbid. In 1850, we have the following account : ‘« Among the causes of the defective state of agriculture in Spain are the tenures of land. The unalienable, indivisible mayorazgos (entails) are considered as having for a long period comprised, including the property of the Church, about three-fourths of the territorial surface of Spain. ‘The Mesta is another great, although secondary, cause of the neglect of agriculture. This is the name of a great incorporated company of nobles, ecclesiastical chapters, persons in power and members of monas- teries, who were authorized to feed their flocks, at scarcely any expense, on all the pastures of the kingdom, and have almost an imperative special code of laws (Leyes y Ordenenzas de la Mesta) for maintaining their originally usurped privileges. It holds its courts and has numerous Alcaldes, oe Delmar. ] 314 [Jan. 15, -Entregadors, Quadrilliers, Achagueros, and other law officers. Within the last five years, the Mesta has possessed about half of the sheep in Spain.’? Macgregor, p. 1016. For lists of the religious establishments and the enérmous properties and reyenues they absorbed, see pp. 1023-5 of the same work. As to the condition of affairs at the present time, the bulk of agricul- tural lands in Spain appear to be still held by wealthy or noble proprie- tors, who live in the cities and lease them out on half produce, a la meta, to indigent peasants. Feudal tenures are indeed swept away, but many of the features of feudality remain, and it is still the custom in Alicante and perhaps elsewhere, for the metayers to present the proprietors with a certain number of fowls each year. The custom is now voluntary and by no means relished by the owner, who feels bound to make some return ; but it serves to indicate the relations between the metayer and his landlord. The metayers onrice plantations in Valencia pay one-third produce. Certain rights of commonage appear to continue. (L. T., 40, $7.) In Galicia, the ‘‘foro”’ is mentioned so late as September 30, 1870. (Com. Rel., 1871, p. 1008.) The “ foro”’ is a sort of land impost created some eight or nine centuries ago, and continues to be paid annually by the present owners to the descendants of the former proprietors of land. ‘‘The importance of this tribute is such that it sometimes absorbs the total productions of the soil ; thus it is that two-thirds of it has never been cultivated.’’ (1béd.?) In October, 1873 (Com. Rel., 1873, p. 946), it is stated that the feudal tribute of ‘‘foro’”’ had been declared redeemable by the Government. In fine, Spain may be said to have scarcely even yet emerged from the feudal state. A large portion of her soil is still owned by absentee land- lords and rented, partly for money rents and partly a la meta. The pro- prietors seldom sell their properties (L. T., 42, § 10), and there is no compulsion on their part to sell, lease, or otherwise dispose of their property to peasants or others. (L. T., 49, §§ 6-7-8.) But as the law of descent and division is the same that applies to personal property (dzd, 43, $2), it is merely a question of time when they will be divided and absorbed by peasant proprietors. Another drawback is the allodial duty of two per cent. on the sale of lands. (lL. T., 31.) There is a government duty of three per cent. on all transfers of property (p. 47, § 18). Whether the allodial duty of two per cent. is added to this, does not seem clear. But the great fact remains that the feudal system and all entails are abolished ; the lands of the religious establishments and the Crown* are sold, the corvée and the mesta swept out of existence, small peasant properties exist in large numbers all over the country, and the door is opened to further reform and future progress. * Jn 1866 laws were also passed to facilitate the sale of mountainous lands, 51 i 1875. ] old [ Delmar, LAWS OF SUCCESSION. Land may now be willed as the owner chooses provided he has no children. In case he has, these are his natural heirs, and the division is in equal parts. He can, however, dispose of one-fifth thereof in favor of his widow, or some particular child, or even of a stranger. Should the property have increased in value since the marriage day of the owner, his widow has a right to the half of the increase (L. T., 19). While this is stated to be the law of Spain, the same authority speaks of the existence (Dec. 7, 1870) of separate codes of law affecting real estate in different provinces. (See pp. 40 and 43.) But this I doubt. The law of descent seems now to be general throughout the land, and to have been based on Novela exviii of the Roman laws of Justinian. MortTMAIN. The abolition of mortmain (law of desamortizacion) took place in 1855, but many persons refused to buy church property on account of religious scruples. In 1858 the Pope’s sanction was obtained, when the sales were actively continued, the Government giving great facilities to the pur- chasers. The payments are made one-tenth in cash and the remainder in promissory notes running from one to ten, and in some cases, nineteen years, and secured by mortgage on the property. Owing to these facili- ties of purchase the biddings have often more than twice exceeded the true market value of the parcels put up. The churches, etc., receive com- pensation for their lands thus sold, and the nation gains by the operation, what benefit accrues from throwing open lands to peasant ownership and industrious tillage, which had been either entirely sequestered or negli- gently worked by metayer tenants subject to the church. About $100,090, - 000 have been paid (in Government stock) to these institutions for their lands, and about $200,000,000 (in cash and mortgages) received from the purchasers. The total payments (for the operation has not yet quite ceased) are estimated at $125,000,900, and total revenues at $250,000,000 ; so that the Government will have made $125,000,000 by the law of mortmain. The interest on the payments to the religious establishments, which were made in Government securities, was stopped during the Republic, but an order for its resumption was among the first acts of Alfonso XII upon his accession to the throne of Spain in January, 1875. REGISTRY SYSTEM. ‘‘ The sale or transfer of property (land) of every sort is always (now) done by deeds drawn up by a notary and inscribed in the Land Register. Leases of smaller importance are made by contract before witnesses. A tax of two per cent. is paid to the State in cases where property is held (hired?) or transferred ; but where a son inherits directly from his father, or vice versa, no succession duty is paid. It exists, however, when the inheritance is from any more distant relative and increases propor- tionately.”” Report of Percy Ffrench, First Sec. H. B. M. Legation in Spain. L. T., 18. Delmar. ] 316 [Jan. 15, Property is still administered and managed in Spain with great disorder and negligence, and extreme irregularity exists in the registration of leases, etc. Thisis probably due to the heavy registration, succession and other fees, and attempts to avoid them by neglecting proper formalities. Stamped paper must be used; only a feed notary can draw the papers, and fees attend every step of registration, search or certification. The average cost of transfer is about one and a-half per cent. ad valorem. (L. T., p. 44). In other respects the registry system, which has only been in force since 1863, appears to be similar to that which has always existed in the United States. HYPOTHECATION OF REAL ESTATE. The very recent abolition of feudal and ecclesiastical tenures, the con- tinued monopolization of the land by the wealthy (L. T., p. —), the new- ness, the exactions and disorder of the registry system, together with other causes, combine to render diffizult the hypothecation of real estate. In cases where these obstacles do not exist, where the title is undoubted and the land held in fee, there is no difficulty in obtaining loans to the extent of one-third to two-thirds the value of the property, at six to ten per cent. perannum. But in most cases it is the landless metayer who desires to borrow ard has nothing to offer as security but his growing crops. Upon such a precarious basis, ten to fifteen per cent. is a low rate to charge for interest, and often from thirty to forty per cent. is paid. (L. T., 18). With the means thus obtained numerous small holdings of mountain land (common land sold by Government under act of 1866) have been purchased by the peasantry on seven year annual installments (p. 80). This points to an extension of the same sort of spade culture which is to be seen in the hilly parts of Italy, and to the abandonment of the better but metayer-held lands ‘of the nobility—a tendency that should not exist. Positos. ‘© Positos’’ are described by Macgregor as a sort of co-operative society to supply seed corn and food in calamitous years, numbers of which have existed all over Spain since the time of Philip Il. M’Culloch, however, defines them to be merely public granaries where corn may be ware- housed until it is disposed of. The name, which means ‘‘depositories,”’ proves this definition to be the correct one. They have diminished in importance of late years, probably because the fears of occasional scarcity, which, no doubt gave rise to them, have been removed by the construction of roads and railways and a more liberal policy in respect of the corn laws. The peasants and dealers in grain in Castile formerly preserved their stocks in s¢los, or subterranean caves, for sometimes five or six years. MEsTA. As has already been explained, Mesta was a right of common which certain privileged classes possessed, but which is now abolished. It is 1875.] 317 [ Delmar, said to have originated in the fourteenth century during a famine. This right enabled the privileged owners of large flocks of sheep to drive them over village pastures and commons there to feed at pleasure, and to com- pel the owners of cultivated lands, which lay in the line of their migra- tions, to leave wide paths for the pasturage of the flocks. Nor could any new enclosures be made in the line of their march, or land that had once been in pasture be cultivated again until it had been offered to the Mesta, or corporation of flock-proprietors, at a certain rate! It is easy to per- ceive that with the continuance of such monstrous privileges as these it would only be a question of time when all the cultivated lands would be turned into pastures, and all the pastures fall into the possession of the Mesta. It was a great reproach to Spain that this feudal privilege existed so long as it did, but its recent abolition is equally an undoubted sign of progress. NUMBER AND SIZE OF FARMS. The number of farms in Spain in the year 1800 was but 677,520 in the hands of 273,760 proprietors and 403,760 tenant farmers. (Martin.) The number of landed properties, rural and urban, in 1857, was 2,433,301 (L. T., 46), and the number in 1870 was 3,612,000. (Zid, 19.) The pro- portion of rural properties in late years is not stated by these authori- ties, nor are the tenures by which they are held set forth. The number of tenant farmers had increased from 403,760 in 1800 to 595,635 in 1857, and probably upwards of 600,000 in 1870; but meanwhile and particu- larly since 1855 the number of properties had increased, both by the subdivision of land and the industrial absorption of mortmain and Gov- ernment lands and village commons. The bulk of the peasant farms will average between ten and fifteen acres. There are many vineyards of not over one-eighth of an acre, and on the other hand, many large properties, cultivated and uncultivated. The opinion appears to prevail among late observers that from one-fourth to one-third of the cultivated land is held by peasant proprietors (L. T., 50 and ?), and that the rest is cultivated by agricultural laborers, of whom there were 2,354,110 in 1857, in the employ of large owners, or farmed out to tenants for a money rent, or a la meta. SYSTEM OF CULTURE—SEEDING AND FERTILIZERS. Compared with other countries west of Russia and the Orient, the sys- tem of culture in Spain is still very backward. There are a few garden spots in Spain—the huertas of Granada, Murcia, and Valencia—but such exceptional instances of careful culture are to be found in the worst eul- tivated countries, even miserable Egypt possessing a Faioum. The gen- eral aspect of Spanish agriculture, until very lately, was much the same as it was a century ago when Arthur Young visited Spain. The great and numerous barrens he described are being brought under cultivation, and in that respect Spain is much improved ; but the mode of cultivation is only now undergoing change. The forests were, centuries ago, burned for the few fertilizing materials to be obtained from their ashes, while A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 20 Delmar. | 318 [Jan. 15, their annual efforts to increase were kept down by a similar treatment of their undergrowth and copses. Hence, barrens, afflicted with alternate droughts and floods. The system of agricultural irrigation was mainly a legacy from the exiled Moors, since whose time it had been but little enlarged. The means used for raising the water are the familiar sakye and shadouf of the Orient, the sakye being known under the name of noria. (L. T., 57.) The water obtained by these laborious means is known as agua de arte ; that by diverting the course of streams as agua viva, or running water. (C. R., 1868, p. 3738.) As going still further to show the indebtedness of even Modern Spain to Moorish industry, it has been stated that the best olive trees in Spain to-day are those left by the Moors ; while even the stone fences and other enclosures left by them are still performing the service for which they were constructed a thousand years ago. Rotation was, until recently, very little followed in Spain, and even the fallow system, though in general use, was in many parts ignored and the ruinous one of exploitation, by a constant succession of the same sort of crops, employed in its place. (C. R., 1871, p. 1037.) Even two and some- times three different crops were obtained from the same piece of ground in one year; though as Young and other writers have shown, with no aggregate increase of product, but on the contrary, diminution. Corn, root, or pulse crops were frequently sown in olive groves and vineyards to the mutual detriment of both tree or vine and crop. In the Provinces of Malaga, Granada, Almeria and Jaen, mention is made of a three-field system of, 1. Wheat, barley or beans; 2. Fallow ; 3. Pasture on the un- irrigated lands ; and also of the continuance, so late as November, 1869, of village commons (dehesas de proprios) for cattle,—both of them wretched and antiquated features of agriculture. But since 1855 all these features have been undergoing change, and the dehesas de proprios were probably in a moribund state in 1869. The quantity of seed used is uncertain. It is stated by M’Culloch that the fanega (about 14 bushels) is the measure of seed-corn commonly sown upon a fanegada (about 15 acres) of land, and hence, the similarity of terms. This is probably a true explanation with regard to the terms, which must, however, have arisen from the results of favorable sowings ; for the prac- tical fact is still that not less than two bushels are generally sown to the acre of wheat, the staple corn of Spain. In the use of fertilizers the same recent improvement is to be observed as in other respeets. Previous to 1855, beyond the fertilizers mentioned by Arthur Young nearly three-fourths of a century before, there does not appear to have been any improvement. These consisted of wood-ashes obtained from the burning, not of forests, for they had been burned long before, but of copses and undergrowth. Near some of the large cities poudrette seems to have been prepared, but the use of this fertilizer was not common. Since the ameliorations, which date about the year 1855, Peruvian 1875. ] 319 [Delmar. guano appears to have been largely imported into Spain. I have the statistics by quantities for only the years 1852 to 1856 and 1863 to 1867, inclusive ; but these will serve to show the extent of the movement, which first began in 1852: IMPORTS OF PERUVIAN GUANO INTO SPAIN. YEARS. KILOGRAMS. TONS. SH RLOMS Osan ClUSIVeRee arene eine cre 49,115,446) 48, 247* LUESKOB sl eS Re RUA Se ER I Se Nae 39,514,969 39, 209 HLS GA ea raid Se Ae TR INR te ART MAING ATMS TE SAN 6, 437,943 6,324 HLS Gps ARCATA Ne eed oa BE a hl ead te 11,956, 769 11,746 HESS GG Pespen sey si sresren GeAES SHE aeE INSP rs rae eaten Beam eee 46,872,576 46,048 HES Giiieepae eet cec. sca at area RRR Mt iLL cha rant nhl Sea atla 37, 666, 000 37,000 To show the relation which these quantities bear to the world’s con- sumption of guano, it may be stated that the 48,000 tons imported im 1852 to 1856 formed but 2} per cent. of the world’s consumption of” Peruvian guano ; while the average annual quantity of 28,000 tons im-- ported during the years 1863 to 1867 formed 7} per cent. of the world’s. consumption, which was 370,000 tons per annum during that interval.. (For details of the consumpticn of each country, see Com. Rel., 1867,. p. 361.)+ The extent to which fertilizers are now being used in at least some- parts of Spain, may be judged from the fact that the U.S. Consul at- Valencia reported in 1871 that the ground in that district was being burned up by an immoderate use of guano! AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. There seems to have been no improvement in respect of agricultural implements since the days of Arthur Young. The corvée is abolished and the absentee landlords of vast estates, of whom he has so bitterly complained, are things of the past; but the old Roman plow, with its wooden mould-board, without a bit of iron upon it (Arthur Young, ii, p. —), and its four or five inch blade (Com. Rel., 1871, p. 1087,) remain. Indeed, even the plow is rarely met with in some provinces (C. R., 1866. 219), the “‘laya,’’ or two-pronged fork, and the spade being used in its place (L. T., 37 and 51). Until within a very few years, agricultural machinery was wholly unknown in Spain. The corn was left in the fields for lack of barns (Young) ; it was threshed by driving mules over it ; it was winnowed by throwing it in the air (M’Culloch) ; and most frequently it was ground by hand rather than by wind-mills or other machinery. (Zdid.) * Quantities exported from Chincha Islands fo Spain, 1852-57.—App. Cye., viii, 529. } The average annual consumption by the United States before the war is set down by this authority at 40,000 tons; while the actual imports into the United States from 1850 to 1861, inclusive, were 954,989 tons, an annual average of double the quantity. However, a portion of this gaano came from other places beside Peru. For complete statistics on this subject, see U. S. Com and Nav., 1867, p. xlvi. ; Ye Delmar ] 320 [Jan. 15, Fanning machines are now in use near the towns; the thresher has been introduced ; and the first American mower and reaper was imported a year or two ago. English implements are too heavy for Spanish hands (L. T., 29), and many that have been imported are left to rot for want of men able to handle them. The American implements are much preferred. On the whole, it may be stated that Spain is but on the threshold of a change from the inefficient implements of antiquity to the powerful machines of modern agricultural progress. Domestic ANIMALS. Since the destruction of her forests Spain must have lost much of the pastoral character which undoubtedly distinguished her to a great degree under the rule of the Moors. There are now, properly speaking, no meadows (grass lands) in Spain. Young noticed a single patch during his journey in 1787; but late observers do not speak of any at all. (L. T., 28, and elsewhere. ) Said M’Culloch, about forty years ago: ‘““The Pyrenees, the hilly parts of Biscay and the Asturias, the vast plains of Andalusia, the two Castiles, Estramadura and Leon, are almost wholly in pasture ; and in some parts the traveler may journey for many miles without seeing either a house or an individual. In point of fact, however, half the pastures really consist of heaths, or of neglected tracts covered with thyme and other wild herbs, that are at present next to worthless. There are few or no irrigated meadows, and hay is seldom or never prepared for fodder.”’ Except that portions of this waste land have of late years been reclaimed, this description will answer for to-day. The following table exhibits a comparison of the number of domestic ‘animals in Spain in 1808 and 1865, respectively, from which it will be seen that there has been a small increase of horses, a considerable increase of mules and asses, a decrease of horned cattle, sheep and goats, and an increase of swine. It should be stated that a great many incomplete and incorrect state- ments on this subject have appeared in statistical works. The authorities for the figures given in the text are, for 1808, the report to the Cortes quoted by Macgregor, and for 1865 the report of Senores Feliciano Herreros de Téjada and Victoriano Ballaguer to the Statistical — Congress of the Hague. Domestic ANIMALS. YEAR 1808. YEAR 1865. HOUSE Siero isis eo aleystoleloloikey ieruenatelohoe tansreke 539, 926 680,878 Mules and asses ...... lta nee et emtetere ete ease 1,079,002 2,319,846 Hionrmedecattle syne s doodoocabooabeacocg5c00b0 dol 100 Barcelona andeGeronasabOlblpe: ein 4+. cies ams aceite sects | 60 Granollers to Junction with last named Railway, about... 25 BarcelonaanGeneussa bOUbmrrrie neil s etn meee trreree 80 Miranda, Vitoria, Pamplona and Alfara, about.............. 100 San Sebastian to Muentarabia, about s2.-.-2-+.+sscee +s. ve - 20 San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa and Alsasua, about............... 50 Cartagena, Murcia aud Chinchilla, about.................... 150 COrdOva LOLBCIMC Zire cry -potorer sie torrey arenes here tetera 45 Motalemilestopenediyryr sir teteicieht-rerrelstetteteveyer sso teee rs 3,771 * Subsidized by Government. + I.e., from near Almansa on the Madrid and Alicante Railway. 302 [Jan. 15, Delmar. ] The first railway, 153 miles in length, was opened in 1848 from Barce- lona to Mataro on the line now completed from Barcelona to Gerona. The following table shows the progress made from time to time since that year : MILES CLOSE OF THE YEAR. OBEN CLOSE OF THE YEAR. Pe A Bisa ey eetye anbianeealncliates OS SGD ae raccnispevs cura acne 1,694 SS OMnc es See en | LO AILSGS vc Wee anes 2,208 TOS At Sad OME Ns 826 SOA St ie Ee 2,525 TST el se eer a ue 418 SGD Gece alanaer Meee eens 2,982 LS) Sis nected face leis roe eleeene ts | 529 MSG Geers reer 3, 184 THEO): srs ane ASS Ee Gow ates | MDE AST Oia: Cenecwaacnornecel eens 3,080 SOO Rie cece nusumneatiatnaree 1,191 i ltoH Poe OURO A SINE G4 nn diate 3, 711 AS Gila ose eaeauelareneys 1,475 Blot (4 Spar ate Hise ee intg 4,100 From this table it will be observed that from 1848 to 1860, inclusive, a period of thirteen years, hardly 1,100 miles of railway were cov_ structed in Spain; while from 1860 to 1874, inclusive, a period of fifteen years, nearly 3,000 miles were opened. The area of Spain proper is 190,257 square miles, and of California 183,981 square miles. At the close of the year 1873 there were 1,368 miles of railway constructed in California ; so that Spain with about the same area had nearly three times the railway mileage of California. Beside the above there are many other roads in course of construction; for example: Oae from Seville to Lisbon via Merida and Badajos, the distance from Seville to Badajos, which is on the Portuguese border, being some 150 miles. (C. R., 1871, 1029.) One from Cordova to Bel- mez, 45 miles. (Zdéd.) Opened in 1873. (C. R., 1878, 959.) Concerning the roads which form the line between Madrid and the French frontier, the American Counsel at Bilboa, wrote in 1864 to the U. S. State Department, as follows : “The Great Northern Railway, Linea del Norte, was opened (asa through line) on the 20th of August, 1864, for passengers and merchan- dise, from Madrid to Irun, on the French Frontier, where it connects with the railway to Paris. The line has been operated through Castile and other sections, for a considerable period; but the heavy character of the work—the engineering difficulties of carrying the line over and under the Pyrenees, which here break up into detached spurs—has long de- layed the enterprise, lately so happily completed. The largest tunnel—in Guipuzcoa—is 2970 yards in length, and is 1669 feet above the sea-level. Besides this, there are 22 other tunnels, measuring in all, six miles. The Viaduct of Orinostiqui is 1120 feet long, and is carried over five arches, each haying a span of 150 feet. The construction of this road is a grand tribute to engineering skill, _ and will place Madrid within 35 hours of Paris.”” (Com. Rel., 1864, 279.) Qgn 1875.] BoD {| Delm vv HARvEstTs IN SPpaAInN—RECENT YEARS. 1865. Grain abundant. (U. S. Com. Rel., 1866, 215.) One-third above average. (Ibid, 219.) Largest for many years. (Jdid, 1865, 175.) 1866. Grain hardly average. Potatoes deficient. (U.S. Com. Nel., 1867, 343.) Grain one-third less than in 1865. (Br. Con. Rep., 1867, 83.) Drought in Alicante. (bid, 1867-4, 133.) 1867. Grain moderately good. (Br. Con. Rep., 1868-7, 521.) Olives failed (Ibid, 1867-3, 87.) Also silk; this being the fifth year of failure. (1bid.) 1868. Grain deficient. (Br. Con. Rep., 1867-8, 521.) 1869. Grain barely average. (U. 8. Com. Rel., 1871, 1008.) 1870. Grain harvest good. 1871. Lemon crop in Andalusia the largest ever obtained. (U.S. Com. Rel., 1871, 1022.) . 1872. Grain crops fair. (U. 8. Com. Rel., 1872, 777.) 1873. Grain crops excellent. (U. 8. Com. Rel,, 1875, 938.) 1874. Grain crops good. It is said that when the harvests are good in one section, the north or south of Spain, they are bad in the other; (Br. C. R., 1868-7, 521); but this statement must be taken with considerable allowance for error. VARIETY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. The agricultural products of Spain are almost endless in their variety. The principal ones are as follows : Grain Crops.—Wheat, maize, barley, rye, buckwheat, millet, oats, rice. Green Crops.—Clover, grass, kitchen vegetables. Root Crops.—Sweet and Irish potatoes, cassava, (montato or convolvolus batatas,) raised in the Balearic Isles, and much used by the peasants for food ; (L. T.,) liquorice; catufas de Valencza; peanuts. Leguminous Crops.—Beans: 1 French beans; 2 string beans ; 3 gar- banzos ; 4 carob-beans (the algarobvo or locust bean, used as cattle fodder). Frutts.—Apples, peaches, apricots, nectarines, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, oranges, lemons, limes, pomegranates, figs, olives, melons, ber- ries, prickly pears. Commercial Crops.—Sugar cane, cotton, esparto grass, hemp, flax, saffron, madder, red pepper, capers. Nuts and Forest Products.—Chestnuts, walnuts, almonds, hazel-nuts, cork, oak and pine bark, acorns. Animal Products.—Silk, wool, cheese, leather, eggs. Liquids.—Wine, spirits, ale, cider, oil. The grain crops will be more particularly mentioned hereafter. Of the other crops, those which demand attention on account of their importance, are oranges and lemons, figs, olives, esparto grass, almonds, cork, silk, wine and olive oiJ. Some idea of the production of these articles in Spain may be gathered from the list of exports hereinafter given, after due allowance is made for the quantities consumed in the country of their production. A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2Q Delmar. ] Jo4 [Jan. 15, PRICES. The average of the prices of grain and meat in all the 49 departments of Spain in the month of July, 1874, is shown in the following table from the Gaceta de Madrid: Average Prices in all the Provinces of Spain, July, 1874. Wine, CHHGD) sca cas sbeocsbbopaobaasoocdpod per bushel, $1.573 Wevslewn (OMICS 's obs oolaseanodasadogneeods ue 94 IPOs (COMMGROY Seb asogde6 cabs Souccecn0 moder a 1 00 WENA OU GHD ne eisnoagooh by opadicie Haaice Sale ef 1.14 ARI COS SCAT OR) his re avhepoeiere sce rasie erslorcecis a reiele per pound, 055 Iuarge Chick Peas, (Garbanzos)..........-.- 36 06 Mutton (arveno) eer ete ene BG 10 BS Ce he EVACON Is reper aych cretion pevotade) leveseter steerrste tare of 115 Bacont GHOCtIO) eit tie eis iiaraer He 163 Maximum and Minimum Prices in Various Provinces. Wheat, mavimum........ BEN Ae ea ema per bushel, $2.73 60 WOMANI, oo pob 000g DoD boo SDDOD GOONS A awe. BOW, MCMUMUMs oocsaodcnbecubodsodsound a 1.49 es NTTIVCNTVANG 4 Boonbe Sraisieb erate ie lavateuclevvene “ 50 Tt is not explained how these prices are determined, nor whether they are wholesale or retail ; but I take it they are determined by public sales at market towns and at wholesale. The difference in prices in the vari- ous provinces, ranging from 913c. to $2.73 per bushel for wheat, and 50c. to $1.49 per bushel for barley, show that, notwithstanding numerous railways, there still exist in Spain obstacles to the mobilization of bread- stuffs which should demand the serious attention of the Government. It can hardly be due merely to the cost of transportation by railway that wheat and barley are three times as high in one province as another, and the tables published every month in the Gaceta show this to be the case, more or less, throughout many years. Spain is an extensive country, and as yet comparatively destitute of water-ways and other cheap modes of carriage. Still, 500 miles by rail will carry a bushel of wheat from one end of the country to the other, and unless the extreme prices quoted are in places as yet remote from the established railway lines, or octroi duties hinder the free circulation of commodities, Iam ata loss to account for the disparities shown in the prices of the principal edibles. CommMERctAL PoLticy—Corn LAws—TARIFFe, ETC. The severe restrictions which formerly characterized the Spanish com- mercial policy have been much modified of late years. Until 1865 the exportation of breadstuffs, with occasional excep- tions at long intervals, was prohibited, except to the colonies. (U. 8. Com. Rel., 1866, p. 215.) I find, however, that in 1860, 1861 and 1862 there were, comparatively speaking, considerable exports of grain and flour from Spain to England, and I infer from this that the harvests of 1875.] 335 [ Delmar. those years were unusually abundant in the former country. Although the prohibition to export breadstuffs appears to have been removed in 1865, there only appear to have been considerable exports of those arti- cles, since that date, in 1866, 1867, 1872, 1873 and 1874. The principal features of the regulations with regard to the importa- tion of breadstuffs appear to have been as follows : 1849. Act of July 17 prohibited imports of breadstuffs except at periods of scarcity. (Com. Rel., 1862, 220.) 1856. Grain crop deficient. Decree of May 13, 1857, admitted breadstuffs free until December 31, 1857. Decree of September 16, 1857, extended the time until June 30, 1858. Breadstufts imported from France, Morrocco, Egypt, England and the Baltic. (Com. Rel., 1858, pp. 99-100.) 1863. January 1, new tariff. Metrical system introduced at custom houses. Octroi duties abolished and tariff increased on principal ‘‘tropical’’ imports, such as tea, coffee, etc. Tariff schedule simplified, but rates not lowered; on contrary, raised. Importation of breadstuffs still prohibited. (Com. Rel., 1868, 217.) ~ 1865. April 1, regulations regarding imports of flour into colonies. June 28, other regulations, to wit: heavy discriminating duties on foreign flour into colonies. For example, duty on American flour into Cuba $9.50 per bbl.; on Spanish, $2.25. (Com. Rel., 1865, 176.) 1867. Duties on agricultural implements reduced to one per cent. in Spanish and one and one-fifth per cent. in foreign vessels. (U. S. Monthly Statistics, November, 1867.) 1867. July 1, importation of grain still prohibited. (Br. Con. Rep., 1867, 228.) 1867. August 22, decree admitting breadstuffs as dutiable articles for four months. October 25, time extended to June 30, 1868. 1868. January 11th and 17th, wheat and other alimentary substances admitted free. April 22, free entry of above articles extended to December 31, 1868. 1869. July 12, new tariff in force from August 1. Duties reduced on certain classes of articles about five per cent. Premium of $3.50 per 100 kilogrammes on exports of sugar refined in Spain. Dis- criminating duties abolished. Duties on agricultural implements one per cent. ad valorem. Duties per 100 kilos on rice, cleaned, $1.60; oats, 52c. ; barley and maize, 45c. ; wheat, 60c. ; and peas, beans, etc., 60c. On flour 50 per cent. in addition to the grain of which it is made. (For full schedule, see U. S. Monthly Statistics, July, 1869.) 1878. Breadstuffs still permitted to be imported. 1874. 66 66 66 U 66 66 Delmar.] 336 [Jan. 15, COMMERCE. As increase of commerce is far from being a necessary indication of increase of wealth, I do not offer as evidence of progress in Spain the increase which has lately taken place in her commerce, both foreign and domestic. But as I wish to show the character of her foreign commerce, particularly the exports, and still more particularly the exports of agri- cultural produce, I herewith append a complete table of the exports of 1872, and such other statistics on the subject as will tend to show the nature and extent of the agricultural and mineral products of Spain. Table Showing the Quantities of the Principal Articles Hntered for Hxpor- tation at the Custom-Houses of Spain (ineluding the Balearic Isles) during the Calendar Year 1872. 1 Principal Articles, Quantities. Principal Articles. Quantities. Olive oil, pounds..... 2.2.22... 42,187,505|| Wheat flour, lbs.............-. 10,379,672 Spirits (aguardiente), gallons.. LSPA SOTAIIISKORN 05 MOS coccoacac0n00s0GceH0C 10,460,624 Preserved food, pounds......... 4, 673, CHBWYOOL, THI WO cosobesb0c0ecc00c 9,708,472 Corks: manufactured. M...... le 015, 312||Legumes: carob beans, lbs.... 16,881,755 in SAI, WI .cocbdasdane 3,212,532, garbanzos, Ibs.. 7,576 205 TH TONGS, Ws odcdco4oe 1,248,643 Deans, lbs.. 646,672 Esparto:) crude, IbS............ 104,789,203} | French beans, ‘Ibs. 1,338,113 manufactured, lbs.... 6,201,923) |Metals: quicksilver, lbs...... 4,180,946 Spices: anise, lbs.............. 1,379,697 copper, ingots, lbs... 780,960 SatiromemlO Sicvyelreseierel 174,900 THROM, WOE soc¢coeadca000 12,476,058 GwaAUID, WOSs36s000¢0n5000 458,858 lead, lbs 207,701,747 pepper, ground, lbs.... 846,270/ Ores: zine, lbs 73,696,800 Dry Fruits: almonds. Ibs...... 8,229,487 OOOO, NOS sccopocooncsc0 584,987,900 hazelnuts, lbs....| 12,257, 696 | TiRoVa, MoS 4 5a0n500000 c0ca05 Pitts eral 00) peanuts, Ibs....... 4, 278, 446) OUNE, M5 cocoscsdc00ecs 105,015,984 raisins, Ibs........ 110,471,456 Paper} ilibstinseesasoerieclseececies 4,304,582 all other, lbs...... 10, 190, 715 | |Soup pastry (maccaroni Fresh Fruits: lemons, lbs...... 15, 847, ZRH; GOs) WOS coococoop0oces0n600c0 5,189,497 oranges, M...... "p4T, ,400/ Taiconices Loot wloSeacmeeceeeer 13,719 741 grapes, lbs ...... 9, 620, 080) extract and paste,lbs 1,604,931 all other, lbs.... 2, 485, UO Sule, Wess sop ssocossscas000 00000 328,908,186 Wattle smmumiberyaerecresceeeeee 26, 946) Silk, raw, lbs........ Sistcieeetalee 809,661 Grain: Canary seed, lbs........ 7,051 Wines: white, gal’s........... 1,250,200 rice, MSs a daascpene pee 10,934,605 common, gal’s........ 24 564,700 oats, WSos5 4600 3,472,341 do. of Catalonia, gal’s 2,645,400 barley, lbs 11,862,480 sherry and port, gals 9,120,400 TAY, MOBsco-05 Gagssaeood96 6,394,923 Malaga, gal’s. 4 567,000 WAetity WO scsosacabso0ds 113,809, 762| | other sweet, gal’s, 43,000 The most valuable articles of export at the present time are, 1. Wines; 2. Metals and ores ; 3. Fruits; 4. Breadstuffs: 5. Oil; 6. Cork ; 7. Cat- tle; 8. Salt; 9. Wool; 10. Esparto; 11. Silk; and 12. Spirits; and generally in the order named. Wines.—The export of wine consists chiefly of sherries, which had usually amounted to some 8,000,000 or 10,000,000 gallons per annum, but in 1873 rose to 15,000,000 gallons, and of common red wines, which had usually amounted to some 25,000,000 gallons per annum, but in 1878 rose to 40,000,000 gallons. The following remarks on these two classes of wine will doubtless be read with interest : About one-fifth of the entire shipments of so-called sherry wine from the Cadiz district consists of low and spurious compounds mixed in Spain, and worth in Cadiz from $50 to $100 per butt of 30 arrobas, say, net, 100 gallons. About two-fifths consist of ordinary sherry, worth from 1875. ] 337 [ Delmar. $125 to $225 per butt. About three-tenths consist of good sherry, worth from $225 to $350 per butt. The balance, one-tenth, consists of superior sherry, worth from $350 to $1,000 per butt. The best wines come from the district between Port St. Mary and Jerez, the low grades from other parts of Spain. The grapes are pressed with the feet, cased in sandals of esparto grass, and the wine has an earthy, tarry flavor, which is only removed from it after doctoring. The spurious compounds contain some of this wine, to which are added Ger- man potato-spirits, water, molasses, litharze and otheradulterations. It is these two last grades of wine that the British chiefly sell and Americans buy. Indeed we buy from the British if even we buy in Cadiz ; for there a large portion of the houses engaged in the trade are English. The wines are entered at our custom-houses as containing less than 22 per cent. of alcohol ; while they really often contain 40 per cent. There are four substances generally used in the manufacture of sherry. First, gypsum ; second, a coloring substance ; third, a sweetening sub- stance ; fourth, a spirituous substance. It has already been stated how these adjuncts are supplied to the low grade sherries ; it only remains to state what substitutes for those mentioned are used in the preparation of the medium grades. First, gypsum ; second, color-wine, or wine boiled down to the consis- tency of sugar-house syrup; third, sweet wine, or wine made from raisins ; fourth, brandy. Wine made in this manner is tolerably palata- ble. Most of the ‘‘crack’’ dry sherries belong to this class. They are entered at our custom-houses as containing not over 22 per cent. of alcohol. They really contain from 32 to 36 per cent. The only really pure sherry wine is Amontillado, but as every sort of trash is called Amontillado, it is difficult for any one but an expert to distinguish the genuine article from the spurious. However, it is pretty safe to say that little or none of it comes to the United States. Amonutillado is not always the product of design. The quantity made in Spain is quite small, and the wine often the result of accident. To make this wine, the fruit is gathered some weeks earlier than for other sherries. The grapes are trodden by peasants with wooden sabots on their feet. The wine is then allowed to ferment for two months or more, when it is racked and placed in depositories above ground. Of a hundred butts but two or three may turn out Amontillado. This Amontillado is neither the product of particular vineyards, nor always the result of a careful or special mode of treatment, but the unaccountable offspring of several modes of treatment before, during and after fermentation. Fair Amontillado (by nomeans the best) is worth in Cadiz $1.50 to $2 a bottle. It probably cannot be purchased in the United States at any price. There is not a drop of spirits added to it, and no sherry wine containing foreign alcohol can be Amontillado. I am assured by the Spanish Consul at Philadelphia that a very con- Delmar. | 308 {Jan. 15, siderable proportion of the so-called French claret wines, mostly the lower grades, are compounds, made of Spanish wines, imported chiefly at Cette. These wines are mixed with water, cheap spirits, a purple-col- or'ng matter, and some other substances. They are then bottled, labeled with high sounding names and exported to all parts of the world as Bor- deaux wines. In many cases the adulteration is carried so far that there is scarcely a trace of wine in the mixture, and what there is of it is the common vino tinto of Spain, worth about 22 to 23 cents a gallon in that country. (The total value of the 37,262,126 gallons of this class of wine exported from Spain in 1873 was $8, 467,785. ) The following table shows the quantities of wines exported from the Peninsula of Spain and the Balearic Isles during the years 1872 and 1873 : Exportations of Domestic Wines from Spain in the Calendar Years 1872 and 1873, respectively. 1872. 1875. CLIN) Oe NNTESEEE GALLONS. | GALLONS. Maui WAS Gogoocdooccacsnoccononcasuon dood 1,250, 153 1,409,110 GommiomiwAWes jercilseietuee vsesle sii) leisure cree 24,564,686) 37,262,126 DittovotsCatalomiavaycisacieee seca tein 2,645,432 2,713,083 Jerez (sherry) wineS............ dione Dooodss 9,120,389) 14,840,609 WGibeey WANE souec pbosconsonoabocoDbboSKSuC 566, 504 315,998 Rich wines (generosos) from various parts.... 43,001 120,518 MO ballisescsog of cic) < 3962.75 = 92,255,000 ” (7). Dividing (7) by (2) we obtain 1.0284, which is nearly equivalent to V1.0645.* Therefore v, for Earth is nearly, if not precisely, equivalent to planetary velocity in a circular orbit at the centre of gravity of Sun and Jupiter. Il. For Jupiter : The uncertainty of the elements in this case precludes the possibility of any minute verification of hypothesis, but it is evident that the point at which the gravitating waves must act,in order that the dissociating velocity of Jupiter (», = Z) may equal the limit of planetary velocity, must be at or near Jupiter’s surface. For the mass of (Jupiter = Harth) 1 8.863 f P = SS) SE (lS) = Sls eee ; die fare P = Fos0.14 4,43 ( sa00) 308.92. The apparent diameter of Jupiter is variously estimated, from 3/ 13/’ to 3/ 25/’.5 at Earth’s mean distance from Sun. Dividing by 2><8/’.86, we find for diameter (2/ = ©) 10.89 @ 11.60, and for g (4 + @) 2.8 @ 2.6. The estimates for the time of rotation (¢) vary between 17700” and 17880°°” Therefore : % = 2 gi Seale @ 1,014,283” per. The geometri- cal mean of these possible extreme values, differs from the value found for Earth by only 7-10 of one percent. The other planets, both of the Jovian and of the Telluric belt, would all be dissipated and absorbed in their primaries before they had attained the dissociating velocity of Jupi- ter and Earth. This intimate dependence of planetary aggregation, dis- sociation, and rotation, upon Solar attraction, and the dependence of Solar aggregation, dissociation, rotation, and planetary revolution upon * 7/1.0645 — 1.0317. € Chase. ] 346 [Jan. 1, 1875. the velocity of light, therefore point to the same unity of force as has been indicated by the modern researches in heat, electricity, and magnetism. III. For light and Terrestial Gravity : If g = equatorial gravitating velocity, and ¢ = a sidereal year, 2 alee Heke I 4" = 365.256 < 86400 + 5280 + 1.0645 = 185,880 m per 73 second. This corresponds to the velocity of light, giving a Solar distance of 497.83 185,380 = 92,287,700 miles. VI. Wave Lengths: The primary radius, 1.0645>< 92,255, 00063360 + 214.86 — 28,959,800, - 000 inches. Dividing by the number of wave-lengths* in radius, 66456 pie in. The radial 229181 waves should be accompanied by deflected tangential waves of three kinds, viz. : (10,4, we find for the value of one wave length, u = x 1 DS a = {450692 = wave of simple rotation. 1 5 Oy = 7) = 2. — we ir - orbit. 1 7a934.” wave of circular orbit 3. Wy = 2ru = Man in. = wave of virtual fall doing work — Solar ‘ orbital wave — 4 w.. According to Eisenlohr,} the wave-lengths in the diffraction spectrum are as follows: U tini : in pper actinic, Tase80 Lower actinic, or upper luminous, 71940 in. Lower luminous, or upper thermal, 35070 iN. V. Miscellaneous : Among other note-worthy accordances in this connection are the fol- lowing : 1. The approximate equality of Mass (2/ + ©) to distance fallen through in (time of fall to centre = time of circular revolution). 2, The equality of orbital o/s viva in Jupiter and Saturn. 3. The equality in the ratio of orbital v/s viva (VW = 6) to the ratio of orbital to radial waves (w = 2). 4, The connection of Sun’s radius, modulus of light, and the limits of the planetary system ; the velocity of planetary revolution and Solar rotation being equal at 37 ©); v. of revolution at 37 U (= ) == % Ot rotation at 3. 5. The stellar-solar parabola, between a. Centauri and Sun, and its relations to the planetary distances. * Loc. cit. +Am., Jour. Se. [2] xxii, 400. Feb. 19, 1875. ] DAT [Sellers. AN OBITUARY NOTICE OF MR. JOSEPH HARRISON, JR. By CoLEMAN SELLERS. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 19, 1875.) When we review the life of any prominent individual and attzmpt t) analyze the motives that seem to hive actuated him, and which may have led to his success, we can scircely avoid noting a resemblance to other lives ; we find the same results following the same general course of action inall. This orderly sequence of events leads us to think we are subject to some fixed law, with which law seemingly accidental causes may interfere to give endless variety in detail, yet not materially to alter the result. That the good and obedient son, the industrious apprentice, the faithful workman, should in time grow to be the much-respected and influential citizen, seems so natural and orderly that life in such a case appears as if “it was a sum duly cast up giving results in particular figures.”’ In rendering tribute to the memory of our late associate, Joseph Harri- son, Jr., by reviewing the prominent events of his life and recording the results accomplished by him, the high position held by him in his latter days demands a careful consideration of the orderly growth of a life which had its beginning in the enforced economy and habits of industry: of the apprentice and in a few years of home training. So far as any chronological record of his life is needful, the task you have honored me by imposing on me is rendered easy by his own fore- thought in presenting to his children a well-written autobiography se clear and precise in its narrative that it is difficult to avoid the use of his own words in giving here the outline of his life. Previous to the War of Independence Mr. Harrison’s ancestors seem to have been well-to-do; but his grandfather, who was a large land-holder in New Jersey, entered the army, and afterwards neglecting his personal affairs, died in 1787, leaving but little for his family. His son, Joseph Harrison, was sent to Philadeiphia when fourteen years old, and was employed by Mr. Charles French, grocer, whose daughter he married in 1803. He seems to have been unfortunate in business, and the subject of this memoir was born, as he says, in the dark hours of his familyhistory. This was on Septem- ber 20th, 1810, so that Joseph Harrison, Jr., was 633 years of age at the time of his death, March 27th, 1874. In his youth he seems to have been fond of reading the few books at his command, and very early he evinced a strong inclination towards mechanical pursuits. Following this bent after what schooling he could obtain before he was fifteen years old, he was at that age inden- tured to Frederick D,. Sanno, in the old district of Kensington, to learn the art and mystery of steam engineering. In about two years the failure of Mr. Sanno canceled his indentures. He considered the change that this necessitated a good thing for himself, as he was then enabled with some A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2s Sellers. ] 348 [Feb. 19, experience to enter a better shop upon more advantageous terms. His second employer was ‘‘an uneducated Englishman, but avery good work- man,’’ and in his shop he soon became more proficient, and at the age of twenty, before he was yet free, he was made foreman of part of the establish- ment and had under him thirty men and boys. At the expiration of his apprenticeship to James Flint, he continued with the firm, then Hyde & Flint, for one year, and left them to take employment with Philip Gar- rett, a Quaker gentleman, who had a small shop for the manufacture of ‘‘small lathes, presses for bank-note engravers and the like.’’ He remained with Mr. Garrett until 1833, then went to Port Clinton, Penn- sylvania, to start a foundry for Mr. Arundus Tiers, with whom his father was engaged as accountant. This was the end of the varied experience as a mechanician preceding his career as a cunstructer of locomotives. In 1834 he was employed by William Norris, then engaged with Colonel Long in building locomotives (rhe design of the latter-named gentle- man). Here he obtained his first insight into that branch of the mechanic arts that was afterwards to be his life-work. He seems to have considered this part of his mechanical education as of a negative character, as he said ‘‘he had been schooled in the midst of fail- ures,”’? so that when in 1835 he was engaged by Messrs. Garrett & Eastwick as foreman, and was intrusted with the designing of the locomotive ‘‘Samuel D. Ingham,’’ he endeavored to avoid what he believed to be ‘‘ the errors with which he had been made familiar.” This engine was considered a success, and led to the construction of others like it. On December 15, 1836, he married Miss Sarah Poulterer, whom he had met in New York in January, 1835. After his marriage, in 1837, he became a partner in the firm of Garrett, Eastwick & Co., invest- ing jis skill, the only capital he had, in the venture. In 1839, when Mr. Garrett retired from business, the firm took the title of Eastwick & Harri- son. In 1840, he designed an engine at the request of Mr. Moncure Robinson, of the Reading Railroad. This engine, named the ‘‘Gowan & Marxz,’’ ‘‘ proved to be, for its weight (eleven tons), the most efficient locomotive for freight purposes that had been built anywhere.”’ This event seems to have been the turning point in his life, for two Russian Engineers, Colonels Melnekoff and Kraft, were in America at that time studying the railway system of this country. They saw this engine and were so well pleased with its operation that they procured tracings from the drawings of it, and took them to Russia. This style of engine seems to have been adopted by the authorities in Russia, and Mr. Harrison was in- vited to visit that country, money being forwarded to defray his expenses. He was cordially received, and in 1843, in association with his part- ner, Mr. Eastwick, and Mr. Thomas Winans, of Baltimore, he concluded a contract with the Russian Government to build the locomotives and rolling stock for the St. Petersburg and Moscow Railway. This contract amounted to three million dollars; the work to be done in five years, it being conditioned that all the work should be done in St. Peters>urg, by 1875.] n49 [Sellers. Russian workmen or such as could be hired on the spot. It was at this critical period of his life that he experienced ihe advantages of his early training. The great work was to be carried on in a land where every kind of corruptioa was the rule; where all the subordinate officials of the land fed and fattened on the commissions c llected from those who had contracts with the Government. The payments were to be made as the amount of work completed; inspectors were to examine into the work done, and report as to the correctness of the monthly statements. The inspectors, for a pecuniary consideration, were ready to endorse any statement, no matter how false, yet would threaten annoyance if they were not bribed. This, added to the trouble of working inexperienced hands, made the task of the contractors the more difficult. Mr. Harrison had been told by Count Bobrinski that the officials would wear them out long before the term of their contract wasended. The Count, meeting him in after years, spoke of the conversation and said the success of the American contractors had been a mystery to every one. They did not understand how that con- tract and subsequent ones could have been carried out without resorting to the usual practice of doing Government work in that country. In their efforts to act fairly and honestly in their work they seem to have been upheld by all the higher officers, and their course won the confidence and approval of the Emperor himself, who was a careful observer of the work as it progressed. In all of Mr. Harrison’s successes under these many difficulties his character as a cautious, prudent and strictly upright man was manifest, and was clearly the outgrowth of his early training. The confidence inspired led to other contracts, as in 1850 to one to maintain the moveable machinery of the road already equipped by them for the term of twelve years. This contract bears date August 25, 1850, and the parties to it were Messrs. Joseph Harrison, Jr., Thomas Winans and Wm. L. Winans, the latter having purchased Mr. Eastwick’s interest in the contract of 1848, previous to its completion. As an evidence of the Imperial favor, valuable diamond rings had been given to the members of the firm, and Mr. Harrison was made the recipient of the ribbon of the Order of St. Ann, to which was attached a massive gold medal, upon which was inscribed in the Russian language the words ‘ For zeal.”’ This honor was conferred upon him at the time of the completion of the bridge across the Neva, accomplished by the firm during the time of the first contract, which had been extended one year for this purpose. Dur- ing Mr. Harrison’s residence abroad he seems to have noticed with inter- est the effect of the art galleries on the working people, and when he returned home he at all times advocated the foundation of public art museums open to the people at all times, and was active in the establish- ment of one in our Park. He frequently expressed his opinion of the need of art culture in improving the taste of artisans and rearing among us competent designers. An appreciation of the beautiful prompted him to collect about him many paintings and other works of art, which served to beautify the home he soon built for himself in his native city. Sellers. ] 390 [Feb. 19, It was in 1852 that he returned from abroad and located himself in Phila- delphia to enjoy the rest from active business cares needful after his many years of labor. The ample means that had rewarded his enter- prise abroad enabled him to gratify his taste for art and later to do good service to the world in his crowning achievement yet to be alluded to— his safety steam-boiler. Soon after his return to America he built the house which was his home for the remainder of life. The planning and arranging of many of the seemingly minor details of this building gave him pleasing employ- ment for some years. It was at this time that the writer became acquainted with him, was made aware of his mode of thought and his ability as a mechanic. He can bear testimony to the fact, of interest it may be to mechanics only, that hidden under the plaster of that house are very many ingenious devices to insure stability and to economize space by the use of iron in forms and shapes not commonly known to architects at that time. These were special adaptations suggested by a mind fertile in resources, familiar with the use of iron and possessed of a knowledge of how to form it and use it to good advantage. He chose to invest much of his means in real estate, and numerous fine buildings which serve to beautify the city were erected by him. At one time he advocated the concentration of all the railroad termini at one central point in the city, and to combine with the depot commodious hotel accom- modation. With this end in view he attempted to purchase land, notso much as a speculative movement as to render sucha plan possible. It is believed that he felt disappointed when this scheme was shown to be impractica- ble. In this connection it may be well to mention that in 1860 he desired to return to Europe with his family, and upon the eve of his de- parture he sent a message to the writer requesting him to call to see him. He then said that he desired to tell one who understood him why it was that he was about to leave so pleasant a home. He spoke of the many plans he had had in view to benefit the city, and said with sorrow that he felt that his motives had been misconstrued, and in some respects his efforts had been failures on this account. He desired to go abroad, to be absent for some years; that while away his plans should be forgotten and when he returned he could begin again in some other direction. Previous to this, in 1858, he mentioned to his friends an invention he had made to obviate the danger of disastrous explosions in steam-boilers. Starting with the idea that the strength of any structure is the strength of its weakest point, he aimed to construct a steam-boiler built up of units of some given strength. He claimed that a sphere of metal, say of cast iron, might be formed with its walls not more than three-eighths of an inch in thickness and of such a diameter as would establish its bursting pressure at may be 1000 pounds per square inch. Such a sphere would doubtless be safe for the pressures usually required by users of high- pressure steam. He proposed casting these spheres in groups of two and four, uniting them in one plane by curved necks and making openings at 1875. ] 301 [Sellers. right-angles to these uniting necks in the form of half necks with rebate joints to match with similar joints on the other groups. 13.53 Dede hi as 11.80 12.00 Mine No.3.....-.. aes 265. CLOG cs 7.80 12.30 INIiwp sees eboo bene TEE asin 0: 0c 6.90 9. ante Gas Coal.. 14.67 RB 86 ob 12. 14, Feb. 5, 1875.] 361 [Cone. The heating power of these coals compares favorably with that had from the majority of semi-bituminous and many bituminous coals. They should be burned in boilers adapted for use with bituminous coals. As gas coals, Excelsior and Mine No. 3 possess fair qualities. They yield a very large amount of gas, and with a little enrichment (either by the admixture of cannel or a small amount of oils) will prove serviceable to the gas-maker. If these samples are from outcrop or from near the surface, it will most likely be found that the quality of the coal will improve, as it is obtained from a greater depth; so that without any limitation in the quantity of gas yielded, they will compare more favorably with the east- ern bituminous coals for gas purposes. Respectiully, CUARLES M. CRESSON, M.D. SYNOPSIS OF THE VERTEBRATA OF THE MIOCENE OF CUMBERLAND COUNTY, NEW JERSEY. By E. D. Cope. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, Feb. 5, 1875.) The marls of the Miocene period appear in a limited area in South- western New Jersey, chiefly in Cumberland County. Their mineral character is similar to that of the marls of the same age in the Southern Atlantic States, viz.: a calcareous clay containing small percentages of phosphate of lime and potash. In New Jersey its strata abound in shells, and Vertebrate remains are rathercommon. Timothy A. Conard, the father of our Marine Tertiary Geology, as early as 1832, in his ‘‘Fos- sil Shells of the Tertiary,’’ called it the upper marine formation, and stated that it ‘‘ first appears in New Jersey, southeast of Salem, and con- tinues throughout all the States south of this.’’ Professor Rogers, in his Geology of New Jersey, published in 1840, p. 2938, calls the beds Ter- tiary, and remarks ‘‘ though this proposition (of shells) might rather im- ply an Eocene date for the deposit .... while on the other hand all the species are either identical with those of the Miocene of Maryland and Virginia, or exhibit a close analogy of form.’’ In a memoir read before the American Philosophical’ Society, and published in the volume of Transactions for 1837, p. 334 Prof. Rogers, assigns the corresponding beds in Eastern Virginia to the Miocene period. ‘The evidence derived from the vertebrate fossils does not conflict with this view. A full ae- count of the geology of the formation as it appears in New Jersey, is given by Prof. G. H. Cook, in his report ef the Geological Survey of New Jersey, 1868. _A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 2U Cope. ] 362 [ Feb. 6. ELASMOBRANCHII. LAMNA ELEGANS. LAMNA CUSPIDATA. LAMNA DENTICULATA. OXYRHINA XIPHODON. OXYRHINA MINUTA. OTODUS APPENDICULATUS. CARCHARODON MEGALODON. CARCHARODON ANGUSTIDENS. HEMIPRISTIS SERRA. ZYGAENA PRISCA. GALEOCERDO ADUNCUS. GALEOCERDO EGERTONII. NOTIDANUS PRIMIGENIUS. AETOBATIS SP. MyLIOBATIs SP. ZYGOBATIS SP. PLINTHICUS STENODON, Cope, Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1867, p. 316. PRISTIS AMBLODON, Cope, ibidem, 312. ACTINOTERI. PHYLLODUS CURVIDENS, Marsh, Proceed. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1870, p. 229. - CROMMYODUS IRREGULARIS, Cope, Proceed. Amer. Philos. Society, 1869, p. 248; Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1869, p. 311. -PHASGANODUS GENTRYI, Cope, sp. nov. Represented by one of the long teeth of the anterior part of the jaws. Jt is slender and curved backward, and the anterior view presents a cut- ting edge fron the apex to the base ; there is no cutting edge nor angle .on the posterior face, unless it be at the apex, which is broken off in the specimen. On one side the cementum is smooth; on the other, and posteriorly, the crown is keeled-striate from the base to near the apex. Length preserved, .010; long diameter at base, .0022; do. near apex, .0020; short diameter at base, .0012. Dedicated to my friend Thomas C. Gentry, of Philadelphia, an acute observer of nature. SPYRAENODUS SPECIOSUS, Leidy, Sphyraena speciosa, Leidy, Proceed. Acad, Nat. Sciences, 1856, p. 221. SPHYRAENODUS SILOVIANUS, Cope, sp. nov. Represented principally by a portion of the dentary bone, supporting five teeth, and containing alveoli for four others. The jaw is compressed and slightly curved and with smooth surface. The teeth are subequal, compressed, rather short and acute, and without roots; at their bases the alveolar borders are notched. Length of fragment, .020; depth at middle, .004 ; length of a. tooth, .003; long diameter at base, .002. 2 ‘ 1875. ] 363 [Cape. REPTILIA. TRIONYX LIMA, Cope, Ext. Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1870, p. 153. Pl. vii. Fig. 14. PUPPIGERUS GRAND&VUS, Leidy, Chelone grandeva, Leidy, Proceed. Acad. Philadelphia, 1861, p. 203; Puppigerus grandevus, Cope, Ext. Baltr. Rept. N. A., 1870, p. 235. THECACHAMPSA SERICODON, Cope, Proceed Acad. Phila., 1867, p. 143 ; Ext. Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1870, p. 43, Fl. v. Fig. 8. INCERTAE SEDIS. AGABELUS PORCATUS, Cope, gen. et sp. nov. Established on an osseous body which nearly resembles the elongate muzzle of a Priscodelphinus without teeth, but with the alveolar lines ex- cavated into a deep groove on each side. The superior surface possesses a Shallow median groove as in most delphinoid cetaceans, while the sup- posed palatal face is plane and sharply defined by the lateral grooves. The latter are bounded above by a thin overhanging border on each side, and their fundus is marked by a series of nutritious foramena of small size, apparently corresponding to the positions of teeth of other genera. With this imperfect material it is impossible to decide positively on the character of this genus, but I suspect that it will be found to be allied to the sword-dolphins of the genus Rhabdosteus, Cope. Char. Specif. The general form is depressed, and the outline tapers regularly to near the apex. The upper face presents two convexities, one on each side of the median groove, but towards the base these parts are not exactly symmetrical. There is a narrow bevel descending to the margin on each side. The grooves are wide and deep, anteriorly wider than the palatal rib which separates them, and opening outward as well a; downwards. Bone moderately dense, surface not covered with the cementum and faintly longitudinally line-grooved. Total length of frag- ment, M. .065 ; width do. at base, transversely .012, vertically, .006 ; with palate at base .007 ; at broken extremity, .002; depth at do. .0035. MAMMALIA. SQUALODON ATLANTICUS, Leidy, Cope, Proceed. Academy, Philada., 1867, p. 153; Macrophoca atlantica, Leidy, 1. ¢. 1856, p. 220. ZARHACHIS VELOX, Cope, Proceed. Acad. Philadelphia, 1869 (March). PRISCODELPHINUS HARLANI, Leidy, Proceed. Acad. Phila., 1851, p. 327. PRISCODELPHINUS LACERTOSUS, Cope, Delphinapterus lacertosus, Cope, ibidem, 1868, p. 190. PRISCODELPHINUS GRAND&VUS, Leidy, ibidem, 1851, p. 327. Tretosphys grandevus, Cope, ibidem, 1869 (March). PRISCODELPHINUS URAEUS, Cope, Tretosphys wraeus, Cope, 1869 (March). The four preceding species may be regarded as congeneric for the present, as they are similar in the forms of the vertebre, especially in 6 2 Frazer. ] 04 [Mareh 19, the lumbar diapophyses. A few years ago I defined a genus, based on several species from the Miocene of Maryland, in which the lumbar diapophyses are spiniform. Supposing the Priscodelphinus harlani of Leidy to possess the same character I retained the same generic name for the Maryland species. After an examination of considerable material from the New Jersey locality, including bones of P. harlanii, I have failed to observe a single species with the spinous processes alluded to. It thus becomes evident that Priscodelphinus must be retained for the species termed by me 7’retosphys, while that for which I retained the name Pris- codelphinus must receive anew one. For this I propose Belosphys with B. spinosus, Cope, as type, and B. atropius, B. conradi and B. stenus as species. At the same time I add that the presence of Jzacanthus coelos- pondylus, Cope, in the New Jersey Miocene mentioned in Cook’s Geologi- cal Survey of New Jersey by the writer, is doubtful. Total number of species, thirty-three. ORIGIN OF THE LOWER SILURIAN LIMONITES OF YORK AND ADAMS COUNTIES. By PERsIFOR FRAZER, JR. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, March 19, 1875.) The three great deposits of Lower Silurian limestone which occur in this State, are: Ist. That of the Chester Valley which begins at Willow Grove, in Montgomery county, and terminates about a mile west of Minerstown, in Lancaster county; 2d. The great Lancaster and York county basin which, commencing about a mile northeast of Morgantown, crosses the Susquehanna River in two prongs, the longer (most northerly) of which terminates almost on Mason and Dixon’s line in the southeast corner of Adams county; and 3d. The great valley, par excellence, which enters the State at Easton on the Delaware River, and passes into Mary- land in a wide belt, which stretches fifteen miles east and the same dis- tance west of Middleburg, Franklin county. Accompanying all these limestone basins are belts of iron ore which crop out at tolerably uniform distances below their edges. In the still lower measures of the Silurian, and above the Potsdam sandstone, are other belts of ore entirely disconnected from the limestone ores. In the first Report of the Geology of Pennsylvania (Vol. I, p. 218), it is stated of the Rathfon Ore Banks of Lancaster county, that in this, as in most of the other iron veins connected with the magnesian limestones, 1875.] : 305 [ Frazer, the position of the ore is precisely at the junction of the limestone and slate. ‘‘It is indeed only a very ferruginous variety of the metamor- phosed slate regularly stratified and intercalated with it.”’ Again, ‘‘ west of the Gantner Ore Diggings,”’ zh cs “ = 12.27 cubic inches of pyrite in every square inch of area and 5 feet of thickness of these slates. One cubic inch of pyrite weighs 126.1 grains. In the above thickness and area of these slates there are then 1547.25 grains, or in each square foot of the same thickness 222803.57 grains — 31.81 lbs. This would give us for every mile of outcrop and 1000 feet of arch above the present surface the enormous sum of 168,009,600 lbs. = 75,004 tons of 2240 lbs. But the metallic iron in this mass of slates one mile in length and five feet in thickness would weigh 47729.7 tons, and supposing it to be also oxidized, the anhydrous oxide would weigh 68185.2 tons and as limonite 79691.5 tons. Assuming ; of this to be washed into the soil and ? to be left as earthy iron ochre in the pits originally filled by pyrite in the slates still in place and only partially decomposed,—which lie in juxtaposition to the ore ; then eyery outcrop of these slates one mile long and one foot deep has con- tributed about 20 tons to the deposits. But the entire mass of the rocks Frazer. ] 368 [March 19, which were formerly above the present surface have been washed away, and with them their 47,730 tons of metallic iron, or their 79,691 tons of limonite (if all this iron was hydroxidized), for every 1000 feet of slope, 5 feet of thickness and 1 mile of outcrop. Added to the smaller contri- bution of the partialiy weathered slates at the surface, this gives the total of 79,711 tons of limonite per mile, which has been gradually carried down the dip and segregated among the clays. But these slates are of very great thickness—at least 100 times what has been assumed. Allow- ing, then, for all loss by transportation into the sea, and through breaks in the continuity of the clay beds to great depths under ground, and for combination with the silicates to form double salts, we still have more than enough to account for all the largest ore banks. It willbe asked, why these deposits should bear so close a geographical relation to the limestone basins ? An example taken from Feigley & Brillhart’s bank in the Dunkard Valley, one mile east of Logansville, is interesting in this connestion. Here is the southwest limit of the easterly portion of the small limestone trough which runs parallel with and south of the greater York county synclinal. About a quarter of a mile east of Brillhart’s works there occurs a rock almost indistinguishable from the other slates but which contains + 33 per cent. (?) of calcium carbonate. This indicates either that these slates have been subjected to a long soakivg with calcium bicarbonate or that the deposits of the carbonate of lime proceeded together with the mechanical deposition of the sediments which formed the slate bed. In reference to the older limonite formations of Lancaster county, it is said (Vol. I, p. 183): ‘‘An interesting inquiry is here suggested as to what can have been the geological atmospheric condition which produced the remarkable percolation which carried down so large an amount of ore out of these ferruginous beds. Was it tepid rain charged with carbonic acid in an early Paleeozoic period? Or could it have been a long filtration . of surface waters such as now soak the earth? Or are we to surmise an action of internal steam issuing upwards through crevices in the strata ina period of crust movement and disturbance? I am inclined to the first conjecture.”’ Dr. Hunt in his essay on metalliferous deposits (XII, Chem. and Geol. Essays, Boston, 1875, p. 229), says: ‘‘The question has been asked me— Where are the evidences of the organic material which was required to produce the vast beds of iron ore found in the ancient crystalline rocks ? I answer that the organic matter was in most cases entirely consumed in producing these great results, and that it was the large proportion of iron diffused in the soils and waters of those early times which not only rendered possible the accumulation of such great beds of ore, but oxidized and destroyed the organic matter, which in later ages appear in coals, lignites, pyroschists and bitumens. Some ofthe carbon * * is, however, still preserved in the form of graphite,’’ &c. With reference to the Ferric Sulphide or pyiite, the same author 1875. ] 369 [ Frazer. ascribes its formation to the deoxidizing agency of decaying organic matters out of contact with air on soluble sulphate of lime and magnesia, giving rise, if carbonic acid be present, to Hydrogen Sulphide which ‘“‘in some conditions not well understood contains two equivalents of sulphur to one of iron.’’ He adds that he has observed that the ferrous sulphide or proto-sulphide of iron in presence of a per-salt of iron loses one-half of its iron, the rest being converted to Ferric Sulphide.”’ It seems at least a possible explanation for this more prominent de- termination of limonite along the edge of limestone, that by the oxida- tion of the pyrites of the slates an equivalent of sulphuric acid in addi- tion to that necessary to form Ferric Sulphate has been produced. That this molecule of free sulphuric acid in its passage over the mica and chlorite slates has dissolved out part of their alkalies, especially soda. That this solution of sodium sulphate has mingled in the clay beds below with the solution of calcium bicarbonate, produced by the drainage of rain waters over the limestone beds, giving rise to sodium bicarbonate and calcium sulphate. That this sodium bicarbonate reacting on the Ferrous Sulphate has precipitated Hydro-Ferrous Carbonate which has been by oxidation rapidly converted to Ferric Hydrate, while the Ferric Sulphate has been immediately thrown down as hydrous oxide. This, be it re- peated, is simply one of many explanations which may suggest them- selves of the observed fact that the limonite deposits are more frequent and extensive in the neighborhood of limestone deposits. But though the solutions from such basins may favor the deposition of this ore, they are not always necessary. It has been incidentally stated that one proof that the supposed iron in limestones was not necessary for the formation of these limonite beds, is that very similar limonite beds are known to occur miles away from any known outcrop of limestone. Such are the beds referred to as the Ho- facker, Cameron Co., Keeny Banks, &c., &c., which occur in the lower part of York county and the upper portion of Baltimore and Car- roll counties, Maryland. The circumstances of occurrence alike in both cases are the pyritiferous character and the highly inclined strata. The former is much more coarsely porphyritic in the older beds so that the hydroxidation of the pyrites has not been so perfect, and the ore is much more red short than is the case close to the limestone. But the large amount of pyrites in the rocks, in all stages of transition to limonite, would seem to render the search for any other sourse of supply of iron unnecessary. \ ALP. S VOL. XIV. 2V 9 Stevenson. ] d10 [Feb. 5, NOTES ON, THE GEOLOGY OF WEST VIRGINIA. IN@s 10? By Jno. J. STEVENSON. PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 5th, 1875.) During July and part of August, 1874, I made a reconnaissance of a portion of West Virginia lying between Rich Mountain and the Ohio River. In this area are included parts of Randolph, Upshur, Harrison, Lewis, Doddridge, Ritchie and Wood counties. To connect this work with that reported in my previous paper, 1 made some examinations in Taylor and Marion counties. This whole region has suffered much from erosion, and its surface is a confused mass of hills and ravines apparently without system. In the eastern portion, that drained by the forks of the Monongahela River, the valleys are usually quite broad and the hills are rounded except in the vicinity of Rieh Mountain, where, owing to the increasing dip, the slopes become quite sharp. In this drainage area the main streams flow across the dip, whence result the broad valleys and gentle slopes observed on Tygarts, Buckhannon, and the West Fork River. On the west side of the divide, separating the Monongahela from Hughes’ River on the Little Kanawha, the conditions are different. There the streams flow, for the most part, with or opposed to the dip, so that one finds the country abrupt and the valleys narrow until he approaches the Ohio. Between Rich Mountain and the Ohio the soil is not very rich, owing to the comparatively small quantity of limestone present. In portions of Randolph and Upshur counties, however, there is much rich land along the ‘‘bottoms,’’ the alluvium being in a measure derived from the lower carboniferous rocks. The western portion of the area is very lean, as the soil has resulted simply from disintegration of the Upper Barren shales or sandstones, or in other localities from similar disintegration of the red argillaceous shales of the Lower Barron Group. It is said that in Doddridge, Ritchie and Wood counties, there is comparatively little land rich enough to yield forty bushels of corn per acre. Over the greater portion of the area, the hills are covered by a dense growth of valuable timber, consisting chiefly of poplar (tulip-tree), red and other oaks, chestnut, beech and maple. The oak and poplar are quite valuable. At the west, much of this timber is floated to the Ohio by way of the Little Kanawha, not a little of it being sent down as single logs from the smaller tributaries. The magnificent timber on Rich Mountain will soon be available, as the obstructions in Buckhannon and Tygarts’ Rivers are to be removed, so as to open the way to Grafton, where immense sawmills have been erected. The availabilities of the country have not been fully tested, and for the * No. I was published in Trans. A. P.8., Vol. XV, p. 16. 1 4 1875. ] 3 ‘ 1 [Stevenson. most part, it is thinly settled. Such of the inhabitants as have means, devote themselves to raising stock or wool, while the poorer classes are wasting their substance by cutting the fine timber into staves or shin- gles. Throughout this whole region, evidences of drift are entirely wanting. The superficial deposits are thin except at the east, where the debris on the hills is so thick as to render satisfactory tracing of the strata almost impossible. Along the northwest Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, one finds frequent proof of the deepening of waterways, for on top of many hills, seventy-five to one hundred feet above the present streams, there occur fresh-water shells similar to those now living in the creeks. Rich Mountain is the western slope of a great anticlinal ridge, whose eastern slope is known as Cheat Mountain. Between the two mountains is the anticlinal valley of Tygarts’ River, whose scenery can hardly be excelled. Along the central line of this valley the dip of the strata is nearly 65° northwest and somewhat less southeast. Taking the Staun- ton pike westwardly, we find the dip diminishing, so that on top of Rich Mountain it is only 18°. Thence the decrease is very rapid, and at Roar- ing Creek the strata are almost horizontal. This condition continues for nearly twelve miles along the pike ; after which the northwest dip is resumed, now 120 feet to the mile, and is retained until about two miles west from Buckhannon. There it is reversed, and we meet the anticlinal fold of Laure] Hill. The plane of this axis crosses the pike about three miles west from Weston, and there the dip is again toward the north- west at the rate of nearly 150 feet per mile. This rate continues for about twenty miles, beyond which the strata become almost horizontal. The Laurel Hill anticlinal crosses the railroad not far from Flemington, and the flattening of the strata begins near Long Run Station, thirty miles farther west. About one-eighth of a mile east from Ellenboro’ and forty-five miles west from Clarksburg, a sharp fault occurs, on whose eastern side the rocks dip almost due east at an angle of 26°, while on the western side the strata are horizontal. The exact line of fault is not exposed, and there is an interval of seventy feet concealed between the points of ob- servation. The approximate horizontality continues westward to within a mile of Petroleum, where the dip becomes eastward and rapidly in- creases, followed west, until just west from that station it becomes 36°. From this point almost to Laurel Junction somewhat more than one mile, the dip is very confused, but a shattered anticlinal can be traced, the rocks meanwhile dipping east or west, as the case may be, at from one to five degrees. Near Laurel Junction the dip becomes five, ten, twenty, forty or even seventy-five degrees westward. In the cut immediately west from that station the rate decreases to five degrees within a space of six feet horizontally, and soon afterwards falls to only ten feet per mile. Beyond this to the Ohio the rocks remain almost horizontal. Stevensen.] [Feb. 5, The section obtained in passing from Rich Mountain to the Ohio em- braces the whole of the Upper Carboniferous as found in West Virginia, and, if begun on the east slope of the mountain, includes also a very large portion of the Lower Carboniferous. The anticlinal valley of Tygarts’ River is cut out of the Lower Carboniferous series, which is well exposed on each wall to the crests of the mountains. On top of Rich Mountain we find the Great Conglomerate forming the crest throughout Randolph county. Onthe western slope of the ridge are the Lower Coals, which pass under the surface before reaching the Buckhannon River in Upshur county. The Lower Barren Group is well exposed toward the foot of the mountain near Roaring Creek, and thence westward in the bluffs for nearly forty miles; but, owing to the flattening of the dip near Roaring Creek, it is the surface series tor only a few miles in the area examined. Northward from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, or, better perhaps, at the State line, the Upper Coal Group finds its eastern outcrop several miles from Laurel Hill, but followed southward this outcrop is seen approaching the crest of the axis until near the railroad it crosses it. Along our southern line the fold becomes very gentle, so that the Pitts- burg crosses its crest and has its outcrop nearly twenty-five miles east from it. The eastern boandary of the group is very tortuous. The Upper Coals extend westward almost to the line of the Ellenboro’ fault, where the Lower Barren Group is thrust up. This continues to the especially dis- turbed area known as the ‘‘ Oil-break,’’ in which the Lower Coal Group is exposed. Beyond the ‘‘ break ”’ to the Ohio River the only rocks ex- posed are those of the Lower Barren. The region lying west from the Ellenboro’ fault will be described separately. The Upper Barren Group is cut off by the Ellenboro’ fault, but east- ward from that for nearly twenty miles its rocks are those covering the surface, those of the Upper Coal Group being found only in the deeper ravines. THe CoaL MEASURES. In this paper the terms, Upper Barren, Upper Coal, Lower Barren, and Lower Coal, as designations of the several groups into which the Coal Measures are naturally divided, are used in precisely the same sense as in my previous paper. UprerR BARREN Group. This group, which includes all the rocks above the Waynesburg Coal, covers a large extent of territory, whose western line is the Ellenboro’ fault. The eastern outcrop is an ill-defined line, passing a little west from Troy, in Gilmer county northward, and coinciding almost with the western line of Lewis county. It crosses the Northwestern Railroad near Wolfe’s Summit, eight miles from Clarks- burg, and running irregularly northeast, reaches the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad about three miles north from Fairmont, passing finally into Pennsylvania nearly four miles west from the Monongahela River. The northwestern boundary in West Virginia is a line passing from the 1875.] 563) [Stevenson. Pennsylvania border near the junction of Ohio and Marshall counties, West Virginia, to a little below Moundsville, on the Ohio River. This is the overlying group in Doddridge, Tyler and Wetzel counties, as well as in the eastern half of Rit:hie and the western portions of Monongalia, Marion, Harrison, Lewis and Gilmer counties. The sudden cutting off of this group by the Ellenboro’ fault and the consequent wearing away of the rocks by erosion prevent us from ob- taining as full a section along this line as may be found farther north, The succession as observed here is as follows : Titi, LG 1. Sandstones and shales....... 400 Qemblackwshaless.cncakencusine cr 2! 8. Coal ‘* Brownsville’’........ 3! Aba OMA GR Acre: wenaeranenae mes eres 20/ H, Samckromesegeccecoososaeccs 5-15 Interval, 38 ft. to 28 ft. GRES Walle wean imma seer ists 3 HCO GUE Macalesats crater sus merece cua: 2 Sta olial eects eas. 20 3 9. Sandstone and some shale.... 55 ; PSEA, 1D ho The total thickness of the group as here exposed is only five hundred and twenty feet. For comparison, I present a condensed form of the excellent section worked out by Mr. I. C.. White,* in southwestern Pennsylvania and northwestern West Virginia : its In. 1. Sandstones and shales,......... 300 5 PAMMGIMVESLONE cable ots sionae sei neioy= cies 1 6 ( 4913 ft. DM SAMSON Cs seven eyevetdersearsrsyeraees 190 § ATS (OOOH Sele CEOS RSE Ot RESTA 1 6 : DEC ANOSLONE yarrctercee ctor tae e iris 95 t Interval, 95 ft. Gy COT G nin d calc saracunnaIe ce ash a cele 2 7. Shale and sandstone........... 85 SeaiMeSLONE ec Ge maeoeie se 3 Interval, 128 ft. Oem inalerrcrctusiscepme a cine mel svope rats 40 WO FaR OG Caen seater) arta steas Wee aa asa 1 4 11S HSE as ocean once n cess tates 10 ) : HOM IMAESTOTIO tre ma trees aee ute 2 Interval, 52 ft. Ba lial OVS spacer etscerae sss s Sane oe 40 j 14. Coal *‘ Brownsville” .......... 2-3 6 HGpMeEH bod Od odode sonumesMeoee 20 t Interval, 20 ft. NG. COGUE Beans m ome eee 1 Les Hall een ae eceinsatarcebera tee mentor ae 5 2 {6° Sandstone, (tl aber etke Jeach } Pnteryals 80760 ft In this section the total thickness is eight hundred and sixty feet. It * Annals Lyceum of Nat. Hist., Vol. XI, p. 46. rd Stevenson. } 3 ( 4 [ Feb. 5. will be seen, however, that in my section the strata reach far enough up to include a portion of No. 3, in Mr. White’s section, so that sufficient is found in the south to afford material for comparison of conditions in the two areas. It is noteworthy that the interval between the Waynes- burg and the Brownsville is much greater in the southern than the north- ern section. No. 1 of the section is entirely free from limestone, and consists of compact sandstones and loose shales. At the east, the sandstones greatly preponderate, and are very coarse in grain. Westward they diminish in quantity and are replaced by the shales. These are reddish gray to yellow and usually quite fissile. The whole series is finely exposed along the Northwestern pike, about four miles west from Salem, where the road descends a long steep hill and is merely a shelf, cut out of these rocks. Near Cherry Camp, thirteen miles west from Clarksburg, the base of the series is a bright yellow fissile shale, twenty feet thick, containing many crushed specimens of an aviculopecten. This shale is not persistent, being wanting at all exposures examined farther to the west. The other strata seem to be entirely free from fossils. Along the Northwestern Railroad, the Brownsville* coal is fir st seen at the east end of Brandy Gap Tunnel, ten miles west from Clarksburg. There it was worked formerly, but the banks have been long deserted and no measurement can be made. At the west end of the tunnel the coal is seen about twenty feet above the track and nearly three feet thick, Near Cherry Camp, one mile beyond, it has been worked in the creek bank by stripping. It shows there Shale, 2 ft.; Coal, 9 in.; Bony Coal, 5 in.; Coal, 14-16 in.; total, 2 ft. 6 in. The shale is full of vegetable impressions, some of which are very fine. If this shale could be reached farther in the bank, where it has not been exposed to the action of the weather, the locality would no doubt yield some excellent material to the paleo-botanist. The coal is said to be of very fair quality. Some taken from the same bed where it lies exposed in the stream, about one-fourth of a mile farther west, is said to have been very good. The next exposure was found on the Northwestern pike, somewhat more than five miles west from Salem. The bed is there more complex than at Cherry Camp, and shows the following section : Coal, 9 in.; Shale, 2 ft.; Bituminous shale, 1 ft.; Clay, 3 in.; Coal, 1 ft. to 1 ft. 6 in. The sandstone rests directly on the coal. The bituminous shale con- tains many thin plates of coal and is so carbonaceous throughout that it will burn, though poorly. The coal is said to be quite good, and is mined by stripping. Near the railroad crossing, two miles east from Smithton, this bed was formerly worked. At Smithton its outcrop is * So named by Mr. White, from its importance, near Brownsville, Monongalia county, West Virginia. 1875. ] 379 [Stevenson. seen one hundred and fifteen feet above the Waynesburg, and near West Union it was observed in a railroad cutting, where it appears to be about one foot thick and single. Near Pennsboro’ an old opening is seen twenty feet below the level of the railroad. We there find the following section: Sandstone,—; Shale, 10 ft.; Coal, 1 ft. 10 in.; Compact clay, 3-6 in.; Coal, 8 in. \ The overlying shale is argillaceous below, but becomes arenaceous above and passes gradually into sandstone. The rocks are well exposed in the vicinity for nearly two hundred and fifty feet above the bed and are wholly sandstone and arenaceous shale. The coal seems to be quite good and must contain very little pyrites. The bank has been deserted for nearly twenty years, yet fragments lying on the dump are as sound and fresh-looking as though they had been thrown out withia two or three days. The same bed is mined somewhat on the other side of the railroad. The coal is compact, open-burning, and leaves a pulverulent ash, quite bulky but not heavy. The bed can be traced in the vicinity of the railroad almost to Ellenboro’. The blossom is seen near the junc- tion of the Northwestern pike and the Harrisville road. Near Harrisville its place is shown by a line of springs. On the Staunton pike it was seen only near Smithville, in Ritchie county, where it is one foot thick. ‘The small coal, No. 7, was observed only in the deep cut at the east end of Brandy Gap tunnel. The shale underlying the Brownsville coal is variable in character and thickness. Occasionally the whole mass for thirty-five feet is argillaceous, blue to gray or drab, and quite thinly laminated. At other times, the whole interval between the Brownsville and the Waynesburg is occupied by a coarse sandstone. The Waynesburg sandstone, No. 9, is a well marked and very persist- ent member of the series. It is ordinarily a compact and fine-grained sandstone, and at no place along the railroad is it at all conglomerate. Near Brandy Gap tunnel, where it has been largely quarried by the rail- road company, its lower portion is somewhat flaggy. At Long Run, Smithton and West Union, it stands out in cliffs upon the hill sides, and is compact throughout. On the Staunton pike, it may be seen just west from Troy, where it is somewhat coarser than at the localities just mentioned. Uprer Coan Group. Under this name are included all that series of rocks beginning with the Pitisburg and ending with the Waynesburg coal. Along the Northwestern Railroad the group is well exposed from Clarks- burg west. The general section is approximately as follows : l=? > Stevenson. ] 5) ( 6 [ Feb. 5, Ft. In. 1. Waynesburg Coal. ...2..-..... 4 ) QS alle ease eran iets ceei pee nelsonone 8/ 3. Limestone and shale.......... 6 4, Argillaceousshale............- 20 } Home inMMe SLOM Chyeyaeien leks icrere terete retell 1 6 | 6. Arenaccous shale.............. 30 t Interval, 132 ft. 7. Limestone and shale.......... ti | 8. Variegated shale.............. 8 ' Os ID Rik SINS cogdacdoodebdosodc 6 OM Sand/stomennrececr cries 40 HAUSA ene eey ec peo enter tre icnonsrsionsze cist 6 Wes /Sonnalilloy Cole son5 55650000 680004 2-3 iléy Sirllescadscssocossosdcodosanne 41 \ Interval, 41 ft. 14. Redstone Coal... ...........+. 3-2 NBs TOUROGENs ooagdcosssocdnbaodood 2 16. Limestone and shale........... 8 Interval, 20 ft. sR ial Oreae ene ares areratenas otters mone netats 10 le, Jason COM. oococcsoceandss 6-9 The interval between the Waynesburg and the Sewickly is very much smaller than in the northern portion of the State, where it varies from one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred feet, averaging about one hundred and eighty feet. Near Morgantown, this interval is one hun- dred and eighty, at Fairmont almost the same,* at Clarksburg one hun- dred and sixty, and ten miles west from Clarksburg, as given in the section above. The interval seems to decrease in this direction. Were this evidence absent, the character of the bed itself would leave no room for doubt respecting its identity with the Waynesburg. No satisfactory exposures of this coal were observed except near the railroad. Its blossom is seen on the northside of the railroad near Clarks- burg, at one hundred and sixty feet above the Sewickly. It is worked slightly at about nine miles west from Clarksburg, where it shows four feet of coal, divided nearly midway by a clay parting one foot thick. From this point westward, it was not seen until within two or three miles of Smithton, where there have been numerous openings, nearly all of them now deserted. At all of these, the bed is overlaid by twelve feet of dark argillaceous shale, containing vegetable impressions and holding midway, a layer of calcareous iron ore. At Smithton, the coal is worked by Mr. Smith, at whose bank the following structure is shown : Shale, with vegetable impressions, 4 ft.; Coal, 2 ft. 2 in.; Clay, 3 in.; Coal, 2 in.; Cannel, 3 in.; Shale, dark-gray, fissile, 8 ft.; Coal, 1 ft. 6 in. The coal is not very good, owing to the considerable proportion of sul- phur. The bottom layer yields the best fuel, but as it is mined by strip- * The Sewickly has not been seen at Fairmont, and this calculation is based on the relation of the Waynesburg to the Redstone. 9 1875. ] OUT [Stevenson. ping in the run, the superiority may be owing entirely to removal of the pyrites by the water. The same bed is mined somewhat extensively at West Union, where one finds Shale, 2 to 8 ft.; Coal, Cannel, 3 in.; Clay, 2 in.; Coal, 31 in.; Clay, 4-11 in.; Coal, 6 in.; Fire-clay, 3 ft.; Shale, to road, 7 ft. The overlyirg shale is drab or slate-colored, quite fissile, and contains much nodular iron ore. It exhibits vast numbers of vegetable impres- sions, chiefly Neuropteris, Cyclopteris, Pecopteris and Sphenophyllum. Many of these are beautifully defined and equal those from the same horizon in Monongalia county. This shale varies in thickness at the ex- pense of the sandstone above it. The fire-clay underlylng the coal passes gradually into ferruginous, slightly arenaceous shales, below which, some limestone is seen farther up the stream. The upper parting in the bed occasionaily shows leaf-prints. The lower parting is variable in thickness, and sometimes holds two sheets of coal, each one inch thick. The main coal is very hard, evidently open-buraoing and bears much resemblance to semi-cannel. It is said to be an excellent fuel. Though showing but little pyrites, when freshly mined, it becomes streaked with copperas when exposed to the weather. In this vicinity the bed is cut by numer- ous vertical seams of drab clay, which are quite distinct in the solid coal. Along the Staunton pike this bed is much degraded. Several openings have been made upon it between Smithville and Troy, but it nowhere exceeds two feet. -Ata short distance east from Harrisville, in Ritchie county, itis found varying from six to eighteen inches in thickness. Northward from the railroad this coal steadily increases in thickness until near the State line it averages more than eight feet, varying from eight to eleven. It is rarely single, usually double, and frequently triple. The rocks occupying the interval between the Waynesburg and the Sewickly, show variations which deserve some consideration. Near the State line on the Monongahela River we find here, fifty-six feet of lime- stone, and at Wheeling there is one mass of limestone and calcareous shale, fully one hundred feet thick. At both localities much of the limestone is compact and quite pure. Along the Northwestern pike and the railroad, not more than sixteen or twenty feet of limestone can be found, and most of this is so poor that it ought rather to be called a compact calcareous shale. Still farther south, along the Staunton and Parksburg pike, not one foot of limestone was observed in this interval. From the northern portion of the State to the railroad, the limestone diminishes and gives place to shale, but from that line southward the shale apparently disappears, and sandstones appear instead. Along the railroad the limestones were seen near Wolfe’s Summit, near Smithton and West Union. Traces of them occur east from Harrisville. The Sewickly coal was identified at only two localities. At Clarksburg, A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 2W Stevenson. | 378 [ Feb. 5, it occurs two feet six inches thick, and seventy feet above the Pittsburg. No attempt has been made to ascertain its value. On Wolfe’s Summit, eight miles west from Clarksburg, the coal is only twoinches thick. This bed seems to have as little persistence as the coals of the Barren Group, when traced southwardly. It has not been found at Fairmont, in Marion county.* No traces of it occur along the Staunton pike, in Gilmer county, and I cannot speak with certainty respecting its presence in either Lewis or Upshur county. It is, howéver, by no means improbable - that the small coal above the Pittsburg in the latter county, is the Sewickly, and not the Redstone. The interval between the Sewickly and the Redstone is entirely free from limestone. It is occupied by shale, none of which is calcareous. At Wheeling this space is filled with limestone, and on the Monongahela River near the State line, it contains thirty-one feet of limestone. On the Staunton pike the shales are replaced by flaggy sandstones. The Redstone is a wide-spread and persistent coal, though rarely of economical value in West Virginia. At Fairmont, in Marion county, it is three feet thick and of good quality, but is not mined. Between that town and Clarksburg, its blossom is frequently seen in the roadside, and at the latter place it is six inches thick at the outcrop. At Wilsonburg, four miles west from Clarksburg, it is barely one foot thick, while at Coketon, two miles beyond, it is four feet, and of excellent quality. Where last seen toward the west, at Wolfe’s Summit, it is only three inches thick. A thin coal, varying from one to two feet, is found above the Pittsburg in Upshur eounty. Whether or not this is the Redstone, the material in my possession is not sufficient to decide. The rocks occupying the interval between the Redstone and the Pitis- burg are subject to great variations in character and thickness. At Fair- mont the interval is eighty feet, at Pruntytown, seventy-five, at Bridgeport, sixty-five, and at Weston, somewhat less. At all of these localities which lie along a nearly northeast and southwest line, the in- terval is occupied by sandstone and shale at the base, and limestone on top. Westward from such a line passing through Morgantown, Fair- mont, Bridgeport and Weston, the distance between the coals rapidly diminishes. At Clarksburg, it is twenty-five feet, occupied by shale or sandstone ; at Wilsonburg, it is the same, filled with argillaceous shale ; at Coketon, it is twenty-eight feet; while at Wolfe’s Summit, it is twenty feet, the rocks being shale and limestone. A similar condition exists in the vicinity of Morgantown, as stated in my previous paper. The limestone disappears altogether before reaching the Staunton pike, so that with the exception of a few scattered nodules no limestone occurs among the strata of this group along that lire. * In my previous paper, I stated that it occurred at Fairmont. I had misunderstood the statement made to me by Ex-Governor Pierpoint, respecting the coals of that vicinity. 1875. ] 379 ; [Stevenson. Pittsburg Coal. The eastern limit of this bed aside from small out- lying areas, is marked by a line beginning near Cheat River, on the Pennsylvania border, and extending west of south to Fairmont, and crossing the Tygarts’ Valley River, a little above that town. Thence irregularly to Pruntytown, where it turns east by south to Flemington. From this point it follows a south-southeast course, almost to Tygarts’ River, thence southward, crossing the Buckhannon River near the Up- shur county line. There it again turns east by south, and so continues almost to the middle fork of that river, when the course changes to - southwest, and so remains to the line between Upshur and Lewis coun- ties. From this locality to where the bed crosses Pocatalico Creek near the Great Kanawha River, I have not followed it. The extreme eastern exposure occurs in Upshur county, about five miles east from Buckhan- non, on the Staunton pike. The extreme western line of exposure begins at the Pennsylvania line, nearly two miles west from Monongahela River, crosses that river about a mile below Fairmont. It lies a little west from the West Fork River, crossing Harrison county from Shinnston to Wolfe’s Summit, on the Northwestern Railroad. Thence it runs southwestward through Lewis county, reaching Gilmer, near Troy, on the Staunton pike, and crossing the Little Kanawha, just below Glenville. Owing to the abruptness of the Laurel Hill anticlinal, the area in which this bed is available is very narrow at the north, hardly more than six or seven miles wide. Southward the anticlinal becomes gentler and this area rapidly increases in width until along the Staunton pike the coal is available for a distance of nearly forty miles. The bed attains its greatest thickness toward the north, and diminishes toward the south and southeast. In Monongalia county, this bed is double, except where overlaid by sandstone. This characteristic prevails in Pennsylvania and Ohio, as well as in the Ghio Panhandle of West Virginia. But southward from Fairmont thisdivision is rarely marked by a distinct clay parting, though the difference between the upper and lower benches sufficiently proves that the bed is still double. Occasionally, however, as at Shinnston and near the tunnel east from Clarksburg a well-defined clay parting sepa- rates the two branches. In Upsher county the openings are quite numerous.in the vicinity of Buckhannon, and the Pittsburg is the only source of supply for a large aiea. The coal varies from three feet nine inches to.four feet, and is said to be of very fair quality. Though the parting is exceedingly thin, the upper and the lower benches are very distinct, the former being hard and leaving a bulky red ash, the latter being soft and clean, yielding a white ash. Inthe northern part of the county, very near the Barbour county line, the coal is mined on the Westfall property, where it shows Coal, 32 in ; Parting, }in.; Coal, 34 in.; total, 5 ft. 6 in. Though very thin, the parting is persistent The upper bench is quite 9a Stevenson. ] 380 [ Feb. 5, hard and contains a good deal of bony semi-cannel, but the proportion of good clean coal is quita large. It burns wel!, but leaves a bulky ash. The lower bench is a remarkably clean coal. Layers of apparently pure bitumen are seen, two to four inches thick, structureless, showing no lamination, and breaking with bs3autifully conchoidal fracture. At this opening the coal is exceedingly good, and shows no py:ites under a glass, It dogs not disintegrate upon exposure, nor does it exhibit streaks of copperas. Near this opsning is the Connolly bank. At the time when it was examined, this had not been fully opened, and only five feet of coal were exposed. ‘The appearance is somewhat strange, as no division - into benches can be made out, and the bed seems to be homogeneous. The coal is pure throughout, and evidently very rich in volatile combus- tible matter. The coal from these banks would yield an excellent coke, and would be exceedingly profitable in gas-making. In Lewis county, this bed is easily accessible, and it is worked quite extensively to supply local demand. Openings were examined only along the Staunton road, though many were seen on the West Fork River, both above and below Weston. In the central portion of the county the thickness varies from four feet six inches to nearly eight feet, increasing northward. The bed is apparently single, but close examination shows _ the existence of two benches, the upper being invariably harder and less pure than the lower. Owing to the thinness of this bed in the southern portion of the county, many persons do not believe it to be the Pittsburg, but refer to that horizon the Upper Freeport, which appears to be quite thick in the river near Weston. In Gilmer county the coal is mined near Glenville, where it is from four to five feet thick. About one mile east from Troy, an opening shows the following section : Shale, gray, 8 ft.; Coal, 29 in.; Parting, $} in.; Coal, 38 in.; total, 5 ft. 74 in. The.coal is very good and shows but little pyrites. The upper bench ‘is quite compact and leaves a red ash. The lower is softer and burns more readily, leaving a not bulky, white ash. About one-half mile farther east isa bank in which the coal is seven feet at the mouth, and farther io is said to reach nine feet. Near the county line the coal is again opened, but there it is barely five feet thick. In Harrison county, openings are quite numerous along the railroad, -and the coal is mined extensively for shipment. Notwithstanding the presence of a good deal of pyrites, it finds a ready market as a gas coal. At Clarksburg, one of the most extensive openings shows the structure of the bed as follows : Coal, 3 ft. 6in.; Parting, } in.; Coal, 5 ft. 4in.; total, 8 ft. 10 in. Excepting four inches at the bottom, the lower bench is a fine clean 1875.] 381 [Stevensor. coal, while the upper bench is somewhat bory, quite hard and bears much resemblance to the ordinary roof coal of this bed as seen farther north and northwest. The parting varies from } in. to 14 in. and is per- sistent in all the openings in this vicinity. In the lower bench there occur three thin partings, twelve, fifteen and eighteen inches respectively from the bottom, between which is the soft coal, the ‘‘bearing-in bench”’ of the miner. The character of this lower bench is precisely the same with that of the lower division of the Pittsburg throughout northern Ohio. Some pyrites occur here, but the quantity is not great. The upper bench contains a layer of ‘‘slate,’’ four inches thick and irregular in its place. On the north side of the railroad the seam is much troubled by sandstone horsebacks, some of which are quite extensive, having been traced for more than half 'a mile across the entries of different openings. In one bank such a horseback was found, eight feet wide. It was followed for five hundred yards, but showed no sign of thinning out. Along the whole distance, it has not only cut out the coal, but has also trenched the fire-clay and sandstone below. It is said to be more com- pact than the overlying sandstone. At Wilsonburg, four miles west from Clarksburg, the coal shows an average thickness of seven feet six inches, but near the mouth of the main entry increases toeight feet four inches. The parting is black clay, and varies from } to 2in. The coal at the base for one foot is very poor and hardly marketable, but the remainder of the lower bench is a very fine coal, containing, it is true, much nodular pyrites ; but this is easily separated. There are no well-defined minor partings in this bench. The upper bench is quite hard and contains much splint coal. It is said to be quite as good for gas-making as the lower portion is, so that all parts of the bed are shipped together, the single foot at the base except- ed, as that is too sulphurous. At Coketon, the bed varies from five to seven feet. For three inches at the bottom the coal is very bad, but the whole bed above is taken out for shipment. The upper bench is heavy, compact and leaves much ash. The parting is one inch thick and consists of hard carbonaceous clay. Pyrites occur plentifully throughout the bed but, being in nodules, is readily removed. The roof is a slickensided clay. Where the bed disappears, near Wolfe’s Summit, it is six feet thick and roofed with ten feet of argillaceous shale. East from Clarksburg, it is mined at Bridgeport and several other localities, but only to supply local demand. Numerous banks are worked in a small way along the West Fork River, and on the road to Shinnston, in this county. They show no material difference from those already described. In Taylor county, openings were seen near Pruntytown and Fleming- ton, in each case near the eastern outcrop of the coal. At Pruntytown, the bed is single and nearly eight feet thick. Above it is a dull reddish- gray shale, on which rests a massive sandstone. The coal, for the most part is somewhat inferior here, as the roof is very thin and usually not Stevenson: | 302 [Feb. 5, soun?. At Flemiugton the thickness is eight feet. There'are no dis- tinct partings, and the roof is ashaly sandstone, which occasionally forms a troublesome horseback. The coal from the banks here is said to be very good anl to command a ready market for use in gas-making. Lower Barren Group. It will be remembered that in the section given in my former paper, eight strata of limestone, having in all a maximum thickness of thirty feet, were represented as belonging to this group. These disappear southwardly, so that at Clarksburg only two re- main, one underlying the Pittsburg coal, and the other about one hundred feet below it. Still farther south, in Lewis county, we find that only the upper one holds out, and that disappears long before reaching the Great Kanawha River. Even the fossiliferous limestone, which, in the Ohio Reports, I have named the Crinoidal Limestone, thins out finally before reaching the Northwestern Branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, though it is persistent in Ohio, Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia. The fossiliferous shales accompanying this limestone were traced to near Pruntytown, in Taylor county, beyond which, southward, they were not seen. Not far from Pruntytown, they yield beautiful specimens of Pro- ductus prattenianus, Nucula ventricosa, Nucula (2) anodontoides, Yoldia carbonaria, Yoldia stevensoni, Hdmondiu aspenwalensis, Pleurotomaria (?) tumidaand Bellerophon meekianus. Southward to the railroad and east from the Laurel Hill axis, the shales increase greatly, but farther toward the south and especially along the axial line they are replaced by sandstone, so that on the Staunton pike, where the whole section is fully exposed for three hundred feet below the Pitisburg coal, the only rocks are sandstones. Hast from the axis the shales predominate, and for the most part are of a deep brick- red color. The same color characterizes them in the disturbed region at the west. In Upshur and Rindolph counties, between Buckhannon and Beverly, the Lower Barren Group seems to contain no coal, but in the vicinity of the former village, there is a small seam about forty feet belew the Pitis- burg. Between Buckhannon and Clarksburg another is seen about one hundred feet below that coal, and it occurs also at the latter place. The thickness of this group shows little variation along the eastern border, and is not far from four hundred feet. Lower Coan Group. In Upshur and Randolph counties, it is im- possible to procure a detailed section of this group without the expendi- ture of very much more time than was at my disposal. The whole country is deeply buried under debris, and connected exposures are rare. The rapid and somewhat irregular increase of dip near Rich Mountain, and the long stretches of ‘‘concealed,’’ along the roads and streams render the building of a section exceedingly difficult. It is, however, sufficiently evident that this group, bareiy two hundred feet thick, near the Peunsylvania line, has rapidly developed so as to be in these counties ) 1875. ] 383 [Stevenson. searcely less thick than on the Great Kanawha River, where it is nearly nine hundred feet from the Conglomerate to the top of the Mahoning Sandstone. The following partial section, beginning with the Mahoning Sandstone, is said to have been obtained in a salt well bored on Buck- hannon River: He A RO RRR cee an ec Unie ne thane CURSO cRoae cae 60 ft Dt (OYE Has Han AC UOTE De ty NR AOR RMN a gE oO) ria ate ea 15 ft Sy2 ASL H KEN aie Rs arnr a Ni eats Rae eae et ar era ee Ul et nee 32 ft AN SACS HOM hays Seve into nVa eas ce eae ee a Re oats thoi 40 ft Bi ODS cosa OUT REP ROLE SI re URE TR CGE NTR ENE 4 ft Gove OC Kester charesevsea an cae Merete alee Blo esa nat oun ues rarvi batat atic demeaus 160 ft Wes = (GEA SES Agee RP Ds ESE Ee ne ee ea 4 ft Se SAIN SE OIC Eee tava sestenan a bate: Grant ser svstevek siorspeitec aes acne 40 ft Ds GOD SERS Ge GOS DL GT OOO OS SORA 3 ft NOME ANC SLOMEP prayer yeee ccasisvesceetein eter ets geuci ai vaeretemeat 120 ft May RE Leal uae aoe ee OR Ce OIC ae 478 ft The boring clearly stopped far short of the base as it did not reach the large and very persistent coal bed resting on the Conglomerate. As nearly as can be determined, the thickness of the whole group is not far from seven hundred feet. No. 1 of the section, the Mahoning Sandstone, is ordinarily separated from the underlying coal by from six to ten feet of shale. It is a coarse sandstone, with numerous lines of pebbles, arranged parallel to the general plane of bedding. Some portions show extensive cross-bedding, and occasionally the rock is a coarse conglomerate. It is of uneven texture, and weathers into irregular cavities. Rude casts of vegetable stems are of common occurrence, and a thin coal is sometimes found about forty feet from the base. No. 2is the Upper Freeport Coal. Its changes in Upshur, Randolph and Barbour counties are very interesting. Hast from Buckhannon, on the Beverly road, it is first seen at the Sand Run crossing, in a deserted opening. The shale above it is dark, fissile, and about seven feet thick. Above this is the Mahoning Sandstone. The first satisfactory exposure is on Roaring Creek, at the foot of Rich Mountain, where the coal is worked and shows the following section: \ Ft. In. ie Shaledrabearoillaceouss. io. i). secles uel 10 LAC ODN PSRs SEINE Rane shes ogee 4 ou Shales dark, argillaceous. 32.2) 02s. eee 2 4 NOMS OGUE AS ERO ELVA CASES, TUE a Re 10 d& Olay, ccarbonaceousnt::.. a Haki neo AA 1 GUO COATS. citi rslreee REM MER eT ces 10 iBT AOC i: a ALORA AM Maehs Rincaar ae a temnA ete Nome apt Abts z SC OGU AIAN, Sieh Ales ILO aie ANT: 8 9 Stevenson. ] 4 [Feb. 5, Ft. In. allel OWE gah s atone Se ie ace re cere AC Sa z LOSCoalssemi-camnelis 1. .mc.1tt.0- wiser reise 1 1 HTN © Laiyp tone eset anereset ast ove texasers Wey -torenetctomonelerasverns 4 12. Coal, mostly semi-cannel.................. 3 2 as Clay, slickensided se ctcc5.c2 1 oceteto se os ee 4 MAD COG Si Narels hacen Sale hele shearer Tuas Ne 1 9 UG SISh ale, arabe srw jeresctcecreecnsrrarderetelateters ha aaisersies 4 LOR Coal, Poor, SCO m nc crstecrton tec eee il 11 Total eC Of this section, the portion from No. 4 to No. 14, inclusive, yields a coal, fairly good, but of very uneven quality. It is a good fuel, and care- lessly examined, appears to be quite clean. Under a glass it shows many minute crystals of pyrites, and when exposed to the weather, soon be- comes streaked with copperas, so that its commercial value is at least doubtful. On Sand Run, several miles south from the crossing of the Beverly road, a remarkable expansion of the bed is exposed in the bank of the stream. The section is as follows: — Ft. In. 1 Bituminous yshaleyas ses lee eee 5 2 COGUGE Jaicta sista fectets Seah Goh et St aest otal etatict ctonsttotcl secnetat 7 3. Cannel; poorss ssehcessec. are sss seenne anes 2 6 4, Shale, slightly carbonaceous............... + Dy Coal, slaty, 225. 2s.24 skeen hameietible Oe wees il 10 6. Shale, slightly carbonaceous.........\...... 1 3 ie Coals pattlycamnela 45445455 aa ae pee 2 2 S-eiClay,udras terccesearccnene iret oo lae 8 92 (Coal, DOnyRBik tee SSE. De aa 6 MO *Clayeons fat-tas cicie trove areersleveusiasee inte © reereceaceverets 8 Mab O oailiaslaitiy fe Siaceyarsnc ayenenedet stoves eronanekecneyey chonces take i 1 12. Clay, with streaks of Coal................- 1 2 MOtaler tan. torn parceenen oiesaicd teak ronNet Rrra Paliag, (Tbe, Tn all this, the only coal which is fit for any purpose is No. 7, and even that is good for fuel only in case nothing else can be had. Yet this enormous mass of bituminous shale and bad coal has aroused great ex- pectations throughout Upshur county. Its vastness, as reported on by a voluntary committee of the Legislature, is said to have caused a number of the legislators to look with favor upon Buckhannon as the site for the State Capital. The prevailing opinion respecting this bed is that its value is incalculable, whereas it is utterly worthless. Passing over to Grassy Run, another tributary to Buckhannon River, we find this bed mined on the property of Mr. G. Marple. Only a portion is exposed, giving the following section : 1875. ] 380 [Stevenson. Ft. In. ie ATenaceous|shalelsyntmmciiia iccclewiceieisiorick: 4 M2 Meals ON VA COUN ch te crete Aictercsiausvorcrae cia aie tees Raeelel ey 3 BL MEDI e HT oy eames Reyer ase Meare table Mey cp aE Fares z LE MONONA Sse EES re ee SSS ae Eateg epee eetaaaes arash 11 Dey Clay partimoey. .sie-c sash EE RONG 1s hese tg eo 4 ORB Oniyg COMM jes erste acest ancecueracia eee a sie 6 FiSeAS LA GON po) ks araca Ses saere encase Me Ao 11 Sy; 2 ABLOLUN EL CHOY] Ren Ges cy SEN ARG OOO G Co aero 1 4 The coal from this bank is not very highly esteemed. About a mile farther down the run, an exposure in a bluff is as follows: Ft. In. Ganiwelsnienye POOG sc tace Secs soko 4 COE IVOIRE Gh adae maaan boas aamon den Some 1 @layselickensidedsesseenics ter cle cil ce Con, SOIUECINNV, Sodb5cbo0bcenoc0s0c05000 Siales carbonaceous see eerie cei citer ect ATT SLOMOS Sette eae Ata vene ee laren tesco are oe COGN Sec cee ben CODY ocr oA Tala Sate Rae Oe Cannel spoorvenc sec seal ea ORE BINO DOE 1 Oil, Sohn Ke saonnnepannoownoo ben coed oolooeD NO; Gadi, BOOG & ooleccossocrasoggd5G00000006a50 1 TUG Oleh Senet an anes beans hae aa Sed eam AEoT Eo oA ee aSOmrItarrwobhere Pww Dwr tole S89 FS Coe oe 17. Clay, slickensided with remains of plants and streaks of coal, seen.............---.- 1 Sika tale aes See awe Mie, Rath 18 ft.) 124n: A similar section occurs on Buckhannon River about ten or eleven miles above the village of Buckhannon, but itis unnecessary to give it here. The coal is visible at many points along Roaring Creek to Tygart’s River. and on that stream to within a few miles south from Grafton. On Roaring Creek, Mr. Jabez Woolley has measured it at three exposures, where he found the thickness eight, twelve and twenty feet respectively. Wherever it falls below twelve feet, it contains coal in sufficient bulk to be workable. The quality seems to be quite inferior throughout this region. Hx-Goy. Pierpoint informs me that some years ago it was pro- posed to mine this bed on Tygart’s River, seven or eight miles above Grafton. The coal exhibited was very handsome, and to the naked eye showed no evidence of pyrites, but as soon as it was put under a glass it proved to be loaded with minute crystals of that mineral. It was thought A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. 2x 286) tae Stevenson. ] unnecessary to resort to chemical analysis for further information, and the enterprise was abandoned. Near Weston, in Lewis county, this coal is said to occur in the bed of West Fork River, which is very probable, as the river cuts through the Laurel Hill anticlinal north from Weston. Following this anticlinal northward, we find it rapidly increasing in sharpness, so that at Valley Falls, where it is cut. by Tygart’s River, the Great Conglomerate is in the bed of the stream, and the Mahoning Sandstone barely crosses the crest unbroken. Near this point, at Nuzum’s Mills, probably forty miles from Weston, the following section of the Lower Coal Group is ob- tained :* Iii In. AS anmd stone) sae pete | ee see mien oun reaebereiets 60 PISO OGYIHIS Aint cant eataen aera Va eee nial at Bulimia id Gio ania 3 SHAS ATM SEOME Rite ol peterttel reve ev anette etree teliorerelie 30 AL MATIN ESEON Gps Sais eke eee ieee Ler Rea ueT ae: 3 EMO ANCST OME ase crs erecta craters Sretinearepseey es anata ever 30 621 Coal WWewhree ports comet aeics cmer ere 5-6 eupanadstoney eer sae: IgE IEE 2s MBit 45 een GYeo Meme Oa penn NAL Ht oe nee oe mean nonce eey en 2 O, IMG, COMIC. cocasdoabsdeubososdodos il 10. Sandstone and shale........... Lui rattan uta 65 LT OG ce wraehanens costars Sele ei sen cre ie ag aer tara ou ap ues 6 AAs EW KER cos PRE per acto orcnarc bars taerere Dees catty Nee ti cela 15 TBE OCCT IRMA ap RS rine SIA Ise i rialls maetnmienas 0-3 4b, IBRDACE NY, COMM OES o oocoosas00b00bd0b000000 3 to 6 TUS] ELON) gles ig I een Bee RU ARUN ot near rainy aT 2 to 6 AUG RESS) ONE Veiner er Pn eA eae Se re Pela en einai rt Re 15 WeAnGreatEe onclomenrabenereremceer acres The Upper Freeport here shows, Cannel, 1 ft.; Bituminous Coal, 4 to 5 ft. Itis somewhat inferior owing to the presence of much sulphur, but is a good strong fuel. On Prickett’s Creek, in the same county (Marion), the cannel is at the bottom, and in greater quantity. Exten- sive arrangements were made here, years ago, for distilling oil from the coal, but the discovery of petroleum brought the enterprise to premature dissolution. On Booth’s Creek, in Monongalia county, some old open- ings are still accessible. One a little way north from the creek shows: Clay, 1 ft.; Coal, 1 ft. 11 in.; Clay, 8 in.; Coal, 2 ft. 9 in.; Clay, 24 in; Coal, 1 ft. 1 in. A deserted opening near the old farnace on this stream gives: Cannel, 1 ft.; Carbonaceous shale, 11 in.; Coal, slaty, 4in.; Clay, 7 in.; Coal, 2 in.; Clay, 4in.; Coal, seen, 4 ft. * This section and the remaining notes on the Upper Freeport Coal were dropped by the printer in making up my previous paper on West Virginia. 1875. ] 387 (Stevenson. The coal at the base is certainly much thicker than is stated. The old props lying in the deserted entry are somewhat more than five feet long. Another exposure near the mouth of the creek shows the bed much de- graded, giving the following section : Coal, 1 ft. 9 in.; Clay, 3in.; Coal, 6in.; Shale, 2in.; Coal, 1 in. The roof here is sandstone. Elsewhere upon the creek it is shale, which abounds in vegetable impressions. The coal from these openings is said to be very good fuel though it contains considerable proportion of sulphur. It contains much volatile combustible matter and cokes readily in heaps. Returning to Upshur county, we find underlying the Upper Freeport Coal a sandstone about fifty feet thick, more or less flaggy, and apt to change into arenaceous shale. Below this is a thin tough limestone, not very pure, which seems to represent the Freeport Limestone. It was seen on the Staunton pike near Roaring Creek and on Sand Run. Between the limestone and the coal below, the sandstone is coarse and flaggy. The interval varies from twenty to thirty feet. The next coal, No. 5, of the salt-well boring, was seen at only two localities, one on Roaring Creek, near the Staunton pike, and the other on Sand Run, near the great exposure of the Upper Freeport. It is a persistent bed and quite regular in thickness, varying little from four feet throughout this vicinity. The coal is irised, exceedingly rich in bituminous matter, and containing not a large amount of sulphur. It burns nicely and cokes well. No regular workings were found, and only “crop”? coal could be examined. This is extremely brittle, so that, unless it improve greatly under the hill, it will hardly prove fit for ship- ping. The beds, No. 7 and No. 9, of the boring have not been identified at any locality. Three miles east from Roaring Creek, and five hundred feet higher than the opening on the Upper Freeport, the blossom of a coal-bed occurs at the roadside. This is probably one of the lower beds, but the question cannot easily be determined, as eastward the dip in- creases rapidly in steepness, and the whole western slope of the maun- tain is so deeply buried under shingle and so thoroughly paved with fragments of sandstone and conglomerate, that connected exposures can- not be found. East from this blessom, almost two-thirds of a mile distant along the pike, and very near the crest of the ridge, a coal-bed is worked. The mouth of the mine is three hundred feet higher that the blossom in the roadside. In the interval along the road everything is concealed except occasional exposures of sandstone. The bed near the crest is dipping northwestward at twelve degrees, so that the space between it and the coal above would be nearly five hundred feet, provided the dip does not vary. It is perhaps better to regard the interval as about four hundred feet. The coal is within a few feet of the conglomerate, but the inter- Stevenson. ] 388 [Feb. 5, vening rock is concealed. At the opening made by Mr. S. B. Hart, near the pike, the bed exhibits the following structure : Shale, ——.; Coal, sulphurous, 4 in.; Black clay, 1 in.; Coal, 8 ft. 6 in.; Clay, 1 in.; Coal, 1 ft. 7in.; total, 5 ft. 7 in. The bottom coal is very inferior, being about one-half slate, and con- taining a notable proportion of pyrites. The bench next above it is a good fuel, though rather soft and toward the base somewhat sulphurous. It is extensively mined to supply Beverly and the adjacent country. I made as careful search for other outcrops as is possible in a wild region, covered with loose rocks and a dense forest. No other was found, unless the bed exposed at the head of Casseday’s Fork of Buckhannon River be the same. This occurs near the crest of the ridge on the west slope, about ten miles south from the Staunton road. It is a large bed, and is most likely this coal. There is no doubt that this is the same with that found on the conglomerate in Marion and Monongahela counties. If it be as irregular in thickness here as in northern West Virginia and Ohio, its outcrop will be traced only with great difficulty. Aside from the Freeport, itself reduced almost to nothing, no lime- stones were seen in this group. Asin the other groups, the limestones disappear southward. They occur in Pennsylvania, but thin out rapidly after coming into West Virginia. THE GREAT CONGLOMERATE. This rock forms the crest of Rich Mountain for nearly sixteen miles, within the region examined. For the most part it is a coarse sandstone loaded with pebbles from 4 of an inch to 2 inches in-diameter. Along the Staunton pike it shows some layers of slightly micaceous and very com- pact sandstone near the bottom. Here itis greatly increased in thick- ness. Near the northern line of the State it is barely three hundred and fifty feet thick, but in Randolph county, it is not less than six hundred. This expansion continues southwardly, as shown by the observations of Professor Fontaine, in the New River region. On Rich Mountain it con- tains no fossils, but in portions there are vast numbers of quartz crystals, some of them three-fourths of an inch long, and beautifully terminated at both extremities. On the Staunton pike, along the eastern slope of the mountain, there was seen midway in the conglomerate, what appeared to be the blossom of a coal-bed. As I had observed no evidence of coal in the conglomerate northward from this locality, this exposure was studied with some care, but nothing definite could be ascertained. Six miles farther south, on the same side of the mountain, a small coal-bed occupies this place on the property of Mr. Bradley. There it is three feet thick, quite soft, but of excellent quality, and being almost free from sulphur, is highly prized by blacksmiths. Another opening has been made on the ridge near the bridle path, seven miles south from the Staunton pike, and a 1875. ] O89 [Stevenson, third is seen near the same pith, three miles farther south. These openings hardly deserve the name, as only a few sackfuls of coal have been taken from each. In all of them the coal shows the same character. This little bed is of much interest. Here in the vicinity of the Staun- ton pike is the northern termination or better, perhaps, the beginning of the important group of ‘‘conglomerate’’ coals so fully described by Prof. Fontaine, in West Virginia, which farther southward become the main source of supply in Tennessee. In the northern portion of the State no coal occurs in the conglomerate. The local geologist, quoted by Prof. Fontaine and myself, who asserted that two beds occur in this group, is an ignorant man, who regarded the Tionesta Sandstone as part of the conglomerate, and so placed the Tionesta coals in this group. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. My observations in the Lower Carboniferous were made along the east slope of Rich Mountain at two or three localities between the Staunton pike and the Huttonsville bridle-path, a distance of somewhat more than ten miles north and south. The results therefore are not of much im- portance. The red shales were seen on the Staunton pike. There they are in part quite arenaceous, and are almost a thinly laminated shaly sand- stone. Their thickness cannot be accurately determined at that expo- sure, but I take it to be little more than fifty feet. They do not appear to contain any important deposit of iron ore, such as occurs near the Pennsylvania line. Six miles south from the Staunton pike, the shales are entirely wanting, and the conglomerate rests directly on the lime- stone. The line of contract is finely exposed at several localities but at none better than at a place nearly two-thirds of a mile north from Mr. Bradley’s house, where the limestone and conglomerate are seen in con- tact along a bluff for about thirty feet. The shales are of a deep red color, and the micaceous sandy layers are almost as deep red as the pressed brick on our house-fronts. As a whole, this series bears very close resemblance to the red shales of the Lower Barren Group, and might easily be mistaken for them. About fifteen miles north from the Staunton pike, at the gap made by Tygart’s River on its passage through Rich Mountain, Mr. J. Woolley found these shales two hundred feet thick ; their identity being certified by the conglome- rate above and the limestone below. Within twenty miles south from that locality they have wholly disappeared. The rapid thickening of the limestone is remarkable, contrasting strangely in this respect with those of the Coal Measures. Near the State line on Cheat River the limestone mass is barely one hundred feet thick, as ascertained by boring. In Randolph county, I saw a continu- ous exposure of nearly four hundred feet. A space of twohundred feet is concealed, and below that a calcareous shale occurs, so that the thick- ness is not less than seven hundred feet. In Pocahontas and Greenbrier Stevenson. ] 390 [Feb. 5, counties, the expansion is greater, reaching in the former to eight hun- dred feet. On the Staunton pike the topmost layers are exceedingly fure and very compact. They yield an excellent lime, and are the source of supply for the whole region to a distance of nearly twenty miles. Farther south the upper layers are quite impure, and are nearly calcareous shale. On the property of Mr. Bradley, a seam of coal occurs amid some shales in this mass, about two hundred and fifty feet below the conglomerate. Itis two inches thick, quite impure and very sul- phurous. It is seen in a little run below Mr. Bradley’s house. The fossils obtained from this limestone were found chiefly in the upper layers and are similar to those procured in Monongalia county. The most common are Spirifer Leidyi, Athyris subquadrata, Productus elegans, Productus piletformis, Hemipronites crassus, Allorisma sp., and Straparollus planidorsatus. These show the rock to be of the same age as the Chester group of the west. I had in my possession several fine specimens of Lithostrotion canadense, wnich were said to be from Ran- dolph county, and I expected to find the St. Louis group well defined. No species belonging to that group fell under my observation, and I doubt whether the Lithostrotion came from this portion of West Virginia. The strangest feature in the Lower Carboniferous of this region is the entire disappearance of the sandstones and shales usually found between the limestone and conglomerate. Judging from Rogers’ reports, one would expect to find them, not merely persistent but greatly expanded, as compared with more northern localities. At Westernport, on the Potomac, they are six hundred and fifty feet thick, and in Pocahontas county, that adjoining Randolph on the south, they are twelve hundred and sixty feet. Yet in Randolph county they disappear completely. A local anticlinal must have existed here during the latter portion of the Lower Carboniferous period. THE DisTURBED REGION. By this title I designate that portion of West Virginia lying between the line of the Ellenboro’ fault and the Ohio River, which includes about midway between its east and west boundaries the especially broken tract known as the ‘‘oil-break.’’ The line of the Ellenboro’ fault crosses the Staunton pike near Webb’s Mills, on Hughes River. Northward it passes a little west from Harris- ville and crosses the railroad about one-fourth of a mile east from Ellen- boro’. Its place is entirely concealed on the Northwestern pike, though its presence there is indicated by the change in the character of the rocks. How far northward it extends I am unable to say, but if it continue in that direction, it should cross the Ohio River not far from New Martins- ville. The best information within my reach leads me to suppose that it disappears long before reaching the Ohio. Southward this fault cer- tainly disappears long before reaching the Great Kanawha River, for, according to Dr. Briggs, the Pittsburg coal shows a continuous outcrop 1875. ] 391 (Stevenson. across the State through Braxton, Clay, Kanawha and Putnam counties to the Ohio River. Indeed, in every respect the disturbance from east to west in this region seems to have been greatest in the vicinity of the line followed by the railroad. Near Ellenboro’ the fault is quite abrupt and is seen to good adyantage in the creek’s bed, about one-fourth of a mile from the station. On its eastern side the rocks of the Upper Barren Group are seen turned up and dipping at 26°, while on the west side the strata of the Lower Barren Group lie almost horizontally. The direction of the fault is about N. 10° E. Mag., and the upper rocks dip 8. 8L° F. Mag. From this fault westward, the strata are almost horizontal, or have an easterly dip so slight that it cannot be determined by the barometer, until the edge of the oil-break is reached where they are abruptly turned up ata high angle. Within the ‘‘break,’’ a narrow strip, nowhere more than two miles wide, the dip is irregular, but shows traces of anticlinal structure, and at no time exceeds 5°. On the west side the conditions seen at the east are repeated. The strata are sharply upturned and dip toward tne west. The angle of dip quickly diminishes and soon becomes only ten feet per mile. About five miles east from Parkersburg, another fault occurs, quite as sharp as thatat Ellenboro’, with the upturned rocks dipping westward. Beyond this, the rocks are almost horizontal to the Ohio River. On each side of the oil-break the strata belong to the Lower Barren Group, as far east the Ellenboro’ fault and as far west as the fault near Parkersburg. What the rocks between this fault and the Ohio River are, can be determined only by approaching them from Ohio. Before entering into a discussion of the ‘‘break,’’ it is well to describe these rocks as they occur east and west from it. Lower Barren Group outside of the Oil-break. Near Ellenboro’, and almost directly on the edge of the fault a boring was made several years ago in search of oil. No record has been preserved, but the enterprise proved unsuccessful. Both fresh and salt water were found, and a little oil was obtained. The rocks appeared to be much shattered. At first the drill descended nearly twenty feet each day, and farther down many crevices were struck, in which the tools would drop four or five feet in- stantly. Five hundred feet down, the drill stuck fast and the work was abandoned. Along the railroad, westward from Ellenboro’ to near Petroleum, the section appears to be: 1. Debris, with nodular limestone................ 75 ft. QC ODL ee pekeky PIE Toke OS Elaphe AL LOIS p, Habeyt CPR LEE 1 ft. stag oY SANASTONE sclera yaa sen Sete ol 3 40 ft. SURE shales. PS) BUTE VE RER Gre peed ares 10 ft. RHO ANE STOMO TURES Ee ire aged SPORE TS See IE a ey tee? 15=25) ft. OIDaIR ow ee) oO a ) = oF (or —_ Ss © mM =p 9 2 ® Ca) On ie Stevenson. ] 392 [Feb. 5, The limestone and coal both were seen near Ellenboro’, as well as in the hills near a deep cut three miles farther west. This coal, I take to be the same with that whose blossom is seen in the roadside between Harris- ville and Cornwallis Station, not far from the former place. The sand- stones, Nos. 5 and 7, are soft, light gray, somewhat feldspathic and con- tain much mica. The upper is the more compact and durable. Both may be seen near Cornwallis Station, where the upper stratum is quarried extensively by the railroad company for building purposes. The lower one is apt to become flaggy. No. 8 is first seen near Cornwallis, and is the prevailing rock exposed in the cuttings from that place to near Pe- troleum, except near Silver Run Summit, four miles east from Petroleum, where the grade of the road brings one into the upper members of the group. The shales greatly predominate. When freshly exposed, they resemble a reddish shale enclosing nodules of sandstone. The whole, however, is a mass of slightly arenaceous clay shale, without definite bedding, of dull red color, with brownish patches, and readily breaking up into coarse powder on exposure. The color is characteristic, and once seen cannot fail to be remembered. No such shale occurs in the Upper Barren Group. It does occur in the Lower Barren Group along Buck- hannon River and the Staunton pike, in Upshur county. No other group resembles it except the Red Shales of the Lower Carbniferous. Near Petroleum we find under it a sandstone, which, doubtless, belongs to the Lower Coal Group. Along the Northwestern pike only the upper members of the group are exposed, until one approaches the eastern slope of this ‘‘ break.” Southward from the railroad the rocks show the same character. Ata short distance west from Harrisville a boring was made for oil. It was continued to the depth of five hundred feet and then abandoned. No record of it is accessible. I am informed that for most of the distance the drill passed through red shales, and that two very thin beds of coal or carbonaceous shale were passed through. On the Staunton pike, these rocks are well exposed for nearly twenty miles, by the road. They are said to contain two very thin beds of coal. Of one of these I saw the blossom about three miles west from Webb’s Mills. It seems to be about ten inches thick. A very notable feature just east from the break is a sandstone, about twenty feet thick, resting on shale. Leaving aside, for the present, all reference to the strata involved in the slopes of the oil-break, we pass across the break to the west, where we find a similar series of rocks, differing only in this, that the red tint is not the only one in the shale, many portions along the railroad having a bluish cast. Upon the line of the railroad, west from Laurel Junction, we find the rate of dip quickly decreasing to less than one degree. Before reaching the tunnel, one mile west from the Junction, the blossom of a thin coal is seeninalowcut. This is probably two hundred feet higher than the rocks in the Junction cut, and is overlaid by a mass of bluish-red shale 1875.] 393 [Stevenson. and sandstone. From the tunnel westward to Walker’s Station, the grade of the road falls, and meantime the dip becomes barely ten feet per mile. Nearly one mile east from Walker’s, a thin coal is seen which may be traced through several cuts. It is eight inshes thick, very slaty, and is no doubt the same with that just mentioned. Above it, in the hills is a succession of sandstones and red shales. Similar rocks occur all the way to Parkersburg. No break or fault was seen along the railroad, but | in a well bored near Claysville, the strata are said to have been found much shattered. On the Northwestern pike the exposures are very incom- plete ; no succession can be made out, but there are evidences of at least two small breaks in continuity of the rocks. Upon the Staunton pike, the exposures are quite as satisfactory as those along the railroad, for the road runs in the valleys cut by the Little Kanawha and Hughes’ Rivers. Starting up the Little Kanawha from Parkersburg, we find at five miles from that city a well-marked break or fault, very similar to that observed at Ellenboro’. Up to this point the westward dip is almost zero; but here at once it increases to 25°. The exposure is at the roadside, ina cut. Mast from this break the strata are horizontal, at least no dip in any direction can be made out with the barometer. On both sides the rocks are apparently the same. Sandstones and brownish red, slightly arenaceous shales. Judging from their litho- logical characters alone, one would regard them as belonging tothe same group. Atashort distance below Newark, the road passes through a cut, in which is exposed a series of sandstones and dark-red shales, in all about one hundred and twenty-five feet thick. On top there is a hand- some, light olive sandstone, which is quarried to supply material for building the locks on the river. Though soft, it is said to be quite durable. At Greenville, where the road crosses Hughes’ River, the same shaly sandstones and shales are seen in the river bluffs, and at some distance farther on, the massive sandstone appears in the hills, twenty feet thick and standing out as a cliff. Huge fragments of it have fallen off and lie strewn over the hillside, and in the river channel. It has been used here for building purposes, and serves well, as it is not very hard, dresses easily and is quite durable. This rock is seen along the road to within one mile of Freeport P. O., where the exposures become obscure, as we are approaching the western boundary of the oil-break. It is the same sandstone with that already mentioned as occurring just east from the break on. this pike. THE OIL-BREAK. This name is given to an irregular tract, from one to nearly two miles in width, having a general trend of N. 10° E. Mag., and with the strata on its sides, dipping N. 80° W. and 8. 80° E. Mag. I have been able to examine it along the Staunton pike, the Northwestern Railroad, and the Northwestern pike, as well as at several points between these lines, embracing in all about fifteen miles of its length. The region of greatest disturbance is in the neighborhood of the railroad: A. P. §.—VOL. XIV. 2¥ ¢ 4 Stevenson. ] 394 [Feb. 5, north and south from this line the abruptness diminishes. Its extent southward is not well determined. Col. Byrne, State Superintendent of Instruction in West Virginia, informed me that he had traced it to the Great Kanawha River, near Charleston. This seems hardly possible, for at the Great Kanawha, in that vicinity, there is no anticlinal, certainly there is no break. It is, however, by no means improbable that the re- markable horizontality of the strata there may result from the flattening out of this anticlinal in that direction, so that if the flattening occur gradually southward, the anticlinal might be traced to that river. Northward, where the break crosses the Ohio River near Cow Run, it is said to be a gentle anticlinal, over which the upper rocks pass un- broken ; and this belief is supported by Dr. Briggs’ section along the Ohio.* In that section the whole mass between Wheeling and Pomeroy is referred to the Upper Coal Group, and the Pittsburg coal is regarded as being at no point more than two hundred and fifty feet under the river. There is certainly an error somewhere in this work, since in that portion of West Virginia, fronting on the river, a little south from Marietta, the surface rocks belong to the Lower and not the Upper Barren Group, for I have found the section along the Staunton pike to be the same on both sides of the break, and along the railroad it is practically the same. I have no records of borings made west from the break, but. two on the east, one near Ellenboro’ and the other near Harrisville, were driven five hundred feet and passed all the way through shales and sandstones, cutting at most only two streaks of coal. If these rocks belonged to the upper series, the Pittsburg coal should have been struck at about three hundred feet from the surface near Ellenboro’, and at much less near Harrisville. At Wolfe’s Summit, eight miles west from ‘Clarksburg, the Pitisburg goes under, dipping northwestward, at the rate f somewhat more than one hundred feet per mile. From that place westward to Ellenboro’, the strata of the Upper Coal and Upper Barren Groups are followed without a break, the dip continuing northwest all the way, though gradually diminishing in sharpness. At Ellenboro’, the rocks change and the dip becomes slightly eastward. From this line we find only the characteristic red shales with the accompanying sandstones until we reach the oil-break where the rapidly-increasing dip brings us into the Lower Coal Group. As will be shown farther on, the rocks within and the steeply-sloping sides of the break form a continuous and . uninterrupted series with those outside. If this series between the oil- break and the Ellenboro’ fault belong to the Upper Barren Group, what has become of the Lower Barren and Upper Coal Group? Neither of these is found along the Staunton pike, where the whole structure is very clearly exposed. It is absolutely certain that the Pittsburg coal appears nowhere between the Ellenboro’ fault and the one a little way east from Parkersburg, except possibly in isolated patches on tops of the very highest hills. * Rogers’ Report Geol. Virginia, for 1840. 1875.] 395 [Stevenson. Dr. Briggs’ statement can be accounted for only by supposing that the Ellenboro’ fault disappears long before reaching the Ohio, and that the oil-break itself flattens out rapidly, so as to become a low anticlinal near the river, over which the upper groups may pass unbroken. Still this does not wholly remove the difficulty. What the conditions may be above Marietta, along the river, I do not know, never having examined that region ; but I do know that rocks belonging to the Lower Barren Group are found near Valley Mills, in Wood county, three miles from the river and seven miles northeast from Parkersburg. In that vicinity, I was unable to discover any rocks belonging to the upper groups. The oil-break passes through Wirt, Ritchie and Pleasants counties. Beginning at the south, let us see the structure in the vicinity of the Staunton pike, which runs along Hughes’ River. The section of the west slope is very prettily exposed on Fox’s Run, about one mile north from the Staunton pike, where we find : MANE CUSINALSS). ce trera sy acini e ere etree ahs a ae ats cues not measured. Qe ShallivaSaMadstONes 5 wrest sleversete sie cies reise tare ss 20 ft. SIRE GASIATE Sa iererpetnche ec toacreker nclesee re enatore: cierminteraue Ts 105 ft. AL SIM, RENNIE) s GaduoppoodoGoou ood Suibonodbon 30 ft. De edushaslesieana cere ec SRT AIG REL a NCEE 50-60 ft. 6. Sandstone, shaly to massive................2+- 65 ft. Tes MOM IUES Bk rh So RRS oA eR EES Dab ee ini test 5-12 ft. No. 1 is not far from one hundred feet thick, and on it rests the massive sandstone already mentioned as seen along the pike west from the “‘break.’’ Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7 are wholly involved in the abrupt side, and No. 3, partially so. The sandstones are all of a dull red color, and in the wells bored just outside of the break, the whole mass was recorded as red shale. On the east side of the break the exposure is yet more satisfactory, as the road passes along the river bank, so low down as to exhibit the flexure in the flint where the dip abruptly decreases from 35° to 3°. The sandstones and shales of the preceding section are seen in the hill above the flint, thus proVing indisputably that the rocks on each side of the ‘‘break’’ belong to the same horizon. There is no evidence of faulting on either side. The succession from the inner portion of the abruptly tilted strata outward to the horizontal strata is unbroken and perfectly clear. Within the break the rocks are almost horizontal and not much broken. They describe a flattened anticlinal, for beginning inside and proceeding outwards, say on the west side we find the dip first horizontal, then 2° or 3°, then 28°, then 56°, then 38° or 5°, and finally outside almost horizontal. A similar condition is found on the eastern edge. Along the line of section the chert is the last to show the abrupt dip. If now we ascend the hill from Fox’s Run and go east about one-third of a mile we find near Mr. Sharpnack’s steam-mill, the sandstone and Stevenson. | 396 [ Feb. 5, chert almost horizontal. The sandstone is the highest rock in the hill. The section is as follows: IM SE RNCKIROIYS Gsnado ooo KC UM COOn Baud Osco adboa Oo o0aC 60 ft. PM ONCE RNC EE Te OEE roe Sab OG on Shas 6-12 ft SuShaleyand Himestoneracecencicc seas Ooi. 9 ft AVIS Varela sliail ei evaye hinezeters teue aici areiece rc uederm teks eetee sous ore 3 ft HERO OE ecru ae ier aslo Ri cia fegabe ake gicet arene unah eet e) ae aROEES 6-12 inches. Ga ohalefand:sandstonemenre ccs oes ile cele 120 ft. We Sandstone bo) Livelemrtore cient cree not measured. The chert is light-red to yellow, and in some cases dove colored. It is quite compact, and forms a striking feature in both sides of the break as well as on the hills within it. It is well exposed on the pike, where it has been used for macadamizing the road. The limestone in No. 3, occurs in nodules, varying from two inches to two feet in diameter. It is variegated and extremely compact. If a sufficient quantity could be obtained, this would be valuable as an ornamental marble for indoor use, since it receives a beautiful polish. The coal is sulphurous and slaty. It can be seen on the pike near each edge of the break. The sandstone, No. 1, is said to contain a coal, eight inches thick. The black shale overlying the coal No. 5, is quite rich in fossils. Ina few minutes, I obtained from it a large number of individuals belonging to the following species: Chonetes granulifera, Solenomya sp., Schizodus sp., Plewroto- maria grayvilliensis, Bellerophon montfortianus, Bellerophon percarinatus and Huomphalus subrugosus. From this shale some very fine specimens of a Nautilus, allied to NV. occidentalis, have been procured. Near Freeport P. O., midway in the break, a well was bored to the depth of fifteen hundred feet, but the record seems to be wholly lost. All accounts agree in stating that for several hundred feet before the work was stopped, the drill passed through nothing but red shale. In a boring made near the middle of the break, thin coals are said to have been met at sixty, eighty and one hundred and twenty feet, respectively, from the surface. By comparing the results of two borings made here by Mr. J. Lillie, I make out the following partial section within the break : Le Sandstone fics eeclee oe oeletie scat reteie ot evererorarepereneete 60 ft DO) nVeh ar eNtrcn DSi Rae Naas shen rng picun a RU CC gana a Gide 6-12 ft owiShalerandw@limestomememernie erie ier ir eerie 9 ft. yl) Neri Vane e Sicingrre a Srna nai ANIA rats at ie 3) iii SPRY O12 0 1 ARENA) an nea Pp an Ae ena TE IS ade le cyt arte 6-12 in (Gea) OVS Brenan oda pani ialiy aenehs Wie De haat bel tbo 30 ft Sand stOMes ec cariecnce sreceiey tae ceterers cineremae iste 59 ft BUH ales ire ae Mime ora ce cia tetenmnratane caer nee eaenea eine eerie ance 41 ft 9) “SandstOne: hens wees coke sens csalere sien nant aler are 105 ft TU eietel 6 cp aimabeAne -, ae eMUnies tari pa anita tne ches citar polos cy ec 0 9 ft dil WGanidsStOMe: secs cc ce eae eee eee eee ree eee 76 ft 1875. ] O97 [Stevenson. TERA pSV OW CSTR Oy TSE ey 8 ta Mere eu en TTT ea ge sits HEY A OGIRIEMIS ORE a GO ne Oa Oa ET Oe eae conte 3) in, MA SS aie) eae ae ep MARR AP A NT aso yiac sre auaaR AML BOA ca eat 20 ft. DEAT CSEOMEN me tnrewardeteteren ens toners tole ckevare ei ghelsuachongare 27 ft. TG ofS) oy ene SRG er, 15 ati 5 eel sR RE SCR aNd ta RE 6 ft. ens lale:s blacks. syrevarveacuveevan eee REAR aS casket 10 ft. TSK SI NEW Keema et anata Rea eral oun. filer Nel ccd AK RS A ea ae 50 ft. HOMES ard SCONCE asistencia ae eS ee 20 ft. Rotale Aas Sater glean ors ka tavoeera MN evaumac tole sae calls oomhts Oil was found in Nos. 9 and 19. The coal, No. 13, is said to be very soft and in appearance to resemble the Grahamite. It is not exposed everywhere and has been found only in borings. Respecting the horizon of these rocks there is no room for doubt. The chert is undoubtedly the same as that found on the Great Kanawha River, immediately below the Mahoning Sandstone. Here, as so frequently elsewhere in West Virginia, that sandstone holds a thin bed of coal. The shale below the chert is rich. in species of fossils, which, in the Appala- chian region, are thus far utterly unknown at every horizon above the middle of the Lower Barren Group. Such a fossiliferous shale is very often found between the Mahoning Sandstone and the immediately under- lying coal. From the sandstone down, the whole facies is that of the Lower Coal Group, and at an inconsiderable depth the shales of the Lower Carboniferous are reached. Along the line of the Northwestern Railroad, the conditions are much more complicated, and one finds some difficulty in working out the true structure. Here the uplifting agency was exerted much more energeti- eally than on any other line, whether north or south from the railroad. Approaching Laurel Junction from the west, we pass through the Lower Barren Group. The strata are dipping westward very slightly until we approach the station, when the dip instantly changes to 309, and within a very short distance increases to 75°. It then declines almost as rapidly to 2° or 3°. On the east side of the break near Petroleum, the conditions are similar, the easterly dip suddenly increasing from a frac- tion of one degree to twenty, and then to thirty-six degrees. On each side of the break the uplifted rocks are certainly not far from eight hundred feet thick, and they may possibly be somewhat more. The dis- turbed conditions renders it difficult to make a good estimate. In these rocks we find near Laurel Junction a thin coal bed, one foot, separated by about ten feet of shale from a slaty coal, barely eight inches thick. Boty coals are badly broken, fire-clay and shale having been forced into them. From information given me by Prof. Fontaine, I am inclined to think that this same double bed is seen a little farther east in another cut, still sharply upturned. Near Petroleum, a similar bed is involved in the abruptly sloping rocks, and a little east from that village a thin coal is occasionally worked, which is said to be double and to resemble the one Stevenson. ] 398 [Feb. 5, under consideration. There seems to be no room for doubting that the coal near Laurel Junction and that at Petroleum are the same. Prof. Fontaine, nearly two years ago, madea very careful section along the railroad from Laurel Junction to the middle of the break, where the summit of the anticlinal is shown. He has very kindly submitted his notes to me without restriction. Inthe main, the results of my observa- tions do not differ from those previously obtained by him. I do not re- produce the section, as the details are unimportant here. Within the break, that is, in that portion where the rocks lie some- what irregularly horizontal, a coal is seen in several cuts. The section in connection with it varies slightly, owing to crushing, while the coal itself exhibits every evidence of having been subjected to strong pres- sure. The fullowing sections were obtained at different points upon the railroad. No. I, being by Prof. Fontaine, and No. II, by myself: I. IL. 1. Massive sandstone........ 12/ 1. Sandstone, massive.... 25/ 2. Black arenaceous shale.. 5//—4/ Po IAN) Gs a00cooGDK0oNS 2/—4/ 8 CO se sense cop uosaooss 30!’ Sa GOS oeaotoeeescast se 15//-28// 4, Gray sandstone........ 33/ | 4. Sandstone and shale 6/ OOM bereeserye a evcieeiocin etree 8!’ Gh ONLI DAR Oar h as a ciate Bes 10” 6. Black shale............ 3/ G2 Clays iebeieinie i leleeritemets 3! 7. Flaggy sandstone...... — US CODUBS SEs Cat Aor ags a aoe « 8//-12/’ 8. Shale to track.......... 6’ At the base of the massive sandstone there is a thin layer of conglome- rate made up of rounded pebbles, one-half inch in diameter and cement- ed by oxide of iron. The shale contains no impression of plants. This seam is evidently the same as that mined near Volcano, about one mile north from the railroad, where the section to the coal, as obtained in a well, is shale 40/; sandstone, 40/-50’; Coal, 3/-5’. The coal is double and very irregular in thickness. Below it the rocks are principally sand- stone to a depth of nearly five hundred feet, beyond which are reddish shales, which have been bored to seven hundred feet more without reach- ing their base. Two thin coals have been found within the break above this main bed, but they are not persistent. Within the break the strata are thrown about in considerable confu- sion, and well-marked faults are not infrequent along the railroad line. One of these is exhibited in following figure, which, as well the descrip- tion, I take from Prof. Fontaine’s manuscript, the details being more satisfactorily given than in my own notes. The fracturing of the rocks is especially marked on the western side of the break. The superintendent of one of the oil companies informed me that, on that side, it has never been found necessary to ‘‘torpedo”’ the wells, while that expedient is necessarily resorted to on the east side. The anticlinal structure is well shown west from Petroleum in the first cut which exposes the coal. There is no room to doubt that the original structure here was that of an anticlinal, but certainly there is no true-anticlinal now. This is easily shown by reference to only a few facts. 1875. ] 599 [Stevenso . East and west from the break along the railroad, the rocks do not dif- fer materially in character from those in similar position along the Staun- ton pike, where the relations are very clear. They are, therefore, of Lower Barren age. Borings made near the pike, say twelve miles south from the railroad, show the thickness of the Lower Coal Group and the Conglomerate to be not far from six hundred feet, and borings imme- diately north from the railroad show about the same thickne‘s. In the several cuts near Laurel Junction on the railroad, there are exposed sev- eral hundred feet of strata dipping at angles varying from ten to seventy- five degrees. These cannot belong wholly to the Lower Barren Group, for by far the greater portion has no equivalent in that group, being sand- stone clearly underlying the mass of shales. From what we know of the Coal Measures in this portion of the trough, it is deemed impossible for the Barren Group to increase so enormously within barely twelve miles. The greater portion of these upturned rocks must belong to the Lower Coal Group, and must be identical with the shattered fragments arranged in rude horizontality between the sides of the break. SeClIEN of, fuulling <<] G tn Lhe West Virgina ae On Break. oe ee Amer. Phil Suc. ae == Proceed ngE7 . Ke ae oe = 9 FENG ‘«¢q?__rather heavy bedded gray sandstone, weathering reddish brown; ‘}’—thin sandstone plates, placed on each other like saucers, and abut- ting on ‘ce,’ which is a bluish fine shale; ‘d’ and ‘e’ are dark heavy bedded sandstones ”’ Such being the case, it is evident that we have here the remains of an anticlinal. All the conditions go to show that the upheaval was not slow, but very violent, even explosive. it seems as though the rocks had been blown out with such force as to fracture them on the crest of the anticli- nal and as though the fragments, thus produced, had fallen into the broad gulf and keyed up the sides. In conversation, Prof. Fontaine has com- pared the conditions with those which would result if the top of a hollow anticlinal was battered in, and the simile is a good one. What the na- Stevenson. ] 400 [Feb. 5, ture of the agency producing the disturbance was, it is difficult to deter- mine. It cértainly was exerted over a broad area, extending in the re- gion examined from the line of the Ellenboro’ fault to the Ohio River. Fissures are frequent throughout this area, the most notable one being that containing the Grahamite. This has been fully described by Prof. Fontaine in the American Journal of Science. The oil is obtained chiefly from rocks, which I regard as belonging to the Great Conglomerate. The grade, for which this region is particularly noted, is of heavy specific gravity and is known as lubricating oil. Lighter oils are obtained, but occur at a greater depth than the others. Appendiz. Since writing this paper I have received from Dr. W. H. Sharp, of Voleano, West Virginia, the records of eighteen borings made in different portions of the oil break. A comparison of these leaves no room for doubt that the strata within the break, though apparently hori- zontal, are badly broken up, in many places even dove-tailing or not in- frequently crushed into irregular masses. This is sufficiently evident from the variations in the interval between two well marked strata, —the coal-bed, already mentioned, and a limestone at some distance below. It is possible, however, to make an approximate estimate of the thickness of the rocks, for several wells bored at somewhat distant localities show a close agreement. I give condensed sections of four borings. No. Lis near the eastern edge; No. II is in similar position, but one mile farther south; Nos. II] and IV are near the central line of the ‘‘break’’ and were made on lots 56 and 383 of the Volcanic Company’s tract : I, Tie I COG oconsbonoxcodeo sas 3/ IU OCT Rr aisin SOLS Cel olde 3/ Qe Stray woh Ga CO ate We) 31) SAHDUORIGOMSb os ooo 5063baec 20! 2. Interval not given in de- AL Dew SIMs os ooconcc990 ay ||. Ss tail, but chiefly Gray 5. Gray Sandstone........ TO! toss PEVKOISIOME 6. c6acccdcs 238! 6 Tight Shale “028: 33), 2 7. Gray Sandstone........ 24) & 8. Shale and §.58......... 81/ | 9. Aren. Shale and lL. 5... 77’ J NOS YOMOHIONE 5. SBS NES cee 22/ 8h JMORONG » ob ceo ganesh 40 25/ Wi, BlaaIe, gooocbeteoudcocds sa 5 | 4. Shale and Sandstone. ...123’) 5 iS) cr leaiSandstoney peers: een: 32/3) P orl os Sandstone meer oereae aw & 13. Variegated Shale....... 388/+- 6. Variegated Shale....... 213'+ : III. IV. 1. Goal and Shale’........ 8/ 1. Coal and) Shales ees... 11’ 2. HamdStONe . 22. -.e\- 2 /-')- KO), asl) 2b) SEMIGISWOU G5 Scan dso kade ign] So Darke Slvalenaaeniceee S2/a| ASF han Damas inal eee rerrenens sien te 12 4, Gray Sandstone......... 16’ ¢ —| 4. Sandstone.............. 58 | ss Deg all Gers peice ator ston eer ae 128’ | @ | 5. Shale... ............00. 48 t Gauisandstone. oe eee 170) =)" 6. Shalevand) Ss. o.ae ses ee 23 o> (ee SADASTOMC Er eietecetele cen 82 | ot 8. Sandstone and 8........ 56 OF Sand stoners eceetaets 42 J Bo LRMPMONGs 560500560840 8/ Os LLOMMESIONO 5 60 2000950000 17 8. Sandstone and some lie Sandstone: cacyaneeeeee ce 39 SHENeo anu EEooo0Es 50 128’+ 1875. ] 401 [Stevenson. In these sections the interval varies from 233 to 426 feet. In another boring, which passes through both the coal and the limestone, the dis- tance is 364 feet. Two other wells were driven to a depth of 386 and 397 feet respectively below the coal, without reaching the limestone. In all these wells the succession of strata is strikingly similar, though there is no resemblance in the thickness of individual layers. It seems quite probable that the interval is not far from three hundred feet, making all due allowance for exaggerated thickness owing to irregular dip of the rocks. The abrupt variations in the interval can be accounted for only by supposing that the strata are not only broken, as they usually appear in many of the railroad cuttings, but also actually crushed by lateral pressure, as indeed is shown in one of the illustrations given above. That this crushing is a common phenomenon appears from the frequent -occurrence of the term ‘floating sand’ in the records. The record of one boring gives, as overlying the limestone, ‘‘18 feet of sandstone and coal.’’? Since this coal is referred to in no other record, I am inclined to regard the statement as an error. Above the main coal and separated from it by a thin stratum of shale, there is in every in- stance a sandstone, whose thickness appears to vary from 20 to 80 feet. On this in two localities and eighty-five feet above the main bed is a thin coa], two feet thick, and, at one place, still another seam, of similar thickness occurs sixty-three feet higher. Above are shales for a consid- erable distance, probably two hundred feet. These borings confirm the conclusion, previously given, that the main coal is the Upper Freeport of Pennsylvania, the No. VI of Ohio. Eleven of the borings pass through the limestone and five others show by their sectioas that they have stopped not far short of it. In fourteen of these, the overlying rock is described as sandstone and in the other two as sandy shale. In twelve instances the sandstone is more or less conglomerate. Respecting the limestone I have no direct information. It is seen ina run near the railroad, a short distance east from Laurel Junction, but no search has been made in it for fossils. Under the lime- stone, sandstone occurs in ten borings and black shale in one. In four instances the sandstone is quite conglomerate. Below the sandstone is the variegated shale, whose thickness is unknown. Near the Staunton pike it is more than seven hundred feet. This succession leaves no room to doubt that the overlying rock is the Great Conglomerate, that the limestone is the Lower Carboniferous lime- stone (Umbral) and that the underlying rocks are the Waverly Conglom- erate and shales (Vespertine). Oil is found in the Great Conglomerate as well as in the shales and conglomerate of the Waverly. The heavy lubricating oil, for which this district has been celebrated, occurs at the upper horizon, while the lighter oils are obtained at greater depths. Dr. Sharp informs me that extensive ‘‘water-veins’’ are seldom encountered in the borings. A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 22 Frazer. ] 402 [April 16, ON THE TRAPS OF THE MESOZOIC SANDSTONE IN YORK AND ADAMS COUNTIES, PENNSYLVANIA. By PERsiror FRAzER, JR., A. M. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 16, 1875.) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. All igneous rocks consist principally of compounds of some kind of feldspar (or Nepheline or Leucite) with pyroxene, hornblende, mica or quartz, and generally with some magnetite and other subordinate min- erals. All these again may be divided into those poor in Silica or Basic, or those rich in Silica or Acidic.* The average compositions of these two kinds of igneous rocks are : BASIC. | ACIDIC. PER CENT. AVERAGE. PER CENT. AVERAGE. Silicapeemeere 45-60 52 | 55-80 67 Alumina... .. 10-25 17 10-15 12 Ferrous oxide Ferric oxide } 128 1) 1-15 8 iN so5ocKso 1-15 8 0-8 4 Magnesia .... 1-12 7 0-4 2 Potashteaoeee 1-9 5 1-11 6 Sodaiwse. ties 1-7 4 2-8 5 Water....... 0-4 2 0-6 3 Taking these ideal average percentages of the constituent compounds of these two classes of rocks, throwing them into a more convenient form and neglecting small fractions, we have : BASIC. PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO. SHO Nedane tes sondecs ae oosbeoo 24.96 27.0 27 ANTONI 5 oo Sed doHoodoSdsb000 9.00 8.0 Iron from Fe,O, say........ Hite, ALO 2.0 10 Iron from FeO say............ 5.0 1.5) CEG od dododddcoc6o05005000 5.7 2.3 g Magnesium..............+.-.+- 4.3 2.7 ( 10 Rotassimmayyrn serra eer eit 41 0.8 Sodiwmaiyiicrsaaetrete scree eteeareter 2.9 1.0 Ey droceniiee yaar 0.2 1.8J if Total oxygen............ 47.1 Of course it is understood that these figures represent no combination * Rocks Classified and Described, by B. v. Cotta. Translated by H. Lawrence. Lon- don. Longmans, Green & Co., 1866. 1815 403 [ Frazer. of elements actually possible, and that the ratio of the Oxygen of the Silica to that of the protoxide and sesquioxide bases is only approxima- tive to that of a mixture of minerals representing a mean of the highest and lowest percentages of those elements which are more commonly found in Basic igneous rocks. The same remark applies equally to the next following class : ACIDIC. PER CENT. ICOM ae aeictors mcreisemsierncens 32.16 ANIMA Sg ese Soedocodoos add 6.38 Tron from Fe,O, say........... 2.80 Tron from FeOsay............ 3.08 @alciumy ash asals soonest 2.86 MIR ANESIRINS sobacogcccdos000n0 1.22 HZOLASSIUNNG aio ert creer ercten 3.24 SOCEM ep ters rr share cite setchetepe doco. sbi) EV ORO Ge Merrie as re eerste e's 0.33 OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO. 34.84 34.84 5.62 rs 1.20} Poe 6.92 1.14 0.88 2.76 1.0 | 2.67 9.67 51.33 PYROXENIC. TRACHYTIC. . 48.47 76.67 . 30.16 14.23 5 lilies 1.44 5 Wack) 0.28 5) Noe 3.20 - 0.65 4,18 . 100.00 100.00 OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO. 25.21 25.21 7.05 } 4.55 3.40) 2.67 | 0.51 6.69 11.60 SHU IKOR rise oreo oR Aeerorer cnet coer crane eC Cra Alumina BOUT sac \ Ba am ome cr at, ony IDI SESS OBO CUS CORB AOC OO A Coco e cers WAGAIAS EVES oe Se aah se OBE eee aeOO RON Or ISKOXG pat Se eal ements aarses geCe ry nt IPODS ho Boo Oe oO Oe CRS EMR ace ear Mo tal er vee astro araha cn aieca et datetslicls Bringing them into the same form as the above, we have : PYROXENIC. PER CENT. SilICOMe esate tts s oaieverenne 23.26 Aluminum (say 15 p.c. Al,O;). 7.95 Iron (say 15.16 p. c. Fe,O;).... 10.61 Wal cima net ecins aioe ores hes 8.47 Magnesium ........ boocdadouT 4,22 SOGUMUMY eels care Serereke es 1.45 IPOtASSIUIN ssa en oe ees 0.54 ICAISR RAM else he notes 56.48 0.11 | 43.50 * Pogeg. Ann., 1851, Vol. LXXXIII. 404 [ April 16, Frazer. ] TRACHYTIC. PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO. Silicon keepin: see mir eet 36.80 39.87 39 87 Aluminum (say 7 p. c. Al,O;).. 3.71 ee Iron (say 7.23 Fe,O,).....+-.+- 5.06 2.17 a Calcintm wpe cocci ie 1.03 0.41) NPGS. Son bgsocos seated 0.17 0.11 | 2.06 SOGMUMI ois onic celewle serene evele 2.070 0.83 | a Botassram, .cyiyerukyetcies sere pels 3.47 0.71 | Osaxaer can fone cadens pA AU CS 47.38 CALS eis aerate 52.61 In the Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. IX, March, 1875, is a paper by Mr. Geo. W. Hawes, on the Trap Rocks of the Connecticut Valley, in which a number of closely accordant analyses 9f dolerites are given, the specimens being selected from various localities in the Mesozoic Sand- stone Belt of that State. A Dolerite taken from a dyke known as West Rock, and standing west of New Haven, gave to Mr. Hawes the following results, which have been embodied in the form of the preceding hyp»thetical compositions. ANALYSIS I, OF WEST ROCK. PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO. SIT COMPA or esas evsrcle ever teers stoke 24,86 26.94 MbPhosphotusces kaos 0.06 He oe ANIMMVNIINe sao sagtoegodcess60 7.09 6.65, \ 799 Ibgorn Goxod WE) s6acecdbsaco 2.48 1.07 vies Ibo Cheon BGO) ssccccdsoogc0e 6.36 1.90} Manganese (from Mn0O)....... 0.32 0.10 Gril inihass qanaahione sacs} cide 7.58 3.00 8.58 Maome sims, iter jetere ics serene 4.67 2.96 Sodiwmn es Oe rae lore ices 1.59 0.56 Potassium ae: eee 0.32 0.06 J Tignition’ 23. Me StSis cots Bicrer spateretove 0.63 Oxy CON ss Needs once ene 43.32 Acid and basic radicals.. 56.42 On comparing this analysis with the hypothetical composition of Cotta’s Basic Igneous Rock, it will be observed that the Silicon (inclu- ding under this head the small per cent. of P. present in West Rock), is almost the same in both, as also is the percentage of radicals in the pro toxide bases, while the per cent. of Oxygen of both protoxide and ses- 1875. ] 405 [ Frazer. quioxides, and the per cent. of the radicals of the sesquioxide bases are somewhat less in the actual, than in the hypothetical analysis. In tabular form the proportions would stand as follows : HYPOTHETICAL BASIC IGNEOUS ROCK. WEST ROCK. SUTCOM 2) CdteouobscooudeHOdoooosbooE doe 24.96 24.92 Ong fash Ree Geman ice a sea necnen cobs 27.00 27.02 Aluminum Leite tiece ie eee 13.50 10.03 Iron (from peroxide) ! Oxay Sere eu el Pa ccrctorabaart aera ct eyele 10.00 7.72 Radicals of protoxide bases ).........-+. 22.20 20.84 Oxygen \ UA RO ed 10.00 8.58 A mean of 40 analyses of Labradorite recorded in Dana’s Mineralogy, is as follows : PER CENT. SS IMT @ Fy eeescy ae eet audit ais te crave ate ata aul Mince ne tareu np pei Sr oc oP Oe 53.09 PUTRITIO eM Rar mc oe Gracey rocirerar hnic cro aoe Doe ee en ce 27.96 ISRO iOp-alelayeen ae cari Held y Sighinme Miao oe BEBO ADOC HOODOO OCS 1.383 IMiaiomesiaeets i pri sael seston etfelerReiseopete. aires benieperee san cir to 0.93 INE Eira ey cee erat et seer se ade city Sera palais eM pa aR ella enene nelvaias as 10.88 OG atetayeiccs scarlet tet teal ores draaivaietasns Se aoheaychin obama laeletuiidiae a: ahaa eere 4.09 HO Gals ln atgacs Ais caps sy ay giclee Shescietoihe cher ous a iselcus su cianacsiaiayal st sharsieve ware 1.08 Vai Gees Nosh pekys CRwsesiaten es el omeqeine Cate sehen ralarsnacesatt aig cantly Gare 0.84 TRO alba Shee ay se OAM a ter Di penidie 8h Nala Morar eedeerocet aan eval east eh ons 99.39 PER CENT. OXYGEN. OXYGEN RATIO. UT COMM sc aae ehieea in tree 25.48 27.61 27.61 PA UAT TAUTIT,. S)eeAN So e nee W478 12.96 ; 13.36 tron (@rompHe Oia aesecuen aes 0.93 0.40 ; JW GveaT ESI Goce Dero e Mo cedas 0.24 0.15 Cal cima eens eons reeeeara ible att By llil | OGM presto erotics eceesaheausiers 3.03 1.06 + 5.96 Potassium ...... Ure ect Hse See 0.98 0.19 | oat eG Oheoyegeinn oo caranenooU doo Kee ().09 0.75 J Mr. Hawes extracted enough crystals of pyroxene from one specimen of Connecticut trap to enable him to determine its constitution. It bears the nearest resemblance to an Augite of the Rhone, analyzed by Klaproth : : Frazer. ] 406 [ April 16, | | Ignition, | Si. | Al.| Fe. |Mn.| Ca./Mg.|Alkalies and) Total. Loss. Connecticut pyroxene .|24.34/1.88)11.90)0.63/9.53/8.34 2.65 56.62 Oxygen.) ose 26.87/1.76) 8.40,0.18/3.82/5.29 40.82 ~ — = —— = = Se —— — a a Augite (Rhone*)....... 24.96 3.06 8.480.19/1.007.80 4.23 | 54.49 Oxyeonl sus eheee oe 27.042.70) 2.54,0.06)4.0014.95 41.29 Assuming the pyroxene analyzed by Mr. Hawes to represent that con- stituting part of these traps, and assuming furthermore, the above average of 40 analysis of Labradorite as constituting the remaining part, we have the following comparative table, which is calculated by com- paring the sum of the percentages of each element of the two minerals with double the percentage of the same element in West Rock. PER CENT. | | Labradorite.| Augite. | West Rock. | | 5 Elements. | Ino GE nEAe Deficient. In Excess. Si. 25.48 24.34 | 49.72 | 0.10 — P. a ae 0.12 | ce Al, 14.78 1.88 15.10 ical — Fe," _ O08 —_ 4,96 — 4.03 Fe’ & Mn” 12.53 13.36 — 0.83 Ca. Hotty 9.53 MMH bile —— Mg. 0.24 8.34 9.34 0.76 Na. 3.03 1.65(?) 3.18 | 1.50(?) — K. 0.98 1.00(?) 0.64 1.34(?) — Of the constituents necessary to form a mixture of one molecule of each of the above mentioned minerals, there are in West Rock : * Dana’s Min,, p. 218, II. 7. 407 1878. ] [ Frazer. CHEMICAL UNITS. Elements. | Deficient. In Excess. paula 0.165 Fe," — 0.216 Fe’! & Mn” | —— 0.030 Ca. 0.107 ——— Mg. | — 0.063 Na. | 0.065 —o K. Ne 0.084 Pare Ve: = Sum | 0.371 | 0.309 Si. | 0.014 ae 12. | — 0.011 Supposing the basic radicals in excess to replace those deficient, there are wanting 0.062 (= 0.28 p. c.), and of the acid radicals 0.003 units (= 0.018 p c.) to fulfil theoretical requirements. Or, to throw this into a rough practical form susceptible of easy com- parison : Double Equivalent of Constituents of West Rock. S 24.92 x 2 25.48 1 molecule Labradorite. Si. (P. &e.) 24.34 1 <6 Augite. = 49.82 | 49.82 A 10.03 2 15.66 1 molecule Labradorite. Al &c. 1.88 1 N Augite. == 20.06 | 17.54 Dyad and 20.84 >< 2 11.80 1 molecule Labradorite. Monad 30.40 1 a6 Augite. Basic Radicals, == 41.68 | 42.20 Frazer. ] 408 [ April 16. A specimen of Dolerite was taken from Beeler’s farm, 2 miles 8. W. of York, York county, Pa., and submitted to Dr. F. A. Genth for analysis, which is as follows : PER CENT. Sil c1emacid ee cereals 52.58 |Silicon....... 24.51 Phosphoricacidiy- 2... 0.15 | Phosphorus... 0.06 MATEO BOW! soscocbecceacd 0.32 | Titanium.... 0.19 PAC UUINAI MA eeetoers ee lalos eisai ens 14.35 | Aluminum .. 7.65 Were Ordcless ccacocecd050e 5.93 | Iron (from Fe,O,) 4.15 IN ARO GIS Od-ICOES Seb ooooobonS 5.45 | Iron (from FeO) 4.23 Manganous oxide.......... trace | Manganese... —— Miaonesiar. aaltcn sitio stron 7.99 | Magnesium . 4.79 AGLI GR Se eee okey cares aioe gener 10.27 | Calcium..... 7.33 DiGhai aes ee ae ic faintest trace. | Lithium .... ——— SOC ae ie a ee ree acai cis 1.87 | Sodium ..... 1.38 IP ObAS ie cee ae eae 0.92 | Potassium... 0.76 Coppenecrr atomic tiss trace. | Copper...... — SME Acaaendoddooodeadc 0.08 | Sulphur . 0.08 HeEPMMMO Ds c0000000 0000006006 1.23 TNO Gallant eile. ctanetotts or stateless 101.04 These constituents in chemical units give: SUTPCOMG see esie ree ee i ede oie ee tereesseaee 3.900 ) MGA MUUM ener ee ene ee ae Rana 0.015 3 Ty al hs oa beh dao ae ob aa ey baat tele PANT TONTTTIIA eee ceca ice sie eseiie es orevrs erie ven vores 0.834 | JronGromisesquioxide)eqencee. sees 0.222 ORO (CHRON, jOIROWOXGCIO)) oc sc0cccgcguscaccade 0.150 WIEVEROESONTN so os poo don do oe sab oo0CNNauSbOKS 0.399 + Galery ee eicecie coerce ee ie bas eyeraventacein ore 0.366 SOGIUIM ye Melee orice eto eee Re rene 0.060 IPO LASSIMMAA Ry aclerert usin ees acetal ietevereinee eieeneiais 0.019 | PIMETS MCC eoeas seceseeatareresceh persis lonctets DOLERITE FROM BEELER’S. Total units in rock (Ghiverrarcayl (mbes Ge Sik ancl Woo an cocoobocuodooDsobodadar 6¢ ce of basic radicals Excess of units of Silicon, &c eee ee orc ecoe ee eo ee ose ee ose oe seve (Neglecting Sulphur) eoec ee ee oe +e oe ee eee oe Oxygen. 28.02 0.10 One 6.70 8.48 1.78 ——f 1.21 ; 38.20 8.005 2.94 28.24 2.050 1.465 1875.] 409 { Frazer CHEM. UNITS. Motalvchemicalewmitsioh Oxyeenres < 2) 2 molecules of Labradorite. Sj 24.65 < 3 | 24.34 1 molecule, Pyroxene. I. = 78,95 | 73.74 alse S< 3 32.40 (16.2 2) 2 molecules, Labradorite. Al; &e. 1.88 1 molecule, Pyroxene. — 35.43| 34.28 Na 23.60 (11.8 2) 2 molecules, Labradorite. Dyad and | 18.45 x 3 30.40 1 melecule, Pyroxene. Monad Basic Radicals, 55.85 | 54.00 A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 3A Frazer. ] 410 {April 16 OPTICAL PROPERTIES. SYENITE (?) FROM CEMETERY HILL, NEAR GETTYSBURG, ADAMS Co., Pa. Contains Feldspar, Hornblende and Magnetite, and some Biotite, with Quartz rarely. With a single Nicol’s prism, the blades of Hornblende are. fully dichroic. Both that and the feldspar are speckled and spotted. Between two Nicol’s prisms the Labradorite polarizes through blue, yellow, and lilac ; the Hornblende from white to brown and black; and the Quartz, which is sparingly present, gives brilliant colors. In the thick specimen examined under the microscope the feldspar dif- fers from that of the equally thick specimens of dolerite in being more transparent and “ icy’’-looking, resembling Adularia, and here and there are seen small grains of a transparent mineral giving the rainbow colors of quartz. The fine slice reveals the feldspar in a state not easily distinguishable and of weathered appearance, and also several objects, which from their colors, green and red, resemble small fragments of pyroxene. While therefore, there is no doubt of the oceurrence of hornblende in suffi- cient quantity to give the character to this rock, the question as to its proper name will be remanded to future study. DOLERITE FROM BEELER’s Farm, 2 Mines 8. W. oF YorK. This slide at 275 diameters and between Nicol’s prisms, shows an ag- gregate of irregular portions of crystals of pyroxene and Labradorite with the accompanying magnetite. The surfaces of the crystals are rough, but they do not seem to be so much affected by weathering as in that marked No. 3. P DoLERITE (No. 3) FRoM BEELER’s Farm, 2 MILEs S. W. oF YORK. The Labradorite and pyroxene of this specimen, under 275 diameters, appear in much the same condition as those of the slide from the Mum- per dolerite. The blades of Labradorite are twinned and sometimes gen- iculated ; the two individuals polarizing alternately light and brown. Certain parts of this slide are very rich in a fine rod-like crystal ap- parently uniaxial which may be set down with safety as apatite. A very large number of these little crystals is distributed throughout the whole mass. DoLERITE FROM MuMPER SHAFT, 1 Mite N. or Dituspure, YORK Co., Pa. The thin section (magnified 56.8 diameters) and with } in. aperture, exhibits blades of Labradorite very finely and regularly striated, mixed together with yellowish green masses of pyroxene irregularly cleft and stippled on the surface like fish roe and containing magnetite, around which is to be seen a brownish-yellow stain due to its partial conversion into ferric hydrate. With appertures of }in., } in., and 3-16, the same appearances are manifest, but not so clearly. 1875.] 411 [ Frazer. With the Lieberkiihn reflector the fragments of magnetite assume a partially metallic lustre. With one Nicol’s prism there is a faint appearance of dichroism in some isolated sputs of some of the pyroxene crystals but in general there is no change. Between two Nicol’s prisms the pyroxene changes from green to pink (sometimes giving a transient spot of deep purple), and the irregular rifts in its mass are more plainly visible. The Labradorite changes abruptly along the planes of twinning to light brown and pale greenish-blue from white. The striation is very appa- rent and polarization is usually complementary in two or three sections of the single blade. The magnetite of course remains unchanged. Between Nicol’s prisms and magnified 275 diameters the outlines of the constituent crystals of this rock are very sharp, and the pyroxene in par- ticular shows very brilliant shades of purple and green, The cleavage is quite apparent, and the whole rock seems but little altered. DOoOLERITE FROM LOGAN’s SHAFT, 1 MILE N. or DinuspurG. This slide resembles the others but is less decomposed and compounded! of finer crystals than the others. It exhibits Labradorite, pyroxene and magnetite, besides acicular crystals which appear to be apatite. Under 275 diameters the Labradorite and pyroxene have a rough ap- pearance, as if covered with little bubbles, due perhaps, to incipient de- composition. A number of small needle-like apatite crystals are scat- tered through the mass. The greater part of the Labradorite (which is twinned as usual) lacks sharpness of outline. 5 The photographs and zinc plates from the photo-zincograph process have been prepared by Mr. Anthony Wenderoth, of this city, to whom great credit is due for his skill in overcoming what have been hitherto considered insuperable difficulties. In the present state of photography it is im- possible to make a picture from nature of the constituents of a complex rock of this kind, and at the same time to preserve the identity of each to the eye. Indeed the outlines of the separate minerals will blend more or less into each other when the colors are such as will affect the sen- sitized plate imperfectly. Another drawback is that yellow and red min- erals photograph black, and the former being one element of the color of many pyroxenes, the black spots, which should indicate magnetite, are sometimes extended out of all reason, when the two last mentioned min- erals occur together. Another evil is that the same mineral may, by rea- son of slightly differing thicknesses in different parts of the slide, assume totally different colors. And still another, is that part of the stippled ef- fect is often due to the necessities of the process. Yet in spite of these disadvantages, some of which at least experience and patience will enable ?) Frazer. ] 41 a [ April 16. us to overcome, these plates are among the most faithful representations of the facts as seen through the microscope which have yet appeared. With suitable apparatus and after some prefatory trials, I have hopes of produciag more perfect results, and of obtaining sharp level photographic outlines, which can be colored if necessary to correspond to five or six positions of the analyzer during its rotation. [ Norn.—In connection with this paper a series of thin slices of Con- necticut Traps, made by Mr. E. 8. Dana, of Yale College, the Penn sylvania specimens referred to in the text, as also, photographs of maps of York County and Gettysburg, and the positive picture on glass of the slices of 136 diameter enlarzement, were projected on the screen. ] EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Puate LI. Fie. 1. This photograph was among the first made with-an ;8, micro- scopic objective. A portion of the edge of the section was included in the field in order that the portion represented might be more easily recog- nized and studied under the table-microscope. The enlargement is very nearly 34 diameters. The original is a dolerite (No. 3) containing pyroxene (a), magnetite (), plagioclase (abra- dorite) (c), and some scattered needles of apatite (d). The previous description of the dolerite No. 3 from Beeler’s farm applies to this specimen. Fie. 2. The negative of this print was made in polarized light and is another portion of Fig. 1, Pl. IV. The object is a specimen of dolerite from Beeler’s farm marked No. 4. The rock is seen to be a confused mass of crystal fragments consisting of labradorite (a), pyroxene ()), and magnetite (c). PuatTe II. Fic. 1. The negative of this print was taken with a 4+ microscopic objective, and the enlargement is about 136 diameters. The minerals constituting this rock, (which occurs on Cemetery Hill, Gettysburg, Adams County, Pa., and has been provisionally called Syenite, ) are more or less weathered, as their rough appearance, caused by their numerous cavities, sufficiently shows. a. Crystals of feldspar. b. Hornblende. c. Magnetite. Fie. 2. This object is specimen 1 of dolerite from Beeler’s farm, 3 miles 8. W. of York, and is magnified 136 diameters. a. Labradorite. b. Pyroxene. c. Magnetite. >) 1875. ] 413 [ Frazer. The surfaces of both feldspar and pyroxene (and especially of the latter) are covered with small cavities. PLATE IIL. Fig. 1. This is a dolerite from Logan’s, a shaft contiguous to the Mumper shaft. Besides exhibiting the relations of the light-colored slabs of labradorite to each other, and the pyroxene which forms a matrix for them, there are two distinct apatite crystals reproduced in the print. a. Labradorite. b. Pyroxene. c. Apatite. Central black spot, Magnetite. Fie. 2. Thin section of a dolerite from a shaft on Mumper’s property about 1 miJe N. of Dillsburg. The dyke of which this is a section cuts the ore bed at a short distance beneath the surface. In this print there is a labradorite of unusual size, in which is im- bedded a small mass (of pyroxene) (2) which appears black in this light. The striation of other labradorite crystals is distinctly seen, while the outlines of the magnetite crystals are unusually sharp. a. Labradorite. b. Pyroxene. ce. Magnetite. Puate LY. The figures in this plate were photographs of the same object but under different conditions of polarized light. Figs. 1 to 5 inclusive, were photographed in five different positions of the analyzer. A peculiar crystal of pyroxene which exhibits a median line differing in color from the body of the crystal was made the guide. The purpose of these ex- periments was to see whether means could not be discovered to discrimi- nate between the effects of anactinic light and opacity, by the camera alone. The object was a thin section of a dolerite from Beeler’s farm, 2 miles S. W. of York, marked No. 4. Fic. 1. This pyroxene appears of a light color and with a dark core, which in turn contains an irregularly formed light-colored axis. The boundary between this crystal and the magnetite at its right hand extrem- ity is sharply defined ; and the division between this pyroxene and a neighboring fragment just below its lower edge is also evident. Fie. 2. In this photograph polarizer and analyzer are in the same phase. The main crystal is still lizht-colored, but there is less defini- tion about the middle part of its dark nucleus, a light band extending nearly across it at this place. The pyroxene lying below its lower edge, which was dark in Fig. 1, has now become light, and the line of division between the two crystals is nearly obliterated, except at one point where a small magnetite appears in relief against the light background. The angle of the analyzer was not determined. Hofiman. ] 414 [ April 16, In Fig. 3, the main crystal has become almost entirely black with a light core. The upper end now blends with the magnetite alongside of it, and the pyroxene on the lower side has become sensibly darker, but still leaves the small crystal of magnetite apparent. The angle of the analyzer was not determined. In Fig. 4, with an angle of + 135° from the first position, the appear- ance is nearly the same as in Fig. 1; and in Fig. 5 as in Fig. 3. In Fig. 6, which was taken in the same position of the analyzer as Fig. 4, a new condition was iatroduced, viz.: a thin plate of selenite was interposed over the slide and between polarizer and analyzer. The effect is a general resemblance to Figs. 1, 2 and 4. These attempts to utilize the art of micro-photography, for the delinea- tion of the facts as seen through a microscope of moderate power, are yet crude and undoubtedly susceptible of very great improvement, and my only excuse for offering them to the Society in their present unfinished state, is the supreme importance of using every means in our power at the present time to illustrate the conditions of structure of these micro-crys- talline (once crypto-crystalline, but now so no longer) igneous rocks ; and the hope that the effort to enlist the pencil of the sun in these repro- ductions, however imperfect it may be in its beginning, may be ulti- mately successful. It has not been attempted in this paper to specify alJ the constituents of these traps ; to do this a further laborious study of many more slides would be necessary : but only to point out those of most frequent occur- rence and of principal importance, which can be recognized in the photo- oraphic representations. ON CREMATION AMONG THE DIGGER INDIANS. By W. J. Horrman, M.D. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 16, 1875.) In my last communication, I described, in part, the funeral ceremony of that sub-tribe of Pah-Utes inhabiting the vicinity of Spring Mountain, Nevada, and in looking over my notes made in 1871-2, I find that cre- mation was also practiced by the Digger Indians (Pah-Utes) living around Marysville, Cal. I would here state, that as far as I have been able to compare the language, or rather dialects, customs, beliefs, ethnology» etc., [ am inclined to trace the various sub-tribes of Utes, Pah-Utes (in- cluding Diggers) and Gosh-Utes, to one common type. Their bands are scattered over an extent of country, from the northera interior portion of California, southward throughout that State to Owen’s Lake, thence irregularly eastward into Utah and Colorado, making a distance between the two limits of about one thousand miles. The dialects are similar to a great extent, except where they haveadopted many Bpanie words, and these incorrectly pronounced. 1875. | A415 [ Hoffman. Cremation as practised at Marysville, is very similar to the form at Spring Mountain, but to give as clear an idea as possible, I shall repeat it. When an Indian (e. g., a male) becomes dangerously ill, all the re- maining ones of that rancheria move a short distance away, leaving the sufferer to himself. The wife, or one of his relatives, supplies him daily with food and water. In case death ensues, the male friends of the de- funct prepare everything for the usual ceremonies. Some, wrap the corpse into a blanket, and tie it with grass ropes to keep the body stiff and straight; while others gather pine wood, which they arrange into a pile about four feet broad and eight feet long, high enough to contain rather more than a cord, upon which the corpse is placed, with all his favorite valuables, such as bows and arrows, blankets, gun, etc. All the Indians then form a circle around the pile, fire is applied, and several men are stationed near, with long poles, to stir up the coals and burning embers, to hasten the work. When the body has. been reduced to the smallest possible quantity or bulk, (ashes or crisp) the widow approaches and scraping up some of the resinous exudation of the pine, covers her face and hair with it, signifying that she will not entertain any proposals of marriage as long as any trace of the resin adheres to her person. The remains are then collected and transferred to a piece of blanket or buck- skin, in which they are buried near camp. Their reason for burning all the usual trinkets, etc., of the dead, is the same as at Spring Mountain, ?.é@., that when the Indian reached the better land (the white man’s hunting-ground in the direction of the rising sun), he must be prepared to take part in the chase, as he was wont to do on this earth. x * * * * * x The Modocs, now so well known, also practised this custom as late as the year 1868, when it was discontinued, they having adopted the mode of burial practised by the tribes living to the north of their territory. The only differences were that the chief mourner would cover his (or her) face and hair with the blood and grease which ran from the burning body, instead of using the resin ; and that the ashes were buried, usually, in a small basket made of grass or fine roots, and shaped like a small basin or bowl. The ashes were also buried near camp, from two to three feet below the surface. In conclusion, I would say, if the name Digger is applied to those Pah- Utes who obtain their food to a great measure from the ground such as roots, lizards, etc., etc., why not call those tribes Diggers also who are lower in the scale of humanity, as the Seviches, who live on the Colo- rado Plateau, near the western terminus of the Grand Cafion. They are decidedly the most loathsome beings who live within the limits of the United States. (1 shall report more accurately upon this, and adjoining bands in some future paper.) The Sho-sho-nees and their sub-tribe, the Snakes, also live on roots, herbs, lizards, toads and insects, besides the fish and fowl they are sometimes able to obtain. * %* * * * * * Reading, April5th, 1875. Chase. } 416 [April 16, LUNAR-MONTHLY RAIN-FALL IN THE UNITED STATES. By Puiny Earute Cast, PRoFEssoR oF Paysics IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 16, 1875.) When the Meteorological Department of the Signal Service Bureau was first organized, I believed that the extent of territory embraced by the observations would soon furnish material for useful generalizations, in respect to the importance of climatic influences which many regard as either problematical, or wholly insignificant. If any considerable improvement in our present system of weather forecasts should ever become possible, it will doubtless be brought about by a fuller understanding of cyclical changes. Howard and Sabine long ago showed that barometric pressure and magnetic force are sensibly af- fected by the moon, and the cumulative effect of undulations is such that the daily atmospheric tides, though singly of small magnitude, may, by regular succession, lead to such blendings of currents as will produce cyclical winds and storms. By my numerous comparative investigations I have shown that, while there is a great discrepancy in the forms of the lunar rain curves at different stations, the discrepancy is no greater than is found in the solar curves. I have also shown that there is a likeness between the curves for different independent periods, at the same station, which cannot be attributed to chance, such likeness being most striking, and the inflections of the curves being greatest where the lunar-tidal forces are strongest. Any normal lunar, or planetary, wave-producing influence may be greatly obscured by local or accidental disturbances. The daily an- nouncements of ‘“probabilities’’ often seem to fail in a given locality, when the weather map shows that they are wonderfully verified in an entire region. Soa lunar disturbance which would ordinarily bring rain; may be marked by cloud or wind at some stations, while, if we had re- ports from the entire district, we should find a general prevalence of rain. We may, therefore, look for results from observations at a large number of stations, extending over only a few years, analogous to those which would be shown in a long series of years, by the observations at a single station in the same district. The influence of the Rocky Mountains upon our storms has been well known since the days of Redfieldand Espy. The intersections of normal winds, near the base of those mountains, as well as the analogous inter- sections which occur in the West Indian birthplace of tornadoes, I have pointed out in a previous paper. In neighborhoods where there is a natural tendency towards a blending of currents, cumulative tidal influ- ences may be supposed to have a special efficiency. Influenced by these views, I have examined the morning weather maps for the past three years, tabulating, in accordance with the moon’s age, both the number of reporting stations and the reported rain-fall upon 1875. ] 417 [Chase. each map. I then divided the total rain-fall upon each day of the lunar month by the total number of stations reporting for the corresponding day, and took successive differences between the resulting averages, by Airy’s method. The normals thus deduced are givenin the accompanying table, together with the normals for various local curves. The curve de- duced from 48 years’ observations at Philadelphia, covers a longer period. than any other to which I have had access in the United States, and its striking resemblance to the Signal Service curve is shown by the diagram. The resemblance is the more significaat in view of the fact that the periods represented by the two curves are entirely independent. The flex- ures in the Philadelphia curve average about 1% days earlier than those of the general curve. On the hypothesis of cumulative tidal undulations, this would represent a daily difference of 123 hours, or 222°, a difference corresponding to disturbances originating in our Western territories. Occasional breaks in my series of weather maps, the interference of storms with the transmission of reports, and other causes, combine to render these results imperfect, but their indications are of such a char- acter as to convince me that a careful study of the full returns, which are forwarded thrice a day to the Signal Service Bureau, would lead to the discovery of important laws governing the lunar influence at various seasons of the year, at various periods of the day, and in various sections of the country. Lunar-Monthly Rain-fall, from Observations of Signal Service Bureau, and at Local Stations. iS) & : Ss : . Rod Sid aid 2B Be n $2 = De Bae BS ee) Sa ee Lunar Day. Ee ® a es 28 £3 SS 2s Bio) ie Sohn Sel Sek ese 6 Se. yee =e) = =~ ee ‘a0 iS eo) joalKe'o) oo) = con oars Bao Sloe rm i tetera as 105 96 100 93 97 90 106 arora ees ary 106 88 96 94 97 79 106 PEE NE Sean, 101 86 94 97 94 ed 99 1 as Beate eet 99 87 92 102 92 84. 90 Disereyorarctaurers 98 94 96 103 96 89 85 Oeorerccitans 104 104 103 100 104. 88 83 Ni See as tone 111 110 111 97 107 85 84 SEIN Ee rae 106 108 107 86 108 82 89 CS Earcumet er rye ts 97 102 97 96 107 86 93 ID BGe ago uae 85 94 89 96 103 93 98 1 Rae ees 93 84 87 95 97 99 105 DO roe rem ats 100 79 88 94 99 106 118 ay pet pee 95 81 87 94 110 110 128 TA ae ees 87 87 87 94 125 107 126 aera a aiater 87 97 93 96 138 98 118 ll Gistsks,crestveteians 91 103 98 100 134 93 117 TEP siete rence 87 102 96 106 115 96 126 Bab RAINE 87 105 97 113 105 103 135 A, P. 8.— VOL. XIV. 3B Chase. ] 418 [April 16, 1875. Lunar-Monthly Rain-fall, from Observations of Signal Service Bureau, and at Local Stations—CcONTINUED. | | | | ° ° S me Se cut os een ere Se S Sel Belo SE adie cae ene ame D@D Sc Dm oO foYoen! gr rom or. Lunar Day. vali co ho aS ire) ie Do fh ality as Lota a) ws Ris go #8 BE 28 [@y bea ae aon) ao aS "=O Meo) Rw @ - S so =3 =< ay a a — OBS OAR Ea 101 113 107 115 104 104 135 We saeee nese ALY 115 116. 113 96 104 124 DULL Ai Sise pea 127 112 119 108 85 104 106 Fe ese ne te FS 123 107 114 104 83 109 85 2D he BITES 109 105 107 102 86 116 68 Ae Sree 102 107 104 102 88 121 62 PADIG CSO DTC OES 105 104 104 99 89 12) 67 PATENO ee ern 104 58 99 96 86 123 igi QWs se eee 94 98 95 98 81 116 86 OBE mines tees 89 109 100 101 85 108 91 2 Oa. eae Nee 94 118 1138 99 93 105 93 SOLE 2 100 111 106 95 96 100 100 In the diagram each vertical space represents .05 of the mean rainfall ; each horizontal space, a lunar day. The curves begin and end on the day of new moon. The Signal-Service curve for three years is the un- broken line ; the Philadelphia curve for 43 years, the broken line. Stated Meeting, January 1, 1875. Present, 14 members. ' Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Rawson W. Rawson, Esq., Governor of Barbadoes, dated Govern- ment House, Nov. 24, 1874. Letters of acknowledgment were received from Royal In- 419 stitution, London, Dec. 2, 1874, (92); the Chemical Society, London, (92); the Society of Antiquaries, London, Dec. 8, 1874, (92; wanting 88); Mr. J. D. Cox, Toledo, Ohio, Dee. 24, 1874, (92); the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 4 St. Martin’s Place, W. C., Dee. 1, 1874, (92). Letters requesting (62 and 88) missing numbers of the Proceedings were received from the Royal Geographical Society, London, 1 Saville Row, Burlington Gardens, W.., Dec. 3, 1874. A letter respecting publications for 1875 was received from Putnam & Sons, Fourth Avenue and Twenty-third street, New York, Dec. 17, 1874, for Amherst College. A letter from A. H. Barclay, President, Rantoul Literary Society, Rantoul, Champaign County, Ill., Dee. 26, 1874, acknowledging receipt of (92) Proceedings and giving an account of the progress of that Society was read. Donations for the Library were received from the Natural History Society at Emden, Royal Academy at Brussels, Geographical Society at Paris, Revue Politique, editors of London Nature, Boston Natural History Society, Worcester County Medical Association, Franklin Institute, editors of Penn Monthly, and the U. 8. Department of the In- terior. Prof. Frazer exhibited a new and convenient retort for the manufacture of oxygen; a hollow cone of copper plate, fitting tightly down upon a short conical ring of copper plate, mounted upon a disc or base of the same, and forming a box to receive the residuum. Plaster of Paris is run into an outside groove to lute the joint. The instrument is eieaned with speed and ease; the resistance is so slight as to render an explosion little dangerous. Prof. Frazer claimed . for it the merit only of being a convenient modification of Prof. Morton’s apparatus. Mr. Briggs described an explosion at Kirkbride’s Hospital, by which the engineer of that institution was killed, although connection was made through a pipe 80 feet long. 420 He thought experimenters should take warning by the fre- quency of these accidents. Prof. Morton, after three explo- sions, made habitual use of a water trap. Prof. Frazer then read a paper in defence of Prof. Tyn- dall, entitled “Criticism of the Belfast Address of Prof. Tyndall.” Prof. Chase communicated additional results respecting the Magnitude of Gravitating Waves. (See page 344.) The report of the judges and clerks of the annual election was then read, by which it appeared that the following officers for the ensuing year had been elected: For President, George B. Wood. For Vice- Presidents, John C. Cresson, Isaac Lea, Frederick Fraley. For Secretaries, FY Ols. Kendall, John I. leConte. Pliny, ba:@haccmemees Lesley. Councilors for three years, Daniel R. Goodwin, Eli K. Price, W. L. W. Ruschenberger, Henry Winsor. For Curators, Joseph Carson, Charles M. Cresson, Hector Tyndale. For Treasurer, J. Sergeant Price. J. P. Lesley was nominated as Librarian. Pending nominations 764, 765 were read. New nomination 766 was read. And the meeting was adjourned. 421 Stated Meeting, January 15, 1875. Present, 15 members. Mr. Fratery, Vice-President, in the chair. A letter resigning membership on account of his inability to attend the meetings was received from Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, of Germantown, Philadelphia. A letter requesting Proc. No. 88 was received from the London Iorticultural Society, per Prof. Asa Gray, Dee. 31, 1875. A letter requesting Proceedings January—June, 1872, pp. 225-232, was received from the Boston Athenseum, dated Jan. 8, 1875. A letter acknowledging Proceedings 81 to 92 and asking for the preceding numbers of the set, was received from Mr. R.S. Williamson, dated San Francisco, Jan. 2, 1875. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Agri- eultural Society at Lyons, Oct. 30,1875, (Proc. 1 to 91, want- ing 5, 17, 21, 23, 25, 29 to 31, 34, 68 and 64); and from the London Statistical Society, London, Dec. 14, 1874 (92). A letter of Envoy was received from the Royal Society of — Victoria, dated Melbourne, March 10, 1874. Circular letters were read from the K. K. Geological In- stitute, Vienna, respecting its Twenty-fifth Anniversary Fes- tival, Jan. 5, 1875 ; from the Royal Belgian Academy respect- ing a monument to M. Quetelet; from the Canadian Parlia- mentary Companion; from the Linnean Society at Lyons; and from the Congres Internationale des Américanistes. Donations for the Library were received from the Royal Society at Victoria; The German Geological Society; the Physico-Mediecal Society at Erlangen ; the Zoologische Gar- ten ; the Flora Bataya; Agricultural Society at Lyons; Nou- - velles Méetéorologiques, and Revue Politique at Paris ; Royal Astronomical Society, Chemical Society, Victoria Institute, and Editors of Nature; the Cornwall Polytechnic Society ; American Journal of Science, New Haven ; New York Ly- ceum of Natural History ; Journal of Pharmacy; U.S. Sur- vey of the Territories ; Department of the Interior ; and the Editors of “ the Western.” Mr. Wharton called attention to the fact that there seemed to be a movement on foot to favor the inauguration of another Arctic Expedition; suggesting that the Society should take the initiative by proposing to the Secretary of the Navy a plan which should involve the use of the stores of the Polaris. Mr. Delmar, by se tay read a memoir on the Progress and Statistics of Spain, previous to and since 1855, the date of the Great Reform laws. (See page 301.) On motion, Mr. Lesley was chosen Librarian, and the standing committees were nominated and elected for the en- suing year: Finance, Mr. Fraley, Mr. HE. K. Price, Mr. Marsh. Publication, Dr. LeConte, Dr. Brinton, Dr. H. Allen, Dr. C. M. Cresson, Mr. Tilghman. fTall. Gen. Tyndale, Mr. E. Hopper, Mr. S. W. Rober Library. Dr. Coates, Mr. H. Kk. Price, Dr. Carson, Dr. Krauth, Mr. Whitman. Pending nominations 764, 765, 766 were read. Pending nominations 764, 765 were balloted for. On motion the reading of, the list of members was postponed. On scrutiny of the ballot boxes by the Presiding Officer, _ the following were declared duly elected members of the Society : Dr. Jared P. Kirtland, Ohio. Mr. John B. Pearse of Philadelphia. And the meeting was adjourned. 423 Stated Meeting, February 5, 1875. Present, 13 members. Vice-President, Mr. Franny, in the chair. A letter enclosing his carte de visite photograph for the album was received Bonn Dr. Robert Peter, dated eS HOD, Ky., Jan. 28, 1875. A letter ai acknowledgement (92) was received from the Rantoul Literary Society, Jan. 26, 1875. A letter of envoy was received from Mr. Alex. Agassiz, dated Cambridge, Jan., 1875, stating that missing numbers of his father’s works, for the Society’s set, were sent by express to supply the deficiency, and requesting the return of any duplicate parts in the possession of the Society. Donations for the Library were received from Dr. Max. Marques de Carvalho, of Rio Janeiro; Mr. Ff. W. C. Trat- ford, of Zurich; the R. Belgian Academy; the Editors of Revue Politique, and Nature, and the British Trade Jour- nal; the Royal Astronomical Society ; Mr. Alex. Agassiz, of Cambridge, Mass.; the Franklin Institute; Editors of Penn Monthly, Medical News, Journal of the Medical Sciences, Journal of Pharmacy, and the American Chemist ; Mr. H. OC. Carey ; the Chief of Engineers of the United States ; and the Geological and Agricultural Survey of Texas. The death of Mr. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, at Bos- ton, Oct. 17, 1874, aged 63, was announced By the Secretary. The death of Mr. Brancis Kiernan, F’.R.8., Dec. 31, 1874, was announced by the Secretary. Mr. Coleman Sellers announced that he was prepared to read an obituary notice of the late Joseph Harrison at the next meeting. ; | A letter was received from Daniel B. Smith, of German- town, Philadelphia, quoting a letter from Mrs. Davidson, dated Nagasaki, Dec. 10, 1874, describing the scene of ob- servations at the time of transit: To THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY : I have this morning received a letter from Prof. Davidson’s wife, dated Nagasaki, Dec. 10, 1874, which I transcribe for the Society : 424 *We were 24 days on the passage over and remained one week in Yokahama and Yedo, before taking the steamer for Nazasaki. No time was to be lost, and at 12 o’clock, on the day of our arrival they had 30 coolies bein the road up to the side of the observatory, which is 300 feet high, and about a mile and a half south of the town. They have been working night and day ever since, feeling somewhat hurried. You can imagine with what anxiety every cloud was watched for several days before—which had been hazy or cloudy in the mornings —blowing over by midday. pee TRANSIT N22 | TRANSIT HOUSE NA eee ; HELIOSTAT w 2 oO =) EQUATORIAL = Let bt fae ao vr PHOTOGRAPH HOUSE eS KITCHEN The preceding night was clear and beautiful until day-break, when clouds began rapidly to form, breaking away again about 74, and clouding over again by 93. The observers remained all night on the hill and the others were at their post by 7 o’clock. I weat up inasedan chair (carried by four Coolies), and we were all at our posts of duty by ten o’clock and as the time draws nearer, you can imagine our suspense. In my husband’s observatory (the large equatorial), just before the computed time, the sun seemed to be breaking through the clouds and all was in readiness ; George, the largest boy holding the chronometers up to his father’s eye and ear ; and I seated (where I would see my husband’s face,) with book and pencil in hand, with closed doors and perfect silence, save the regular 425 beats of the clock and chronometers. [t was almost a solemn moment. The sun broke forth with one gleam—I was almost startled to my feet with the shout of ‘‘ Commence,’’ given by my husband, as warning to the Photographers as the instant was about to arrive. In a few seconds he gave an exclamation of delight and the first contact was accomplished and duly recorded. After giving us an instantaneous peep, observations were kept up till the next critical moment of the secood contact ; the sun growing less bright, but still bright enough for observations, the second contact was seen and further observations as the body was passing over the sun—growing thicker and thicker and leaving scarcely a hope for the third contact and also for the fourth which were not visible and then the whole thing was over, not wholly successful, but by no means unsuccess ful, and I think my husband is pretty well satisfizd ; he certainly feels. that they made the most of the situation, everything working well and: only failed on account of the weather. One thing strikes me as very wonderful—of course the exact spot om the sun’s limb where the contact should appear was only known by com- putation from our previous data, and under such large magnifying power, which took in only about 54 diameters of Venus, one minute of an: are would have been fatal. Mr. D. had gone over his calculations several times and that same morning had gone over them to satisfy himself, and then pointed his instrument and sure enough there came Venus, right in the centre of his pointing, 3} minutes later than the English computed time, and 14 earlier than the American time. I hope the Society will think this account worthy of an early publi- cation. Respectfully, DANIEL B. SMITH. Germantown, 1st mo., 29th, 1875. The letter of Mrs. Davidson was ordered to be published as soon as possible. The Secretary presented a communication, entitled “ Notes. on the Geology of West Virginia,” No. IL, by Jno. J. Stevenson, Prof. of Geology, University of N. Y., and ex--. plained the author’s work in that region, in connection with the proposed oceupation of a new district in Southwestern Pennsylvania by the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. (See page 370.) Mr. Fraley reported the receipts, and payment to the Treasurer, of $152.79, being the last quarterly payment of the: interest on the Michaux Legacy. The following report of the Trustees of the Building Fund of the A. P. 8. was read by its Treasurer, Mr. Marsh A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV 3C 426 CAWee Os =e OOM Gls tie faye eee) orator trove Aneel tapetcetietevaye $1,C00 CO ‘Schuylkill Nav. Co. Boat and C. loan............. 500 00 ‘‘Pennsylvania State 6 per cent. bonds..........- _. 1,500 00 ‘Philadelphia City & CO SARS A aC REL HE aN are 6,900 00 “*Stock of the McKean and Elk Land and Improve- ment Co., 200 shares, subscribed................ 1,000 00 Ei OAS TAURErs arlale dveeelate! Whe: ale ial aie Miaeene PAU rele nena Na eps | mone aatLaraes 3 91 Totaly \ 5: cit spots faayaye fesercine. eager asset $10,903 91 Signed—‘“‘ by order of the Trustees. BErJAMIN VY. Marsu, Treasurer.”’ PHILADELPHIA, FEB. 5, 1875. In the absence of members of the Hall Committee, Mr. Fraley stated, that the city authorities had undertaken to make alterations in the lower stories of the Hall of the Society, in view of another court room ; and that the Insur- ance Companies had been consulted on the subject, and had given permission to make alterations and repairs. At his request the Secretary read from the minutes of July 17, and Aug. 21, 1863, the resolutions passed by the Society respect- ing the lease of said stories by the city. Mr. J. 8. Price expressed his conviction that danger to the Society’s Cabinet and Library from fire was imminent; the Secretary adding his testimony to that effect. On motion, it was then unanimously Resolved, That the subject of the city tenancy of the two lower stories of the Hall of the Society and the proper pro- tection of the property, from fire, or other casualty, be referred to the Hall Committee, the Presiding Officer, Mr. Fraley, and the Treasurer, Mr. Price, with power to take such order as they may think proper in the premises. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, February 19, 1875. Present, 18 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the chair. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Im- perial Academy at Vienna, (90, 91), Herr Tunner, Leoben, (90, 91), Dr. Rokitansky, Vienna (90, 91), Geological Society 427 at Dresden (90, 91), the Society at Freiburg i. Br. (90, 91), the Society at Emden (90, 91), the Society at Geneva (89, 90, 91, XV. i.), the Society at Berne (89), and the Society at Neweastle-on-Tyne (92). Letters of envoy were received from the Natural History Societies at Freiburg, Emden, Marburg, Berne, and Geneva. A circular letter was received from the Linnéan Society, of Normandy, concerning a proposed statue to Khe de Beaumont at Caen. A cireular letter was received from Mr. W. Whittaker, dated Geological Survey Office, Jermyn Street, London, Jan. 30, 1875, on the part of a proposed new Geological Magazine, entitled Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology, British and Foreign. Donations for the Library were received from the Prag Observatory ; Vienna Geological Institute; Royal Prussian Academy ; German Geological Society ; Dresden Geological Society ; Natural History Societies at Freiburg, Emden, Marburg, Schaffhausen, and Geneva; the Anthropological and Geographical Societies; Editors of the Annales des Mines and Révue Politique, at Paris; the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society, and Nature, London ; Prof. J. D. Dana; Silliman’s Journal ; American Chemist ; Frank- lin Institute; Mr. John McArthur; McCalla & Stavely ; Medical News and Library; American Pharmaceutical As- sociation ; the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania; Depart- ment of the Interior, U. 8.; and Mr. A. R. Roessler. An obituary notice of Joseph Harrison, Jr., was read by Mr. Coleman Sellers. (See page 347.) An obituary notice of Charles B. Trego, was read by Mr Sol. W. Roberts. (See page 356.) The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers and Members in Council were read. Pending nominations, Nos. 766, 767, 768, and new nomi- nations, Nos. 769, 770, 771, 772, 778, 774, and 775, were read. Mr. Roberts reported the improvements made and to be made in the furniture of the Hall. 428 Mr. Fraley reported progress in negotiating a more satis- factory understanding with the city authorities, respecting the tenaney of the lower stories of the Hall building. On motion, the Secretaries were authorized to place the new Geological Magazine, London, on the list of correspond- ents to receive the proceedings, if they thought proper to do so. On motion of Mr. Price, the Committee on the Hall were authorized to obtain a new table, to re-cover the president’s desk, and see to a better condition of the carpeting and furnishing of the room in which the members meet. And the Society was adjourned. Stated Meeting, March 5, 18%5. Present, 10 members. Mr. Eni K Price, in the chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. J. P. Kirtland dated Cleveland, Ohio, Feb. 22, 1875. A letter of acknowledgment (93) was received from the U. 8. Naval Observatory, dated March, 1875. A letter of acknowledgment (93) was received from the Rantoul Literary Society, Rantoul, Ill., Feb. 27. A letter from Mr. 8. P. Langley, Directory of the Alle- gheny Observatory, requesting the donation of Transactions of the A. P. 8. was referred to the Publication Committee. Donations for the Library were received from the Royal Academy at Brussels ; Editors of the Révue Politique ; Royal Astronomical Society ; and London Nature ; Essex Institute ; Editors of Penn Monthly; Pharmaceutical Association ; Medical News and Library ; and Judge Brewster, of Phila- delphia ; Engineer Department and Secretary of War, Wash- ington; Wisconsin Historical Society ; Wisconsin Academy of Sciences and Arts; and Editors of the Western. The death of Sir Charles Lyell was announced by the Secretary, at London, Feb. 24, 1875, aged 78 years 429 The death of Dr. Geo. W. Norris, at Philadelphia, March 4, 1875, aged 67 years, was announced by Mr. J. 8. Price. Mr. Cope read a paper by the title, ‘‘ A Synopsis of the Vertebrata of the Miocene of Cumberland County, New Jersey.” (See page 361.) Dr. Cresson exhibited a map or diagram arranged on a vertical scale to represent the five coal beds mined at Ellen- gowan, near Mahanoy City, representing the thickness and subdivisions of each bed; and on a horizontal scale to ex- hibit the proportions of the various chemical elements ob- tained by analysis. Of the mammoth bed, the uppermost group of four benches is, at Ellengowan, separated from the middle group of three benches by 150 yards of rock, and the middle from the lower group of four benches by an equal distance, all three groups lying together, without the inter- vention of rock measures, in the neighboring collieries on each side; the total thickness of coal remaining always about the same. Dr. Cresson exhibited and explained an American modifi- cation of Bunsen’s apparatus for determining the specific gravity of any gas, and the obstacles to accuracy of the inves- tigation when the given gas was either much heavier or much lighter than the common air into which it escaped. Prof. Chase, being referred to, said that he had been re- quested by Dr. Cresson to experiment with the imstrument in order to discuss its eccentricities, and had used the city gas, obtaining various curves of velocity of exit, when the uppermost and lowermost, or the two, or three, or other numbers of inches at the top or bottom of the tube were paired against each other ; but without entirely satisfactory results. He considered it probable that the causes of irregularity fell under three heads, viz.: 1st, the difference of density of the medium into which the fine jet of gas issued (through a microscopic hole in platinum foil); 2d, the vertical spiral forms into whreh the currents must be thrown ; and 34d, fric- tion, varying with condensation inside the instrument, 430 whenever the general temperature of the laboratory falls. To this latter cause he ascribed differences of results ob- tained in the morning and evening, amounting to twenty per cent. He thought that under favorable circumstances and with requisite care, an approximation to accuracy can be made within two per cent., and much closer than with the Bunsen instrument. Professor Frazer communicated the fact of the discovery of titanic iron, in the form of a perfect erystal and of unusual size, half an inch on a side, associated with chlorite, in chromic iron, at Frank Wood’s Mine, in Lancaster County, Pa. The specimen is in the possession of Mr. Tyson, near King of Prussia, Chester County, Pa. A small portion of the crystal was submitted to the blowpipe by Prof. Brush. (The specimen is mentioned in Dr. F. A. Genth’s Report on the Mineralogy of Pennsylvania, Reports of Progress of the Second Geological Survey, 1874.) Prof. Chase read a letter from Goy. Rawson, of Barba- does, in which he writes that he expects to obtain the ap- pointment, by Government, of a salaried officer, intrusted with the duty of continuing the meteorological observations at Barbadoes, the importance of which is made the greater by the fact that the island is near the hypothetical cradle of the Atlantic cyclones and tornadoes of the Gulf of Mexico. Prof. Frazer described some microscopic sections of trap dykes on the Mesozoic red sandstone of Pennsylvania and Connecticut. He had taken specimens from the vicinity of Gettysburg, both as slides and fragments, to New Haven, and compared them with similar slides and fragments of the Connecticut traps in the possession of Mr. KE. 8. Dana. There were fine grained greenish dolerites exactly alike in both localities. Coarse-grained gray rock, which in fragments seemed identical, under the microscope showed differences between the Connecticut and Pennsylvania varieties; that of the former being merely a coarse-grained dolerite, while that of the latter was a true syenite. He said :— During a recent trip to New Haven, [had the pleasure of examining the 431 very large collection of microscopic slides of the traps of the Mesozoic sandstone in the vicinity of that town. Mr. Dana exhibited to me fragments of the traps, which when com- pared witb the fragments which I had brought with me seemed to be identical lithologically so far as the eye, aided by a magnifying glass, could determine. There were two varieties of this trap which had been _ considered in my work essentially distinct, viz.: the doleritic and the syenitic. Both these varieties are represented within a small area in the immediate environs of Gettysburg, and even bear the appearance of running together (to judge from a rough guess from the topo- graphy). Now the finer-grained dolerite is of green color, and the speci- mens from New England, and those I took with me, showed under the microscope, and with the polarizer alone, the following mineral con- stituents. Pyroxene (Augit), plagioclastic feldspar, magnitite (in fine grains and irregular masses), and chrysolite. Mr. Hawes, of the Min- eralogical laboratory, assures me that he has frequently found quartz in these dolerites. The coarse-grained rock (both the specimen from Gettysburg and that from Counecticut,) is gray and granular, consisting of black and white crystals so mingled as to produce the familiar granite color to the eye. In fact the rock from Gettysburg is called ‘‘Gettysbure Granite.’’ It was absolutely impossible to distinguish the fragments of this rock from the localities apart, yet under the microscope and the single Nicol the effect, was very different. The Connecticut variety showed the same con- stituents as the other traps—was in fact a coarse dolerite; whereas that from Gettysburg showed the characteristic dichroism of hornblende, and also under a high magnifying power crystals of biotite. In the specimen which I took with me to New Haven, there were no cleavage planes to absolutely settle the character of the supposed horn- blende, but in others in my possession this was very marked and settles definitely the question of the occurrence of syenite in the Mesozoic sandstone. Mr. Dana warns me of a possible error in this conclusion, viz.: that the mass from which I took my slides was only a bowlder—not in place. This would be a very serious objection were it not for the absolu‘e identity of the rock in the immense masses of slab formed rock, from the quarry which supplies the tombstones and the walls of our national ceme- tery, as well as cubic roods of rock in Culp’s Hill, Great Round Top, Granite Spur, and Devil’s Den—localities which must ever remain familiar to us as connected with the history of one of the decisive battles of the world. Besides this, as the Gettysburg locality lies miles south of the extreme southern limit of the drift, there would seem to be no adequate theory to account for such transportation. In order to set at rest this doubt and decide this question finally, further sections will be made from rock without doubt in situ und the results communicated to the Society. 432 Pending nominations, Nos. 766 to 776, and new nomina- tions, Nos. 777, 778 were read. On motion of Prof. Frazer, it was Resolved, That the Hall Committee be requested to con- sider the propricty of placing in the Society’s rooms one of the instruments of the American District Telegraph Company, and the Treasurer be authorized to pay $18.00 as the annual rental of the same. And the Society was adjourned. Stated Meeting, March 19, 187. Present, 18 members. : Vice-President, Mr. FRauey, in the chair. Photographs of Prof. Sadtler and Prof. Thomson, of the University of Pennsylvania, were presented for insertion in the album. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Liter- ary and Philosophical Soziety of Liverpool, dated Jan. 25 (XIV., XV., 1., 90, 91, 92); and Smithsonian Institution (90, 92). A letter was received from the New Jersey Historical Society, Newark, March 12, requesting that deficiencies in their set of Proceedings and Transactions A. P. 8. be sup- plied (Proe. I., I1., 111, 77. Transactions, all but the First Series [1T., 1. Cat. 1). A letter was read from Mr. Wm. Holden, Librarian of the Ohio State Library, desiring to exchange copies of the Geo- logical State Survey for Dr. Wood’s and Mr. Cope’s memoirs on the Arachnid and Myriopoda, in the Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. _ Lettersof envoy werereccived from the Austrian Academy, Sep. 30, 1874; the St. Petersburg Physical Central Observa- tory, Jan., 1875; the Greenwich Observatory, Feb. 19, 1875 ; the Literary and Philosophie Society, of Liverpool, Jan. 28, 433 1875; and Department of the Interior, Washington, March 10, 1875. Donations for the Library were received from the Aus- trian Academy of Sciences; Belgian Academy of Sciences ; Editors of the Révue Politique; London Chemical Society ; Royal Institution; Editors of Nature; Society of Arts and Institutions in Union; the (Travancore Observatory) Maha- , raja,of Travecore ; Silliman’s Journal ; Prof. O. C. Marsh; and the Department of the Interior, U.S. The decease of Nathaniel B. Browne, of Philadelphia, March 13, aged 55 years, was announced by Mr. E. K. Price, and on motion Mr. Robert Patterson was appointed to pre- pare an obituary notice of the deceased. Mr. Frazer described and discussed the origin of certain beds and belts of limonite in Southern Pennsylvania, with the help of a colored map of York and Adams County, and a geological map of Pennsylvania. Dr. Konig and Mr. Lesley spoke on the same subject. (See page 364.) Pending nominations 766 to 779 were read. On motion of Dr. Cresson, for the Publication Committee, an additional appropriation of one hundred dollars was . made to defray the expense of the illustrations of Dr. Al- len’s Memoir now being printed in the Transactions. General Tyndale presented the request of the Directors of the Franklin Insurance Company that the Society permit Mr. Waugh to make for them a copy of the portrait of Franklin in the possession of the Society. On motion of Mr. Chase, the curators were authorized to permit such copy to be made, taking the usual and proper precautions for the security and safe return in good order of the picture. On motion of Dr. Cresson another album volume similar to the one now filled with portraits of the members of the Society was ordered to be purchased. And the meeting was adjourned. Norte By Dr. Carson. The picture of Franklin in the possession of the American Philosophi- cal Society is by Martin, of London, a copy by himself of a picture painted A. P. S.—-VOL. XIV. 38D 454 by him, of Dr. Franklin, for William Alexander’s grandson, Heury J. Williams, Esq., of Philadelphia. The copy was placed by Franklin, about 1765, in the keeping of the Supreme Executive Council of Penn- sylvania, and upon the abolition of that body at the time of the Revo- lution came into the hands (probably) of Mr. Peale when his Museum was in the Hall of the American Philosophical Society, and was by him there left at the removal of the Museum to the State House. This state- inent is made to Dr. Carson by Mr. Williams, who has the original. Stated Meeting, April 2, 1875. Present 15 members. Mr. Ext K. Prices, in the chair. Letters of envoy were received from the Meteorological Office of the Royal Society, London, March, 1875; and the U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, March 19, 1875. A letter from Harvard College Library was received re- questing a missing signature, pages 225-232 of the Proceed- ings, Vol. XIII. Donations for the Library were received from the Prus- sian and Belgian Academies; the Editors of the Révue Politique and Nouvelles Meteorologiques; the Astronomical Society ; Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society ; the Cobden Club; and the Editors of ‘“Nature;” the Chief Geologist of Canada; Essex Institute; College of Phar- macy; Academy of Natural Sciences; and Mr. Delmar, of Philadelphia; the U. 8. Department of the Interior; and U. S. Department of Engineers ; and the Academy of Sciences at St. Louis. The death of Dr. D. Francis Condie, March 21,1875 aged 9, was announced by Dr. Bridges. Pending nominations Nos. 766 to 779, and new nomina- tion 780 were read. And the meeting was adjourned. 435 Stated Meeting, April 16, 1875. Present 16 members. Dr. Carson in the chair. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Natu- ral History Society at Wiesbaden, the British Association, and the American Ethnological Society in New York. A letter of envoy was received from the Central Physical Observatory at St. Petersburg. A letter was received from the Academy of Sciences of Chicago requesting the replacement of Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society lost by the fire. On motion, the request was granted. A. letter was received from the Department of the Interior, U.S. Bureau of Education, dated March 31, calling for in- formation respecting the Library. On motion, referred to the Librarian. / Donations for the Library were announced fromthe Acad- emies at Berlin and Bruxelles ; the Societies at Gorlitz, Wies- baden, and Bonn; the Editors of the Annales des Mines, Revue Politique, and Nouvelles Meteorologiques ; the Royal Institution; Editors of Nature; and Mr. Robert Twining ; the Societé Literaire et Philosophique, Quebec; the Massa- chusetts State Board of Health ; Silliman’s Journal; State Geologist of New Jersey ; American Journal of the Medical Sciences; Department of the Interior, U.8.; and editors of the Western. The death of Dr. Andrew A. Henderson, at the U. S. Naval Laboratory, Brooklyn, N. Y., on the 5th inst, aged 09, was announced by Mr. Lesley. On motion, Mr. Lesley was 1equested to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased. The death of Mr. John Henry Towne, of Philadelphia, at Paris on the 6th inst., was announced by Mr. Lesley. On motion Mr. Sol. W. Roberts was requested to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased. Dr. LeConte read another communication from Dr. W. 436 J. Hoffman, dated Reading, April 5, 1875, respecting the Practice of Cremation among the Pah-Utes, or Digger In- dians, of California. (See page 414.) Prof. Frazer read a communication on the composition of trap rocks and gave illustrations on a screen, from slices, with a lime light, and various powers of lens. (See page 402 and plates 1, 2, 3, 4.) Mr. Chase communicated a comparison between the lunar- monthly rain-fall in the United States as indicated by the morning weather-maps for three years, and the Pennsylvania Hospital observations for 43 years. (See page 416.) Mr. Lesley said that the members present might be in- terested in the fact that he had succeeded in obtaining a cross-section projection of the two azoic mountain ranges which once occupied Southeastern Pennsylvania, giving for the first time a correct explanation of the structural geology of the gneiss and mica-slate belt commencing at Easton, on the Delaware River, and passing through Philadelphia, Del- aware, Chester, and Lancaster Counties toward Baltimore. The sharp synclinal at the soapstone quarries separates an anticlinal mass to the north from a broader anticlinal mass to the south. The axis of the latter passes through the Fairmount reservoir, in Philadelphia; and a careful colla- tion and projection of the dips observed, (by Messrs. Young and Fagen, aids on the survey,) along the Reading Railroad track, up the west bank of the Schuylkill, upon a base line of vertical section transverse to the general strike, namely, N. 5° E,—S. 5° W. shows that the highest rock now seen in that synclinal originally rode over Fairmount at an altitude of about 15,000 feet; and over the northern anticlinal at an altitude of 10,000 feet. The dips of the northern anticlinal swing round from south by east to north in a regular curve, showing that the northern mountain mass declined rapidly eastward, that is towards Easton, where the whole of the azoic sinks beneath the New Red, of New Jersey. This mountain, dying down eastward, stopped the normal course of the Schuylkill from Reading to Chester; and the present 437 notable zigzag of the river towards the Northeast and then towards the Southeast is thus explained. The ancient drain- age passed around the eroded east end of the mountain. For a good many years he had maintained the existence of these ancient Alpine ranges in early times, but without until now deducing the opinion from regularly compiled structural ele- ments of observation. Pending nominations Nos. 766 to 780 were read, and Nos. 766 to 779 balloted for, and the following persons declared duly elected members of the Society: Mr. Wm. A. Ingham, of Philadelphia. M. Viollet le Due, of France. Mr. John McArthur, Jr., of Philadelphia. Judge Joseph Allison, of Philadelphia. Mr. Edward Penington, of Philadelphia. Dr. Henry Chapman, of Philadelphia. Mr. Alexander Agassiz, of Cambridge, Mass. Prof. Frederick Prime, Jr., of Easton, Pa. Prof. S. P. Langley, of Allegheny City, Pa. Mr. H. 8. Hagert, of Philadelphia. Prof. C. F. Chandler, of New York. Mr. Rossiter W. Raymond, of New York. Prof. Leonard G. Frank, of Philadelphia. Mr. Wm. P. Tatham, of Philadelphia. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, May 7, 1875. Present, 20 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauny, in the Chair. Letters accepting membership were received from Mr. Alex. Agassiz, dated Cambridge, Mass, April 20; Judge Joseph Allison, dated Philadelphia, April 21; Mr. John Mc- Arthur, Jr., dated Philadelphia, April 20; Prof. Leo. Geo. Frank, dated Philadelphia, April 19; Mr. H. 8. Hagert, 453 dated Philadelphia, May 3; Mr. W. A. Ingham, dated Phila- delphia, April 19; Prof. 8. P. Langley, dated Allegheny, Pa., April 19; Prof. Frederick Prime, Jr., dated Lafayette Coilege, Easton, April 19, and Prof. Rossiter W. Raymond, dated New York, April 24. A letter of acknowledgment was received from the Royal Society, dated Edinburgh, Dec., 1874 (XIV. i. i. Proc. 83-87). A letter of envoy was received from the London Meteor- ological Office of the Royal Society dated April, 1875. Donations for the Library were received from the Royal Academies at Berlinand Turin; the Observatories at Green- wich, Cape Town, and Oxford; the Geographical Society and Editors of Revue Politique at Paris; the Royal Geo- graphical and Royal Astronomical Societies and Editors of “Nature” at London; and Literary and Philosophical So- ciety, Liverpool ; Natural History Society, of Northumber- land, at Neweastle-on-Tyne ; Royal Society and Royal Botan- ical Garden at Kdinburgh; Royal Geological Society at Dublin; Essex Institute; Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Massachusetts; Boston Society of Natural History ; American Antiquarian Society at Worcester; Sil- liman’s Journal; Prof. J. D. Dana; Editors of the American Chemist ; Columbia College School of Mines; New Jersey Ilistorical Society ; Editors of the Medical News and Penn ‘ Monthly; College of Pharmacy; Dr. C. M. Cresson; Mr. Lorin Blodget; the U. 8. Coast Survey; U. 8. Engineer Department; and U.S. Department of the Interior. Dr. Barker exhibited the performance of his new arrange- ment of the galvanometer for lecture illustration, describing the successive contributions to its perfection made by Sax- ton, Poggendorf, Sir Wm. Thompson, President Morton, and Prof. Mayer. A discussion followed on the galvanic currents in rocks, and the magnetism of the earth. Mr. Blodget referred to a former communication to the Society on the subject of the vertical descent of air in the 439 ease of the meteoric “ Northers,” and to similar views ex- pressed by Professor Loomis at the last meeting of the National Academy at Washington, regretting that he had not had leisure to place all the facts which he had observed and gathered in support of his views before the Society. Pending nomination No. 780 was read. Mr. Fraley reported the receipt of the quarterly interest of the Michaux legacy, due April Ist, amounting, with the premium on gold, to $154.48. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, May 21, 1875. Present, 15 members. Vice-President, Mr. FRAuzy, in the Chair. A letter acknowledging the receipt of Proceedings 92 was received from the New Bedford Free Public Library. Letters of envoy were received from the Asiatic Society of Japan, dated Yokohama, April 5; the United States Coast Survey office; the Norwegian University, Christiana ; and Mr. H. Wheatland, Salem, Massachusetts, May 5, 1875. Donations for the Library were received from the Uni- versity of Norway; Dr. Boekh; the Royal Society at Got- tingen; Royal Academy at Berlin; Horticultural Society, Berlin; Dorpat Observatory ; Imperial Geological Institute, Vienna; Société Vaudoise, Lausanne; Editors of Revue Politique, Paris, and “ Nature,” London; Mr. H. Wheat- land, Salem; Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts ; New Bedford Free Public Library ; Prof. Dana, New Haven ; Buffalo Society of Natural History ; Editor of the American Chemist, New York; Department of the Interior, U. 8.; and Mr. Winchell. Letters requesting back numbers to complete a set were received from the Royal Academy, Berlin, and Triibner & Co. Mr. Lesley described the changes made in the theoretical Barker ] 440 [May 7, geology of the country south of Lake Erie, suggested by the work of the New Geological Survey of Pennsylvania; the most important of these changes, namely, the adoption of an east and west strike for a northeast and southwest strike, being necessitated by the probability that most of the expo- sures of conglomerate throughout Warren, Venango, and Crawford Counties in Pennsylvania, and Cattaraugus and Chautauque Counties in New York, belong to a horizon 200 feet below that of the Great Conglomerate, No. XII, the base of the Productive Coal Measures. Dr. Cresson referred to the discussion of thermo-electric¢ currents at the last meeting to state his own opinion that it is not needful to have two metals, or an unhomogeneous mass of one metal for the exhibition of such currents. He had found water alone to be a sufficient medium for the pro- duction and exhibition of the phenomena under discussion. The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers and Members in Council were read. Pending nomination, No. 780, and new nominations, No. 781 and 782 were read. And the meeting was adjourned. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. No. I. A NEW VERTICAL-LANTERN GALVANOMETER. By GrorGeE F. Barker, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 7th, 1875.) Desiring to show to a large audience some delicate experiments in magneto-electric induction, ina recent lecture upon the Gramme machine, a new form of demonstration galvanometer was devised for the purpose, which has answered the object so well that it seems desirable to make some permanent record of its construction. Various plans have already been proposed for making visible to an audience the oscillations of a galvanometer needle; but they all seem to have certain inherent objections which have prevented them from coming into general use. Perhaps the most common of these devices is that first 1876. ] 441 { Barker. ly) used by Gauss in 1827, and adopted subsequently by Poggendorft and by Weber, which consists in attaching a mirror to the needle. By this means, a beam of light may be reflected to the zero point of a distant seale, and any deflection of the needle made clearly evident. The advan- tages of this method are :—1st, the motion of the needle may be indefi- nitely magnified by increasing the distance of the scale, and this without impairing the delicacy of the instrument ; and 2d, the angular deflection of the needle is doubled by the reflection. These unquestioned advan- tages have led to the adaption of this method of reading in the most excellent galvanometers of Sir William Thomson. While therefore, for purposes of research, this method seems to leave very little to be desired, yet for purposes of lecture demonstration it has never come into very great favor ; perhaps because the adjustments are somewhat tedious to make, and because, when made, the motion to the right or left of a spot of light upon a screen fails of its full significance to an average audience. Another plan is that used by Mr. Tyndall in the lectures which he gave in this country. In principle, it is identical with that employed in the mevascope; 7%. €., a graduated circle over which the needle moves is strongly illuminated with the electric light, and then by means of a lens a magnified image of both circle and needle is formed on the screen. The insvfficient illumination given in this way, and the somewhat awkward arrangement of the apparatus required, have prevented its general adoption. j A much more satisfactory arrangement was described by Professor Mayer in 1872,* in which he appears to have made use, for the first time, of the excellent so-called vertical lantern in galvanometry. Upon the horizontal plane face of the condensing lens of this vertical lantern, Mayer places a delicately balanced magnetic needle, and on each side of the lens, separated by a distance equal to its diameter, is a flat spiral of square copper wire, the axis of these spirals passing through the point of suspension of the needle. A graduated circle is drawn or photographed on the glass beneath the needle, and the image of this, together with that of the needle itself, is projected on the screen, enlarged to any desirable extent. The defect of this apparatus, so excellent in many respects, seems to have been its want of delicacy ; for in the same paper the use of a flat narrow coil, wound lengthwise about the needle, is reeommended as better for thermal currents. Moreover, a year later, in 1873,+ Mayer described another galvanometer improvement, entirely different in its character. In this latter instrument, the ordinary astatic galvan- ometer of Melloni was made use of, an inverted scale being drawn on the inside of the shade, in front of which traversed an index in the form of a small acute rhomb, attached to a balanced arm transverse to the axis of suspension of the needle, and moving with it. The scale and index were placed in front of the condensing lenses of an ordinary lantern, and-their *American Journal of Science, IIT, iii, 414, June 1872. tAmerican Journal of Science, IIT, v, 270, April, 1873. Barker. ] 442 [May 7, images were projected on the screen iu the usual way by use of the objective. This instrument is essentially the same in principle as the mirror galvanometer ; but it cannot be as sensitive as the latter, while it is open to the same objection which we have brought against this—the objection of unintelligibility. In the hands of so skillful an experimenter as Mayer, it seems, however, to have worked admirably. It was a tacit conviction that none of the forms of apparatus now de- scribed would satisfactorily answer all the requirements of the lecture above referred to, that led to the devising of the galvanometer now to be described, which was constructed in February of the present year. Like the first galvanometer of Mayer, the vertical lantern, as improved by Morton,* forms the basis of the apparatus. This vertical lantern, as con- structed by George Wale & Co., at the Stevens Institute of Technology, as an attachment to the ordinary lantern, is shown in the annexed cut, figure 1. Parallel rays of light, from the lantern in front of which it is placed, are received upon the mirror, which is inclined 45° to the horizon, and are thrown direetly upward, upon the horizontal plano- convex lens just above. These rays, converged by the lens, enter the object glass, and are thrown on the screen by the smaller inclined mirror placed above it. The upper face of the lens forms thus a horizontal table, upon which water-tanks, etc., may be placed, and many beautiful experiments shown. To adapt this vertical lantern to the purposes of a galvanometer, a graduated circle, photographed on glass, is placed upon the horizontal condensing lens. Above this, a magnetic needle, of the shape of a very acute rhomb, is suspended bya filament of silk, which passes up through a loop formed in a wire, stretched = close beneath the object glass, and thence down to Fie. 1. the side pillar which supports this objective, where - it is fastened by a bit of wax, to facilitate adjustment. The needle itself is fixed to an aluminum wire, which passes down through openings drilled in the scale glass, the horizontal lens, and the inclined mirror, and which carries a second needle near its lower end.| Surrounding this lower *Jour. Frank. Inst., ILI, lxi, 300, May, 1871; Am. J. Sci., III, ii, 71, 153, July, Aug., 1871; Quar. J. Sci., Oct., 1871. In Duboseq’s vertical attachment, which was advertised iny his catalogue in 1870, the arrangement is similar, except that the beam received upon the mirror is a diverging one, and consequently the horizontal lens is of shorter focus. A total reflection prism, placed above the object glass, throws the light to the screen. The instrument gives a uniformly illuminated but not very bright field. + After the new galvanometer was completed and had been in use for several weeks, I observed, in re-reading Mayer’s first paper, a note stating that the idea had occurred to him of using an astati¢ combination consisting of two needles, one above the lens and the other below the inclined mirror—the two being connected by a stiff wire passing through holes in the condenser and the mirror. The plan of placing the coil round the lower needle does not seem to have suggested itself to him. Indeed, it does not appear that the arrangement he mentions was ever carried into practical effect. 1875.] 443 { Barker, needle is a circular coil of wire, having a cylindrical hollow core of an inch in diameter, in which the needle swings, and a smaller opening transverse to this, through which the suspension wire passes. In the apparatus already constructed (in which the upper needle is five centimeters long, ) the coil is composed of 100 feet of No. 14 copper wire, and has a resistance of 0 235 ohm. The accompanying cross section (Fig. 2,) of the vertical-lantern galvanometer as at present arranged, drawn ona scale of ;/,, will serve to make the above descrip- -. tion more clear. A is the needle, suspended di- rectly above the scale-glass D, by a silk filament, passing through the loop B, close under the obj: c- tive C. This needle is attached to the aluminum wire «@ 6, which passes directly through the scale- glass D, the condensing lens EH, and the inclined mirror F at H, and carries, near its lower end, the second needleI. This needle is shorter, (its length is 2.2 centimeters, ) and heavier than the upper one, and moves in the core of the circular coil J, whose ends connect with the screw-cups at K. This coil ~ rests on the base of the lantern, enclosed in a suit- able frame. It is obvious that when the instru- ment is so placed that the coil is in the plane of the Fie. 2. magnetic meridian, any current passing through this coil will act on the lower needle, and, since both needles are at- tached to the same wire, both will be simultaneously and equally deflect- ed. Upon the screen is seen only the graduated circle and the upper needle ; all the other parts of the apparatus are either out of the field or out of focus. Moreover, the hole in the lens is covered by the middle portion of the needle, and hence is not visible. The size of the image is, of course, determined by the distance of the galvanometer from the sereen ; in class experiments, a circle 8 feet in diameter is sufficient ; though in the lecture above referred to, the circle was 16 feet across, and the needle was fourteen feet long, the field being brilliant. The method of construction which has now been described, is evidently capable of producing a galvanometer for demonstration, whose delicacy may be determined at will, depending only on the kind of work to be done with it. In the first place, the needles may be made more or less perfectly astatic, and so freed more or less completely from the action of the earth’s magnetism, and consequently more or less sensitive. Moreover, an astatic system seems to be preferable to one in which damping magnets are used, since it is freer from influence by local causes; though, if desirable for a coarser class of experiments, the considerable distance which separates the needles in this instrument, allows the use of a damping magnet with either of them. Jn the galvanometer now in use, the upper needle is the stronger, aud gives sufficient directive tendency to the system to bring the deflected needle back to zero quite promptly. In the experiments referred to below, the system made 25 oscillations per minute. Barker. } 444 [May 7, Secondly, the space beneath the mirror is sufficiently large to permit the use of a coil of any needed size. Since, therefore, the lower needle is entirely enclosed within the coil, the field of force within which it moves, may be made sensibly equal at all angles of deflection, as in the galvanometers of Sir Wm. Thomson. Hence the indications of the instru- ment may be made quantitative, at least within certain limits. The cir- cular coil, too, has decided advantages over the flat coil, since the mass of wire being nearer to the needle, produces a more intense field. Were it desirable, a double coil, containing an astatic combination could be placed below the mirror, the upper needle, in that case, serving only as an index. The instrument above described has a coil three inches in diameter and one inch thick; the diameter of the core being one inch. Since its resistance is only about a quarter of an ohm. it is intended for use with circuits of small resistance, such as thermo-currents and the like. The results of a few experiments made with this new vertical-lantern galvanometer will illustrate the working of the instrument, and will demonstrate its delivacy. The apparatus used was not constructed especially for the purpose, but was.a part of the University collection. Induction Currents.—1. The galvanometer was connected with a coil of covered copper wire, No. 11 of the American wire gauge, about ten centimeters long and six in diameter, having a resistance of 0.323 ohm. A small bar magnet, 5 centimeters long and weighing six and a-half grams, gave, when introduced into the coil, a deflection of 40°. On with- drawing the magnet the needle moved 40° in the opposite direction. 2, A small coil, 20 centimeters long and 3.5 in diameter, made of No. 16 wire and having a resistance of 0.371 ohm, through which the current of a Grenet battery, exposing 4 square inches of zinc surface, was passing, was introduced into the centre of a large wire coil, whose resistance was 0.295 ohm, connected with the galvanometer. The deflection produced was 20°, The same deflection was observed on making and breaking contact with the battery, the smaller coil remaining within the larger. . 3. A coil of No. 14 copper wire, sixty centimeters in diameter, and con- taining about 40 turns, the resistance of which was 0.85 ohm, was connected with the galvanometer, and placed on the floor. Raising the south side six inches, caused a deflection of 4°. Placing the coil with its plane ver- tical, a movement of two centimeters to the right or left, caused a deflec- tion of 3°, and of twenty centimeters, of 10°. A rotation of 90° gave a deflection of 12° and one of 180°, of 24°. These deflections were of course due to currents generated by the earth’s magnetism. 4. Thermo-currents.—Two pieces of No. 22 wire fifteen centimeters long, were taken, the one of copper, the other of iron wire, and united at one end by silver solder. On connecting the other ends to the galvanometer, the heat of the hand caused a deflection of the needle of 20°. ‘5. A thermo-pile of 25 pairs, each of bismuth and antimony, was con- nected to the instrument. The heat from the hand placed at five centi- meters distance caused a deflection of 3°. 1875. ] 445 [ Barker. 6. Two cubes of boiling water acted differentially on the pile. At the distance of five centimeters, the detlectioa was 20°; moving one to ten centimeters, the deflection was reduced to 5°. 7. Voltwic current.—A drop of water was placed on a zinc plate. While one of the connecting copper wires touched the zinc, the other was made to touch the water. The deflection was 16°. The claim which is here made for the instrument however, is rather for the general principle of its construction, than for the advantages possessed by the individual galvanometer above described which was constructed at short notice, to meet an emergency. The comparatively small cost for which it may be fitted to the vertical lantern, the readiness with which it may be brought into use, the brilliantly illuminated circle of light which it gives upon the screen, with its graduated circle and needle, the great range of delicacy which may be given to the instrument by varying the coil and needles, so. that all experimental requirements may be answered, and finally, the satisfactory character of its performance as a demonstra- tion galvanometer, all combine to justify the record which is here made of it. Philadelphia, April, 1875. ERRATA. The following are the Errata in ‘‘ List of North American Pinay rents &e.,”’ by A. R. Grote, Proceedings No. 93, page 256: Page 263, line 1: Mr. Lintner states that Crepera is the female of Robiniz. Page 263, line 21 : for ‘‘(1793)’ read ‘‘ (1775). ”’ Page 263, line 30: for ‘‘quadrigattatus”’ read “ quadriguttatus.”’ WASHINGTON SKETCH MAP TO ILLUSTRATE NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY GREENE or West VIRGINIA N2 Il By J.J.STEVENSON. ey Nile The clenile dotted Line reresents Tie cusler7e pulirop of Lhe Rttshurg © coal. os wo (Bor te SLEISNVPAIX TOA WIHdT3OWTIHd “90S “TIHd “Y3NV SONI03390Nd ve G aN Wis iv rie et PLL. !, Philada, , 1828 Chestnut Stree PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPH, by F. A. WENDEROTH & CO PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPH, by F. A, WENDEROTH & CO, 1325 Chestnut Street, Philada. PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPH, by F. A. WENDEROTH & CO., 1828 Chestnut Street, Philada. Tbe as ri Gane ees Kea PIN PHOTO-2INCOGRAPH, by F. A. WENDEROTH & CO., 1829 Chestnut Stree Philade Owes ee June 18, 1875.] 447 [Stevenson. THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE LIGNITIC GROUPS. By Joun J. STEVENSON, PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 18, 1875.) The principal lignitic areas of our country are two; one on the Pacific Coast, extending in all from Alaska to Lower California ; the other in the Rocky Mountain Region, stretching from the Arctic Ocean to New Mex- ico. Between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains no lignites _ have been discovered. Within a few years the controversy respecting the geological relations of these lignites has become very keen, some regarding them as Creta- ceous, others as Tertiary. In many instances, the conclusion reached by investigation of the flora is directly contradictory of that reached by study of the fauna. Over aconsiderable portion of the Rocky Mountain Region the rocks of the Great Lignitic Group are barren of animal re- mains and only plants are found. Where the fauna is seen the genera and species are usually Cretaceous, and where they are not clearly so they are fresh-water, and therefore of little value either way. The flora is very closely allied in general character to the Tertiary flora of Europe, many species in each being apparently identical. During my connection with Lieut. Wheeler’s Expedition, I passed over a portion of the disputed ground, and so became involved in this contro- versy. Ihave thought it necessary to study with care all the material within my reach which seems to bear upon the subject. While this study has shown me that the question at issue is by no means so simple as. I supposed it to be, when I rendered my report to Lieut. Wheeler,* yet it has confirmed me in my conclusion there given, that the Great Lignitic Group, or the Fort Union Group of Hayden, is Cretaceous and not Eo- cene. It is essential here to determine the value respectively of the various forms of geological evidence, for all have been cited in this discussion, and in some respects they seem to be contradictory. In every case where applicable, stratigraphy is final. So long as we can trace a rock continuously we have no doubt of its identity. But stratigraphy in this simple form is not often available to any great extent. So variable are the rocks in large areas, owing to the different conditions under which matter may be deposited synchronously at distant localities, that direct comparisons of sections by lithological characters, or even by tracing, becomes impossible. We are compelled, therefore, to resort to paleontology in addition. Our geological column is based upon the suc- cession of the marine invertebrata. The stratified rocks, with the exception of comparatively insignificant portions, were deposited under the ocean, and of those which contain the remains of terrestrial organisms, by far the greater proportion was formed * June, 1874, A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 3F Stevenson. ] 448 [June 18, along the sea-border, exposed to frequent irruptions of sea-water. The lacustrine, or purely fresh-water deposits, are small both in extent and duration, and are confined chiefly to the later portions of geological time. As the sea always covered the greater part of the earth and afforded an easy medium of migration for water-breathing animals, one would expect to find in the rocks of marine origin the most satisfactory record of changes in animallife. This would be a close record of changes in physical conditions, for animals are of a high type of organization, and, therefore, very sensitive to alteration of circumstances. The record is remarkably complete. From the base of the Silurian to the present time the gaps are few and usually of limited extent. In our country there is no group of rocks, excepting one, which does not yield a plentiful supply of inverte- brate remains over perhaps the greater part of its area. Even the Trias- sic, usually so bgrren in America, is at many localities rich. So distinct is the succession of invertebrate life, so sharp the breaks at the close of many periods in the world’s history, that geologists by com- mon consent have adopted this form of life as the foundation-stone of our system. By stratigraphy the succession of the rocks was determined, but by the succession of invertebrate life the great mass was divided into groups and geological history could be written. Rocks containing a certain fauna were called Silurian, others with a different grouping were termed Cretaceous, and others Miocene. These divisions were made on the basis of the fauna and on no other basis. This should be borne in mind. The same succession is employed in making the minor divisions. In the Upper Missouri Region a mass of rocks is found, possessing a fauna closely resembling that of a series in Europe, termed Upper Cretaceous. This, all accept as proving that the two series occupy equivalent positions in the geological succession. Closer investigation shows that the Upper Missouri series is made up of five distinct groups, each characterized over an immense area by a peculiar assemblage of invertebrate remains. These groups make the section. If in any portion of the whole Western region we find the fossils of any one of these groups in a mass of rocks, we may legitimately expect to find the others over or under it, as the case may be. It may occur that over large areas a group thus established is per- fectly barren of animal remains. This does occur in the Cretaceous groups. The Dakota Group is often barren, and can be identified only by its previously determined stratigraphical relations. The Fort Pierre and Fox Hills Groups, we are told by Dr. Hayden, show extensive zones of barrenness, whereas they are generally prolific. To explain this varia- tion is not always easy, but we cannot do it by any assumption that the prolific portions mark the site of lagoons held by elevation and contain- ing a few relics of a pastage. In some instances these ‘‘lagoons’’ would involve us in difficulty, as the fossiliferous layers in different zones occupy different horizons, so that the past age, whose fauna was preserved in the ‘‘lagoons,’’ would need to be ‘‘past’’ and ‘‘ present ’’ alternately for 1875. ] 449 (Stevenson. along period of time. The lagoon theory is quite ingenious, but unfor- tunately cannot accommodate itself to the facts. Some species of invertebrates showed remarkable tenacity of life. Thus Strophomena rhomboidalis reaches from the Lower Silurian quite to the base of the Lower Carboniferous. Atrypa reticularts existed from near the beginning of the Upper Silurian to near the close of the Devonian. In each group they show marked peculiarities which almost suffice to mark the horizon from which the specimens were obtained. But no pa- lzontologist would be reckless enough to determine a horizon with these shells as his only data. While we find instances of this kind passing up- ward, we have never found characteristic Carboniferous species in lower formations. But if we should, we must yield to the superior evideuce. Spirifer cameratus associated with a strongly marked Devonian fauna in rocks occupying the Devonian position, would be a worthless witness. So, if the thing were possible, should we find Ammonites at a Silurian horizon, we would reject the testimony in favor of Mesozoic and accept the stronger testimony for Silurian. Eveninvertebrate life must yield to stratigraphy, if the two contradict. Vertebrate life is too imperfectly preserved to be ordinarily of much service alone. The succession is not fully given. Yet it may be service-. able. If certain reptilian forms are found constantly associated with a certain invertebrate fauna, as, for example, certain forms in the Creta- ceous, we may accept those as evidence where other evidence is wanting, for their horizon has been definitely fixed. This, however,.applies only to marine forms. To terrestrial forms, the same objection applies as to plants. In every case, however, the horizon must be fixed for a conti-- nent, not for the world, since the conditions affecting such life may have: been different in America from what they were in Europe. Vegetable life shows no such history as to entitle it to much considera-. tion. So patent is this fact that little use has been made of vegetable re- mains in determining the succession of rocks. Fucoids are worthless ex- cept in limited areas, since their organization is so low as to enable them to withstand changes which would be fatal to higher organisms. Land’ plants are unsatisfactory, because they are preserved in disconnected fragments, and because the areas on which they grew were so widely separated and formed so small a portion of the earth’s crust. Let us look at the succession as we find it. Until a very short time ago the existence of land plants during the Si- lurian and early Devonian of America was denied, and some told us why no such flora could exist. Two water-worn logs of coniferous wood, found in the Corniferous Limestone, changed our belief, but gave us little information. Respecting the flora of the Middle and Upper Devonian and of the Lower Carboniferous, we have but limited knowledge, and the localities yielding specimers are few indeed. Of the Coal Measure vege- tation we know quite well that portion which grew in the swamps, but of the upland flora we have only fragmentary information, in the shape of Stevenson j 450 [June 18, stray logs which floated down to the marshes. From the Carboniferous to the Trias, a great change is shown by the fossils, but we have no evi- dence to prove that this change is a true exposition of the actual change. For aught we can tell to the contrary, a flora closely allied to the one termed Triassic may have existed during the Carboniferous. In the Cre- taceous the condition is little better. In the lower portion, leaves of dicotyledonous plants occur in prodigious numbers, but they are not of plants growing where the leaves occur. For the most part they are single leaves, washed in by streams from the land. Between this sandstone and the Lignite Group, there is an interval mostly unrepresented at the East, but at the West occupied by a mass of shales, limestones, and fine-grained sandstones, one thousand to two thousand feet thick, and absolutely barren of leaves everywhere. This was a long period, during which, under the sea, nothing but fine-grained materials were deposited. In the Lignite Group, leaves are numerous, but so far as has fallen under my observation, they are in the same condition as those at the base of the Cretaceous. Such is the record of plant-life—a record little better thana blank, with here and there a few markings, many of which are too indistinct to be deciphered. In each horizon which yields relics of plants by far the greater portion of the area is barren—even in the Carboniferous age, how small a proportion of the rocks are leaf-bearing in the most favorable localities, while the whole vast area west from the Mississippi has yielded but a beggarly array of specimens. At best, the specimens are fragment- ary. The same frond on a fossil fern, when broken up into its pinnules, may yield two or three genera and haif a dozen species. When only fragments are found, it is impossible for the paleontologist to resist the temptation to make species. Describing fossil ferns from fragments, is almost as accurate work as making genera and species out of fossil teeth of sharks. In the ease of leaves of dicotyledonous plants, the matter is evidently worse. The limit of variation of a species has never been ap- proximately determined among living plants, where one has the whole tree at hand. With only imperfect and separated leaves to study, it would seem almost impossible to determine this matter respecting extinct plants. Like vertebrate remains, vegetable relics may be made serviceable. The character of the coal flora has been so carefully studied for many years that it is quite well understood. Here, indeed, the matter in many cases is quite simple, for the roof of a coal-bed as exposed in the tunnel of a mine, not infrequently exhibits the material for the reconstruction of an entire plant. Unfortunately, attempts at re-construction are not common, and the investigator is usually satisfied to describe fragments as species, in preference to carefully studying their relation. But the horizon of these plants is now fixed, their general type is well understood, and they can be used as evidence when the animal remains are absent. The day may come when dicotyledonous plants will have been studied to 1875. ] 451 [Stevenson. the same extent. Asitis, they are of some local service. The flora of the Dakota Group serves to identify that formation at many localities, east from the Rocky Mountains when the rock is barren of animal re- mains. The position of this flora has been fixed by means of its position in and below rocks containing the ordinary Cretaceous types of animals. But why do we call one flora, Cretaceous, or another Triassic, or a third, Tertiary? Simply because it is found in rocks belonging to such agroup. Let it not be forgotten that we do not call the group Creta- ceous, or Tertiary, because of the flora. Stratigraphy determined the general succession of rocks ; animal life determined the division into groups. The florasof our later geological eras cannot afford a satisfactory basis for generalizations looking to a determination of equivalent horizons in Europe and America. The conditions on the two continents were widely different. This general statement has been practically accepted as true by our palzo-botanists, Dawson, Lesquereux, and Newberry, all of whom have acknowledged that the testimony of plants is inferior to that of in- vertebrates. This story is a brief one. In 1858, Mr. Meek and Dr. Hayden submitted to Dr. Newberry a col- lection of dicotyledonous leaves which they had obtained from the Da- kota Group, of Nebraska. Dr. Newberry found great resemblance between these and the Tertiary flora of Europe, but regarded them as of Cretaceous age, being convinced by the stratigraphy and the testimony of invertebrate remains in the overlying rocks, Sketches of some of these were sent to Prof. Heer, who, in a letter to Mr. Lesquereux,* very positively asserted that Newberry erred in his conclusions, and that the plants are all of Tertiary forms. His language is as follows: “Tt is true that I have seen only some drawings which were sent to me by Messrs. Hayden and Meek, but they are all Tertiary types. The sup- posed Credneria is very like Populus leuce, Ung. of the Lower Miocene, and the Hitinghausiana seems hardly rightly determined. Besides, it is a genus badly founded, and as yet has no value. All the other plants mentioned by Dr. Newberry, belong to genera that are represented inthe Tertiary and not in the Cretaceous. And it is very improbable that in America the Cretaceous flora had the characteristic plants of the Tertiary, and this would be the case if these plants did belong to the Cretaceous.”’ To this the editors of the Journal append a note, stating that similar leaves had been collected by Prof. Cooke, from the base of the Creta- ceous, as well as by Dr. Newberry, from the same horizon, in New Mexico, so that if the leaves are Tertiary, our Cretaceous is abolished. Dr. Newberry replied,+ stating that he had collected such dicotyledon- ous leaves from the Lower Cretaceous sandstones at Galisteo Creek, in New Mexico, where the Upper Cretaceous sandstones also are exposed, and at various localities further east to the Canadian river where charac- *Amer. Journal of Sci., 2d series, Vol. 28, p. 88. _ tAmer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 29, p. 299. Stevenson, ] ; 452 [June 18 teristic Cretaceous 2 and 3 are seen resting upon the sandstones. This statement afforded peculiar gratification to the editor, who takes occa- sion in another portion of the volume to rebuke Messrs. Marcou and Heer very severely for considering these plants as Miocene. If these plants are Miocene, the editor thinks the roof of our geological house was put on before the foundation was laid. This is a very proper and judicious conclusion. Mr. Lesquereux’s rejoinder* was quite keen, defending Prof. Heer’s conclusion and fully endorsing it. So that he, as well as Profs. Marcou and Heer regarded these plants and the including rocks as of Miocene age. In 1863, Profs. Marcou and Capellini undertook a journey to Nebraska, to effect a final determination of the question. Evidently, the testimony of the plants was of little value in their eyes, for on their return they pro- nounced the Dakota Group Cretaceous, and not only Cretaceous, but at the base of that series as developed in America. In his work describing the leaves collected by these gentlemen, Prof. Heer confessed the superior value of the faunal evidence, and placed the leaves in the Cretaceous. In 1868, Mr. Lesquereux did the same, describing a number of Cretaceous plants from the Dakota Group. In this paper he announces that a re- markable generic affinity exists between the Cretaceous and Tertiary flora of America. In 1874 he published a quarto volume on the Cretaceous flora of the Dakota Group. It is sufficiently evident, then, that Mr. Les- quereux regards his plants as affording by no means positive grounds for generalization respecting equivalence of horizons in Europe and America. Mr. Lesquereux has claimed that the determination of Miocene charac- ter, made by Prof. Heer and endorsed by himself, should not be regarded as in any way affecting the question of testimony, because the material at their disposal was soimperfect. Such a plea is unfortunate, and the excuse is worse than the error, if error it was. If the material was too imperfect to justify a positive conclusion, why was the conclusion so emphatically stated ? Hitherthe material was sufficient, or the interpreters are untrust- worthy because of rashness. That the material was sufficient is clear, because the general statement of close resemblance to Tertiary forms still holds good. This whole discussion very fairly exposes the value of palzeo- botauy as an aid in the determination of equivalent horizons on discon- nected continents. The plants of the Great Lignite Group are no better. Of these, Mr. Lesquereux has described a great number of species. Of those identified with European forms, the relations, with hardly an exception, are Mio- eene, yet they are placed in the Hocene. One very eccentric feature here is, that in some localities the groupis Lower, and in others Upper Kocene, while the stratigraphy seems to show that both epochs may belong to the same horizon, and that the difference in the florais local and synchronous. *Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 29, p. 434. \ ¢ 1875. | 453 [Stevenson. Why the paleo-botanist should put these plants into the Eocene, rather than into the Miocene, is not known, unless it be done in deference tothe stratigraphy. Other illustrations might be given, such as the occurrence in the Ameri- can Carboniferous, of types which in Europe are Triassic or Jurassic, but it is hardly necessary. It certainly seems clear to me from the showing of the paleo-botanists themselves, that the plants have nothing to do with the matter ; that the fact that certain forms occur at a certain hori- zon in Europe is no evidence, pro or con, that their horizon in America is equivalent to that in Europe. The dicotyledonous leaves of the Lig- nitic Groups, 7@. ¢., the Dakota and Fort Union, are locally of service, in that by them we may not infrequently trace the formation on both sides of extensive areas, from which the rock has been eroded, or in localities where the stratigraphical relations are doubtful. It appears, then, by the common consent of all, that we must determine the European equivalents of our strata by means of animal, not by means of vegetable remains. This being understood, we may look at the facts as we have them. The Lignitic areas are two, one on the west coast, and the other in the Rocky Mountain Region. The history of these is different, and they re- quire to be taken up separately. LIGNITES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. According to Mr. Gabb, the lignites occur at three horizons in this re- gion. At the lowest line are the lignites of Vancouver and the adjacent portions of Washington Territory ; higher up he finds the lignites of Monte Diablo, in California. These contain all the workable lignites. But at a still higher horizon there occurs an extensive deposit of lignitic beds, none of which are of economical value. The last group he regards as of Miocene age, but the others he places in the Cretaceous. The California lignites have been sufficiently discussed by the geolo- gists of that State. I do not know that the reference of these to the Cre- taceous has ever been seriously called in question, so that it is unneces- sary to speak of them here. The deposits possessing chief interest for us are those of Vancouver. These have been carefully studied by a num- ber of geologists, and the fossil remains, both animal and vegetable, have received close attention from paleontologists of the highest standing. The deposits of Bellingham Bay, Birch Bay, aud other localities on the continent, can hardly be regarded as fairly coming within the range of this discussion, as the animal remains have not yet been worked up thoroughly. According to Richardson, the coal deposit of Vancouver is divided into two distinct fields, one on the east coast, known as the Nanaimo Field; the other on the west and northwest coast, named by him the Comoa Field. Both of these have been examined by him, but his more elaborate work was done in the latter. Stevenson. | 454 [June 18, The Nanaimo Field was examined by Dr. Hector, in 1859. He suc- ceeded in working out a section of the region, which is practically as fol- lows :* i, Pmrple GENS sabaed5ugocconusnsn.cn0dd0 Bey see not measured. 2. Conglomerate and sandstone.................. 500 to 600 ft. 3 Gaal, SC DOORS?! SEEN, so oaccsoacacsn oA KoOs6 3 ft. 6 in. APC Ong lOMeLALOM iapietlleei eisai eit 60 ft. %, Cowl, SING ERS? SEAM Sonoboss0son caosses 6 ft. Gs Sem@lspows soncosapovs0ccebo0gs5000500 7 7. Conglomerate ..... HEN OD yt deere ie | SiGreenisandstone.eeerceeee cree eoc : { about 400 ft. Os SUMP OWIS TO G odo cgdndaodcg0esuG000D | 10. Greenstone conglomerate ............. J 11. Igneous rocks....... Foe ovusouDS POR HOUbID COeOS No. 8, is richly fossiliferous, containing as determined by Mr. Hthe- ridge, Trigonia Emoryt, Cytherea Leonensis, Hxogyra two species, Arca three species, Ostrea two species. The sandstone of No. 2, contains a thin coal, accompanied by plant- bearing shales. Yew-like fronds occur in the arenaceous shales associa- ted with the larger coals. No. 1 is a thick mass of shale somewhat variegated in color and con- taining great numbers of ‘‘ nodules or septaria’’ enclosing fossils. From these nodules there were obtained Inoceramus Crispii, (Conrad), I. Tex- anus, I. Nebrascensis, I. unduloplicatus, 1. confertim-annulatus, I. mytt- loides, Baculites compressus, Baculites two species undt., Ammonites geniculatus, Ammonites two species undt. Mr. Brown’s} observations at Nanaimo, confirm those of Dr. Hector. In the shales accompanying the coals, he obtained great numbers of leaf impressions, both mono- and di-cotyledonous ; while from the associated sandstones, he procured various species of Ammonites, Baculites, Inoce- ramus, Hxogyra, Ostrea, Pecten, Arca, Trigonia, Cytherea, Psammobdia, Tellina, Mactra, Natica, Rostellaria, etc. In the northwestern or Comoz field, he found a grouping of conglom- erates, sandstones, fire-clays, and coals similar to that observed in the vicinity of Nanaimo. Throughout the series there are fossiliferous beds. Dicotyledonous plants are most frequent among the leaf impres- sions, while among the animal remains there occur Ammonites, Baculites, Pectunculus, Plagiostoma, Inoceramus, Trigonia, Hippurites, Astarte, Natica, and Paludina. Mr. Richardsont examined the Nanaimo field in 1871, and the Comox: * Journal of Geological Society, 1861. +Transactions Edinburgh Geol. Society, Vol. I. {Reports Canada Geol. Survey, 1871-2 and 1872-3. ~~ 1875. } 455 (Stevenson. field in 1872. His report for 1871 is not in my possession. In the Comox field the rocks fall naturally inte seven well-marked groups as follows : Gar Uippenconplomenraterierrrtei cis -sieieie eiaiiein ici 320 ft. I DEI SM ALOS |. 65, ors eycteaaycrersie exeveisiaysceyopey ey ie anousvevegare ce 776 ft. 6 in. Hi. Middle conglomerate....-........-2..---.---- 1100 ft. De Mrid dle shales coos. sa.ccueveyer asco te secheustnns ois. spikes 76 ft. CS Lower conglomerate) occ crear osctcss sales ce 900 ft. SmI O WELSH AIOSS 5.2. cig s/o10.stars) agsleunicte ey aeasee Sieweaoestaieis 1000 ft. Aue roductivercoalumeasures-eEcsceenteescio.. 7 436 ft. 6xin. PMO DAs ence lehereyayors otesciese alnusheheroussetehe kerr eRe 4912 ft. Below these come at once the crystalline rocks, so that the fossiliferous sandstones found below the Nanaimo coals must be absent, or, if present, overlapped by Division A. Division A, consists of shales, sandstones, and coals, the latter very irregular. The rocks contain no animal remains, though vegetable im- pressions are abundant. B is made up of brownish-black argillaceous shales with thin layers of gray sandstone and arenaceous shale. The argillaceous portions are rich, both in individuals and species of animal remains. Mr. Richardson obtained Ammonites, 7 sp., Ancyloceras, 2 sp., Inoceramus, 4 sp., undetermined Lamelli-branchiata, 15 sp., and Natica, 1 sp. Division C is composed of coarse pebbles, held in a brownish-gray sandy matrix, which contains wood and occasional shells. The fossils from this division are rare, as would naturally be expected, but Mr. Richardson obtained one species of Ammonites and one of Arca. Division D resembles B, but is rather more arenaceous. Thin streaks of coal are common. Lenticular patches of limestone are of frequent occurrence, and yield Ammonites, Baculites, Nautilus, Ostrea, Inoceramus, Arca, -Nucula, together with numerous undetermined fragments of Lamelli- branchiata and Gasteropoda. Division E is an exceedingly coarse conglomerate, and its matrix is a coarse sand. No fossils were observed in the matrix, though some were seen in the included fragments of limestone. Division F resembles D, but is much more arenaceous. Near the top it contains thin streaks of coal and many fragments of fossil wood, which show the structure dis- tinctly. For the most part G resembles E, but contains no fragments of limestone. At the base it usually exhibits a mass of gray sandstone, with thin seams of coal and occasional Belemnites. During 1872, Mr. Richardson examined also the deposits in the Queen Charlotte Islands, north from Vancouver. The section shows the follow- ing succession, but the groups were not measured : 1. Upper shales and sandstones. 2. Coarse conglomerates. 3. Lower shales with coal and iron ore. A. P. 8.—VOL. XIV. 3G Stevenson. ] 456 [June 18, Organic remains, both animal and vegetable, occur abundantly throughout Division 3. No. 1 is lighter colored and more arenaceous than 3. Near its base thin layers of argillaceous dolomite occur, and near the top a fossiliferous layer was found. No doubt those readers to whom these facts are new will feel aston- ished to learn that any person has ever disputed the Cretaceous age of these coals. The whole trouble has arisen from the finding of some vegetable fragments which have been so far affected by prolonged mace- ration as to be readily identifiable with almost anything. The interpre- ters of these impressions are not entirely agreed among themselves. Mr. Lesquereux* has examined a large collection of plants from Nanaimo and the adjacent portion of Washington Territory. Out of the specimens he made a nuniber of new species, while he recognized a number identical with species previously described in Europe. So closely allied to the flora of the European Miocene are these that Mr. Lesquereux refers both Na- naimo and Bellingham to the Miocene. Somewhat latert he published a letter from Prof. Heer fortifying his position by showing the identity of several of his species with those knownin Kurope. Both of these paleo- botanists agreed in referring Vancouver tothe Miocene. The editor of the American Journal of Science felt it necessary to append to this letter an apology for Prof. Heer, in which he stated that the Professor had not had access to the paper by Meek and Hayden on the Vancouver fossils. The collections made at Nanaimo, Bellingham Bay, and other localities in the vicinity, by Mr. Geo. Gibbs, were submitted to Dr. Newberry, t who regarded the Bellingham Bay deposit as most probably Miocene. He had in fact thus announced it in 1856. Some molluscan remains obtained with the leaves, induced Dr. Newberry to regard the Nanaimo coals as Creta- ceous. Itis evident from his language that nothing in the plants would lead one to suppose that they belong to a Cretaceous horizon, but, on the con- trary, that enough was showa by them to cast doubt upon any such con- clusion, were satisfactory evidence lacking. His words are as follows : ‘ 1875.] 514 [Gabb. savage Indians do not possess it. The drum is their greatest favorite. It is from twenty inches to two feet long, cylindrical for half its length, with a diameter Of six or seven inches ; it then tapers convexly to near the other end and then widens out a little. The pattern is always the same, and the size varies but a few inches. The larger end is tightly covered with the skin from the belly of the ignana lizard. It is giued on by fresh blood, being held in place with string untildry. Inf. Ind. Pres.) Past, Fut., 535 j-cho-rai’. i-cho-rai/, j-cho-rai’. j-cho-rat/-ke. j-cho-ret/-ke. To listen. j-Shtsu/. j-shtsuk/, 1-Shtse’. i-Shtset/-ke. To count. i-shtaung’. j-shtaunk’, j-shta/-we. i-shtaung’. (mia) shta/-we. i-shtaunk. To fall. j-haw/-na. j-haw/-nuk. j-haw/-ne. j-haw-net/-ke. j-haw/-na (mi), (mia). To push. pat/-ku. pat/-kuk. pat/ke. pat-ket/-ke. pat/-ke. pat/-kuk. To feed. [Gabb. jé-Kku’ has the same terminations as pat/- jTo want i ei-a/-na. ( j-ki-a/—-na, [ku. i-ki-et/-ke, third person only ; when 1-ki-e’. “he wants you.”’ j-ki-e’. = — Gabb.] 53516) [Aug. 20, The place of the accent is strictly determined by the structure and etymology uf compound words. In words composed of a noun and an adjective, the accent is placed on the adjective; thus di+k7-bi’, large water, 7. ¢., river ; chi-ka+tyng’, large substance, 2. €., stout ; sa-et/+juk, cotton substance or raw cotton. This applies equally to the emphasis in a similar phrase like pé how’-7t, other, or different people. When the word is composed of an adjective or adverb, with a verb, the accent goes with the verb; thus, i-shwig +pu’, to spread ; i-wo+tu’, to shut. When composed of a noun and a verb, it follows the same rule; thus, bé-ta-+on'-te, the remainder (7. ¢., the end stays or remains). When com- posed of two nouns, one in an adjective sense, the accent is on the quali- fying noun, like mo’-+-wo, navel; du’+hu, nest or bird-house ; tsw/-+ di-o, milk or teat-juice; tsu/+wo, a woman’s breast ; tsw-wo/-+bé-ta, nipple. This rule is almost universal in Bri-bri, and obtains generally in the other languages ; the greatest number of exceptions being in Terraba. In the simplest sentence, the nominative begins, followed by the object, and the verb comes last. Whena noun is qualified by an adjective, the adjective follows the noun. In the same way the adverb follows the verb ; aud the verb closes the sentence, unless it is accompanied by an adverb, or adverbial phrase. In case there are, in addition to the nominative, object, and verb, another noun, governed by a preposition, these latter close the sentence. I strike you; je be pu, I thou strike. I strike you hard ; je be pu derere. The strong man chops the wood well; wew? dérere kar tu bot. Will you go with me?; be mia je-ta, thou go I with. Ta, wa, aud weg (see notes on the nouns) are always added as suffixes to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify, and form a sort of ablative case. But where wey is used in the sense of ‘‘ where is,’’ it begins the sentence. Whose hat (is this)? 77 sombreno? Mine; je’-cha. How many people are there in your house? pe bil tsosi be hu-weiiy? people how many are thy house-where? Where is he? wevig ye ’tso? where he is? He re- mained in the middle of the road; ye onte nyoro shong, he remained road middle. Give mea chair (or bench), kri-wa’ mu’-nya,; chair give me. Give him, m/-ye. Reach me my hat; je sombreno be ura reska, my hat thou hand reach. Heat the water; di ba-ung, water make hot. The water is hot; di ba ba-na, water warm heated (is). Put out the fire; bowo wo-tu’, fire extinguish (or close). The fire went out; bowo i-to’-wa. Shutthe door; hw shkw wo-tw’, house door shut. Unfasten the door; hw Shku wo-jet'-sa. Open the door ; hu Shku wo-hu'-wa. Where is my knife? weny je tabe? where my knife (et so, to be, understood)? Your knife is there; be tabe tsosi diya, thy knife is there. Give me my knife ; je tabe munya, my knife give. My knife is very sharp; je tabe ckata boi, my knife toothed good. Go shoot a bird, or go shoot birds; be ju dw tu, thou go bird shoot. What with? i-wa? Witha gun; mokkur wa, gun with. What kind of a gun? mokkur is? gun what kind? Our country gun (blow- gun); sa konska mokkur, own country gun. There are no balls (the clay balls or pellets); mokkur wo ke ku, gun round (things) no more 1475. ] 557 {Gabb. (are understood’. Why do you not make some? 7 kuenke be ke mokkur wo juwo? why thou not gun round (things) make? There is no clay (or material) ; mokkur wochika ke ku, gun round (things) material no more. Is your gun a good one? be mokkur boi? thou (thy) gun good ? Does it shoot well? itu boi? shoot well (or good)? Good morning ; be shke/na ? thou art awake, or arisen (literally, straightened up). Reply; je (1) shke’na. Be ratski; thou hast arrived (salutation on a person entering a house). Je ratski, I have arrived. How are you? 7s be ’tso? how thou (et-so/-s?) art? I am well; je ’tso bot. Where did you come from? weg be bete’? where thou start? Who went with—? ji re —ta? who went —- with? I did not see; ke je wai suna, not I (wat idiom) saw. I do not know; ke je wai uphchen. This wai occurs nowhere except in these two instances. What did you go for? dub be re? why thou went? I went to call my people; je re je wakipa ikiu, 1 went I (my) people to call. Are they coming? yepa ratski? they come (or arrive? No; I think they have gone away; au, je hénbeku ye micho, No; I think they have gone. Letusgo too; mishka hekepi, let us go alike. Where is —-? wevig——? He has gone ahead; ye ’t-katke, he has walked ahead (see note on i-shku, in conjugation). Put on your clothes ; be sa-wi’ t-u, thou clothing (cotton) put into. Section I].—MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. Although the tradition exists that the people of Terraba are a com- paratively late emigration from the region of the Tiribis, and although the tradition is sustained by the general resemblances of language, and by the fact that the Brunkas (or Borucas), evidently older occupants of the soil, are crowded into a corner like the Celtic tribes of Europe; yet there are marked differences between the idioms spoken in Tiribi and in Terraba. The Dialects of Southern Costa Rica can be divided into three groups: First, the Bri-bri and the Cabecar; second, the Tiribi and Terraba ; and lastly, the Brunka. The three divisions possess many roots and even entire words in common, and may well be com- pared -in their resemblan:es and differences with the Latin languages. The first group is strongly marked by the short 7 before nearly all verbs and by a generally more musical sound ; while tbe second is harsh, in consequence of the frequent repetition of sound of z. The Cabecar 7 before the verb is not so persistent as in Bri-bri, but is more strongly pronounced, approaching more nearly the ordinary Latin or Spanish 7. The terminations ung and ong are as marked as the sign of the verb, in the second group, as 7 is in the first. The 2 which almost invariably accompanies this termination, is rarely a part of the last syllable, but is usually sounded at the end of the penultimate, unless when abbreyi- ated into zw or zo. A gradual process of change is clearly discernible in these languages. As yet the Bri-bri and Tiribi have been but little affected. But the Cab- ecar of Coen is absorbing many Bri-bri words because the people of the Coen, although they use their local dialect among themselves, all speak Bri- Gabb.] 538 {Aug. 20, brialso, while the latter, as the conquerors, despise the Cabecars and never attempt to learn their language. The Cabecars of Estrella rarely speak Bri-bri, but nearly all understand it, as well as Spanish and some speak English, and words of both these latter languages are gradually being adopted. The Tiribis are too isolated to acquire many foreign words; but their near relatives the lalf-civilized people of Terraba as well as the neighbors of these latter, the Borucas, are rapidly acquiring Spanish at the expense of the corresponding words of theirownlanguage. Ina party of five Borucas, there was not one who could count except in Spanish ; and one of my Terraba friends could remember no word for girl, ex- cept muchacha (Spanish), until I suggested (supported by analogy) the word wa-re’ (woman), when he remembered that he had heard some of the old people use wa-wa-re’! In like manner, he persisted in giving me the Spanish, ‘‘/ucero’’ for star, besides many other words. Many roots run through the entire group of languages unchanged, or with changes so trifling that they are not worthy of note. Again some- times the root varies while the ruling idea is the same. An illustra- tion of this last case is the following: In Bri-bri, to forget is hen-i- cho; toremember is ke hén t-cho, from ke not, hén the liver, and 7-cho to lose. To think is also hén be-ku (probably from be ket-ke, ready). Liver ia Tiribi is wo, in Terraba wo, and in Cabecar her; while to think is, in Tiribi wo tnizung, in Terraba woi-du, and in Cabecar her-wik. The acts of thought, memory, &c., have been attributed to the liver, with about as . good reason as we yet place the seat of sentiment in the heart. In Bri-bri, to lie down is tw ts, to throw down ; imperative me (yourself) tu is. In Terraba tush ko (down) is used in the same manner; fa tush ko, thou sit down, and fa bu tush-ko,-lie down (bu) long. Changes of roots are illustrated by the following. In Bri-bri, k7-puk’ is to sleep, and a hammock is k?-pu’. In Cabecar a bed is ka-pu!-gru, in Tiribi and Terraba it is bu/-kru; and in Brunka sap is to sleep. In Brunka a ghost is ¢-wik, and a shadow is ka-wik’, and a devil or evil spirit is kag’/-bru. In Bri-bri, a ghost, or spirit of a dead person is wig'- bru. In Cabecar, a shadow is wig/-ra, while in Tiribi it is ya'-gro, and in Bri-bri, sé-r7-w/-gur, thus connecting the word in Bri-bri for ghost, or departed spirit, with that for shadow by means of the allied idioms, although without the intermediate changes of the root, it would not have been demonstrable. It is evident that the Cabecar mog-2’, straight, and the Bri-bri maz/-kz, true, are identical. Although the Bri-bri word s¢/-gua, foreigner, has been replaced in the other languages, by other words, it remains in the Terraba, as a compound, in the name of the banana, bin-sigua, evidently ‘foreign plaintain,’’ from ding, a plaintain ; because it may have been introduced at a later date than the larger fruit, and when the word sigua was yet in current use. Again, the idea changes, and with it, words from other roots come in, thus: lightning, in Bri-bri is wra wo'-nyn, ‘‘the thunder flashes ;”’ the o) 1875] 539 [Gabb. Tiribi ehgu-ring’ and the Terraba zhu-ring’, seem to be specific ; but the Cabecar, kong-wo-hor!-kn is ‘‘the atmosphere burns,’’ while the Brunka ji'-kra is simply “ fire.”’ Like the two or three cases of imperfect plural in Bri-bri, already men- tioned, the Terraba hasa single plural word ; or rather only an approach, a sort of transitional form. Zhgring is a vib, and zhgring’-ro, the ribs in their collective sense, rather as the bony case of the thorax, than as the several bones. As stated above, the compound words in the voeabulary of Bri-bri are divided by a + sign between the component parts. In the other lan- guages, there are doubtless many that have not been properly separated, because I have not ventured to make theoretical divisions, and have only separated those that were obviously compound. My less perfect acquaint- ance with them has not warranted me in this step, nor in the probably unnecessary detail of analysis to which I have subjected the language of Bri-bri. In Terraba the 3d person, singular, pronoun kwe, while not varying: for gender or number, has three forms which always appear according to a peculiar condition, thus : he, she, (sitting or lying down) so’-kwe. ec (Standing) shon/-kwe. GS (cexoyunnees)) her-shon-kwe’. In Brunka, I, thou, he, (or she) and we, (a-dé-bi’, &c.,) are used with the termination dé-bi’ whenever they occur alone. When combined with other words in a sentence, the first syllable only (a, ba, 7, and ja) is used. The termination is almost an integral part of the word and must be used when alone. This is the reverse of the termination ré in Bri-bri, which is rarely used except in a seatence, and then only for euphony or emphasis, and at the option of the speaker. CHAPTER III. VOCABULARY OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE BRI-BRI INDIANS. [ Norz.—In this, and in the accompanying vocabularies, the vowels have the same sounds as in Spanish, unless marked with a special sign ; é is pronounced as in English met; 7 asin pin; 7 asin mum. J has the sound as in John ; ng as in thing; 7g like the French nasal 1; sh like ch in the German ich; h is aspirated as in English. A few words having unusual yowel sounds are noted separately, not to add unnecessary com- plication of conventional signs ; like si-az’, blue and ku-kw’, ear. Compound words are written with a + sign between the component parts. Accent is of great importance, the change in position of the ac- A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 38R (rabb. ] 540 [Aug. 20, cent sometimes changing the sense of the word entirely like 7-juk’ to drink, 7/-jwk earth, soil. ] to ache to adhere afraid afterwards again against ago to agree to aim air alike alive all alligator alone alongside already also always angle anory ankle ant, ant-eater j-de-li/-na i-ba/-tsa-wa su-wa/-na e/-wa 1-sa-ka/ 1-bé-tsu/-wa er’-a-pa | en-i-al’, nyo-nyo/-ni f i-shun/-lu \ nyi/--wo-yu j-shun/-sa-a kone’-+-shu-wang nyi-+ ke’ nyi-|shtsei/ tse/-ka f seng ‘Lo-vi-te-ne/ to-rok/ f e/-kur le/mi i-yaw/-mik je-bak’ j-sa-ka/ shu-ar/-i-a be-ta/ si-chi/-a o-ru/-na o-ra-bo’ : tsa/-_wak hie: Lene “See pain. See against. Not 7/-wa, interrogative, “what with.’ See also. See to adhere. Immediately past time. Hours ago; this morning. Very long ago; days, months, years. See to arrange. Nyi, together. wang, from si-wang’, wind. Nyi, together. Exactly alike; tsez, much, applied to words or two people speaking alike. See wwake. ce see country ; shu- # (et) one. Used in the sense of only. See again. , A point; the angle of a | surface or the corner angle of a solid. The angle of a prism ; see square. Wak, people, tribe. Myrmecophaga jubata. Tamandua 4 dactyla; te, a forest clearing ; from its being often found | in such places. 1875. | to arise arm to arrange to arrive arrow ashes to ask aunt awake to awake away axe back small of back backwards bad bag bald banana bare bark basket bat to bathe to be beach bead beak of bird j-ku/-ku u-13/ u-ra- krong’ u-ra-+-_nya’/-we 1-shun/-lu j-mu_ boi/-kli-na ra/-tski ka’-but mu-nu/+ chi-ka i-cha/-ku mi/+a-la tse’/-ka i-shke/-na i-mi/+ bak 0 shung’/+ wo ju’+-wo tsink/-a f su-ru/-i tL su-ru/-na tsku/ chu-i/ chi-mu/ sum/-é kar+kwo/-lit Shku da-kur’ a-kwok!’ et-so/-si tsong/+-kin bi/+wo du/+ka [Gabb. Upper arm Fore-arm, nya/-we, belly; see calf of leg. To arrange, or agree on a question. There is no one word for to arrange things in their places ; 7-mu, to put, boi/-kli, pretty good ; see introductory notes. arrows in use, each has also a specific name. Chi-ka, material. From ?-chu, to say? Mi, mother; Ja, diminu- tive. ‘See alive. Shke, straight. Emi'-a, to go; bak(je’- § bak) already; already gone. Also snoulder-blade. the various forms of Used to express disap- proval. A native net bag. See naked. Kar, tree; t-kwo/-lit, skin. Ina place ; also to have. Tsong, sand ; kin, region. f Bi,@) corrupted from En- l glish bead; wo, round. Du, bird; ka, tooth. Gabb.] bean to bear beard beast to beat bed bee before behind belly below belt bench to bend bent better between beveled bird to bite bitter a’/-tu-++wo ( Su/-na ‘(pa/-na ka/-luk du bi bi/-wak { i-pu/ ( {-bu-ra/-- ung a-kong’ f{ bur ( bur’/+-wak keng/-+we diu/+ shent bé-ta’/ ka nya’-+we is/+_kin ki-pam/+_wo kru-wa/ | i-wo-+shki/-_ung y. / i-chung’/+_wa | .i-ko-kut/-_wa ko-kutk’ boi/tna shu-tshong’ sho-utk’ du j-kwe/-wa. bi-chow-!i-choi’ [Aug. 20, To bear young (human). To bear young (inferior animals). Bi, the devil, or anything mysterious; wak, tribe. There is no word exact- ly equivalent to ours for ‘‘ beast.’’ Hach ani- mal (as well as plant’, has it specific name, and du, properly be- longing to birds, is usu- ally applied if the species is unknown ; 07- wak is only used in a collective sense. To strike, to whip. To beat, as on a drum. Wak, tribe. We, where. Behind in the abstract ; see in front. At the tail of a line; immediately behind ; bé-ta’, a point. Nya, see dung, we,where. Is, down; kin, region. It-pam, from ki-par, waist. Into aring; shki, a circle. To bend at an angle with- out breaking. To bend into a curve. Boi, good. See middle. Equally applied to a pris- matic solid, or to the cutting off the corner of a surface ; see sloping. 1875.] black blade blind blood to blow blue blunt body bog boil to boil bone bones border both bottle bow boy branch of tree brave bread to break breast breast of woman breath breech-cloth bright to bring broad broom brother brother-in-law 545 do-ro-roi/ i-wa/ wo-ju-t_be/-ie pe woi-ku/ be-tsir’-ke { si-ai/ \ do-ro-roi! ke+a-ka/—-ta ke+_beé-ta/-+-ta wak doch’-ka squek i-tu--wo! di-cha/ di-che’ iu-ku/ et+-et ko-ku’ shkum-me’/ ki-be/ kar’/+-u-la we’-bra i-nya/ Jf 1-pa-na/-na \ pu-tsa/-na be-tsi/ tsu/+-wo si-wange ki-par’/+-wo du-ru/-ru-i i-tsunk’/ sho wush/+ kru yil ar/-U-wa [Gabb. Also very dark blue, With the mouth; ‘wu the tongue. St-waig be-tsir'-ke, ‘the wind blows.”’ Last syllable prolonged. (Black) very dark blue. Ke, not; a-ka’, tooth; not edged. Ke, not; bé-tw’, point; not pointed. Also tribe, race, people. See mud. A furunele. For notes on this plural, see introduction. Ht, one. See calakash. Kar, tree; w-le (1-10) arm. See cake. Hard things, > . , ey A string ; tsa, a string. Also teats of lower ani- mals. Wind. Ki-par, the waist. See to carry. Always preceded by a pro- per name or a pronoun. Gabb. J bug bundle to burn to bury bush ““bush dog”’ butt butterfly to buy cacao cake calabash calf of leg to call to call out cane caoutchoue care (take) cataract to catch centipede chaff to chase to cheat cheek chicha ehief child chin chocolate to chop p44 [ Aug. 20, There is no generic word. Every prominent species has its name, usually consisting of an adjective, combined with wak, tribe. dli {-nyor/-ka i-bru/ kar-tsi/-la-la Kar, tree ; tst-la-la, little. ro/-buk Galictis barbata. nyuk See rump. kwa tu-eng/-ke si-ru/ Also chocolate. inya/ Applied to entire cala- bashes with a small ko-ku/ opening, for water bot- tles, | kyong Cut in half for cups. klu-_nya/+_we Kilu, leg; nyq’-we, belly. i-kiu/ To summon, to name. i-ya/-na-tsu The accented a like win far. (ee A walking cane, or stick. u-ka/-+ kur River cane. maser Sugar cane; see sugar. si-ni/-+-chi-ka Chi-ka, material. J e/no-e/-no ( me-+haw/-na-mi Me, yourself; see fut- ure tense to fall. jol Also a spring. i-krung ko O very long. i-ku’ i-tu’+tiung wo/-ju onk bo-ro’ A light beer made from maize. bo-ru/ la/-la ( Tsi’) la-la, little. a-ka/+ tu A-ka', teeth. si-ru/ i-ta/ Also to shoot. to clean clearing close to close cloth clothing cloud club coal cold comb to comb to come to complete compressed _ to consider constricted contracted to converse to c90k coon corn 545 me-ne/-ne jie i-shung-—_boi et ag j-tu/+skwo te’ ( tsi/-net ku-ku/-ni i-wo-+tu/ ¢ di-tsi/ Usa-wi! sa-wi/ mo shi kir/-u bo/-wo--ka ( se ( se-seng’ kash kash/+-kru (eae ( j-shku/ 0-ro/-na su-tat/+ke be-két:se’-ke \ su-litk’ la/-ri-ke y-lu/ ts i-kwo’ {Gabb. Also smooth. E-shung, inside; bot, good. I-skwo, to wash ; the out- side of anything. The inside of a vessel. A cleared space ina forest. - Near. Made from bark. Made from cotton. Cotton. The generic word for all clouds. A very dark rain cloud. A long stick for fighting. Bo!-wo, fire. ( Only applied to the at-_ mosphere, as Kovig--se’, < a cold day. Used in all other connec- tions. Kpu, to scrape. (Imperative) ‘‘ceme here,’’ To walk. Su-tat’, flat. Applied to a constriction - between two larger parts. Only used in the sense of | a present participle, conversing. { Nasua. There are sp2cific names for the two spe- cies, formed by ad- ding adjectives. There | seems to be no name for P. lotor, which is | very rare. Maize. Gabb.] corpse cotton to cough (v) cough (Ss) country cousin to cover coward erab crazy crooked cup to cut eylindrical damp to dance dark al’-ma sa-wi’+julk | ; to {kong ( konig+ ska pa-+beé-ku/ i-Shku-+pa-+bé-ku/ su-wa-tna ju-wi/ i-li/-na ki-tunk’ kyong { i-nyu/ 1-tu/ a-ra-bo’/+ wa mong’/-mok klu/+ptu tset-tsei/’ KS HY —— ——$—__—___—. face; ibé-ku, [Aug. 20, Can this be alma, soul? Juk, material. Spanish, Sp. tos, a cough, is prob- ably only a coincidence. { Kovig is used in innumer- able compounds. Not only is it used in the same manner in all the allied dialects, but in Brunka, it occurs as kak, the sun. Nearly all words relating to country, air, day, at- mosphere, sky, earth, in short, the general physical surroundings, contain it as an inte- gral part, Koig-+-ska is the country inhabited by any people. {Cousins are called ‘‘brother’’ and ‘‘sis- ter,’? even if several | degrees removed. ( Pa, skin, covering, sur- see to | pack ; to cover a solid | object. To cover a vessel to shut a book. See afraid. (s resemblance to the Ye la!-a-ka, ews crazed.”’ See calabash. Without chopping. With chopping. Klu, the foot; ptu, the sole. Also any dark color, es- _pecially dark brown. 1875.) darkness daughter daughter-in-law day to-day to-morrow day after to-mor- row 5d day future Ath 6c 66 5th (a5 66 6th ce Ge "th 66 oe 8th 66 66 Oth 6 66 itt Oth 66 66 il 1th (35 66 yesterday day before yester- day 3d day past 4th 66 66 5th 66 66 dead debt deep deer kong +tu-i/-na je +la+ra/-kur jak’-+-é-ra nyi/--_we Porn i= ey) kor i) f | 1 | L in/-ya bu-le/ bui/-+-ki m-nyar/+ ki keng’/-+-ki skang’/+ki ter/-i-_ki kn/-gi+-ki pai/--ki kong+su-ni/-to kong d-bob/ kong-+d-bob-+ki-tet’ ehi-+ ki’ bo/+khi m-nyon/+li ka/+ri skan/+i i-da-wo/-wa mu/+i i-shu-+-tyng’ (di) + tynig’ wo-+ku-chutk’ ronal: f su-ri/ ( su-ri-_ma-ru/ A. P. §8.—VOL. XIV. 38 [Gabb. “The day darkens”’ (either from clouds or towards night). “Je, my, Ja (la-la) son ; | é-ra/-kur, woman. For ( note on je, see son. See father-in-law. ¢é-7d, (é-ra'-kur.) Contradistinguished from night. Used in all other connec- tions; as kovig se, acold day. This ki, is apparently ““ more.”’ M-nyat, three. Keil, four. Skang, five. Terl, Six. Ku!-gl, seven. Pa'gl, eight. Su-ni'-to, nine. D-bob, ten. See eleven. Bo (but), two. See to die. See money. T-shung, inside; ty7g, large ; large inside. Deep water. Applied to a deep vessel, | when the mouth iscon- tracted. Thesame, with the mouth not contracted. Large species. Small species; ma-ru’, reddish. Gabb.] to depart to descend devil dew to die different direction dirt disordered to dissolve district to disturb to dive doctor done door double to double down to drag dragon-fly to dream to drink to drive drop drum dry mi-+cho/ j-u/+mi bi mo/+wo-li i-da-wo/ hau-/ri weng ka/-mu-ni cho-+ri/-li-é di-_a/-na f{ kin Ukong ting’/-we tsant/-kuk a-wa’ 0-ro/-ni e/-na > hu/+Shku bit--ung/-+ wa i-wo-+ pung’ fis Lis/kin {-ku/+mi ki-bi/-a kab’/+sueng 1-juk’ j-bé-_ku/ wo/-li se-bak’ Si si/-na po-poi’ | mong’-mok es A [Aug. 20, Also perfect, indic., of verb, 7-mia to go. 7-u, to put in ; 2-mi/-a, to go. Also ghost, or evil spirit. Mo, cloud ; wo/-li, drop. See where. Di, water. See region. See country. Applied to a completed business. ‘* There is no more.”’ Tu, house. Bit (but) two; ung, to make. In compounds. Kin, region (used alone). Mi (int!-a) to go. Ka-puk’', to sleep; sueng, to see. ku, see to drag. Like wood, fit for burning. By evaporation, like clothes after washing. Wiped dry. (Ina less degree than the other words ; but more or less applicable in all cases (partially dry 7.e. damp). The above are the common usages but are not absolute, the various words being sometimes used inter- ~ changeably. 1875.] dung dust eagle ear early earth earthquake to eat echo eddy edge ess elastic elbow empty to empty end ended enough enemy to envelop equal equally equivalent erect 549 nya kong’/+mo-li sar/+-pung, ku-ku/ bu-la/-mi i/-juk j-ku-tu’ j-0-ro/-te-nu ir-a-me/ ju-ku/ du’+_ra f ki-tsung’-ki-tsung \ kras/-kras { u-ra-_ku-ching’+ wo t u-ra--knyi/+nyuk f wu/-ji-ka \ wa-ke/-ta j-wu/-ji-ka i-wa-ke/-ta i-tu--tsung bé-ta/ { e/-na Lo-ro/-ni wed bo/-ruk j-bé-ku/-wa nyi/-ke-pi ske shke/-ka Gabb. See cake. ( Koiig, see note to country; mo, cloud ; 17 is used in two or three connec- J tions with objects in, or derived from the at- | mosphere, like dew, | rain, &e. Sar, red monkey ; puiig, _ hawk. U, like the German w. Bu-le', to-morrow ? (Soil). Not 7%-juk!’, to drink. English e. This word is never used in the sense of eating a meal; then jé-hu’, to feed, is always used. ee (Du. bird) + im placemor | ‘bird,’ the specific name of the animal is generally given; thus: to- [ rok'tra, alligator egg. Like rubber. Like a switch. “ Knee of the arm.”’ ‘““Heel of the arm.’’ See naked. To pour out. Point. ‘Tt is all gone.”’ Applied to affairs. Nyt, together; he!-ke pi alike. Perpendicular; see straight. Gabb.] even evening to exchange to expect to extinguish eye every face to faint to fall family far fast father father-in-law to fear fear feast feather 530 ( nyi+Shke | | tski-tski/-a | d-ra-d-dai’ | nyi/-es tson/-ni mne/-we ka/-ble i-wo-+tu! wo/-bra { o-ri-ten-e/ lL seng wo si-wangte/-na j-haw/-na di-jam/ ka-mi/-mi § bet/-ku ( dé-re/-re ( ki-u! 4 yol/-ta | chi/-ka+-tyng ji jak su-wa/-na su-wa/-na sa_bu-ra/+-ung du/+kwo [Aug. 20, Nyi, together; shke, level; in a Straight line. Even in a pile. ( Both of these words mean Se et | 3 | equal on the edges in a pile, like bricks in a wall, or the cut leaves of a book. Also late. Also to shut. See all. See rownd. Si-waig, wind ; e/-na, to finish. Rapid. Secure, hard. Fat, grease or oil of any kind. A fat animal. Fat person ; see stout. Always used with a per- sonal pronoun or the name of the person ; je ji, my father ; or with an exclamation, ¢h #2, oh father. Sa, we. To feast, to dance and to beat drums are ideas so intimately united in the minds of these people, that the same word is generally used indiscriminately for all three. Du, bird ; kwo, see seale, skin, nail, &e. 1873. |: to feed female fever few fierce to fight to fill to find fine finger to finish finished fire fire-fly fire-wood fish fish-scale flash flat flea flesh floor flower fluid fly to fly fog oO 551 je-ku/ la/-ki tak ( et/+_ket Uwa-wa/-ni bu-kwe/-wa nyi/+pu iu’ i-kwon/-ju wis-wis/-i u-ra/+ska {e/-na i 0-ro/-ni bo/-wo f ku/wo Uka-tu ‘bo/-wo-Ltak ni-ma/ ni-ma/+_kwo wo/-nyn { su-tat/ shke ki chi-ka/ du/-tra du-tra’+chi-ka hu-+shiung ma/-ma di-sé-re/-re a-bas/-a-bas si-chu/ i-un/+-e-mi mo [Gabb, See to eat and food. La = ra in é-ra'-kur, wo- man. Spleen. Ht, one. Also less. Nyt, together; t-pu, to strike. Also to put in. Like either a thread, or powder. U-ra, arm. See ended. Specific. The small flies. The large phosphorescent elater. Bo!wo, tire ; tak, a piece. This is at the same time generic, and is the spe- cific name of the best food fish in the country ; the other 15 or 16 species bearing other names, Kwo, see skin, nail, &e. Like a board, table, &>. Like a floor, a tract of country. j { Du, animal ; chi-ka’, ma- terial; often both words are combined,and more often the name of the animal is used with chi- ka, thus vaca chi ka, | beef. JTu, house. See plaything. Watery. Like thin mud. I-mi'-a, to go. See cloud. Gabb.] to fold folded to follow food foot force to forget forehead foreigner forest fragile free fresh friend to frighten frog tree-frog front froth fruit full gall genitals to get ghost gift girdle girl to give 552 i-wo--pung’ chu-no/-wa j-ju/+ki jé-kuk’ klu ke/-sin-kwa hén-+i-cho/ wo/-+tsong si/-gua kong/+juk kong yi/-ka to/-to ha/-si pang-ri ja/-mi su-wa/--ung ko-ru/ wem ai-u/-shent i-shu-ji/ kar-+-wo chik-li i-e/-na Shke f ke { ma-lek/ i-krung fbi \ wig/-bru ti-e/ ki-pam/--wo { ta/-ji-ra \ i-la-bu/-si j-mu/ | i-muk, to put. To give L [Avig. 20, See to double. See introductory notes. Kog, see country ; juk, material. See tender, weak. See family. Si-wa-na, afraid; wig, af- fix, to make. In front, see behind. Kar, tree; wo, round, a lump. {This is probably not the Spanish Jlena, but e/-na, ended ; 7. é., ‘*no | more can be put in.”’ Female. 1 . Male, human; see penis. See devil. See belt. Before puberty. After puberty. “Give me,’’ 7-mu/-nya ; “oive him,’’ 7-mu/-ye, or i-mu-ye-ta. This is the same word ‘as anything to a person is consequently to put it with him, i-mu, to put, ye, he, ta, with. 1875.] glad to go God good to grab grandfather grandmother to grasp grass grasshopper gravel grease green grief to grind to grow guatuso gun hair half hammock hand handle to hang ish-tsin/-é f i-mi/-a Li ju si-bu/ boi i-krung re-wu/-+je-ke nu-wi/-je-ke 1 krung kong’/--chi-ka di’-tsik tsong’/-_wo ki-u/ tsé-bat/-tsé-ba hed-i-a/na j-woh’ de-tyng/teh | i-tar--an/-o i-tar-Lar’/-ke shu-ri/ mok/-kur { konsh’-ko Uko-+juk shong’--_buts ki-pu/ u-ra/+Shkwe kut-+-a/ ( ki-chat/+ku | 4 l i-mo-+ wo/--_ka {Gabb. (For notes on this word | see introduction, and } especially the conju- l gation. Also clean, pretty. Em- phatic bod/-hi. Je-ke; see old. ( Chi-ka, material, is here | used contrary to the sense explained, (see {+ material) because koiig -+juk, having the same etymological meaning, | is applied to forest. Tsovg, sand. See fat. See wet. See sad, sorry, A plant. \ A person or animal. Dasyprocta cristata. Of the head. Of the body ; juk, mate- * rial. See leaf. Shong, see middle, be- tween, but, two. See fo sleep. See finger, also introduc- tory notes. Sister ; tabe kuta, knife | handle; the sister of the blade ! By tying, like a ham- mock; ki-cha’, a string. By simply hooking up, without tying; although i-wo'-mo is a knot. Gabb.] hard to have hawk he head to heal heap to hear heart heat to heat heavy heel here to help high hill hilt hip bone hip joint to hold hole hollow honey hook horizontal dot dé-re’-re et-so/ pune ye wo/-ki boir’/+ke i-ra-pa/ ish-tsu’ me/-+-wo ba i-ba/-_ung nyets klu-_knyi/+nyuk (i/-nya Li-e/+ku cht-ki/-a-mu kong-+shke’ ( konie’+-bé-ta | u/jum kut-+a/ te’/+-wo di-che’+-wo 1 krung } I-wo/--an bur’+di-o bi-ko-ru’ ki-pak’ [Aug. 20, j This word has as many | | significations as its equivalent in English. It applies to substance, strength, rapidity, and difficulty. See to be. Also she. Boi, good. Ung, affix, to make. Usually used with very: oru-nyets. Klu, foot; nyuk, butt. In this place. In this direction ; there. Shke, perpendicular. see Bé-ta, a point ; the point of the country; alsoa mountain. Applied to all hills or peaks not covered with forest. See handle. Di-che, bones. Any hole, whether a per- foration or a cavity. Bur, bee ; di-o’, juice. See to sleep, and intoduc- tory notes. 1875.] hot house how to hum humming-bird hungry to hunt husband hush if to ignore iguana immediately in inclined ba ba/-ba ba+shki-ri/-ri pa-+h/-na bu im/-a 1-bor--a-ru/ bé-tsung’/ dé-wo-be-li/-na f i-je-bu/-rik ({-ja+lu/ je+wim’ su-wang—+bru/-wo je je/-re mi-ka-re/ (bru | elke bwah f er’--a-pa Usir/-a-pa i-shung’ o-utk/ A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 8T [Gabb. ‘But one syllable is used when in combination with another word, as koiy ba, hot day ; when used alone the syllable is repeated. ( Shki-ri- 71, (tski-ri!-rt) yel- lew ; ae is used in ex- do eeration: ‘“vellow hot,’? as we say ‘“‘red hot,’”’ and is often ap- plied to the weather, | food, &e. ( (Ba+t-li/-na) “ boiling hot,’’? similarly used when one is perspiring L freely. Bor, (bur) bee? To hunt game. Ju, auxiliary; to hunt anything lost. Je, my. See note to son. Sii-wang, wind. ( Re is a sort of emphasis, added occasionally to all the personal pronouns { except ye-pa. Bru ji, ‘Ido not know who.” ( Used only alone, as a re- | ply, while dru takes its place in a sentence, as | above. In the past. In the future. See sloping, beveled. Gabb.] inside instead instep to interpret intestines iron it jar jaw to jerk Jigger to join joint juice to keep kidney to kill kind knee knife to knock knot to know lame language 556 / nies hu/-+shung i-shung {hus ske/ klu-+tsing’ ju-ste’/+chu nya’-L_ké-bi ta-be/ é-hi/ ung ka/-ju-a i-kunt/-sa , ki/+la nyi/+wo-ju ki-cha/-_wo di-o/ i-bru/ hak i/-da-wo/-wa f boi/-++sen lwak ku-chi’/-_wo f ta-be/ \ ta-be/ la ici ( {-bu-ra/-Lung i -wo/-+-mo uph-chen/ mu/-ya u-Shtu/ [ Aug. 20 ( These two words are ap- plied to the inside of a house; while i-shung is restricted to the in- side of a vessel, the in- terior of the body, of a hollow tree, a box or any other comparative- ly small space. I-chu, to say. Nya, dung ; see belly ; ké- bi, snake. Also knife; anything made of iron ; see pot. A ka, tooth. Nigua ; Pulex penetrans ; ki, flea; la diminutive. Nyi, together; see to make, to 8éw. Ki-cha, a tendon, a string; wo, a lump. ( Any fluid expressed, like whey from curd; milk from the breast, honey, | &e. See to die. Boi, good ; in disposition. Class: see trabe. See tron. La, diminutive; a small knife. I-pu, to strike. See to beat, feast, to dance. Wo, round; mo (i-mao’) to tie. 1875. ] large last late to laugh lazy to lead leaf to leave left hand leg to lend less to let to lick to lie to lie down bru/-bru tyng’/+bru bé-te+ka tson/-ni ma-nyu/ jé-kke/-i-a u-ra/-_yu-+tmi kar’+_ko-juk Ukar/-ku j-hu/+unt u-ra-t bu-knick’ klu/-Lke-cha dé-pe/-te-ju wa-wa/-ni on/-si i-ku/+juk kon/-shu i-tu-tis/ [Gabb. Simply large. When ap- plied to a stream (di-- ki-bi’,) it means river, (| “‘large water.”’ ( The commonest form; when applied to water ( it means deep. {mal applied to ani- —“-—_—, mals and to domestic utensils. (ae large; more em- phatic than the pre- ( ceding forms. Bé-ta, point. See evening. U-ra, arm; mi (-mi/-a) to go. (Of a plantain, or other large leaf- used for wrapper, or for a re- 4 ceptacle for food, &e. The Mosquito word | sic, from the same root, | means a banana. ¢ Of a tree, in a collective | sense; kar tree; ko/- | juk see hair. ‘The idea is the same and the distinction is made by kar, the name of a per- | son, a pronoun, &e. Ku, tongue; asingle leaf. Tu, house. U-ra, band, (arm). Really few; there is no other word. Imperative ; 07/-st tso-s?, tso-st (et-so-st) to be ; “let it alone.”’ See to suck. I-tu, to throw ; 7s, down. Gabb ] to lift light lightning lips to listen little a little liver long to look to look for ‘to loose to lose lost louse lump macaw maggot maize to make male man j-ku/-kn ( su-ru/-ru-i | lu | lho bo/-bra a-ra--_wo/-nyn ku/-kwo ish-tsu/ ( tsi/-la-la | la/-la [1a ( wa-wa-ni | wi-ri-wi/-ri wi-di-wi/-di t bi-ri-bi/-ri hen bi-tsing/ i-saung’ lu ip-tsu’ i-cho/ { cho/+-wa Ucho-Lrai’ kung wo f pa Usitkoni hu/-+-nya i-kwo/ i-ju--wo! we/-nyi we/-wi [Aug. 20, . (White), light colored. Kong+lu, daylight; bor | +lu (bowo-+tlu) fire light. Light in weight. A-ra, thunder; wo-nyn, flash. Ku’, tongue; kwo (i-kwo- lit) skin. Applied to a child. Diminutive ; used with | various nouns; dla, rivulet. ; Local pronunciations. Always used with the auxiliary ju ; ju+lu. See to wntie. This is rather a verbal root than an indepen- dent word; see to re- member and forget. In other casesit carries the terminations wa, and rai; see notes on the | conjugations. See round. Green species. Red species. Ju, auxiliary; wo, com- plete. 1375.] many how many, so many marsh material meadow measure meat medicine metal midday middle midnight milk tsei { bit pil ish/-ke doch’/-ka juk chi-ka/ sok ya-ma-un/-ya | du/--ra chi-ka/ ku-pu/-li nu/-kur di’-bé-ta shu-shong’ kong+shong’+ buts tsu/+di-o {Gahb, See muc>. Impersonal. Personal. See mud, bog, compact material; as cotton, s@wi!+juk ; Jeaves of a tree, or hair of the head ko+ juk. (Any homogeneous sub- stance; as s-ru/+chi- | ka, cake chocolate , [en fibrous, or nof | su-ni'tchi-ka, deer meat; si-né!-chi-ka, caoutchouc. Only one exception to this rule exists, see note to L grass. \ See note to flesh. Applied derivatively to money. I have heard quicksilver called m2- kur!+dio,” metal juice. Di-wo, sun; bé-ta, point, summit. { Shu is used in nearly all words where the width is a component idea; see wide, narrow, be- tween, inside; shong, see half, between. In a combination, shovig only is used ; thus nyo- ro'+shong, the middle | of the road. Korg, see day ; shong’/+ buts, half. Tsu, breast ; di-o, juice. Gabb.] mine mistake mole money monkey month moon more morning mosquito mother mother-in-law mountain mouse mouth to move much Or Se =) je/tcha hén-+-cho/-+-wa skwe, nu/-kur sar | wib hyuk S1 si/wo ( ki ku bu-la/-mi en-i-ai’ shku-ri/ je+mi’ wa/-na kong’+bé-ta skwe fku (nyuk i-sku’ c tsot-tsei’ chuk/li o-ru/-i ee" [ Aug. 20, Je, 1; cha, sign of posses- sion. See to forget, remember, think. Also rat, mouse, w&e. See metal. Ateles. Mycetes palliatus. Cebus hypoleucus. Si-wo, moon. In counting, si--et one month, &e. See early ; bw-le’, to-mor- row. “This moining,”’ already past; see to-day, here, NOW. Je, my ; see note to son. See hill. Also mole, rat. Of an animal. Of a river ; see rump. Restricted to quantity or number. Although these refer rather to quality than quantity, they can be used in either sense. When combined, as is sometimes the case for emphasis, they become o-ru-t chuki-li. Al- though both have the meaning of much, or very, each is used, ac- cording to custom, with particular words, al- though with no differ- enve of sense; 0-7uU 1875 ] how much mud mute nail naked to name name narrow navel near neck necklace Cl (oP) — be-kongs’ doch/-ka mé, u-rats/-kwo f sum/-é ( wu/-ji-ka j-kye’ kye shu-tsi/-la-la bu-sutk/ mo/-++wo - tsi/-net | ku-ku/-ni ket/-ke ki-li/+-ké-cha na-mu/+-ka pu-li/-+-ki-cha bi/-wo-+-ki-cha SS eee ee {Gabb. nyets, very heavy; tyiig chuklt, very large ; pe ratskt orul, many peo- ple are coming; pe tsost tsot-tsei, there are many people there. Chi-ka, material. U-ra-+ska, finger; kwo, scale, skin, &. Both words are used for bare or naked ; but the latter (‘‘empty ”’ qg. v.) is usually applied to naked children who, according to local custom are yet toosmall to wear clothing. Probably both derived, with i-ki-a/-na, to want, from the same root as i-kiu, to call. These three verbs run into each other in conjuga- tion. Shu, see middle; ts¢-la-la, small. Anything hol- low ; also a stream. Anything solid. Knot. In place or time. In time only. This ké-cha, does not » seem to be connected with ki-cha’, a string or | tendon. It occursagain in leg. Tiger’s teeth. Made from shell beads ; see shell and string. Made from beads q. ». There are other less common names, _ all taken from the material Gabb.] needle negro nest new bight nipple no nobody noise noon nose not nothing now nuchal lump numerals 1 te) (at) OL ( kush \ di-ka/ tset-tse’/-_ wak du/-thu pa/-ni né-nye/-wi tsu--wo/-+ bé-ta ( au Uke ke/+ji ha-lar/ di/+_bé-ta ji/-kut | ke 4 [Asam ke/+-ku shun/-tai i/-ya ku-li/-+-duk-wo et but bul bui bo m-nyat’ m-nyal’ m-nyar’ m-nyon’ keil keng ka { skang skan Sg SSS SS OU bo [Aug. 20. Thorn. Tset-tse, dark ; wak, race. Du, bird; hu, house. Tsu-wo, breast; 0é-ta’, point. Negation. Not. Ke, not; jv, who. See midday. A asia father. Used only as follows—“‘kam je bowo! betse’”’ (not I fire prepared). ‘‘I have not kindled the fire.”’ Ke, not ; ku, more. Nothiag whatever. Only used for ‘‘absolutely nothing.”’ See here, and to-day. Ku-li, see neck. The en- larged nuchal ligament caused by carrying heavy loads suspended from the forehead. Impersonal. Personal. Counting days, future. Counting days, past. Impersonal. Personal. Counting days, future. Counting days, past. Counting days, future. Counting days, past. Counting days, past. zt on once ore, at a time only open to open to oppose other otter AXo 125 So KO { terl \ ter/-i { ku’gl . lku/eu ( pa/-gl 4 pai (pa su-ni/-to d-bob/ d-bob-+-ki-+-et’ d-bob-+-ki-+ but’ d-bob-+-ki-+_m-nyat’ d-bob-+-but/-juk d-bob-+_but/-juk--ki-+ et ki-u/ { i-nu/ ( ke/ji-ke bé-ta/+-kin et/ékur et-_ket/-ke fe/-mi Lket ha/-si LShku-+ku’-ka i-w0/--wa “FF 1-shung-_pu’ i ju-mu/-ka sa-ka/ | hau/-ri et/ é-kur ha-wa/ > SIO BW) [Gabb. Counting days. Counting days, future. Counting days, future. Counting days, past. Ki, more ; et, one. But juk, twice. Old and worn out, or de- cayed. Old person. Bée-ta’ summit; region. Ht, one; e/-kur, alone. See only. See alone. Hi--ket, only one; but+- ke!, only two, kin, To uncover a vessel, to { open a book; see to cover. To open a door; see to shut. To spread, to unfold. Also to strike, to push. They sometimes say hu Shku pu, literally, ‘“‘push the door (open),” but i-wo-wa is better. Also, Ves is no Different, ; nearer way Once, ) of approach- ing the idea. Lutra Braziliensis ? Gabb.] out outside over oyster to pack package pain to paint palm of hand pantaloons part to part to pass pasty to pay pebble peccary penis people perhaps perpendicular person petticoat \ u/+te+kin bé-ta/+ kin shuk/-te j-be-ku/ dli dé-li/-na pat/yu u-ra/+-ptu klu/+-yo ek/-sin-e i-bra/-_tu i-ru/+-mi i-tu-wo/ pa-tu-en/-ke ak’/+_wo f ka/-sir si-ni ma-lek/ | ké-be’+ wo pe [ak | L wak-_ti-pa bru shke/-ka i | ke/-ki ba/-na 564 oe oe -——_ OF [Aug. 20, ( Kin, see region. wu is pro- ably from hu, house. j The expression (lite- rally outside of the house) is applied to the outside of anything. See on. See to drive, to envelop, to cover. See to ache. Ptu, palm or sole; see foot. Ktu, leg ; see shirt. I-tu, to cut. Mi (i-mi!-a) to go. Like dough or stiff mud ; see viscid and fluid. Ak, stone; wo, round, lump. Dicotyles torquatus. D. labiatus. Human ; see tail { Ké-be’, snake ; applied to \ all the lower animals. As individuals, Asapplied to tribe orrace. Collective, thus sa wak-t_ pa, our people ; never sd-wak, to distinguish | from ant (tsa+-wak). See to ignore. See straight. See who ; ke-ji nobody. Person of consideration, used Jike si7,in English; probably from ke'-ji-ke old. The native dress of the women ; a cloth tied round the loins and | reaching to the knees. 1875.] to pick up piece pile to pile up piled up to pinch pine apple pipe place plain to plait to plant, plantain plastic to play plaything plenty point pointed polished possession pot to pound to pour precipice pregnant OU oP ( i-shtuk (Ui-ku/kn tak i-ra-pa/ j-ra-pa/+-ung i-ra-pa/--na j-ku-ni-tsu/-wa a-mu/-+ wo ca-chim/-ba ske, i-to/ kong , kong+shke/ du-ki’, f i-taung/-bo likyu ko-rub/ i-no/-i1-no y-nuk’/ -ma/-ma { nu/-kur f{ o-ru/-i Ushkon/-ten-e be-ta/ be-ta/-ta u-ris-u-ris/-1 cha ta-be’ ung i-wo-+tu j-tu/-+-tsung | i-tu! i-u/ ak/-+-tu Jf nya’+-ye bo/-bo-kye Or To gather. To lift. A heap. {Gabb. A borrowed word found all over Spanish Amer- ica. In place of; see equiva- lent. Place for a thing. See country ; kye? ‘‘what place called ?”’ Shke, flat. Seeds. Roots. See flower. is ima kong this See metal, money, and to to play. Much, many. Also summit, top, end. See note to mine. Ta-be’, iron; see tron and jar. To pour out. \ To pour in. Ak, stone, rock. Human ; see belly. Lower animals. Gabb.] to prepare pretty price priest proof to prove to pull to pull out pulse to push to put to put into quarter quick rain rainbow rat ravine raw to reach ready red U6 7-be-ket/-ke boi town’-+ske tsu/-gur cha‘gu j-cha/-eu. i-kung. i-shung/+ kung si-wang’/+ ki-cha Lpav/-ku i-muk! bet/-ku { dé-re’-re [ bou’-i kaw/-ni ké-be’ skwe kong be-li/-na ha’-ki fon’-a ( bé-ket’-ke i mat/-ki mat/-kli ( ma/-ru Aug. 20, fee ready. See good. See to buy; ske, value, equivalent. Ish-tsu, to sing ; a singer. To straighten ; to spread out. Si-waig, wind; ktcha, string. See to give. See to pour. (Soles only to the quir- | ters of an animal; for a fourth part of an in- animate object, they only say tak, a piece. Rapid, sudden, to hurry. Applied toarapid stream. Very quick. {This word is now in a transition state. MHovig- +i, the original form (see note on dust) is still sometimes, though rarely, used, and is equally understood. Snake. Also mouse and mole. In going to a place. (Woce the hand; always used with w-ra (arm, hand); thus ‘‘T cannot | 1 | reach it’’? ke je u-ra re- L ska. To prepare. Deddvcat Brownish red. 1875.] Tegion © to remain remainder to remember to resemble to reside to rest to return ribs ribbed right right hand rim rind ring ripe ' to rise river rivulet road to roast rock to rock to roll roof roots rope kin on/-te { bé-ta-on/-te \ bé-ta+_tso/-_nya ke-+_hén-i-cho sung se/-ne-ke he/-ne-ke re/me-li chi-ne/ _bt-ché-no/-no1 boi u-ra-_bwa/ su-su/-i i-kwo/-lit shkit/-ke Yi i-ku/-kn di-+_ki-bi/ di-+-la nyo-ro/ j-ku-ke/ ak a-lik-a-lik/-e j-wo-be-tru/ hut+ku wi/-+nyuk ( bus/-kr | du/-ki tsa [Gabb. Kin has a double mean- ing. It is used thus, Lari kin the region, or district of Lari; dé-je kin, the salt region (the sea). Besides it signi- fies on, or in, a place or direction; 7s kin, be- low ; bé-ta kin, on the point or summit of a hill; nyo-ro kin on the road. — Bé/-ta, see end, point. Tso(et-so-si) to have, to be. Ke, not ; see to forget. Tosee, to look. Good. ( U-ra, arm ; bwa, right, in sense of direction or ( side only. See skin, bark. See shki, round. Di, water; ki-bi, large. La, diminutive. Stone. As a cradle, or a round- bottomed vessel. See to twist, to turn, to shake. Hu, house. Nuuk, ramp, butt. A twisted, or ‘‘laid’’ rope. A plaited rope. ( Acommon, rougbly made | rope, a bark string, or [ee vine used in tying: | see vine. Gabb.] rotten rough round rump to run sacrum sad saliva salt sand sap savannah to save to say scab to scare scattered scorpion to scrape to scratch sea to search to see seed to sell é-nu/-né-wa a-ten-é-ten-e/ ( shki [ee nyuk i-nen-e/ ju/-wo- di-cha hed-i-a/-na wil-ri dé-je/ tsong’ + chi-ka wu’-li sok i-bru/ i-chu/ I pash’/+ kwo su-wa/-L_ung tski/-tski bi-che’ i-a-pa/+si-u i-kru/ i-bi/-u f di--dé-je/ ( dé-je--kin j-ju-+-ln/ suens wo! i-me/-rir (6) [Aug. 20, See old. Circular. ( Used for anything round- ed, like the face, a seed, a lump in the flesh, a rounded hill, the sun, moon, and in the names of various parts of the body. See butt, roots, river, mouth. Ju'-wo, small .of back ; di cha, bone. See grief, sorry. See beach, gravel, mate- rial. This root, probably de- rived from some allied dialect, is now adopted into Isthmian Spanish as ‘‘uli,’’ “‘hule,”’ ete., for caoutchouc. Ewo,scale; not i-pa-+-_skwo to wash. See to frighten. Like to scrape the bark from a stick; to scale a fish is ¢-hwo!+si-u. To clean a dirty surface. Di, water ; dé-je’, salt. See region. See to hunt, to look for. See round. 1875. ] to send to sew shadow to shake shallow sharp to sharpen she shell shield shin to shine shirt to shoot OU ep) eo) i-pat-ku--mi i-wo--ju--wo meteeoys si-ri-u/-gur i-wo--ti/-w i-wong+tju 1-Si/ | bu-litk’ a-ka/ta | bé-tal-ta f{ a-ka/+ung ( bé-ta/-ung ye jok’se-r9 pu-li’ su-ri/ sa-ra/ so/gur tang’/+wo f du-r/a/-ru-i ilu! -+gur pa’+yo 1-tu/ [Gabb. I-pat-ku,to push ; 7-mi-a to go. Wo, besidesround, means in this and similar con- nections, whole, to- gether, complete or closed. See to close ; i-ju-wo, to make, ‘‘to make closed,’’ or ‘‘to make together.”’ shaking dust out of a cloth. A gentle motion, like leaves in a breeze. i violent motion like a shallow stream or pond. . A shallow vessel, like a pan or dish. (on a to water; di+-s7 ed or edged; like a knife edge. Sharp pointed. A-ka, tooth, sharp tooth- Also he. Flat univalves; helia, cyclostoma, helicina, ete. Long univalves ; melania, bulimus, glandina, ete. Donax. . Large bivalves. Lu, light ; to shine like a fire, to give light. Pa, skin, covering ; see pantaloons. To cut, to chop. Gabb | short shoulder shoulder blade shrimp to shut sick side silence similar to sing sister sister-in-law skin skull sky to sleep sleepy sloping sloth slow small small of back to smell to smell good smoke 570 f hu’-ye Uhu/-shi-a so/-bri -Shku- pa-bé-ku’ ki-ri/-na f§ wo/--su-li lu-ra! bi/-né ( he/-_ké-pi nyi/+_ke-pi di-u/-si nyi-Shtsei’ ish-tsu’ kut-a/ bo/kut Le pa wo/-ki+ dicha hong/+-kut-tu ki-puk’ ki-pu-+ wet/-ke o-utk’ sé-nong’ | se/-ri di/-ra en-ai-en-ai/ tsi’-la-la tsiig-wo la f{ a-mas-a-mas’ ( m-nas-m-nas/-i shkon-o/ [Aug. 20, This was explained to me by the person holding his hands but a few in- chesapart ; saying this was hu/-ye; with his yhands about a yard a- part he said hu!-shi a, while any greater length is d7-tsing, long. See ave. See to close, to cover, to open. Of the body. Right or left hand ; w-ra, arm. Alike, also, thus. Equal, alike. ‘“ Like that.” Exactly alike,in speaking See priest. Cuticle, bark, scale, nail, feather, &c. Cuticle, surface, or any soft outer envelope. Wo-ki, head; di-cha, bone See note to country. See beveled. Choloepus Hojffmannt. Arctopithecus castaniceps. Cyclothurus dorsalis. See Jittle. Like flowers and fluids. Like food. 1875.] smooth snail snake to sneeze so soft soil sole of foot solid sometimes son son-in-law soon sore sorry sour to speak spirit jirji f | 1 Fis jis l u-ris-u-ris/-1 -pu-li/ : jok’/-se-ro ki-pe ké-be’ chi/-na i-nyes’ he/-ké-pi if a-ni/-ni-é ‘b-jo/-b-jo i/-juk klu--ptu me/-ye mi-kle’ je-+la na-wa/-ki-ra f sir/-a-pa ( tsi/-net { su-me/--+-wo ki-nung hed-i-an’/-a shku-shku/-i i-Shtu f bi Uwig/-bru Ko 1, EVO VAN BAY [Gabb. accented. Not neces- sarily polished. Polished. [s syllables equally \ See shell Shell-less species. y A curious coincidence ex- ists in the fact that in the Island of Santo Do- mingo, where there are no venomous reptiles, a poisonous plant, retain- ing its native name, is called by the people L ké-be’. “ {-shu-+-i-krung ak krtl-wa/ pa-pa/ chi-ka+-tyng’ {Aug. 20, See saliva. See fever. See old, rotten. Loose objects, as grain, cacao, &e.; also to un- roll. A cloth, &e.; see to open. Also a cataract. This word applies equally to a triangular or a polygonal surface, and means rather angular. There are no specific names for figures of different numbers of sides, the exact shape being designated by such phrases as ‘‘four- sided,’’ &e. A square prism; like a beam ; see angle. O-ru'-t, much. La, to smell; su-ru/-d, bad. Shu, see middle ; 7-kruig to grasp, to hold. See bench. Second person, impera- tive, present. This verb is used in no other mood, tense, or person. In all other cases, kin’- tsu, to wait, is used. Chi-ka, material; ty7g big 1875.] straight to straighten to strike string strong to suck sudden sugar summit to summon sun sure to swallow sweat to sweep sweet to swim to swing tail to take to talk tall tame to tangle tapir to taste to tear teat | | O73 shke-_we/ j-shung/-lu i-pu i-tu ki-cha’ dé-re/-re i-ku/+juk bet/-ku pa/-gl+-chi-ka bé-ta/+-kin i-ki-u/ di/+_wo je/-na i-mru/+mi pa-+li/-na i-wush/--_kru bro-broi/ a-u/-ku-ri i-ung/-ke-a ma-lek/ i-tsu i{-tsu/--me j-ju/+tsu i-tsunk/ i-Shtu/ tyng’/+bru hu/--ru ish-chon/-a-ga na-i/ i-quash/-tse i-krash/-a-na i-schi/-na-na tsu/-+-wo [Gabb. To beat. To strike with the inten- tion of cutting or wounding ; see to chop, to shout, &c. Ku, tongue; i-juk’, to drink; also to lick. Quick. See sugar cane; chi-ka, material. Bée-ta, point; kin regions | the summit of a hill or road. To call. See true. See hot. See broom and to scrape. Me, yourself (take from me). Ju, auxiliary (go and take. Take it up. To speak. See large. Hu, house. Like cloth. To tear open, like split- ting a piece of sugar cane with the hands, or tearing open the skin of an orange. Gabb.] teeth temples tender tendon testicles that that (is it) then there they thick thief thigh thin to think this thorn thorns thou thrice throat to throw thumb thunder thus tick to tickle to tie O74 a-ka/ wo/+ki+ cha to/-to ki-cha’ kyak es/-e es/-es ( e/-wa ay et’-to i di-ya/ < \ di-ya/+e-ku ye’ pa bu-ri/-ri hog/-bru--ru tu si-bu/-bu-i hén/+bé-ku (i/-sa hi di-ka/ di-ke/ { be Ube/-re m-nyattjuk bi-do/-nya f 1-hu/-juk li-tu u-ra-tska-t wong/-wi a-ra/ f he’-ké-pi i-nyes/ bur-ir/-i-e se-cho/-ne i-mao/ [Aug. 20, While other tribes have special names for the molars, the Bri-bris call them a-ka-di-u’-shent (back teeth). Wo-ki, head ; ké-cha, see leg, neck. See fragile, weak. String. Apparently Spanish, ese. Bb s¢ eso és. Also afterwards. “Tn that direction ;’’ see here. See he. See to steal. See forget, remember, and introductory notes. Not ¢/-se, that. tively applied to a needle. Plural ; see introductory notes. {ie tooth. Deriva- Re, see note to I. See to shoot, to pour, &c. See finger. See so. This is one of several | specific names for the same insect. 1875. | tiger time tired toad tobacco toes together to-morrow tongue top top of head torch tortoise to touch tree top of tree trunk of tree tribe true truth to turn ugly: ulcer uncle unclean under to understand unlike unripe ( di-ko/-rum na-mu/ na-mu--kro/-ro du-re/grub se-an/-um L iSh-tsa-_na-mu ( nyo-nyo/-ne ( én-e/-ri-é shti-ri/-na bu-ke/ da-wa’ klu--rat/-ska ( nyi/-ta + edj/-ka nyi-Shke/ bu-le/ ku bé-ta/ man-e/- bé-ta kirk kwi i-ku/+wa kar kar-_ko/-+_bé-ta kar/+u-ku wak Cay? ( maw/-ki maw/-ki i-wo--tru su-ru/-i su-me/-++-wo { yé-nong’ | yé-nong-+-juk f nya/ ( bu-ku-ru/ is/+-kin ish-tse/-bo hau/-ri { ha/-ki {pan/+ ri —~ [Gabb. F’, concolor. Generic. F. onca. ditto, black var. F. pardalis. Past; it means ‘‘a long time ago.”’ Future time, also remote. Kiu, foot; rat-ska, see finger. See with. See even. See point, end, summit. Be-ta, summit. Also stick ; see forest, &e. See tree aud summit. In the sense of ‘‘ yes, that is so.”’ Absolutely ; as contradis- tinguished from false. See to teoist, to roll, to shake. See bad. Maternal. Paternal. Dirty, filthy ; see dung. In superstition. See below. Ti, ripe. Gabb.| to unroll to untie until to unwind up upon upper arm upright to use valley value vein very vertebra vine viscid voice to vomit to wag waist to wait to walk to want warm to wash wasp water watery Wax we i-shung-+tsu i-wo/--tsu ia-pan/-a i-shung’+tsu { shke la-kong f{ a-kong \ bé-ta/+-kin u-ra’/-_krob shke’/+ka i-wa/-tu kong’-bli ske ki-cha/ o-ru/=i | chuk/-li tu-ru/-ru-i ko/+ wo ( tsa’+_ki-cha | | kar’-_ki-cha ku-nyo/-ku-nyo or/-ke cho/+li i-wo-tsi/-tsi iejope ( j-kin’/_tsu ( j-pan/-a j-shku’ j-ki-a/-na ba j-skwo/ bu-kra’ di di-tse-re/-re bur/+_nya sa [Aug 20, See to open, to spread. See to unroll. See straight. See point, under, and summit. U-ra, arm. See perpendicular. See equivalent. String. \ See much. Applied only to very hot water. ( Isa, any vine or strip of | bark that can be used to tie with; ki-cha, a | string. Kar, wood; generally, | one that cannot be used to tie with. Like syrup or honey. I-cho, to lose. Like a dog’s tail. To wait for anything or person. To wait until another time. See to call, to name. See hot. Bur, bee; nya, dung. what when where whisper whistle white who whole why wide wite wild wind wing to wipe with woman wood to work worm 577 f to/-to l to-toi/ {ble Uboi ma-iu/ f nu-ne/-ga ‘Utsé-bat/-tsé-ba ( we/-du s3a/-sa Shka/-kung su-ru/-ru-i ji wan/-yi iub i-kuen/-ke 1. I . | in/-u-i shu tyng’ je-bra/-kur ka-nyi/+ru si-wang’ i-pik/ j-pat+kru f ta Lowa é-ra/-kur kar ka-né/-bruk f nya-+-bus/-éri Unya/-_wak [Gabb. See tender; fragile. Noun. Adjective and adverb; good. The person, as in a rain. See green; applied to in- animate objects. ‘¢ What is it,’? or “‘ what is the matter.’ ‘¢What did you say ?”’ Personal; who. ‘¢ Where is 2? Used in a sentence. Used alone. Ka (a-ka) the teeth ? Also light colored. Entire. ( Used alone, or at the be- ginning of a sentence, i-kuen'-ke means ‘* that is the reason,’’ as well as being used interro_ gatively. Used alone. See middle, narrow, and large. See woman and son. See tame ; ka (kar) tree (forest) ; ny7, together. See to scrape. Accompanying. By means of; ¢wa?, “what with ?” See tree, stick. Lumbricus ; nya, dung. Gabb.] to wrap to wring wrinkled wrist year yellow yes yesterday you young yourself BY (eo) {-bé-ku’-wa j-wo-+ bé-tru’ © ju-ku-nu-ju-ku-nu’ u-ra--_wo/--bak da-was’ ( tski-ri/-ri ( dii-ko/lum She l tu chi-ki’ ha pu’-pu me [Aug. 20, See to roll. The year is counted by the dry seasons when the flower stalks of the river cane are ripe and fit to cut for arrow shafts. Bright yellow. Brownish yellow. Ve wae > Synonymous ; ié is most commonly used. 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KVM rege dsva que OF [VM 03 PVM OF 4SIUM ATTIOA 07 OOIOA UIA UIOA Agywa [ Aug. 20, 1875. 602 Gabb.] YS EG 9s-/1. /}¥8-0-0YS /YeUl-e.I-1 sunys “‘ey-UNIG, jeku-04 OMY-/SUNI-AVT OP MS 2 eel I-/sueI-Loys “eqei4e T, tod CM-BY 9-/qu yy Sat 40]-,TLOYs TOP OM-3IO sun-+ zinsyz Ory-/SNID /OI-@M. onad _ AY OLI ‘TOMMLL 114-/ NEP BIY- BI-9 | “IQATIY WOOD Jo Avd0qVO suq pal nny isd @qO-9.0- MA jIS-+EnI-9s eku-,OYo-p CM-VIM-/VI-J SUVA-IS /Og-0-Faey *IOATY BI[OLISA JO cB09qGVO mmo no£ Aeparoysok sok Moros QSTIM SULIM 0 OSIOM TIO M UVULOM pura pret *YsSIsUn June 18, 1875. ] 603 [ Cresson. THE EFFECT OF MAGNETIC AND GALVANIC FORCES UPON THE STRENGTH OF, AND DESTRUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES. By CHaruEs M. Cresson, M.D. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 18, 1875.) Bars and Structures of Iron and Steel when allowed to remain at rest for a considerable time acquire measurable magnetic polarity. Moderate percussion, alternations of heat and cold, exposure to the rays of the sun, especially with a long axis of figure parallel, or nearly coincident with a magnetic meridian of the earth, have a tendency to de- velop and strengthen magnetic polarity. Thus, Iron Bridges, Iron Vessels upon the stocks in progress of con- struction, and Iron Railway Tracks are particularly liable to acquire magnetic polarity. It is asserted that the relative position of the long axis of Iron Ships with reference to the magnetic meridian materially affects their polarity and the facility of the correction of their compasses. If the keels of such vessels be laid on a North and South line, they are supposed to acquire greater polarity, and to retain it more steadily than when laid East and West. The evidence of an iron ship’s polarity is exhibited to the greatest de- gree, by comparison of its effects upon its compasses when the vessel is sailing in an easterly or westerly direction. A consideration of the following facts seems to favor the conclusion that magnetic bars of Iron should be better able to resist tensile strain than those which are not magnetic. A thoroughly magnetic bar is one of which each end repels a pole of a magnetic needle. The centre of such a bar is neutral, that is attracts either end of a magnetic needle and repels neither. If we break such a bar in half, we are possessed of two magnetic bars ; that end of the original bar which attracted the south end of a magnetic needle continues to attract it, that which attracted the north end continues to do so, whilst the two new ends which had formed the neutral centre of the original bar, each acquires a polarity opposite to the other, and also opposite to that possessed byits own opposite end. A continuance of this process, that is, the fracturing of each half until we have obtained such minute fragments of the bar as can be examined only under the micro- scope, still produces perfectly polarized bars, possessing all of the mag- netic characteristics of the original bar, with varying, attracting, and repelling force according to some ratio of the relative length and thick- ness of the fragments. Arguing upon this, we are led to the conclusion that a continuance of this process must produce molecular magnets. If we place magnetic bars in contact with each other, the north and south poles alternating and in contact with each other, we obtaina metallic A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 32 604 [June 18, Cresson. ] chain of considerable strength, although its component parts are not mechanically connected together. The closer the contact of the ends of the bars the stronger will be the chain. If with isolated bars we can obtain a connecting force equal to many pounds by close contact, how much stronger must be the connecting force when exerted between molecule and molecule. Such an argument undoubtedly leads to the conclusion that bars satu- rated with magnetic force should certainly be stronger than those that are not. Faraday announced that ‘‘there existed lines of force within the mag- net of the same nature as those without. What is more they are exactly equal in amount with those without. They have a relation in direction to those without ; in fact are continuations of them, absolutely unchanged in their nature.”’ To determine the effect of magnetic force upon the tensile strength of Tron and Steel,* bars of each were selected and cut into suitable lengths for use in the breaking machine and numbered. Nos. 1, 3, 5, &c., were broken in the usual manner. Nos. 2, 4, 6, &c., whilst in the breaking machine were surrounded by a suitable coil of copper-wire, through which a current of galvanic elec- tricity was passed during the operation of breaking. The results obtained from the magnetic Steel bars were about one per cent. less than those obtained from the non-magnetic, and from the mag- netic soft Iron bars about three per cent. less than from the non-magnetic. Both the Steel and Iron bars became heated whilst within the influence of the current of electricity, the soft Iron more so than the Steel. It occurred to me that the depreciation of strength might have been caused by the rise of temperaturet in the bars, and I accordingly prepared permanent magnets from alternate sections of a steel bar and repeated the experiments comparing the cold magnets with the unmagnetized sec- tions of the same bar. The results showed no appreciable difference in strength between the magnetic and non-magnetic sections. To test the matter still further, bars of Steel were so magnetized as to present a pole at one end, the other in the middle of the bar, with one end neutral, that is, one end of the bar attracted the North or South pole of a magnetic needle and repelled the South or North, and the other end of the barattracted either pole of a magnetic needle. * The Steel employed in the experiment was ‘‘ Jessop’s Round Machinery,” 144 inch rod— 3 maximum, 127,934 lbs. and broke at } minimum, 125,694 lbs. per square inch of section. §maximum, 59,948 lbs. The Iron broke at ) winimum, 56,887 Ibs. per square inch of section. + For éffects of temperature upon the tensile strength of Iron, see Report of the Com- mittee of the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania,—‘‘ upon the strength of materials employed in the construction of Steam Boilers.”” Experiments made at the request ofthe Treasury Department of the United States (Jan’y 4th, 1831—Jan’y 5th, 1837). 1475. ] 605 [Cresson. Under these conditions if there was any effect to be had from the in- fluence of the magnetic force, the bar should incline to break either at the central pole or at the neutral point between the poles. The results of the experiments showed that there was no inclination to a choice of either location as the place of fracture. The conclusion arrived at, is, that the condition of magnetic polarity does not in any way influence the strength of steel bars. With refer- ence to the soft iron bars the comparison was not made, for the reason that they would not remain magnetic unless surrounded by the galvanic coil, in which case they became heated by the action of the current. How far a change from fibrous to crystalline structure is effected by the influence of magnetism has not b2en ascertained, or whether there is any deterioration of the strength of iron or steel on such account. Iron telegraph wires, in the course of time become brittle, and to such an extent thatif the usual method of uniting them by winding each upon the other is attempted, they are frequently broken in the process. From this it would appear that the passage of a strong galvanic cur- rent produces some molecular change affecting the strength of iron. Such conducting wires, however, are not necessarily or even usually mag- netic. There can be no doubt, however, as to the deteriorating effect of galoanic force as an accelerator of oxidation or the solution of a metal. Observations upon Iron Bridges and structures subjected to atmos- pheric influences and upon Boilers exposed to the action of heat and the chemical agents contained in ordinary waters lead to the conclusion that galvanic force is usually as great, and frequently a far greater cause of deterioration than mechanical wear. Indeeed all of the operations of nature, organic and inorganic, both constructive and disjunctive, involve the production of more or less galvanic force or are the results of its action. Motion, unaccompanied by any other apparent change than that of place, is a disturber of electric or galvanic equilibrium, and the converse is equally true. If it were possible to produce perfectly pure and homo- geneous iron, then the generation of destructive galvanic currents by the contact of sheets or bars would not take place. By exercising care in the selection of iron, especially that used for steam boilers, the deterioration from galvanic action can be reduced to a minimum. Many steam boilers have come under my observation in which the cor- rosion was but slight, and affected all parts equally, others in which the metal of a single sheet only was attacked, the corrosion of which sheet protected the remainder of the boiler almost as efficiently as if the sheet had been replaced by one of the metal zinc. The most striking instance of the effect of introducing a sheet of metal of greatly differing electro-condition, that occurs to me, is that of a boiler which had been in use for a considerable length of time without showing any unusual tendency to corrosion, when from some cause it be- came necessary to replace a sheet by a new one. Cresson. ] 606 [June 18, 1875. The result of the introduction of a new sheet was to set up at once a strong galvanic action by which every sheet in the boiler was corroded except the new one. Samples of iron cut from the edges of the old and from the new sheets were placed in a bath to which a few drops of dilute acid were added and a connection made with a galvanometer, resulting in the production of a strong current ; the purer iron corroding, and protecting that which con- tained the greatest amount of carbon. The inciting cause of the galvanic action was therefore judged to be the introduction of a sheet of iron electro-negative to those already in the boiler, its position in the electro-chemical scale depending upon the amount of carbon it contained. The injurious effect consequent upon the junction of masses of wrought iron of varying electro-chemical properties, is, therefore, increased when steel is joined to wrought iron, as is frequently the case in locomotive boilers in the tubes and tube sheets. Again by the junction of cast iron to steel or to wrought iron, the de- structive effect is greatly intensified, and at times becomes quite as vio- lent as when copper is made an element in the galvanic circuit in con- nection with wrought iron. The necessity for the selection of iron with reference to its electric con- dition, applies equally to the material employed for Bridges or Vessels or Boilers or any structure which is to be built up from separate sheets and bars of iron. It is or ought to be the habit of careful constructors to cut sample pieces from every sheet or bar of metal worked, and to make a trial of their quality by bending hot and cold, and to make frequent tests of ten- sile strength. Examinations as to electro-chemical condition can be made with equal facility. Determinations of the composition of the metal or of the percentage of carbon in it by chemical analysis are un- necessary ; an ordinary workman furnished with a coarse galvanometer and a weak acid bath can ascertain the exact electro-condition of each sheet or bar more rapidly than he can examine the quality by the ordinary tests of bending on an anvil, hot and cold. With the metal of Bridges, Vessels, and especially Steam Boilers, the deterioration by corrosion is more to be feared than is mechanical wear. Galvanic corrosion acts with greater vigor in locations that are usually inaccessible, such as the interior of joints or defective sheets or parts that are closely approximated, and the mischief is only suspected when it has progressed to such a degree as to become evidently dangerous and the parts are in condition to require immediate attention and repair. Attention to the precautions enumerated for securing mechanical and chemical fitness of the metal to be used for structures of iron, will un- doubtedly promote economy and safety. June 18, 1375.) 607 ; [Chase. FURTHER RELATIONS OF MAGNETIC, GRAVITATING, AND LUMINOUS FORCE. By Pirny EARLE CHASE, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 18, 1875.) Ohm’s law is a particular case of the general principle that an impul- sive force may be measured by the product of resistance overcome, by velocity communicated. Illustrations of this principle may be found In General Physics, Mass < Velocity = Momentum ; In Electricity, Resistance Current = Electromotive force; In Chemistry, Atomic weight % Specific heat = Chemical constant ; In Cosmogony, Inertia-resistance X Gravitating impulse — Centripetal constant Since all these expressions refer to actions from or towards given cer- tres, they are governed by the same mathematical relations, and the diff- erent names by which the activities are designated, do not necessarily imply any differences in the pature of the forces themselves. Clerk Maxwell asks,* ‘‘Is it possible that the attraction of [the Sun and Moon], by causing strains in the interior of the earth, produces changes in the magnetism of the Earth, and so by a kind of tidal action causes the semidiurnal variations ?”’ Eleven years ago, in the paper which received the Magellanic gold medal, and in other communications,+ I anticipated the question, and gave reasons for answering it in the affirmative. If the primary disturbance is of a tidal character, it does os involve the entire force of [ J/], but merely the differential for ice ML *). Ifwe 1 regard the electric [M7] as really representing [Me AI 2 71, each of the mass-factors in Maxwell’s table of electrostatic and electromagnetic dimensions should be multiplied by fbr. This multiplication produces a precise correspondence between the electrical and gravitating fields, both in extent, and in many suggestive details. In my communication on the ‘‘ Velocity of Primitive Undulations,’’+ I showed that the present numerical value of the velocity-ratio, I¢*, at its upper limit, or the limit between total solar dissociation and incipient aggregation, is the velocity of light, and that the planetary ratios are also in close accordance with the ratio between the radius of gyration of the solar system when nebulously diffused, and Sun’s radius of gyration about the centre of gravity of the system. If we wish to extend our comparisons to the lower limit, or the limit between total aggregation and commencing dissociation, the directions of v, and v,, should be taken tangentially instead of radially. Designating the symbols for the lower limit by enclosures we have (v,/) = 0, + 23 (%,) =; Oye (lé*) = a Aetna: if (0; = %,) alt= the 5 @) = @) KG y=) +z. Therefore the maai- ** Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,” ii, 127. + Proc. Amer. Philos. Soce., ix, 356, 367, 427, 487, &c. { Proc. Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., xxiii, 99. Chase. ] 608 [June 18, mum velocity of possible cohesion in our system, is to the minimum velocity of complete dissociation (or the velocity of light), as the diameter of a cirele is to its ctrowmference. This relationship points to a kind of circular polarization, induced by the resistance of centres of inertia, as the medi- ate cause of aggregation by the primitive undulations. In the following table the principal harmonies which I have pointed out are synoptically shown. It should be remembered that (7) = (lt) GE r oe £3: n= 72+; the variants in the right-hand column are symbols of electric dimensions. I have adopted Maxwell’s notation with the addition of an accent to mark the symbols of the electro-magnetic system : Wl Se (M) « (v)* x 6 a =n’ (a) xX W) « Oi Wr = an Araxi ah’, H a ail QD 1 g @ ey = ma (@), CS(@)-. es G, Ly, vy, R/, D 0 = x7 (0) x @) x HY, C, H, K, MM, v2 0 = 7 MO) xe Ome HE, CL AR 7. | 0! Oy) =e Opp © (0) oe Ibi, Al, K’, q, [- 4 =o r See WS @ ecm Gy Wy & One = 12 Oo Om Cs @) ce, 1, Gh Wy Wf In this table, M = the primary modulus = twice the virtual fall, or the height of a homogeneous ethereal atmosphere at Sun’s surface, which would progagate undulations with the velocity of light, the time of vir- tual fall being half a solar rotation. 2r == Sun’s diameter. %) =velocity of light. %, == maximum velocity communicable by solar attraction = / 97, at Sun’s surface. (v,) = maximum velocity of orbital revolution in our system = 7/ gr at Sun’s surface. 0), == Mean equatorial velocity of radial oscillation with reference to the Central Sun, producing solar rotation. (v,,) = equatorial velocity of solar rotation. v,,,_ ~= falling velocity communicated, at Sun’s equatorial surface, by virtual fall through the half-radius of a circumference , equivalent to a red wave-lepgth. If all the internal resistances of the Sun were converted into motion, the values of (v) and of all its powers would become unity, and all of the above tabular values would become equivalent to the velocity of light. In one of my early papers on the correlations of gravity and magne- tism,* while seeking experimental evidence of their mutual interde- pendence, I called attention to the fact that only about 4, of the poten- tial energy of gravity can be converted into actual energy, the re- * Proc. A. P.S., ix, 356-7. 1875.] GOOF [Chase. mainder being opposed by the reaction of molecular elasticity. Maxwell* has suggested a crucial experiment of a similar character to the one I then sought. The velocity of his electrified disc bears nearly the same ratio to Karth’s orbital velocity, as the diminution of terrestrial attrac- tion by equatorial centrifugal force (or actual energy of superficial gravity) bears to the total attraction. The magnetic disturbance of the dise : EHarth’s horizontal magnetic force :: the molecular o/s viva } of equatorial rotation : the molecular v/s viva of orbital revolution. The molecular oscillation, in alternate approach to and recess from the orbital centre, continues for a half-rotation or a half-revolution, while 1 the terrestrial antagonism lasts only——as long. If we distinguish the terrestrial from the solar units by subscript accents, J, =J; t, = —3 7 and, if magnetism and gravitation are tidally related, Maxwell’s datat may be represented by the following proportionate tensions : oy WP j= 3 TRE SS Wij 8 Gor 22 oilbts) 8. 1140) Se ae OO) «8 8 al 9 1102500000. Then m2 : m? :: 1 : 110250000074, and m = 327710 m,. al 109 This gives a solar parallax of \ 4397 3m — 8''.88, which is ; of one per cent. less than Cornu’s parallax. PLANETARY ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE CREATIVE FIAT. By Puiny EARLE CHASE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, Aug. 20, 1875.) In various communications to the American Philosophical Society and to the American Association, I have shown that — 1. The same principles of inertia which cause the Foucault pendulum to record the EHarth’s rotation, also register the Sun’s influence, in sound waves, barometric waves, magnetic variations, mean temperatures, nas- cent velocities both chemical and cosmical, solar and planetary masses and moments, and stellar and planetary harmonies of relative position, rotation, and revolution. 2. Various independent inertia-estimates of solar distance may be thus obtained, differing from Cornu’s final estimate in amounts varying be- _ tween ;5 of one per cent. and {5 of one per cent. 3. All the physical activities which I have tested, seem explicable by eetherial waves, propagated with the velocity of light. 4. Between a Centauri and the Sun a parabola can be traced, governed by the solar modulus of light, and determining planetary positions.. * Op. Cit., ii, 370. ; + The influence of molecular vis viva was shown in my discussion of barometric tides, (ante, ix, 287). Imray also recognizes its importance in elevating the centre of the molecule, in wave movement, above the normal level, (Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 153, pp. 352-3). t Ib., ii, 258. Chase. ] 610 [Aug. 20, 5. In studying the phenomena of exploding hydrogen and oxygen, in order to determine the comparative reaction of Earth and Sun upon the disturbed inertia, and their consequent relative masses, it is necessary to consider the ‘‘centres of explosive oscillation,’’ at 4 and 3 of the total ex- cursion of particles from either extremity. 6. In all perpetual movements of mutual alternate approach and re- gress, there is a double tendency towards centres of gravity and centres of linear oscillation, due to the action of centripetal and centrifugal equilibrating forces, analogous to the tendency in simple explosion. 7. Consequently the ratios ¢ and 3, [(3)? and 1-(3)*], are found largely prevalent in planeto-taxis. 8. Rotation and orbital revolution are due to the operation of the same forces, rotation being merely revolution retarded by internal pressure. 9. The velocity of rotation varying inversely as radius, while the velo- city of revolution varies inversely as the square-root of radius, the two velocities, in a cooling and shrinking mass, tend to approximate equality. If matter were infinitely divisible, or if the theory of Boscovich were true, they would finally become equal, and, if shrinkage still continued, the preponderating centrifugal force of rotation would lead to disintegration. 10. Whatever may be the ultimate constitution of matter, the internal resistances of heat-volume, mass-inertia, and other interferences of known and unknown forms, must be the same in the aggregate as if the theory of Boscovich were true. Therefore, by finding the limits of equality in accordance with that theory, we may find the limiting velocities of the primitive force. 11. Those limits may be studied tangentially, by comparing the equa- torial velocity of rotation, with the velocity of circular revolution at the same point ( V), 7) ; radially, by comparing the velocity acquired through fall from an infinite distance, ( V 2 gr )s with the mean velocity of radial oscillation due to rotation and synchronous with it le of the velocity of rotation ). At the points of equality, the former limit marks the boundary between complete aggregation and commencing dissociation ; the latter, between complete dissociation and commencing aggregation. 12. Calculating these limits for the principal bodies of the solar sys- tem, we find that complete dissociation would take place in all the sub- ordinate planets before their rotation-speed had increased to the limiting velocity of aggregation in Earth and Jupiter ; complete dissociation would take place in Earth and Jupiter, when their rotation-speed had at- tained the present limit of possible circular revolution, at the centre of 1 gravity of Sun and Jupiter; the limit of solar aggregation is _ of the velocity of light ; the potential of solar attractive force would give the velocity of light; the limit of solar dissociation is the velocity of light ; the limit of planetary dissociation would carry a particle around the Sun while a ray of light was passing from the orbit of Uranus, through Sun, 1875. ] 611 [Chase. to Earth’s orbit, a distance equivalent to 2 Neptune’s mean radius vec- tor, or to the true length of the linear pendulum of Sun’s outermost planet ; the time-ratio of Earth’s rotation to Jupiter’s revolution, is the same as the ratio of Sun’s radius to the primary pendulum. Combining these several results with the accordances of electrical velo- city and chemical affinity, which have been discovered by Weber and Kohl- rausch, Thomson, Clerk Maxwell, and Edlund, and with the explosive en- ergy of hydrogen, which brings all chemical attraction into simple corre- lation with gravitating attraction, we find a profound scientific truth in the doctrine that the first act of creation was the Divine command, LET THERE BE LIGHT. La Place’s calculation that gravitating action involved a velocity at least six million times as great as that of light, may, perhaps, as Presi- dent Lovering well suggested in his Hartford address, require revision in order to make allowance for additional data. In a substance, either of infinite elasticity, or of no density, (and, therefore, spiritual?) undula- tions would be propagated with infinite velocity. It is easily conceivable, either that the transverse vibrations of luminous waves, which have been studied, are accompanied by co-ordinate undulations of much greater speed, which have hitherto escaped notice, or that there is some other kind of motion to be considered than that of simple undulation. Ina medium for the transmission of force, endowed with immense elasticity and with such slight mobility of particles as Fresnel supposed, may there not be a quasi rigidity in ‘‘lines of force’’ when compared with such low ‘stresses as those of tidal influence, which will account both for the rapid- ity of gravitating action, and for the more than steel-like firmness which Sir Wm. Thomson attributes to the Earth’s mass? The greatest possible manifestation of gravitating velocity in the solar system, 7/ 2 yr, is equiy- alent to that communicated by virtual fall, at Sun’s surface, in 2255 sec- onds. Since this velocity is only ;;}., as great as the velocity of light, and since there are 103 (10)'® waves in 2255 seconds, only ate of the velocity of its own transmission need be imparted by each wave for pro- ducing the ultimate aggregate of gravitating motion. Looking still further into the internal constitution of the solar system, we find that the angular velocity of revolution at twice Neptune’s distance, equals the angular velocity of rotation due to a solar radius extending to Mercury’s mean distance, a coincidence suggesting probable asteroidal or planetary masses beyond Neptune in a way similar to my harmonic indi- cation of matter within Mercury’s orbit, revolving in a time, which was subsequently confirmed by the Sun-spot observations of De La Rue, Stew- art, and Loewy. Inasmuch as the velocity communicated by infinite fall to any radius vector, equals the velocity of circular revolution at half that radius, this accordance seems to have fixed the limits of the planet- ary belts. Within those limits, planetary positions may be referred to simple circular pendulums, which are so related that their harmonie vi- A.P. §.—VOL. XIV. 4A Chase. ] 612 [Aug. 20, brations tend to maintain the stability of the system. The pendulum unit is ? Sun’s radius, Sun’s surface being at a centre of explosive oscil- lation. The time of rotation for a given radius varying as the + power of the time of revolution for the same radius, the theoretical distance of each planet may be found by multiplying the + power of its number of pendu- lum units by the value of the unit. Symbolizing each pendulum by its planet’s initial letters, the following table gives a comparison of theoreti- cal and actual mean distances. The second column ezuctly represents planetary positions, although, on account of orbital eccentricities and mutual perturbations, it only represents mean positions with a very close approximation. No. of Pend, (A) Theoret- ; B) Actual Units. esa Moan Distance. (A-B) = (B) Me. 15 83.23 83.17 -+ .0007 Ve. 24 155.76 155.42 + .0022 Ka. 30 209.74. 214.86 — .0239 Ma. 42 328.48 327.38 + .0084 Ju. 105 1114.75 1117.87 — .0028 Sa. 168 2085.75 2049.51 + .0177 Ur. 280 4121.54 4121.78 — .0001 Ne. 392 6455.03 6453.06 - + .0003 The pendulum orbits may be referred to extremities, or to centres of oscillation of linear pendulums, as follows : He. Os O C. 0. Ea. it: Ne. Ur. Sa. Sa. c. o. (= 4 8a.) 2. Sa. Ju. Ma. © Ma. c.g. (= Ma.) a Ma. Ea. Ve. 4, Ma. Ve. Me. 5. Ka, Me. © Me. 6. Ve. 3 Ma. | Me. Each of the divisions of the first pendulum is equivalent to the diame- ter of a Sun extending to the centre of oscillation of Sa., and the pendu- lum orbit is symmetrically divided on both sides of the Sun. Each of the divisions of the second pendulum is equivalent to a pendu- lum, of which Sun occupies a centre of oscillation, and Mars a centre of vibration. If all physical force is transmitted through the medium of an elastic ether, the foregoing accordances seem to illustrate the well-known law, that where points of gross inertia are established in an elastic medium, and exposed to undulations from every direction, as the distances increase in arithmetical progression the densities decrease in harmonic pro- gression. 1875. ]} 613 [Chase. YEARLY RAINFALL IN THE UNITED STATES. By Purny EARLE CHASE, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, August 20, 1875.) At the Society’s Meeting, on the 16th of April last, I submitted a com- munication on the Lunar-Monthly rainfall in the United States, as de- duced from an examination of the morning weather maps issued by the Signal Service Bureau. The maps extended over a period of about three years, and as the average number of reporting stations was about sixty, the results represented an average of at least 2000 observations for each of the thirty lunar-monthly days. For various reasons, enumerated in the communication, the derived normals should be regarded as only pro- visional ; still, the regularity of the curve, its magnitude, its resem- blance to the Philadelphia curve for 43 years, and the indications of dis- turbances originating beyond the Mississippi river, seem to justify my estimate of the importance of such general comparisons as our National Bureau has for the first time made possible. In order to provide still further material for future use, I have tabula- ted the same observations with reference to Harth’s annual course around the Sun. The rainfall for each year is divided into 30 periods of 12 or 13 days each, always dividing to the nearest day, the first division em- bracing the last six days of one year, and the first six days of the follow- ing year. The total fall for each period was divided by the total number of reports for the same period, and the normals were deduced from the resulting averages in the same manner as inmy previous meteorological papers. These normals, as given in the accompanying table, indicate an average solar disturbance about 2.3 times as great as the lunar. This suggests some kind of reciprocal tidal action, and it seems also to point towards an important cosmical law, but more extended observations and comparisons are needful in order to justify any conclusive decision. There are some resemblances between the present curve and the corres- ponding lunar-monthly curve which seem worthy of study, but it is perhaps better to postpone their critical examination, until their signifi- cance is either confirmed or changed by the observations for one or more additional periods of like duration. For the convenience of those who may desire to make comparisons without waiting for further data, I copy the lunar normals alongside of the solar. Chase. ] 614 [Aug. 20, 1875. Yearly and Lunar-Monthly Rainfalls in the United States, from Obser- vations of the Signal-Service Bureau for Three Years : Solar : Normal Lunar Normal Yr. — 30. Average. Normals. Per Cent. Day. Per Cent. 1 .046 591 ; 95 1 100 2 024 531 85 2 96 3 033 504 81 3 94 4 .032 526 84 4 92 5 036 548 88 i) 96 6 034 552 89 6 03 a .035 549 88 7 111 8 932 554 : 89 8 107 9 0389 558° 90 9 97 10 0382 543 87 10 89 11 .033 518 83 11 87 12 O81 507 81 12 88 13 .029 519 83 13 87 14 041 520) * 83 14 87 15 024 494 79 15 93 16 O31 493 79 16 98 i .033 551 88 Aly 96 18 038 647 104 18 97 19 .053 739 119 19 107 20 044 807 129 20 116 21 060 848 136 21 119 22 .053 840 135 22 114 3 047 785 126 23 107 24 050 708 114 24 104 25 O31 681 109 25 104 26 048 776 124 26 99 27 076 849 136 27 95 28 .040 746 120 28 100 29 .030 618 99 29 113 30 039 602 97 3 106 Tt seems desirable that similar tables should be constructed, to indicate both the solar and the lunar influence, for each of the other daily reports to the Bureau. ‘The final returns to the office are probably much more complete than those given on the maps, and their indications would per- haps be more satisfactory. Sept. 17, 1875.] 615 [Sadtler. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE LABORATORY OF THE UNIVER- SITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. No. VY. ON A NEW OCCURRENCE OF TARTRONIC ACID, WITH SOME REMARKS ON THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF GLYCERIC ACID. By SamvurEu P. SADTLER. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 17, 1875.) In the Propy]l series, nine normally formed acids are possible, besides several isomeric unsymmetrically formed ones. They are :— I. IV. VIL. C,H,O, C;H,0; C.H Ay CH, CH,.0H CO.0H | l i a o é0.0H 60.0H 60.0H ie Vv. VIII. C,H,0, C,H,O, C,11,0, CH, CH,.0H CO.0H | i] CH.OH CH.OH CH.OH | (0.0H (0.0H 60.0H Il. VI. IX. C,H,0, 7 C5 H.0; C,H,O; CH, CH,.0H CO.0H bo co bo | | | 6O.0H CO.0H 6O.0H, and the following are the acids considered as having the molecular struc- ture just given :— I. Propionic Acid. Il. Lactic Acid (of Fermentation). III. Pyruvie or Pyro-racemic Acid. IV. Ethylene Lactic Acid. V. Glyceric Acid. VI. Carbacetoxylic Acid. VII. Malonic Acid. VIII. Tartronie Acid. TX. Mesoxalic Acid. In one or two of these cases however, there is still a difference of Sadtler. | 616 [Sept. 17, opinion as to whether the acid named is the one possessing the normal molecular structure given above, or is only an isomer of it, having its carbon atoms differently united. Notably with glyceric acid is this yet an open question. Some results lately obtained in the course of a study of this acid appear to me to be of value for the solution of this question. The other view of the molecular structure of glyceric acid makes it unsymmetrical, two of the carbon atoms being doubly united. The formula given is CH,.OH. /C.OH @ 1 \.CH.OH. As will be seen, this formula does not contain the Carboxyl group hitherto supposed to be the invariable characteristic of an organic acid. The author of this theory is Prof. Wislicenus, of Wirzburg, and the following are the reasons given in support of it. If lactic acid be acted upon with hydrogen iodide, « iodo-propionic acid is formed, according to the following reaction : CH, CH, ! CHLOH + HI=CiLI + 1.08 60.0H CO.OH. This when heated-to 150° with strong HI is changed into propionic acid. If, on the other hand, glyceric acid be acted upon with hydrogen iodide, £ iodo-propionic acid is formed. If this had the formula CH,I | ie CO.OH, on treatment with moist silver oxide, it would pass into ethylene lactic acid. It does not, however, do this, but a new acid isomeric with ethylene lactic acid is formed—hydracrylic— CH,.OH /CH Om \.CH.OH. That the molecular structure of this acid is essentially different from that of ethylene lactic acid is proved by the oxydation products of the ‘two. Ethylene lactic acid yields malonic acid, while hydracrylic does not yield a trace of this, breaking up into glycolic and oxalic acids and carbonic dioxide. Moreover, hydracrylic acid on heating yields acrylic acid, a derivative of allyl alcohol, instead of the lactid yielded by the lactic acids. Prof Wislicenus, however, frankly gives one experiment made by him- self, the result of which tends the other way. He reduced the iodo- propionic acid by sodium amalgam and obtained what appeared to be the normal propionic acid, showing the regular molecular structure. 1875. | 61 of [Sadtler. In favor moreover of the normal structure for the molecule of glyceric acid is the formation of pyruvic or pyroracemic acid CH, LO (0.0H from glyceric acid upon heating this to 140°, explained by the following reaction : CH,.OH CH, CHOH —=JEROHH 100 60.0H b0.0H The structure of this pyruvic acid is known from the fact that acted upon by nascent hydrogen it gives normal lactic acid. A strong additional argument would be had, if we could show a con- nection between glyceric acid, CH,.OH CH.OH 60.0H and tartronic acid, CO.OH OH.OH (0.0H. Hitherto tartronic acid had not been formed from glyceric acid, but only in an indirect way, by the spontaneous decomposition of nitro- tartaric acid, according to the following reaction : CO.OH CO.OH CH.O(NO,) CH.OH CH.OCNO,) = Co.oH + NO; + CO, 60.0H However this mode of formation was interesting as tending to show its symmetry of structure. For that matter a dibasic, triatomic acid could hardly exist, except by the assumption of two carboxyl groups. I have been fortunate enough to find tartronic acid associated with gly- ceric acid in the oxydation products of glycerine. The preparation of the two acids was as follows: One part by weight of glycerine is mixed with one part of water, and to the mixture is added, by means of a long funnel tube reaching to the bottom of the cylinder, about one and a quarter parts of red fuming nitric acid. After allowing them to rest until ali gas evolution has ceased, (which usually takes some six days,) the solution is evaporated down at a gentle heat until the fumes of nitric acid are no longer perceptible. It is then very thick and syrupy. It is now diluted with water, and plumbic carbonate is added in excess. The oxalate and undissolved carbonate are filtered off, and the solution slightly concentrated and allowed to crystallize. The glycerate of lead deposits in thick crystalline crusts. These are separated from the mother-liquor, dissolved, and the lead precipitated out from the solution by sulphuretted hydrogen. Sadtler.] 618 [Sept. 17, The colorless or light straw-colored filtrate is somewhat concentrated, and calcic carbonate is added to neutralization. The solution is filtered, if necessary, and to the filtrate is added an equal volume of 95 per cent. alcohol. The calcium salts present are all precipitated, in greater part at once, and completely on standing twelve hours. If the solution had been very concentrated the calcium salt is precipi- tated in a granular condition. If, on the other hand, it was more dilute, the salt only separates gradually, and has a beautiful micaceous and scaly appearance. I had at first considered this precipitate to be pure calcium glycerate, but found on dissolving it in water, in order to free it from the lime and obtain the glyceric acid, that while the greater portion dissolved readily in warm water, a considerable portion, although not more than one-tenth of the whole amount, remained and dissolved only on continued boiling. This, when filtered off and washed in cold water, appeared as a dull white almost impalpable powder, contrasting in appearance with the crystalline glycerate. It was dried carefully at 100° until constant weight was obtained. Calcium determinations were first made. Weighted portions were ignited in a platinum crucible once or twice with excess of concentrated sulphuric acid until the weight remained constant. .5755 grms. salt yielded .4925 grms. CaSO, equal to 25.22 per cent. Ca. .1759 grms. salt yielded .1505 grms. CaSO, equal to 25.16 per cent. Ca. The theoretical per cent. of calcium in calcium tartronate is 20.32, while in calcium glycerate, allowing for two molecules of water of crys- tallization, it is 13.99. I had analyzed the micaceous preparation of calcium glycerate about the same time and had gotten in two determinations, 14.03, 14.07 per cent. of calcium respectively. The difference was so great that I could not understand it. On reckoning up the molecular weight, however, assuming one atom of calcium to be present, I got 159. The molecular weight of calcium tartronate is 158. Being dibasic, the molecular weight of the calcium compound is of course much less than the weight of the calcium compound of glyceric acid, a monobasic acid. I endeavored twice to make a combustion of the salt in order to get the per cent. of hydrogen and carbon. Each time calcium carbonate re- mained undecomposed at the heat of the combustion. I therefore gave them up. ; I then took the remainder of my salt, grown rather small, to my great regret, and neutralizing the lime with oxalic acid, obtained the free acid. This, on concentration, deposited out crystals. On examination with a lens they were seen to be of tabular form, well agreeing with the appearance of tartronic acid obtained from nitro-tartaric acid. A com- bustion was made of these, and here, unfortunately, an accident to the potash bulbs lost me the carbon determination. The hydrogen determi- nation however, is given. 1875. ] 619 [Sadtler. .4348 grms. salt yielded .1523 grms. H,O equal to 3.38 per cent. hydrogen. The theoretical per cent. of hydrogen in C,H,0, is 3.33. An important test that I wished to make but was compelled to forego for the time, was to act upon this tartronic acid with hydrogen iodide. Were its structure symmetrical, it should yield g iodo-malonic acid, which by further treatment with HI or with reducing agents would yield malonic acid. Wishing to obtain larger quantities of the tartronic acid for further examination, I have since oxydized another portion of glycerine and treated the products in the same way. This time I got no tartronic acid whatever, at least only a trace of calcium salt remained undissolved on heating with water. Evidently here the oxydation had proceeded some- what differently as no tartronic acid formed. This result is not sur- prising on reflection, as the oxydation by nitric acid is not capable of much control, aad a product once formed is liable to be still further oxydized. Thus glyceric and tartronic acids are both liable to be oxydized into oxalic acid, which always forms in considerable though varying quantity. Indeed the oxydation of glycerine by nitric acid is now known to yield a variety of products, of which, however, no doubt some are secondary ones. Thus Heintz* has proved that racemic, formic, glycolic, and glyoxalic acids are all found associated with the glyceric and oxalic acids in this product. The tartronic acid just found, therefore, is only one of several smaller side-products. The known symmetry of structure of the molecules of all these side products, however, certainly argues in favor of a similar sym- metry in the glyceric acid molecule. There is one way of reconciling these two views of the structure of glyceric acid, and that is the assumption of the existence of two isomeric acids, of which one is normal and the other an unsymmetrical acid. Some results that I have just obtained in purifying the calcium gly- cerate seem, indeed, to point this way. Should the unsymmetrical gly- ceric acid preponderate in this mixture, Wislicenus’ reactions with hydro- gen iodide are readily understood. Another fact, which should not be lost sight of, is that in the decomposition of § iodo-propionic acid by moist silver oxide, Wislicenus} obtained not hydracrylic acid alone, but three other products accompaning it, so that the decomposition was not so simple. I am now engaged upon a study of this question and hope to be able to give more information upon it, in a short time. * Ann. der Ch. und Ph. 152, p. 325, t+ Ann. der Ch. und Ph. 166, p, 41. A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 4B Hall J 620 [Sept. 17, NOTES ON GLACIAL ACTION VISIBLE ALONG THE KITTA- TINNY OR BLUE MOUNTAIN, CARBON, NORTHAMPTON, AND MONROE COUNTIES, PENNSYLVANIA. By CHarues E. HAut. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 17, 1875.) My attention was first called to the fact of glaciers having existed along the Blue Mountain and south of it, from the vast deposits of boulders and pebbles south of the Lehigh Gap, and along the course of the Lehigh River. My observations have been limited, not having had time to de- vote to the subject. South of the Lehigh Gap, about one-half mile below the chain bridge, on the east side of the river is a railroad cut through the slates of the Hudson River group, overlaid by a large bed of sands, gravel and boulders, having all the characteristics of a glacial deposit. The slate has a dip to the southeastwards the upper edges of it are broken and crushed over to the southward, thus showing a force and weight moving in a southerly direction and obliging the slates to con- form to it. A similar exposure was observed three-fourths of a mile below Bow- man’s (second station above Lehigh Gap). Here in a railroad cut through the shale of VI, on the east side of the river, the rock is ex- posed for more than a hundred feet. The rock dips S.20°E., the line of the exposure is 8.40°H., and parallel to the exposure, or diagonally across the strike, are the edges of the shale overturned and broken, in some places to a depth of five or six feet. Here, too, the broken edges all incline to the southeastward, indicating the direction of the moving mass to be towards the Gap. The shale is very much crushed near the surface ; above it is a heavy bed of fine sand, angular fragments of rock, and large boulders, most of them are from the Oriskany, some from the Chemung, but none from the Medina of the Blue Mountain. Two hundred yards back of the Hotel at Bowman’s, on the road to Fireline, the slates of the Hamilton present a similar appearance. The upper edges overturned and broken, and here show a movement to the southeastward. We may conclude from these facts that the bed of the present river marks, to a great extent, the course of the glaciers. To the east and west of the Gap, north of the mountain is a broad flat valley extending from the Oriskany Ridge to the base of the mountain. This valley is intersected by a barrier of debris extending from the Oriskany Ridge to a rounded hill of Clinton Shale and sandstone, a few hundred yards north of the Gap. My attention was first called to this fact by Mr. H. Martyn Chance, who was then making a survey of the Gap. The only explanation I can give of this, is, that it isa moraine formed 1876. ] 621 [Hall. by the glacier after it had receded through the Gap, possibly a lateral moraine. WIND GAP. From the few evidences observed, I concluded that here, too, the gla- ciers had crossed the Blue Mountain Range. North of the Gap I observed nothing remarkable. South of the Gap are great uumbers of boulders of Oneida conglomerate and Medina sandstone. They are strewn along for some distance in a direct line with the Gap, and apparently mark the course of a moving body. Not having observed Oriskany sandstone associated with the boulders, I attributed to the fact of it being more easily disintegrated. DELAWARE WATER GAP. The first notice I took of decided glacial action in this vicinity, was about four miles from the mouth of Marshall’s Creek, on the road to Craig’s Meadow, where there are extensive exposures of the Oriskany sandstone, undulating and pitching gently to the northward. These beds, often quite level, are scored and scratched wherever ex- posed. Often several hundred square feet are laid bare by the road. The direction of these grooves is §.28°W., showing the direction of the moving mass to be towards the Gap. That the motion was to southward can clearly be seen wherever there are slight rises in the rock, the north- ern side is more deeply grooved, and more polished than immediately south of it. The full weight of the mass being forced against the rise would not act with the same force till it had passed some distance beyond. The same fact as remarked in the White Mountains by Agassiz, (?) where the northern slopes of the mountains are scored and grooved to their very summits, but the scratches do not appear till near the base on the South-. ern slopes. There are evidences of a moraine about one mile north of the mouth of Marshall’s Creek, near the mill-dam. In the neighborhood of Craig’s Meadows are large deposits of drift, probably glacial. West and southwest of the Gap, about two miles, I observed polished and grooved surfaces of the Medina. South of the Gap are large deposits of gravel and boulders, evidently glacial debris. Between the Gap and Broadhead’s Creek I observed some beautifully defined terraces, but was unable to tracethem. These facts tend to prove that the Gaps existed before the glacial epoch, and that the present rivers mark, to some extent, the courses of the ice, at any rate, towards the close of that period. Chase. j 622 [Sept. 17, THE BEGINNINGS OF DEVELOPMENT. By Puiny EARLE CHASE, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. (head before the American Philosophical Society, September 17, 1875.) In speculations upon the nebular hypothesis exclusive regard has usually been paid to action at the limit of possible atmosphere, or the point at which the velocity of rotation becomes equal to the velocity of revolution. Hence many popular text books state that, if the Sun were expanded until.it reached the orbit of each of the planets in succession, its times of rotation would correspond with their respective times of revo- lution. This statement is generally understood as referring to the expan- sion of the nucleus, and with such reference it is false. The times of rotation vary as the squares of the nucleal radius, while the times of revolution vary as the 2 power of the radius vector. The rotation-radius, or the radius of a nucleus which would have a rotation synchronous with orbital revolution, therefore varies as the 2 power of the radius vector. In my communication on ‘‘ Planetary Illustrations of the Creative Fiat,’’ I represented the rotation radii by approximate cir- cular pendulums, the pendulum-unit being 3 of Sun’s radius, because the 1 centrifugal force, as Alexander has stated, * varies as a ; and the distance at which the velocity acquired by infinite fall would equal orbital velocity 4 at d, being 2d, = = 4, The unit of orbital distance is 27, or (3)” of the present height of possible solar atmosphere. ' In the following table, the actual values of the rotation radii for the -several planetary mean distances are given, for comparison with the theo- -retical pendulums and for further study. An inspection of the numbeis of pendulum-units shows three simple nodal groupings, with a briak be- tween Earth and Mercury, and Venus serving asa link. If we extend the nodal divisions, we find that Earth appears to have established a secondary system of its own, drawing the larger portion of the nodal material from 18 to Venus, and uniting with Sun, Venus, and Venus- ~“Mereury in.carrying the rest to Mercury. Theoretical. Actual. Difference Ratio. Prime Multiple eee ~Neptune,+ aera 392.1344 -+.0003 ‘Dranus, vee 280.0496 -+-.0002 Saturn, es 165.8064 —.0131 Jupiter, ne 105.2344 +.0022 Mars, AQ 41.8936 —.0025 .*“ Statement.and Exposition of Certain Harmonies in the Solar System, by Stephen Alexander, LL.D.,’: (Smithsonian Contributions, 280,) p. 17. : +The names of the Planets will be used to denote their rotalion-radti throughout the present paper, unless otherwise expressly stated. The unit of rotation-radius is 44 1875, ] 623 [Chase. Theoretical. Actual. Difference Ratio. 12 Earth, 30 30.5480 0183 Oe) Venus ( 4 49 23.9600 —.0017 | 6 “+15 18 J Venus- Mercury, 124 3 Meccare: Fue 14.9913 —.0006 Py (9) Half- Venus, Uae 15 12 Sun, 0 The strongest asserter of accidental coincidences might well be stag- gered at such consistency of order, and the believer in universal causa- tion may naturally ask how it is to be accounted for. I think an explan- ation may readily be found in the combined action of inertia and elas- ticity, the rhythm springing from the well-known law of harmonic den- sities, and therefore furnishing a strong indication of universal ethereal elasticity. I propose to inquire what harmonic series are most obvious in the general arrangement, and on what simpler and earlier nodal ac- tivities they all depend. The mathematical considerations which I shall introduce are such as belong to central forces in general, but my illustra- tions will all be drawn from gravitating action. /Inarotating nebula, the centre and the centrifugal unit at $7, or Pr if we count from the circumference, give three nodes in the proportions 7, 8, 9, which have a common harmonic numerator in 7 > 8 & 9 = 504. Introducing also the harmonic node 3 7 = 4, we obtain two natural har- monic series, 7, 7, 2; 2, 3, 3; ete. Now sqjor "i 9 7 of 504 = 392 ae W ) Jupiter, Earth at perijove, Earth © at apojove ; and Earth, Sun, Venus; 5 of 504 — 280 ee ee a repeat the ratio of Uranus to the prime multiple, 3. Comparing the 63 corresponding pairs of inner and oO) 1st sub-harmonic 168 ELE NG) = 100 a pu outer planets, we find 2) e . . ° . e e Qdsub-harmonic 42 od BOS BN Silo 6 8 eS 12 QE Bit B81 oi we 818 Oy eo 3 of 42 — ail) <) thus introducing the second series, 12 5 5 5 ¢ D WP BD 70 Sl Gel Onenanone ne 2 8 If we measure the pendulums 3 of 18 eee s from Jupiter, Sun (105) is a mean 3 proportional between Saturn (168- 4th sub-bharmonic = 12 105) and Uranus (280-105). Moon 5 of 12 S16 and Venus repeat, in two phases, 2 the limiting ratio of Neptune to 2pxaull2 eo 2 J Sun, 392. For, Moon’s angular ve- Sun’s radius. The actual rotation-radius of each planet = (rad. vee, - 18) 34. E.g, Mercury's rad. vec. = 83.17 Solar-radii = 665.36 rotation units; (665.36 =-18) 34 — 14- .9913. If Sun was expanded to 14-9213 of its present radius, its time of rotation would equal Mercury’s time of rcyolution, Chase. ] O24 . [Sept. 17, locities of rotation and revolution being the same, we may regard her dis- tance as a rotation-unit ; and the distance of Venus’s orbit from Earth’s, measured in Earth’s radii, corresponds with Neptune’s distance from Sun, measured in Sun’s radii, (6453 at mean distance, 6518 at mean aphelion). Venus’s mean distance from Earth being .27667 of Earth’s mean radius vector, Sun’s distance is found by dividing Venus’s distance by .27667. 392 > Moon’s distance = 93,155,000 miles. 6453 > Eartli’s radius — .27667 == 924705000) 6518 Ge i —- .27667 ==) 31500400 0euenne Before any physical phenomenon can take place, there must be a physi- cal force to which it can be traced. The first step in creative develop- ment should therefore be the creation of force. The potential energy of a body represents the difference between its present, or actual energy, and the greatest energy of which it is capable. In gravitation it is often referred to the results of a possible fall from the present position to the centre of attraction. If such reference were strictly true, the potential energy would always be infinite ; if it is not true, it is desirable to find at what point increase of energy must cease, and all the energy must become’ actual. Various essays towards this determination have been made in Electricity and Chemistry ; if all force is unitary in its origin, the most encouraging field for investigation would seem to be the one in which force is manifested on the largest scale—the astronomical field. The energy which acts with reference to the Sun as a centre, is shown in two prominent ways ; in planetary revolution, the velocity of which _in a circular orbit I will represent by 0, and in solar rotation or retarded revolution, v B Let vy be the velocity towards which they both tend, and to which they would both be equal if all the potential energy of revo- lution, rotation, and internal resistance could be changed into actual energy. 2%, varies inversely as the square root of radius, while 3 varies i ( inversely as radius, so that if the potential is pe pisses in nS of the radius at which the velocities would become equal, Me —— aoe On Ors VO, |? always being a mean proportional between ov, and Le This, however, is not the limit of possible energy, for the velocity communicated by infinite fall = //20, and a body approaching the centre with that tangential velocity a immediately recede, never to return. //2 Ope may there- fore be called the velocity of dissociation. If we suppose a circular orbit to be flattened until it becomes a linear ellipse with the solar focus at one end, the mean orbital velocity through 2 twice the diameter = — v . If shrinkage or fall continues after Dgeaiee a the greater centrifugal force of rotation destroys rotation proper, giving * The superscript line denoting the greatest velocity possible. ~ 1875.] 625 [ Chase. the particles in the equatorial plane of the nucleus orbits of increasing 9 eccentricity, until they ultimately become linear, and, when t= nz oP . V2 %q, the velocity of dissociation is reached, and all the energy be- comes actual. This velocity, as I have already shown, is the velocity of light. If we consider Sun as a molecule in infinite space, in a trochoidal wave-stratum, every particle alternately approaches a given point and recedes, during a half-rotation. The projectile or attractive force, at or near Sun’s surface, which would give this alternate approach t and retreat, may be represented by gravity acting for a half-rotation, ae “9 which would also give the velocity of light. As the time of rotation “aue8s ae he : varies inversely as gravity, has been, and will be constant, however ~ much Sun may have been expanded or may hereafter contract. In order that there may be such ‘‘mutual interchange of relations’”’ as is needed for life and phenomenal change, there must be both resem- blance and difference. There must be space and time, and also position, with some degree of fixity in space and time. A universally undulating, homogeneous ether, could manifest no variety, unless its undulations were in some way intercepted, and directed to definite points for definite pur- poses. There must be both elasticity and inertia, and differences of elas- ticity and inertia. In an expanded nebulous disc, with tendencies to nucleal aggregation at different points, those conditions would all be supplied. Every point of gross inertia, intercepting undulations from every direction would set up centripetal actions and centrifugal reactions, with tendencies to mutual compensations and equilibrium, which would give rise to physical forces in great variety. In the second volume of Gould’s Astronomical Journal, published in 1852, Prof. Stephen Alexander gave numerous nebular expositions, one of which treated of the Milky Way as a spiral with four branches. In the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society for December, 1869, Proctor gave a paper entitled ‘“A New Theory of the Milky Way,”’ which also described it as being a spiral. In a paper read before the American Philosophical Society, September 20, 1872, I called attention to the following, among other facts : “In the solar-focal parabola which passes through @ Centauri and has its directrix in a linear centre of oscillation of a solar diameter, twenty- Seven successive abscissas may be taken in regular progression, [Fe — 2(n") ‘ (7) cl) between the Star and the Sun’s surface, nine of which will be extra planetary, nine will be in simple planetary relations, and nine will be intra-planetary. 7 ‘¢ The upper extra-planetary abscissa bears nearly the same ratio to the 626 [Sept. 17, Chase. | modulus of light, as [the limit of possible sular atmosphere] bears to solar radius. ; ‘The limiting abscissas of the planetary series are determined by com- bining diametral centres of oscillation (2 3), with centres of explosive condensation (8), and of explosive oscillation (3). ‘‘ The planetary series, between these limits, is} 9, 3 @, ?c', $ mean asteroid, } Y, 7h, $ 6- ‘‘No probable values can be assigned to the cardinal abscissas (a Cen- tauri and 4 L), which will produce deviations of the theoretical from the observed values of a higher magnitude than the planetary eccentricities.”’ A manifest connection is thus shown between our solar system and the stellar systems, the parabolic pathway, and the relations of the modulus of light both to the solar atmosphere and to the parabolic co-ordinates, suggesting an identity of undulating and harmonic influence, which ex- tends the significance of the first creative fiat beyond the limits of our planetary sisterhood. 25 ; A We have seen that-—° , =y 200, is the limit of total dissociation, eee } therefore’) = "9 — 2 is the limit of possible circular revolution. Planet- Te Vf : : 2 ary yp, at Sun is 80.35 times as great asat Neptune 5 v — X 80.35 = 36.18 ; 8 at Sun’s surface, as the accelerated », at Sun bears to 0, at the outer therefore at 36.18 solar radii the reactionary 9 bears the same ratio to » i limit of the system. This represents a rotation-period of 254.2388, cor- responding very closely with the Sun-spot estimates which have been least influenced by the unexplained acceleration* of the spots near the equator, and differing by less than 24 per cent. from the estimate which is the most reduced by allowance for that acceleration. The range of uncertainty is as follows: ancierwBianchiy and klerschelme serene cee 254.3250 plioite tOnce We LNe OLetICalny etree ice 25.2388 PO LET SCM te tear! Wa verageeentanienc cris rocetsmaiect Die eetenstor Peon mean 25.1875 AE VLC ett ccvtona ak sole cca duwlene tue Rape ee esta re uae ate aoe ae 25.0747 Weselarmi PO eb atdse care eyecseks aero aaie “svar dude lee aueroumeetes avant aintenenetege 25.0002 Camrime fom ake tae access ete stare meler elects eteenee ae Gocco eT etrbewiO Od sziaiauasetecciateps nae Aen ra oicaen teeparete caper neve pre ees 24.8259 SDOLET, aycuezos syoroterslinse edeyiers we ieiauounnene votstarcuotculesa tonne tcuede te enapnie tar 24.6245 Stockwell has foundt that the mean perihelion longitudes of Jupiter and Uranus differ by exactly 180°, while the mean node longitudes of *I know of no attempt at explanation but the one which I have already given, based on the hypothesis that the velocity is due to combined orbital and rotational in- fiuences. + Memoir on the Secular Variations of the Eight Principal Planets (Smithsonian Contributions, 282) p. xiy. 1875.] 627 [Chase. Jupiter and Saturn also differ by 180°. These accordances seem to point to a primitive nebular arrangement of alternating nucleal points, as represented in the accompanying figure. . W 224 b 168 © 105 2 175 6 If we compare the rotation-radii L aL Jt as — for Neptune’s mean aphelion and Uranus, we find the ratio of -velocity from infinite fall to orbital velocity ; the mean radius gives us the ratio 7: 5; Uranus : Saturn: : 5 :3; Jupiter : Saturn: : radius of spherical gyration : radius of homo- geneous mass; the difference between Uranus and Jupiter : Jupiter: : Uranus : Saturn. The four exterior planetary orbits therefore furnish the following harmonic series: 7, 7, $; 3, 2, 3,235 3) # ? Having shown that the limit of equality, from or towards which the rotating and orbital velocities of a solar equatorial particle both tend, is, like the ratio of the electric units, a quantity of the same order of mag- nitude as the velocity of light, let us start from that velocity, and see how nearly our results agree with those already given. Let the velocity and time of describing radius at Sun’s equator be represented by %%, t a, 0 solar rotation ; Dp t 2 in equatorial revolution ; { ) ) : oy, ty by the velocity of light ; 0) = the velocity of light ; 7 1 Then t, « 3 Ve Oy = 1, Caine a 1 ue Co. 7 § 9 = oF =Vor& Vr oR u Cg Ps OA = fo = ai constant 7S Taking Sun’s radius as the unit of length, and a second as the unit of 214.86 365.2564 86400 time, 0 = 4o7 93 — -4816 r pers; 7?) = 2 a = 1095 8.50 A E PB + 927 (214.86)? 7 _f = .000627r; », =o, = 0, = .0000009117 ; time of rotation = 1595 B if 277 -+ v, = 2.409 days. The rotation-radii of the several planets, found by dividing the square roots of their orbital times by the square froot of the time of solar rotation, are as follows : iNeptiuneese eee oe 48.6698 Miarsianie tas scene 5.1997 WATIUIS Ss Acieteve sce eels 34.7531 Barb lay Mery poe cere 3.7915 Sabumnesa so sero 20.5777 NOM U Si cparcrenicutn co tsk 2.9738 MUONS 65600400 coogo lehOhfeil WIGROWAT so6casoc06000 1.8607 These values, being given in solar radii, should be multipled by eight A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 4€ Chase. ] 628 [Sept. 17, to reduce them to the centrifugal units which are given in the first table. Making the reduction, we find that the values found by the two methods * differ by less than three-quarters of one per cent. Let us take the differences between the perihelion planets of successive two-planet groups. ANE Umer to ore OE Seen hy ctieais 392.1344 [OTe WanD sR eer se gate rane poe ances emp ols Daag, 280.0496 Jupiter...:.. eakk en gli saetate SoldoolaGoor 105.2344 eee Hartheaciein clit sak othe ni, 30.5480 '4-6864 Suniel Wie: abasaor vsdteten e 0.0000 30-0480 Venus O4).08 20. ie eo ridkoscommunce Oo8 3 Mercury.....:...+ ++ Lanlttoose: A056 We If we then divide Neptune by the first difference, the first difference by the second, and so on, we get the harmonic series 3%, 3%, 58, 58, 56; the numerator being the quantity which is contained 9 times in the prime multiple, 7 times in Neptune, 5 times in Uranus, and 8 times in Saturn, and the greatest error in any of the theoretical denomina- tors being less than one-half of one per cent. As the relative values of the rotation-radii depend on the square-roots of the orbital times, which have been determined with more precision than any other astronomical elements, these harmonies are known with great exactness. The harmonies of which Earth forms a constituent seem, as I have re- peatedly shown,* to be more numerous than those in which other planets are exclusively involved. Is it because we are best fitted for observing things with which we are most nearly concerned, or because Earth is really of more present importance and is therefore purposely provided with more various adaptations for the nurture of intelligence than either of its sister orbs, or is it for merely esthetic reasons, the harmonies being chords in the eternal hymn of praise which ascends from every por- tion of the created universe to its Creator? A new modification of the harmonic law, in the case of Venus and Mercury, is shown, not only by the fact already mentioned, that the half- radius is introduced, (as if through a renewed operation of the relations between the radii which equalize the velocity of infinite fall and circu- lar orbital velocity), but also by the intervention of Sun, which may per- haps be taken as an additional evidence that the parabolic connection of the solar system with its proper stellar system has produced a parabolic spiral, and may therefore be regarded as a further confirmation of Prof. Alexander’s views. If we suppose, in accordance with the analogies of organic development, that the orderly processes were going on simul- taneously throughout the universe, we may readily conceive that the assignment of the interior planets to their appointed places was not only the completion of our own Cosmos, but that it was also synchronous with the completion of the stellar-nebular group to which we belong. * Perhaps the most important of those harmonies may be the retention by Earth of one-half Sun’s angular rotation energy; Sun’s superficial gravity giving the velocity of light in a half-rotation, Earth’s, in a whole revolution. 1875.] 629 [Chase. The connection of the two-planetary with the single-planet series, which adds to the general harmony the local harmony of equal differences on each side of the respective perihelion planets, is initiated by the rela- tion of Uranus to Neptune, in other words by the simple harmonic which most nearly denotes the ratio of circular orbital velocity to the velocity from infinite fall. The repetition of the harmonic couplet, ?, 3, both in the Jovian and in the Telluric belt, is also a consequence of the same initiative. If we look merely to the differences between the mean and the harmonic positions, Saturn and Earth are most disturbed by the ac- tion of Jupiter, Mars has fallen slightly towards Earth, Jupiter towards Saturn, Venus and Mercury towards Sun. Even the greatest differences are less than half of the mean eccentricities, so that the harmonic posi- tions are exactly represented, and traversed by each planet in each orbital half-revolution. Moreover, since the geometrical mean of the actual mean radii, differs by less than 4, of one per cent. from the geometrical mean of the harmonic radii, the evidence of primitive harmonic influence modified by mutual perturbations, seems irresistible. Deviation within prescribed limits, allowing liberty in subordination to law, pervades all nature, and is the source of manifold supplementary harmonies and wsthetic gratifications, which would be impossible under a more rigid code. Although the harmonic action is most simple and most striking in the rotation radii, in consequence of the greater determining influence of the nucleus, the action does not cease even after the withdrawal of all the immediate effects of nebular condensation. We accordingly find such additional rhythmical relations as are indicated by ‘‘ Bode’s Law,’’ ‘*Kirkwood’s Analogy,’’ Peirce’s Phyllotactic Planetotaxy, Alexander’s radial ratios, and the various accordances which I have hitherto commu- nicated to the Society. Perhaps the most important exemplification of varied influence may be found in the mutual relations of the principal planetary masses ; Neptune and Saturn being of such magnitudes as to equalize their inertia-moments near the lower nebular, or nucleal radii; Saturn and Jupiter having equal moments near the upper nebular, or vector-radii; Saturn and Uranus having equal momenta with reference to Jupiter, in the primitive arrangement of nucleal points; and Jupiter balancing Sun, in a linear pendulum, of which the geometrical mean planetary rotation radius represents a centre of oscillation, and Sun’s surface represents both a centre of suspension and a fulcrum. The first break in the Jovian belt appears to have separated the three outer planets from Jupiter, the mass of Jupiter being such as to give the same moment of inertia at a centre of spherical gyration as the remain- ing mass would have at the corresponding spherical surface. The outer belt subdivided in such manner that its middle planetary moment was determined by Saturn, while Saturn’s was determined by Sun, the mo- mentum depending on Sun, Jupiter, and Saturn, as already stated. The equality of the Saturnianand Neptunian rotation-moments completed the harmony of Chladni aggregation. Chase. } 630 [Sept. 17, According to the latest estimaites* the masses of the four exterior planets, taking Sun as the unit, are APOYOMIEES oc6o0cc00 .0009543269 WmanuSwersceccee -0000454545 SEU 6 cob sueudo .0002855837 Neptune. 2... 5. .0000507614 the aggregate being .0013361265. The distribution of the aggregate, ac- cording to the hypothesis here given, involved the following steps :— 1. The square of the radius of spherical gyration being .4, in order that mr’? may equal m,r,? the masses must vary inversely as the square of radius. This gives .0009543761 for Jupiter, and .0003817504 for Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 2. Taking Saturn and Neptune as secondary centres of rotation for the remaining mass, and taking a nodal division midway between Saturn and Uranus, the Saturnian rotation-radius = 17.1402 solar radii, the Neptune-Uranian radius = 21.1508, and the masses varying inversely as radius, we obtain .0002854019 for Saturn and .0000963485 for Uranus and Neptune. 3. The equal moments of Neptune and Saturn requiring that their masses should be inversely as the squares of their rotation-radii, Neptune — f el "ye Saturn = .0000510257, leaving for Uranus .0000455228. The closeness of coincidence is shown below : Theoretical. Actual. (T-A) =A. Jupiter 9543761 9543269 + 00005 Saturn 2854019 2855837 — .00064 Uranus 453228 454545 — .00289 Neptune 510257 507614 + .00521 Neptune < 49.0168? 12196 ) Theoretical Saturn < 20.7258? 12267 J Equality. Jupiter < 5.2028? .025833 BG Saturn x 9.5389? .025985 Urauus 48.1605 0021891 ) Ae Saturn x 7.5715 0021626 J Sun -- 2 Jupiter’s r. vec. .0013418316 ) KG Planetary Mass 0013421925 J Uranus XX 2z .0002856 fs Saturn .0002856 Neptune < 7/32 -0002872 ) be Saturn .0002856 J I published the second theoretical equality in the 13th Volume of the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (p. 141), without knowing that it had ever been previously noticed, but I find, from Prof. Alexander’s recent Memoir,} that he announced it to the American Asso- ciation, at its Montreal Meeting, in 1857. The other nine accordances I think are entirely new. ‘The last three introduce the following con- siderations : 1. If the aggregate planetary mass were at Jupiter’s centre of linear oscillation, the centre of gravity of the system would be at Sun’s surface. * For authorities, see Alexander's ‘‘ Statement and Exposition,” p. 3. + Op. cit., p. 38 1875 ] 631 [Chase, 2. Uranus is to Saturn, as the time of describing radius in a circular orbit is to the time of orbital revolution. 3. Neptune is to Saturn, as the time of describing radius in direct fall to the centre is to the time of orbital revolution. While thus using the convenient language of the nebular hypothesis, I have looked merely to the known laws of centripetal and centrifugal forces which are now operative, without feeling bound by any special theory. Whether planetary aggregation has sprung from gaseous or vaporous clouds, or from meteoric fall, or from explosive nucleal action, or from all combined, is immaterial ; in any case the equilibrating forces would be called into play, and, if they act through the intervention of an elastic medium, the law of harmonic differences should be traceable in any resulting arrangement. ‘‘Subsidence, and the central aggregation consequent on subsidence, may go on quite as well among a multitude of discrete bodies under the influence of mutual attraction, and feeble or partially opposing projectile motions, as among the particles of a gaseous fluid.’’* ; Among the most important consequences of such conservation of force as is indicated by the gravity-potential and its relation to light-velocity, may perhaps be reckoned the provision which they seem to involve for the “perpetuation of physical activity. In the common interpretations of the nebular hypothesis and of most of the modern thermodynamic theories, continual contraction and heat-radiation have been supposed to tend towards ultimate stagnation and universal death. In the almost ex- clusive regard which has been paid to centripetal influences, the increasing energy of the centrifugal force and its final preponderance have both been overlooked. To this general bias of speculative thought Prof. Alexander furnishes a weighty exception. In his Note on the origin of clusters and nebulz, he refers to appearances ‘‘as if, when they were released from superincumbent pressure, by the rupture of the outer portions of the spheroid, or other primitive form, their feeble central attraction could no longer preserve them in form; and so their centres are always broken up.’’+ In illustration of the alternating destructive and conservative changes, he closes the Note with the following words: ‘Kor the growing leaf is fed by the exhalations which it finds in the atmosphere ; and the leaf, in its decay, nourishes the vegetating tree ; the roots of that tree are embedded in the débris of a comparatively an- cient earth; the earth itself, in view of the nebular hypothesis (of La- place), has been detached from the sun; and the sun and other stars would now seem to be but the comparatively small fragments or drops of greater masses: the one great plan pervading the whole, being, BY MEANS OF A PERMITTED DESTRUCTION, TO PROVIDE FOR A MORE PERFECT ADAP- TATION AND DEVELOPMENT.”’ * Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, § 871. + Op. cit. p. 92. Williamson. ] 632 [Sept. 17, 1875. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN ON THE NILE BETWEEN CAIRO AND THE FIRST CATARACT, DURING JANUARY AND FEBRUARY, 1873. By Lireut.-Cot. R. §. WriLuiAmson, UNITED STATES CORPS OF ENGINEERS. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, September 17, 1875.) San Francisco, Cat, July 26, 1875. To the Secretary of the American Philosophical Society : DEAR SIR: I send you two sheets of Meteorological Observations which I made during January and February, 1875, on the Nile, thinking that they might be considered of sufficient interest to find a place among the printed Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. While the general character of the climate of that country is well -known, I have not heard of there having been published any regular series of observations of the wet bulb from there ; and the large number of tourists who annually visit that river, the majority of whom are Americans, makes facts concerning it of more than usual interest. I had had made in Cairo, before starting up the river, a box two feet square, four sides of which were of lattice blinds, so that the instruments, when suspended in it, were perfectly protected from the direct rays of the sun, while the wind passed freely throughit. One side of the box was pro- vided with double doors, one or both of which could be opened or closed at pleasure. The box was placed on a table on the upper deck of the boat, and securely fastened to it. The bulbs were about ten feet from the water. Usually there was an awning above. From frequent experi- ments I found that there was no difference between the readings of the instruments when the doors of the box were open or closed. The principal instruments were two sensitive identical Thermometers, which read alike when the bulbs were dry. They were made by James Green, of New York, and were of the best construction. There was also a minimum Thermometer, but not of so nice a construction. The reductions were made by means of the tables in Profession Papers of the Corps of Engineers, No. 15, a copy of which is in the library of the Society. The boat went up the river as faras Assouan, at the foot of the first Cataract, and six degrees of latitude south from Cairo, and returned. Yours very truly, R. 8. WILLIAMSON, Lieut.-Col. United States Engineers. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN ON THE NILE BETWEEN CAIRO AND THE FIRST CATARACT, DURING JANUARY, 1873. BY LIEUT.-COL. R. S. WILLIAMSON, U.S. Corps of Engineers. A . ¥ . | Rel’ ity. . . ds. Toeeality ree Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb Difference, Force of Vapor. |(Rel’tve Humidity.|/ Dew Point. | Clouds. Winds | Ronee TAM.\2P.M. 9 PM | A.M. )2 P.M 9 1/" 2PM. or M. M./2 P.M, |9 P.M.) Oniro, 80°00" 1 4. || 0.270) 0.260, ; Oir. 3. |Olear, |N. 4)N. 2.||Min. 40.6. Dew. ) Benisvoef, 29°10" 215 TL.5}| -220) 216) . Olear. « te glee alte 36.5, 28°10! 2.5 65, 44.9) lr, oud.) 0.) 0) ; 1 4 44.1 Clear. is HR my) C8 Rhoda, 4. 45, 435.5 . Hi a | LIN. 2, 0) | (Mellawee, 27°45" 1. 6. | 449) 43.6) 41.0)) |Qu, st, 9, (Cir. ou, 7. WIN. 3] 0.) Manfaloot, 27°20" 3. 45, B47) 429] daigi] Clear. Clear. N, 3) 0) 05 3.6) 80.3] 47.3) 43i8|] + \Olr, 2, “ JN: 3. ) Sloot, 27°10" 0,5 45 88.8) 47.9) 45,1|| 4 Clear. “ Newe | 2 4. 40.1) 4216) 42/8) wv ij N. 5 Girgeh, 26°20! 85 Wh 80.4) 41.6] 37.9)] “ ny } 2 25 7. 35.3) 44.0] » Ou. 1. “ N, 2, 13|_ 1 fe 42.3) 48.2) Me Olr.cu.2,) IN, (3,INo 1 14 Keneh, 16 O85 | 43.3) 40.2) Kc Olear, “ ||N. 3|N. 2) | 15 Negadeh, 4 6.5 | 40.7) 42.5! i ing “ | Nees 18 Thebes, 8.6 8. | 35.8) 43.5] “ “ eel JN; 1} 17 Erment, 2, 95 || 37.5] 49.2) " 6 es \| 1 | “18 Edfoo, 712 59.5) 10.5) : | 41.7] 47.5) g 3 fs | {| * 10 Kom Omboa, 5 6 11. | 253 47.0) 44.8! 40.5) “ " “ N. 4 \] 90) |Assouan, ‘ 3. 65 648) 428) 446) “ « “ | | | | 5) g 13.1 41400 45.5) 44.6 “ AR “ }N, 1N. 1, | aL 2 i bs 18.6) 41.8) 39.7) 48.1 BC i a) | ie at 5 5 13: 42.8\! 43.5] 46.3} a Olr, 8. “ IN: 1) | | Pes 5 65 Ww. 1.7]! 43.4] 45.8) ¢ Olean, By | 25 Kom Ombos, 24°35" 5 2, 7.6) BL.0|) 37.0) 48.1 “ u “ IN, | By 26) |Edfoo, 25°00" 5} i 4. a 53.5) 45,5) 45.0 Si 38) sa IN. 20} “94 5| 67. vf] ae 8. 58.6}| 44.5] 43.8) 41.0)] “ “ IN. 1.)N. 1. _ 2s) |Esné, 25°20' F I I, ( 6. 12.5 4L9)) 43.2) 44.6) 87.0)) 1) “ S. WN. 3 ry | 59.2)| 43.6] 67. | 49.6]) 3.6 a 54.2) 39,8) 45.8) S14) Oi 7 | Aes 6). |} 40.6) 66. | 47. || 4. 11.5, Hs) og 41.3) 36,7 Olear, | N. een 68-2 48. | 67.5) 63.8] 8 8. | 58.1)) 40.5) 46.6) " « i 3 50, 58.0! 40,0) 44.3) | | 7) /Erment, ) 2be407 O65 55 08.9) 50.4 Oloar, N; Al 3.6 6. 67-4) BL | 3 | 76 9. 63.0) 45,2 IN. 4 |] 2.5 its 62 45.5 tf ss ” A 6 10 15 416.6 49.2 “« fi 6 | 63.7)| 36 i. 48.9) 62.1 oo “ iN. 7 Thebes, 25045" 65.5 | 5 20 1.6 87.3) 46.0) 45.2) w “ iN. is 62.5 | 6 8.5) 83.1| 65.7] 46.1 Olr. 6. “9 Keneh, 26°10" 61.2 : 2.6 85 a7.4) 83 4) 45.7] 0. ae oO 63.2 b 46 6. 30.2) 671) 441 Clear, al 64.0 : 2.6 6 24.6) 66.4) 44.5) 48.6) 48, “ N. “42 '|Bellianoh, 26°10° 62.3 6.5 7.8) 34.7; 61.4}| 89.4] 45.2] 45.2 Hazy, lr, 8. Sl | 67.5 | ; 3. 5.5 30.0) 404) 46-4] 491| 66.0 (lear. Clear, | 44) /Eckimine, 26°80" 76.5 | : || .5: 18. 25.5] 33.4|| 53.2] 51,6] 44.0,) Vir. ou. 5.) /S. “16, Soubag, }} 25°80" 75) 61.) 60.5) fa. 5. 37-4) 58.6) G27] 48,0) 47.8 Clr, on. 8.) iS: 16)| 57.4 | 65 7.5) 42.0 569)| 4 40.7) 48.0 (Oly, cu. 8) Olean, |N. 8. 6. VW 58.5. 6. 5.5 42.2) 67.8]| 3 Clear, — |Olr. cu. 4. IN. 2.N. 4..N. 31 18 Sloot, 27°10" 5S 4 6 40.1] 2.21) 34.2] ie (Clear. i | IN, 4. 19, 50.2 15 5.5 42.9] 62.8]| 37.6) 2} JGuvst.6.) N. 5. NWON, 3. 2) | 343 45 70) 44.9) 57.4!| 39.6) {Cus |Ou5. (| IN. GIN, 5. eed 53.2 0.5 6. 44.8) 63-1)) 49.4) (Clear. |Olear. *) + N. 3,N, 4)N. 1 22 Bent-Hassen, 28°00" 51.3 ao 7.6, 49.1) 59.8) 42.8 “ ws jecke CBE ar a 3 50.5, 15) 6 45.2) 65.3] 47.9) “ ) ub IN. 4,N. 8\N. 3) “aH 50.5, abel i. 42.0) 81.6)| 46.3) o ve | es) 58.5 2, | 45 ; 48.5) 73.5] 43.8) “ “ eal 26) Neghoda, 29°00" 59.0 iin} 5. 200) 98.2) 89.1]] 49.5) 44. il) ws | | 27) Benisooet, 29°10' 58.3 itis | 5. 318] .341|] 923) 43.9) 70.7}| 45.4) 4-4] 48.5)) un | 28) Sakhara, 29°45" 62.0 1.5} 6. OL) .318)| 89.8) 36.6) B5.8)| 60.5] 46.0] 46.8) © iw |} neat (Near Memphis,) | | | | | Bi lie. je} Mean || uh 61.0 37 0.25 0.811 0.807! 77.21 397) 609! 44.2 45.7 46.0) ! i ee Q9 Noy. 5, 1875.] 635 (Hall. ON GLACIAL DEPOSITS AT WEST PHILADELPHIA. (WITH A MAP.) By CHaruss E. HA. ( Read before the American Philosophical Society, November 5, 1875.) In a preceding paper on Glacial Deposits in Carbon, Northampton, and Monroe Counties, published in the Proceedings of the Philosophical So- ciety, I proved that the glaciers passed through the gaps of the Kitta- tinny Mountain and followed somewhat the courses of the present river beds, at all events toward the close of their existence. The southern boundary of the Glaciers is a question which will require much careful study to determine. It is, however, probable that they reached much further south than generally supposed, and it would scarce- ly be probable that a mass of ice, great enough to pass over the highest ranges of the White, Green, and Adirondack Mountains, to suddenly end at so short a distance as the Blue, or Kittatinny Mountain. I will take this opportunity to speak of the double systems of Glacial scratches so plainly marked in the more northern country. I have ob- served on the shores of Lake Champlain, the polished surfaces indicating a movement of the ice ina line nearly parallel to the lake, or a south- erly movement, while a few miles back from the lake, many of the valleys are crossed by moraines, which indicate Glaciers moving in an easterly and south-easterly direction towards the lake, and polished surfaces and scratches indicating the same. I concluded from this that one system of scratches indicate the course of the moving ice when it was so great as not to be influenced by the topographical features of the country. And the second system, formed after the mass had so melted away that it followed the depressions of the surface. It is my object, in the following, to show that we have Glacial deposits within the limits of the City of Philadelphia. Since my residence in this City the alluvial deposit has occupied my attention. It is composed of sand, rounded quartz pebbles, and gravel, of sandstone and conglomerate. It varies in depth from two and three feet totwenty-five. Intermingled with the rounded quartz pebbles, are found everywhere, angular pieces of softer sandstone, as Medina and New Red, which would necessarily have been worn into rounded pebbles and sand had they been associated with the quartz when /¢ was being formed into pebbles. The conclusion I therefore come to is this, that the quartz pebbles of this region, perhaps also, of the Atlantic coast, is the debris from the decomposition and disin- tegration of the older rocks as the Oneida conglomerate, coal conglomer- ate, etc., and brought here principally by the ice and water of Glacial time. About the first of October, I made the first critical examination of the land lying between Spruce and Walnut streets and west of Forty-fifth street, where the sand and gravel has been ex- cavated to, or within a short distance of the bed-rock. Here are exposed Hall.] 634 [Nov. 5, 1875. many large angular and rounded blocks of Oneida conglomerate, Me- dina sandstone and probably Clinton and Oriskany sandstone. These blocks vary from one or two cubic feet to twenty-five, many of them still preserving their sharp angles; on several blocks I could clearly define Glacial scratches. Flat and angular boulders which I have observed still imbedded in their original position, are lying at different angles tothe horizon. Toward the lower part of the bed of sand, gravel, and boulders, I have noticed frequently a large amount of angular and broken bed-rock or mica schist. A few boulders of Oneida and Medina just south of Pine street and west of Forty-fifth street were also observed. The average line of deposit of these large boulders is N. 42° E. or at right angles to the average course of the Schuylkill River. Ia carrying this line northeastward it crosses another similar deposit between the tracks forming the Y at the junction of the P. C. R. R. and N. Y. branch, about the corner of Thirty-eighth and Hutton streets, and another more extensive deposit near Thirty-eighth street and Girard avenue. The excavation is now going on near Girard avenue, and I was enabled to see many of the larger blocks stillin position ; the average of these are deposited at angles to the horizon. Among those at Thirty-eighth and Hutton streets are blocks of Oneida conglomerate and Medina sandstone. Large quantities of New Red sand- stone, and a few blocks of trap rock were also observed. From all these evidences I have concluded that this belt of drift deposit is no other than a Glacial moraine, formed by the Schuylkill Glacier receding from the site of the City. It is very possible that we have here a complicated system of moraines formed as the scratches in the North by the ice at different stages of its existence. J. H. Harden, M.E., procured some specimens of conglomeratic sandrock, with casts of Spirifer which I have been unable to determine. Mr. J. C. Smith afterward obtained a specimen of Oriskany sandstone with Spirifer arenosus, from a deposit west of Forty-fifth street and north of Walnut. T am indebted to Mr. J. H. and E. B. Harden for the accompanying map, on which they have carefully located all the principal boulders observed in the locality first mentioned. One fact I will add is, that the surface of the gneiss where laid bare is comparatively smooth, and shows evidence of having been polished, though so soft as not to retain the marks of Glaciation. a T = _ MAP OF A BLOCK OF LAND IN “pen REE. WEST PHILADELPHIA. / i eo / TO ILLUSTRATE A PAPER BY CHAS.E.HALL / h tone fhuar'ry, ON THE GLACIAL BOULDERS DISINTERRED {| Bd BY THE REMOVAL OF THE SURFACE DEPOSIT. ) eee Putin 025 ore. A ik ye vas | 24 Oe © Local 7) / a @ anbectecdin y Posittore [37 3 fronulhe surface.) {8 or 6 © Tessil Boudeer maa : iz = Scale rf Leet. 2 Scale rf Lie erat le oe EB Harden KLE Hall, 635 Stated Meeting, June 18th, 1875. Present, 17 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the Chair. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the R. R. Zool. Bot. Gesellschaft, Vienna (XV, i, 90, 91); the R. Bel- gian Academy (XV, i, 89, 90,91); the Imp. Austrian Acad., (XV,i, 90, 91); the N. J. Hist. 8., (94). Postal card acknowledgments of the reception of No. 94 of the Proceedings, January—ZJ une, 1875, just published and distributed, were received from the University of Toronto, Canada; J. B. Francis, Lowell, Mass.; Buffalo Social Science Ass. ; U.S. Hospital, N. Y.; Astor Library; Acad. of Science, St. Louis; Chicago Historical Soc., Maine Historical 8.; and from the following members: 8. Alexander, Prince- ton, N. J.; D. G. Engleman, 3003 Locust Street, St. Louis ; J. S. Haines, Haines Street, Germantown, Philadelphia ; Charles Hale, 22 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.; C. H. Hitcheock, Hanover, N.H.; W.C. Kerr, Raleigh, N. C.; Leo Lesquereux, Columbus, Ohio ; Walter H. Lowrie, Mead- ville, Pa.; J. S. Newberry, Columbia College, N. Y.; Robert Peter, M. D., Lexington, Ky.; Theo. C. Porter, Easton, Pa.; P. W. Sheafer, Pottsville, Pa.; Ch. M. Wheatly, Phcenix- ville, Pa. Postal cards acknowledging the receipt of copies of Part 2, Vol. XV, Transactions, just published and distributed, were received from Mr. Wheatly; the New York Hospital, 8 West Sixteenth Street, N. Y.; West Point Academy ; Astor Library ; and New Jersey Hist. Soc , Newark. ' Letters of envoy were received from the Academies at Vienna and Brussels; the Board of Commissioners of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania; and Mrs. Caro- line HE. G. Peale, bestowing upon the Society’s Library a number of elegantly bound volumes of ethnological me- moirs and works from the brary of the late Mr. Franklin ° Peale. Io 125 RO BAH 24) 636 Other donations for the library were received from the Academy and Observatory at St. Petersburg; the Prussian Academy ; German Geol. Society; Austrian Academy, and Zoo. Bot. Society ; the Frankfurt Zool. Garden; the Physical Societies at Geneva and Bordeaux; Geographical Society ; Anthropolog. Society, Annales des Mines, and Revue Poli- tique at Paris; the R. Inst. of Luxembourg; the Belgian Academy and Observatory ; the Congres Internationale de Statistique; the Royal, R. Astro., and R. Geog. Societies at London; Nature; American Academy at Boston; Silli- man’s Journal; American Chemist ; Mr. Josiah P. Cooke of Boston; the Medical News; Journal of Pharmacy ; Penn Monthly, and Water Department of Philadelphia; the Com- missioners of the Second Geological Survey of Pa., Harris- burg; the United States Engineer Department; Coast Sur- vey; Peabody Institute, Baltimore; and the Zoological Society, Philadelphia. On motion, Mr. Roberts asked to be relieved from the duty of preparing an obituary notice of the late member, Mr. John Henry Towne, and that Prof. Lesley be substituted in his place; which, on motion, was so ordered. A communication “on the Geological relations of the Lignitic Groups,” by J. J. Stevenson, was read by the Sec- retary. Prof. Cope read a communication on an exploration of Architectural Remains on and near the Eocene Plateau of Northwestern New Mexico. Dr. Genth communicated the corrections of an error in his recent paper On Tellurian Minerals, and announced some novel and interesting indications recently found by him in some of the minerals there described. Dr. Cresson read a communication on the influence of magnetic forces upon iron and steel under strain. Prot. Chase made some remarks in continuation of the subject of Dr. Cresson’s paper. Dr. Cresson offered the following resolution which was unanimously adopted. 637 Resolved, That the thanks of the Society be presented to Mrs. Caroline E. G. Peale, for her liberal and weleome con- tribution to the library of the Society of books belonging to her late husband, Mr. Franklin Peale. _ Mr. Roberts called the members’ attention to the improve- ments that had been made by the Hall Committee. Pending nominations 780, 731, 782, were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, July 16th, 1875. Present, 3 members. Dr. C. M. Cresson, in the Chair. A letter was received from Dr. D. Renard, V. P. Soe. Nat., Moscow, June 19th, 1875, concerning the semi-centen- nial of the doctorate of M. Alex. Fischer de Waldheim, Pres. 8. N. M., which, on motion, was referred to the Board of Officers. A letter was received from Mr. Edward Thornton, British Ambassador at Washington, June 30, 1875, respecting the next Albert Medal of the Society of Arts, which, on motion was referred to the Board of Officers. ~” Letters acknowledging receipt of Proceedings No. 94 were received from Col. Williamson, San Francisco; the New York Historical, and 78 other Societies and members, by postal cards returned and signed. Acknowledgments of the receipt of the Transactions, Vol. XV, part 2, were received from the New York Hist. Soc. by letter, and 22 other Societies and subscribers, by postal cards. } Acknowledgments of the receipt of packages of back Proceedings, due since election, were received from Col. Wil- lhamson, (81 to 92) ; Prof. Traill Green (81 to 92) ; Miss Maria Mitchell (81 to 92); Prof. C. H. Hitchcock (81 to 82); Prof. Trowbridge (86 to 92); Mr. Dupont (86 to 92); Prof. Abbe (86 to 92); Prof. Kerr (86 to 92); Mr. Haupt (86 to 92); Dr. 638 Peter (86 to 92); and Mr. Rothermel (92); the Providence Franklin Society (93); Philadelphia Numismatic Society (93), and Prof. Henry (98). Donations for the Library were received from the Ob- servatories at St. Petersburgh and Barcelona; the Academy at Berlin; the Met. Inst. at Vienna; J. Korosi, of Pesth ; the Society at Bremen; Nouvelles Met. and Revue Politique at Paris; R. 8. at Tasmania; Astron. Geog. and Chem. Societies at London ; Victoria Institute ; Nature; Essex Insti- tute; Boston 8. N. H.; U.S. Postal Guide; Am. Journal Sci- ence and Art; Yale College; New York Lyceum N. H.; As- tor Library; Philadelphia Academy Natural Sciences ; Franklin Inst.; American Journal Medical Sciences; News and Library ; Journal of Pharmacy; Penn Monthly; U.S. Engineer Department, and the St. Louis Western. The death of Sir W. E. Logan at London, June 28th, 1875. age 77, was announced by the Secretary. Dr. Cresson communicated the result of further experi- ments on the influence of magnetic force on the tensile strength of iron and steel. He announced the fact as new that in the aerial magnet, or zone of magnetism in the empty space within the coil, there is a considerable elevation of temperature. Prof. Lesley communicated the recent discovery by Mr. Ashburner, aid on the survey of the State, that the White Catskill (Vespertine Sandstone of Mr. Rogers) No. X is a true coal-measure formation, 19 distinct coal beds hay- ing been counted, one of which is one foot thick and ap- pears to be persistent, for a similar bed outcrops in a gap a few miles distant. These beds were cut in the tunnel of the East Broad Top Railroad through Sideling Hill in Hun- tingdon County, Pennsylvania. This discovery explains the Peak Mountain coal-measures below the red shale in Wythe County, Virginia, as well as the presence of coal-beds in the Upper Devonian on the Potomac, and of coal-beds about 700 feet below the Millstone Grit (conglomerate No. XII) in the Allegheny mountain ravines back of Tipton and Ty- 639 rone in Blair County, Pennsylvania. It has nothing to do with the still older coal measures in the Lower Devonian on the Juniata river in Perry County, Pennsylvania. On motion, the Laws of the Society were ordered to be re-printed. Pending nominations Nos. 780, 781, 782, and new nomi- nation 783, were read. On motion, No. 781 was postponed on account of the absence of nominees. Nos. 780, 782 were balloted for, and the following were declared duly elected members of the Society: Dr. Thomas M. Drown, Professor of Chemistry in Lafay- ette College, Haston, Pa. John L. Campbell, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in Wabash University, Indiana, and Secretary of the United States Centennial Commission. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, Avgust 20th, 1875. Present, 8 members. Vice-President, Mr. Fratny, in the Chair. The death of the Hon. Horace Binney, the oldest member of the Society, and the oldest and only surviving graduate of Harvard College of the last century, at his residence, in Fourth street, Philadelphia, August 10,1875, aged 95 years, was announced by Mr. Fraley. The death of Mr. William EK. Whitman, in Philadelphia, August 27th, 1875, aged 74 years, was announced by Mr. Fraley. On motion, Judge Hare was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of Mr. Binney. On motion, Mr. Ed. E. Law was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of Mr. Whitman. Mr. Gabb presented a communication On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica. 640 Dr. Konig read a paper On the occurrence of Perowskite at Magnet Cove, Arkansas. Mr. Chase communicated notes on the Signal Service weather maps, and on newly-discovered planetary harmo- nies. The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of officers and members in council were read. Nominations Nos. 781 and 783 were read. Mr. Fraley announced that he had received the quarterly interest on the Michaux legacy, due July Ist, last. The meeting was then adjourned. Stated Meeting, September 17th, 1875. Present, 15 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauny, in the Chair. Letters accepting membership were received from Dr. Thomas M. Drown, Lafayette College, Haston, Pa., July 23d, and Prof. J. L. Campbell, Centennial rooms, Philadelphia, July 31st, and a carte-de-visite from Mr. Birch, in a letter from the British Museum, London. Letters of acknowledgment were received trom the R. A. d. Lincei, Rome, Dec. 8 (XV, i, 90, 91); the New York Hist. Soc., June 18th (XV, 11, 94); the U.S. Naval Obs., Washington, July 23d (XV, 11); the Victoria Institute, London, July 6th (93); the Statistical Society, London, July 19th (93); the Leeds Philos. and Lit. Society, July 14th (93); the Society of Antiquaries, London, August 4th (93); the R. A.S., Lisbon, July 22d (XV, 1, 90, 91,93); the N. H. S., Northumberland, New-Castle-on-Tyne, August 31st (94); the R. Geog. Society, London, July 20th (62, 88, 93 to complete its set); the Verein fiir Vaterl. Naturkunde at Stuttgart, Nov. 24th, 1874 (92, 93). Dr. Krauss, librarian, writes that a complete set can be sent only in ex- change for a complete sct. 641 Postal card acknowledgments of the receipt of Proceed- ings were received from Mr. Birch, London (81 to 91), and from various corresponding Societies and members. A letter of envoy was received from the Netherland Bo- tanical Association, per Mr. W. Hunter, Ass. Sec. Dep. State, Washington, August 4th, 1879. A postal card circular was received from the Society of Biblical Archeology, London. Donations for the Library were received from the Acade- mies at Berlin, Copenhagen, and Brussels ; the Geographical Society at Paris; Revue Politique; MM. Vabbe Ducroix and Arcelin, at Macon; Nouvelles Météorologiques; San Fernando N. Observatory ; Meteor. Office; London Nature ; Rey. O. Fisher, of Cambridge, England ; Silliman’s Journal ; Prof. R. Pumpelly; Prof. O. C. Marsh; Prof. E. D. Cope; Dr. J. 8. Newberry; Prof. E. B. Andrews; Prof. EH. 'T. Cox ; Boston N. H. 8.; Franklin Institute; Journal of Phar- macy; Penn Monthly; M. H. Y. Louderbach; Medical News; Mr. Trantwine; Dr. Ellicott Cowes; American Chemist; Buffalo Nat. Hist. Society; Argentine Observa- tory and Meteorological Office ; and from the University of California. Lieut. Col. R. 8. Willhamson communicated by letter, dated San Francisco, July 16th, Meteorological Observations taken by himself on the Nile during January and Febru- ary, 1873. Mr. Chas E. Hall communicated, through the Secretary, Notes on Glacial action along the Kittanning or Blue Moun- tain, in Carbon, Northampton, and Monroe Counties, Penn- sylvania. Prof. P. E. Chase read a communication On the beginnings of Development. Prof. Sadtler communicated his recent researches in the laboratory of the University On the Molecular Structure of Glyceric acid. Mr. Briggs expressed certain fundamental views in Me- teorology, and announced his intention of communicating at 642 a proper time the results of exact calculations of the influ- ence of evaporation on the circulation of the atmosphere and the production of storms. The minutes of the last stated and special meetings of the Board of Officers and Council were read. Pending nominations Nos. 781 and 783 and new nomina tions 784 to 790 were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, October 1st, 1875. Present, 13 members. Secretary, Dr. Lz Contes, in the Chair. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the R. Observatory at Brussells, August 9th (93); and the Rantoul Literary Society (94). Letters of envoy were received from the Geological Bu- reau of Sweden, October 27th, 1874; the Observatory at Batavia, June, 1872; the Meteorological’ office, London, August and September, 1875; and the U.S. Department of the Interior. A letter was received from the B. and C. Masonig Acade- my, Milton, Florida, soliciting books. . A letter declining his appointment to prepare an obituary notice of Mr. Whitman, but offering assistance to any one preparing such a memoir, was received from Mr, EH. EK. Law, Philadelphia, September, 24th, 1875. Donations to the Library were received from the R. and I. Academies at St. Petersburgh, Copenhagen, and Berlin; the Geological Societies at Vienna, Berlin, and Dresden; the Geological Bureau at Stockholm; the Observatories at St. Petersburgh, and Batavia; the Societies at Ulm, Bor- deaux, and Batavia; the Antiquarian Societies at Copen- hagen and Worcester; Herr Riitimeyer of Basel; the An- thropological Society ; Ecole des Mines, Revue Politique, and 643 Nouvelles Météorologiques at Paris; the London Chemical and Geographical Societies ; Victoria Institute and Nature ; the R. Cornwall Polytechnic Institute ; the L. and H. Society at Quebec; Mr. Putnam, of Salem; Prof. H. H. Newton; and Silliman’s Journal; the College of Physicians and Penn Monthly, of Philadelphia; The Louisville Printing House for the Blind; St. Louis Western; Mexican G. and 8. So- ciety ; and the Smithsonian Institute. The death of Dr. I. A. Lapham, at Milwaukee, Septem- ber 4, 1875, age —, was announced by the Secretary, with remarks by Dr. Le Conte. On motion, Dr. Brinton was requested to learn by corres- pondence with Dr. Philip Valentini of Mexico, more fully, the probable value of his memoir on the Aztee Calendar Stone. Dr. Brinton communicated to the Society the fact of Dr. Valentini’s new interpretation of the stone in a his- torical sense, as opposed to the astronomical interpretation of Humboldt, Gallatin, and Gama, and that his MSS. would make about eighty pages of the Transactions, with illustra- tions; and that Dr. Valentini would be pleased to have it submitted to a committee of examination. Pending nominations Nos. 781, 783 to 790, and new nomination, No. 791, were read. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Meeting, October 15th, 1875. Present, 17 members. Vice-President, Mr. Franny, in the Chair. Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Academia dei Lincei at Rome, and Linnean Society, Lon- don, August 25th, (92, 93). Donations for the Library were received from I. W. C. Trafford, of Zurich ; the French Geographical Society and Revue Politique; the Linnean Society, London Nature, and A. P. S.—VOL. XIV. 4E 644 Meteorological Committee; the Boston Natural History Society, Industrial Aid Society, and the Rev. Jas. F. Clarke ; the New York Historical Society and American Chemist ; the Mayor of Philadelphia, Franklin Institute, Journal of Pharmacy, Medical News and Journal ; the Historical Society of New Jersey; andthe Engineer Department of the United States Army. A letter being read from Judge Clark Hare declining to prepare an obituary notice of Horace Binney, and proffer- ing aid to any one preparing such a notice, it was, on motion of Mr. E. K. Price, Resolved, That the Society concur with the Philadelphia Bar in requesting Judge Wm. Strong to prepare an obituary notice of the late Horace Binney. On motion, Mr. Edward Hopper was requested to prepare an obituary notice of Mr. Whitman. Prof. Chase communicated an additional co-ordination of the ratio of heat under constant pressure to heat under con- stant volume. Mr. Lesley gave a preliminary notice of the recent discov- ery by Mr. Charles E. Hall, of sub-angular blocks of large size, lying on the surface and in gravel, at the new cutting of Locust Street in West Philadelphia beyond Forty-fourth Street. Some of these blocks seem to be from the outcrops of the Laurentian gneiss at Reading or Easton; others of Oneida Conglomerate from the Delaware or Schuy1kill water- gaps, 70 miles distance; and one was afterwards found by Mr. J. H. Harden of the University of Pennsylvania, carry- ing hundreds of fossil shells, from the lowest Devonian out- crops a few miles still further north. Mr. Lesley said that Prof. Houpt, of the University, had kindly promised to survey the locality so as to place all the data on record, before the destruction of the stones by the rapid improvements of that part of the city area, and when this is done a further report would be made to the Society. If we are to look on these blocks as moraine, it would but extend the glacial phenomena recently noticed in and in 645 tront of the Lehigh and Delaware Water-Gaps, as far south as Allentown, over the South Mountain, and across the Trias plain, to the mouth of the Schuylkill. Mr. E. K. Price suggested the possibility of iceberg carriage, and should prefer that explanation. Dr. LeConte said that the agencies were allied. Mr. Lesley replied that if the iceberg was broken from the glacier as it passed through the gaps, it is hard to see how it could pass the barrier of the South Mountain, unless it was very small and followed substantially the present river valleys. But it was too recent a discovery to justify much discussion. Pending nominations 781, 783 to 790 were read, discussed and balloted for. Pending nomination 791 was again read. After scrutiny of the ballot boxes the following gentle- men were declared duly elected members of the Society : Dr. Stephen Smith, of New York, President of the Ameri- ean Public Health Ieumection. Mr. William Blasius, of Philadelphia. Mr. Gideon E. Moore, of Jersey City, Chemist of the Pas- saic Zine Works. Mr. Furman Sheppard, District Attorney for the City of Philadelphia. Mr. Russell Thayer, Jr., Superintendent of the Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. Mr. G. Clark Maxwell, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics, Cambridge, England. Mr. Charles EH. Hall, of Philadelphia, Palaeontological Assistant of the Second Geological Survey. Mr. John F. Carll, of Pleasantville. Venango County, Pa., Assistant on the Second Geological Survey. Mr. Andrew Sherwood, of Mansfield, Tioga County, Pa., Assistant on the Second Geological Survey. And the meeting was adjourned. 646 Stated Meeting, November 5th, 1875. Present, 12 members. Vice President, Mr. Fraury, in the Chair. Letters accepting membership were received from Mr. Russell Thayer, dated Fairmount Park, Phila., Oct. 19th ; from Dr. Stephen Smith, dated Amer. Pub. Health Associa- tion, New York, Oct. 20th ; Gideon E. Moore, Ph.D., dated Passaic Zine Works, Jersey City, Oct. 21; Wm. Blasius, dated Phila., Oct. 25th ; John F. Carll, dated Pleasantville, Oct. 27th, and Mr. Furman Sheppard, Philad’a, Oct. 28th, 1875. A letter was received from M. Renard, of Moscow, ac- knowledging the letter of congratulation voted July 16th Letters of acknowledgment were received from the R. Geog. Society, London, Oct. 23d, (Tr. XV, 11; 94; wants all Vol. XIII and XV, ii-); Astronomical Society, London, (XV, 11, 94); R. Observatory, Greenwich, Oct. 22 (94); B. Se IN, Jel, Clem, Maral (SOW 3 3, Dil, O92, Os), A letter asking for Proceedings No. 88, was received from the Philosophical Society pf Glasgow. A letter concerning that part of the will of the late Mrs. Caroline E. G. Peale, concerning her husband’s cabinet of an- tiquities, was received from her executor, Mr. Robert Patter- son, and at a subsequent stage of the proceedings, was, on motion, referred for consideration and report to the Curators. Donations tor the Library were received from the R. Prussian and Belgian Academies ; the Societies at Lausanne and Leyden; the Geog. Society, Nouvelles Met. and Revue Politique, at Paris; London Nature; B.S. N. H.; Mr. Seud- der, and Mr. Hyatt, of Boston; Penn Monthly; American Journal of Pharmacy ; Smithsonian Institute, and the West- ern. The death of Dr. Kingston Goddard, at his residence on Staten Island, Oct. 14, aged 62, was announced by Mr. Fraley. 647 Mr. C. E. Hall exhibited specimens from boulders in West Philadelphia, and specimens from outcrops in and behind the Blue (Kittanning) Mountain, to enable the members to compare and identify them. He exhibited, also, a local map on which each boulder was exactly placed and numbered. In the collection was one piece of trap, and several of Trias sandstone. The rest were Oneida conglomerate, and Oris- kany sandstone (conglomerate). Mr. Hall expressed his conviction that most of the Philadelphia gravel was merely disintegrated conglomerate the pebbles of which had been set free in their original rolled state and not re-rolled to any extent. Many pieces were flat and yet in an erect atti- tude, showing ice rather than water transit. The trend of the belt of boulders, so far as studied, was roughly at right angles to the bed of the Schuylkill at the Zoological Garden. Mr. Hall had noticed a sort of smoothing off of the surface of the upturned mica schist country. In some cases the bould- ers were of large size, and grooved as well as polished. One of them contained many Silurian fossils. Mr. Price invited Mr. Hall’s attention to quantities of boulders being uncovered in the sand cuttings at 25th street and Fairmount avenue, on the eastern side of the Schuyl- kill. In the discussion which ensued the possibility of iceberg action and the existence of gravel mounds across the interior valleys were brought into view. Prof. Frazer wished to record the fact that he had met with considerable numbers of glaciated (grooved) pieces of Rogers’ jasper-rock, Hunt’s orthophyre, or as he preferred to eall it, felsite porphyry rock of the South Mountain, along the low pass (partly a gorge) through which the Gettysburg— Chambersburg road leads. He suggested, for a cause, a thin glacier coming across from the Path Valley, west of Cham- bersburg. Mr. Lesley described Mr. John Harger’s (of Oxford, Conn.) method of obviating parallax in reading the vernier on the dial plate of a transit instrument or surveyor’s compass ; viz. “fr. . 648 by using two verniers, one inside and one outside the grad- uated circle. If the observer finds a parallax error between the outside vernier and the scale, he will find twice that er- ror between the scale and the inside vernier, and can thus easily correct his observation. Mr. Cope offered the following resolution, with appro- priate remarks : Resolved, That the American Philosophical Society recom- mend to the attention of Congress the proposed scientific ex- ploration of the River Beni of Bolivia and the adjacent regions, by Prof. James Orton, believing that the intrinsic importance of the object, as well as the experience of Prof. Orton, render it deserving of aid from the Government of the United States. The resolution was passed, with instructions to the Secre- taries to transmit copies of it to the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, and to Prof. Orton. Mr. Fraley reported that he had received the quarterly in- terest of the Michaux Legacy Fund, due Oct. Ist last. The Minutes were then read and the meeting was ad- journed. Stated Meeting, November 19th, 1879. Present, 12 members. Vice-President, Mr. Frauey, in the Chair. A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. Charles E. Hall, dated Philadelphia, Nov. 13th, 1875. A letter acknowledging receipt of diploma was received from Mr. James Freeman Clarke, Jamaica Plains, Mass. Letters acknowledging receipt of Proceedings and Trans- actions were received from the Observatory at Munich, July 9 (92, 98); the Royal Society at Gottingen, June (92, 93); the Academy at Lisbon, Oct. 14, 1875 (92); the Statis- tical Society, London, Nov. 4 (XV ii, 94); and Triibner & Co., London, Nov. 3 (88). Donations for the Library were reported from the Societies at Moscow and Liége; Geographical Society and Revue 649 Politique at Paris; Astronomical, Geographical, Asiatic, and Antiquarian Societies, and Editors of Nature, London; Rey. O. Fisher; Boston Society of Natural History ; Mr. Samuel Batchelder ; Yale College, and Professor Marsh, New Haven ; Franklin Institute, Medical News, and Board of Public Edueation, at Philadelphia; Library of Congress, War Department, and Engineer Department, at Washington ; Buftalo Society of Natural Sciences; and Editors of the Western. Dr. Le Conte announced that he had been engaged for the past three years, and Dr. Horn for the past eighteen months, on a revision of the Rhyncophora of the United States. The memoir will make from 500 to 600 printed pages of the Proceedings. On motion a committee was appointed con- sisting of Dr. Leidy, Mr. C. E. Hall and Mr. Lesley, to whom it was referred. Mr. Lesley called attention to the valuable papers on glacial drift at Washington and Richmond, read before the Boston Society of Natural History, last Spring, by Prof. W. B. Rogers. The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers and Council were read. Pending nomination No. 791 was read. On motion, it was Resolved, That the Society accept the bequest of Mrs. Caroline H. G. Peale under the conditions expressed in the communication of Mr. Robert Patterson, executor. On motion, it was Resolved, That until otherwise ordered by the Society, this collection be deposited in the office of the Philadelphia Saving Fund Society, and the Curators be authorized to make arrangements with said Society for its safe keeping. On motion, it was . Resolved, That, upon the recommendation of the Board of Officers and Members in Council at its last meeting, the edition of the Proceedings be increased from 750 to 1250 copies; and that the Librarian be authorized to sell copies at 50 per cent. above the actual cost price of publication. The meeting was then adjourned. 650 The Letter of Mr. Robert Patterson referred to above. 329 CHESTNUT STREET, - PHILADELPHIA, October 30, 1875. \ Dear Sir:—I beg leave to communicate through you to the American Philosophical Society the following extract from the will of the late Mrs. Caroline E.G. Peale, viz: ‘““T give to the American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, the collection of relics illustrative of the Stone Age, with the descriptive catalogue thereof made by my beloved husband Franklin Peale, in trust to preserve the same as a separate collection within the Hall Building of the Society, or in some suitable place, and open to the inspection of all visitors, under such regulations as may be proper for the security thereof ; the collection to be designated so as to distinguish the object and the name of the Collector as follows : ‘“‘Tmplements of the Stone Age from various parts of America, Europe, Great Britain, and the British Isles, collected and arranged as impres- sively confirming the unity of the Human Race, by Franklin Peale.”’ ‘Provided that said collection shall not be placed within the building of said Society until the same shall be fire-proof, and until then or there- after, if deemed expedient by said Society, the collection shall be deposited in such fire-proof building, public or private, as they may designate. And if said Society shall decline or neglect the trust imposed on them, I direct my Executor to see to the execution thereof in such manner as to provide a place of secure deposit for the collection, open to the inspection of visitors; and in case of his death or disability, I request that the proper court will direct and take care of the due execution of this trust.” The character and value of this collection are known to some of the members of the Society, and were fairly exhibited in the ‘‘ Memorial Volume,’’ embracing photographs and descriptive matter, which was some two years since submitted for inspection. The collection at present is deposited in the building of the Philadel- phia Saving Fund Society, and I presume can remain there awaiting the orders of the Society and myself. The specimens are carefully packed, and at the proper time can readily be arranged in thecases. The Society, if accepting the trust, will be put to no expense in the arrangement or labelling of the collection, or for the collateral inheritance tax on the same. As the conditions of the bequest require, among other things, that the collection shall be only placed in a fire-proof building, with which at this time the Society is not provided, the designation of a suitable place will have to be determined by the Society at its convenience. Very respectfully yours, [Signed. ] ROBERT PATTERSON, Hxecutor of Caroline H. G. Peale. Dr. GEO. B. Woon, President of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. ~ Oct.1 and Dee. 3, 1875.] 651 [ Chase, FURTHER DYNAMIC CO-ORDINATIONS. By Purny Earue CHAse, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 15, and December 8, 1875.) A further extension may be given to my co-ordination of the great natural forces, by means of the thermodynamic relations which subsist between constancy of pressure and constancy of volume. In central forces, varying inversely as the square of the distance, a perpetual oscillation through a linear ellipse A AC, with foci at the centre of a circle and at 27, would be synchronous with a perpetual | revolution around the circle. The complete B linear-elliptical orbit being = 2d, the mean velocity of linear oscillation, or the VELo Guy) of constant mean gaseous pressure = — of the 4 T Cc velocity of revolution ; a velocity which would be attained, both in the centripetal and in the centrifugal phase of the oscillation, at 1.42327 Wien |= a | . The ratio of heat under con- x +4 stant volume to heat under constant pressure, as experimentally deter- mined, is1 : 1.421.* Let ¢ = radius of a gaseous nucleus which is sufficiently condensed to allow of chemical combinations, or the radius of constant volume ; 7 = radius of constant mean pressure. The vis viva of free revolution in a circular orbit varying inversely as radius, the ratio of the mean nucleal and atmospheric forces may be represented by the proportion Goi? le 14232 In elastic media, as the distances from the centre increase in arith- metical progression, the densities decrease, in geometrical progression if the central force is constant, in harmonic progression if the central force varies according to the law of inverse squares. Whatever may have been the beginnings of cosmo-taxis, whether through nebular condensa- tion, meteoric accumulation, explosive rupture, or other unknown pro- cess, the secular mean actions and reactions between opposing forces should lead to similar numerical and harmonic results. In the lan- guage of Herschel,+ ‘‘ Among a crowd of solid bodies of whatever size, animated by independent and partially opposing impulses, motions oppo- site to each other must produce collision, destruction of velocity, and sub- * Tyndall, Heat a Mode of Motion, 4th Ed., Sect. 74. + Outlines of Astronomy, Sect. 872. A. P. S.— VOL. XIv. 4F , » Chase. ] 652 [Oct. 15 and Dee. 3, sidence or mean approach towards the centre of preponderant attraction ; while those which conspire, or which remain outstanding after such con- flicts, must ultimately give rise to circulation of a permanent character.”’ In the earliest stages of nucleal aggregation, when the primitive oscillating velocity subjects all particles to nearly equal impulses from every direction, but with a slight preponderance towards special nucleal centres, the variation from constancy of force may be so slight as to in- troduce a geometrical progression based on the above thermal ratio, 1 : 1.4282. Since the nucleal radius of a Sun which would rotate syn- chronously with planetary revolution varies as ;/ ;, while the planetary radius-vector, or radius of possible nebular atmosphere, varies as ( t)3, the atmospheric radius vacies as (nucleal radius) 3. We have thus a basis for the geometrical series, 7, rs, 7s... 7% Now 1.42323 = 1.6009, or almost precisely the fundamental radius (1.6007) which Professor Alex- ander has pointed out in the arrangement of the Jovian system.* It is also very nearly represented in the ratios between the nucleal radii of the inner pairs of planets, of the two principal planetary belts ; OF: So. 598 be) Dore. = he) next itermof themsemiesmas 1.4232 = 1.8008, which is remarkably coincident, both with Professor Alexander’s fundamental ratio{ for the solar system (1 : 1.8), and with the ‘‘centre of explosive oscillation,’’ or the linear centre of oscillation between a primitive centre of oscillation and a linear centre of gravity (2 and 4). If the involution is carried to the fifth quadrangular pyra- midal number, 1.4232°° — 2381390, which is within less than three per cent. of the half-modulus of light at Sun’s surface, measured in solar radii. The pyramidal exponent, 35, is also within less than three per cent. of the possible solar atmosphere measured in solar radii ; within less than five per cent. of the half-modulus of light measured in Nep- - tunian vector-radii; and within less than three percent. of the nucleal radius of a nebulous Sun which would rotate in a year of Uranus. If these accordances are dependent upon the mutual interactions of the five principal masses in our system (©), 2/, h, 5, UV), we may reasonably look for still further accordances between the products of masses, which enter as factors into expressions of joint gravitating action. We accord- ingly find the following equation between the triangular powers of plane- tary masses, designating mean perihelion, mean, and mean aphelion, by sub- il 5) 6 . We | O- [ y script figures 1, 2, 3, respectively : | Nenu ao | = ihe Lhe Re L Re * Statement and Exposition of Certain Harmonies in the Solar System (Smithsonian Contributions, 280), p. 16. The simple ratio, 1.4232 is approximated in the nucleal radii of the outer pairs; O= @ = lata VS] 6 = Le. { Op. cit.,p.4. Laminformed by Prof. Alexan er that he announced this ratio be- fore the American Association in 1857. i) 1875.] 655 [Chase. or, if we introduce all of the five great masses: [zs] i i Bie [2] [22 22)", [22 © x © “N © = © x © »< © There is still so much uncertainty as to the masses of Neptune and Uranus, that it is impossible to tell how close this agreement may be, but the deviation from precise accuracy cannot be large. According to Newcomb’s latest determinations of those masses, the equation gives two: values for Saturn, one of which is slightly lirger, the other slightly smaller, than Bessel’s value. By looking a little further we may find relations which can be measured with greater certainty, and are there- fore more satisfactory. La Place found that if the mass of each planet be multiplied by the: product of the square of the eccentricity and the square root of the mean: distance, the sum of all the products will always retain the same magni- tude ; also, that if each of the masses be multiplied by the product of the square of the orbital inclination and the square root of the mean dis- tance, the sum of the products will always remain invariable. Now the square root of the mean distance varies inversely as the velocity of cir-- cular revolution at the mean distance, or inversely as the square root of the velocity of nucleal rotation at the same distance. It is therefore probable that the primitive undulations may have influenced the relative positions as wellas the relative masses of the principal planetary orbs. Stockwell has found* the following relations : I. The mean motion of Jupiter’s perihelion ts exactly equal to the mean motion of the perihelion of Uranus, and the mean longitudes of these pert— helia differ by exactly 180°. IL. The mean motionof Jupiter's node on the invariable plane is exactly equal to that of Saturn, and the mean longitudes of these nodes differ by exactly 180°. Ihave already had frequent occasion to refer to the position of the nebular centre of planetary inertia (y Sie a in Saturn’s orbit. If the four great planets were ranged in aline, Jupiter on one side of the Sun and the other planets on the other, the tidal influences, when Satu:n. was in mean position, would drive Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune to, or towards, their respective aphelia. Those positions would accord with Stockwell’s two theorems, they would approximate the centre of inertia very closely to Saturn’s mean radius vector, and they would make the equation of the products of triangular powers applicable to vector radii, as well as to masses. For the logarithms of mean vector-radii of the: four outer planets, according to Stockwell,t are :— Neptune, mean Aphelion, 1.481951 Neptune, 1.481951 Uranus, 1.501989 (Uranus)? 3.905967 Jupiter, a ¢134588 (Jupiter)? 4.407528: 10 )9.795446: Saturn, mean, 979496 Saturn, 979545 * Memoir on the Secular Variations of the Elements of the Orbils of the Eight Prin- cipal Planets EEN i Contributions, 232), p. xiv t+ Ibid. pp. 5 Chase. ] é 654 [Oct. 15 and Dee. 3, The difference between the actual value of log. h 1. vec., and the value as found by the foregoing equation, VY >< a? << uy? = == |p) a is therefore, only .000049, representing a numerical difference of only ,5 of one per. cent. When the hypothetical nebular condensation had proceeded so far as to show the controlling planetary influence of Jupiter’s mass, the mean peri- helia of Saturn and Uranus were so fixed as to establish the following relationships of harmonic powers : ey ele (eles (Bl DD A bi] ay Ro ae Sul bi) Ay ies Stockwell’s logarithmic values are : Neptune, WY. 1.481951 « Vy 1.473327 a Uranus, G4 1.262996 2 Fe 6 3 1.301989 + Saturn, bh, .957973 6 ho 979496 = ot Jupiter, 2%, . 734588 Ney a EB 1 (a) + & (7-0) + (c-5") = .000085 = log. 1.0002 1 (48) + 3 (7-0) + (2-6) = .000382 = “ 1.0009 The theoretical differ from the actual values, by less than =, of one per cent. in the first, and by less than +; of one per cent. in the second equation. At the hypothetical limit of struggle between opposing forces, which we are now considering, I have shown that the ratio between the velocity of incipient dissociation and the velocity of incipient aggregation is 1 : z This ratio is found to prevail in a comparison of the vector-radii of the aphelion planets in each of the aphelion or supra-asteroidal two-planet belts, with the vector-radii of the perihelion planets in each of the peri- helion or infra-asteroidal belts, as is shown in the following table. The tabular unit is Sun’s radius: A B (A-B) + B Ip << ee 6488.75 W mean 6453.06 —.0022 Ip << a AOA GIL Tp 2049.51 TX Gpepas Se 652.38 h XK x? 207.66 @ perihelion 207.58 +.0004 DX a= 66.10 & «6 68.48 —.0361 @ X x 68.39 & G6 68.48 —.0013 The close accordance between the deviation of h « z—* and @’s mean eccentricity, connects the supra-asteroidal with the infra-asteroidal planets, in a manner which is still further illustrated by the Neptunian, Jovian, and Telluric harmonic series of planetary positions*. In the harmonic series of differences between perihelion nucleal pen- ‘dulums (35), (38), (89), (39, (3%)t the inter-telluric terms were 3 Venus * Ante, xiii, 239. { Ante, xiv, 628. 1875.] 655 [Chase. and } Mercury. If we take seven geometrical means between } Mer- cury’s, and Neptune’s, mean radius-vector, we find the following accord- ances : Theoretical (T). Observed (QO). (T-O) + O. Or 19355 19355 On .36362 .36167 + 0054 2 QO; .68312 68925 —.0090 3, 1.28337 1.23312 + .0407 4 > 2.41103 Boye 4.52954 4.52279 +.0015 Shs 8.50918 8.57149 —.0073 z Oy 15.98670 16.03259 —.0029 8 wy, 30.0334 30.0334 The geometric ratio of the theoretical column is 1.879, or almost pre- cisely the sum of the co-efficients of the Urano-Neptunian belt ({-+ $). It will be observed that the theoretical co-efficients (5 9,2 @...464) are the same as appear in the inter-planetary abscissas of my Centaurus- Heliacal parabola.* The collisions of particles, in their approach to the focus of a paraboloid, would naturally convert parabolic into elliptical orbits ; and particles falling towards a cosmic focus from a distance nr would acquire the dissociative velocity (relatively to the Sun) j/9 gs at ae from the focus. By giving to n, successive values in arithmetical progression, we form the arithmetico-harmonic series, } 3% ? + 2 $ 4, which constitute the peculiar sequence of co-efficients, both in the fore- going geometric series and in the abscissas of the primitive parabola. The bases of the principal planetary harmonies that have been hitherto published, are :—Peirce (phyllotactic), the time of orbital revolution, ¢; Bode, and Alexander, the orbital radius vector, or the radius of possible solar-nebular atmosphere, 7; my own (harmonic), the nucleal radius, p, Their common relations may be thus shown :— : il 2g 2 Peirce, txt xr? p 2 4 Bode, Alexander, raxtar : a p3 oD 3 Chase, oxtaricy! The Saturnian relations of inertia seem to have established the Bode series. For if we take as our unit, »,— 20.08 solar radii, (0, being the nucleus of anebulous sun which would rotate synchronously with Sat- urn’s orbital revolution), we obtain the following values :— Bode (T). Actual (QO). (T-O) = O. 1p) 20.58 h©® nucleus 20.58 4 82.31 comm 83.36 —.013 7 144.04 Qo, 149.95 —.041 10 205.78 @, 207.58 —.00) 16 329.23 ote 329.74 —.092 * Ante, xii, 523-1. Chase. ] 656 [Oct. 15 and Dee. 3, Bode (T). Actual (O). (T-O) + O. 2 726.16 Asteroidal 52 1070.06 Di 1069.62 +..000 100 2057.78 bh, 2049.51 +.004 196 4033.25 6» 4121.76 —.022 [292 6008.71] Uv, 6388.25 —.063 It will be observed that I have interpolated the Neptunian term, but this modification of the Bodeian law, as I have, in part, previously’stated, increases its harmony, by giving three equal differences at each extremity of the series, by placing Earth’s perihelion in a geometrical mean posi- tion between the bh © nucleus and its limit of possible atmosphere, and by marking centres of linear oscillation of successive pendulums. After the hypothetical detachment of the several two-planet belts, and their independent revolution preparatory to cosmical division, the har- monic should replace the geometric ratios. In order to remove the in- fluence of the theoretical planetary pendulum unit (¢@)7) and the slight uncertainty as to the precise period of solar rotation, let us examine the ratios of the several planetary rotation- (or nucleal-) radii, and the con- sequent harmonic differences, according to the above equation of varia- bility, p x @. t p fo} 2408 A491 eo) = 5 7,99 Ne Ip ==) 2 Hates) 19) .6152 184 e+ == 0 = Gelb eS WS oS T. B 1.0000 1.000 ee ORG | 5 ‘ot 1.8808 1.374 6 — YU =5.722 5722 = 24.06 Hye He 2 11.8618 3.444 Y— @ = 2.444 “9444 — 95.92 ae s 2444 56 h 29.4569 5.427 e—-O©= 1.000 “1.000 — 22.91 1.000 56 6 84.0190 9.116 —}Q2 = .392 —s02 — “21.95 .392 56 W 164.7791 WAS yD aes) as MAe ae = a By comparing the radii of «ethereal nebulosity ; of synchronous central and circular oscillation (27 : 7); of incipient aggregation, or constant nr pressure (1.42527) ; and of nebular rupture rae, , we find the fol- lowing accordances : 1. An exthereal atmosphere, rotating with planetary velocity at Sun’s present surface, would have the equatorial velocity of light at 688.337. 3 xX 688.33 2064.99 hs 2049.51 oe 4129.98 6, 4121.86 opie 6194.97 WU, 6388.25 2. If the radial oscillation and the radius of nebular rupture are spe- nr 27 ; cially regarded, r = } radius vector; n = 2; ral ee z radius vector. 1875. ] 657 [Chase. +7 1.6594 ©; 1.6444 1 U, 10.0113 bh, 10.0000 + @, .3383 Oy 3187 3. ae the orbital radius for the radius of linear oscillation, 2 we have eae 1 3° 2 WU 20.0226 65 20.0442 ; Ds 6763 9, .6978 4. Substituting the radius of incipient aggregation and its correspond- ing radius of linear oscillation, we have a a nm = 2.467 2 4,934 2, 4.978 The combined influences of Jupiter and Earth over the asteroidal belt, especially as shown in the second and fourth accordances ; the tendency of their mean radial velocities (at 1.4232 r) and the limiting satellite velocities, to equality at Sun’s present limiting planetary velocity ; the indications of uniform primitive velocity, furnished by the geveral pre- dominance of geometrical ratios and the introduction of harmonic values in the minute details; the @ priori probability of such primitive uni- formity ; the relations of mass and position to orbital times, as well as to atmospheric and nuclear-nebular radii (¢, 7, and p); all point to origi- nating undulations, propagated, as inferred from the ultimate limit of equality towards which the parabolic cometary and mean radial centrif- ugal velocities both tend, with the velocity of light. La Place (Mécanique Celeste, Il, viii, 65-69 ; VI, ii, 12-16 ; etc.) investi- gated a number of inequalities depending on the squares and products of the disturbing forces. In his discussions of the Jovian and Saturnian sys- tems he introduced terms containing the 3d and 5th dimensions of the eccentricities and inclinations. The closeness of the agreements here presented may, perhaps, lead to important considerations involving still higher powers. feat we substitute for the theoretical primitive exponential ratios (1, 1-+- 1-243), the present actual vector radii, (@= W,; B= 623; 7, = ho; y) 5 = 2/,), we find an equation for Saturn’s mean perihelion :— WQS, Pees ele a) If a, 2, 0, represent the mean aphelion vector-radii, we find an equation for Saturn’s mean distance :— O° ROe Male yer (2) If we take powers of ‘ite masses, instead of powers of the vector-radii, equation (2) gives two values for Saturn’s mass, according as we use Newcomb’s greatest value of Neptune’s mass, (wm) deduced from its satellite ; (8) or the least, Caan) deduced from perturbations of 6 (4) es Chase. j 695 (Oct. 15 and Dee. 3, 1875. These equations are immediately suggestive of the numerous familiar equations between the sums of periodic times. The substitution of pro- ducts for sums, and powers for products, indicates the early organizing activity of constant forces, acting with reference to given centres, in elastic media. The solution of equations (1) to (4) is as follows :— (1) Log. 30.08386°-292798 7.687712 CS UG We saehl *VoMS oe Me 202 Coe 17.936362 CG HATZ MSEOs G0 © 21.511361 47.1385435 oé 9.07764530-03386419.183581 47148979 018544 = 49.217441 = .000275 — log. 1.00051 (2) Log. 80.3835515-427351 8.043068 6 -20.04418320.044183-5.427351 19.030955 Se .42735130-3 35.51 22.284102 49.358125 66 9.53885230-8351-- 20.044183 49.346714 .011411 = 50.379693 = .000227 = log. 1.00050 (3), (4) If log. © = 10, the logs. of the assumed masses are :— W (Newcomb, from satellite) 5.712646 U ( ug ‘¢ perturbations) 5.705584 6 ¢ a ) 5.645892 bh (Bessel) 6.455784 MC, >) 6.979689 Substituting these logs. for the aphelion logs. in equation (2), we get for log. h, by using for log. W Satellite value : (8) 6.458198 Perturbation value (4) 6.456489 6.458198 — 6.455734 = .002464 = log. 1.0057 6.456439 — 6.455784 = .000705 = log. 1.0016 659 Stated Meeting, December 3d, 1879. Present, 14 members. Vice-President, Mr. Fratry, in the Chair. Visitors. Mr. Schwartz of the Detroit Scientific Associa- tion, and Mr. Morgan Hart. A letter acknowledging the receipt of Proceedings No. 94, was received from the Victoria Institute, dated London, Noy. 8th, 1875. A communication respecting a so-called Calendarium per- petuum mobile, to be exhibited in 1876 by M. Kesselmeyer, was received from Mr. CO. H. Meyer, Consul for the German Empire at Philadelphia. Donations for the Library were received from the Nether- land Botanical Society; Cobden Club; Glasgow Philosophi- eal Society; Silliman’s Journal; Academy of Natural Sciences; Penn Monthly ; Journal of Pharmacy; Mr. Nys- trom ; and Prof. Kerr of North Carolina. Mr. Britton exhibited and explained certain improvements in his laboratory burettes. Mr. Lesley described the occurrence of certain Carbonifer- ous valleys of erosion, discovered by Prof. Stevenson and Mr. White during the field-work season just closed, in Washington and Greene counties, Pennsylvania, on the hor- izon of the great sand-rock of the Lower Barren Measures, below the Pittsburg coal. Mr. Price communicated a memorandum of the places around Philadelphia recently visited by him, where boulders may be seen. This list of points in the present limits of the city may be of historical interest at a future day. T have lately visited the following excavations through gravel outside the built area of the city. In all are found pebbles and stones rounded by the action of water, and stones of all sizes up to some hundred pounds, unrounded, angular, and but slightly rubbed. Where the gravel is purest and deepest, and undisturbed, stratification is seen, and at a depth of eight or ten feet a black band of cemented gravel divides the gravel from the fine sand below : South side South Street east of new bridge ; south side Woodland Ave- A. P. 8. —VOL. XIv. 44 660 nue, both east and west of Woodlands Cemetery; 46th Street, both south and north of Woodland Avenue; 45th Street, south and north of Kingsessing Avenue, and north of Spruce Street ; Chestnut Street, west of 45th and 47th Streets; intersection of Pennsylvania and Connect- ing Railroads; Girard Avenue, west of 48th Street ; Elm, west of Girard Avenue ; Girard Avenue east of the bridge, in the Park; in the Park east of Connecting Railroad bridge over the Reading Railroad ; Jeffer- son and 28th Streets; Cumberland Street and 15th; and 12th and Cum- berland Streets ; also east of Reading Railroad bridge over the Schuyl- kill, and around the basin in the Hast Park. The ‘‘erratics’’ are found at all heights, twenty to one hundred feet above tide, both sides of the Schuylkill. Prof. Chase described some indications of Saturn’s import- ance in influencing the early planetary aggregations of our system when the Sun was in a nebulous condition. He in- troduced an equation between the masses and distances of the four outer planets, which accorded with other present indications of nebular activity in Saturn. The Treasurer’s annual report was, on motion, postponed, on account of his serious illness. Pending nomination No. 791 was read. Mr. Price presented the following report on the applica- tion of the funds of the Michaux Legacy: December 3, 1875. To tHE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY : I respectfully make report in relation to the expenditure of the income of the Michaux Fund placed at the disposal of the Fairmount Park Commission. The Botanical Committee of the Society, Aubrey H. Smith, Chairman, revised the list of trees proposed to be imported last spring ; and nine hundred and ten trees were imported from James Booth & Sons, Ham- burg, Germany, and arrived and were planted early in May last. They were fine, healthy, well-grown trees, and were generally in good order when received. There were one hundred and forty-five species and varieties of Maple, Horse-Chestnut, Ailantus, Alder, Birch, Horn- beam, Spanish-Chestnut, Catalpa, Beech, Laburnum, Ash, Larch, Pop- lar, Prunus, Pterocarya, Pyrus, Oak, Lorbus, Linden, Willow. There are now growing of this and the previous importation by the same Michaux Fund, one thousand one hundred and seventeen trees and shrubs, of two hundred and sixty-seven species and varieties. These are all in the nursery, where they will remain until of a size to be planted out in the “ Michaux Grove’’ and elsewhere over the Park. 661 I have collected from the Woodlands Cemetery, formerly the seat of William Hamilton, and from the Marshall Garden, and with the aid of Dr. George Smith of Delaware County, and Aubrey H. Smith, Esq., from other places, considerable quantities of acorns and seeds without cost, and had them planted in the Nursery of the Park, in furtherance of Mr. Michaux’s purpose, to wit: of the European Oak, the English White Oak, Red, Scarlet, White, Black, Post, Willow, Swamp, Chestnut, Rock and Overcup White Oaks ; and the seeds of the Sweet Gum. The Bartram acorns came from Humphrey Marshall of Marshallton, Chester county ; and a lot of them, separately planted, were procured by Dr, Leidy from a forest tree, near Columbus, N. J. Mr. A. H. Smith, in sending these says, ‘‘If these, or any of them, germinate we shall have an authentic specimen of the Bartram oak at last.”’ In addition to the duty of making the Society acquainted with the manner in which its funds have been used, I have in view the purpose to invite through your publication, the contribution to the Fairmount Park Nursery, of acorns and seeds of all rare forest trees that will stand our climate, by friends of the Park, and lovers of trees and science whereso- ever they may be, with the expectation that the Park will ia the future become a point of distribution of rare trees to other Parks and of their fruits. The Park Commission stipulated with this Society, March 12, 1870, that after planting the Michaux Grove, any surplus of the income of the Michaux Fund ‘‘shall be devoted to the cultivation of Oaks of every variety capable of cultivation in our climate, in the Park Nursery, which Oaks, to the extent of two of each kind cultivated, (shall) be hereafter distributed to other Public Parks in the United States.’’ Of acorns and seeds the only limitation would be in the production of the trees. ELI K. PRICE, Chairman of the Committee of Fairmount Park upon Trees and Nurseries, and Chairman of the Committee of the Society on the Michaux Fund. On motion of Mr. Price, it was Resolved, That Thos. O’Donnell and Albert S. Allshause be respectfully invited to furnish this Society, at each of its meetings, a report of their borings on the south side of Elm Avenue, near the Centennial buildings, and to furnish the museum of the Society with specimens of the rocks bored through. On motion of Mr. Price, it was Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed to make arrangements for the delivery of the address of the Hon. Wm. Strong on the life and character of the Hon. Horace Binney. 662 Mr. Price, Mr. Fraley, Mr. H. J. Williams, Mr. Hopper and Judge Sharswood were appointed the committee. On motion of Mr. Lesley, the Secretaries were authorized to complete the set of the Society’s Proceedings and Trans- actions in the Library of the University of Pennsylvania, receiving in return such duplicates as are in that Library. The Secretaries were instructed to prepare a reply to the communication of Herr C. Kesselmeyer, transmitted to this Society by Mr. Chas. Il. Meyer, German Consul, and member of the Centennial Commission of the German Em- pire (224 8. Fourth street, Philadelphia), stating that the regulations of the Society will not admit of a compliance with his request. And the meeting was adjourned. Stated Mecting, December 17th, 1875. Present, 10 members. Vice-President, Mr. Fratny, in the Chair. Donations for the library were received from M. Donisotte of Turin; the Royal Prussian and Belgian Academies; Revue Politique; London Nature ; Boston Natural History Society ; Cambridge Museum ; Franklin Institute ; Medical News, and the U. 8. Department of the Interior. The committee on the paper of Drs. Le Conte and Horn, entitled “ On the Rhyncophora of North America,” reported in favor of its publication as a separate Volume (XV, No. 96, of the Proceedings). On motion, it was so ordered, with an appropriation of fifty dollars for illustrations ; the Secre- tary being authorized to commence the minutes of 1876 as No. 97, Vol. XVI. The Committee to which was referred the Memoir on the Rhyncophora of N. America by Drs. LeConte and Horn, report that they have exam- ined the MSS. and find the following facts. The memoir consists of about five hundred MSS., equal to about four hundred printed pages, and require a few simple wood cuts in the text, costing about twenty-five dollars, and one lithograph plate costing about twenty-five dollars. Dr. Horn proposes to draw on the wood himself. 665 [ Brinton. The subject is of great scientific interest, being a new classification of eleven families of Coleopterous insects in three series, upon the basis of a wider and closer study of all their features than has yet been made ; and after personal inspection of the cabinets of Europe. The families of insects described belong to the class of weevils in the language of agri- culture. We recommend that the memoir be printed separately as No. 95 and Vol. XV of the Proceedings, with the necessary appropriation of fifty dollars for illustrations ; and that the Secretaries be authorized to com- mence the publication of the Proceedings of 1876 with No. 96, page 1, Vol. XVI. Dr. Brinton communicated the results of his correspond- ence with Dr. Valentini, of Mexico, and read a statement of Dr. Valentini’s theory of the Calendar Stone, asa votive tablet to the Sun God, deducing important historical data therefrom. Dr. Brinton reported that the MSS. had been sent to him, and moved the appointment of a committee to report whether it deserved publication. Dr. Brinton, Prof. Ken- dall and Mr. Lesley were appointed the committee. The author, in the introductory part of his memoir refutes the theory prevalent on the meaning of the Mexican Calendar Stone. This theory was advanced by Don Leon y Gama, in the year 1490, and may be con- densed into the following : The stone is a sun dial, and has the additional function of showing : 1. The two transits of the sun by the zenith of the City of Mexico. 2. The two equinoctial days. os. The day of the Summer Solstice. The way of ascertaining these days has been to set above the stone an apparatus, constructed of eight vertical poles, whose points were cou- nected by threads ; and the shadows of these threads, on the above said days, would fall upon the surface of the dial, and cut the figure of the re spective hieroglyphics and thus determine the day of the celestial phe- nomenon. The day of the Winter Solstice is supposed to be sculptured upon another stone of the same kind, which is still to be discovered. The author shows that the stone lacks all the requirements necessary for representing a sun dial ; he doubts, whether the Mexicans had been acquainted with the existence of the named astronomical days ; he further proves that the two hieroglyphics, or the pretended equinoctial, and the two for the pretended Transit days, simply refer to the four tablets that represent the four destructions of the world, and that they designate the “days on which the Mexicans were accustomed to celebrate a feast in order to commemorate those pre-historic events ; and, finally, that the day for the pretended Summer Solstice turns out to be the hieroglyphic for the Valentini. } 664 five Mexican supplementary days, called the nemotemi (5 + 360 days). Hence, the premises of this theory being incorrect, the conclusion must be incorrect also. The theory of the author is the following : The Mexican Calendar Stone ts a votive monument dedicated to the Sun God in the year XIII Acetl. As in the series of the fifty-two years, which form a Mexican cycle, the year of the name XIII Acetl was the last one, the people looked at it with fright. For they believed that the Sun God, at the lapse of each cycle would destroy the world, and, therefore, the happy entrance of a new cycle was considered by the people to be a special in- dication of his mercy. The motives of the dedication thus explained, the author transcribes the year XII[ Acetl, which is sculptured in a tablet at the top of the stone, into that of 1479 of our era, and gives the reasons for doing so. He then proceeds to ascertain the person to whom the stone was dedicated, and from the central position of an image, from its orna- ments, and from a hieroglyphic sculptured on its frontlet, he comes to the conclusion that this image is that of the sun god, Atoniatuh. These preliminary questions settled, the author passes to the minute description and final definition of all those hieroglyphics which in suc- cessive and concentric zones surround the image of Atoniatuh. He says, as the intention was to glorify the Sun God, the great giver of time, the artist chose to sculpture in the spaces of the concentric zones all those symbols by which the Mexicans used to represent time and its division. In the immediate vicinity of the image the artist placed the zone of the Aeons, in the form of four tablets upon which the four destructions of the world, the most ancient deeds of the Sun God, are found to be sculptured. Next comes the zone of the twenty days, which constitute a Mexican month. Each of these twenty days has its special image. Then comes the zone of the twohundred and sixty Lunar days, divided into weeks, each of these being subdivided into five days; and around this zone lies that of the one hun- dred Solar days ; for, according to their peculiar way of computing time the circle of the ancient Mexican year was split into those portions. The five days wanting to make their year a more correct one will be seen to be intercalated within the space between the tablets of the two last destruc- tions of the world. The sixteen hours of the Mexican day are represented by gnomons, which at proportionate distances intersect the zones. The last zone, girdling the whole monument is occupied by the symbols for the cycle. Thus, every kind of symbols representing division of time will be found to b2 sculptured on the monument and brought into symmetri- cal relation to the image of him whom they considered to be the primeval origin of all time. Special attention has been paid by the author to the Zone of the Cycles, which he calls the Chronological Zone. It is divided into twenty-four tablets. Each of these is like the other and contains the picture which was employed for designating the lapse of a cycle of fifty-two years. It 665 [ Valentini. shows a shaft, vertically placed upon a disk, rom which four flashes of smoke and fire curl up. By this picture was expressed the solemn act of re-kindling the sacred fire ; a ceremony which took place before the assembly of the whole people in the last hour of the cyclical year. The identity of this picture, sculptured, with that painted in the Mexican Codies is exemplified by copies taken from the large collection of Lord Kingsborough, and its correct interpretation is warranted by referring to the authentic text. The author now says: That, if the stone evidently was consecrated in the year 1479 : if further, the tablet containing the sign for this year not only is fixed at the top of the monument, but also, within this cycle-zone and at its top : and finally, if two large pointers are seen to lead the two halves of this zone toward this same tablet of 1479—the artist’s intention has been to give to understand that the Mexicans, in the year 1479, had counted the sum of twenty-four cycles elapsed, or twenty-four festivals celebrated in honor of their Sun god. Twenty-four cycles represent the sum of one thonsand two hundred and forty-eight years. This sum subtracted from the year 1479 leads back toa year of our era equivalent to 231 A.D. Hence, the stone not only shows division of times, generally, but also a definite quantity of time, which the benignant Deity had granted to his people. To find a chronological record of this kind sculptured upon this monument appears to be in full concordance with its votive character. The author is of the opinion, that by the year 231 A.D. the date has been expressed from which the civilized races of Mexico and Yucatan began to reckon a new political or religious era. His computations of the chronologies written by Satlilxodritl, Veytia and Chimalpopoca, and of that of the Maya-people, have given him an almost identical result. The variations are : 231 A.D., 242 A.D., and 245 A.D. - Dates prior to these, and mentioned in Mexican history, can now be correctly determined. Thus, the year X Calli, that of an universal eclipse of the Sun, is equivalent to our year 137 A.D.=Lapse of the great Sothic period in the Orient, and coinciding with the Mexican date of the departure of the civilizing races from the distant Zulapan. The year 1 Tecpatl proves to be equivalent to 29 B. Cr. = Introduction of the Julian calendar in Asia Minor by Cesar Octavianus, and it is called by the Mexicans: the meeting of the Astrologers in Huehuetlapallan for the purpose of correcting the calendar. These latter suggestions do not enter into the memoir, but will be more extensively treated in a later paper, if that of the Mexican Calendar Stone should meet with a favorable reception. SS SS SSE Mr. Walter presented to the library of the Society, as a gift from Mr. John McArthur, Jr., architect of the New 666 Public Buildings of Philadelphia, several photographs of ornamental portions of the work, remarking that he consid- ers the style of ornamentation inaugurated in these build- ings, aS surpassing in design and modeling, any esthetic embellishments in architecture ever before attempted in the United States. Ile called the attention of the members especially to a head of the late Hon. Horace Binney sculp- tured in high relief on the keystone of the arch-way lead- ing tothe Judiciary, remarking that it was modeled from a photograph of Mr. Binney taken about a year before his death, and furnished for the occasion, by his daughter, Mrs. Montgomery. Allegorical faces in high relief, representing Remorse, Sympathy, Knowledge, Commerce and Liberty; also the head of a buffalo, the head of a lioness, and other devices adorn the various keystones, no two being alike, and each representing an apparent idea or association. As the ornate portions of the buildings are modeled and photographed, the Society will be furnished with copies for the library. . Mr. Blazius read a paper On the influence of Air on Life, and the connection of the westward growth of cities with modern meteorology. A discussion ensued in which Mr. Price, Mr. Walter, Mr. Lesley, Mr. Fraley, Mr. Briggs and Dr. Horn took part. Pending nomination 791 was read. The stated business of the evening was postponed on ac- count of the continuous illness of the Treasurer. The Committee on Judge Strong’s address reported that it should be delivered on the 5th of January next, at 8 o’clock P. M., in Musical Fund Hall. And the meeting was adjourned. Dee. 17, 1875.3 667 [Blasius. SOME REMARKS ON THE CONNECTION OF METEOROLOGY WITH HEALTH. By WititaAmM Buasius. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, December 17th, 1875.) Sometime ago an architect asked me the question whether I could assign a philosophical reason for the well-known fact, that during all ages, cities, where topographical impediments do not interfere, extend as a general rule from east to west, and that the wealthiest people are al- ways in the advance. As an instance of this kind, I will remind you of the West End in London, and of our fashionable Chestnut, Walnut, Spruce, and Pine Streets, which have grown steadily in this manner from the Delaware to the Schuylkill. I had before paid some attention to this question under a somewhat different form, namely : What influence in reference to aerial currents: has the position of a city or a dwelling house on the health of the in- habitants ? In speaking of a healthy or unhealthy location of a city cr a house we hear frequently, in the reasoning on these points, the remarks made that it is on high or low ground, indicating thereby that a house is respectively healthy or unhealthy. This generally conceived impression has doubt- less been derived from the idea that low ground must necessarily form a swamp, ia which malarial gases are generated. Although this may be the case in many instances where no drainage exists and the ground is im- pervious to water, it is not always so; for the formation of a swamp de- pends more upon the geological formation than upon the altitude. I have seen Swamps on mountains as well as on low ground, and houses close to | a swamp on low ground perfectly healthy, while those standing on high ground and far off from a swamp were most unhealthy. The cause of malarial diseases must then be found in some other conditions, also. Twenty or thirty years ago, when geology became more fully developed, medical men tried to find the cause of many diseases in the nature of the soil or in geological conditions, and I have no doubt that this has, indi- rectly, something to do with our health. A Jittle later some diseases were traced directly to impure drinking-water. But it is only recently, that physicists began to suspect the air as the principal mischief maker. And if we consider that we eat only three times a day, drink water but © twice as much, but drink or breathe air about fifteen times every minute, it becomes at least very probable that the air is the chief culprit that smuggles the poisonous matter into our system. For we inhale eighteen cubic feet of air every hour, or four hundred and thirty-two per day; and three-fourths of our weight has been built up of its material. This enormous consumption of air is performed almost unconsciously, at least without paying any attention to its quality, as we would naturally do ia drinking-water. Because the air is invisible and tasteless the majority of people are scarcely aware of its existence, much less of its impurities A. P. S.— VOL. XIV. 4H Blasius.] 668 [Dee. 17, in certain localities, particularly in large cities. The most wonderful discoveries have been made in this direction by Ehrenberg, Schroeder, Pasteur, Dr. Smith, Schwann, Cohn, Dr. Bastian, Tyndall, Pettenkofer, and others. Schroeder succeeded first in filtrating air by letting it pass through chemically pure gotton into a glass cylinder, from which the air had been exhausted by an air-pump. The eminent French chemist, Pasteur, by using chemically pure gun cotton, which he, after the filtration, dissolved in ether, succeeded in enllecting all impurities of the filtrated air, and subjecting the fluid to a microscopic investigation, he observed myriads of fungi and still smaller living organisms as Bacteria and Vibriones in it. He says: ‘‘It appears that our knowledge of contagious diseases, especially at periods when epidemics rage, would be increased by work carried out in this direction.” Following his own suggestions, he was enabled to prescribe a means of preventing the disease known as ‘‘pébrine,’?’ which made such havoc amongst the silkworms in France. Schwann showed that a fluid which produced myriads of such lower living organisms if left in contact with ordinary air, would keep free of them if first boiled and then brought in contact with air previously heated to redness ; proving thus clearly that the germs of life came from the air. It also was proved that meat, fruit, etc., will preserve in pure air from one to two years and that fermentation and decomposition is carried on by the assistance of such minute organisms in the air. The conclu- sious, then, are not so far off from the truth that such minute parasites if in sufficient numbers, may, in entering on the wings of the air into our system, attack delicate or diseased organs, producing fevers, such as diphtheria, scarlet fever, etc. In the fall and spring, the times of sudden weather changes, we see an ordinary cold or catarrh in children change frequently into diphtheria, or other similar diseases. Blackley considers he has proved that hay fever is caused by the in- halation of air containing pollen in considerable quantity, which adheres to the membranous lining of the larynx and air-passage and causes secre- tion from these parts. A solution of quinine, which is destructive to minute forms of life, has been shown by Helmholtz to be an effective ap- plication in cases of this disagreeable malady. Tyndall, in 1870, gave usa means of investigation supplementary to the microscope, and of extreme delicacy. He proved that particles, which in a liquid are quite invisible under an object glass readily show- ing bodies of 100,005 of an inch in diameter, were revealed with greatest ease by means of a beam of light. Ifthe air were pure, a beam of sun- light traversing a darkened room would be invisible except where it struck upon the wall. The scattering of the light by floating dust and living organisms makes the track luminous to the naked eye. We may, to a certain extent, see these impurities dancing in a beam of light which enters through the shutters into a darkened room. 1875. ] 669 [Blasius. Dr. Smith made an experiment with a bottle holding five litres, which was refilled five hundred times with Manchester air. Dancer in examin- ing this quality of air with magnifying powers from 120 to 1,600 diameters of an inch found the following bodies : 1. Particles of vegetable tissue, many of them partially burnt and quite brown in color. 2. Fragments of vegetation resembling in structure hay, straw and hay seeds. 3. Hairs of plants and fibres resembling flax. 4, Cotton fibres both white and coiored. 5. Starch granules. 6. Wool white and colored. 7. In greatest abundance fungoid matter, spores and sporidia varying in size from 15 jo b0 so/o00 Of an inch in diameter. Many of the spores were living and developed forms resembling rust and mildew. A calculation was made as to their number in the following manner : Under each field of the microscope there were more than one hundred spores. In each drop of liquid there were over 250,000 ; the whole quan- tity consisting of one hundred and fifty drops there were in this water no fewer than 374 millions of spores visible. This quantity of air is the amount respired by an average sized man actively employed during ten hours in Manchester. There is then hope that science soon will trace the sonrce of many if not all of those mysterious deadly diseases and epidemics, and in finding their source, the remedy and preventive will be furnished at the same time. So much, however, is now already known that those destructive minute or- ganisms in company with the well-known poisonous and noxious gases, originate principally in localities where vegetable and animal matter are decomposing ; in thickly populated cities, on and underneath the pave- ment, gutters, yards,—in swamps and rivers into which sewers throw their contents. Here the air must become, so to say, saturated with these deadly poisons. We, therefore, understand that thoughtful people abhor such places, and flee away from them. But as the air loaded with these deadly poisons, does not stay where it generates, nor flow promis- cuously in all directions, it becomes of some importance to know where we have to go, so as not to meetit; and here comes the youngest of the physical sciences, Meteorology to our assistance. In a lecture which I had the honor of delivering before you some two years ago, I showed that air in its motion follows strict laws the same as water, and that the direc- tion and nature of its currents are dependent upon the season, the configu- ration and nature of the surface of the earth. According to these laws we experience in our latitude during Summer a prevailing current from the southern semi-circle principally from the southwest, south or west ; inthe Winter a prevailing current from the northern semi-circle, principally from northwest and north. Air of thesame temperature or currents flowing in la Blasius. ] 670 [Dee. 17, the same direction do not mix much. Thus an offensive air-current coming from the opening of a large culvert would be perceived overa distance of 5 to 6 blocks, but only in space corresponding in width and depth to the opening from whence it issues. As the development of or- ganized life,as well as of other noxious elements, in the air takes place principally during the warm season, when the prevailing wind in our lati- tude comes from the southwest, it follows that a house or a city tothe north, northeast, or east of a source of such disease-brewing miasmas cannot be healthy, whether they lie high or low, or even if they are far off from this seurce ; but if they are situated to the south, southwest or west, of such a hot-bed of miasma, they will not suffer from such locali- ties, even if it is close by and on low ground. As the miasma carrying southern current is warm and rises over the highest mountains, it certainly will reach a house ora city lying 10 or 100 feet higher thanaswamp. I know houses close to a swamp or river, those southwest of them are per- fectly healthy, while those much further off, higher and to the north- east of them are uninhabitable on account of malarial fever. Illus- trations of this apparent anomaly are frequent. Along low swampy yivers in summer you will find the eastern shore unhealthy, while the western shore is healthy. To bring matters home to us, I would say that West Philadelphia generally, even the Almshouse and Pennsylvania University, so close to the swamps of the Schuylkill, enjoy, during the dangerous warm season, the purified air from ag- ricultural Delaware county, while the fashionable residences along the eastern shore of the Schuylkill are most exposed to the mi- asmatic air from the Schuylkill, into which the sewers throw their contents, from the swamps algng its western shore, and from the lower portion of the city. Camden, situated to the east of two such rivers, with theirswamps, and an artificial swamp between them, this ci-y has still more to suffer. A friend wishing to buy a house upon the western slope of Brooklyn Heights was advised by physicians to choose rather the eastern side ; since upon the western slope, even at the summit, malarial fevers are more numerous and more virulent. The reason for this is obvi- ously that the wind which brings the miasma from the river and the low lands to the west and southwest is a warm one, and thus reaches the highest point west of Brooklyn Heights, but passes high above the lower land to the east. As little as any of us would like to drink the water of a river in which decomposition from vegetable and animal matter is go- ing on, so little would we like to drink out of an air current saturated much more with poisonous gases and destructive organisms, if our eyes and tongue were sensible of it. This is the reason why a house in the west- ern portion of a city is more healthy than one in the eastern or northern portions, and why cities extend to the west, not to the north, except where impediments determine their direction ; in this case those living most to the north will have to pay the penalty in the rate of death. This is also the reason why in a well regulated city no noxious factories should be allowed on its western or southern side, such as the limekiln above 1875. ] 671 { Blasius, Chestnut street, the gas works above Market street, cemeteries, etc. Any one who wants practical illustrations of the different effects of the ‘same air current on the western and eastern side of the Schuylkill, may pay attention to his breathing before and after passing the Chestnut street bridge. It is also a reason why the streets of acity should run from southwest to northeast, and from northwest to southeast, in order that during the warm season the prevailing currents could ventilate them and change the poisonous air which generates in the streets and yards. Itis probably the reason why in cities certain diseases become epidemic as it enlarges, which before are comparatively unknown. How the direction and nature of prevailing air currents affect the health of cities can be seen by comparing the rate of death in two suc- cessive years, of which one brings quite a tropical, the other a more are- tic climate, during summer. - This would seem to be due fully as much to miasma as to the direct effects of the heat on the system. The Public Ledger of July 14, 1874, had an article comparing the health of Philadelphia for the period June 15th to July 15th, of the years 1872, 1873 and 1874, in which the writer seems toascribe the improvement manifested to better arrangements in city government. This of course would have its effect, but the difference seems to me unquestionably due in large part to the difference in the prevailing air-currents. From the data the Ledger article furnishes, I have compiled the follow- ing comparison of mortality in the principal diseases, which is very strik- ing in view of the fact that in June and July of 1872, the prevailing cur- rents were from the southern semi-circle, and in the same time of 1874, from the northern semi-circle : 1872. 1874. EQUATORIAL CURRENT. POLAR CURRENT, HAteliua ti Shera re raat 8 Ss Ors Rees chp: 135 oul J CIGT SS pean aAeTS! Copan ec aCeOnBRaee Eas 1118 301 Cholera infantum...................... 713 | als Marasmus......... SHR erase oR e 96 56 Webility im) Infants sye.sccess aeeee see 84 38 (CON WISIOMNGS Sodoacosd bodes docobateodubesE 96 49 Cholera; monbusec sects eee 31 1 I have compared 1872 and 1874, because the contrast is strikingly marked ; the mortality during the same weeks of 1873 was about midway between, in conformity with the air-currents. The whole subject is of the greatest interest and the utmost import- ance ; and the field of inquiry a very wide one, promising the most satis- factory results. I have given these few suggestions merely to call attention to the sub- ject. Walter. | 672 [ Dee. 17, Discussion. Mr. Walter remarked that he considered the imperfect construction of ewers, cess-pools and traps connected with sinks and water-closets as the great source of many of our worst diseases. We have, it is true, a very general under-ground drainage throughout our city, but that is not all we need; our sewers and ducts may all be well enough, as far as they go, but unless it is rendered absolutely impossible for the foul air they contain being forced back, through imperfect traps, into our dwellings, we had better have no underground drainage at all. Carelessly-jointed pipes, inferior fittings, badly-constructed traps, and unventilated soil pipes cannot fail to admit the sewer gas into our houses, which becomes a prolific source of disease and death. Pipes which drain bath-tubs and washstands are often introduced into soil pipes without trapping, and thus become conduits to convey the worst of sewer gases into our chambers ; and even when such pipes a7e trapped the work is so unskillfully done as to render the traps liable to be siphoned out by de- scending water from above. He stated that he had a case of this kind to happen in a house of his own, where the plumbing was admirably done— it was an oversight, soon corrected, but there should be no oversights in the plumbing of a house. Nothing about house-building demands our consideration more seriously than the work of the plumber. Another evil exists in the imperfect construction of sewers, and a want of skill in their design and location. Many sewers discharged into tide- water with their openings so much depressed as to bring the top below high tide ; this causes a flow when the tide is up, which forces the air back through traps and cess-pools with great power, and if sufficient vent is not found the sewer will rupture in its weakest spot. He re- marked that he knew of a case of this kind, where the water and filth were forced several feet above the pavement—nothing will make a sewer so located safe, but an ample ventilating shaft, properly con- structed. Besides these sources of disease and discomfort there are others, many of which were alluded to in the interesting paper just read to the Society by Dr. Blazius. This subject may well engage the most careful study of the scientist. Dr. Horn said: While there are atmospheric influences affecting the health of the masses generally, in cities, which are at times troublesome or next to im- possible to obviate, there are causes within the dwellings of our population no less potent, and which are entirely within our control. It has been noticed by many not members of the medical profession that typhoid fever, scarlatina and diphtheria prevail with great frequency among the better classes of our population (especially typhoid fever); and to such an extent has this prevailed that scarcely a family is found in ~_ 1875.] 673 [Horn,. which no one of the members has been affected, while in many several cases have occurred. This prevalence may be thought all the more re- markable when we consider the great external and internal cleanliness of the houses of our better classes of citizens. There can be but little doubt that our house-drainage has contributed more to the detriment of the health of the above-mentioned citizens than those causes which are generally complained of. Owing to faulty con- struction of the drain-pipes, sewer gases find ready entrance into our houses and in certain directions of the wind and during a high tide these gases are driven backward from the mouths of the main sewers, and the offensive odorsare perceived in the rooms in which are water-closets or sta- tionary washstands. These gases force themselves through the usual traps because there is no other means usually provided for their exit. Every house provided with a system of under-drainage should have a draft-pipe of large size leading from the drain upward, in a straight line above the roof of the house and open at tbe top so that a free draft may be allowed. Into this all water-closets or other waste-pipes should enter ata right angle, after a proper trap, and no waste-pipe should empty into any conductor unless the latter extend above the roof and be open at the top. Any attempt at obviating the evil, such as small draft- pipes from each water-closet to a chimney, etc., has been proven practically to be of no.value. The fault in the construction of the water-closets consists in placing that of the upper story, practically on the end of the main conducting pipe, and it is for this reason that it has been noticed that water-closets which are highest in the house are most offensive. Thus no external draft for gases is allowed for, and their entire volume must be discharged in the house, greatly to the detriment of the health of the inhabitants. The remedy suggested is easy of accomplishment, cheap, and effectual. The ordinary methods of warming our houses by means of heaters of varying construction in the cellars, have without doubt some effect on those who breathe the air sent through the house from the cellar. Cellars are not usually the cleanest portions of dwellings, and are too often left to the care of servants, to become the respositories of rubbish, and at times filth, which accummulate, and the usual dampness of cellars together with the even temperature maintained are favorable to slow putrefactive processes, which yield germs by no means harmless. There can be but one remedy for this evil. All air to be distributed in a heated form should be drawn from the external atmosphere, and as hot air is distributed by means of pipes so also can pure air be obtained from the outside and taken directly to the hot chamber of the heater. These remarks are necessarily short, but will, I hope, serve to call the attention of architects, and builders to at least two very serious defects in the ‘‘better class’’ of houses. INDEX TO VOLUME XIV. New Nominations Read. MAONLONTAL Na eEae acs < otiocrroca te ase ae 5 MAG COMTA TOL 2 cle). sizc es scce Beene is Semcon 9 ARUN TO Nt te abasic oe eae ara e ect 12 HOO MOU isa sons cas saeheceieie cede ees 14 TBSMUOPTO OL ieee nheniclag socks gale een see 177 BID TATSS A tice ec aae siecle nna secrete 180 TOO MONT OSH IAael-tashesak casio wane 183 OLR Cecio s te ce latubese wa tiee en 185 MODE et Sei tebe teas sable se go eeeae 299 TOE wo tdanado nena ne deere te earn 420 Page UBy Wo ossoocoaccacsnaccoocosdnaobued 426 WED WO 1 Bacoseoccoongcoqoocs0os0b0G000 427 WUD codoondoctensosoccoopoduGoob oopEbNe 432 Utley Ue kH0oc coop ndo0sabadsoCoUACKO ONS 432 UMaccocaocoscoocosoodo0 cod b6000n00000e 433, UBD>s assncdandapsosoceboscK00D a0. 0000RdS 434 Well, UP boosoocopoacdonoo0eDGcoN|eK. weee 440 UBBSeccoogos6d0ccadps OCC aDDGDCOSdOCRsOO 659 EEO Wodooooododosccc50000000000000 642 UDlocdcoossccsvasdodonnndodds0500d00n90 643 Members Elected. * Members who have accepted by letter. + Members who have taken their seats. C/ANEENSSSEITAO Gaeta ey eee ee Cy | AMO Aveta Dib Snopsecouccnosense oon 437 AUT SONU erepelrevsiarsveriererstscieieiieiets cisiersie 437 CAM IO}, (Crs IDs conossodaroneuonnbcocKdO 645 AN MOG GOMER, (CBaacosgoosancaboueduaod 180 (HEGRE, do lPsosoocsoccdoodcendcun000 422 PORSTLZLUS eV) 8. cweieiccaniereieeeiarain ence hOerors GAS || HE CMAEHOM, 19. ccoeoodcogesdoacoonsos 437 IBiRON pa, ds Oseacsoosospanseacspeonnee 18 PIA, IM co ncoanco00 denoaoonon0cecdcc 180 ip CEMA, Wi ccoocpsosus0p000 ei aeeine 18 SAIPAN) 185 Mies soonsoneanae ns iste pate 437 e(Chnmm OGL dls We doacéanoodaoc000K0c 639 IPROC WO, 18, Jo rosasod ocopeapo0D0DCe D8 18 Cs © ATM aD hae Byeyavatereraraiers) sieve) cbatetslessheyelcievelovate 645 EZ UIA Cnyameewetrendeeteteletcietettetesveretrate 18 (Olnemahicse (Ge 1 Peon cqscopaocasanoooncG 437 IR NO, IRs WY 5 G6 conoosacaoo0s 90006 185 (Olne yon, Jal ooaooaecodsooceuaSongod - 437 Araya MAG, Je, Wceonoeq0d0sqon000000 437 “OUD, Ao Mosousaodosc0H00n00K0000 185 ASH KAH AIG, fS)5 15 Godoooos0doupa0RGDDORGDN 186 SIDIRD Wa, Ahh Wi aopoadocogoaooueeoodaD[ 639 Solan Jala 185 Oinccaoscoocsogouss0c0 186 1=12\-\e\e\\ei0)e ele o\s\e\ejein[n ojo 13 ictitellmiavel, DoE eaoqncoooqoeonb soodeTouD coco duscbeDbHOaD00 sadno gon Dogg obaaQUedONIGDDONS 184 K. K. Geol. Reich, Vienna... 0.2.0.0... cece cc ec sce reer cn cee ste nns tae eecessrrcerecs 1, 421 SGA S SRW refelelsriclelereletelelalereleioler=ts By SO ESTERS DPR SIN SYate LC VaVOP ETE Coe a ehev cteictotoletelsisisiarsie!s \s 0. dlele: siajsis 183 IDPHOTENEN [Ss IP S5ocqbo0ednda650b0c00 20000005000 0000000500000000 000 00000000005 o00050D000 428 Leed’s Philosophical and biieneny OGLE tiysryeteyseerereieteietetelerereleiete nterelolaleleloieiaiel-)-]-1-l=1-1o\0\elele\e 185 TLOTPARS, TT cooonancoeanosHpodasoOaNdd00NDNs DoDUdONGA 0 boo UGG DDD GUODOdeSaDUGOsMDRUGDDO 175 Linnean Society of Normandy..........-......00.-00-e ee eee doantnce canes cospoedo 427 Thinnean Society of Lyons......... 0.000. cece cence cee ee eee re cece recesses tt eccseee 421 London Horticultural Society... ......... 5.0. c secs ee ccs eee e nce e eet ee enter ene astcvaces 421 INEM, IDNs WVBNH 560 conden casn0onD noo coda oG0ce eonoDou oooDODSOOADGS0000000 0000000 1 New Jersey Natural History Society............. ..cccesseceeresteeernr ee cee trees 432 NOMA, IRON) ClOsacondooano0evocccsoqda0sbodd0 dp bavuadoanpoDodbqDDGeGUDb0CDoC0GR0D 299 (Cane) SMwe Iolo, |G oooGooes onaboood cneboDDcDD oO eGD oo Fo00ndoD0NGdd000600009050000 00 183 anes ONem Eur cette teten iterate refer teteteletetstctateterleleteleleteretelerelolelalefeletelaleteleleioleteletstsiei=tatel--1-1 174, 646, 49, 50 utnamyseys ons) CAumberst |G Olle ge) eecle-)-alerere erelele a cielelelei-)e\sleelels 419 IRARNOUN IbihieNAy SICCIEIN 5565000000 0000505000 000000000090 00dd0dK0000000800007106 500000 183 TWEMeAWAL, Wl oc o5 dncon oe ocoHddooDEOOan DOD dO ONO DOOD ADO NDO DODD DODOD ODO O00 OGOdEnuOD5500000 646 IR@\yel PRU ACTEM ctococcscodsosoaboD bOpe soo deDD0d05UGG0c0 D0DD0000005000000 439 Royal Belgian Academy (Quetelet’s Monument)....°..... 00... ee eee ee eect e ee 421 Royal Geographical Society, London.............e. eee ne ce cece ree eens eteceerscence 419 Silesian SOGlothy mip RES n acoccabaadouconooo do be oDccGDGgUSdGBScO bo DoaDoanDoEOOoND 13 Society of Biblical Archeology at London............. BABA GdouA OOD oOEeoRooTonaUooGD 641 Société de Science Naturelle de Strasbourg........-.......2 sees geese eee cece ee neee 178 Summers, 8. V..... ccna hund ao nu bb dso odoncanSooaenedoosadeubonsoouoES Sodoscqo0dgd000 15 MPeNS Gtodoouosusdbodaped cues GougodandEeouooooboEdooepodeaunEgDOSnoDSadooeDObogE an a0 182 TMP OMEP Be OOsscaccccvarcosacndac0goad0n odo 00scad0000G0000000 085000000004 50000000 dodo. Gee) Waldheim, Fischer de (Semicentennary).............. cece cere w eres r necro nenne 637 Viv Taltitialie@m, WWooosassocodsosacoun ono nso6desunOs oND ODO DUH OSGoGDdDoSOUNDSONNaEDS000I000 427 \WV Hii r, 18, S\ooogo cop pos oanaasdanodanobaadobbsoaosoosudoud0cUDoDcoGDDe0NSAG00RDd0 427 Business of the Society. IBM Gliynes 1D wil IMACS? IRN Asaooonoducandad90 SbooDodOeDDDObOnaODOSG00Ds:-GooSsDKC 425 ELEN Wtlelkeerezy ola iwOlEr@Clocacooncn nde docad ooad dado OODDDODbOUNOnOGuUGUONOOGOd OD OOGDODON 432 sey! IsyoeNbSIaGgoHoaacoDds DOODDSO DO OSOD OO DAD aHDOC ONO CAN OOE ODD UGCODDDO Ee ODDGDOOGCNNS 426, 637 HEAPS UUM TN GUI Seterereyeretete rete steletetercte levers tevetere ieverenetccTetelotereratclevereieiete eisvereleletelalolyelerersislafeleverel ofel-lelaiete 428 lEloull WtemenNCry LAV We Olliiccoooscnnsacuans0ncansDu0DEG00B0000000 sda des D0G0noDdOGEB00 428 Michaux, Committee of Botanists. .-. 0.520.002 200... e ees see sonanadegndod0000000 192, 299 MGA WH Care (A, 15 IEAROD))- ssc oocd sono oo goncddoON ODODGoAEDDOdosEdOUD KU CoBaKaD000 183 AN DIOTODINENTO 056 on ono cso 0 0ddbO ODDO De dGOUD HUD OOEGOCONDUDUOSEUNOaDNODOD ODDO 192 dn Oh CREEEOMedoccpooodcéucacosbced don ndGO DOD DODD DODOUDEGoSEsdONesUNSODD00 300 TUSK Rad ode BABES ICS AGROB ERO HEURES an 10, 176, 190, 439, 640, 648 NEC Oe CypmEVO IO ON UetereteteteretarertcterorateteteteketeToteleleiel[eiclererelelet-tetetersisistsfatel=leretel-Velctetat-ll-\eleletotat= 425 JES COMIGOTOMN ooda5o0d00dc0DKbOec0Gdd0Ss0 5 Oo SDHodoeDKUsOONaDUDODDINDGGGG600 646, 649, 650 PEM Tae NaS ex ON one evel petetete etree etter reretelaistetetcretatervekerslsieletelststaieletaleteretetelsieretsgetelel ells Votele ior 192, 433 Photo sraphyAl pum Ord ere deem. le )elelel-leie-iilelcle ole HedoonduoouseoadesdesodeodcdaN - 433 TO CCOCMM SN INO UUOND. SISO Ce yeterentayeleverereteratelelelcieielelatetelsisielelelelelsiatrisialel-lelal=leleloleioleletstetsie[els)-ta1-1-r= 184 JIKTO WO WS WAM cscoocascecosoogncoascoonsoucoD0adbhooongUooDDDdb0NGOO 649 New Correspondents Placed on the List. VOM A PASTA LE CIS OCLO Liya Olmedo Allert veletetalcletsletstelelel-teletetel halalotelsisistalelelsisteledafetsrelelaleteteieleteciatefefots Of lyf SociehyomSciencestain@ HELD OUNC eismitttreetrte elisetiiateeiieletteletetetetrtetlaetertsiertaeiers . 5 Geological Magazine, London. .....c.c.esecccencsscsnencsstcscssscenancae doo000 coon 428 678 Memoirs for the Transactions. ALLEN, DR. Page. ite Monmr spi PAM tre teverssvectslaveinie vie eieis eciovetsToeiorstereeeronels Sabb0adoc00de0 11, 15,175, 177, 179 Corz, E. D. Supplement to the Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of North America........ 9 Written Communications in the Proceedings. BARKER, G. F. New Vertical Lantern Galvanometer, with Cuts...................00-20005 440, 445 Buasrus, W. On'the connection of Meteorology and Health........2.......-2.-s-ccereee = 667-671 BuopeGet, L. Downward Atmospheric Circulation as one Cause of Extreme Cold...... 150, 153 Brinton, D. G. Dr. Valentini’s Theory of the Mexican Calendarg Stone) jerecyecieieleeictelstelererts 663-665 Britton, B. JIB ETS OF IRGCSy Mito COME ao5on00c09ag000d00napDd0RDNCOUdOdD00000 350, 361 CHANNING, W. F. ’ Meteorological Peculiarities of New BEugland............0.0..2..0---e-+se-ere 154 Cuassz, P. EH. OriginvotetherAtttractivemHOrcese-menseeideselereeeeiaeeyriisciseieieeieeier 111-113 Cosnrical/Mhermediyaamicsheee ees eee ner circa nee ctee ene ee ere 141-147 Skauayes IMTMOl ILM) IONE NOD conococ0s0000 oodasos0bnodoooSoocccobODCoOUDSS 148, 149 Cosimicalebyolutioniemencceecereece ere ee eee Enereriee ere eer ee eee reer 159-161 Jupiter-Cyclical Rainfall............ Honadcesaocnceouddddusdpesubeagecccoocs 193-195 CychialihainfallvatsBarbadoestems-he ce reeeoeet so iaserieieee reer iaerciers 195-216 OneGravAtaine AWiaviessnyyecvaleeieoicrelecieiascieeiselielelseieeeerreere eee eleseeiecleers 344-346 Lunar Monthly Rainfall in the United States..................--.5.-5+---- 416-418 OnithesvearlyRaintalllinabhesUmitedtStavesneaesictelseteelelecisicleietetsiecie tel: 613, 614 MherBecinnin sof) evelopmeniteeeeceetsiecemiecsesietie leit ieee eee 622-631 Further Relations of Magnetic Gravitating and Luminous Forces........ 607-612 Hurihers Dynamic) ©o-ordinavlonse-eresecerecceiseticeiiae podeso0o poeScocge000 651-658 Corn, E. D. Abstract of Remarks, January 16, 1874..........0...cec cece ees ceseeccrsresecss 110 On the Plagopterine and the Ichthyology of Utah....................---- 129-139 On the Zoology of a Temporary Pool on the Plains of Colorado........... 39, 140 Synopsis of the Vertebrata of the Miocene of New Jersey.............---- 861-364 On the Remains of Population on the Eocene Plateau of Northwest New AVLCxci COMmraterets padanooeobuasDGOnaDUbOODNODOaDOND DoDGDNadOOODOODDODOaSOSUCCOR 365, 482 Cresson, C. M. Results of an Examination of an Exploded Locomotive.................... 264-271 ANPING Oi INOGay MOwb Aen (OOPS oaccosnnacsesosd09GadODHooOnHOOOEDOOSC 358-361 On the Effect of Magnetic and Galvanic Forces upon the Strength of Iron PHOS S shapaduanoodoboocoNdonas Gobo Koso Od ab udogDanOddHanOUScoUdboOnOeS 603-606 DAVIDSON. On the Transit of Venus at Nagasaki........... dooodsGUSAODFnOnODDOOEOOOR0 423-426 DELMAR, ALEX. On the Resources, Productions, and Social Condition of Egypt............ 232-255 Oun'the Resources, se). Of Spain)... -- 1-2-1. ele noonD0oODoGDeDOONODDORAS 301-344 FRAZER, P., JR. Page. (OYA, HAS COMP Gi WAS MUONS a oaon009co coc onanDoboUbScdoUDKONnOSDADOOOLSdGOUBUODDNA 155 Onithe Exfoliation of Rocks nean Gettysburg.) ce. cassie cccresciicces 295-297 Onvohemeimonite sot yonks © Ounibyprereetectereiecteteerdelseevteietel- tiered terasietelsievete 364-370 Ongihemmrapsofmvonks © Ountiveeeeer eet steele tettellelsisieisherstal-)iacrelaers 402-414 Description of Microscopic Sections of Trap, &c.. with plates.............. 430-431 Futon, J. On the Somerset County Coal Beds in Pennsylvania.....................26 157-158 GaBB, W. M. On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica............----..00-+:: 483-602 GENTH, F. A. Investigation of Iron Ores and Limestones from Ore Banks on Spruce Gre CECE. ayaye, foretos bate atoy a cover stcl avs icin: ov atare/a/erahavays laine cairaieloversveratetatata eleva crteratehecelonieke 84-99 Ve pliygvopDO ry Me SberrysELUMt seetrqciteso oc sie nte sealer isin se ac ener ee ea eee 216 On American Tellurium and Bismuth Minerals..................0++-eeeee 223-23 Grote, A. R. LichorNornheAmericantnlatyptenriCess S&C. -ciesde-l esle eee cieenielsteeteee enacts 256-264 IsUNine, OE 196 OniGlacialyDepositsatuiwesthehiladelphiar..1-1- 162 BT erdess CammMOny Sy SuabUeeeeteeeeicetereiieleiseieieeie stelle eieietelelsteteietateietelesisieleletelelelatietotel ets 427 Bllengowan Coal Analyses. ©resson..........0-. 220s cece cece ee cece eee eeeweenas «AY IND ORSHlens Ceuleniis, CO D@sacodo00coboasH0d gd dood 0GHRoaS00s CUOOe DDO HOnDBONODG0ED000 ily lDpdirolhignnio OP Cneyoees UMRWAAPS oon coun coogdopegB0o DOs OObN Gass ondQGDGDOoOCODONDOO 192 Ep lLosionlaG Kank pri CSPELOS UCase mes ti GO;S ve falerateletelaistelersieleiteleleleioierelsletetetelotsiitokateletevorsl ovate 419 Fault at Port Clinton. Chance...... eye ey satcyelsietareionkcieveciskateiatisoiackel rocrerinoecickecteiseiate 300 DOANE Wore Mi Gbae Ml SOMOS, MWA G Guo paopoudodooddoondoGR50de0D000000 bobadeogod 180 DOSE! OMS aie Waray; ILERMEN? 5 ochooocooco boospOoHo DSO Oda dHodODaNESGODSDORsaDNCGOONN 102 (GeiiyanaMONaaeiier iro IDRC RAE, IBRNAKG 5 oocdaa 6 Gd00 9 pooddeoDDgbOAG a bODO 6 codgKDOdaS 438 Geology of Spruce Creek. Lesley..... Anode dosobasooDOCHEGduObOGOMaRGODGDadOODRECOO 19, 83 Geological Survey of Pennsylvania................ dogdonuoodobododabobouadbDDDG0NDSC 185 (GGOLOSAy Oi IOAN) IS) Soe, IGE 50660 cogudo0oncoDd odo0doDD DOCH ODDO bSDDON00C 440 Geology of West Virginia. Stevenson....................0.6 SpoasousmDoDONHonbond 370, 402 Glacial prittbeneathstheaviraimian Snorer eirateecileeteyaceiletieeiseiecelteleeicrecctte 18 GilacialeActionyatitheswratern Craps Evalilueemecejosseeeictsclasicieceercict ceeceiacincr 620 Glacial Moraine at Philadelphia............... Ma0gUopEKCHoLCodddaLbacHabouscdo$ 633, 644 Glaciabionnn phe s outhyWountainssye-eeeeereereceeeree reece eee eerr ee een eerie . 647 Girly cenieeAcidats Sadtlery,-yacrersrcrterstarersercisva ak trasatocin Siolets nia arta eins cVoepae te eRe ee eee 615 Gneiss Mountains Formerly at Philadelphia................sescecceseeseesasccccecs 436 GioldbinsNovaiScotiane Poole sec AY ‘AN 5) ALAN | VV NARAAE APF B aapa | Ancn | iP Ie) \ H Aw (wa rx AANA ten a A : : aR ARARAAR a. ARAARA AGS eaunaaae AA Nanyin A BANA ny MANAAD eRaS A ne ie. hades Ale “ -G@ rq