PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY

OK

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

VOL. IV.

FROM MAY, 1857, TO MAY, 1860.

SELECTED FROM THE RECORDS.

BOSTON AND CAIklBRIDGE:

WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY,

1860.

x^ "i 3

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY

OF

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

SELECTED FROM THE RECORDS.

VOL. lY.

Four hundred and fortietli meeting.

May 26, 1857. — Annual Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Dr. A. A. Gould, from the Committee on the Library, made
the annual report upon the condition of the library.

Professor Lovering, in behalf of the Committee on Publi-
cations, made his annual report.

The Treasurer presented his annual report upon the finances
of the Academy; which was ordered to be entered in full
upon the record-book.

The President read a list of the Fellows, Associate Fel-
lows, and Foreign Honorary Members chosen during the
past year. Also a list of those deceased since the last annual
meeting, as follows : —

Resident Fellows.

Hon. Samuel Hoar, of Concord.
Hon. Francis C. Gray, of Boston.
Rev. Dr. Ephraim Peabody, of Boston.

Associate Felloiv.
Prof. Jacob Whitman Bailey, of West Point.

Foreign Honorary Member.
Dr. Buckland, the late Dean of Westminster.

VOL. IV. 1

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The vacancies in the list of Foreign Honorary Members
were filled by the election of

Professor Mitscherlich, of Berlin, in Class I. Section 3 ;

Professor Hugo von Mohl, of Tlibingen, in Class H. Sec-
tion 2 ;

Jacob Grimm, of Berlin, in Class IH. Section 2.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the
Academy : —
John D. Runkle, of Cambridge, in Class I. Section 1.
Dr. David Weinland, of Cambridge, in Class H. Section 3.
Moses G. Farmer, of Boston, in Class I. Section 3.
Dr. Charles G. Putnam, in Class H. Section 4.

Professor Gray read the following note in reference to the
life and services of the late Professor Bailey : —

" Jacob Whitman Bailey, late Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy,
and Geology in the U. S. Military Academy, West Point, — the only
Associate Fellow lost to the Academy by death during the past year, —
died on the 27th of February last, at a comparatively early age. He
was born on the 29th of April, A. D. 1811, in the township of Ward,
now Auburn, in this Commonwealth. He was graduated at West
Point, in July, 1832, when he received his commission of Second
Lieutenant of Artillery. He was promoted to be First Lieutenant
in August, 1836, and had charge of an arsenal in Virginia at the
time of his appointment, in 1838, to the chair he so long and so wor-
thily filled at West Point, at first as Assistant, and afterwards as prin-
cipal Professor.

" His public scientific career began in the year 1837, Avith a commu-
nication printed in the American Journal of Science, On the Use of
Grasshoppers' Legs as a Substitute for Frogs in Galvanic Experi-
ments. Shortly after his removal to West Point, viz. in 1838, he
commenced the publication, in the same Journal, of his important series
of papers on the Infusoria, especially the Diatomacece, both recent
and fossil, being the results of assiduous and long-continued observa-
tions on these minute organisms, which ended only with his life, — his
latest paper, reporting the results of microscopic examination of the
soundings across the Atlantic made in the voyages of the Arctic be-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 6

tween the coast of Ireland and this country, having been pubhshed a
few days after his lamented death.

" Other important papers on the same class of subjects have ap-
peared in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. One of his
most recent publications was a short paper, showing — contrary to
Sir David Brewster's till then unquestioned statement — that silex in
vegetables, as in the rind of the stem of Grasses and Equisetum, does
not polarize light, and is not crystalline in structure. The apparent
polarization he showed to be due to organic membrane, which had not
been entirely removed. It must not be forgotten, moreover, that he
was the first to prove the vegetable structure of coal (at least of
anthracite), which he did in a characteristic way, at once simple and
decisive, as may be seen by his paper on the subject in the American
Journal of Science.

" Professor Bailey commenced his microscopical observations with
simple lenses made by himself of fused globules of glass, using these,
as well as better instruments, with extraordinary skill and success. He
may justly be regarded as the founder of microscopical research in
America, and himself as a model investigator. His published papers
are all short, clear, explicit, and unpretending as they are thorough ;
and every one of them embodies some direct and positive contribution
to science."

The officers of the Academy were elected for the ensuing
year as follows : —

Jacob Bigelow, .... President.

Daniel Treadwell, . . Vice-President.

Asa Gray, . • . . . Corresponding- Secretary.

Samuel L. Abbot, . . . Recording Secretary.

Nathaniel B. Shurtleff, Librarian.

Edward Wigglesworth, Treasurer.

Council.

Joseph Lovering, \

E. N. Horsford, > of Class I.

Benjamin A. Gould, Jr. )

Louis Agassiz,

Jeffries Wyman, \ of Class II.

John B. S. Jackson,

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

James Walker, \

Francis BoavExN, > of Class III.

Nathan Appleton, )

The President announced the following Standing Com-
mittees : —

Rmnford Committee.

Eben N. Horsford, Joseph Lovering,

Daniel Treadwell, Henry L. Eustis,

Morrill Wyman.

Committee of Publication.

Joseph Lovering, Louis Agassiz,

Cornelius C. Felton.

Committee on the Library.

Augustus A. Gould, Benjamin A. Gould, Jr.

Josiah p. Cooke, Jr.

To Audit the Treasurer's Accounts.
Thomas T. Bouve, Dr. C. E. Ware.

Four Iiundred and forty-first meeting.

August 12, 1857. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters,
viz. : — From Jacob Grimm, Berlin, July 2, accepting his
appointment as Foreign Honorary Member ; from Dr. Charles
G. Putnam and J. D. Runkle, accepting Fellowship ; from the
Linnccan Society, London, November 25, 1856, Royal Geo-
graphical Society, London, November 29, 1856, Academie
Royale des Sciences a Amsterdam, January 5, 1857, Die Ko-
nigl. Siichsische Bergakademie, Freiberg, January 19, 1857,
Kaiserlich-Kllnigliche Geologische Reichsanstalt, Wien, Jan-
uary 21, 1857, Corporation of Harvard College, March 10,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 0

»

1857, Royal Society of Sciences, Gottingen, April 18,
1857, K. L. C. Akademie der Naturforscher, Breslan, May
4, 1857, Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou,
Moscow, March 22, 1857, and the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, June 19, 1857, acknowledging the
receipt of the Academy's publications ; from the Socidte de
Geographic a Paris, February 7, 1857, and the Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, June 19, 1857, acknowl-
edging the same, and requesting that missing parts may be
supplied ; from the Kaiserlich-Konigliche Geologische Reichs-
anstalt, Wien, January 1, 1857, and the Societe Royale des
Sciences a Upsal, presenting their publications; from the
Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India, &c., Jan-
uary, 1857, presenting the Memoirs of the Survey, and re-
questing an exchange ; from the Verein fiir Naturkunde im
Herzogthum, Nassau, May 1, 1857, presenting its transac-
tions, and asking an exchange ; and the Comet Circular of
July 28, 1857, from Dr. C. H. F. Peters, at Albany, N. Y.

Dr. Charles T. Jackson made some statements concerning
the various kinds of marble now being used in the govern-
ment buildings at Washington, and incidentally spoke of the
chemical action in different kinds of lime and cement.

Dr. Weinland spoke of the lime in use in Hayti, as en-
tirely made from the shells of Strombus gigas.

Professor Felton announced to the Academy the organiza-
tion of an Academy of Arts and Sciences at Athens.

The requisite quorum for the transaction of the proper
business of a stated meeting not being present, on motion of
Professor Treadwell, it was voted that the next regular meet-
ing be an adjournment of the present one.

Four buudred aud fortysecond ineetiu§^.

September 8, 1857. — AdjouRx\ed Stated Meeting.

Professor Treadwell, Vice-President, in the chair.
Professor Guyot addressed the Academy at considerable

X

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

length upon the general geographical features of New Eng-
land, showing the influence they had exerted in fixing the
successive settlements of this part of the country. He pro-
posed to treat the subject more fully in a Memoir to be laid
before the Academy.

Four Iiuudred and forty-tlilrd meeting.

October 13, 1857. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters,
viz. : — From the Academic Royale des Sciences, &c. de
Belgique, January 15, 1856, and February 7, 1857, the
Academy of Science of St. Louis, August 24, 1857, and the
American Philosophical Society, September 10, 1857, ac-
knowledging the receipt of the Academy's publications ; from
the Academy of Natural Sciences, July 7, 1857, acknowledg-
ing the same, and asking that missing numbers may be sup-
plied ; and from the Academic Royale des Sciences, Turin,
May 15, 1857, acknowledging the same, and presenting its
own publications.

Professor Lovering said, that, at a former meeting, — in
making some remarks on the question, whether the Mississippi
River flows up hill, — he alluded to a criticism of President
Horace Mann (published in the Common School Journal)
upon those who attributed the direction of the flow of this
river to centrifugal force. Mr. Lovering had since learned
from INIr. Mann that he recalled his opinion in the same Jour-
nal two years afterward. If Mr. Lovering had known this
fact at the time he should not have alluded to the unsound
criticism ; and he wished now to give Mr. Mann the benefit
of having recanted most fully his former error, before he him-
self took notice of the subject.

Dr. Wcinland gave an account of a recent visit to the
island of Hayti. He mentioned many interesting facts
concerning the influence of the prevailing winds upon the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. /

surrounding sea, and its incidental effect upon the marine
Fauna of that region, and the formation of a solid rock from
the debris of shells and corals. Dr. Weinland also spoke of
the vegetation of the island, and of the manners and cus-
toms of the inhabitants.

Four liimilred and forty-fourth meeting.

November 11, 1857. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from the Soci^t^
des Sciences des Indes Neerlandaises, dated Batavia, April
18, 1857, desiring to know whether all of its publications
which had been transmitted to the Academy had been re-
ceived.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows, viz. : —

Ezekiel Brown Elliott, in Class I. Section 1.

Frank H. Storer, in Class I. Section 3.

William T. Andrews, in Class III. Section 4.

Charles W. Eliot, in Class I. Section 3.

St. Julien Ravenel, M. D., of Charleston, South Carolina,
and Professor Edward Robinson, LL. D., of New York,
nominated by the Council, were elected Associate Fellows,
the former in Class II. Section 3, the latter in Class III.
Section 2.

Professor Horsford exhibited specimens of parchment pa-
per, prepared from paper of a very loose texture, by dipping
it into a mixture of two parts of sulphuric acid and one of
water, and then rapidly washing it in cold water. The ac-
tion of the acid probably converts the surface of the fibres
into a gum, which, on hardening, cements the whole, and
gives great strength to the paper.

Professor Horsford also exhibited specimens of Silicium ;
also of copper obtained from a deposit of Tripoli, about forty
miles from Bangor, Maine.

Dr. S. S. Kneeland exhibited two specimens of Meno-

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

branclms from Portage Lake, near Lake Superior. He had
had them in his possession since December, 1856, and from
that time until the succeeding June they took no food. At
the present time they devour earth-worms greedily. During
the past winter, the water in which, they were kept had re-
peatedly been frozen solid. They were pumped up from the
lake, and it is only during the winter season that specimens
are obtained.

Professor Horsford gave the results of several experiments
by his pupils to determine the commercial value of saltpetre
by a new method proposed by himself some time since, and
then announced to the Academy. The results corresponded
very accurately with each other, and with those obtained by
more elaborate chemical processes.

Four buudred aiid forty- Aftb meeting.

December 8, 1857. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from Professor
Edward Robinson, accepting the Fellowship of the Academy.

Professor Agassiz spoke of the various existing systems
of Classification of Fishes, characterizing them all as incom-
plete and artificial. He analyzed those of anatomists and
zoologists, showing how each failed to conform to the natural
system. He referred to his own proposed classification, based
on the characters of the scales, and said that he had given
that up also as too artificial. The true indications, he
thought, were to be found in the embryonic development of
this class of animals. Development without an amnios or
allantois is common, he said, to naked reptiles and fishes.
The scaly reptiles, birds, and mammals are associated by
their circulation as a natural group. Among fishes he rec-
ognized four groups on a par with the natural divisions of
amphibians. He proposed the name of Salachians, to include
the sharks and skates, which differ in the structure of their

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 9

skeletons, brains, and in other particulars, from fishes proper.
Next come the genuine Ganoids, with their reptilian affin-
ities. The lamprey-eel is the only type which undergoes a
metamorphosis in passing from the young to the adult con-
dition. The four classes, then, among fishes are the Sela-
chians, the Ganoids, Fishes proper, and Myzonts. Professor
Agassiz explained how the position of the fins cannot be
relied on as a character for the formation of natural groups.
The sturgeons, loricarians, and cat-fish, he said, form a
natural group, based on similarity of structure of the opercu-
lum and upper jaw, characters which he considered of more
importance than the muscular bulbus of the aorta. These
families are linked together also by the peculiar arrangement
of the lateral line and the dorsal and abdominal shields.

Professor C. C. Felton announced the decease of a distin-
guished Associate Fellow of the Academy, Thomas Craw-
ford, as follows : —

" I rise to announce the death of a Fellow of this Society, Thomas
Crawford, the American sculptor.

" It is but a year since Mr. Crawford returned to Rome from a visit
to the United States, leaving his family with their relatives. He was
then apparently in full health, in the highest spirits, looking forward to
future achievements ; — already possessed of fame and fortune, domes-
tic happiness, the love and admiration of friends, and of all else that
makes the present delightful, and the prospect of the future brilliant
and enchanting to a noble spirit. It is but a few days since his colos-
sal bronze statue of Washington was landed at Richmond, and drawn
by shouting and enthusiastic multitudes to the place of its destination,
up the Capitol Hill of that beautiful city. Last Saturday the lifeless
body of the great artist was borne by the pious hands of silent and
sorrowing friends, to its final resting-place in Greenwood Cemetery.

"Thomas Crawford was born in New York, on the 22d of March,
1813. Early in life he showed, amidst the hardships of poverty,
the irresistible promptings of a natural genius for sculpture, in
which he was destined to gain a world-wide renown. In 1835 he
waS' enabled to go to Rome, the true school for the sculptor, and there,
with hopeful courage and manly heart, he dedicated his studious nights

VOL. IV. 2

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and laborious days, under the wise counsel and friendly aid of the great
Thorwaldsen, to the simplest but sublimest of the arts. His earliest
productions gave ample promise of future distinction. In 1839 Mr.
Charles Sumner, then visiting Rome, saw the model of the Orpheus,
and, admiring its chaste and classic beauty, undertook, with friendly
zeal, to raise a subscription in Boston, that the work might be executed
in marble. He was successful, and the Orpheus of Crawford is now one
of the conspicuous ornaments of the gallery of the Boston Athenteum,
and its rare merit established the fame of the young sculptor. In
1844 he returned to the United States, and was married to Miss Louisa
Ward of New York. I need not dwell on the happiness which this
marriage secured to him.

" The reputation of the ai'tist increased, with the rapidly increasing
number of his works. This is not the occasion to enumerate them, or
to enter upon an elaborate criticism of their various and extraordinary
merits. I have spoken of the first, and I have alluded to the last, the
colossal monument of Washington, ordered by the patriotic State of
Virginia, which remained, in some of its details, uncompleted at the
time of his death. That monument will make the Capitol of Rich-
mond a shrine to which the lovers of art will for ever make their
pilgrimages, to gaze upon the sculptured form of the greatest of
men, embodied by the genius of one of the greatest of modern
sculptors.

" Mr. Crawford was a person of generous and manly character.
He was bold without rudeness, frank and independent without forget-
ting the rights of others. In conversation he was animated, intelligent,
and instructive. In manners he was unaffected, simple, and hearty.
His genius was not only vigorous, but varied and afiluent. His imagi-
nation was brilliant and fiery, but chaste and disciplined ; and his hand
was untiring in executing what his mind conceived. He loved to
enthusiasm the beauty of Hellenic art, and was an unerring but kindly
critic of the productions of the moderns, and of his living contempo-
raries. He was alike familiar with the boundless treasures of the
Vatican and of the Capitol, and with the vast variety of works in the
studios of the artists of all nations at Rome. From what I saw and
heard of him there, I am sure it will be the verdict of his brethren,
that he has hardly left his peer in the Eternal City.

" In 1856 Mr. Crawford came on a visit to the United States ; and
his friends were struck by the unbroken vigor of his health, and the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 11

animation and joy of his discourse. But even then the disease — a
cancer on the brain — which closed his hfe had made some progress
unknown to himself. On his return in the autumn to Rome, it soon
demanded attention. An examination was made, and an operation was
performed by a skilful surgeon, to ascertain precisely the nature of the
disease. It was found to be malignant, and probably incurable. He
went to Paris, under advice, and the ablest surgeons of that city pro-
nounced the case a hopeless one. But that nothing should remain
untried that might hold out the slightest possibility of benefit, he was
removed from Paris to London, and placed under the care of a pro-
fessional man who had made a special study of this class of diseases.
It was all in vain. Crawford died on the 10th of October, having
borne the protracted agonies of his long illness with the fortitude of a
hero and the resignation of a Christian. The consolations of friend-
ship, of domestic love, and of religious faith, surrounded his dying-bed.
He calmly arranged all his earthly affairs, and prepared his soul for
the last scene ; and he departed with the serenity of one who was
conscious of a life consecrated to noble pursuits and generous affec-
tions, and who felt an unwavering faith and entire submission to the
will of God. He has left to his successors an illustrious example ; he
hr.s bequeathed to his country a renown that ranks him with the great
sculptors of ancient Athens and modern Rome ; he has left a name
which the most distant ages will not let die.

" I move the following resolutions : —

" Resolved, That the members of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences have heard with deep regret of the death of their late
associate, Thomas Crawford, the distinguished sculptor. In his char-
acter they recognize the noblest virtues, and in his works a large con-
tribution to the glory of the American name in one of the highest
walks of art. In his death, the country and the world have lost one
of the most brilliant men who have done honor to the present age.

'■^Resolved, That the members of this Association sincerely sympa-
thize with the family and friends of the deceased in this their great
bereavement ; and that a copy of these resolutions be communicated to
Mrs. Crawford by the Corresponding Secretary."

The resolutions were unanimously adopted.
Dr. W. F. Channing exhibited photographs, of various sizes,
of the late Rev. W. E. Channing, D. D., taken by Whipple

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

from Gambardella's portrait. He also exhibited specimens of
Breckenridge bituminous coal from Kentucky, from which
paraffine is now manufactured, specimens of which were
shown, together with candles made from this substance.

Professor Horsford spoke of certain curious knolls which are
found in Western New York after the forests are cut down,
and are always indicative of the presence of gypsum. The
heat of the sun acting on the soil after the removal of the
forests, the gypsum in solution rises by capillary action to
sustain the evaporation, and takes on crystalline form as soon
as it reaches a point where the water, reduced by evaporation,
becomes insufficient to hold it in solution. These crystals,
pushing up from below, raise the ground into the form of a
knoll, sometimes six or eight feet in diameter, and from one
to two feet high. The bed of gypsum is usually found within
a few feet of the surface of the ground.

Four liundred. aud forty-sixth meeting.

January 12, 1858. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of the Hon. Thomas G.
Gary.

The President in the chair.

Professor Lovering made a communication in regard to
the Australian instrument, called the boomerang, under the
following heads : — 1. Its History and Antiquity. 2. Its
Shape. 3. Its Use. 4. Its Mechanical Theory. 5. Its Ex-
perimental Illustration. He gave upon the blackboard a
simple mathematical analysis, to show why it deviated from
the vertical plane, why it retrograded, and at what angle of
elevation these effects were at a maximum.

Professor W. B. Rogers made some remarks upon the
variations of its movements, in actual practice, from the
results of abstract calculation, and the cause of these vari-
ations.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 13

Mr. Gary exhibited to the Academy a large photograph
which he had lately brought from Milan, taken recently from
the celebrated painting of the Last Supper, by Leonardo da
Vinci, in the Refectory of the Dominican Convent in that city.
He exhibited at the same time the well-known engraving of
the same picture by Raphael Morghen, to show, by compari-
son of the two, that the engraving is not a close copy of the
original, there being marked differences in the features of
several of the figures ; and, while the attitudes are similar, the
expression in several of them, particularly in the principal
figure, is so unlike, as to account for the impression generally
received, by those who see the original, of its great superiority
to the engraving in dignity and power. It has been said that
the drawing was not good from which the engraving was
made, and that, in some instances, heads copied from detached
sketches left by Leonardo da Vinci were substituted in it for
those which he finally adopted as best jsuited to express his
own conception. It is to be remembered, however, that the
engraving of Morghen has roused a general interest in the
subject, that tends strongly to preserve what remains of this
extraordinary picture, after its injuries by flood and war, as
well as by decay from the lapse of time.

He likewise exhibited to the Academy a picture of great age
and beauty, now in his possession, which has been supposed
to be by Leonardo da Vinci, and gave an account of some pe-
culiar circumstances under which it was brought to the United
States. Early in this century, when the armies of Napoleon
were in Spain, on the approach of a large body of troops, some
pictures were hastily removed from a church for safety ; and
it was afterwards found that, in the confusion, one of them,
a painting of great value, had been carried to the coast. A
courier was despatched with authority to recover it, but found,
on his arrival at the seaport, that it had been offered there for
sale, and purchased by an American captain, who had sailed
for the United States. A letter was then addressed by a
commercial house to Mr. Nelson, a prominent merchant at

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

that time in New York, stating these facts, with the name of
the ship and captain, and desiring him to repurchase the pic-
ture and send it back to Spain, whatever might be the cost.
On inquiry, he found that the captain had arrived and sailed
again on a long voyage. Mr. Nelson waited his return, and
having ascertained that he had the picture, before attempting
any negotiation for it wrote back to Spain to inquire whether
he still had unlimited authority to purchase it. Receiving
no answer, he supposed that the parties interested in the sub-
ject were dead or driven away, as everything was then in
confusion.

Many years afterward he mentioned this picture, as one
that was likely to be of great value, to a gentleman in New
York, who had a great love for paintings. Mr. Gary, then
residing in New York, was applied to for information of the
captain, who belonged to Boston, and who said, when asked,
that he still had the picture, that it had been a great favorite
with his wife, and that during her life he never would have
parted with it ; but that since her decease he was without a
home, and had no objection that the picture should go where
it would be more seen and admired. It was accordingly
purchased.

It was found to be on a thick panel of hard and very old
wood. The subject was the Madonna and Child, but the
figure of the latter, with little of the sacred gravity that is
given in the Madonna della Seggiola of Raphael, and by
other masters, was rather that of a playful, curly-headed boy,
which at first caused some persons to suppose that it might
be intended for Hagar and Ishmael. It presented in another
respect a peculiar appearance. One part of the painting
seemed to be the work of a great master, while another part
was of a very inferior order. A German artist, then living in
New York, who had extensive knowledge of pictures and
considerable skill in repairing them, was called to examine it.
After close attention, he asked for a needle, and showed that
the part which was admired was impenetrably hard, and ob-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 15

viously the original work of the artist, while the paint on the
other part was soft, and no doubt had been put on by some
one who had undertaken to make repairs. The artist said
that all this, with a thick coat of varnish, should be removed,
and that it could only be done safely by rubbing it with his
own hand. When this was done, the picture had a mottled
appearance, as if worms had attacked the wood and pene-
trated through the paint in spots. The painting was after-
wards sent to London, and completely restored by a person
of great skill, who was at that time intrusted with the most
valuable pictures that needed such repairs in England.
When he had received and examined it, he inquired by whom
it was supposed in America to have been painted ; and was
told that it was thought to be by Leonardo da Vinci; to
which he replied, " That may very well be."

Mr. Gary remarked further, that when in Europe recently,
retaining a vivid recollection of this picture, although he had
not seen it for some years, (having only received it here within
a few days as the bequest of a near relative, who had pur-
chased it from the captain,) he had sought an opportunity to
see, if possible, among the few undoubted paintings of this
great master that remain, some one of the same subject, and
found such a one in the Brera at Milan. It is unfinished,
but the attention of visitors is directed to it in the catalogue,
as among the most valuable to be seen there. As Leonardo
was a man of varied powers, exercising them all, and had
even, while at Milan, planned and superintended the work on
a canal for the Duke, it is not surprising that he should have
left a picture there unfinished. The Madonna in that is dif-
ferent, but the child is very similar.

Mr. Gary also drew the attention of the Academy to
several other pictures, chiefly bequests from the same col-
lection.

One of them is a good specimen of the Pre-Raphaelite
manner, with its hard outline, by Francesco Francia, who is
said to have been an instructor of Raphael; and although

16 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

that fact is not well established, the report, if such evidence
were necessary, would mark him as one of the masters of his
time. Mr. Gary was told recently in Rome, where this pic-
ture was obtained, that it is well remembered there as " The
Eternity " ; a female figure on a mound, holding a circle in
one hand, and pointing upward with the other.

Another painting exhibited by Mr. Gary is supposed to be
a portrait of Titian, painted by himself in extreme old age.
It was taken by a corsair in the Mediterranean from a Span-
ish vessel, and carried into Tunis, when the American consul
there was the late M. M. Noah, who became possessed of it,
and brought it to New York about forty years ago. It is
said that Titian was in Spain late in life, and that he painted
to the last.

A third is a large picture of Dogs watching Game, sup-
posed to be by Sneyders and Rubens. It is well known that
they frequently united their powers, the latter painting the
landscapes. Mr. Gary remarked, that a few months since, in
the great exhibition at Manchester, containing many of the
choice pictures of England, he had seen one, unquestionably
by Sneyders and Rubens, which confirmed the belief that the
landscape in this is by Rubens. Although Sneyders usually
preferred the violent action of a hunt, he sometimes painted
quiet scenes like this. The picture once belonged to an old
family in one of our Southern States, and was probably
brought to this country far back in the last century.

Another is an old and interesting picture, bearing some
resemblance to the manner of Murillo, brought a long time
ago from Smyrna, where it was left with some others by a
Spanish artist, who died there. The subject is " The Educa-
tion of the Virgin Mary," from the traditions of the Romish
Ghurch.

There were also a Magdalen by Guido, with strong marks
of his style; and a Watteau, " The Gountry Party," obtained
in Paris from the collection of the Due de Ghoiseul, after the
French Revolution.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 17

Professor J. Wyman said that he had recently had an
opportunity of examining a human foetus of the very early
period of from the twentieth to the twenty-fifth day from
conception. There were many points in its structure at that
time which corresponded to the permanent condition in some
of the lower animals. Some of these he proceeded to point
out, illustrating his remarks on the blackboard. The eyes
were found at this stage of development very far apart, in a
position on each side of the head, similar to that which is per-
manent in fishes and some of the lower mammals, and very
small. The mouth and nostrils formed but one cavity, which
would be divided off subsequently by the growth from above
and on the sides. It was evident that the deformity known
as " hare-lip " is only an arrest of development at this stage.
The lateral position of the nostrils is like that which is seen in
some of the adult monkeys of the New "World. The bran-
chial fissures, resembling the gill-openings in fishes, are also
visible at this early period, and one of them is known occasion-
ally to remain at maturity. The extremities were merely in a
rudimentary state, corresponding to what is sometimes seen
in a certain class of monstrosities after birth. A rudimentary
tail also existed, turning upwards towards the abdomen, and
extending considerably beyond the rudimentary legs, subse-
quently to be surrounded and concealed by the downward
growth of these extremities and the pelvis. Professor Wyman
also stated a fact, which he thought had not been heretofore
noticed, that the yolk-sac grows and forms new granules some
time after the development of the foetus has commenced.

Professor Agassiz referred to a subject which had puzzled
both botanists and zoologists, — the question of individuality.
"What constitutes an individual ? He spoke of the various
opinions of botanists on the subject, showing how diflicult
it had been to distinguish between individuals and organs.
Professor Braun considers independent axes in plants as con-
stituting independent individuals. The same question has
divided zoologists. Corals have by some been regarded as

VOL. IV. 3

18 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

communities. Jelly-fishes have also been considered as com-
pound beings. The question could only be determined, he
thought, from a morphological point of view. A gamopeta-
lous flower, in which all the petals are united, if we consider
it with reference to this fact, has a striking resemblance to
the medusa bell, the pistil in the flower being represented by
the proboscis in the medusa. Professor Agassiz gave an
account of the origin of Eudoxia and Aglaisma from the
Diphyes, and pointed out the resemblance of the phenomena
to those occurring in the vegetable world. There are thus, he
said, dioecious communities, and there are also monoecious
communities, among animals, as well as plants ; and he gave
instances in illustration. The combinations of the sexes in
their arrangement and order of succession along the parent
stem were seen to resemble exactly those occurring among
plants, while in some instances the order was the reverse of
that in the vegetable world, seeming to complete the series,
as it were. The conclusion, therefore, to which Professor
Agassiz had been led, by these curious zoophyte forms of ani-
mal life, was, that, as the animal buds are certainly individ-
ual existences, their representatives in the vegetable world,
viz. the analogous buds or axes, should likewise be regarded
as individuals.

Dr. T. M. Brewer exhibited some plates of birds' eggs,
remarkable for their perfect representation of the originals,
which had been obtained by an application of the photo-
graphic process. The eggs were first photographed on a very
small scale, to do away as much as possible with the aberra-
tion of sphericity, and from these photographs a second set
was obtained, of the full size of the egg, which were trans-
ferred to stone and printed in colors. The result was a most
perfect exhibition of the spots and markings of these objects,
hitherto so diflicult to delineate.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 19

Four Iiuiidred and forty-seventli meeting.

January 27, 1858. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters,
viz. : — From the Director of the Observatory of Breslau,
March 2, 1857 ; Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn, April 20, 1857 ;
Royal Society of Sciences at Upsal, May 18, 1857 ; Zoolo-
gisch-Botanischer Verein, Vienna, June 23, 1857 ; Academic
Royale des Sciences de Stockholm, July 10, 1857; Royal
Society of London, August 6, 1857 ; Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, August 8, 1857 ; Societe des Arts et des Sciences
de Batavia, October 20, 1857 ; and the Society of Arts, Manu-
factures, and Commerce, London, November 19, 1857. ac-
knowledging the receipt of the publications of the Academy
— from the Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn, April 20, 1857
Academic Royale des Sciences de Stockholm, July 10, 1857
and the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, December 3, 1857, pre-
senting their various publications ; — also from the Zoologisch-
Bctanischer Verein, Vienna, June 10, 1857, presenting its
Transactions, and acknowledging the receipt of the Acad-
emy's publications.

Professor Agassiz presented a paper by Professor J. D. Dana,
entitled, " On a Medusa of the Family related to Stepha-
nomia," accompanying it with some observations of his own.

Mr. Sherwin exhibited a Ley den jar, showing curious
figures on its upper surface, caused by the explosion of gun-
powder upon it by electricity.

Dr. A. A. Hayes gave an account of the probable cause of
the recent death from the combustion of gas in Davis's gas-
stove. His remarks were followed by a conversation on the
general subject of noxious gases, as exhaled from the ground,
or otherwise generated, in which the President, Professor
Rogers, Dr. Weinland, and Mr. F. H. Storer took part.

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Four hundred and forty-eighth meeting.

February 9, 1858. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of the Rev. Dr. Frothingham.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters, from E. B. Elliott,
accepting Fellowship ; from the Royal Institution of Great
Britain, November 18, 1857, and the Geological Society of
London, December 3, 1857, acknowledging the receipt of the
Academy's publications.

Mr. Folsom exhibited to the Academy a copy of an ancient
inscription obtained by him at Susa, on the north coast of
Africa, some years since. The block bearing the inscription
was placed in the corner of a shed-like building, and was
probably the pedestal of a statue. The inscription is as
follows : —

L-TERENTIOAQVI

LAEGRATTIANO

QVAESTORIPRO

VINCIAEAFRICAE

AMICIOBPAREM

IN VNI VERSOS ATQVE

TALEMETPROPRI

VMINSINGVLOS

HONOREM

L. Terentio Aqui-

laB Grattiano

Quaestori Pro-

vinciae Africae

Amici ob parem

in universes atque

talem et propri-

um in singulos

honorera.

The exact signification of this inscription was commented
on by several gentlemen, and its obscurity noticed. Professor
Torrey suggested the word aeqvitatem for the words atqve
TALEM, as a reading which clears up the sense ; Mr. Folsom
having spoken of the inscription as being made out with
difficulty, thus leaving room for the possibility of an error in
copying.

Dr. W. F. Channing exhibited specimens of lithographs
made by means of a new application of photography. The
process is known as Photo-lithography, and consists in re-
ceiving upon a prepared lithographic stone the image of the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 21

object. After many experiments, Messrs. J. H. Cutting, Pho-
tographer, and L. H. Bradford, Lithographer, have succeeded
in so preparing the stone that the figure thrown upon it from
the camera is fixed permanently there, and can be printed
from as an ordinary drawing. The discovery promises to be
of very great value in the arts.

Professor A. Gray, referring to the popular opinion that
squashes are spoiled by pumpkins, and melons by cucumbers
or squashes, &c., when grown near each other, in consequence,
as was thought, of cross-fertilization, remarked that it was
a question whether the deterioration or alteration showed
itself in the fruit of the season, that is, in the altered char-
acter of the ovary which had been acted upon by alien pollen,
or only in the next generation, i. e. in the cross-bred fruit. The
former was the popular idea, or at least the more common
one ; but if it was a case of cross-breeding, the alteration
would naturally be looked for only in the progeny. As throw-
ing some light upon this question, he gave an account of
Naudin's recent investigations upon the cultivated Cucurbi-
tacecB, showing that the species of Cucurbita (which, as to
those in ordinary cultivation, Naudin had reduced to three
or four) refuse to hybridize ; but that the application of the
pollen of one species to the stigma of another, from which
its own pollen is excluded, often causes the fruit to set and
grow to its full size, although no embryos are formed in the
seeds. Thus it seemed probable that alien pollen really acted
upon the ovary in the cases referred to, and that the popular
belief was correct. In confirmation of this view. Professor
Gray exhibited several ears of Indian corn, — such as are
familiar in the country, — in which two, and even three or
four, sorts of grains (such as sweet-corn, yellow and white
corn, &c.) occurred intermixed upon the same ear. This ap-
peared to demonstrate an immediate action of the pollen upon
the ovary, altering the character of the coat and of the albu-
men of the grain. This might, or might not, be accompanied
by cross-fertilization of the embryo, — a point which it would

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

be interesting to determine by raising plants from the different
grains of one ear, guarding them carefully against all extra-
neous pollen, and noting the character of the resulting grain.

Dr. A. A. Hayes said the fact had been determined by
direct experiment ten or twelve years ago, when the question
arose whether the same stalk would furnish to each variety
upon it its normal quantity of phosphates. It was found that
this was the case, and each variety was reproduced the next
year from the seed thus raised. At that time he found that
all the varieties contain a salt of the peroxide of iron, instead
of the protoxide.

Professor W. B. Rogers, referring to the discussion at the
previous meeting on the noxious influence of various gases,
particularly of carbonic acid and oxide, said, that, although all
the recent Continental writers concur in regarding carbonic
acid as simply negative in its influence, he had been surprised
to find that the most recent English authorities still charge
the whole of the pernicious effects of the inhalation of the
fumes of burning charcoal to this gas, rather than to the oxide.

Dr. W. F. Channing thought that one source of the injury
from breathing impure air was the interruption to the process
of endosmose and exosmose, which it was well known was
produced by even a slight admixture of carbonic acid.

Professor Rogers suggested that in crowded rooms organic
compounds have a good deal to do with the deterioration of
the air.

Four Iiuudred and forty-uiutli meeting.

March 9, 1858. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of the Hon. Josiah Quincy.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from Sir John
Herschel, acknowledging the donation of the Academy's
Transactions; also one from Mr. Henry T. Parker, offering
his services as agent for the purchase of books for the Acad-
emy in England.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 23

Professor C. C. Felton, referring to a previous comnmni-
cation of his on a fragment from Menander, remarked as
follows : —

" It will be remembered, perhaps, that I made a short communication
to the Academy about a year ago, entitled ' Menander in New York.'
In that communication an account was given of an ancient Greek
writing-tablet in Dr. Abbot's Egyptian Museum, containing a passage
of poetry, which, for reasons stated at some length, I supposed to be a
hitherto unknown fragment of Menander. It was mentioned, also, that
there were other tablets of a similar description, more or less broken,
but evidently written over with copies of the passage contained in the
first, though apparently by less practised hands. On two of the broken
tablets there was substituted for a word in the text another, expressing
a ludicrous impatience on the part of the writers, as much as to say,
' Deuce take it.' On re-examining these tablets and fragments of tab-
lets, during a recent visit to New York, I noticed two or three interest-
ing particulars which had before escaped my attention. On one of the
fragments is written the following part of a sentence (adding the accents
and breathings), 6 Ttpwros ev noi — ; the rest being obliterated. At the •
bottom of another tablet is Avritten part of a word, (piXoirov — ; the re-
mamder of this word, also, being obhterated. The first is evidently a
portion of a sentence written by the master to encourage the scholars,
perhaps by the promise of a reward. The syllable ttoi is evidently part
of noiTjaoii' or Tvoirjaas, and the sentence was, ' He who first shall well
perform his work — ' The rest must be left to the imagination. The
second, ^CKottov — , is part of c^iikoivovos or (^CKoivovas, meaning careful, or
carefully or industriously, and seems to be an expression of the mastei''s
approbation of the manner in which the boy who owned the tablet had
written out his copy. We have, therefore, in these tablets, — first, the
copy set by the master ; second, a sentence of encouragement to the
boys ; third, the master's approbation of one of them ; and, fourth, a
lively expression, (f)6apr](T{Tai, of the impatience of two of the rogues,
who had got tired of the irksome task of writing. From these hints
we may form a pretty good idea of a Gra^co-Egyptian school in the
Ptolemaic times.

" Since last winter Dr. Abbott has sent from Egypt three wooden
tablets of a different character and a later age. They are elliptical in
shape, with a kind of triangular handle at each end. The inscriptions
are funereal, recording the names, and in two of them the ages, of the

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

persons whom they commemorate. The first was found in Sacara.
On this the inscription is neatly cut into the wood. It is as follows : —

Avov^icov
Apre/xtSco-
pou, evfioipet

Anouhion, son of Artemidoros, farewell.

In this inscription it is observable that the name of the deceased is
Egyptian, with a Greek termination, while the name of the father is
Greek. The name Anoubion occurs in Athanasius. The father of the
Anoubion in the inscription was probably a Greek settler, and the son
was born in Egypt, perhaps of an Egyptian mother. The form of the
letters may belong to the second or third century before Christ.

" The second is from Dongola, and the inscription is written with
ink and a reed pen. It is as follows : —

TL\-qvis vearepos
fiapiva e^iaxrev
err] Xe

PUnius the younger, son of Marinas, lived thirty five years.

Two or three things about this inscription are somewhat remarkable.
It is considerably later than the preceding, as is evident from the Roman
name Plinius, and from the style of the writing. The name is written
in the abbreviated form, XlXr/i/t?, which belongs to a comparatively late
period. Theodoretus (Lib. II. c. 11) makes mention of a 11X771/10? as
an Egyptian Bishop in the fourth century, the age of Athanasius,
banished by the Arians, under the influence of George of Cap-
padocia.

" The name Marinas is not found elsewhere, so far as I know ; but
the form is analogous to Zosas {Zaaas, gen. Zcoo-a, which occurs in
Boeckh's Corpus Inscriptionum) and many others. If the name is
feminine, Marina, the syntax is that of the Latin ablative with natus,
of which there are examples in the Corpus Inscriptionum (See Tom.
II. p. 850). The name of Marina occurs in the Hagiology of the
Oriental Church. She was a native of Pisidia, in Asia Minor, and
was beheaded in A. D. 270. In the Ritual of the Greek Church, the
17th of July is given as the anniversary, or feast-day, t^s ayias peyaXo-
pupTvpos Mapivrjs. For this fact, and the reference, I am indebted to my
friend and colleague, Mr. E. A. Sophocles.

" The person here mentioned, Plinius, evidently belonged to a Ro-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 25

man, perhaps a Christian family, who had learnt the Greek language in
Egypt, but not well enough to avoid Latin idioms, if the last-mentioned
construction is the true one.

" The third contains also an inscription written with ink as follows,
without accents, like the others. The name Pericles is also written
with abbreviated characters.

TlepiK\r]s AnoWcovLov e^icocrev
err) irevTriKovra okt(»
Pericles, son of Apollotiiics, lived ffty-eight years.

Both of the names here are pure Greek, belonging apparently to a
family who, though living in Egypt, maintained their Hellenic tra-
ditions and Hellenic names unchanged. In the last two of these in-
scriptions, we observe the ancient euphemistic manner of speaking of
death : they do not say that Plinius and Pericles died at such an age,
but that they lived so many years.

" 1 also had time to examine another tablet, different from any of
the preceding. It was made of some hard wood, probably cedar, care-
fully smoothed, about a quarter of an inch in thickness, twelve inches
in length, and six in breadth. Across one end three or four lines had
been written with a reed pen and Egyptian ink. This writing was to
a considerable extent obliterated, — only single letters and isolated
syllables remaining legible, but not enough to make out the text.
Beneath this was dx-awn a waving line, to separate it from the writing
below, which, on a careful comparison, was evidently a number of
copies of the writing at the top, though in an inferior hand. The form
of the letters is characteristic of the chirography which prevailed from
about the second century before Christ until the fourth or fifth century
after ; and it may be placed, with a good degree of probability, at least
as early as the first century before Christ. The writing at the top of
the tablet is, again, evidently that of the schoolmaster, and that which
occupies the remainder of the surface, consisting of three entire copies
and part of a fourth, is evidently the writing of a scholar. The copies
of the scholar are not so much obliterated as the writing of the master,
and, on comparing them all, I was able clearly to make out every word
of the text. It forms two iambic trimeters, which, supplying the
accents, and correcting one word which is misspelt, read as follows : —

yLaTTjv BpafieiTai kclv vnep Aa8av opafirj,
VOL. IV. 4

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

It may be translated :

' The man whom, sleeping, Fortune has not blessed,
Shall run in vain, though Ladas he outran.'

The style of these lines is pointed and pithy ; their structure is rhyth-
mically perfect, and the composition undoubtedly belongs to the best
age of the new comedy. The Greek word Tuxv does not mean exactly
Chance or Fortune, but rather the secret power which allots to mortals
their varied faculties and conditions in life. The thought conveyed in
the passage is, that without natural gifts or endowments no great thing
can be accomplished. Unless it is in a man, achievement, success, can-
not come out of him. The word misspelled in the copies is 8pa[iiTai for
Bpafieirai, which shows that when this was written ei and i were pro-
nounced alike. I assign the composition of the lines to a period much
earlier than that to which the handwriting of the copies belongs, but I
would not venture to attribute them to any particular poet. Ladas was
a Spartan runner who gained the victory in the BoXixos 8p6pos, or long
race, and soon afterwards died. The precise period when he lived is
nowhere recorded ; but as a bronze statue of him, by the sculptor
Myron, was well known to the ancients, and as Myron flourished in
the fifth century before Christ, Ladas must have gained his victory at
least as early as the middle of that century.

" Among the Greek epigrams, there are two in which the name of
Ladas is commemorated ; both are ahkfr-nora, or anonymous. The
first consists of a hexameter and pentameter, as follows : —

AaSaj TO (TTaSiov eiB" rjXaTO etre hienTrj,
Aaiixoviov TO Td)(os, ov8e (ppdcrai dwuTOV.

Whether Ladas leaped or jlew through the stadium
It is impossible to say ; his speed was divine.

" The second is on the statue of Ladas by Myron. It consists of
eight lines, hexameters and pentameters alternately, as follows : —

Oios erjs (pevycov tov vnrjvepov, efnrvoe AaSa

Qiipov, eV aKpoTOTca nvevpaTi 6e\s owxa
Toiov exa\Kev(rep ae Mvpav, eVi iravTi x^po^cs

Sco/xart Ilicraiov irpodhoKiav (TT€(pavov.
ItXrjprjs eXTTiSos ccttIv, ciKpois fi cttI ;)(f''^fw"' dadp-a

Ep(j}alveL KoiXcov i'vdodev e/c Xayoi/cov.
Uridfjaei Taxa x^iXKOi enl (TTeCJjos, ov8e Kade^ei

'a ^aais • o) Tex"^ itvtvp.aTOS a>KVTepa.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 27

As thoic wast, 0 breathing Ladas, jieeing from the wind swift

Thymus, 07i the top of the breeze placing thy foot,
Such 3fyron cast thee in bronze, stamping upon all

Thy body the expectation of the Piscean crown.
Full of hope is he, and on the tip of his lips the panting breath

Shows itself from the hollow flanks within.
Soon the bronze shall leap for the crown, nor shall withhold it

The pedestal ; 0 art, swifter than the breeze !

" The commentators have found some difficulty in understanding the
words liT aKpoTUTco TTvev/xaTi 3e\s ovvxa, ' placing thy foot upon the top
of the breeze ' ; but they describe exactly the attitude of John of Bo-
logna's Mercury, a well-known work of art, which furnishes the best
commentary on the passage in question.

" Among the Roman poets Ladas is alluded to once by Catullus, twice
by Martial, and once by Juvenal ; Pausanius, the Greek travellei:,
mentions him three times. In Lib. ii. 19. 7, he speaks of a statue of
Ladas in the temple of Lycian Apollo at Argos ; in Lib. iii. 21. 1, he
mentions the monument of Ladas on the bank of the Eurotas, a short
distance out of Sparta ; and in Lib. viii. 12. 3, he states that on the
road leading from Mantmea to Orchomenos, there was a place called the
stadiam of Ladas, because Ladas used to exercise himself thei'e as a
preparation for the Olympic games."

Rev. N. L. Frothingham said : —

" It is with great diffidence that I venture to add anything to
what my learned friend has just offered to the notice of the Acad-
emy. But I am very much struck with the coincidence of thought
between the fine passage which he has restored to Greek literature
and a verse in one of the Hebrew Psalms. That verse is rendered
so incorrectly in our received English translation, that the paral-
lelism does not appear. But it will be brought out, if we read the
whole context thus, as it ought to be read : ' Except the Lord build the
house, they labor in vain that build it; except the Lord keep the
city, the watchman waketh but in vain ; in vain for you to rise up early,
to sit up late, to eat the bread of anxiety, while he giveth to his beloved
•when they are asleep.' Now, if, instead of the word Fortune, — Tvxr]
I think it is m the Greek sentence, — we should substitute some such
expression as Divine Providence, the sentiment would correspond per-

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

fectly with that of the sacred Psalmist. Exchange the heathen phrase
for a BibHcal one, and there results the same thought ; and a very-
profound and noble thought it seems to me to be."

Mr. Charles Folsom referred to the fact, that tablets similar
in form to that described by Professor Felton are still in use,
in Northern Africa, for the same purpose.

Mr. Folsom also alluded to the inscription which he had
laid before the Academy at the previous meeting, and an-
nounced his acceptance of Professor H. W. Torrey's version,
by which the obscurity and inelegance of the inscription are
removed.

The President said he was induced, by the discussion on
some of the terms in the inscription, to allude to a point which
had often occurred to him, namely, the impropriety of the
use of the word Respuhlica in the Catalogue and Diplomas of
Harvard University ; and he proceeded to show that classical
usage does not sanction the application of this word in a
geographical sense, as is the case in the instances above
mentioned.

Professor E. N. Horsford exhibited a number of photo-
graphs of a piece of recent ice, by which its intimate structure
was very accurately shown.

Mr. Henck gave a demonstration of a general theorem,
which he believed to be new, relating to circles tangent to
each other and to two given circles, — the given circles being
also tangent to each other. This theorem embraced as par-
ticular cases the two remarkable propositions concerning
similar circles given by Pappus Alexandrinus in the fourth
book of his Mathematical Collections. In the course of the
demonstration, several interesting properties were developed,
some of which he thought had been hitherto unnoticed.

Dr. A. A. Hayes made a communication " On the Corro-
sion of Yellow- Metal Sheathing, in Sea-water," as follows: —

" In some earlier researches on the chemical and mechanical consti-
tution of alloys, I have demonstrated the existence of several definite

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

29

compounds of two metals, or one metal with a metalloid, united to form
a ductile body.

" The chemical analysis, by the proximate way, of yellow-metal, has
shown that, when it is formed from pure copper and pure zinc, there
exist Uvo distinct alloys. One of these is the well-known alloy of two
equivalents of copper, united to one equivalent of zinc ; the other is
composed of one equivalent of each of these metals, in chemical union.
A mass of yellow-metal presents, therefore, a crystalline aggregate of
two alloys, in which the percentage proportion of copper is sixty, while
the zinc has the proportion of forty ; and analysis having in view the
percentage of these metals only, gives usually nearly these quantities.

"As the relation of zinc to oxygen. dilFers remarkably from that of
copper, it might have been inferred that an alloy composed of one
equivalent of copper and one equivalent of zinc would also have a dif-
ferent relation to oxygen, when compared with one that contains two
equivalents of copper. Considering sea-water action simply as oxida-
tion, under the most favorable conditions for combination without the
application of artificial heat, the study of the corrosion of yellow-metal
under exposure offers a simple and unobjectionable course for obtaining
trustworthy facts.

" It is well known that this yellow alloy, when carefully secured on
sailing-vessels, quickly exhibits marks of corrosive action when more
or less immersed in sea-water. The rapidity of this action diminishes
after the formation of a certain proportion of oxide, which, slightly
mixed with chlorides, serves as a protecting surface to the metal be-
low, by close adhesion. A serviceable duration of thirty-six to forty-
eight months is expected, in sheets of ordinary thickness.

" The specimens which accompany this paper are parts of sheets
which have been exposed nearly forty-eight months. In the one which
represents the alloy in the condition it was in when it was placed on
the vessel, at one part, analysis shows a percentage composition —
neglecting traces of lead and other metals — of copper 60, zinc 40.

" Another specimen, which has been corroded deeply, exhibits to the
naked eye a mechanical structure unlike that of the first jjiece : it re-
tains only part of its original ductility, and this unequally. Crystalline
particles are seen, and, even in the interior of the mass, oxygen has
penetrated, and combined with the metals. The composition of this
piece is, copper 63.6, zinc 33.9, oxygen 2.0, lead and other metals,
0.5 = 100.

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" In the third piece, which is a part of the last, corrosion has pK)-
ceeded to the extent of destroying cohesion nearly : the particles re-
main attached only through an interlacing of contiguous parts, separat-
ing at once when the sheet is doubled, or beaten into crystalline grains,
coated by a tliin layer of oxide. By the chemical action the compo-
sition of this piece has undergone a great change, and analysis gives
the percentage of copper 74.5, zinc 22.8, oxygen 2.1, lead 0,6 = 100.

" At several points deep cavities, and in many sheets holes, exist ;
these have been caused by the corrosion around grains of slag, which
had been rolled into the mass of the metal. In such cases the slag is a
negative body to the surrounding metal, after corrosion commeyices, and
an increased power of action is thus gained, locally. Carefully con-
ducted experiments prove the correctness of the theoretical deduction,
that the alloy represented by copper, two equivalents, and zinc, one
equivalent, has an inherent negatively electrical condition, when com-
pared with the alloy of one equivalent of copper and one equivalent of
zinc ; and this state has been found in the cleaned parts remaining of
sheets which have suffered the largest amount of corrosion.

" But the chemical evidence which we thus obtain of the abstraction
of the most positive alloy by sea-water action, is not more interesting
than that of a physical character. Every piece which has been disin-
tegrated presents highly crystalline — almost regularly crystallized —
assemblages of the alloy of two equivalents of copper to one equiva-
lent of zinc, as its mass.

" Now, in the ductile metal before exposure, we detect the facets of
these crystals of this alloy, which might be mistaken for those found in
many laminated pure metals, while the chemical action, being confined
to the most positive alloy, brings them more and more distinctly to view,
enabling us to prove that these large masses of metal, in corroding,
divide mechanically, as well as chemically, into two pre-existing alloys ;
one oxidizing and being washed away, while the other, nearly pure,
remains coherent to some extent.

" It had been long known that the corroded metal, when about to be
re-manufactured, called for the addition of zinc, in order to form the
normal alloy ; the facts here stated prove that the abstraction of the
larger proportion of zinc arises from the removal of the most positive
of two alloys, which were united in the perfect metal as a homogeneous
mass.

" As multiplied observations have shown that the merchant service

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 31

requires a certain continuous solution of the sheathinff metal, in view of
the present enormous consumption, this subject has economical bearings
of great importance. It is probable that an alloy, forming part of a
mixed metal, might be found, less positive in its relation than the one
removed from yellow-metal, and yet sufficiently oxidizable to preserve
the surface clean while the vessel is in motion. Such an alloy united
to brass would present the mechanical require«i,ents, in union with a
chemical resistance called for, in sheathing metals."

Professor W. B. Rogers gave an account of his experiments
on the production of sounds by flames within glass tubes,
and explained the principle of their formation.

Professor Felton alluded to the newly discovered process of
Photo-lithography, which had been announced to the Academy
by Dr. W. F. Channing at the previous meeting, and sug-
gested that it offered an admirable method for the reproduc-
tion of the inscription on an ancient papyrus in Dr. Abbot's
Egyptian collection. He had spoken to the inventors of the
process, and the plan of reproducing it in this way seemed
to them quite practicable. If it could be done, this would
be the second inscription of that kind which had ever been
published.

Dr. Channing said he had no doubt the inscription could
be lithographed by this process at a moderate cost, and moved
that the Publishing Committee take into consideration the
expediency of thus bringing before the scientific world this
interesting papyrus. The motion was seconded by Professor
Felton, and adopted. Dr. Channing was added to the com-
mittee for this purpose.

Four Iiuudred and fiftieth meeting.

April 13, 1858. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of Hon. C. F. Adams.
The President in the chair.

A letter was read from Mr. John Akhurst, of Brooklyn, N. Y.,
dated March 30, offering to forward to the Academy certain

32 PROCEEDINaS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

publications of European Societies, addressed to the Acad-
emy, which had come into his possession at a custom-house
sale, on payment of certain charges. Also a letter from the
Librarian of the University Library, Cambridge, England,
February 3, 1858, acknowledging the receipt of the Acad-
emy's publications.

Professor Lovertng, for ihe Committee on Meteorological
Observations, read the following report : —

" At a meeting of the Academy on the 27th of May, 1856, Dr. B. A.
Gould, Jr. offered some remarks on the difficulties which meteorolo-
gists (particularly in Europe) find in obtaining meteorological obser-
vations made in Boston and its vicinity. Whereupon it was voted that
Professor D. Treadwell, Professor Lovering, and Mr. Jonathan Hall
be a committee to take the subject into consideration. During the long
period which has elapsed since their appointment, this committee have
not lost sight of this subject. After carefully examining the materials
at their disposal, they have begun with the publication of Mr. Jonathan
Hall's observations on the thermometer, made at No. 51 Hancock
Street, Boston, since January 1, 1821. These observations, made
three times a day, with scarcely a single interruption, and continued
down to the present time, have been published for a period of thirty -six
years, ending with January 1, 1857 ; together with observations on the
quantity of rain which has fallen since 1823, or during a period of
thirty-four years. This publication fills eighty of the quarto pages of
the Memoirs, and terminates with tables which show the mean heat of
each year, and the mean heat of each month, for thirty-six yeai's ; also,
the mean heat of the whole period : the same means also for the three
particular hours of the day at which the observations were taken.

'' The committee propose, Avith the approbation of the Academy, to
publish next the meteorological observations of the late Dr. Enoch
Hale. Dr. Hale's observations on the thermometer, winds, and clouds
began January 1, 1818, and ended December 31, 1848, covering a
period of thirty-one years. His observations on the barometer began
December 1, 1818, and ended December 13, 1848, extending over a
period of thirty years and a few days. The publication of these obser-
vations is due, not only to the cause of science, but also to the memory
of Dr. Hale, who was recognized by the Academy as its meteorological
observer, and who was encouraged to contmue and improve his obser-
vations by its aid and advice."

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 33

On motion of Professor Gray, it was voted that the report
be accepted, and that the committee be requested to continue
their labors.

On motion of Mr. G. B. Emerson, it was voted that the
subject of the preservation of the meteorological papers of the
Academy be referred to the same committee.

The Publishing Committee, to whom had been referred the
subject of publishing a photo-lithographic copy of the papyrus
in Dr. Abbot's Egyptian Museum, reported progress, giving
details of the probable extent and expense of the work. Pro-
fessor Lovering stated that it was Professor Felton's wish
that the publication might be postponed, as he expected to
be absent from the country during the coming summer.

Professor W. B. Rogers addressed the Academy on the
efflux of gases from a cylindrical orifice. He stated that the
fluid escaped in the form of rings, each section of the ring
revolving in its own plane.

Professor Jeffries Wyman referred to certain experiments
he had made, to ascertain the nature of the impression made
by falling masses of water on plastic clay. He found that, in
falling, the drops became rings, the section revolving inwards
and upwards in its own plane, as indicated by the impression
in the clay, its inner edge being higher than the outer, and
marked by converging lines.

Professor Rogers explained the method by which this phe-
nomenon resulted, as he thought, from the mechanical forces
called into operation.

Professor Gray then presented the following communica-
tion : —

Notes upon some RiibiacecE, collected in the United States South-
Sea Exploring' Expedition under Captain Wilkes, ivith
Characters of Neiv Species, 8fc.

1. Timonius, Bohea, and so77ie other Guettardece.
These two genera were confused by De CandoUe, and have not been
satisfactorily cleared up by Ivortlials, who occupied himself with them
several years ago, nor by Miquel, who, in his Flora of Netherlands

VOL. IV. 5

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

India, has followed Korthals' steps. For the information which enables
me to fix their synonymy, and give their true characters, I am indebted
to the Nestor of our science, Robert Brown. Nearly half a century
ago, this most sagacious and conscientious botanist had identified with
Timonius of Rumphius a plant collected by Sir Joseph Banks at En-
deavor River, and by himself on the same coast of tropical Australia ;
and in the Banksian herbarium he had referred the Eritlialis of Fors-
ter (not of Linnteus) to the same genus. An allied plant of the Sand-
wich Islands (the type of Gaudichaud's genus Boheci) was also known
to Mr. Brown, and suspected to be not congeneric with Timonius.

Desfontaines, in the year 1820, established his genus Polyphragmon
upon the original Timonius.

In 1829, Chamisso and Schlechtendal pubhshed in the Linnsea their
genus Burneya, founding it upon Forster's Erithalis, and adding the
Sandwich Island plant, with some doubt, as a second species.

Still earlier, however, Gaudichaud had issued his plate of the latter
plant, founding on it his genus Bohea ; but his volume of letter-press,
although it bears the date of 1826, was not published until 1830.

In that year De Candolle published the fourth volume of the Prodro-
mus. Adopting, in place of Burneya, the name of Timonius, — proba-
bly from the Banksian herbarium, — he followed Chamisso and Schlec-
tendal in referring the Sandwich Island plant and Forster's Erithalis to
the same genus, but took the carpological characters wholly from the
former. That he had no idea of the fruit of the latter, and that he had
not in fact recognized the Timonius of Rumphius, appears from his
having referred the fruit of Forster's plant, as figured by the younger
Ga3rtner, to another genus, viz. the Polyphragmon of Desfontaines,
which is pretty clearly the original 2Ymom'iis.

More recently (in 1849 ?) Korthals undertook to elucidate these
plants. But he wrongly describes the internal structure of the seed ;
he refers the original Timonius to Polyphragmon, instead of Polyphrag-
mon to it ; he divides congeneric species between his Bohea and Poly-
phragmon ; and, finally, he had not the means of knowing the leading
character of Gaudichaud's genus Bohea, i. e. the irabricative aestivation'
of the corolla.

Lastly, Miquel follows Korthals implicitly ; but in his addenda to
RuhiacecB (Fl. Ind. Bat. 2, p. 355), he states that the fruit of Bohea is
the same in structure as Polyphragmon. Still the fact that the fruit of
the original Bohea is figured and described quite otherwise does not
arrest his attention nor suggest the true state of the case.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 35

Korthals should have the credit of rightly making out the character
of the singular plug which occupies the summit of the pyrena3 of the
fruit in these plants ; but he apparently was not aware that A. Richard
had remarked the same thing in Gmttarda, and rightly understood it.
It is, in fact, a general Guettardosous character, as also is the exalbu-
minous seed, now first made known.

The amended characters, and the synonymy of the two genera in
question, are subjoined, with the diagnoses of some new species.

TIMONIUS, Rumpli.

Flores polygami. Calycis limbus cupuliformis persistens. Corolla
hypocraterimorpha, intus nuda, lobis 4-10 testivatione valvatis. Sta-
mina tubo inserta ; filamentis brevissimis. Stylus apice 5 - 10-fidus,
lobis subulatis ina3qualibus intus stigmatosis. Ovarium pluriseriatim
multiloculare. Ovula in loculis solitaria, funiculo brevissimo cupuli-
formi suspensa. Drupa polypyrena ; pyrenis numerosissimis angustis
circa axim elongatam imbricatim et multisei'iatim superpositis, puta-
mine apice pervio funiculo seminis strophiola^formi (obturamenti sube-
rosi instar) clause. Semen lineare vel oblongum : albumen vix uUum.
Embryo semini conformis, cylindricus ; cotyledonibus radicula multo
brevioribus. — Arbores vel frutices, stipulis interpetiolaribus perulatis
vernatione convolutis mox caducis ; foliis coriaceis, venulis (pagina
superiore pra3sertim) stepius tenuissime et crebei-rime reticulatis ; pe-
dunculis axillaribus uni - plurifloris.

Timonius Rumph. Herb. Amboin. 3, p. 216, t. 140; R. Broivn in Herb. Banks ^

Mss. Anil. 1810.
Porocarpus, Gcertn. Fruct. 2, p. 473, t. 178.
Erithalis, Forst. Prodr.; Gcertn. f. Suppl.p. 92, t. 196, non Linn.
Polyphragmon, Desf. in Mem. Mus. Par. 6, p. 6, t. 2; A. Rich. Mem. Rub. p. 151.
Burneya, Cham. ^ Schlecht. in Linna^a, 4, p. 189, excl. sp. No. 2.
Timonius (excl. sp. & char.) & Polyphragmon, DC. Prodr. 4, p. 445, 461.
Bobea (excl. syn. Gaud.) & Polyphragmon, Korthals in Neder. Kruidk. Arch. 2,

p. 212, 215 ; Miquel, Fl. Ind. Bat. 2, p. 234, 260.

Timonius Foesteri, DG. I. c. Erithalis polygama, i^ors^. E.
uniflora, Banhs ; Gcertn. f. Burneya Forsteri, Cham. 8^ Schlecht. I. c.
Polyphragmon minus, A. Rich. I. c. ; DC. I. c. Bobea Forsteri & B.
Gtertneri, Korthals, I. c. — South Sea Islands.

Timonius sapot^folius {Gray, in Bot. Pacif. Expl. Exped.
ined.) : foliis etiam nascentibus cum stipulis majusculis ramulisque
glaberrimis elliptico-oblongis utrinque acuminatis venulis creberrimis

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

lineato reticulatis quasi tenuiter nervoso-striatis, areolis lineari-elongatis
parallels, venis primariis obsoletis ; pedunculis fructiferis petiolum
jEquantibus ; pyrenis linearibus, putamine tenui. — Feejee Islands.

TiMONius AFFiNis {Gray, I. c. ined.) : foliis ovalibus obscure penni-
veniis, venis subreticulatis, retibus venularum varie versis hinc inde
contrariis ; — cjsterum pr£ecedentis. — Feejee Islands.

BOBEA, Gaudichaud,

Flores hermaphroditi (an semper?). Caljcis limbus cupuliformis
persistens. Corolla hypocraterimorpba, glabra, intus nuda, lobis 4
ovalibus obtusissimis asstivatione valde imbricatis. Stamina tubo in-
serta ; filamentis brevibus. Stylus superne ina^qualiter 3-10-fidus,
lobis filiformibus apice introrsum stigmatosis. Ovarium 3 - 10-loculare.
Ovula in loculis solitaria, funiculo brevissimo strophiolEcformi suspensa.
Drupa 3 - 10-pyrena ; pyrenis parallelis osseis crassis, sarcocarpio
tenui. Semen cylindricum, cum funiculo strophiolato crassissimo duro
(instar obturamenti) eodem latius loculum angustum implens : albumen
vix ullum. Embryo semini conformis ; radicula oblonga cylindrica ;
cotyledonibus brevibus subcomplanatis. — Arbores Sandwicenses ; sti-
pulis squamaceis interpetiolaribus discretis caducis ; venulis foliorum
creberrime ac tenuissime reticulatis ; pedunculis uni — paucifloris.

Bobea, Gaudich. in Bot. Voy. Freyc,p. 473, t. 93, non Korthals.
Bobsea, A. Rich. Mem. Rubiac. p. 135.
BurneyEe sp. No. 2, Cham. ^' Schlecht. in Linncea, 1. c.
Timonius, DC. Prodr. 4, p. 461 ex char., non Rumjyh.

1. Bobea elatior (Gaudich. L c.) : glaberrima ; foliis obovatis
oblongisve basi in petiolum sat longum attenuatis ; pedunculis gracili-
bus 3 - 7-floris, flore intermedio sessili, omnibus basi subcupulatis. —
Oahu, Sandwich Islands.

2. Bobea brevipes (Gray in Bot. Expl. Exped. ined.) : foliis
oblongis vel subovatis breviter petiolatis, junioribus pra^sertim ramisque
hirto-pubescentibus, pedunculis brevibus unifloris ? — Oahu, Sandwich
Islands.

The name of Bohea is to be preferred to Burneya, not only because
Gaudichaud's plate was earliest published, but because Chamisso's
genus was founded primarily upon Forster's Erithalis, which is a gen-
uine Timonius.

The aestivation of the corolla (now first made out), the completely
hermaphrodite blossoms, as far as is known, and the uniseriate, com-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 37

paratively few, and very thick-walled pyreno?, amply distinguisli Bohea
from Timonms. From the osstivation, the two genera would fall into
different subtribes, if we implicitly follow the distribution of the Goffe(S<s
suggested by Mr. Bentham, who, in the Niger Flora, and in the Kew
Journal of Botany, has brought out, with his usual sagacity, the best
characters for a natural arrangement of the RuliacecB. Timonius, with
valvate jestivation, would fall into his Vangueriece, and Bohea into his
Guettardece. But characters from the aestivation of the corolla, conven-
ient and generally reliable as they are, must in this, as in many other
cases, give way to other considerations. And the close similarity of these
two genera in most other respects, especially in their nearly exalbumi-
nous embryo, the plug-shaped funiculus filling the upper part of the
cell, as also the delicate venular meshes of the leaves (of which traces
occur in most GhomelicB and G-ueUardce), plainly requires us to refer
Timonms also to the Guettardece. This is well confirmed by Wight
and Arnott's genus Eupyrena, which is exactly intermediate between
• Timonius and Bohea, having the corolla, &c. of the former, and the
ovary and fruit of the latter.* A leading character of the Guettardece,
as I should define the group, has escaped general notice, namely, the
wholly or nearly exalbuminous embryo, the embryo being a macro-
podous radicle with small and obscurely-marked cotyledons occupying
merely the lower extremity. This, as well as the true pericarpic di-
rection of the embryo, however, was rightly understood by Grertner, in
Guettarda speciosa. What A. Richard calls a thin fleshy albumen in
this plant, is apparently the tegmen of the seed ; and what he took
for the radicular extremity of the embryo (" cet embryon est dresse ")
is the cotyledonar end. The mistake is the more remarkable on
Richard's part, since he had recognized the crustaceous plug at the
summit of the cell as the funiculus. Otherwise, the tapering of the
ovule and young seed to an acute apex at the base of the cell might
readily lead one to regard them as attached there, and may have given
origin to the character " semina erecta," assigned by De CandoUe and
others, and Avhich even Miquel leaves in the generic character (with a
mark of doubt), although, following Bentham, he rightly defines the

* The fruits of Eupyrena, with which I have been supplied by Dr. Hooker and
Dr. Harvey, do not furnish sound seeds ; but I have no doubt that these are exal-
buminous or nearly so. The ovary is sometimes only quinquelocular ; and the
ovules are suspended. "Semina erecta" is a phrase wi'ongly introduced into the
generic character by Endlicher.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Guettai'decs. as having pendulous (more correctly, suspended) ovules.
In G. elliptica, the only other species of the genus which I have with
mature fruit, the embryo is similar to that of G. speciosa. The cotyle-
dons, although difficult to separate in the mature seed, are plainly dis-
cernible in rather unripe ones ; they are very short, oval, thin, and of
no greater diameter than the radicle at that end.

That the seed of Thnonius is exalbuminous had been long ago ascer-
tained by jVIr. Brown, who directed my attention to the fact.

The occasional absence of albumen in this family is not very sur-
prising. Those systematists who regard the difference between a de-
posit of nourishing matter around the emhryo and in the embryo as one
of very high taxonomic importance, should consider how large is the
number of natural orders in which the two modes are now known to
coexist.

From the indications now given, the true Guettardece may be char-
acterized as follows : —

Subtr, GUETTARDE^. CoroUiB lobi ssstivatione imbricati, raro-
valvati. Ovarium bi-multiloculare : ovula in loculis solitaria suspensa.
Drupa bi - plurilocularis vel di - pleiopyrena. Semina e funiculo crasso
obturamentiformi appensa : albumen nullum vel parcum. Radicula
longa : cotyledones parvi.

"We have a new Guettai'dreous plant, possibly a Guettarda, from the
Feejee Islands, of which blossoms are wanting for the determination
of the genus. Of the following, we possess rather better materials, but
still the genus is uncertain.

Chomelia ? Sandwicensis ( Gray, in Expl. Exped. ined.) : ra-
mis junioribus pubescentibus ; foliis glaberrimis oblongo-ovatis acumi-
natis basi rotundatis ; fructu dipyreno globoso calycis lobis majusculis
ovalibus obtusissimis recurvis coronato. — Oahu, Sandwich Islands.

When better known, this may prove to be a new generic type. But
it is more likely to fall into Chomelia, or else into Giceftai'della of Ben-
tham, which is hardly sufficiently distinguished by the more numerous
ovarian cells. Chomelia rihesioides, Benth., occasionally exhibits a
4-cclled putamen, and the pyrenos of Guettardella Chinensis are fre-
quently consolidated in the same manner ; — just as in Arctostaphylos,
in which the pyrense are either discrete or variously concrete in the
same species. The veinlets of the leaves, especially of the upper sur-
face, form minute and elegant transverse reticulations. The fruit is
that of a Bohea reduced to two pyrense ; the seed has a similar plug-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 39

like funiculus ; the embiyo is invested by a very thin layer of albumen ;
its lower extremity bears a pair of very minute and thin cotyledons.

2. Canthium and the Vanffueriece.

Canthium, § Tarotea. Corolla Jiypocraterimorpha, tubo lobis du-
plo longiore : anthera3 subsessiles, mucronata?.

To this section, designated by one of the aboriginal names of the
Tahitian species, as recorded by Forster, belongs GMococca barhata of
Forster, which Mr. Bentham (in the Niger Flora) has already referred
to Canthium, and the following closely related species : —

Canthiubi sessilifolium ( Gray in Expl. Exped. ined.) : inerme,
glabrum ; foliis oblongo-ovatis seu ovato-lanceolatis basi rotundata fere
sessilibus chartaceis supra lucidis ; pedicellis solitariis binis ternisve in
axillis flore gracili (semipollicari) dimidio brevioribus ; pedunculo com-
muni vix uUo ; limbo calycis 5-dentato ; pyrenis seminibusque fere
rectis angustis. — Vanua-levu, Feejee Islands.

To the character of Bentham's subtribe Vangueriece, it will be
necessary to add, that the seeds have a copious albumen and well-
developed cotyledons. In Canthium, the ovules are only pendidous,
and sometimes semi-anatropous, or nearly so. Morinda was referred
to th^s group by Mr. Bentham, through some oversight.

3. Ixorece.

These are well characterized by the convolute aestivation of the co-
rolla and the peltate or centrally affixed ovules. Miquel incorrectly
characterizes the group (his tribe Pavettece) as having the lobes of the
corolla imbricated in aestivation, whereas they are most obviously con-
volute, as Mr. Bentham distinctly stated in his note, explaining that he
used the word imbricated in a general sense for all overlapping forms.
The more definite term (convolute) would have obviated misappre-
hension, and would be strictly correct, so far as is known.

To unite Ixora and Pavetta, as Richard, Blume, and Miquel have
done, seems not unnatural. But the former name ought in that case
to be retained, not only because it had been preferred by Lamarck, but
because, as a Linncean genus, it is ten years older than Pavetta, ap-
pearing as it does in the first edition of the Genera Plantarum.

The collection which forms the basis of these remarks comprises one
genuine South American Ixora, and three undescribed Oceanic species,
which, along with I. fragrans {Cephaelis fragrans, Hook. & Arn. Bot.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Beech., p, 64, t. 13), constitute a marked section of the genus {PJiyl-
leilema), on account of a pair of bracteant leaves forming a diphyllous
involucre to a cluster of three or more sessile flowers.

IxoRA ERiANTHA ( Gray, ill Exijl. Exped. ined.) : stipulis aristato-
subulatis ; foliis ovalibus ovatisque obtuse subacuminatis subsessilibus
basi rotundatis vel subcordatis ramisque glabris ; cyma parva terminali
floribusque subsessilibus ; corolla extus cum calyce pubescente, lobis
ovato-lanceolatis acutis tubo suo gracillimo triplo brevioribus. — Brazil,
near Rio Janeiro. — Aff. I. Bahiensi et I. ScJiomhirghicmce, Benth.

IxoRA (Phylleilema) Samoensis ( Gray, I. c.) : glaberrima ; foliis
ovalibus utrinque obtusis vel obtusiusculis, floraUbus etiam petiolatis
ovatis capitulum triflorum fulcrantibus ; dentibus calycis subulatis ; co-
rolla glabra ; stipulis longissime aristato-subulatis. — Upolu, Samoan
Islands.

Ixora (Phylleilema) Vitiensis ( Gray, I. c.) : glaberrima ; foliis
ovato-oblongis acuminatis basi rotundatis, floralibus seu bracteis late
cordatis arete sessilibus capitulum triflorum fulcrantibus ; dentibus caly-
cis brevissimis ; corolla glabra ; stipulis longissime aristatis. — Ovolau,
Feejee Islands.

Ixora (Phylleilema) abiplifolia ( Gray, I. c.) : foliis elongato-
oblongis subacuminatis basi obtusissimis subcordatisve glabris, floralibus
bracteisve ovalibus arete sessilibus capitulum pluriflorum fulcrantibus ;
dentibus calycis brevissimis ; corolla cum ovario extus pubera ; stipulis
breviter subulato-aristatis. — Samoan Islands.

4. Morindece.

Through some oversight, Bentham, in the Niger Flora, mentions
the MorindecB as belonging to his subtribe Vangueriece. Miquel, in
his recent Flora of the Dutch East Indies, adopting this view with-
out examination, introduces the phi'ase " ovulis pendulis " into the
characters of his tribe Morindece and of the genus Morinda, and alters
that of Tribrachya, Korthals, in conformity with that view. Yet he
(rightly enough) reduces Sphcerophora of Blume to Morinda, although
Blume's analyses represent anatropous erect ovules. An examination
of the flowers of some Morinda, so obviously demanded by this patent
discrepancy, would have shown the micropyle of the ovule, and in
fruit the I'adicle, to be inferior. In some species, as in M. citrlfolia,
the ovule is fixed by near its middle ; in others, nearer the micro-
pyle, — in some so close to it that the ovule is truly anatropous and

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 41

ascending or nearly erect, thus invalidating Korthals' RennelUa as well
as his Trihrachya. In the arrangement of the Coffecece, therefore, it
would seem best to take the concretion of the flowers into account, and
to regard Morinda as the type of a distinct subtribe, in other respects
intermediate between the Ixorece and the Psychotriece.

Besides a rather doubtful variety of Morinda umhellata (which in-
cludes M. tetrandra of Jack) from Tahiti, we have the following new
Oceanic species : —

Morinda myrtifolia ( Gray, I. c.) : glaberrima ; ramis gracilibus
scandentibus ; stipulis in vaginam truncatam brevem connatis, foliis
sublonge petiolatis subcoriaceis nitidulis lanceolato- sen elliptico-oblongis
obtusis nunc obtuse acuminatis, venis primariis hand conspicuis axillis
nudis ; pedunculis terminalibus brevibus solitariis 2 - 4-nisve ; capitu-
lis plurifloris globosis ; tubo coroUre 4-fida3 intus villoso-barbato. —
Feejee Islands. — The ovule or seed in this and in 3f. mollis is semi-
anatropal ; in the two others, anatropal, and from near the base of the
cell : radicle inferior.

Morinda lucida ( Gray, I. c.) : glabra, scandens ; stipulis in vagi-
nam brevem connatis, summis utrinque 1 - 2-cuspidatis ; foliis ovatis
et oblongo-lanceolatis acuminatis chartaceis supra lucidis venulis reticu-
latis, subtus opacis, venis primariis tantum perspicuis m axillis sajpius
barbellatis ; pedunculis (fructiferis) solitariis ternisve terminalibus pe-
tioles adasquantibus ; capitulis plurifloris ; syncarpio globoso pollicari.
— Feejee Islands.

Morinda mollis ( Gray, I. c.) : scandens, undique velutino-pubes-
cens ; foliis membranaceis ovato- seu obovato-oblongis caudato-acumi-
natis basi sinu parvo subcordatis perspicue penniveniis ; pedunculis
plurimis in umbella terminali ; capitulis plurifloris ; syncarpio globoso
pubescente. — Feejee Islands.

Morinda bucid^folia (Gray, I. c): glabra, scandens; stipulis
subdistinctis ; foliis obovato-cuneatis obtusis vel retusis coriaceis supra
nitidulis subtus venulis inter costas rectas prominulas crebre reticulatis ;
pedunculis plui'imis terminahbus ; capitulo globoso 7 - 10-floro. — Fee-
jee Islands.

5. Psychotriece.

The novelties of the collection belong to Myrmecodia, Hydnophytum,
Straussia (Coffea, § Straussia, DC), to the large genus Psychotria, to
Chasalia, and to a new genus oi Psychotrie(s (including Cephaelidece),
remarkable for the greatly-developed and corolliform limb of the calyx.

vol. iv. 6

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Mtemecodia iJMBEKBis (^Grciy in Expl. Exped. ined.) : inermis ;
foliis lauceolato- seu spathulato-oblongis ; corolla tubulosa intus nuda
glaberrima calyce cum ovario quadruple longiore ; stylo simplicissimo ;
stigmate quadri-apiculato indusio lanato-ciliato cincto ; fructu (in sicco)
obpyramidato quadrilobo, pyrenis 4 corneis. — Feejee Islands. — Para-
sitic, or pseudo-parasitic, on trees, in tbe manner of its allies, by a
dilated tuberous base, cavernous within. Corolla thickish, half an inch
in length, tubular, 4-cleft, perfectly glabrous and naked within and with-
out, and destitute of scales, beard, or other appendages in the throat.

There is no small obscurity about the one or two old species of this
genus, and respecting the distinction between it and Hydnopkytum,
which the Dutch botanists ought to clear up. But the present species
— notwithstanding that the corolla wants the beard described by Jack,
and the fornicate scales mentioned by Blume — is undoubtedly a genu-
ine member of Jack's genus Myrmecodia ; and its stigma is probably
similar to the " stigma simplex tomentosum " of M. tuherosa. But this
stigma in our plant consists of four minute apiculate lobes, terminating
a filiform entire style, and surrounded by a kind of indusiate mar-
gin which is fringed by a circle of delicate arachnoid hairs. — From
the analyses I should refer Gaudichaud's M. inermis and M. echi-
nata to Hydnophytum.

Hydnophttum longiflorum {Gray, I.e.): foliis elongato-oblon-
gis ; corolla gracillima (semipollicari) intus glabra, tubo lobis oblongis
pluries longiore ; stigmatibus 2 petaloideis renifoz*mibus ; drupa dipy-
rena. — Feejee Islands.

The one or two dubious Coffeas of Chamisso, from the Sandwich
Islands, are not particularly related to Coffea (which, although
strangely left in the PsycJiotriece by Miquel, contrary to the assigned
characters, had already been well defined by Bentham as having " the
asstivation and placentation of Ixora and Pavetta, with an axillary in-
florescence and a pecuUar seed"), but are near to Ghasalia, from which
they are distinguished by the short corolla and the scarcely meniscoidal
seed. Nuttall has indicated these plants, in the Hookerian herbarium,
as a new genus, Apionema; but his name must give place to De Can-
dolle's long-published sectional name of

STRAUSSIA.

Caljrx tubo turbinate ; limbo cupuliformi truncato vel repando brevi.
CoroUa brevis, 4 - 5-fidi ; lobis tubo iiequilongis seu longioribus aistiva-

or ARTS AND SCIENCES. 43

tione valvatis. Stamina 4-5, fauci inserta : filamenta brevia : antherse
oblonga?, basitixa3. Stylus filiformis : stigmata 2 subdilatata. Ovarium
biloculare. Ovula in loculis solitaria, e basi erecta, anatropa. Drupa
Sfcpius pyriformis, dipyrena ; pyrenis chartaceis vel tenuiter cartilagi-
neis plano-convexis Itevibus. Semen plano-convexum seu leviter me-
niscoideum, testa tenui adhterente : albumen corneum, ventre sulco pro-
fundo clause exaratum, interne fissuratum. Embryo parvus Coffece
vel Psychotriece. — Arbores aut frutices Sandwicenses ; stipulis inter-
petiolaribus subconnatis obtusis mox deciduis ; cyma terminali multi-
flora longe pedunculata ; floribus parvis.

Straus SI A Kaduana : foliis subsessilibus cuneato-obovatis, juniori-
bus subtus ad costas cum pedicellis calycibusque stepissime ferrugineo-
pilosulis ; corolla? fauce imberbi ; drupa pyriformi subquadrangulata.
Coffea Kaduana, Cham. ^ Schlect. in Linncea, 4, p. 33 ; DC. Prodr. 4,
p. 502 ; Ilooh. 8; Am. Bot. Beech, p. 86 ; Walp. in Rel. Meyen. p. 352.
Apionema obovata & A. penduliflora, Nutt. in Herb. Hook. — Oahu,
Sandwich Islands. — The thin fissure in the axis of the albumen is
symmetrical, not lined with a membrane, and not owing to an infolding,
like that of a coffee-grain. — It is questionable whether the throat of
the corolla is always naked, and whether the second species is distinct
from the present. The five bearded spots certainly exist in the Coffea
Chamissonis of Hooker and Arnott, although they were overlooked
(they are never so conspicuous as vsrould be inferred from Chamisso's
description) ; hence that is to be referred to

Straus siA IVIariniana : tota vel fere glabra ; foliis breviter seu
brevissime petiolatis obovato-oblongis ellipticisve ; corolla? fauce inter
stamina breviter barbata ; drupa obovato-pyriformi. Coffea Marini-
ana, Cham. c3- Schlect. I. c. ; D G. I. c. C. Chamissonis, Book. 8^ Am.
Apionema sulcata, Nutt. in Herb. Hooh — Oahu, Sandwich Islands.

Straussia Hawaiensis (sp. nov.) : foliis longius petiolatis obovatis
calycibusque glaberrimis ; coroUte fauce inter stamina barbata ; drupa
parva ovoidea vel obovata. — Hawaii, Sandwich Islands. — The con-
spicuously petioled and usually large leaves, and the small fruit (only
three, instead of six or seven, lines in length), distinguish this species
from the preceding.

The following species of Ghasalia approach Psychotria.

Chasalia Amicorum [Gray, I.e.): glaberrlma ; stipulis vaginan-
tibus ; foliis oblongis ovalibusque basi acutis, venis primariis 6 - 8 ;
cyma laxiflora breviter pedunculata ; calycis tubo ultra ovarium obo-

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

vatum producto et in limbum crateriformem subquadridentatum abrupte
expanse ; fructu obovato ; pyrenis 2 apice subtridentatis dorso leviter
carinatis ventre concaviusculis hand sulcatis ; semine scutelliformi in-
curvo. — Tongatabu, Friendly Islands.

Chasalia pyriformis ( Gray, I. c.) ; glaberrima ; stipulis vaginan-
tibus brevibus ; foliis oblongis basi acutis, venis primariis utrinque 7 - 9 ;
cyma pauciflora sessili ; fructu oblongo-pyrifox'mi calycis limbo cupulato
vix 4-dentato coronato ; pyrenis 2 ventre planis dorso leviter tuber-
culatis baud carinatis ; semine scutelliformi planiusculo. — Samoan or
Navigators' Islands.

The following new species of Psychotria are all Polynesian, except
the last.

Psychotria Brackenridgii ( Gray, I. c.) : stipulis caducis ; foliis
oblongo-lanceolatis utrinque acutis vel acuminatis basi in petiolum
longiusculum angustatis fere glabris chartaceis ; pedunculis 1-5 termi-
nalibus elongatis cymam trichotomam multifloram gerentibus cum radiis
pedicellisque ferrugineo-puberis ; fructibus ovalibus 8-costatis truncatis
calycis limbo parvo cupuliformi coronatis puberulis ; pyrenis tenuiter
cartilagineis intus planis dorso convexo carinato-tricostatis. — Peejee
Islands. (In fruit.)

Psychotria closterocarpa (Gray, I.e.): glabra; foliis oblongo-
lanceolatis magnis basi in petiolum longum angustatis, venis primariis
conspicuis utrinque 15-19; cymis terminalibus pedunculatis ; fructi-
bus pedicellatis fusiformibus limbo calycis cupulato truncato coUo subla-
tiore coronatis ; pyrenis lineari-oblongis apice bidentatis intus planis
dorso obtuse tricostatis suberoso-crustaceis. — Samoan or Navigators'
Islands. — Fruits about 7 lines long : pyrena3 2 lines wide.

Psychotria Forsteriana ( Gray, I. c.) : glabra ; stipulis tenuiter
scariosis caducis; foliis membranaceis oblongo-lanceolatis nunc obo-
vato-oblongis utrinque acuminatis modice petiolatis, venis primariis
9-ll-jugi3; cyma multiflora terminati composita tripartita vel tripla,
pedunculis radiisve petiolum requantibus ; floribus confertis pedicellatis
parvis ; calycis limbo expanso integerrimo ovario a3quilongo ; corolla
brevi usque ad medium 5-fida fauce villosissima ; fructibus obovatis
retusis, junioribus fere obcordatis ; pyrenis dorso obtuse costatis subru-
gosis intus concaviusculis. P. Asiaiica, Forst. Prodr. p. IG? — Var.
VlTiENSis : foliis longius petiolatis nunc undulatis ; fructu vix retuso.
— Tahiti ; Samoan or Navigators' Islands : and the variety from the
Feejee Islands.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 45

PsYCHOTRiA TURBiNATA ( Gray, I. c.) : fere glabra ; stipulis cadu-
cis ; foliis obovato-oblongis nunc oblongo-lanceolatis basi in petiolum
longiusculum attenuatis submembranaceis, venis primariis 9 - 10-jugis ;
cyma tei'minali multiflora petiolos vix superante ; fructibus turbinatis
vertice planis ; pyrenis 2 vel 3 ventre inferne planis superne profunda
exsculptis dorsoque tuberculato-incrassatis. — Feejee Islands. (In fruit :
flowers not seen.)

PsYCHOTRiA INSULARUM ( Gray, I. c.) : glabra ; stipulis caducis ;
foliis oblongis utrinque acutis vel acuminatis longiuscule petiolatis char-
taceo-membranaceis, venis primariis 7 - 10-jugis ; cyma terminali ses-
sili composita, radiis 3-5 trichotomis divisionibusque divaricatis graci-
libus apice 3 - 5-floris ; floribus graciliter pedicellatis ; calycis limbo
crateriformi ovario requilongo, dentibus denticulisve 5 acutissimis; co-
rolla fauce villosissima ; fructibus ovoideis breviter coronatis, pyrenis
intus planis dorso tricostatis et molliter rugoso-muriculatis. — Samoan
and Friendly Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA TEPHROSANTHA {Gray, I. c): stipulis caducis; foliis
ovalibus utrinque abrupte acutis vel acuminatis petiolatis ramisque gla-
bris ; cyma terminali pedunculata efFusa decomposita, pedicellis gracili-
bus flore brevioribus ; calycis limbo subintegerrimo cupulato ovario
turbinato breviore ; corolla infundibuliformi extus pruinoso-canescente.
— Feejee Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA PARVULA ( Gray, I. c.) : facie P. serpentis, glaberrima ;
ramis gracilibus foliosis ; stipulis caducis ; foliis obovatis obtusis in peti-
olum angustatis (pollicaribus) chartaceis, venis utrinque 5 - G inconspi-
cuis ; cymis terminalibus laxifloris ; calycis limbo parvo acutiuscule
5-dentato ; fructibus globosis ; pyrenis hemispbtericis dorso 3 - 2-costa-
tis, costis obtusissimis. — Feejee Islands. (Corolla, &c. not seen.)

PSYCHOTRIA GRACILIS ( Gray, I. c.) glaberrima ; ramis gracillimis ;
stipulis quadri-subulatis deciduis ; foliis lanceolatis membranaceis atte-
nuato-acuminatis basi in petiolum angustatis ; cyma parva terminali
pluriflora breviter pedunculata ; calycis limbo expanso crateriformi
ovario subasquilongo 5-dentato ; corolla brevi 5-fida intus glabra ; fila-
mentis gracilibus antheris longioribus. — Feejee Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA CALYCOSA {Gi'oy, I. c): glabra; stipulis caducis;
foliis anguste oblongis seu oblongo-lanceolatis subacuminatis basi in
petiolum brevem attenuatis ; cyma terminali foliis breviore pedunculata
confertiflora ; floribus pedicellatis ; calycis limbo amplissimo foliaceo e
basi infundibuliformi expanso 5-lobo ; corolla tubuloso-infundibuliformi

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

breviter 5-fi(To, lobis apice saccatis extus hirtellis intus barbatis. —
Feejee Islands. (Fruit unknown.)

PsYCHOTRiA MACROCALYX ( Grmj, I. c.) i glabra ; ramis gi-acilibus
fbliosissimis ; stipulis ovatis mucronatis caducis ; foliis lanceolatis seu
oblongo-lanceolatis longe acuminatis chartaceis basi in petiolum attenu-
atis; pedunculis 1-3 terminalibus 1-5-floris pedicellisque filiformibus;
calycis limbo tubuloso angusto breviter 5-dentato persistente drupa
ovoidea suba^quilongo ; pyrenis compressis intus planis dorso 1 - 3-cari-
natis. — Feejee Islands and Tongatabu.

PsYCHOTRiA FiLiPES ( Gray, I. c.) : glabra ; stipulis caducis ; foliis
lanceolate- seu obovato-oblongis acuminatis basi pauUo angustata SEepius
subcordatis longe petiolatis ; pedunculis terminalibus 2-5 filiformibus
folia suba3quantibus cymam effusam plurifloram gerentibus, radiis 3-4
pedicellisque gracilibus ; calycis limbo crateriformi 4-dentato ovario
breviore ; corolla brevi 4-fida fauce fere nuda, fructu immaturo ovate.
— Feejee Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA APODANTHA (^Gray, I. c.) : stipulis longe setaceo-acu-
minatis caducis ; foliis lanceolatis sensim acuminatis basi acutis obtu-
sisve membranaceis glabris ; petiolo primum ferrugineo-puberulo ; fruc-
tibus paucis tei-minalibus subsessilibus ovali-oblongis calycis limbo
cupuliformi leviter 5-dentato coronato ; pyrenis seminibusque intus
planis dorso 1 - 3-costatis. — Samoan or Navigators' Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA HYPARGYR^A {Gray, I. c.) : glabra; stipulis bifidis
caducis ; foliis obovato-oblongis seu oblongo-lanceolatis acuminatis basi
in petiolum brevem attenuatis chartaceis supra viridibus subtus argento-
pallidis ; pedunculis 1-3 terminalibus apice 3 - 5-floris ; floribus bre-
vissime pedicellatis ; calycis limbo parvo 5-dentato ; corolla infundibu-
liformi breviter 5-fida intus glabra ; filamentis bre^dssimis ; fructibus
globosis (in siccis acute costatis) calvis ; pyrenis cartilagineis tennibus
ventre planis leviter obcordatis margine acutissimis dorso medio
1 - 3-cristato-alatis ; semine triptero. — Feejee Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA (PiPTiLEMA*) CORD ATA (Gray, I. c.) : glabra; stipu-
lis ovatis ? caducis ; foliis oblongo- seu lanceolato-ovatis promisse acu-
minatis basi cordatis longe petiolatis ; capitulo arete sessili plurifloro

* PIPTILEMA, sub-gen. Psychotrice, Cephaelidi proxima. StipuliE squamacese,
caducissimiB. Flores sessiles, capitellati, ebracteolati ; capitulo terminali primum
bracteis squamaccis caducis involucrato. PyrcnLV compresso-plana% costa dorso
in cristam seu alam producta, marginibus iuferne subalato-dilatatis. Semen quasi
tripterum.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 47

bracteis squamaceis obovato-rotundis circiter G caducis involucrato ;
calycis limbo brevi truncato ; corolla tubulosa 5 - 7-mera ; fructibus
elongato-pyramidatis, pyrenis dorso alato-cristatis marginibns infra
medium angulato-productis. — Feejee Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA (Piptilema) Pickeringii ( Gray, I. c.) : glabra ; sti-
pulis caducis ; foUiis oblongo-lanceolatis seu obovato-oblongis promisse
acuminatis basi augustata subacutis obtusisve ; capitulo arete sessili
plurifloro bracteis squamaceis caducis involucrato ; calycis limbo bre-
vissimo truncato ; corolla tubulosa 4 - 6-mera ; fructibus obovatis obtu-
sis basi quadrangulatis, pyrenis dorso et inferue marginibus cristatis. —
Feejee Islands.

PsTCHOTRiA (Piptilema) plattcocca {Gray,!, c.) : glaberrima;
stipulis caducis ; foliis oblongis utrinque acutis ; pedunculis terminalibus
demum lateralibus petiolum adsequantibus glomerulos 1-3 paucifloros
bracteis caducis primum involucratos gerentibus ; fructibus ovato-tetra-
quetris, pyrenis dorso et marginibus praisertim inferne acute cristatis.

— Feejee Islands.

PsYCHOTRiA APOCYNIFOLIA {Gray, I. c): glaberrima; foliis oblon-
gis seu lanceolato-oblongis utrinque acutis vel acuminatis breviter peti-
olatis membranaceis concoloribus, venis primariis tenuibus angulo recto
patentibus prominulis ; stipulis brevissimis triangulatis, summis integris,
cseteris bipartitis ; cyma terminali pedunculata laxiflora foliis breviore ;
bracteis minimis subulatis ; calyce obtuse 5-dentato ; corolla infundi-
bulifoi'mi extus scabriuscula intus fauce tantum pilosa; stylo Mrtello.

— Brazil, near Rio Janeiro.

CALYCOSIA, Nov. Gen.

Calyx tubo angusto ; limbo valde ampliato infundibuliformi membra-
naceo 5-fido, lobis sa^pe ineequalibus ciliato-barbatis. Corolla calycem
modice superans, tubulosa, fauce infundibuliformi ; lobis 5 patentibus
apice corniculato-cucullatis sestivatione valvatis. Stamina 5, fauci
corolliB inserta, subinclusa : filamenta brevissima : anthera^ oblongo-
lineares basi bilobte. Stylus filiformis, basi disco epigyno elevato arete
cinctus : stigmata 2 vel 3, linearia seu filiformia. Ovarium 2 - 3-locu-
lare. Ovula in loculis solitaria, e basi erecta, anatropa. Drupa apice
nuda, dipyrena, raro -tripyrena ; pyrenis cartilagineis facie planis.
Semen cavitati conforme. Embryo in basi albuminis a3quabilis cornei
parvus ; cotyledonibus late ovalibus planis radicula conica brevioribus
et latioribus. — Frutices crassiramei, macrophylli ; stipulis intrafolia-

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ceis subvaginatis ; floribus capitato-congestis, capitulis bracteis latissi-
mis membranaceis inciso-lobatis involucratis ad apicem caulis cymoso-
glomeratis.

Calycosia petiolata ( Gray, I. c.) : foliis obovatis seu obovato-
lanceolatis in petiolum attenuatis ; calyce breviter 5-lobo, lobis oblongis ;
pyrenis dorso baud costatis. — Feejee Islands.

Calycosia sessilis {Gray, I.e.): foliis spathulato-lanceolatis basi
sensim angustatis sessilibus ; floribus arete capitato-eongestis ; ealyce
ultra medium 5-fido, lobis linearibus ; pyrenis dorso tricarinatis. —
Savai, one of the Samoan Islands.

The genus is well distinguished from PsycJiotria or Cephaelis by the
remarkably large, funnel-form, and deciduous limb of the calyx.

G. Goprosma.

Of this peculiarly South Sea genus we have six new species from
the Northern hemisphere, — namely, from the Sandwich Islands. All
but one of them, however, have lain long in herbaria. The two most
remarkable species, G. rhynchocarpa and G. ernodeoides, were gath-
ered, one of them by Nelson, in Cook's last voyage, the other, as well
as G. Menziesii, by Menzies, in Vancouver's voyage. We have also a
species from Tahiti, and another from the Feejee Islands.

CopROSMA RHYNCHOCARPA {Gray ill Expl. Exped. ined.) : fruti-
cosa, fere glabra ; stipulis triangulari-acuminatis basi connatis ; foliis
chartaceis oblongis seu lanceolato-oblongis acutis basi in petiolum gra-
cilem attenuatis ; pedunculis paucifloris j^edicellisve brevissimis ; fl.
masc. calyce subintegro tubo corolla? 6 - 7-fidte breviore, il. focm.
5 - 6-mero, calycis tubo ultra ovarium globosum longissime producto
(limbo cupulari breviter 5 - 6-dentato) super drupam rostri instar
persistente. — Hawaii, Sandwich Islands : gathered also by Nelson,
Macrae, and Gaudichaud. — Most remarkable for the beak of the fruit,
from li to 3 lines long, and forming as it were a stipe to the small,
abruptly dilated limb of the calyx persistent on its summit.

CoPROSMA LONGIFOLIA ( Gray, I. c.) : glaberrima, fruticosa ; stipu-
lis in vaginam oblongam coalitis e basi circumscissa caducis ; foliis sub-
coriaceis nitidulis lanceolatis utrinque acutis sublonge petiolatis ; pedun-
culis fructiferis petiolo brevioribus capitato-plurifloris ; drupa ovoidea
calycis limbo bi'evi 5 - 7-dentato apiculato. — Oahu, Sandwich Islands :
also gathered by Gaudichaud.

CopROSMA FOLiosA ( Gray, I. c.) : fruticosa, glabra ; stipulis trian-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 49

gulari-acuminatis basi subconnatis ; foliis chartaceis lanceolatis seu
oblongo-lanceolatis utriiique acutis vel acuminatis ; pedunculis petiolo
gracili brevioribus paucifloris ; floribus 6 - 7-meris ; drupa obovato-
globosa apice nuda. Euarthronia foliosa, Nutt. in Herb. Hook. — Oahu,
Sandwich Islands : where it was also gathered by Gaudichaud, Nuttall,
and Seemann.

CopROSMA PUBENS {Gray, I. c.) : fruticosa ; stipulis late deltoideis
connatis strigoso-sericeis ; foliis chartaceis obovato-oblongis oblongisve
basi in petiolum attenuatis supra glabratis subtus reticulato-venosis
ramulisque pubescentibus ; pedunculis petiolo brevioribus vel subnuUis ;
floribus confer tis, masculis 6 - 7-meris, calyce irregulari, corolla bre-
viter infundibuliformi. — Var. a. drupis secus ramos subsessilibus basi
bibracteolatis ovoideis I'ostello bi-evi apiculatis. Var. /5. Kauensis :
drupis obovatis obtusissimis plurimis sessilibus in pedunculo commu-
ni. — Sandwich Islands.

CoPROSMA Menziesii ( Gray, I. c.) : fruticosa ; ramis pubentibus ;
stipulis brevibus connatis sex'iceo- vel strigoso-pubescentibus ; foliis obo-
vatis seu ovalibus raro oblongis reticulatis glabris ; pedunculis pauci-
floris brevibus saBpe aggregatis vel compositis ; floribus 5-11-meris;
calyce cupulato breviter dentato ; drupa subglobosa calycis limbo brevi
coronata. — Var. «. foliis chartaceis demum coriaceis ovalibus seu ellip-
ticis acutis vel obtusis basi in petiolum longiusculum vel brevem con-
tractis. Var. ^5. foliis chartaceis longiuscule petiolatis ; pedunculis
foemineis geminis ternisve 1 - 3-floris gracilibus. Var. y foliis minori-
bus spathulatis obovatisve crassis in ramulos confertissimis breviter
petiolatis ; drupis fere sessilibus. — Hawaii, Sandwich Islands. Col-
lected by Menzies, Macrae, Gaudichaud, and Douglas.

CoPROSMA ERNODEOiDES {Gray, I. c.) : fruticosa, procumbens,
glabra (nisi ramis junioribus) ; stipulis brevissimis connatis ; foliis con-
fertissimis parvis sublinearibus crassis aveniis nitidis sempervirentibus
margine parce hispidulis ; floribus foemineis sessilibus ramulos termi-
nantibus 4-meris; corolla tubulosa; drupa globosa. — Hawaii, Sand-
wich Islands. Collected by Menzies, &:c.

CoPROSMA Taitensis {Gray, I. c): G.rohustce affinis, glaberrima ;
stipulis triangulatis acutis subconnatis persistentibus ; foliis subcoriaceis
oblongis obtusis basi in petiolum angustatis ; pedunculis brevissimis vel
breviusculis 2 - 5-floris ; drupa obovato-globosa apice nuda. — Tahiti,
Society Islands. (In fruit only.)

VOL. IV. 7

50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

COPROSMA PERSiC-a:FOLiA ( Gray, I. c.) : fruticosa, glabra ; stipulis
connatis late triangulatis cuspidatis ; foliis membranaceis lanceolatis
sensim acuminatis, petioli brevi ; peclunculis brevissimis paucifloris ;
calycis limbo vix dentato ; corolla profunde quadrifida ; drupa oblonga.
— Feejee Islands.

The Corresponding Secretary, in behalf of the author, pre-
sented the following paper : —

Salices Boreali-Americcmce : a Synopsis of North American
Willoivs. By N. J. Andersson, Professor of Botany in the
University of Stockholm, Sweden.

In attempting an enumeration of the Willows of North America,
every author must feel himself rather at a loss. Any acquaintance,
even the most superficial, with the different species of that genus, is
sufficient to show that a proper treatment of the subject requires, not
only access to the richest collections, but also an opportunity of seeing
almost every shrub for many years. Distributed over a great part of
the surface of the globe, inhabiting a great variety of localities, the
species of this genus are exposed to the most heterogeneous influences
from all kinds of soil and all variations of climate, — thus presenting a
greater multiplicity of forms than most plants now known. The liter-
ature of the subject also proves how very difficult it has been, and per-
haps ever will be, to estabKsh certain determinations. While some
authors believe that there are only a few species, others (as Schleicher,
Tausch, Host, &c.) seem to think " species tot numeramus, quot creata
sunt individua." If, then, a botanist most favorably situated for the pur-
pose finds it no easy matter rightly to understand the Willows of bis
own limited native country, how embarrassed must not a stranger be,
who tries to form an exact idea of this intricate genus in a distant and
extensive part of a new world, which he has seen only in one spot
(California), and for a few weeks? But, as it may perhaps always
be impossible for one person fully to examine, in a living state, and in
their native regions, the Willows of Lapland, Switzerland, the Pyre-
nees, Siberia, Himalaya, and North America (not to speak of the trop-
ical regions), and as it nevertheless is of advantage to science to have
a synopsis of all the known species, constructed upon uniform prin-
ciples, a botanist may hope to be favorably judged when he undertakes

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 51

to publish his views of these plants, aftei* having studied them in sev-
eral of their natural districts, and in the largest collections.

For two years I occupied myself with the Willows in various regions
of Lapland. I afterwards collected them in the Riesengebirge (Silesia),
in Switzerland, and in many parts of the Continent, and in England. I
have consulted the herbaria, as well as the botanical gardens, of Paris,
Berlin, and Vienna ; also the herbaria of M. De CandoUe and of Sir
W. Hooker, the latter the largest now existing, and especially rich on
plants from North America. For many years I have wished to pub-
lish some general remarks upon this genus ; and M. De Candolle has
lately honored me with a request to elaborate it for his celebrated
Prodromus.

But in arranging for such a work my annotations upon the Northern
species, I could but know how imperfect is our knowledge of the North
American forms. As the Willows especially belong to cold regions,
why should they not be as numerous in America as in Europe or Asia ?
As they are with us so extremely subject to variations and to hybridi-
zations (a fact now generally acknowledged), must it not be the same
in the New World ? To answer these and similar questions, our ma-
terials in Europe are not sufficient, and all determinations founded
upon them alone must be imperfect, and liable to frequent mistakes.
In this dioecious genus it is very important to be sure that the speci-
mens, both of leaves and flowers, belong to the same species, and that
the foliage, flowers, and fruit should be taken from the very same
shrub. But in herbaria the specimens — gathered by travellers who
generally care little for Willows — often are so imperfect, confused, and
miserable, that they only serve to make the study more difficult and
uncertain.

Looking into the American Floras, published by various authors
since the time of Michaux, we find that the indigenous Salices of
America (with the exception of a few of the most arctic) all have names
totally differing from the European species. Now this was hardly to
be expected, when the well-known fact is considered that the vegetation
of a large part of the Northern regions is, I dare not say quite identi-
cal, but very uniform or homogeneous, all round the world. Hence,
although the indigenous Willows in America generally are considered
different from those in the Old World, we should look for a greater
resemblance than has yet been recognized, not only in the higher arctic

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

regions (as partially shown in Hooker's Flora Boreali- Americana), but
also in the more southern parts.

And, in fact, my inquiries have persuaded me that the similarity or
analogy in this respect is greater than is generally supposed. With
my experience of the European Willows, which frequently vary from
one extremity of size, form, and color to another, according to the area
of the species (e. g. S. nigricans), and which in different countries not
seldom have the most diflerent aspects (e. g. S. Lapponum and aS'. glauca
in Lapland and Switzerland), I could not be surprised to find many
American Willows equally varying from ours, although certainly be-
longing to European types, or at least so analogous to their European
relatives that they might be considered as subspecies of them, till we
discover the intermediate forms which are the connecting links of that
unbroken series which we may consider as constituting a true natural
genus. This idea, is it anything more than my individual opinion ?
It must be proved by others ; it must be ascertained by diligent, un-
prejudiced, and accurate researches upon the living species in America,
and especially by botanists who have acquired a pi'ofound acquaintance
with the European species, as older in the history of the science.

My esteemed correspondent, Professor Asa Gray, who has kindly
promised to assist me in procuring materials for a more complete trea-
tise upon this very difficult genus, has encouraged me to send him an
enumeration of the American species already known to me, which may
be brought to the notice of botanists of the United States generally, in
the hope that they may be induced to make renewed and cx'itical obser-
vations upon the species indigenous ax-ound them, and also to favor me
with contributions of specimens, which are so greatly needed to perfect
my contemplated revision of the entire genus for De CandoUe's Pro-
dronms.

I have tried to lay before the reader some of the reasons why I must
consider several American species as very much allied to, or perhaps
identical with, ours in the Old World. But neither time at present,
nor the space at my command, has permitted me to treat the matter at
the length requisite to prove the correctness of my opinion. I have
also been obliged to restrict this communication to short diagnoses only
for the new species here proposed, and to a few synonymes from the
principal American Floras. Should this essay fulfil its purpose of
directing the attention of the botanists of the United States to this diffi-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 53

cult genus, and bring forth the materials and the observations needed
to dispel the many remaining doubts, the author may perhaps here-
after find an opportunity of publishing, in the New World, a complete
monograph of the North American Salices, and thus " redit ad Domi-
nmn quod fuit ante suiim"

' A. AMEEINA, Fries.

I. AusTRALES. — Htec tribus, staminibus numerosis, filamentis sub-
fasciculatis basi sa3pius hirsutis, antheris minutis rotundatis, squa-
mis rotundatis tomentosis, capsulis plus minus longe pedicellatis
et ovato-globosis, nectario subcirculari insignis, Amygdalinis om-
nino analoga, regionibus meridionalibus et tropicis fere priva
videtur. Hue pertinent species omnes Africa et Americte Au-
stralis indigence, Indise Orientalis et Persia plerjeque (^S. tetra-
sperma et affines) ; nonnullce {S. Humholdtiana, S. Bonplandiana,
S. Hartwegi, etc.), Americam Centralem transgredientes, etiam
Mexico australem incolunt.

1. S. NIGRA, 3Iarsh. ; Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p. 198 ; J. Carey in
Ch'ay, Man. ed. 2, p. 417. S. ambigua, Pursh. S. Houstoniana, Pursh.
S. Caroliniana, Michx. S. falcata, Pursh (S. Purshiana, Spring. S.
ligustrina, Jlichx.f.).

2. S. LONGiPES, Shtittleio. ined. : pentandra ; amentis lateralibus
pedunculatis laxis ; pedunculo foliate ; capsulis ovato-globosis glabris,
pedicello nectarium sexies superante ; stylo subnullo ; stigmatibus
brevibus indivisis ; foliis lanceolato-oblongis demum glabris subtus
glaucis reticulato-venulosis exstipulatis.

Var. PUBESCENS (S. gongylocarpa, Shuttleio.) : capsulis subcrassi-
oribus fere longius pedicellatis ; foliis utrinque hirsutis.*

Hab. Prope St. Mark's, Florida, Rugel.

Utraque forma non parum cum priori congruit, multis autem notis
(foliis exstipulatis, etc.) ab ea differt.

3. S. AMYGDALOIDES, n. sp. : triandra ; amentis lateralibus pedun-
culatis rigidiusculis ; pedunculo foliate ; capsulis ovato-conicis glabris,
pedicello nectarium sexies superante ; stylo subnullo ; stigmatibus bre-

* This is the S. subvillosa, Ell. in Herb. Schweinitz, ex Nutt. N. Am. Si/lva, 1, p. 79,
— a work to which Prof. Andersson had not access, — also mentioned in Ell. Bot.
S. Car. Sf Georg. 2, p. 671, under S. nigra. A. G.

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

vissimis partitis ; foliis late lanceolatis utrinque glabemmis subtus
pallidioribus, margine glanduloso-serratis exstipulatis.

Hab. Missouri, Fort Pierre, Neuwied, in Herb. Vindoh.

H^ec species, prse cteteris affinibus, S. amygdalinam nostram latifoliam
refert. Habitu quasi hybrida ex S. lucida et S. nigra, huic fructibus,
illi foliis omnino similis.

IT. Fragiles, Fries.

4. S. (pentandra) lucida. — S. lucida, Muhl. ; Hook. I. c. 21. 198 ;
J. Carey in Gray, I. c. p. 417.

Var. LATiFOLiA : foliis apice plerumque longe cuspidatis.

Var. OVATIFOLIA : foliis non vel abrupte cuspidatis. — Forma
DENSiFLORA : capsulis condensatis majusculis, squamis subpersistenti-
bus (L. Winipeg, Herb. Benth.).

Var. ANGUSTiFOLiA. — Forma lasiandra (S. lasiandra, Benth.
PI. Hartw. p. 335) : squamis amentorum glandulosis ; filamentis basi
subpilosis (California, Hartiveg, J. M. Bigeloio). — Forma pilosa:
foliis subtus passim rufo-pilosis. (Columbia River ; L. Winipeg ; Fort
Franklin.)

Primo obtutu haic species a nostra *S'. pentandra non parum differt ;
comparatis autem formis e variis partibus America? et Europaj, affinitas
ne dicam identitas negari non potest. Etiam apud nos folia adsunt
longe cuspidata, ut et in America folia obtusiuscula, non lucida.*

5. S. Fendleriana, n. sp. : tri - pentandra ; amentis pedunculatis
foliatis erectis ; squamis amenti masculi magnis margine glandulosis ;
capsulis ovatis glaberrimis, pedicello nectarium sexies superante ; stylo
evidenti ; stigmatibus minimis integris ; foliis ovatis acutis utrinque
glaberrimis creberrime glanduloso-serrulatis ; stipulis sat magnis glan-
duloso-serratis.

Hab. New Mexico, Fendler (PL N. Mex. no. 816) ; Rocky Moun-
tains, Geyer, no. 287.

Habitu toto cum S. lucida maxime congruit ; sed differt, capsulis
brevibus longius pedicellatis, necnon foliis crebrius glanduloso-serrulatis,
quibus notis etiam a S.amygdaloide dignoscitur, cui omnino analoga.t

* Nuttall, in his N. Am. Sylva, supplementary to that of Michaux, Plate 18, has
figured a form of S. lucida as S. pentandra, var. caudata, from the western
side of the Rocky Mountains. A. G.

t This appears to be the ^S". speciosa of Nuttall {Sylva, 1, p. 58, 1. 17), from Oregon.
There is a much older S. speciosa of Hooker and Arnott, from Kotzebue's Sound.
Vide no. 22. A. G.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 55

6. S. Wrightii, n. sp. : amentis pedunculatis ; pedunculo foliis
2-3 oblongis obtusiusculis instructo ; squamis facillime deciduis ; nec-
tario basin pedicelli semicirculatim cingente ; capsulis ovato-conicis
glaberrimis sat longe pedicellatis, pedicello capsulam dimidiam super-
ante gracili ; stigmatibus sessilibus integris ; foliis anguste lanceolatis
longius acuminatis tenuissime glanduloso-serrulatis utrinque glaberrimis
subtus pallidioribus ; stipulis caducis ; ramis erectis pallide testaceis
nitidis.

' Hab. New Mexico, C. Wright, Coll. 1851-2, no. 1877.

A cteteris hujus tribus speciebus difFert foliis angustissimis (2 - 3-pol-
licaribus, vix 4 lin. latis) utrinque glaberrimis, amentis brevioribus et
crassis (vix pollicaribus) . A S. alba vitellina, cui sane proxima, foliis
et capsulis longe pedicellatis facillime dignoscitur.

7. S. ALBA, L. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. ed. 2, p. 416. Var. S. vitel-
lina, Smith (= S. Pamecliiana, Barratt, sec. J. Carey in Gray, Man.
I.e.; quara tamen ad S. fragilem e speciminibus ducerem). — Var.
S. cterulea, Smith.

8. S. viRiDis, Fries, Novit. p. 283. S. fragilis, var. proteifolia,
Barratt in Herb. Book.

A. S. alba difFert amentis longis acutis et flexuosis, ramulis subpen-
dulis, foliis latioribus utrinque viridibus et lucidis. A ^S*. fragili,
ramulis tenacibus pendulis, foliis cuspide recta acutatis, maturis consis-
tentia durioribus, sub prelo non nigrescentibus, amentis erectis.

9. S. FRAGILIS, L. ; Booh. I. c. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. I. c. — Var.
S. decipiens, Hoffm. : foliis obtusiusculis ; cortice i-amulorum pallide
testaceo. — Var. S. Russelliana, Smith : arbor excelsa ; foliis maximis
acutissime serratis.

III. LoNGiFOLi^. Amenta in ramulis lateralibus annotinis elongatis
valde foliatis terminalia ; squama3 spathulato-ligulata^, apice sfe-
pissime glandulosa-denticulatje. (Folia primaria pinnato-incisa !)

10. S. LONGiFOLiA, Muhl. ; HooTc. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p. 149; Gray,
Man. p. 147. S. rubra, Richards (sec. Bool:).

Jam cognitum est nuUam fei'e aliam Salicis speciem (S. cordata et S.
vagante forte exceptis) in America crescentem mire variationibus ludere.
Statura nunc bipedalis, nunc 4-5-orgyalis (qualem in California ipse
vidi), nunc stricte erecta arboris instar, nunc bumifusa vel repens, rami
longius viminei aut breves subtorulosi, cortice vario obducti ; folia latitu-

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

dine et longitudine, indumeuto et serratura eximie varia, ut etiam
amenta. His omnibus perspectis species sequentes {S. sessilifoliam,
Hindsianam et S. taxifoEam) tantum ut formas australes et occiden-
tales ejusdem per Americce regiones latissime dispersa? speciei propo-
nere vellem : quam autem in serie contigua a formis maxime latifoliis
et vegetis ad minimas, microphyllas et pumilas, membra adhuc deside-
rantur nonnuUa, eas seorsim descripsi donee, quod hie autumavi, omni-
bus sit expertum. Inter formas autem numerosissimas Salicis vere
longifoUce hajc precipue notanda : —

Vai'. ANGUSTissiMA : amentis laxifloris et eximie remotifloris ; cap-
sulis squamas acutiusculas hirsutas primo non excedentibus basi parum
gibbis subcylindricis densissime sericeis breve pedicellatis ; foliis an-
gustissimis et argute dentatis exsiccatione fusco-nigrescentibus. — Hab.
in Texas, Berlandier, No. 911, 3019, 2341, 2368) ; N. Mexico, C.
Wright, Coll. no. 1875.

11. S. SESSiLiFOLiA (Niitt. in Herb. Hook.*) : amentis masculis
uncialibus crassiusculis cylindricis acutis densifloris ; squamis oblongo-
ovalibus filamentis triplo brevioribus et pilis albis staminibus bre-
vioribus dense vestitis ; antheris post anthesin fulvescentibus ; foliis
pollicaribus sessilibus exacte lanceolatis medio semipollicem latis acu-
minato-cuspidatis utrinque dense griseo-tomentosis (pilis sat longis
subadpressis micantibus vestitis) integerrimis. — Hab. Oregon, JVuf-
tall, Lolib.

* HiNDSiANA, Benth. PL Hartiveg, ^ Herb.: amentis brevibus (vix
semipoUicaribus) ; squamis acutiusculis dense tomentosis ; antheris pal-
lide flavis ; capsulis breve pedicellatis e basi gibba longe rostratis rugu-
losis glabriusculis ; foliis anguste lanceolatis (medio 2^-3 lin. latis)
margine integerrimis utrinque adpresse sericeis. — Hab. California,
Hartweg.

Ad eandem seriem hsec ultima, regionum subtropicarum incola,
etiam pertinet :

S. TAxiFOLiA, H. B. K. Nov. Gen. ^ Spec. 2, p. 22 (1817). S.
microphylla, Schlecht. S^ Oham. in Linncea, 6, p. 354 (1831) : pulcher-
rima, ut milu videtur, formis supra memoratis baud dubia in S. longi-
foliam sensim abiens.

* Published by Nuttall iu his N. Am. Sylv. 1, p. 68, 1842. A. G.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 57

B. HELIX, Fries.

12. S. PURPUREA, L. ; HooL I. c. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. p. 415.

13. S. viMiNALis, L. ; Hook. I. c. ; Gray, Man. I. c.

C. VETRIX, Fries.
I. TEMPERATiE (^Suhdaphioidece).

14. S. ACUTIFOLIA, Willd. — Ramum foliatum tantum vidi.

15. S. (daphnoides) irrorata, n. sp. : amentis sessilibus perulis
maximis primo bracteatis valde condensatis, masculis brevibus, foemi-
neis horizontalibus elongatis densiiioris ; capsulis sessilibus crasse
conicis glaberrimis ; stylo producto ; stigmatibus integris ; foliis lanceo-
latis utrinque viridibus ; ramis densissime glauco-irroratis.

Hab. N. Mexico, Fendler, no. 812.

Nostras S. daphnoidi ita est similis, ut nuUis notis nisi amentis eximie
condensatis et foliis (novellis ?) integerrimis utrinque viridibus ab ea
distingui possit. Squamae amenti masc. pilis brevibus aureis vestita^ ;
squama; amenti foem. pilis sat brevibus griseis ciliata^ ; unde amenta
foem. non ut in vera S. daphnoide longe pilosa conspicuntur.

16. S. eriocephala, Mlchx. Fl. 2, p. 225 ; J. Carey, in Gray,
Man. p. 414. •

E Salicibus Americanis hgec mihi fere maxima obscura. Specimina
numerosa, inter se eximie diversa, nunc S. eriocephala Michx., nunc
S. crassa Barratt, nunc S. prinoides Pursh (Hook. 1. c. p. 150), nunc
S. conifera Willd., nunc immo S. myricoides, a me examinata, confu-
sionem tantum adliuc majorem reddiderunt, nee e diagnosibus auctorum
quidquam certi eruere potui. Exstant specimina gemmis maximis
oblique conicis, stipulis semicordatis et serratis, foliis sat longe petio-
latis (petiolo basi dilatato gemmam amplectente) demum rigidis subtus
glaucis, raargine argute serratis, supra saturate viridibus et lucidis
nervis conspicuis percursis, amentis omnino nudis, masculis e gemmis
erumpentibus pilis fulvo-aureis densissime villosis, squamis et stamini-
bus pilis chryseis absconditis, amentis foemineis pilis cinerascentibus
obtectis, stylo elongato, etc. — ita omnino cum nostra S. daphnoide con-
gruentia, ut formis numerosis quibus ea apud nos mirum in modum
luditur perspectis, banc ut formam parum aberrantem haberem.
Obstant autem rami rarissime glaucescentes, folia margine remotius
serrata, prsecipue autem capsuloe multo angustiores, distincte pedicel-

VOL. IV. 8

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

latae et sericeo-pubescentes. Exstant etiam specimina qua;dam, ad
S. discolorem non indubie transeuntia, amentis magnis laxis et rari-"
floris, capsulis sat longe pedicellatis foliis fere ut in »S'. grandifolia
nostra, obovato-elongatis margine repandis et sinuato-dentatis. Maxime
autem memorabilis videtur quadam grisea, foliis utrinque hirtis subtiis
subferrugineo-pilosis, ramis cinereo-villosis et amentis iis S. cinerece
similibus, sed stylo producto distincta. Quibus omnibus sequitur me
de hac specie vix quidquam certi cognoscere ; quare omnes rogo velint
specimina varia diligenter et accurate observare.

17. S. BiGELOVii, Torr. in Herh. Hook. [^ in Bat. Pacif. R. R.
Expl. 4:, p. 139]: amentis sessilibus bracteis facillime deciduis paucis
sufFultis ; capsulis ovatis brevibus obtusiusculis glabris, pedicello necta-
rium bis superante squamam subrotundam pilosam suba^quante ; stylo
elongato ; stigmatibus brevibus erectis bipartitis ; foliis ovali-obovatis
integerrimis subtus adpresse flavido-tomentosis nigrescentibus.

Hab. California, J. M. Bigeloiv, 1854.

Quoad foliorum forma et indumentum (quod tamen fusco-flavescens)
et amenta ebracteata densiflora similitudinem quandam cum S. Coidteri
habet : capsulae autem iis ^S*. hastate similiores. Unicum tantum speci-
men vidi.

18. S. LASiOLEPis (Benth. PL Hartweg. S^ Herb.) : amentis sessili-
bus nudis adscendentibus ; squamis cuneato-subrotundis tomento den-
sissimo et brevi obtectis capsulas fere occultantibus ; capsulis acutis
glaberrimis, pedicello nectarium bis superante ; stylo mediocri ; stig-
matibus crassis brevibus integris ; foliis lanceolatis vel late lingulatis
acutis supra glaberrimis subtus ferrugineo-glaucis margine subsinuatis.

Hab. California (near Monterey), Hartweg, no. 167.

Pulcherrima species, Vetrices et Capreas quodammodo ambigua.
Arbor dicitur 20 - 25-pedalis : rami crassiusculi, atri, novelli tomentosi.
Folia 3 - 4-pollicaria, sa^pius semiuncia latiora, supra nitide viridia,
subtus glauca, indumento ferrugineo juxta nervos relicto colorata.
Amenta mascula fere bipollicaria, erecta, subflexuosa : squama; atra?,
rotundatfB, basi angustataj, pilis aureo-fulgentibus vestitte ; filamenta
squamas duplo superantia ; antheraj minuta^, oblonga;, etiam aurea?.
Amenta foeminea vix breviora, sed subangustiora ; squamte capsulas
lineales flavo-virides supra medium tegentes, densissimte cano-tomentos£e.

19. S. CouLTERi, n. sp. : amentis omnino sessilibus bracteis 2-3
suff ultis ; squamis fulvis pilis albis longissimis dense hirsutis ; foliis

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 59

oblongis supra obscure viridibus costa alba, subtus vellere lucido argen-
teo densissime tomentosis ; ramis angulatis dense griseo-tomentosis.

Hab. California, Coulter.

Hcec species, cujus tantem tria specimina foliis rite evolutis et amen-
tis masculis praidita vidi, non absque dubio affero : cum nulla a me
cognita attamen confundenda, ab id prsBcipue insignis, quod S. erio-
cephalam cum *S'. lanata (mediantibus S. Hooheriana et >S'. speciosa)
serie naturali aperte connectit.

n. Arctics vel Subarctic^.

20. S. HoOKERiANA, Barratt in Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p. 145,
t. 180.

Amentis masculis est S. daphnoidi subsimilis, amentis foemineis
S. hastatce, foliis autem S. lanatce !

21. S. LANATA, L., var. Americana: capsulis hirsutiusculis. —
Forma a. S. Barrattiana, HooL I. c. p. 146, t. 145 : capsulis sericeis;
foliis tomentosis magnis, amentis stepius lateralibus. /?. S. Eicliardsoni,
Hooli. I. c. p. 147, t. 182 : capsulis et foliis glabriusculis ; foliis minori-
bus ; amentis subterminalibus.

In Lapponia S. lanata sub multis formis frequens occurrit ; sunt
quasdam his Americanis tarn similes ut nee habitu nee notis uUis dis-
tingui possint. Exstant apud nos format numerosae ad S. glaucam,
sed optime ad S. hastatam accedentes, quarum folia glabrescunt, et
amenta lateralia fiunt. Americana potius ad S. Lapponum vergit ;
hcec etiam multo humilior crescere videtur (pr?esertim S. Richardsoni).
E Siberia partibus variis eadem variationes etiam adsunt.

22. S. SPECIOSA, Hooh ^ Am. Bat. Voy. Beech, p. 130 ; Hook. I. c.
p. 145 ; Seemann^ Bat. Voy. Herald, p. 40, t. 10.

Quanquam Salici cuidam, S. amygdalince affini, hoc nomen jam 1818
imposuit Host, id tamen huic speciei Americans conservandum censeo,
ut pote Salici omnium in regionibus boreaUbus crescentium facile
speciosissimaj aptissimum.

23. S. Lapponum, L.; Hook. I. c. p. 151 ? S. Stuartiana, Smith,
Hook. I. c.

Fateri debeo me nulla specimina Americana hujus speciei certe
vidisse. Non sine htesitatione permulto hue refero Salicem earn " pul-
chram," de qua Chamisso (Linn^ea, 6, p. 543) in America arctica oc-
cidentali pluries a se lecta, mentionem fecit. Amenta sessiha: capsuljB

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

non pedicellatge, sed folia fere ut in S. phjUcifolia utrinque acutata,
viridia, subtus pallidiora, glaberrima : stipulaj persistentes lineares.
Unicum tantum specimen ex herb. Berolinensi vidi. Notandum ut
Salicem Lapponum, alpium summarum incolam, etiam folia nonnun-
quam habere glabrescentia.

24. S. CANDIDA, Willd. ; Hook. I. c.p. 148; /. Carey in Gray, I.e.

D. Caprea, Fries.

I. CiNERASCENTES, Fries. Stigmata sessilia ! Amenta prtecocia, vix

pedunculata.

25. S. (caprea) capreoides, n. sp. : amentis sessilibus bracteis
paucis et minutis primo sufFultis densifloris ; capsulis pedicellum quin-
quies superantibus sericeis ; foliis obovatis vel oblongis basi angustatis
subtus glaucescentibus pilis rufescentibus villosis denique (nervis ex-
ceptis) glabris.

Hab. California ( Coulter) et Oregon, Herb. Hook.

S. caprea vera Europcea, quantum scio, in America nuUibi reperta,
hsec forma eam ibi optime representat. Quod ad fructificationis pai'tes
vix uUa exstat differentia essentialis. Amenta mascula tamen angus-
tiora, sed foeminea crassiora, utraque quam in nostra breviora ; squamte
fere majores, atrataj, obovato-spathulatas ; capsuliB e basi gibbo fere
cylindrical, 2J- lin. longas ; stigmata sessilia erecta. Folia novella
utrinque rufo-hirsuta, subtus etiam vellere albo plus minus denso ob-
tecta, denique denudata, integerrima, dura. Gemmte, ut in S. caprea
vera, subglobosaj glabrae ; rami sa'pius obscuri et • glabri. — Proxima
huic sine dubio est S. hrachystachys ; qua) tamen differt amentis adhuc
brevioribus, foliis densissime albo-velutinis.

2G. S. ciNEREA, Z. ? — In herbaria Hookeriano specimina adsunt
duo, quantum videre possum ad banc speciem referenda, quibus annexus
erat ramus foliis parvis glabris, omnino iis S. rostratce simillimis, obtectus.
Vereor ne confusione quadam commixta sint ?

Hab. " Thickets along rivulets, Columbia River valley, near Fort
Colville ; 15-20 feet high, shrubby, C. A. Geyer."* Num S. caprea
vel S. cinerea hie crescit ?

27. S. (aurita) brachystachys, Benth. PI. Hartweg, Sf Herh. :

* These specimens are described, under the name of S. f/risea ? in Hook. Kew
Jour. Bot. 7, p. 372. A. G.

1

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 61

amentis sessilibus nudis brevibus ovatis ; squamis pilis longissimis seri-
ceis dense vestitis ; capsulis villosis acu talis, pedicello nectarium 4-
5-ies superante ; stylo nullo ; stigmatibus longis integris divaricatis ;
foliis obovatis subtus densissime velutino-tomentosis demum glabres-
centibus rufescenti-nervosis.

Hab. California (woods near Monterey), Hartioeg, no. 1957.

Frutex dicitur 4-orgyalis, sat similis videtiir prioribus ; sed differt,
amentis semiuncialibus, squamis mediocribus rufescentibus pilis duplo
vel triplo longioribus densissime sericeis, pedicello breviore, foliis 14
unc. longis supra medium unciam latis subtus moUiter velutinis. E
nostris speciebus in Europa indigenis S. aurita L. sine uUo dubio huic
tarn similis ut banc facile subspeciem ejus haberem.

Sub nomine S. Scouleriance Barratt, Hook. I. c. p. 145 in herbario
Hookeri vidi specimina duo florentia ad S. hrachystachym absque uUo
dubio pertinentia, et specimen foliatum S. Sitchensis Sanson. Hoc
nomen itaque e Salicum turba excludendum.

28. S. VAGANS, Anders. — Qui S. depressam Scandinavia?, S. Star-
heanam Rossiaj et Borussice, et S. rostratam America? Borealis eamque
formas attente, nulla certa opinione prteoccupatus, comparare studet,
non potest quin eas omnes ad unam eandemque Salicum speciem
pertinere credat. Hoc mibi saltem, specimina fere innumera, e variis
terris inspicienti, omnino persuasum babeo. Nominibus jam allatis
formas varias tantum spectantibus, vagantis nomine speciem notare
volui, quo3 per teiTas plurimas septentrionalis late vagatur, qute insuper
notis admodum vaga est. Variat statura, de qua Linnteus in Flora
Lapponica, no. 361 "arbor parva," sed in Flora Suecica "arbuscula
ad terram depressa " : variant folia nunc glabra nunc villosa, nunc
magna nunc parva, nunc lanceolata nunc ovata vel obovata : rarissima
autem variant amenta laxiflora, capsulis angustis (glabris seu hirtis)
subcylindricis longissime pedicellatis et stigmatibus coronatis sparsim
ornata. His prjemissis hujus specie! sequente modo proponendas
censeo : —

1. Cinerascens : foliis velutinis.

Var. a. LiNN^ANA (cfr. Fries, Nov. Mant. 1, p. 59) : foliis j)lei'um-
que obovatis supra demum glabratis. Linn. Fl. Lapp. no. 361 (sec.
Fries). S. livida /5. cinerascens, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. no. 273. S. depressa,
a. cinerascens. Fries, I. c. p. 57. S. depressa, velutina, ICoch. S.
sphacelata. Smith., nomen ambiguum !)

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Forma elata : orgyalis, "Walil. L c.

" DEPKESSA : foliis crassioribus utrinque tomentosis. S. de-
pressa, L. Fl. Suec. S. livida §. in alpibus, Wahl. ;
Fries, I. c.

Hab. ex alpibus (forma depressa) juxta flumina (forma elata) in
regiones sylvaticas Lapponia3 descendens.

Var. /?. occiDENTALis : arbor 4-15-pedalis ; foliis plerumque lance-
olatis demum rigidis et la3viusculis sinuato-crenatis (fere ut in S.
caprea). S. rostrata, Richards. ; Hook. I. c. ; Gray, I. c.

Hab. per Amer. Sept. omnem et in Siberite partibus orientalibus.

2. Glahrescens : foliis glaberrimis lucidis subtus pallidioribus.

Var. a. intermedia : frutex parvus et liumilis ; foliis sjepius late
obovatis subcoriaceis ; amentis masculis tenuibus ; staminibus flavis ;
pedicello capsularum nectarium sexies superante.

Forma livida : foliis subtus lucido-glaucis ; capsulis glabris vel
sericeis, S. livida, a. Wahl. S. depressa, §. Fries.
" BicoLOK : foliis subtus glaucis baud lividis. S. depressa, y.
Fries, I. c.

Hab. in regionibus mediis {livida) et meridionalibus (hicolor)
Suecire.

Var. p. ORiENTALis : frutex altior ; foliis majoribus utrumque gla-
berrimis margine sinuatis ; amentis masculis crassioribus ; staminibus
fulvis ; capsularum pedicello nectarium scepe novies superante. S.
Starkeana, Willd.

Hab. in Silesia et prope Kocnigsberg Borussiae, necnon per Rossiam
medium et septentrionalem.

Et J. Carey in Gray, Man. 1. c, et Hooker banc speciem in America
valde esse variabilem affirmant. Formas majores foliis fere ut in S.
caprea longis (sed multo angustioribus), obovatis et acutis, margine
sinuatis, textura duris, subtus tomentosis, supra obscure vii'idibus in
formas minores foliis lanceolatis aut obovato-oblongis, junioribus ru-
fescenti-pellucidis, nervis subtus elevatis costatis abire videmus, omnino
ut s. d. S. depressa in Scandinavia ubi forma cinerascens altitudinem
orgyalem sed forma livida vix bipedalem attingit. Has formas lividas
et hicolores ex America non reperimus. Amenta mascula S. rostratce
omnino ut in S. Starheana, i. e. quam in vera S. depressa paullo longi-
ora et crassiora, pilis fulvis squamarum magis hirsuta ; amenta foeminea
vulgo quam in nostra longiora, sed capsula3 omnino a^quales. Etiam
in America margines sylvarum et pratorum inbabitare dicitur.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 63

29. S. Geyeriana, n. sp. : amentis breve pedimciilatis bracteis
paucis sufFultis brevibus subramifloris ; capsulis ex ovata et crassa basi
conicis tenuiter sericeis, pedicello nectarium sexies snperante ; stigma-
tibus sessilibus cruciformibns ; foliis lineari-lanceolatis planis utrinque
molliter tomentosis integerrimis. [S. rostrata, Hooh in Kew Jour.
Bot. I. c]

Hab. Missouri v. Oregon, Geyer, coll. No. 286 !

Priori vakle similis, sed differt babitu toto, ramis interdum glauces-
centibus, foliis (novella tantum vidi !) multo angustioribus, nee ullo
modo obovatis, integerrimis, sed prajcipue amentis foem. triplo breviori-
bus subrotundis, nee cylindricis, et capsulis e basi valde crassa acutatis.
Amenta mascula etiam breviora et crassiora ; stamina magis aureo-
fulva. Habitu amentorum propius ad S. repentem appropinquatur.

II. ViRENTES. Amenta sa3pius pedunculata, foliis sen bracteis suf-
fulta : capsulas brevius pedicellatoe, stylo producto : folia exsicca-
tione non nigrescentia.

30. S. Drummondiana, Barratt in Hooh. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2, p. 144.

Species pulcberrima, ramis elongatis nitidis castaneis vel rufis, amen-
tis sessilibus, et capsularum forma, magnitudine, et indumento sequent!
proxima et valde similis ; sed differt abunde foliis (que iis S. taurines
baud dissimilia) subtus vellere densissimo candido lanatis. Stylus in
capsulis junioribus stigmatibus bifidis ajquilongus, in capsulis adultis
magis productus videtur, brevior tamen ac in S. discolore.

31. S. (phylicipolia) discolor. — S. discolor, 3IuJil. ; Hooh.
I. c; J. Carey in Gray, I. c. p. 414. S. phylicifolia, /. Carey., I. c.
^. 4] 6 ?

Specimina pleraque numerosa, qute attente examinavi, parum differt
a vera S. phylicifolia, qualis in Europoe alpestribus crescet vulgatissima
et eximie polymorpba, eique saltern exacte analoga. Folia quam in
nostra majora, adulta rigidiora et margine irregulariter sed non profunde
repando-serrata, stipulje in surculis et ramis novellis vegetis sat conspi-
cuae, amenta omnino prajcocia, capsulse angustje sericefe, et squamae
atras longe pilosoe. In pluribus herbariis hsec species et S. eriocepliala
confusa3. Nullam aliam S. phylicifoliam ex America vidi, nisi forsan
sequentem. — Nonne species apud nos loca alpina potissimum amans,
quum in Americas regiones magis temperatis inhabitat, hoc modo
mutatur ?

32. S. PHYLicoiDES, n. sp. : amentis subsessilibus elongatis crassi-

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

usculis ; capsulis breve pedicellatis ovatis longe acutatis tenuissime
piibescentibus ; stylo elongato integro ; stigmatibus brevissimis indivisis ;
foliis lanceolatis acuminatis basi angustatis margine integris subtus
pallidioribus nee glaucis. — Forma latifolia : foliis 3 - 4-pollicaribus
1 J- poll, latis margine subsinuatis. Forma angustifolia : foliis 1- 2-
pollicaribus ^ poll, latis lanceolatis integerrimis.

Hab. in Arctica America occidentali (Avatscha Bay, Seemann,
Herh. Hoolc).

En aliam speciem mihi valde obscuram ! Est ita inter S. discolorem
et S. cordatam intermedia ut fere eodem jure ad quamvis ut subspecies
relata esse possit. Cum priori congruit amentis longis, capsulis pubes-
centibus, stylo producto, foliis elongatis acutis basi angustatis ; sed dif-
fert, capsulis multo brevius pedicellatis, stigmatibus indivisis, et foliis
adultis vix rigidis nee subtus glaucis. Cum S. cordata communia
habet stipulas basi latiores, folia subtus venulosa, et capsulas viridius-
culas. — Folia 2 - 3-pollicaria : amenta fere eadem longitudiue : cap-
sular 2-3 lineas longar.

33. S. MACROCARPA, Nutt. in Herh. Hook. : amentis pedunculatis
foliatis erectis ; capsulis breve pedicellatis conicis glaberrimis ; stylo
mediocri ; stigmatibus integris ; foliis exstipulatis lanceolatis integris
glaberrimis subtus pallidioribus.

Hab. [Oregon ? Nuttcdl] Hudson's Bay, Burhe.

De hac specie iterum non parum sum incertus cui potissimum
proxima censenda. Videtur frutex sat altus, ramis glabris. Folia iis
♦S*. i^hyllcifolice simillima, 1 J- pollicem longa, semiunciam lata, acuta,
basi acutata, matura rigidiuscula. Amenta foeminea pedunculo foliis
3-4 rite evolutis instructo infixa, pollicem longa, subramiflora. Cap-
sular ut in S. phjlicifolia nostra 2 lin. longa. — A priBcedentibus longe
differt amentis pedunculatis et foliatis : cum sequentibus non multa
communia, nisi cum S. glaucce. formis denudatis.*

34. S. CORDATA, Maid. ; Hooh. I. c. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. p. 415.
In Europee hortis non raro colitur salix harcce pulchra, foliis magnis

rigidis basi profunde cordatis, apice cuspidatis margine acute serratis,
insignis. Qui banc formam tantum inspexit vix uUam ejus affinitatem
cum aS'. hasfata nostra sibi fingeret, licet amenta, et mascula et forminea

* In his N. A. Sylva, 1, p. 67, Nuttall gives a character, but no figure, of this
species. He calls it the " "Western Tond Willow," and says it is closely related to
S. qrisea. He has omitted to mention the habitat. A. G.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 65

huic omnino similia conspiciuntur, ceteras autem modificationes, quibus
dilata est terra Americana usque ad septentrionem summum, quum
videat, facillime intelliget has duas sibi valde esse analogas. Apud
nos frutex S. hastatce \a.ria,t nunc orgyalis (in convallibus alpium), nunc
(in campis alpium elevatis) repens, prostratus, et bidigitalis : folia
sunt latissime ovata, acuminato-cuspidata, acute serrata, stipulis magnis
cordatis ornata, nunc autem anguste lanceolata Integra exstipulata.
Pi-orsus ea3dem modificationes etiam ex America vidi, quare eas hoc
mode serie analoga disponere vellem : —
S. hastata, S. cordata.

malifoUa, Sm. : foliis cordatis stipulis magnis, = rigida, Muhl.

elegans, Hort : foliis ovatis, stipulis mediocris, myrieoides, Muhl.

cdpestris, Fries : foliis lanceolatis, stipulis nullis, suharctica.

S. cordata autem a S. hastata plerumque capsulis longius pedicellatis
dignoscitur: cteterum omnibus partibus simillima^, prassertim foliis rigi-
dis subtus dense venulosis (character his speciebus valde singularis).
Sub hac specie duas formas attulit Hooker, 1. c. : 1. >S'. halsamifera, Bar-
ratt ; 2. aS'. Mackenziana, Barratt. Quantum e speciminibus in herb.
Hook, judicare possum S. halsamifera, cujus ramus foliis tectus tantum
adest, ad S. acutifoliam, W. pertinet. Ramus cortice ccerulescenti-
castaneo obductus. Stipula? lanceolatjB, curvata3 ; gemmce magna^
acuta} ; folia fere 4-pollicaria, semiunciam lata, argute sed remotius-
cule serrata, subtus glaucescentia. S. Mackenziana mihi hybrida proles
ex S. cordata et ^S". vagante (rostrata) videtur. A priori habet folia
glaberrima, viridia, elongato-cuspidata, capsulas basi gibbas glabras,
stylum brevem sed evidentem ; a posteriori foliorum forma magnitudi-
nem et consistentiam, capsulas longissime pedicellatas.

35. S. ADENOPHYLLA, Hook. FL Bor.-Am. 2, p. 146.

Est sine dubio S.hastatce valde affinis : congruit enim cum ea, foliis
subcoi'datis duris subtus reticulato-venosis argutissime serratis, stipulis
magnis, pedunculis foliatis, capsularum forma et colore ; sed differt
abunde, foliis lana sericea densa primo obsitis, serraturis elongatis
glanduligeris, capsulisque brevius pedicellatis.

36. S. MTRTILLOIDES, L. S. pcdiccllaris, Pursh ; Hook. I. c. ; J.
Carey in Gray, Man. I. c.

Jam cl. Tuckerman, in The American Journal of Sciences and Arts,
Vol. 45 (1843), p. 37, observavit speciem Americanam cum Lapponica
voi,. IV. 9

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

valde congruere, nee possum quin ei omnino assentiar. Apud nos
etiam species est vere elegantissima foliorum forma consistentia et co-
lore, nee non capsulis statim ab omnibus dignata. In America adhuc
magis luxurians videtur, folia nempe multo majora et ovalia. Ad
nostram certissime se habet ut S. rostrata ad S. depressam !

III. NiGRiCANTES, Fries.

37. S. Barclayi, n. sp. : pedunculo foliato ; amentis incurvatis den-
sifloris longe pilosis ; capsulis glabris conicis in stylum longum inte-
grum attenuatum pi-oductis, pedicello nectarium vix duplo superante ;
stigmatibus profunde bipartitis ; foliis rotundato-ovalibus brevissime
apiculatis supra parcissime pilosis vel glabriusculis subtus pallidioribus
denudatis reticulato venulosis ; stipulis ovatis acutis serratis.

Hab. in America boreali-occidentali : Kodiak, Barclay {Herb. Hook.').

Species ob id prtecipue memorabilis, quod S. hastatce, S. nigricanti,
et S. glaucce simul sit affinis. Cum aS*. hastata congruit, amentis pe-
dunculatis, squamis longe cinereo-pilosis, capsulis obscure viridibus
glabris, stylo producto, foliis subtus subglaucescentibus et pulcherrime
reticftlato-venulosis, stipulis denique latis serratis ; cum aS*. nigricante
habitu, foliis exsiccatione nigricantibus et subtus (sub lente) crebre
albo-punctulatis ; cum S. glauca capsulis subsessilibus, pedunculo fo-
liis 5-6 cjeteris subsimilibus instructo, et consistentia foliorum. Ob
banc variam affinitatem locus in dispositione methodica difficilis de-
terminatu.

rV. Argente^, Fries.

38. S. SiTCHENSis, Sans, ex Ledeh. Fl. Ross. 3, p. 609.

Hab. in America boreali-occidentali : Sitcha, 3fertens ; Oregon,
Scolder ; et juxta Columbia River, Hinds.

Jam sub S. hrachystachya observavi specimina S. Sitchensis in her-
bario Hookeriano S. Scouleriana appellata cum aliis esse confusa.

39. [S. SERICEA, Marsh. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. I. c. p. 414.]
S. grisea, Muhl. ; Willd., etc.

Locus in dispositione methodica ambiguus. S. rithrcs nostra? primo
subsimilis ob id ad Helices interdum ducta, ab iis amentis baud longe
pilosis, staminibus discretis, et capsulis pedicellatis longe diversa.
Amenta, pr^cipue mascula, parva subrotunda. Maxime affinis est se-
quenti, et per earn S. repenti nostrse.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 67

40. S. PETiOLARis, Smith ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. I. c.
Amentis et foliis proesertim junioribus S. repenti L. vel potius S.

rosmarinifolice L. sat similis. Capsulfe, quae in [*S'. sericea, Marsh, seu]
grisea, Mulil. obtusissimjB et stigmatibus sessilibus coronatfe, in hac
ovato-rostratce stylo distincto apiculatte : squamaj in priore obtuse vel
trimcatse, apice summo atratte ; in hac acutie, su'perne infuscatjc.

41. S. HUMiLis, Marsh. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. I. c. -S. Muhlen-
bergiana, Barratt, et S. conifera, 3Iuhl. sec. Gray, Man. I. c.

E S. cinerea et S. Smithiana quasi composita videtur. Ab utraque
foliis amentis et capsulis aliena. S. tristis, huic maxime affinis, aperte
difFert foliis utrinque opace cinereis, amentis foemineis subglobosis, et
capsularum stylo evidenti. ,

42. S. TRISTIS, Ait. ; J. Carey in Gray, Man. I. c. — Var. micro-
PHYLLA : foliis semiuncialibus ; amentis globosis. Fruticulus parvus.

43. S. KERENS (^. ?), J- Carey in Gray, Man. p. 418. S. fusca
(Z.), Hook. I. c.

Nullam veram S. repentem ex America in herbariis vidi. S. repens,
Bigel. Fl. Bost. {S. fusca, Oakes) quum Tuckerman, 1. c. S. ambiguam
Ehrh. habet, ab utraque diversa, ad S. arhusculam referenda.

44. S. GRACILIS, Anders. (= S. rosmarinifolia {L^, Hooh. I. c. p.
148) : amentis lateralibus bracteis paucis deciduis sufFultis ; capsulis
ovato-cylindricis obtusis tenuiter griseo-puberulis, pedicello nectarium
octies superante ; squamis lingulatis apice infuscatis ; stigmatibus stylo
brevissimo duplo longioribus integris ; foliis angusto-linearibus planis
integerrimis basi longe angustatis latitudine fere decies longioribus
subtus pallidis glabris.

Hab. Saskatchawan, Drummond, Richardson.

Var. ROSMARiNOiDES : foliis apicem versus serrulatis marginibus
acutiusculis subrevolutis. — Hab. Durham County [New Jersey ?],
Herb. Hooh.

Ab omnibus mihi cognitis speciebus bene dignoscitur foliis et cap-
sulis. Quasi hybrida e S. vagante et S. myrtilloide videtur. A S.
rosmarinifolia certissime longe recedit capsulis valde pedicellatis, a
S. vagante, foliis linearibus elongatis. — Varietas, ut etiam nostra
S. gracilis " S. rosmarinifolia, Barratt " inscripta, multo magis ad S.
rosmarini-foliam veram accedit. Obstant autem capsulge longissime
pedicellataj !

68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

E. CHAIOELIX, Fries.
I. Frigid^, Koch.

45. S. GLAUCA, L. — Hasc species in Lapponia et Silesia innumeris
formis {S. lanatce, nigrScanti, myrsinitidi et aliis affinibus) ludens vul-
gatissima, et jam in Helvetige alpibus aliena facies {S. sericea. Till.
S. albida et S. elceagnoides, &c.) se induens, in arcticis regionibus
AmericEe habitu externo vix nostrse similis exstat. Specimina tamen a
Seemann in parte occidentali et a Lyall in Disco Island lecta, necnon
e Rocky Mountains reportata, cum nostris tamen ita congruunt ut de
affinitate non dubitari licet. Folia nunc utrinque molliter villosa et
incana, nunc denudata subviridia ; amenta semper foliato-pedunculata ;
capsulte brevius pedicellata^. Huic certissime ut forma tan turn associ-
anda : —

Var. VILLOSA (S. villosa, D. Don'? ; HooJc. I. c. p. 144) : foliis tenui-
oribus supra glaucis sparse pilosulis elevato-venosis ; stipulis subper-
sistentibus lanceolato-linearibus ; amentis sat longis erectis laxiusculis
subramifloris ; capsulis vix demum denudatis ; stylo producto integro ;
stigmatibus brevibus cruciatis. — Ha^c forma speciei maxime vegeta
videtur. Etiam in Lapponia omnino similis occurrunt specimina {S.
glauca appendicidata, Wahl.) ibique nullo crescendi modo a vera
S. glauca distingui possuut.

* S. DESERTORUM, ^/cAarcfe. / Hook. I. c. p. 151: ament's brevis-
simis (semipollicaribus) subglabris densifloris ; capsulis ovatis dense
lanatis squamis ovalibus maxima parte obtectis ; stylo bipartito fusco ;
foliis anguste oblongis rigidis subtus plus minus albo-tomentosis sub-
glaucescentibus costa prominente flava et nervis . elevatis subscrobicu-
latis supra sa^pius viridibus lucidis.

Insignis sane ut forma in orbe vetere quantum scio nondum obser-
vata. Fruticulus videtur 1 - 2-pedalis : rami breves, robusti, foliis et
amentis condensatis onusti. SquamjB sat magnae capsulas magnam
partem occultantes. Stamina fulvo-aurea. Folia iis S. repentis baud
absimilia. Transitus autem ad normalem S. glaucam nonnunquam
reperti. Videtur itaque hujus modificatio maxime frigida.

Monstrositatem hujus forma3, ex Minto Inlet ab Anderson lectam,
vidi, ramis elongatis foliatis apice spicigeris aberrantem.

46. S. ARCTiCA, R. Br. ; Hook. I. c. p. 152.

Species sane difficilis determinatu, quasi inter S. Myrsinitidem et

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 69

glaucam prorsus media, et formas plures ambiguas amplectens. A S.
Mijrsinite babet amenta plus minus elongata et spissa, squamas vulgo
infuscatas, stylos semper longos, tenues, piceos vel atros, integros ;
a S. glauca folia tenuiora virescentia, plus minus hirsuta, capsulas
incano puberulas. Ab utraque tamen differt, trunco procumbente
(" frutex depressus," i?r.), ramis adscendentibus, foliis sparsis longius
petiolatis vere herbaceis vulgo obovatis integris, venis parum elevatis
rugulosis, subtus glauco-opacis, atnentis utriusque sexus spurie termi-
nalibus, i. e. ramulos breves villosos foliatos terminantibus. Vereor ne
sub nominibus variis {S. Myrsinites, S. retusa, S. ovalifolia, S. polaris,
etc.) formse varias liujus speciei ab auctoribus sajpe descripta? sint?
Notabiliores sunt :

Var. SUBPHYLICIFOLIA : foliis angustatis acutatis utrinque glabri-
usculis. — Hab. Norton Sound, Seemann.

Var. SUBRETICULATA : trunco et ramis longe procumbentibus apice
tantum foliiferis ; foliis elongato-obovatis glabriusculis subtus reticulato-
venulosis ; amentis (terminalibus) 2 - 3-pollicaribus. — Hab. Hudson
Bay, Mackenzie River, etc.

Var. SUBPOLARIS : biuncialis ; ramis apice folia 3-5 emittentibus
quibus conditur amentum semipoUicare ; squamis atris truncatis emar-
ginatis. Hab. in litore maris arctici (Minto Inlet, Anderson).

S. obovatam, Pursb (Hook, herb.) a S. aretica distinguere nequeo.

47. S. SUBCORDATA, Anders. = S. cordifolia, Pursh, Hook. I. c.
p. 152, p. p. (altera pars ad S. alpestrem pertinet !) : amentis lateralibus
pedunculatis foliatis ; capsulis sericeis ovatis sessilibus ; stylo bifido ;
stigmatibus partitis divaricatis ; foliis rotundatis seu ovalibus basi cor-
datis vel subangustatis utrinque glabris subtus pallidis viridibus venoso-
reticulatis herbaceis stipulatis.

Hab. " Rocky Mountains," Dnmimond.

Frutex parvus, ramis erectiusculis nitidis castaneis, gemmis magnis.
Folia adulta scepe biuncialia, longe petiolata (petiolo flavo lucido), costa
et nervis subtus prominentibus reticulata, margine obsolete glanduloso-
serrulata : stipulas cordata3. Amenta semipollicaria, crassiuscula.
Quoad habitum quasi hybrida a S. cordata (cujus folia habet, sed
breviora) et S. glauca (amenta !).

48. S. ALPESTRis, Anders. : amentis vel pseudo-terminalibus pedun-
culatis foliatis ; capsulis subsessilibus ovatis albo-tomentosis vel subgla-
bratis ; nectario vix basin capsulse superante ; stylo producto sjepe ad

70 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

medium fisso ; stigmatibus bifidis, laciniis revolutis ; foliis oblongis vel
subovalibus vel obovatis ut plurimum villosis demum glabratis. — Hoc
nomine formas varias comprebendo, quce, ad unam speciem certissime
referendas, in variis terris suis nominibus appellatai fuerunt. Sunt : —

a. Pyrenaica. S. Pyrenaica, Gouan! In alpibus Pyren^is.
/3. Helvetica. In Helvetia.

y. NoRVEGiCA. S. Pyrenaica var. Norvegica, Fries. In Scandi-
navite alpibus (Norvegia et Lapponia),

b. Americana. S. cordifolia {Pursh), Hook. I. c. p. 152, pro parte.
In arctica America.

Ab omnibus S. glaucce formis, etiam Pyrenseis, difFert trunco subter-
raneo, ramis subprostratis vel adscendentibus, foliis brevioribus apice
obliquo, rigidioribus (ut S. Myrsinitidem eo respectu fere simulat), sub-
tus venis elevatis rugulosis, demum glabratis sed margine fere semper
ciliatis, amentis laxioi'ibus omnino coetaneis foliis pluribus sufFultis, et
capsulis distinctius pedicellatis. lisdem notis a S. suhcordata rece-
dit : a S. rhamnifolia et S. ovalifolia foliis utrinque acutis velutinis
vel saltem ciliatis, amentis longis et foliatis, capsulis plerumque
villosis.

49. S. Myrsinites (X.), Hook. I. c. p. 151. — Quum rite extricare
nequeo quam speciem iU. Hooker, 1. c. potissimum intellecuit, specimina
qute in herbario ejus asservantur et mihi valde dubia restant, descri-
benda puto :

* S. Pseudo-myrsinites, Anders. : amentis lateralibus foliis paucis
bracteatis erectis elongatis densifloris ; capsulis pedicellatis conicis gla-
berrimis testaceis ; stylo distincto ; stigmatibus brevibus ; pedicello
squamam duplo et nectarium quadruplo superante ; foliis oblongo-lin-
gulatis breve petiolatis tenuiter membranaceis utrinque glaberrimis,
subtus subpallidioribus costa et venis prominulis nervosis crebre et
depresse serrulatis.

Hab. " Grand Rapids of the Saskatchawan " et " Rocky Mountains."

Frutex parvus, 1 - 3-pedalis, ramis divaricatis, foliis 1^-pollicaribus

vix semipoUicem latis (habitu fere S. Myrsmitidis nostra), sed minus

coriaceis nee ita venulosis et argute serratis). Amenta (fere ut in

S. phylicifolia) bipollicaria. Capsulte testaceze.

# S. CURTIFLORA, Anders. : amentis breve pedunculatis foliis 3-4
minutis suffultis erectis brevibus ovatis glaberrimis viridulis ; stylo
distincto ; stigmatibus brevissimis conniventibus ; pedicello squamam

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 71.

atram apice crispato-hirsutam triplo et nectarium parvum quadruplo
superante ; foliis anguste ovalibus utrinque glabris exsiccatione nigri-
cantibus margine crenulatis.

Hab. " Fort Franklin, Mackenzie Eiver," Richardson.

A vera & Myrsinitide longe distat, habitu potius S. (cordatce) has-
tatce vel immo S. nigricanti magis affinis. Fruticulus parvus : rami
vix pedales : folia semipollicaria 2 lin. lata, subtus punctis albis cre-
berrimis subpallidiora. Amenta semipollicaria : rbacbis puberula :
capsulfE minutaj, viridulcE.

50. S. ARBUSCULA, Z. ? S. Mjrsinites {L.), Hook. I. c. p. 151, pro
parte.

Formoe quas in " Prince Albert's Land (H. M. S. Investigator) " et
" Rae River" {Dr. Rae) in herb. Hook, vidi a specie nostra alpina
difFerunt, foliis adhuc angustioribus, squamis amenti apice fuscis, cap-
sulis subtenuioribus, et stigmatibus subsessilibus. Non possum etiam
quin ad banc speciem illam referam formam quam cl. Tuckerman (in
Amer. Jour. Science, 45, p. 35) ut iS. ambiguam, Ehrh. descripsit
(= S. repens, herb. Oakes). In Europa ill. Wimmer banc speciem e
iS. repente et S. aurita (qua3 forsan in America non invent* !) prolem
hybridam habet. Amentis pedunculatis foliatis, squamis capsulas basi
tegentibus flavidis, stylo producto, foliis lingulatis integerrimis, et habitu
toto ab omni S. ambigua dignoscitur. Ab S. arbuscida tamen recedit
foHis pilis longis adpressis subtus dense sericeis et integerrimis. Hue
etiam referenda :

Var. Labradorica : foliis poUicaribus 3 lin. latis costa lata flaves-
cente subtus notatis margine ssepe remote serratis subtus parcissime
pilosis. — Labrador.

51. S. RHAMNiPOLiA {Pall. ?), Hook. 4" Am. Bot. Beech. Voy.p. 117,
t. 26; Ledeb. Fl. Boss. 3, p. 612. S. Uva-Ursi {Pursh), Hook. I. c.
p. 152, pro parte ? S. Myrsinites, Cham. ^ Schlecht. in Linncea, 6,
p. 540 (ad sinum Sti Laurentii). S. myrtilloides, formse 1, 2, Cham.
I. c. p. 539. — Hue forsan etiam pertinet S. Unalaschensis, Cham. 1. c.
p. 541, quae tamen nostrte S. hastato-herbacece non dissimilis (sed folia
Integra !), S. rhamnifoliam et S. ovalifoliam quodammodo connectit.

Nomen S. XJva- Ursi, Pursh, quod in herbario Hook, a Barratt huic
speciei etiam impositum est, plane rejiciendum : 1. quod Pursh ipse
specimina culta et nunc valde incerta descripsit ; 2. quod speciebus
pluribus aliis ex "White Mountains of New Hampshii'e" et Labrador

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

valde recedentibus, fere eodem jure (si mancam diagnosin Pursliii
respicias) datum fuit. — Cum speciminibus S. rliamnifolice a, Hooker,
1. c. primum descriptis et depictis nostra non male congruunt ; sed rece-
dunt nonnihil foliis vix spathulato-obovatis margine subintegris, capsulis
crassioribus et brevius pedicellatis. Sunt quasi inter <S. Myrsinitidem
(cui capsulis subsimilis) et S. arbusctdwn (cui foliis) disponenda!

52. S. OVALIFOLIA, Trautv. ; Ledeh. Fl. Ross, 3, p. 620. S. Uva-
Ursi, Seemcmn, Bot. Voy. Hercdd. p. 40. S. myrtilloides, forma 4,
Cham. I. c. p. 539.

Var. MAJOR : ramis magis elongatis ; foliis majoribus elongato-obo-
vatis acutiusculis subtus minus glaucescentibus ; amentis fosmineis cras-
sioribus ; capsulis majoribus. S. mj^rtilloides forma 3, Cham. I. c.p. 539.

Hab. ad sinum Eschscholtz et Cap. Espenberg (Chmnisso et Espen-
herg) ; in insula Sancti Pauli ( Ghamisso) ; America occidentali-boreali
(Seemtmn).

A CEeteris facile distinguitnr ramis flabellatim procurrentibus, foliis
5"~¥ poUicem longis, vix eadem latitudine, ovalibus vel subrotundis,
glabris, rigidiusculis, subtus opace reticulato-venosis, amentis foliis fere
duplo brevioribus densifloris, squamis castaneis apice rotundato infus-
catis capsulas rufo-piceas glabras attenuatas ad medium tegentibus,
stylo distincto, stigmatibus bifidis.

53. S. GLACiALis, n. sp. : amentis in ramulis annotinis lateralibus
foliatis pedunculatis ovato-globosis ; capsulis ovatis sericeis sessilibus
squamam obovatam vel truncatam duplo superantibus obtusissimis ;
stylo nuUo ; stigmatibus bifidis ; foliis ovalibus glabris subtus glaucis
integerrimis.

Hab. in litore maris glacialis ; " between Cape Barrow and Macken-
zie River," Capt. Pidlen.

Haec species, a Seemann, 1. c. S. Uva- Ursi etiam subsumta, a priori
statim dignoscitur foliis multo minoribus (vix ^ unciam longis vel latis),
fere omnino rotundatis, omnino integerrimis, basi latioribus fere sub-
cordatis (quoe etiam in herb. Hook. " S. 7nyrtilloides" inscripta), amen-
tis duplo brevioribus, capsulis sericeis, et stigmatibus sessilibus. Radix
(truncus subterraneus) latissime repens; rami horizontaliter decum-
bentes, subdigitales.

n. Glaciales.

54. S. (retusa) phlebophylla, Anders. S. retusa (Z.), Hook.
I. c. p. 153 ; Seemann, I. c. p. 40.

i

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 73

Forma major. Folia obovata, integerrima, semiunciam longa, supra
medium fere eadem latitudine, supra planiuscula, subtus nervis arcuatis
elevatis striata, exsiccatione fusco-viridia : amenta pollicaria densiflora :
squama3 parv?e, ciliatfe : capsula? ovato-conica3, glaberrimge, rufae, pedi-
cellata?, pedicello squamam parum et nectarium fere duplo superante :
stylus pedicelli dimidia longitudine. Hab. in America occidenti-
boreali (^Seemann).

Forma media. Folia oblonga vol subovalia basi subangustata,
semiunciam longa, 3-4 lin. lata, nervis elevatis subarcuato-parallelis
utrinque costata : amenta semipollicaria, crassa, subclavata : squamae
obovatfe, atrae, longe albo-pilos£E, basin capsulaj attingentes : capsul^e
6 basi crassa conico-rostratce, glaberrimie, rufescenti-sanguinea?, pedi-
cello nectarium vix superante : stylus pedicello longior, tenuis, integer :
stigmata bifida, divaricata. Hab. Cap. Mulgrave, Beechey. Arctic
coast, Richardson.

Forma minor. Folia ovalia seu oblonga, 2-3 lin, longa, nervis
rectiusculis parallelis validis percursa (qui nervi, diachymate mox toto
evanescente, retis ini^tar soli persistunt) : amenta minuta, foliis apicali-
bus abscondita : capsular glaberrima?, rufescentes, subsessiles, stylo
mediocri.

Has tres formas, inter se non parum dissimiles, nullo modo distin-
guere valeo, quia seriem contiguam a statura majori ad minimam
pusillam efliciunt. Est semper fruticulus depressus ; ramis ad maxi-
mum digitalibus plerumque valde foliatis. A vera S. retusa, qualem
ex Helvetia bene cognosco, certe quidem nonnihil differt : hasc etiam
eandem habet seriem formarum a *S'. Kitaibeliana, Willd. (foliis majo-
ribus) ad ^S'. serpyUifoliam, Jacq. (foliis perpusillis) toto liabitu consis-
tentia et nervatione fbliorum huic nostra? omnino analoga. Forma
major maxime ad *S'. rhamnifoliam habitu fruticuli et foliorum accedit,
sed differt, amentis exacte terminalibus, foliis nunquam serrulatis adhuc
rigidioribus.

55. S. Cdtleri, Tuckerman in Amer. Jour. Sci. 45, p. 36. S.
Uva-Ursi, J. Carey in Gray, Man. p. 418.

Forma major : foliis obovato-ovalibus fere semipollicaribus ; amentis
pollicaribus.

Forma minor : foliis 3 lin. longis adhuc angustioribus oblongis ;
amentis semipollicaribus.

In speciminibus a me examinatis (et a Tuckermano ipso communi-

VOL. IV. 10

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

catis) amenta semper terminalia ; mascula (quorum stamina singula
desci'ibuntur) non vidi : norine ob staturam humillimam et compactam
depauperata ? Cum S. retusa Europaj meridionalis plane nihil com-
mune habet : potius modificatio maxime alpina S. niyrtilloides (S. 2^edi-
cellaris Amer.) esset judicanda ?

56. S. MTRTiLLiFOLiA, n. sp. : amentis in ramulis annotinis termi-
nalibus foliis occultatis vix semipollicaribus ; capsulis brevissime pedi-
cellatis minutis tete viridibus glaberrimis anguste conicis, pedicello
squamam angustam apice nigram glabriusculam subnsquante ; stylo
subnuUo facile caduco ; stigmatibus brevissimis integris ; foliis semi-
unciam longis 3 lin. latis ovalibus utrinque pallide viridibus et glaber-
rimis margine crenulato-serrulatis, novellis tenuitate nigrescentibus.

Hab. " Rocky Mountains, east side, in low situations," Herb. Hooh.

Fruticulus trunco parvo superne ramoso, ramis strictiusculis fere
omnino ut in Myrtillo nigro, cui insuper foliis pare viridibus tenuibus
margine crenulatis ovali-subrotundis eximie similis.

57. S. RETICULATA, L. ; Hoolc. Fl. Bor.-Am. % p. 151.

Var. a. VESTiTA (S. vestita, Pur$]i : Hool: I. c. p. 152) : foliis subtus
pilis longis deciduis sericeis.

Forma graxdifolia : frutex fere bipedalis ; ramis strictissimis ;
foliis 2 poUices longis supra medium 14- poll, latis subtus demum om-
nino glabris-; amentis fere bipollicaribus. (Etiam in Sibei'ia.)

Forma parvifolia : fruticulus, ramis adscendentibus ; foliis oblon-
go-ovalibu3 subtus densissime albo-sericeis. (Etiam in Helvetia.)

Var. ^. NORMALis. S. reticulata, L. Qualis in Europic alpibus
vulgaris.

Var. y. NANA (S. nivalis, Hool:. I. c. p. 152) : pygma^a ; ramis sub-
digitalibus ; foliis 2-4 lin. longis latisque subtus etiam omnino nudis
caBsio-albis pulchre venuloso-reticulatis ; amentis linearibus e floribus
3-6 compositis ; squamis obovato-rotundatis glabris venosis. (Etiam
in Gfoenlandia et Spitzbergen.)

Qui liybridas formas etiam sponte facile procreatas credit formam
grandifoliam S. vestitce, s. d. e S. reticulata et S. lanata, et S. nivalem,
s. d. e (S. reticulata et S. herhacea oi'tam conjiciat. Formis innumeris
hse extrema? inter se connexaj nullo modo speciei distingui possunt.

58. S. HERBACEA, L. ; Hook. I. c. p. 153 ; Gray, Man. I. c.

59. S. POLARIS, Wahl. : Hook. I. c. p. 1 53.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 75

I have omitted from this enumeration the S. Babylonica, which is
occasionally planted for ornament.

Our list of Willows of North America (exclusive of Mexico, &c.)
amounts to fifty-eight species [not counting No. 42, S. repens], or
rather to fifty-nine, as two are proposed under S. 3Iyrsinites ; while
the Scandinavian species, including almost all the European, probably
do not exceed forty-five. These fifty-nine American species, when
compared with the European as to their affinities, may be classified
into the following five groups : —

I. Those which are common both to the Old and to the New World.

a. Perfectly identical, although more variable in America than in

Europe.

1. Transplanted from Europe for cultivation :

S. alba, S.fragilis, S. acutifolia,

S. viridis, S. purpurea, S. viminalis.

2. Arctic or Alpine species :

S. vagans, S. reticulata, S. arhuscula,

S. myrlilloides, S. kerbacea, S. poJaris.

b. Having forms very little differing from the European :

(S. cinerea ?), S. glauca, S. arctica,

S. Lapponum, S. lanata, S. alpestris.

II. Those which, very widely distributed in the middle parts of North
America, appear so analogous to European species that they (or at
least some of their forms) cannot be definitely distinguished from
them, and so may be considered as subspecies :

)S. lucida, analogous to S. pentandra.
S. irrorata, " S. daphnoides.

S. phylicoides, " S. phylicifolia.

S. cordata, " S. hastaia.

S. copreoides, " S. Caprea.

S. phkbophylla, " S. retusa.

III. Those which differ sufficiently in characters from their European
relatives to be considered as distinct species, though belonging to
types which in the Old World produce fewer forms :

S. Fendleriana, related to S. pentandra.

S. Wrightii, " S. alba.

S. amygdaloides, " S. amygdalina.

76

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

S. eriocephala, related to S. daphnoides
S. brachystachys, "

S. discolor, ) ^^

S. macrocarpa^ )

S. aurita.

S. phylicifolia.

S. vagans.

S. repens.

S. rosmarinifoUa.

S. Geyeriana, "

S. humilis, )
jS. tristis, \

S. gracilis, "

S. suhcordata, "

& Pseudo-Myrsinites, )
iS. cuHi flora, \

S. Cutleri, "

IV. Those which also manifestly represent European types, but with
more marked specific differences than those under the preceding
head :

S. glauca.

S. Myrsinites.
S. myrtilloides ?

belonging to the type of S. daphnoides.

" S. lanata.

" S. Lapponum.

"■ S. laurina.

" S. hastata.

" S. glatica.

S. Bigelovii,

S. lasiolepis,

S. Coidteri,

S. Hoolceriana, )

S. speciosa, \

S. Candida, " " "

S. Drummondiana, " " "■

S. adenophylla, " " "

S. Barclayi, " " "

V. Those which form peculiarly American types :

1. S. longifolia, S. sessilifolia (* Hindsiana and S. taxifolia). Cor-
respondents in Europe, S. riparia and its allies. To which may
be added S. nigra and S. longipes, belonging to a type peculiar to
southern or tropical countries.

2. S. Sitchensis, S. serica (grisea), and S. petiolaris ; compensations,
as it were, in America, for our Salices mollissimce and repentes.
(S. angustifolia, Wulf., is by Wimmer and otliers regarded as a
hybrid of S. repens and <S. vimincdis.)

3. S. rhamnifolia, S. ovalifolia, S. glacialis, and S. myrtillifolia, —
purely arctic forms, corresponding only with species from northern
or arctic Siberia.

From all this we gather, that, of the fifty-eight species growing in
North America, there are

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 77

12 identical with European species.*

6 nearly identical with European species.

6 very analogous to European species.
15 very distinct species, but of European types.

9 species almost peculiar to America.
10 species quite peculiar to America.

If now, on the other hand, we examine the Scandinavian species and
types, to ascertain which of them are wanting in America, we find the
following, viz. : —

1st. 8 species more or less cultivated throughout Europe, and prob-
ably of a more southern oi'igin : 5. undulata, (Jiippophijeifolia,) rubra,
(moUissima,) lanceolata, Smithiana, (stipularis,) (Jwlosericea). Four
of these (in parentheses) are regarded as hybrids by some botanists.

2d. Only one species indigenous to Scandinavia, where, as in Swit-
zerland, it forms such a multitude of varieties that Schleicher has
founded nearly a hundred species upon this one, — viz. S*. nigricans,
a truly European species ; of which S. canescens, S. versifolia, and
S. amhlgua are by many botanists thought to be hybrid forms.

To these may be added from the rest of Europe : <S. Silesiaca,
^almost peculiar to Silesia ; S. glabra, of the Austrian Alps ; S. grandi-
folia and S. Seringiana, of Switzerland ; S. riparia, S ccesia, and S.
pedicellata, in Italy and Spain.

It appears, therefore, that of the 58 North American species, 24
are identical with European ones ; 24 belong to the same types ; and
only 10, western or arctic forms, seem to be peculiar to this great con-
tinent: and further, that of the Scandinavian tiora only a single in-
digenous species or type is not yet found in America (a type which
appears as if composed of almost every other) ; while 48 more or less
related species or types are common to the New and the Old "World,
but more luxuriant and varying in America, where we also find a num-
ber of other types. All this leads us to look to America as the chief
abode, perhaps the original home, of the Willows, and the country
where the gehus ought to be especially studied. Therefore we may
call upon American botanists to apply themselves to the investigation
of this genus and its intricate forms, as they have already done to
another vast genus ( Oarex) which presents an analogous distribution.

* Half of these were imported from the Old World, and are cultivated or natu-
ralized, as already stated on p. 75. A. G.

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Science, which prefers facts to hypotheses, has not yet sufficient
materials to assure us whether, and by what means or in what ways,
the original species were first diffused from single centres over distant
parts of the earth ; but all we know of the arctic and northern regions
shows that their vegetation is very homogeneous. This synopsis may
help to show, with regard to Willows, that there are many links con-
necting Europe and America.

[Note. — There are about ten species of Salix from Oregon and the
Rocky Mountains described, and two or three of them figured, in Nut-
tail's North American Sylva, which remain unknown to Prof. Anders-
son : all or most of them he may be able to identify, when the volume
reaches him, with species enumerated in this Synopsis. A. G.]

Four hundred aud fifty-fix'st meeting.

May 11, 1858.— Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of B. A. Gould, Esq.

The President, and afterwards the Vice-President, in the
chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters,
viz. : — From the Academic des Sciences, etc. de Dijon, Jan-
uary 18, 1857 ; Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Cherbourg ;
Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, June 30,
1857 ; K. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien, August 10,
1857 ; Koyal Society of Sciences, Upsal, October 11, 1857 ;
Societe Linneene de Normandie, November 29, 1857 ; Trus-
tees of Boston AthenaDum, April 10, 1858 ; and the Boston
Society of Natural History, May 1, 1858, acknowledging the
receipt of the Academy's publications ; — from the Director
der Sternwarte, Breslau, October 23, 1857, in acknowledgment
of the same, and presenting a work on Climatology; — from
the Academic des Sciences de Dijon, January 18, 1857 ; Det
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes . Selskab, June 30, 1857 ;
K. Academie der Wissenschaften, Wien, December 17, 1857 ;
Universite Royale de Christiania, November 10, 1857 ; Nich-
olas Manzini, Havana, December 10, 1857 ; and Colonel J.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 79

D. Graham, U. S. A., Chicago, May, 1858, presenting their
various publications ; — and from the Royal University of
Christiania, Norway, November 7, 1857, presenting a medal
in honor of Christopher Hansteen.

Mr. Sherwin made a communication upon a curious prop-
erty of numbers. He also spoke, in the way of inquiry, of the
supposed low temperature of water at a great depth in the
ocean.

Mr. F. H. Storer doubted the fact of such a low degree of
temperature under these circumstances ; he thought the indi-
cations of the self-registering thermometer were not reliable.

Mr. Folsom exhibited a stone slab bearing a Latin inscrip-
tion of the date of 1703. Part of the stone was wanting ; but
Mr. Folsom made a conjectural restoration of the missing por-
tion of the inscription. It related to Castle William, in Bos-
ton Harbor. It was found by Mr. Folsom in the attic of the
old Athenaeum building, in Pearl Street.

Professor Lovering referred to the laying down of the
Oceanic Telegraph cable between England and America,
and gave an account of Captain Blakely's strictures upon the
method pursued, which overlooked the great resistance of the
water to the stretching of the cable straight, and the neces-
sity, which followed from this resistance, of the vertical de-
scent of each point of the cable, and its being slack on the
bottom, and of the length therefore required exceeding that
originally calculated.

Dr. W. F. Channing followed in some remarks, speaking
particularly of the retardation of the current by the sheathing
of iron wire.

Professor Plorsford described a method of illustrating the
interference of the waves of sound, used by Mr. Gould, a
student in the Cambridge Scientific School. A tuning-fork
was held over a vessel, the length of which was changed by
pouring in water until it was in tune with the fork. While
the fork is vibrating, it is turned round on its long axis.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY,
FROM APRIL 25, 1857, TO APRIL 16, 1858.

D. F. L. von Schlechtendal.

Lirnifea, Ein Journal fiir die Botanik in ihrem o;anzen Umfanfe.
Band XXVII. Ileft 5 und 6. Band XXVIII. Heft 1-3. 8vo.
Halle. 1855-56.
Natural History Societij of the Prussian Rhineland and Westphalia.
Verhandlungen. XIII. Jahr, Heft 2, 3, und 4. XIV. Jahr,
Heft 1. Svo. Bonn. 1856-57.
Royal Bohemian Society of Science.

Abhandlungen. 5" Folge. 9" Band von den Jahren 1854-56.
4to. Prag. 1857.

Denkrede auf Prof. Franz Adam Petrina. Vorgetragen in der
Sitz. der Naturw.-Math. Section der Kon. Bohm. Gesell. der Wiss.
am 10 Dec. 1855. Von Dr. Wilhelm Rudolph Weitenweber. 4to
pamph. Prag. 1856.

Bericht liber ein bislier unbekanntes rechtsphilosophisches Manu-
script eines osterreichischen Verfassers. Von Dr. Robert Zimmer-
mann. 4to pamph. Prag. 1855.

Der Arabische KafFee in naturgeschichtlicher, chemischer, diiite-
tischer und iii'ztlicher Beziehung fiir Aerzte und Nichtiirzte ge-
schildert von Dr. W. B. Weitenweber. 1 vol. 16mo. Prag, etc.
1857.
Society for the Improvement of Horticulture in the Prussian States.
Verhandlungen. Neue Reihe. III. Jahr, Juli bis Dec. 1855.
IV. Jahr, Jan. bis Jun. 1856. 8vo. 2 pamph. Berhn. 1856.
Br. M. N. My.

J. A. Glazes et Le Regime des Herbes. Etude Biographique,
Litteraire, et Physiologique. 8vo pamph. Toulouse. 1856.
Imperial Society for the Acclimation of Animals.

Bulletin. Tome IV. N" 3-12. Tome V. N" 1 et 2. 8vo.
Paris. 1857-58.
Observatory of Konigsherg.

Astronomische Beobachtungcn auf der Koniglichen Universitats
Sternwarte zu Konigsberg. Abth. 28 und 30. Folio. Konigsberg.
1856-57.
Netherlands Government.

Flora Batava. Afl. 181. 4to. Amsterdam.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 81

Royal Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam.

Verhandelingen der Konink. Akad. van Wetten. Deel III.
4to. Amsterdam. 1856.

Verslagen en Med.-Afd. Phys.-Math. Deel III. Stuk 3 ; Deel
IV. ; Deel V. Stuk 1. — Afd. Letterkunde. Deel I. ; Deel 11.
Stuk 1. 8vo. Amsterdam. 185 G.

Lycidas Ecloga et Musai Invocatio, Carmina quorum Auctori
Johauni yan Leeuwen, e Vico Zegwaart Certaminis Poetici Proe-
mium secundum e Legato Jacobi Henrici HoeufFt adjudicatum est.
8vo pampli. Amstelodami. 1856.
Dr. Carl Rohitanshy.

Lelitbueh der Pathologischen Anatomic. Zweiter Band. 8vo.
Wien. 1856.
Royal Bavarian Academy.

Abhandlungen der Philos.-Philol. Classe der Konigl. Bayerisch.
Akad. der Wissenschaften. Band VII. Abth. 1. 4to. Miinchen.
1856.

Gelebrte Anzeigen. Bande XLII. und XLIII. 4to. Miinchen.
1856.
Royal Society of Sciences, JJpsal.

Nova Acta Regiae Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis. Vol. XIV.
Pars II. 4to. Upsal. 1850.— Seriei Tertiie, Vol. II. Fasc. Prior.
4to. UpsaliiB. 1856,
Royal Society of Sciences, Leipzig.

Abhandlungen der Kon. Sach. Gesell. der Wissenschaften. — Math.-
Physisch. Classe. Band V. pp. 379 - 682. — Philolog. Historisch.
Classe. Band III. pp. 509 - 922. Royal 8vo. Leipzig. 1856-57.
Imperial Mineralogical Society, St. Petersburg.

Verhandlungen der Russ. Kaiserl. Mineral. Gesell. zu St. Peters-
bourg. Jahr. 1854-56. 8vo. St. Petersbourg. 1855-56.
Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg.

Memoires. VI""" Serie. Sciences Politiques, Histoire, Philologie.
TomeVIIL 4to. St. Petersbourg. 1855.— VI"^^ Serie, Sciences
Mathematiques, Physiques, et Naturelles. Tome IX. Seconde
Partie. Sciences Naturelles. Tome VIII. 1vol. 4to. St. Pe-
tersbourg. 1855.

Memoires Present^s a I'Acad. Imp. des Sciences, par divers
Savants et lus dans ses Assemblees. Tome VII. 4to. St. Pe-
tersbourg. 1854.

VOL. IV. 11

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Compte Rendu de 1' Academic. Annees 1852 - 55. 3 vols.
8vo. St. Pctersbourg. 1853-56,
Administration of 3Iines of Russia.

Compte Rendu Annuel. Addresse a S. Exc. M. de Brock, Ministre
des Finances, par le Directeur de I'Observatoire Physique Central,
A. T. KupfFer, Annee 1855. 4to. St. Pctersbourg. 1856.
Imperial Society of Naturalists in Moscow.

Nouveaux Memoires de la Societe. Tome X. 4t«. Moscou.
1856.

Bulletin de la Societe^. Annec 1855, N'^ 3 et 4. Annee 1856,
N" 1. 8vo. Moscou. 1855-56.
Natural History Society in Ennden.

Kleine Scbriften. Die Gewitter des Jahres 1855. Von Dr. M.
A. Prestel. 8vo. Emden. 1856.
L. A. Hiiguet Latour.

Report of the Commissioners of Public "Works of Canada for the
Year ending 31st December, 1855. 1 vol. 8vo. Toronto. 1856.
[Legisl. Doc]
American Oriental Society.

Journal. Vol. V. No. 2. 8vo. New York. 1856.
Charles F. Barnard.

Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting of the Association
for the Support of the "Warren Street Chapel. 12mo pamph.
Boston. 1857.
Royal Society of London.

Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1856. Vol. CXLVI.
Parts 2 and 3. 4to. London. 1856.

Proceedings. Vol. VIII. Nos. 23 and 26. 8vo. London.
1856-57.

List of the Fellows of the Royal Society, 30th November, 1856.
4to. London.

Meteorological Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory,
Oxford, in the Year 1855, under the Superintendence of Manuel J.
Johnson, M. A., Radcliffe Observer. 8 vo pamph. Oxford. 1856.

Catalogue of Stars near the Ecliptic, observed at Markree during
the Years 1854-56, and whose Places are supposed to be hith-
erto unpublished. Vol. IV. containing 14,951 Stai's. 8vo. Dub-
lin. 1856.

Astronomical and Magnetical and Meteorological Observations

OF AKTS AND SCIENCES. 83

made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the Year 1855,
under the Direction of George Biddell Airy, Esq., M. A., Astronomer
Royal. 1 vol. 4to. London. 1857.
Isaac Lea, LL. D.

Descriptions of Four New Species of Exotic Uniones, and Thir-
teen of Exotic Melaniania. Description of the Byssus of the Genus
Unio, etc. 8vo pamph. Philadelphia. 1857.

Observations on the Genus Unio, together with Descriptions of
New Species in the Family Unionidaj. Vol. VI. Pt. I. 1857. 4to.
Philadelphia. 1857.
Major Benjamin Alvord^ U. S. A.

The Tangencies of Circles and of Spheres. 4to pamph. Phila-
delphia. 1856. [Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.]
Alexis Jordan.

Nouveau Memoire sur la Question relatif aux JEgilops triticoides
et speltogformis. 8vo pamph. Paris. 1857.
Br. JSr. B. Shurtleff.

Fourteenth Report to the Legislature of Massachusetts, relating
to the Registry and Returns of Births, Marriages, and Deaths, in the
Commonwealth, for the Year ending Dec. 31, 1855. By Francis
DeWitt, Secretaiy of the Commonwealth. 1 vol. 8vo. Boston.
1857.

Abstract of the Census of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
taken with Reference to Facts existing on the First Day of June,
1855, with Remarks on the same. Prepared under the Direction of
Francis DeWitt, Secretary of the Commonwealth. 1 vol. 8vo.
Boston. 1857.
American Philosophical Society.

Transactions. New Series. Vol. XL Part L 4to. Philadel-
phia. 1857.

Proceedings. Vol. VL Nos. 57 and 58, Jan. to June, and July to
Dec, 1857. 8vo. Philadelphia.
B. A. Gould, Jr., P. B.

Astronomical Journal. Vol. V. Nos. 7-16. 4to. Albany,
1857-58.
Edouard Besor.

Une Derniere Ascension. 8vo pamph. Neuchatel. 1854.

Du Climat des Etats-Unis et de ses Effets sur les Habitudes et les
Mceurs. 8vo pamph. Porrentruy. 1853.

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Echinides Nummutitiques. 8vo pamph. Porrentruy. 1853.
Natural History Society of 3Iontreal.

Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, and Proceedings of the Natu-
ral History Society of Montreal. Vol. II. Nos. 2-6. Vol. III.
No. 1. 8vo. Montreal. 1857 - 58.
G. 31. SchuUzy.

Theorie der Gegensaltze oder Entwurf des Normalprinzips. Svo.
Konigsberg. 1851.
K. K. Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Wien.

Jalirbuch. VII. Jahr. N™ 1, 2, und 3. 8vo. Wien. 1856.
Society of Arts, 3Ianufactures, and Commerce.

Journal of the Society of Arts, and of the Institutions in Union.
Vol. V. Nos. 215-245. 8vo. London. 1857.

Catalogue of the Ninth Exhibition of Inventions. Appendix I. to
Vol. V. of Journal. 8vo. London. 1857.
Charles Francis Adams.

The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States.
With a Life of the Author, Notes, and Illustrations, by his Grand-
son, Charles Francis Adams. 10 vols. Royal 8vo. Boston. 1856.
Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vienna.

Sitzungsberichte. Math.-Natur. Classe. Band VI. Heft 1 - 4 ;
Band XX. Heft 2 und 3 ; XXL 1 und 2 ; XXII. 1, 2, und 3 ;
XXIII. 1 ; Register Band XL - XX. — Phil.-Hist. Classe. Band
VL Heft 1-5; XXI. 3; XXIL 1 und 2. — 8vo. Wien. 1851,
1856, 1857.

Denkschriften. Math.-Natur. Classe. Band XII. 4to. Wien.
1856.

Tafeln zu den Sitz. der Phil.-Hist. Classe. Band VI. Heft 1,
2, 3. (Archajologische Analecten von Joseph Arneth.) Folio.
Wien. 1851.

Die Alterthiimer vom Hallstiitter Sabzberg und dessen Umge-
buug. Von Friedrich Simony. Als Beilage zu den Sitz. der Philos.-
Histor. Classe der Ivais. Akad der Wissenschaften. (Band IV. 1850.
S. 338.) Folio. Wien. 1851.

Tageblatt der 32 Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und
Arzte in Wien im Jahre 1856. No. 1-8. 4to. Wien. 1856.
Museum of Natural History in Paris.

Archives. Tome VIII. Livr. 3, 4. Tome IX. 4to. Paris.
1855-57.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 85

American Antiquarian Society.

Proceedings in Boston, April 29, 1857 ; in "Worcester, Oct. 21,
1857. 8vo. 2 pamphs. Boston. 1857.

ArchjBologia Americana. Transactions and Collections of the
American Antiquarian Society. Vol. III. 8vo. Cambridge. 1850.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelpliia.

Proceedings. Vol. VIII. Nos. 3-5. Vol. IX. pp. 17-228.
8vo. Philadelpliia. 1856-57.

Journal (N. S.). Vol. III. Pt. 4. 4to. Philadelphia. 1858.
Catalogue of Human Crania, in the Collection of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, based upon the 3d ed. of Dr.
Morton's Catalogue of Skulls, &c. By J. Aitken Meigs, M. D.
8vo. Philadelphia. 1857.
American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Proceedings of the Tenth Meeting, held at Albany, New York,
August, 1856 ; Eleventh, at Montreal, Canada East, August, 1857.
2 vols. 8vo. Cambridge. 1857 - 58.
W. a Redfeld.

On the Cyclones or Typhoons of the North Pacific Ocean ; with
a Chart showing their Courses of Progression. By W. C. Redfield.
8vo pamph. Philadelphia. 1856.
Willia7n J. Rhees.

An Account of the Smithsonian Institution, its Founder, Building,
Operations, etc., prepared from the Reports of Prof. Henry to the
Regents, and other Authentic Sources. 8vo pamph. Washington.
1857.
New York Historical Society.

Collections (2d Series). Vol. III. Part 1. 8vo. New York.
1857.

The Dutch at the North Pole and the Dutch in Maine. A Paper
read before the New York Historical Society, 3d March, 1857. By
J. Watts De Peyster, a Member of the Society. 8vo pamph.
New York. 1857.
Observatory of Harvard College.

Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College.
Vol. II. Part 1. 4to. Cambridge. 1856.
British Government.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol. I. Part 1.
With a Map. 8vo pamph. Calcutta. 1856.

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Observations made at the Magnetical and Meteorological Obser-
vatory at Toronto in Canada, under the Superintendence of Major-
General Edward Sabine, E. A. Vol. III. 184G - 48. 4to.
London. 1857.

Tables de la Lune, construites d'apres le Principe Newtonien de
la Gravitation Universelle, par P. A. Hansen, Directeur de I'Obser-
vatoire Ducal de Gotha. 1 vol. 4to. Londres. 1857.
Mercantile Library Association of the City of Neio York.

Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the Board of Direction, May, 1857.
8vo pamph. New York. 1857.
Academy of Sciences of the Imp^ial Institute of France.

Comptes Rendus. Tome XLIV. Nos. 11 - 26 ; XLV. ; XL VI.
1-4. 4to. Paris. 1857-58.
Royal Society of Sciences, Gottingen.

Nachrichten vom Jahre 1856. 1 vol. 12mo. Gottingen. 1857.
Edward Scheutz.

Specimens of Tables, calculated, stereomoulded, and printed by
Machinery. 1 vol. 8vo. London. 1857.
Mercantile Library Association of the City of Boston.

Twenty-Seventh Annual Report. 8vo pamph. Boston. 1857.
Royal Prussian Academy.

Abhandlungen der Konigl. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.
1 vol. 4to. Berlin. 1856.

Monatsbericht. Jan. - Dec. 1856. 11 Nos. 8vo. Berlin. 1856.
Society of Geography of Paris.

Bulletin. 4""'= Serie. Tome XIIL 8vo. Paris. 1857.
M. le Baron Cauchy.

Lettre de M. Biot a M. de Falloux. 8vo pamph. Paris. 1857.
Smithsonian Institution.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vols. VI. and IX.
4to. "Washington. 1854-57.

Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of
the Institution up to Jan. 1, 1856, and the Proceedings of the Board
up to March 22, 1856. 1 vol. 8vo. Washington. 1856. [Ex.
Doc]

Eleventh Annual Report, for the Year 1856, and the Proceed-
ings of the Board up to Jan. 28, 1857. 1 vol. 8vo. Washington.
1857. [Ex. Doc]

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 87

Observatory, Washington.

Maury's Wind and Current Charts. Gales in the Atlantic. Folio.
Atlas. Washington. 1857.
John D. Runhle.

New Tables for determining the Values of the Coefficients in the
Perturbative Function of Planetary Motion, which depend upon the
Eatio of Mean Distances. 4to pamph. Cambridge.
R. J. Meigs.

Catalogue of the Tennessee State Libi-ary. 8vo pamph. Nash-
ville. 1855.
Com. Thos. J. Page, U. S. If.

Track Survey of the Rivers Salado, Parana, and Colastina. Sur-
veyed by Com. Thos. J. Page, U. S. S. Water- Witch. 1855.

Mouths of the Parana and Uruguay (Sheet No. 1). Martin Garcia
and Martin Chico Channels (Colonia to Higueritas).

Track Survey of the River Parana (Sheet No. 2). Buenos Ayres
to Paloma Island.

Track Survey of the River Paraguay (Sheets 10 - 15). — 9 Charts.
New York.
£jI Ohservatorio de Marina de San Fernando.

Almanaque Nautico, para et Ano 1858. Calculado de S. M. en
el Ohservatorio de Marina de la Ciudad de San Fernando. 1 vol.
8vo. Cadiz. 1856.
Imperial Society of Sciences, Agriculture, and Arts, Lille.

Memoires. Anneel856. 2= Serie. Tome III. 8vo. Lille etParis.
Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin.

Memorie. Serie Seconda. Tomes XIII. -XVI. 4to. Torino.
1853-57.
A. T. Kupffer.

Compte-Rendu Annuel, par le Directeur de I'Observatoire Physique
Central, A. T. Kupffer. Annee 1855. Suppl. 4to pamph. St.
Petersboui-g. 1856.
Observatory of Prague.

Magnetische und Meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag, 16
Jahrgang, 1 vol. 4to. Prag. 1857.
Royal Observat07-y, Brussels.

Annales de I'Observatoire Roy. de Bruxelles, publiees aux Frais
de I'Etat par le Directeur, A. Quetelet. Tome XL 4to. Brux-
elles. 1857.

I

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN | ACADEMY

I

Royal Academy of Sciences, Sfc. of Belgium. |

Memoires. Tome XXX. 4to. Bruxell|s. 1857.

Memoires Couronnes et Memoires des Savstats Etrangers, publiees
par I'Academie. Tome XXVII. 1855 -^iS. Tome XXVIII.
1856. 4to. Bruxelles. 1856. \

Bulletins de I'Academie. Tome XXII. 11""' Partie. 1855.
Tome XXin. I" et 11""^ Partie. 185j6. 8vo. Bruxelles.
1855-56.

Annuaire de I'Acad. Roy. de Belgique, 22' et 23^ Annee.
1856-57. 2 vols. 16mo. Bruxelles.

Eapport addresse a M. le Ministre de ITijterieur sur I'Etat et les
Travaux de I'Observatoire Royal, pendant I'Annee 1856. Par le
Directeur, A. Quetelet. 8vo pamph. Bruxelles.

Notice sur G. J. A. Baron de Stassart. Par A. Quetelet.
12mo pamph. Bruxelles. 1854.

Notice sur Philippe Lesbroussai't. Par A. Quetelet. 12mo
pampli. Bruxelles. 1855.

Notice sur Dominique Frangois-Jean Arago. Par A. Quetelet.
12mo pamph. Bruxelles. 1855.
A. Quetelet.

Annuaire de I'Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles, 1856-57, 23''
et 24" Annee. 2 vols. 16mo. Bruxelles. 1855-56.

Observations des Phenomenes Periodiques pour I'Annee 1853.
4to pamph. Bruxelles. 1853.
Society for the Advancement of the Physical Sciences, Freiburg, I. B.

Berichte liber die Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fur Beforde-
rung der Natur-Wissenschaften. Heft 1, 2, und 3. 8vo. Frei-
burg, I. B. 1855-57.
Samuel Kneeland, Jr., M. D.

Memoires de I'Academie Royale de Chirurgie. 15 vols. 12mo.
Paris. 1773 - 74.

A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language, explained in English.
.... By the Rev. Frederic Baraga. 1 vol. 16mo. Cincinnati.
1853.

Elements of Geometry, with Practical Applications, for the
Use of Schools. By T. Walker. 1 vol. 12mo. PhUadelphia.
1835.

First Principles of the Differential and Integral Calculus, or the
Doctrine of Fluxions, .... taken chiefly from the Mathematics of

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 89

Bezout, and translated from the French by John Farrar. 1 vol.
8vo. Cambridge. 1824.

An Elementary Treatise on Arithmetic, taken principally from the
Arithmetic of S. F. Lacroix, and translated into English .... by
John Farrar. 1 vol. 8vo. Cambridge. 1818.

Elements of Geometry, by A. M. Legendre. Translated from
the French .... by John Farrar. 1vol. 8vo. Cambridge. 1819.

A System of Arithmetic, reprinted from the Mathematical Text-
Book compiled by the late President Webber, for the Use of the
University at Cambridge. 1 vol. 8vo. Cambridge. 1812.

An Elementary Treatise on the Application of Trigonometry to
Orthographic and Stereographic Projection, &c. By John Farrar.
1 vol. 8vo. Cambridge. 1822.

Catalogue of Pneumatic Instruments manufactured and sold by
N. B. & D. Chamberlain ; with Experiments illustrated by numer-
ous Engravings and Notes. 1 vol. 8vo. Boston. 1844.
Denison Olmsted, LL. D.

Address on the Scientific Life and Labors of WiUiam C. Redfield,
A. M., First President of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. Delivered before the Association at their Annual
Meeting in Montreal, Aug. 14, 1857. 8vo pamph. New Haven.
1857.
Blinden Anstalt, Braunschweig.

Physiographic des Herzogthumes Braunschweig und des Karz-
Gebirges, .... von Prof. W. Lachmann. Theil L Nevellement.
Theil II. Geognosie. 8vo. Braunschweig. 1851 - 52.
Charles F. Chandler.

Miscellaneous Chemical Researches. — Inaugural Dissertation for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, addressed to the Philosophical
Faculty of the University of Gottingen. 8vo pamph. Gottingen.
1856.
David K. Tattle.

Miscellaneous Chemical Researches. — Inaugural Dissertation ad-
dressed to the Philosophical Faculty of the Georgia Augusta Uni-
versity, Gottingen, on Promotion to the Degree of Doctor of Philos-
ophy. 8vo pamph. Gottingen. 1857.
George C. Caldwell, B. S.

The Fatty Acids contained in the Oil of the Arachis Hypogaea

VOL. IV. 12

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and the Oleic Acid Series. — Inaugural Dissertation prepared for
Promotion to the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and addressed to
the Philosophical Faculty of the Georgia Augusta University at
Gottingen. 8vo pamph. Gottingen. 1856.
United States Patent- Office.

Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1856. —
Agriculture. 1 vol. 8vo. "Washington. 1857. [Pub. Doc]
Dr. a A. F. Peters.

Astronomische Nachrichten. Band XLV. Herausgegeben von
Prof. Dr. C. A. F. Peters. 1 vol. 4to. Altona. 1857.
Zoological Society of London.

Transactions. Vol. IV. Pt. 4. 4to. London. 1857.
Proceedings. Pt. XXIV. No. 305 to end of Volume. Pt. XXV.
Nos. 327, 328. 8vo. London. 1856-57.
Nathan Appleton.

Remarks on Currency and Banking : having reference to the
Present Derangement of the Circulating Medium in the United
States. (3d ed.) With an Appendix. 8vo pamph. Boston. 1857.
Charles T. Beke,Ph. D., F. S. A., etc.

An Inquiry into M. Antoine d'Abbadie's Journey to Kaffa, in
the Years 1843 and 1844, to discover the Source of the Nile. (2d
ed.) 8vo pamph. London. 1851.

A Letter to M. Daussy, President of the Central Committee of
the Geographical Society of France. 8vo pamph. London. 1850.
Hon. Charles Sumner.

Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1856. —
Agriculture. 1 vol. 8vo. "Washington. 1856. [Pub. Doc]

Maps and Views to accompany Message and Documents.
1856-57. 1vol. 4to. "Washington. 1857. [Pub. Doc]
Zoologisch-Botanischer Verein su Wien.

Verhandlungen. Band VI. Jahr 1856. 8vo. "Wien. 1856.
Separatabdruck Naturwissenschaftlichen Abhandlungen aus den
Schriften des Zool.-botan. Vereins in "Wien. 1 vol. 8vo. "Wien.
1856.
Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm.

Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Forhandlingar. —
Trettonde Argangen 1856. 8vo. Stockholm. 1857.

Exposition des Operations faites en Lapponie, pour le Determina-
tion d'un Arc du Meridien en 1801, '02, et '03, par Mess. Ofverbom,

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 91

Svanberg, Holraguist et Palander. Redigee par Jons Svanberg

1 vol. 8vo. Stockholm. 1805.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Eeport of the Twenty-sixth Meeting, held at Cheltenham, in
August, 1856. 1 vol. 8vo. London. 1857.
Trustees of the Astor Library.

Catalogue or Alphabetical Index of the Astor Library. In Two
Parts. Part I. Authors and Books. A-E and F-L. Roy. 8vo.
New York. 1857-58.
Physicalisch-Medicinischen Gesellschaft in Wiirzlurg.

Verhandlungen. Erster Band. W° 1 - 22 : Zweiter, N'° 1 - 13.
8vo. Erlangen. 1850-51.
Professor Francesco Zantadeschi.

Ricerche sul Calorico Raggiante. 8vo pamph. Wien. 1857.
Boston Society of Natural History.

Journal. Vol. VI. No. 4. 8vo. Boston. 1857.
Franz Bopp.

Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Send, Griechischen,
Lateinischen, Littauischen, Altslavischen, Gothischen und Deutschen.
Erster Band. Erste und Zweite Halfte. 8vo. Berlin. 1856-57.
Albany Institute.

Description of New Organic Remains from Northeastern Kan-
sas, indicating the Existence of Permian Rocks in that Territory.
By F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, M. D. — Read before the meet-
ing of March 2d, 1858. [Trans. Alb. Inst. IV.] 8vo. pp. 72-88.
Albany. 1858.
Prof Francis S. Holmes.

Remains of Domestic Animals discovered among Post-Pleiocene
Fossils in South Carolina. — Also, Extracts from a Paper by Prof.
Leidy of Philadelphia, and a Letter by Prof. Agassiz. 8vo pamph.
Charleston. 1858.
Lyceum of Natural History of New York.

Annals. Vol. VI. No. 5, Oct. 1855 ; Nos. 6 and 7, Dec. 1856.
8vo. New York. 1855-56.
Johti Allati Broun, F. R. S.

Report on the Observations of His Highness the Rajah of Tra-
vancore at Travandrum, and on the Agustier Peak of the "Western
Ghats. By John Allan Broun, F. R. S., Director of the Observa-
tories. 8vo. Trevandrum. 1857.

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

T. Sterry Hunt.

Geological Survey of Canada. — Report of Progress for the Years
1853, '54, '55, '56. Printed by Order of the Legislative Assembly.
1 vol. 8vo. Toronto. 1857.

Plans of various Lakes and Rivers between Lake Huron and the
River Ottawa, to accompany the Geological Reports for 1853, '54,
'55, '56. 1 vol. 4to. Toronto. 1857.
G. J. Adler, A. M.

A Practical Grammar of the Latin Language, with Perpetual
Exercises in Speaking and Writing. For the Use of Schools, Col-
leges, and Private Learners. 1 vol. 12mo. Boston. 1858.
G. G. Swallow.

The Rocks of Kansas. By G. C. Swallow and F. Hawn. With
Descriptions of New Permian Fossils, by G. C. Swallow. 8vo
pamph. St. Louis, Mo. 1858.
Verein fiir Ndturhunde im Herzogthum Nassau.

Jahrbucher. Herausgegeben von C. J. Kirschbaum. Eilftes
Heft. 8vo. Wiesbaden. 1856.
Fr. Argelander.

Anzeige von einer auf der Koniglichen Universitats-Sternwarte
zu Bonn unternommenen Durchmusterung des Nordlichen Plimmels
als Grundlage neuer Himmelscharten. 8vo pamph. Bonn. 1856.

Four Iiuudred and fifty-second meeting.

May 25, 1858. — Annual Meeting.
The President in the chair.

The President, in behalf of the Council, reported that at
the present time the Academy has upon its list

147 Resident Fellows,
78 Associate Fellows, and
74 Foreign Honorary Members,

and mentioned their actual distribution among the classes
and sections. The foreign list, which, at the last anniversary,
bore the full number allowed by the statutes, now exhibits
one vacancy, caused by the death of the celebrated mathema-
tician Cauchy.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 93

Four Associate Fellows have died during the past year,

viz. : —

Admiral Owen, of New Brunswick,

Robert Hare, of Philadelphia,
William C. Redfield, of New York,
Thomas Crawford, of Rome.

No Resident Fellows have died since the last anniversary.

There have been elected into the Academy during the past

year

8 Resident Fellows, — 5 in Class I., 2 in Class II.,

and 1 in Class III. ;
2 Associate Fellows, — one of them into Class II.,

the other into Class III. ; and
8 Foreign Honorary Members, — one in each Class.

The Annual Report of the Committee on the Library was
read, accepted, and ordered to be placed on file.

The Annual Report of the Committee on Publications was
read, accepted, and ordered to be placed on file.

The Treasurer presented his Annual Report, with the
approved of the Auditing Committee annexed, which was
accepted, and ordered to be entered on the records of the
Academy.

On motion of Professor Lovering, it was voted that the
sum of one thousand dollars be appropriated for the publica-
tions of the Academy for the ensuing year.

On motion of Professor Treadwell, it was voted that the
sum of one hundred and fifty dollars be placed at the disposal
of the Committee on Meteorology, for the purchase of a safe
for the use of the Academy. Also, that eleven hundred dol-
lars be appropriated for general expenses, and seven hundred
dollars for the purchase of books for the Library, during the
ensuing year.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows, viz. : —
Dr. Thomas Edwards Clark, in Class II. Section 3.
Dr. Horatio R. Storer, in Class II. Section 4.
Dr. Henry Bryant, in Class II. Section 3.

94 ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The annual election was held, and the following officers
were chosen for the ensuing year : —

Jacob Bigelow, President.

Daniel Treadwell, Vice-President.

Asa Gray, Corresponding Secretary.

S. L. Abbot, Recording Secretary.

J. P, Cooke, Librarian.

Edward Wigglesworth, Treasurer.

Council.
J. I. Bowditch,

Joseph Lovering, J- of Class I.

E. N. Horsford,

Louis Agassiz,

Jeffries Wyman, \ of Class II.

J, B. S. Jackson,

James Walker,

Henry W. Torrey, ^ of Class III.

Robert C. Winthrop,

The Standing Committees, nominated by the President,
were elected as follows : —

Rumford Conunittee.
Eben N. Horsford, Joseph Lovering,

Daniel Treadwell, Henry L. Eustis,

Morrill Wyman.

Committee of Publication.

Joseph Lovering, Jeffries Wyman,

Cornelius C. Felton.

Committee on the Library.

A. A. Gould, W. B. Rogers,

George P. Bond.

Committee to Audit Treasurer'' s Accounts.
Thomas T. Bouve, C. E. Ware.

Professor Cooke referred to his law of Classification in
Chemistry, based on Homologism, published in the Acad-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 95

emy's Proceedings, and stated the fact that his system had
been adopted by Dumas, and offered to the world without
proper credit to the author.

Four buudred and Afty-third meeting.

August 12, 1858. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from the Director
of the Observatoire Physique Central, St. Petersburg, July 21,
1857; Koniglich Sachsische Gesenschaft der Wissenschaf-
ten, October 1, 1857 ; Director der Sternwarte, Breslau, Jan-
uary 5, 1858 ; Director der Sternwarte, Prag, January 6, 1858 ;
Linnaean Society, London, January 8, 1858 ; and the Societe
Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, January 30,
1857, and March 27, 1858, acknowledging the receipt of the
Academy's publications; — from the Koniglich Bayerische
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Munich, December 12, 1857,
acknowledging the same, asking that deficiencies may be
made up, and presenting various publications ; — from the
Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Octo-
ber 24, 1857, presenting its publications, and acknowledging
the receipt of those of the Academy ; — from the Societe Lin-
n^enne de Lyon, July 21, 1854 ; Administration Imperiale
des Mines, St. Petersburg, May 15, 1857 ; Societe Impe-
riale des Naturalistes de Moscou, July 1, 1857 ; Koniglich
Sachsische Gesenschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig, Oc-
tober 1, 1857 ; and the Kaiserlich-Konigliche Geologische
Reichsanstalt, Wien, May 20, 1857, presenting their various
publications ; — and from the last, acknowledging the receipt
of the Academy's publications, June 27, 1857. Also from
T. Edwards Clark, May 27, accepting the Fellowship of the
Academy ; from Dr. William Sharswood, Philadelphia, June
17, accompanying a sealed parcel, indorsed " An Account of
a Discovery in Chemistry," desiring that it might be deposited
with the Academy until he should give directions for the seal

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

to be broken ; also from the same, under date of August 5,
a letter presenting a copy of " Lindermanni Corpus Gram-
maticorum Latinorum," in four volumes, and suggesting an
exchange of publications on the part of the Academy with the
Entomologischer Verein zu Stettin, in accordance with the
desire of that institution.

The Corresponding Secretary also read the following com-
munication from Dr. William Sharswood, entitled "An
Extract concerning the Antidote for Arsenious Acid."

" It is well known that to administer the acknowledged antidote for
arsenious acid, that of hydrated oxide of iron, there are attending two
difficulties ; the first, that it is only in the recently precipitated con-
dition that the above antidote is most active ; secondly, that to form
the above antidote at the time when required would, from the neces-
sarily long time spent in its preparation, endanger the life of the
patient. In answer to the two mentioned difficulties, I would offer
the following new antidote, or, more properly, modification of the above
antidote, in an isolated form. To prepare this, we have merely to take
a solution of the proto-sulphate of iron, and, after having oxidized the
iron by means of a few drops of nitric acid, precipitate the oxide with
caustic magnesia, when the result is a precipitate of hydrated sesqui-
oxide of iron, combined with sulphate of magnesia.

" It will be easily perceived, that, while this depends upon the same
principles (excepting the desired effect produced by the presence of
the sulphate of magnesia), it is at the same time characterized by facil-
ity and speed of preparation, which render it capable of being prepared
on the moment, and thereby affording the desired state before alluded
to, that of a recently precipitated condition."

A communication was next read from Professor J. P. Espy,
concerning his theory of Storms, and presenting his work on
the subject. Professor Espy's letter and book were referred
to the Rumford Committee.

The President read a note addressed to him by Professor
Benjamin Peirce, accompanying a letter from Dr. I. I. Hayes
addressed to the Academy, and asking its good offices in the
furtherance of the project of a new expedition, under his

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 97

direction, to the Arctic regions. The following is the letter
of Dr. Hayes : —

"Philadelphia, July 19th, 1858.

"To Dr. Jacob Bigelow, LL. D., President of the American Acad-
emy of Arts and Sciences.

"Sir: —

" I purpose to attempt to reach the North Pole of the earth.

" To co-operate with me in relation to this object, the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, at its last meeting, ap-
pointed a committee, consisting of Professor A. W. Bache, Professor
Joseph Henry, Professor William B. Rogers, Professor Edward Hitch-
cock, Professor Benjamin Peirce, Professor J. D. Dana, Professor
Joseph Winlock, Hon. Thomas Ewing, Hon. D. M, Barringer, Dr.
John L. LeConte, Mr. J. E. Hilgard, Mr. Peter Force, Professor
Joseph Leidy, Professor John Torrey, Professor S. S. Haldeman, and
Professor Alexis Caswell.

" The American Philosophical Society, and the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, have, with the same object, appointed com-
mittees.

" Desirous of having the counsel and favorable influence of the emi-
nent association which you represent, I beg to submit my purpose to
their consideration, and to say, that I shall gladly receive any sugges-
tions which they may be pleased to make for the furtherance of science,
or the special interests of the proposed expedition.

" I am, sir, with great respect,

" Your obedient servant,

"Isaac I. Hayes."

Voted, that the letter of Dr. Hayes be referred to a com-
mittee of three ; and the Chair nominated Professors Lov-
ering, Winlock, and Eustis as the committee.

The subject of the Submarine Telegraph Cable between
Europe and America having been introduced, Dr. Channing
spoke at some length of the various causes which seemed to
him likely to interfere with the ready transmission by it of
the electric current. His remarks led to a desultory conver-
sation on the best method of constructing an efficient and

VOL. IV. 13

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

durable electric cable, in which Professor Treadwell, Dr. C. T.
Jackson, Charles Jackson, Jr., Dr. H. E. Storer, Frank Storer,
and the Recording Secretary, took part.

Professor Gray read the following " Note on the Coiling of
Tendrils."

" As much as twenty years ago, Mohl suggested that the coiling of
tendrils ' resulted from an irritability excited by contact.' In 1850 he
remarked that this view has had no particular approval to boast of, yet
that nothing better has been put in its place. And in another para-
graph of his admirable little treatise on the Vegetable Cell (contributed
to "Wagner's Gyclopcedia of Physiology), he briefly says : 'In my opin-
ion, a dull irritability exists in the stems of twining plants and in ten-
drils.' In other words, he suggests that the phenomenon is of the
same nature, and owns the same cause (whatever that may be) as the
closing of the leaves of the Sensitive-plant at the touch, and a variety
of similar movements observed in plants. The object of this note is to
remark that the correctness of this view may be readily demonstrated.

" For the tendrils in several common plants will coil up more or
less promptly after being touched, or brought with a slight force
into contact with a foreign body, and in some plants the movement
of coiling is rapid enough to be directly seen by the eye ; indeed, is
considerably quicker than is needful for being visible. And, to com-
plete the parallel, as the leaves of the Sensitive-plant, and the like,
after closing by irritation, resume after a while their ordinary expanded
position, so the tendrils in two species of the Gucurhitacece, or Squash
family, experimented upon, after coiling in consequence of a touch, will
uncoil into a straight position in the course of an hour ; then they will
coil up at a second touch, often more quickly than before ; and this may
be repeated three or four times in the course of six or seven hours.

" My cursory observations have been principally made upon the Bur-
Cucumber (Sicyos angulatus). To see the movement well, full-grown
and outstretched tendrils, which have not reached any support, should
be selected, and a warm day ; 77° Fahr. is high enough.

" A tendril which was straight, except a slight hook at the tip, on
being gently touched once or twice with a piece of wood on the upper
side, coiled at the end into 2^-3 turns within a minute and a half.
The motion began after an interval of several seconds, and fully half
of the coiHng was quick enough to be very, distinctly seen. After a

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 99

little more than an hour had elapsed, it was found to be straight again.
The contact was repeated, timing the result by the second-hand of a
watch. The coiling began within four seconds, and made one circle
and a quarter in about four seconds.

" It had straightened again in an hour and five minutes (perhaps
sooner, but it was then observed) ; and it coiled the third time on
being touched rather firmly, but not so quickly as before, viz. 1^ turns
in half a minute.

" I have indications of the same movement in the tendrils of the
Grape-vine ; but a favorable day has not occurred for the experiment
since my attention was accidentally directed to the subject.

" I have reason to think that the movement is caused by a contrac-
tion of the cells on the concave side of the coil, but I have not had an
opportunity for making a decisive experiment."

Professor Gray read a paper upon a new genus of plants
of the Order Rosacecs, recently discovered in Alabama, near
Tuscaloosa, by the Rev. R. D. Nevius. The discoverer had
proposed to dedicate the genus to the memory of the late
Professor Tuomey, of Alabama, — an appropriate tribute to
one who was so assiduously and successfully developing the
natural history as well as the geology of his adopted State.
But in this it now appears that Mr. Nevius has been antici-
pated by Dr. Harvey, who, in the third part of his Nereis
Boreali-Americani, just published, has dedicated a new genus
of fresh-water Alg-ce to Professor Tuomey. Professor Gray
therefore proposes to name the present plant in honor of its
discoverer, Neviusia, deriving the specific name from the State
in which alone the plant is known to grow.

Neviusia Alahamensis is a shrub, with somewhat the habit of
Kerria Japonica. In structure, likewise, it approaches Kerria,
and also Stephanandra. It is especially interesting to botanists ;
first, because its nearest allies are all found in Japan, — add-
ing another to the numerous links of connection between the
Flora of our own country and that of Japan (a matter which
Professor Gray proposes to illustrate upon another occasion) ;
and, secondly, because it so connects the characters of Kerria
and Rhodotypos with Stephanandra and Neillia as to show

100 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

that they must all be referred to the same order and group.
The new genus has a small quantity of albumen in the seed,
but less than Stephanandra ; its sepals are foliaceous and in-
cised, more so than those of Rhodotypos ; and it differs from
all its allies in being apetalous. The full characters will be
published in a memoir upon the genus.

Four liuudred and Afty-fourth. meeting.

September 14, 1858. — Monthly Meeting.

Professor Felton in the chair.

Dr. A. A. Gould communicated some general scientific in-
telligence collected during his recent tour in Europe.

Colonel Samuel Swett read a paper containing an account
of Colonel Mason's studies in electricity in the last century.

Mr. George P. Bond gave an account of Donati's Comet,
and of the observations made upon it at the Cambridge Ob-
servatory up to the present time.

Dr. C. T. Jackson made some statements respecting the
invention of the magnetic telegraph, and alleged that he him-
self first made known to Mr. Morse the general idea of the
invention, and of the principles upon which it depended.

Mr. Swett presented his views upon the protection of
houses from lightning, and argued that the wet exterior of
a closed house, during a thunder-storm, was an efficient pro-
tection to the interior.

Mr. George S. Boutwell gave a detailed account of the
phenomena of a very severe thunder-storm to which he was
exposed in the year 1855.

Four hundred and fifty-fUTtbi meeting.

October 12, 1858. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Professor Lovering made the following communication on
Donati's Comet: —

" The polarization of light may be defined as a change in the ray,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 101

whicli is not the same as change of direction, but which is produced
whenever a ray changes its dh-ection by reflection, or refraction, or
double refraction ; in consequence of which change the susceptibiHty
of the ray to a sec6nd reflection or refraction is altered. The first
reflector or refractor, by which the change is produced, is called the
polarizer ; and the second reflector or refractor, by which the change is
tested, is called the analyzer.

" To test polarized light is, therefore, to settle the question, whether
the light under consideration has been already once before reflected or
refracted. In this way, the polarization of light has been or may be
used to discover whether the light of comets, of the rainbow, of halos,
of coronce, of sheet-lightning (or summer lightning), of the aurora, or
the zodiacal light, is reflected, as that of the planets and satellites is
reflected ; or whether it is self-generated on the spot.

" What I have further to say relates to the polarization of the light
of comets.

" Arago undertook, in 1811, to apply to the remarkable comet of that
year the no less remarkable discovery of Malus in regard to the polar-
ization of light. Arago used the doubly refracting analyzer, and ex-
pected to discover whether or not there were sensible traces of polar-
ization in the light of the comet, by observing whether the relative
brilliancy of the two images, produced by double refraction, changed
when the analyzer was revolved. He decided in the affirmative,
though he felt, as he admits, less confidence in his decision, on account
of the uncertainty which always adheres to comparisons of relative
brightness by the eye simply. The comet of 1819 afforded another
opportunity of repeating the experiment. Still Arago was not so con-
fident in the accuracy of his results as not to desire a third trial, and
in a novel way, on Halley's comet, at its last return in 1835. On this
latter occasion, Arago used a polarizer in which a doubly refracting
prism is combined with a thin plate of quartz, and the two images are
colored with complementary tints when polarized hght is transmitted.
More delicate traces of polarization, he thought, would show them-
selves by difference of contrasted tints in this polariscope, than by the
corresponding changes of brightness in the old instrument. This last
attempt left no doubt in Arago's mind that the light of the comets was
polarized, and consequently that the comets shone principally by re-
flected light, coming of course from the sun. This conclusion does not

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

exclude the possibility of other light mixed up with the polarized
light, though itself unpolarized, and which is generated on the spot by
changes which take place in the comet, making it to a certain extent
self-luminous. The great comet of 1843, the next comer bright enough
to allow of an examination into the nature of its light, was too brief a
visitor, and too unfavorably situated when seen, to allow of any such
observations, at least upon its nucleus. But the bi'iUiant comet of
1858, which now distinguishes by its presence the northern sky, has
lingered so long in view as to invite a renewed study into the origin
of cometary light. By the invitation of Mr. G. P. Bond, I have twice
visited the Observatory of Harvard College, and examined the light of
this brilliant comet, when condensed in the focus of the great equatorial
refractor. On the first of these occasions a Nicol's prism was used, and
the changes in the brightness of the image cori'esponding to the rota-
tion of the analyzer were very decided ; and the positions of maxima
and minima were indicated with complete unanimity in many inde-
pendent experiments by Mr. Bond and myself. These experiments
were made in such a way as to guard against self-delusion, — the
experimenter not being able to see the position of his analyzer while
he was judging of its positions of maxima and minima transmission of
the light. On the second occasion, Savart's polariscope was used, in
which plates of quartz and tourmaline are so combined as, with polar-
ized light, to give colored fringes. The first glance through the polari-
scope at the light of the comet, condensed in the focus of the telescope,
showed the field of view traversed by colored fringes, and betrayed
strong traces of polarization in the light of this comet. If it is per-
mitted to generalize from the few comets, on which experiments have
been made, to comets in general, there can be no doubt that the comets,
notwithstanding the almost universal absence of phase, are indebted to
the sun for most, if not for all, of their light."

Dr. J. B. S. Jackson exhibited some specimens of the so-
called Rocky Momitain Corn, in which each kernel has its
own investing husk ; this he had raised himself, and he no-
ticed that some ears of common naked corn grew from the
same seed. This has been supposed to be the original state
of Indian Corn.

Professor Gray remarked that there is no evidence, and no

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 103

probability, that maize is indigenous to the Rocky Moun-
tains, or anywhere so far north, but that it is a tropical pro-
duction. He had once supposed that this form might be the
original state of Corn, but he was now convinced that it was
an induced or monstrous form, with a tendency to become
proliferous or paniculate, instead of producing simple spikes.

Professor C. C. Felton communicated to the Academy an
extended memoir by Mr. Sophocles, of Harvard University,
entitled, " A Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek."

He also gave some particulars of his recent visit to Greece,
in the summer season. As to the climate, the thermometer
in June did not rise above 75" F., except for two or three days
toward the end of the month, when it indicated 83° and 84°,
which was the highest he noticed. He had observed a re-
markable progress since his first visit in 1853 - 54, in spite of
the occupation of the country by foreign armies and the prev-
alence of cholera, in industrial pursuits, art, literature, and
especially in education, not only in Greece proper, but wher-
ever the Hellenic race was found in Turkey and Asia Minor.

Four Iiuudred and fifty-sixth meeting.

November 10, 1858. — Stated Meeting.

The Vice-President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Madrid, and the Natural History
Society of Freiburg in the Briesgau. Also a letter from
William Sharswood, Esq., of Philadelphia, in relation to the
probable action of phosphoric acid upon non-acid calculi in
the bladder.

Professor Joseph Lovering, in behalf of the committee to
whom was referred the communication of Dr. I. I. Hayes,
dated July 19, 1858, requesting "the counsel and the favor-
able influence of the Academy " in his proposed attempt to
reach the north pole of the earth, read the following re-
port : —

104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" The announcement of an open sea within the Arctic Ocean was
made in these words by Dr. Kane, after the return of his man Morton
from a sledge excui'sion in June, 1854: * It must have been an im-
posing sight, as he stood at this termination of *his journey, looking
out upon the great waste of waters before him. " Not a speck of ice,"
to use his own words, " could be seen." There, from a height of four
hundred and eighty feet, which commanded a horizon of almost forty
miles, his ears were gladdened by the novel music of dashing waves ;
and a surf, breaking in among the rocks at his feet, stayed his further
progress.' *

" The committee have quoted the eloquent language of Dr. Kane,
without stopping to inquire how much of this glowing description is to
be I'eferred to the enthusiasm of an explorer, and how much is to be
interpreted by a cool criticism at a distance from the scene of oper-
ations.

" The question which it is expected may be settled by another
Arctic expedition is, whether the great ice-barrier, which, on some
meridians, and at some seasons, encroaches even upon the 48th parallel
of latitude, and which invests an area of six millions of square miles,
extends northwards to the pole ; or whether, beyond the limits of ex-
treme Arctic navigation, which leaves an unexplored surface of three
millions of square miles, there lies imprisoned in a zone of ice the
unfrozen waters of a polar sea. The conclusion of Dr. Kane, that the
latter was the true side of the alternative, was anticipated by that of a
Russian expedition on sledges in 1810, made upon an opposite merid-
ian to that which Kane travelled, and by that of Parry in 1827, upon
a third meridian.

" The impression favorable to an open and navigable polar sea,
which was obtained on these occasions, based as it was upon a very
circumscribed experience, and prevented by stress of circumstances
from being pursued to verification, might seem to fall considerably
short of a rational belief, were it not, in the opinion of Dr. Hayes
and others, corroborated by various kinds of circumstantial evidence,
as follows : —

" 1. By the presence of bird life, mostly marine, on what would be
the icy shores of this suspected sea, and which migrates northward in
spring.

* Arctic Explorations in the Years 1853-54-55, by Dr. Elisha K. Kane,
Vol. I. p. 305.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 105

" 2. By the milder temperature at extreme latitudes inferred from
the character of the isothermals where best determined, which, pur-
sued by analogy to unvisited latitudes, give the same temperature to
the high latitude of '90° as to the Arctic Circle.

" 3. By the migrations of human life, the traditions of the Esqui-
majix pointing to the North as the cradle of their race. If the fact is
estabhshed that races deteriorate as they remove from the parallel of
their nativity, then the tradition of the degenerate Esquimaux is con-
firmed by their own degeneracy.

" 4. By the temperature of the Arctic waters, which was observed
by William Morton and recorded by Kane as at 36° Fahr. in June,
1854, or two degrees above the temperature of the air at the same
time ; the water flowing from the north, and no ice_in sight. Whether
this water is frozen in winter is not, however, known.

" 5. By the rise of the temperature in winter when the north-wind
sets in, which is also damp ; as observed by Baron von Wrangel and
Sir Edward Pai-ry. The cause of this elevated temperature in the
Arctic waters, Dr. Hayes thinks, may be found in the influence of the
Gulf Stream, flowing northward as an under-current to equalize the
effects of the superficial flow southward. This direction in the flow of
the deep water is inferred from the drift of the deeply-laden icebergs
northward, while the lighter ones move southward. Moreover, what
compensation for astronomical exposure may not the drainage of five
millions of square miles from the northern water-sheds of Europe, Asia,
and America introduce into the temperature of the great Arctic basin ?

" If these mild waters, embosomed for centuries in a zone of ice, are
to be reached by civilized man. Dr. Hayes thinks that the best invita-
tion to success comes, not from a purely nautical expedition along the
easterly coast of Greenland, but from more westerly meridians, to be
traversed by boats and sledges.

" The committee do not feel called upon to examine singly or collec-
tively the force of these various arguments in favor of an open polar
sea. It is certain, however, that human curiosity will not be satisfied
until the mystery on this subject is cleared up by new expeditions.
To postpone these expeditions to another generation, when much of
the personal experience already gained will have been forgotten, and
when the services of those best qualified to conduct them can no longer
be commanded, would not be a wise economy.

VOL. IV. 14

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" "With these few hints on the views and objects of Dr. Hayes in his
appeal to the Academy for scientific aid and sympathy, your committee
conclude with the recommendation of the following resolutions : —

" Resolved, That the American Academy of Arts and Sciences ap-
preciate highly the laudable ambition of Dr. I.' I. Hayes, to continue,
and if possible consummate, the arduous exploration for which he, has
already sacrificed much, and is willing to sacrifice still more ; and that
the Academy tender him their sympathy and influence.

" Resolved, That a committee of seven be appointed, from the mem-
bers of the Academy, to co-operate with Dr. Hayes, and to render
him such scientific counsel as may make his new effort, if undertaken,
secure the greatest advantages to science and humanity.

"Joseph Lovering, ^
Henry L. Eustis, > Committee."
Joseph Winlock, )

On motion of Professor I^'elton, the resolutions were adopt-
ed unanimously ; and the subject was again referred to a
committee, consisting of Professor Joseph Lovering, Profes-
sor Henry L. Eustis, Professor Joseph "Winlock, Thomas G.
Gary, Esq., B. A. Gould, Esq., Professor Theophilus Parsons,
and Edward Wigglesworth, Esq.

Professor H. L. Eustis gave an account of Barlow's new
method of calculating the strength of girders.

Professor C. C. Felton exhibited a collection of rare Roman
coins which he had recently received.

Professor E. N. Horsford exhibited the Tyrian dye, or mu-
rexide in a crystalline form, and explained the new mode of
obtaining it.

On motion of Professor Lovering, one hundred dollars was
added to the appropriation for publication during the current
year, to replace a sum which had beeil paid out from that
appropriation by a vote of the Academy at the stated meet-
ing in August last.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the
Academy : —

Dr. Luther V. Bell, of Charlestown, in Class II. Section 4.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 107

Rev. Dr. Chandler Robbins, of Boston, in Class III. Sec-
tion 2.

Professor Benjamin Peirce, of Cambridge, in Class I. Sec-
tion 1.

Four Iiiundred. and Afty-seveutli meeting.

December 14, 1858. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of Chief Justice Shaw.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from the Rev.
Chandler Robbins and Dr. Luther V. Bell, accepting their
election as Fellows of the Academy.

Also from the K. L, C. Akademie der Naturforscher, Bres-
lau, November 20th, 1857, and January 20th, 1858 ; Acade-
mic Royale des Sciences a Amsterdam, December 10th, 1857 ;
K. Siichs. Bergakademie, Freiburg, December 13th, 1857 ;
Royal Geographical Society, London, December 30th, 1857 ;
Observatoire Physique Centrale, St. Petersburg, June 1st,
1858 ; Royal Society of Sciences of Upsal, January 8th,
1858 ; K. Siichs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, January 6th,
1858 ; Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande
und Westphalens, January 11th, 1858 ; Societe Imperiale des
Naturalistes de Moscow, March 10th, 1858 ; Academic Royale
des Sciences, Turin, May 15th, 1858 ; and the Royal Society
of Sciences, Gottingen, May 26th, 1858, acknowledging the
receipt of the Academy's publications; — from the Gesell-
schaft zur Beforderung der Naturwissenschaften zu Freiburg
im Breisgau, June 25th, 1858, acknowledging the same, and
presenting its own publications; — from the Oberhessische
Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde, April 6th, 1858, and
the Societe Imperiale d' Agriculture, &c., August 8th, 1858,
presenting their publications; — from the Societe d' Agricul-
ture, Sciences, et Arts de la Sarthe, March 30th, 1858, pre-
senting various publications and asking an exchange; — and
from M. de Haar, of Holland, presenting a mathematical
memoir, and asking a critical opinion of its merits.

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

On motion of Professor D. Treadwell, the memoir of M.
de Haar was referred to a committee, consisting of Profes-
sor B. Peirce, Professor Joseph Winlock, and Rev. Thomas
Hill.

Professor Agassiz addressed the Academy on the subject
of the Classification of Fishes. He spoke of the unsatisfac-
tory character of the systems of different naturalists, growing
out of a want of some common fundamental feature, corre-
sponding to their greater or less complexity of structure,
which should serve as a basis. In regarding the whole series
of Vertebrata, Professor Agassiz has been led to consider the
structure of the mouth as related to the facial bones in their
greater or less development and complexity, as furnishing a
hint for the classification of this department of the animal
kingdom. Fishes differ widely in the structure of the mouth,
and by a careful analysis of this structure he had been led to
a general deduction, that those fishes in which there is the
fullest development of the facial bones should be placed at
the head of the series, as coming nearest to the highest Ver-
tebrata, while those at the opposite extreme should be placed
last. Arranged by this test, the Ganoids would hold the
first rank, and the Myzontes the last ; and so with the inter-
mediate families. And he thought that his view would be
sustained by a fuller investigation of all the anatomical char-
acters of the class ; the greater or less complication and de-
velopment of their structure in general being found to con-
form to the structure of the face and mouth. Professor
Agassiz illustrated his view by a comparison of the anatom-
ical structure of these parts, as well as other parts, in the
Siluroids, the Loricarians, Sturgeons, Salmon, Sharks, &c.

Professor Peirce made a communication on the law of the
formation of the tails of comets, explaining his own special
views on the subject. He also presented, in behalf of Pro-
fessor Winlock, a comparison between the American and
British Ephemeris of the Moon for 1856, showing much
greater accuracy in the American Ephemeris.

I

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 109

Professor Peirce also presented the results of the working
of the Calculating Machine at the Dudley Observatory, for
the Nautical Almanac. The computations had been made
with reference to the tables of Mars. He also exhibited the
lead plates stamped by the machine, and explained its work-
ing.

Dr. H. R. Storer read a paper, tending to show the rapid
diminution of the rate of increase in the number of births in
Europe and America, especially in Massachusetts. It was
remarked, that certain generally admitted facts had hitherto
been a problem to political economists. By a comparison of
extensive statistical tables Dr. Storer indicated the direct de-
pendence of this decrease, apparently, upon criminal causes.
The question would be elsewhere more fully and thoroughly
discussed. It was evident from a consideration of the data,
that the state of the case as respects Massachusetts was not
exceptional, but was merely here brought to light by means
of our more careful registration.

Professor Parsons stated that a memorial would be pre-
sented to the Legislature of Massachusetts during the com-
ing session, asking for aid in publishing a new edition of
the late Dr. Harris's valuable work on Insects injurious to
Vegetation, and that it is desirable that the Academy should
add its influence to that of the Societies with which it origi-
nated. On his motion it was voted, that the President be
authorized to sign the memorial in behalf of the Academy.

Professor Gray communicated three papers upon the Bot-
any of the United States North Pacific Exploring Expe-
dition under Captain John Rodgers (succeeding Captain
Ringgold), by permission of the commander of the Expe-
dition, viz. : —

1. An Account of the new Phaenogamous Plants collected
by Charles Wright, the Botanist of the Expedition ; with a
notice of the Vegetation of Japan in its relations to that of
the Northern Temperate Zone generally. [Published in the
Memoirs of the Academy.]

110 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

2. Characters of some New Filices^ from Japan and Adjacent
Regions, collected hy Charles Wright in the North Pacific
Exploring Expedition under Captain John Rodgers. Com-
municated by permission of the Commander of the Ex-
pedition, by Daniel C. Eaton.

1. Adiantuji monociilamys : gracile ; stipite rhachique ebeneo
nitido ; fronde ovato-lanceolata tripinnata ; pinnulis chartaceis glaber-
rimis longe pedicellatis anguste cuneatis obcordatis indivisis siccitate
striatis margine revolutis apice acute serratis in sinu monosoriferis ;
involucre orbiculari submembranaceo.

Hill-sides near Simoda, Japan.

2. Athyrium cystopteroides : caudice repente tenui vix pale-
aceo ; frondibus erectis stipiti gracili impositis membranaceis lance-
olatis pinnatis ; pinnis ovato-lanceolatis acutis pinnatipartitis, segmentis
(basilai'ibus nunc liberis) ovatis obtusis dentatis crenatisve supra gla-
bris subtus parce glandulosis, venis utrinque pubescentibus pinnatis,
venulis simplicibus vel furcatis ; indusio hispido margine glandulifero,
nunc oblongo lateri adfixo, nunc reniformi-orbiculari venultB insi-
dente.

Var. /5. elatius ; pinnis lanceolatis pinnatisectis, segmentis oblongis
obtusis integris ; venulis simplicibus ; indusio minus hispido.
Ousima, Katonasima, and Anakerima, Loo Choo Islands.

3. Lastrea lacera (Polypodium \a.cQY\xm,Thunh. Fl. Jap. p. 337 !) :
frondibus e caudice brevi crasso pluribus stipite breviori valde paleaceo
insidentibus subcoriaceis glabris subtus albicantibus oblongis acutis
bipinnatis ; pinnis late-lanceolatis acuminatis pinnatis vel pinnatifidis,
intermediis longioribus, superioribus contractis fructiferis ; segmentis
oblongis vel falcatis acutis serratis, basilaribus nunc utrinque subauri-
culatis ; soris confertis demum conflueutibus ; indusio orbiculari usque
ad medium fisso, sinu clauso lateribus inflexis.

Simoda, Jajmn.

4. WooDSiA (Hymenocystis) polystichoides : casspitosum, gla-
briusculum ; stipite brevi sparsim paleaceo ; frondibus erectis elongato-
lanceolatis pinnatis ; pinnis subcoriaceis confertis lineari-oblongis sub-
falcatis obtusis auricula majuscula e basi superior! semi-liastatis fere
integerrimis, inferioribus sensim rainoribus deflexis ; venis pinnatis,
venulis furcatis ; soris apice venulce superioris impositis prope mar-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Ill

ginem seriatis ; indusio subgloboso cystiformi 4 - 6-fido, lobis imbrica-
tis ; receptaculo oblongo.

On hill-sides near Hakodadi, Japan.

5, Trichomanes latemarginale : pusillum ; caudice repente fili-
formi tomentoso ; frondibus subsessilibus 3-6 lineis longis pellucidis
glabris nunc palmato 3 - G-partitis nunc pinnatifidis, laciniis lineari-
oblongis integerrimis obtusis nervilla intra duplicem seriem cellularum
marginalium cinctis ; involucre omnino immerso infundibuliformi bre-
viter bilabiate ; receptaculo longe exserto ; areolatione hexagonal! con-
spicua fragmentis venularura conspersa.

Creeping on rocks in mountain ravines, near Hong Kong, China.

3. Characters of Neiv Fungi, collected in the Worth Pacific
Explo7-ing Expedition hy Chai'les Wright. (Communicated
by request of Captain Rodgers.) By Rev. M. J. Berkeley,
M. A., F. L. S., &c,, and Rev. M. A. Curtis, Associate
Fellow of the Academy.

1. Agaricus (Lepiota) auctus, Berk. & Curt.: pileo hemisphae-
rico carnoso albo in squamulas granulosas fuscas rupto, margine e velo
appendiculato ; stipite elongato ajquali ; lamellis latiusculis remotis.

On sides of hills, Hong Kong, Aug. 1854.

2. A. (Lepiota) depravatus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo convexo
stipiteque suba^quali furfuraceo-verrucosis ex albo brunneis ; lamellis
ventricosis postice emarginatis adnexis.

In woods among leaves, Bonin Islands. — Has some resemblance to
A. acute-sqtcaniosus, Weinm.

3. A. (Lepiota) hemisoodes, Berk. & Curt. : albus, pileo cam-
panulato epidermide continua esquamulosa ; stipite basi subbulb'oso
gracili; lamellis angustis remotis postice distinctis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Resembles A. continuus of
Ceylon, but is smaller and with the gills not reticulated behind.

4. A. (Armillaria) ttmpaniticus, Berk. & Curt. : ca^spitosus ;
pileo convexo rufo-brunneo ; stipite deorsum attenuate sursum ven-
tricoso albo-brunneo ; annulo membranaceo ; lamellis concoloribus an-
gustis.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. mucidus.

5. A. (Tricholoma) periporphyrus, Berk. & Curt. : obscure

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

purpureas, csespitosus, pusillus ; pileo e convexo piano glabrato ; stipite
gracili ; lamellis crassis adnatis.

Shady hill-sides, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. onychinus.

6. A. (Colltbia) talpinus, Berk. & Curt.: flavidus ; pileo tenui
stipiteque basi strigoso-radiato subtiliter velutinis ; lamellis angustis-
simis adnexis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. velutipes.

7. A. (Collybia) palmicola. Berk. & Curt. : pusillus ; pileo
convexo glabro aurantiaco margine inflexo ; stipite subconcolore glabro
basi radiato-strigoso ; lamellis adnexis crassiusculis paliidioribus.

On dead Palms, &c., Bonin Islands.

8. A. (Colltbia) efflorescens, Berk. & Curt. : flavidus ; pileo
planiusculo stipiteque sursum dilatato subtiliter pulverulento-velutinis ;
lamellis liberis modice latis venoso-connexis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. velutipes, but far
less velvety. We believe it is Marasmius rufus of Montague.

9. A. (Collybia) poigenl's. Berk. & Curt.: fuscus; pileo hemi-
sphferico striato glabro ; stipite insititio deorsum velutino ; lamellis ad-
nexis subdistantibus.

On dead grass. Hong Kong. — Has the habit of A. stipitarius.

10. A. (Collybia) adianticeps. Berk. & Curt.: flavidus; pileo
demum depresso striato, margine crenato appendiculato ; stipite carti-
lagineo isquali ; lamellis angustis adnexis.

Hill-sides, Hakodadi, Japan. — The pileus of this pretty species looks
very much like the frond of an Adiantum, from its long strise, and
crenate, appendiculate margin.

11. A. (Mycexa) Californiensis, Berk. & Curt.: pileo ex conico
breviter campanulato stipiteque gracili rufis ; lamellis liberis albis
rubro-marginatis.

On Oak leaves, Mare Island, California. — Differs from A. auran-
tio-marginatus in the nature of the gills, and is a more graceful species.

12. A. (Mycena) alphitophyllus. Berk. & Curt. : pileo leviter
depresso molli succulento viscoso albo ; stipite brevi rufescente ; la-
mellis latiusculis distantibus adnexi-decurrentibus pulverulentis ; sporis
mafirnis globosis.

On decayed logs, Bonin Islands. — This may perhaps be the type
of a distinct genus. The spores are very peculiar, as also the manner
in which the gills separate below, reminding one of Paxillus.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 113

13. A. (Mycena) dicranophyllus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo sub-
depresso hyalino sordide albo ; stipite insititio glabro sursum dilatato ;
lamellis purpurascenti-albis furcatis ramosisque distantibus subtiliter
pulverulentis ; sporis minoribus globosis.

On dead sticks, Bonin Islands. — Closely resembles the preceding ;
but differs in the small spores, as well as in other particulars.

14. A. (Mycena) leucoconis, Berk. & Curt. : pileo umbrino
leviter depresso viscoso ; stipite robustiore deorsum incrassato medio
tenuiore albo; lamellis latiusculis distantibus adnatis albis demum
secedentibus albo-pulverulentis.

On wood, Bonin Islands. — Distinguished from the following by its
thicker pileus and white spores.

15. A. (Mycena) rhodoconis. Berk. & Curt. : albus ; pileo levi-
ter depresso tenuissimo viscoso ; stipite sursum incrassato basi dilatato ;
lamellis latiusculis distantibus adnatis roseo-pulverulentis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands.

16. A. (Mycena) cladophyllus. Berk. & Curt. : pileo hemi-
sphferico membranaceo delicato striato albo ; stipite gracili rufo ; lamellis
angustis distantibus ramosis.

On dead wood. Hong Kong. — Resembles a Marasmius.

17. A. (Mycena) hemileucus. Berk. & Curt. : pileo ex conico-
campanulato expanso umbrino ; stipite stricto lamellisque adnexis dis-
tantibus albis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands.

18. A. (Mycena) chjetodes, Berk. & Curt. : pileo hemisph^rico
ex albo griseo striato ; stipite elongate basi pilis longis strigoso ; lamellis
paucis subangustis adnexis.

Amongst leaves, &c., under trees. Hong Kong.

19. A. (Mycena) chlorophos, Berk. & Curt.: ex albo viridi-
tinctus, lumen viride emittens ; pileo depresso striato viscidulo ; stipite
pulverulento sursum dilatato e basi orbiculari oriundo ; lamellis subdis-
tantibus ventricosis leviter decurrentibus.

Dead logs, Bonin Islands. — Highly luminous at night.

20. A. (Mycena) cyanophos, Berk. & Curt. : albus, lumen cseru-
leum spargens ; pileo hemispha^rico campanulato viscidulo ; stipite pul-
verulento sursum dilatato e basi orbiculari delicata pulverulento-tomen-
tosa oriundo ; lamellis liberis. .

VOL. IV. 15

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Closely allied to the last, but
differing in its free gills, &c.

21. A. (Mycena) pittrodes, Berk. & Curt. : albus, tenerrimus ;
pilco campanulato furfuraceo ; stipite gracili flocculento e basi orbicu-
lari estriata oriundo.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. tenerrimus, Berk.

22. A. (Omphalia) tjsta. Berk. & Curt. : rufus ; pileo tenui in-
fundibuliformi glabro ; stipite recto sursum incrassato basi orbiculari
strigosa affixo ; lamellis angustis decurrentibus.

On dead twigs, Bonin Islands. — Somewhat resemhling A. pyxidatus.

23. A. (Omphalia) ruficeps, Berk. & Curt. : rufus ; pileo de-
presso membranaceo ; stipite glabro ; lamellis angustis distantibus
decurrentibus venoso-connexis.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands.

24. A. (Omphalia) Ephippicm, Berk. & Curt. : purpureo-fuscus ;
pileo umbilicato subsquamuloso ; stipite sursum dilatato nigro-punctato ;
lamellis ci'assiusculis decurrentibus.

On the ground, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. ^imbelliferus. The
helvelloid form of the pileus when dry is peculiar.

25. A. (Omphalia) OusuiiE, Berk. & Curt, : pileo pallide fusco
striate depresso glutinoso ; stipite gracili ; lamellis distantibus decur-
rentibus tenuibus albis.

In the crevices of bark of trees, Ousima, north of the Loo Choo
Islands. — Allied to A. iimheUiferus and stellatus, but distinguished
from the former by its thin gills and gelatinous pileus ; and from
A. stellatus by the latter character and by the base not being stellate.

2G. A. (Omphalia) Behringensis, Berk. & Curt.: pileo deiiresso
cupulajformi glabro striato luteo-albo ; stipite sursum incrassato ; la-
mellis adnato-decurrentibus latiusculis distantibus albis.

Arakamtchetchene Island, Behring's Straits. — Approaches Cantha-
rellus Behringensis, but the gills are not forked, &c.

27. A. (Omphalia) porpiiyromiges. Berk. & Curt. : pallide pur-
pureus ; pileo umbilicato tenui ; stipite sursum incrassato basi discoidea
aifixo ; lamellis distantibus angustis decurrentibus.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands.

28. A. (Omphalia) plumbarius, Berk. & Curt.: piloo convexo
centro depresso griseo-plumbeo ; stipite recto basi tioccis brevibus
affixo ; lamellis distantibus decurrentibus.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 115

On rotten sticks, in the Bonin Islands.

29. A. (Pleurotus) connatus, Berk. & Curt. : pallide luteus ;
pileis excentricis tenuibus nitentibus glabris ; stipitibus fibrillosis con-
natis ; lamellis decurrentibus ; annulo deflexo.

Arakamtehetchene Island, Behring's Straits ; on decayed wood. —
This has the habit and colors of" A. pudicus ; but the gills are decur-
reut, and the spoi*es white.

30. A. (Pleurotus) Prometheus, Berk. & Curt. : albus, phos-
phorous ; pileo tenui flabelliformi minutissime virgato-maculato in stipi-
tem brevissimum postice attenuate ; lamellis crebris angustis.

On dead wood, Hong Kong. — The most delicate of the phospho-
rescent Agarics.

31. A. (Pleurotus) alopecius. Berk. & Curt.: ex albo subful-
vus ; pileo excentrico subreniformi vel orbiculari glabro ; stipite brevi
sursum dilatato ; lamellis ventricosis confertis adnexis.

On decayed logs, Bonin Islands. — A delicate and curious species.

32. A. (Pleurotus) leiophtllus, Berk. «fe Curt. : albidus ; pileo
reniformi tenui ; stipite brevissimo ; lamellis angustis crassiusculis sub-
distantibus adnatis ; interstitiis lasvibus.

On dead sticks, Bonin Islands.

33. A. (Pleurotus) lividulus. Berk. & Curt. : resupinatus ;
pileo reniformi seu flabellato demum lobato purpurascenti-hvido pul-
verulento-hispidulo glabrescente ; stipite nullo ; lamellis pileo concolo-
ribus demum albis.

On dead twigs, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. spicuUferus, Berk.

34. A. (Pleurotus) squamula, Berk. &Curt. : resupinatus, villo
albo afhxus, margine libero ; strato superiore gelatinoso ; pileo subor-
biculari glabrescente lamellisque crassiusculis luteis ; stipite nullo.

On decayed, wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. spicuUferus, Berk. ;
but the pileus is half attached, the stem wanting, &c.

35. A. (Volvaria) micro spilus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo hemispha^-
rico tenuissimo badio sericeo particulis obscurioribus virgato; stipite
tenui e volva badia adnata emergente ; lamellis latiusculis liberis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — An exquisite little species.

36. A. (Pluteus) arenulosus, Berk. «fe Curt. : pileo convexo
candido centi'o difFracto verruculoso margine striato ; stipite tenui
flexuoso brevi ; lamellis ventricosis liberis remotis.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands. — Analogous to A. cristatiis.

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

37. A. (Leptonia) virescens, Berk. & Curt. : totus pallide cya-
neus, siccitate virescens ; pileo centre depresso ; lamellis latiusculis
distantibus adnexis.

On the ground, Bonin Islands. — A very curious species. The gills
stain the drying-paper with a yellow-olive tint.

38. A. (Eccilia) glauci-brunneus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo infun-
dibuliformi tenui striate umbrino ; stipite lamellisque decurx-entibus
glauco-albis.

Mountain-sides, Hong Kong.

39. A. (Hebeloma) venifer, Berk. & Curt. : pileo tenui striato
glabro, margine reflexo albido ; stipite jequali brunneolo ; lamellis
angustis liberis umbrinis ; interstitiis eximie venosis.

Damp ground, Ai'akamtchetchene Island, Behring's Straits. — A
beautiful species, allied to A. rimosus, but distinguished by its smooth
pileus, reticulated interstices, reflected margin, &c.

40. A. (Flammula) holocirrhus. Berk. & Curt.: minor, fulvus ;
pileo sub lente floccis squamulisve innatis subtiliter notato quandoque
glabro ; stipite tenui fibrilloso-striato ; lamellis flavo-punctatis decur-
rentibus ; sporis minutissime echinulatis.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. pe7ietrans, hut smaller.

41. A. (Naucoria) stellulatus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo convexo
tenui badio, sicco rufescente, verrucis pyramidatis basi sericeo-stellatis,
centro aspero, margine squamuloso ; lamellis adnexis ferrugineis.

On decayed wood, Japan. — Allied to A. conspersus.

42. A. (Naucoria) Nicotiana, Berk. & Curt.: pileo convexo
diffracto-squamoso fusco ; squamis squarrulosis, margine appendicu-
lato ; stipite sursum attenuate fibrilloso-squamoso subcieruleo ; lamellis
ventricosis arcuato-adnexis.

Damp hill-sides, Behring's Straits. — Allied to A. conspersus and
escharoides.

43. A. (Galera) Japonicus, Berk. & Curt.: magnus ; pileo co-
nico-campanulato tenui spadiceo ; stipite elato gracili fibrilloso basi
incrassato ; lamellis adscendentibus peroxydatis.

On dead wood, Hakodadi, Japan. — Allied to A. Apalus.

44. A. (Galera) liratus. Berk. & Curt. : pusillus ; pileo umbili-
cato sulcato atomato rufo ; stipite brevi ; lamellis paucis latis adnatis.

On the bark of Oak-trees, Mare Island, San Francisco Bay, Cahfor-
nia. — Resembles a Marasmius, with the habit of A. corticola.

OF AKTS AND SCIENCES. 117

45. A. (Crepidotus) palmularis, Berk. & Curt.: pileo reniformi
subrufo striate marginem versus transversim ruguloso; lamellis latis
subconcoloribus.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands.

46. A. (Crepidotus) uber, Berk. & Curt.: pileo reniformi tenui
ex albo luteo-fusco viscidulo; lamellis confertis ferruginosis e sporis
luteis.

In shady woods, Bonin Islands. — Allied to A. mollis and malacJiius.

47. A. (Crepidotus) leucochrysos. Berk. & Curt.: luteus; pileo
subflabelliformi vel reniformi subtiliter tomentoso glabrescente ; stipite
nullo ; lamellis distantibus.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands.

48. A. (Crepidotus) sctmnodes, Berk. & Curt. : pileo dimidiate
tenui ex albo leonino subtiliter villoso ; villis innatis liberisque floccis
affixis ; lamellis confertis.

On dead Palm-leaves, Bonin Islands. — Closely allied to the last.

49. A. (Crepidotus) haematites, Berk. & Curt.: atro-sanguine-
us ; pileo reniformi postice affixo glabro ; lamellis ventricosis latius-
culis.

On dead wood, Hong Kong. — Has somewhat the habit of Panus.

50. A. (Crepidotus) Cacao, Berk. & Curt.: bruuneus ; pileo
suborbiculari glabro siccitate rugoso margine intlexo; lamellis latius-
culis.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands.

51. A. (Crepidotus) flavo-livens. Berk. & Curt.: pileo flabel-
liformi flavido pulverulento ; stipite nullo ; lamellis angustis purpureo-
albis.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands.

52. A. (Psalliota) primipilus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo amplissimo
fortiter umbonato brunneolo squamis minutis sericeis brunneis ornato ;
stipite subbulboso ; lamellis latis argillaceis.

Shady hill-sides, Bonin Islands. — Eesembles some variety of A.
procerus, but has colored spores ; also like A. cretaceus, but with
larger and diflferently-shaped spores.

53. A. (Psalliota) asotus. Berk. & Curt. : fasciculatus ; pileo
convexo fusco-purpureo ; stipite elato solido concolore ; mycelio ex-
panse albo ; lamellis latis adnatis.

Amongst Rice straw and rubbish, Hong Kong. — Allied to A. semi-
globatus, but far larger.

118 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

54. A. (Psalliota) porphyrophyllus, Berk. & Curt. : pilep
albo centre umbouato luteo viscoso nitido ; stipite deorsum incrassato
albo ; laraellis ventricosis adnexis purpureis.

On the ground, Japan. — Closely allied to A. semiglobatus.

55. A. (Psathyra) fusco-niveus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo campan-
ulato tenui pallide fusco areolis minutis veil reliquiis distincto ; stipite
niveo glabro ; lamellis adnexis phfeotis.

On hill-sides, Bonin Islands. — Resembles A. spadiceo-griseus.

56. HiATULA LUTEOLA, Berk. & Curt. : pallide flava ; pileo hemi-
sphiErico striate hyalino ; stipite glabro sursum incrassato ; lamellis liberis
anirustis subdistantibus remotis.

On dead wood, Loo Choo Islands.

57. H. NivosA, Berk. & Curt. : nivea ; pileo breviter campanulato
demum expanso tenerrimo ; stipite glabro ; lamellis postice attenuatis
approximatis subdistantibus.

Side of mountains, Bonin Islands. — Approaches Mycena.

58. H. BoNiNENSis, Berk. & Curt. : pileo tenerrimo brunneolo
striato ; stipite delicato hyalino ; lamellis remotis distantibus ventri-
cosis albis.

Side of logs, Bonin Islands. — Also has the habit of Mycena.

59. H. GRACILIS, Berk. & Curt. : albus ; pileo hemisphterico striato
glabro ; stipite gracili hyalino pulverulento-tomentoso ; lamellis ventri-
cosis remotis.

Decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Closely allied to the last.

60. CopRiNUS suBGLOBATUs, Berk. & Curt. : pileo subgloboso pal-
lide fusco indumento crasso subglauco vestito ; stipite albo ; lamellis
latis liberis ex albo obscure purpurascentibus.

On banks, California. — Allied to C. atramentarius.

61. C. MODESTUS, Berk. & Curt. : pileo tenerrimo glabro sulcato-
fisso pallide purpureo ; stipite gracili ; lamellis linearibus liberis phse-
otis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Resembles G. hemerobius.

62. BoLBiTius Oryz^, Berk. & Curt. : pileo campanulato obtuso
viscido stipiteque valido albis ; lamellis adnexis ex albo gilvo-purpuras-
centibus.

On decaying Rice chaff, Japan.

63. CoRTiNARius (Inoloma) Wrightit, Berk. & Curt.: pileo
convexo umbonato innato tomentoso fusco ; stipite subaequali fibrilloso

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 119

basi nitente-fulvo ; lamellis crassiusculis distantibus postice rotundato-
emarginatis.

Japan.

64 Hygrophorus pictus, Berk. & Curt, : pileo umbilicato de-
pressove striate ; stipite sursum incrassato glabro ; lamellis distantibus
subangustis ventricosis decurrentibus.

On the ground, Hong Kong.

65. Lactarius LiviDATUS, Berk. & Curt.: pileo leviter depresso
stipiteque sursum incrassato rufis ; lamellis angustis subconfertis e sor-
dide helvolis lividis.

On hills, Japan. — Has somewhat the habit of L. volemus.

66. Cantharellus Behringensis, Berk. & Curt. : pileo piano
tomentoso adpresse-squamuloso griseo-albo ; stipite sursum incrassato
tenui ; plicis lamella3formibus furcatis, adnato-decurrentibus.

Behring's Straits. — Eesembles the white vai'. of C. cmrantiacus.

67. C. Nivosus, Berk. & Curt. : candidus ; pileo galeisformi mem-
branaceo subtiliter pulverulento ; lamellis angustissimis hie illic anas-
tomosantibus.

On dead stems of grass. Hong Kong. — Belongs to the same section
as O. retirugus.

68. Marasmius cremoriceps, Berk. & Curt.: pileo umbiHcato
candido glabro ; stipite cartilagineo sursum rufescente ; lamellis decur-
rentibus cremoricoloribus.

Amongst dead leaves and gr^ss, Japan. — Resembles Agaricus phyl-
lophylus.

69. M. galeatus, Berk. & Curt. : candidus ; pileo resupinato e
pezizff'formi galeato glaberrimo ; lamellis e puncto centrali radiantibus.

On dead stalks, Japan. — Pileus looks like kid leather.

70. M. petalinus. Berk. <fc Curt. : albus ; pileo hemisphagrico ex-
panse membranaceo striato ; stipite hygrophano basi striguloso e strato
corticioideo oriundo ; lamellis paucis veniformibus adnexis.

On dead twigs and bark, Bonin Islands.

71. M. luteolus. Berk. & Curt. : pileo hemisphterico demum um-
bilicato luteo ; stipite glabro floccis fulvis affixo ; lamellis pallido-luteis
raraosis distantibus adnexis.

On dead Palm-leaves, Bonin Islands. — Allied to M. petalinus.

72. M. luteo-fuscus. Berk. & Curt. : pileo hemisphairico umbili-
cato sulcato rugoso helvolo ; stipite basi tomentoso sursum glabro hy-
grophano ; lamellis subdistantibus adnatis flavo-albis.

«

120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

On mountains of the Bonin Islands.

73. M. PARVULUS, Berk. & Curt. : pileo convexo striato d,elicato
pulverulento albo ; stipite capillari sericeo deorsum purpurascente ; la-
mellis ventricosis liberis.

On the ground, Hong Kong. — Resembles 31. pusio, B. & C.

74. M. DICHROUS, Berk. & Curt. : pusillus ; pileo convexo albo
glabro ; stipite brevi deorsum rufescente capillari ; lamellis paucis de-
currenti-adnexis ; interstitiis lievibus albis.

On dead sticks, Bonin Islands.

75. M. ALPHITODES, Berk. & Curt. : pusillus, albus ; pileo demum
piano stipiteque brevi farinosis ; lamellis paucis ; interstitiis Isevibus.

On dead leaves of some Gingerwort, Bonin Islands.

76. M. SORDESCENS, Berk. & Curt. : pileo depresso striato ex albo
umbrino ; stipite insititio subtiliter velutino fusco ; lamellis adnexis
pileo concoloribus.

Dead twigs and leaves, Bonin Islands. — Has the habit of M. per-
forans.

77. M. GLABRESCENS, Berk. & Curt. : pileo convexulo depresso
flavo primum furfuraceo-squamoso demum glabro ; stipite pallidiore
pulverulento-fibrilloso glabrescente ; lamellis distantibus venoso-con-
nexis adnexis flavis.

In shaded ravines, Bonin Islands.

78. M. UMBONiFER, Berk. & Curt. : pileo ex campanulato hemi-
sphaerico fortiter umbonato albido centro brunneo ; stipite insititio polito
glabro purpurasccnti-brunneo ; lamellis paucis collariatis albidis.

In shady ravines, Bonin Islands. — Allied to il/. rotula and Guya-
nensis.

79. M. ExusTUS, Berk. & Curt. : pusillus ; pileo hemisphsrico um-
bilicato sulcato brunneo-albo siccitate fusco ; stipite brevi capillari insi-
titio atro-fusco ; lamellis paucis.

On dead leaves, Bonin Islands. — Nearly allied to the last.

80. M. ACicuLARis, Berk. & Curt. : pileo hemisphzerico umbilicato
sulcato rufo-luteo ; stipite glaberrimo flavo insititio ; lamellis paucis
flavis adnatis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands.

81. M. ALUTACEUS, Berk. & Curt. : sordide alutaceus ; pileo inflato
campanulato, cute demum plicato-rugosa ; stipite subtiliter pulverulento ;
lamellis paucis ventricosis ; interstitiis lajvibus.

Hong Kong. — Allied to 31. hcematocephalus.

i

s

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 121

82. M. ACicoLA, Berk. & Curt. : pileo e convexo subdepresso
glabro striato brunneolo ; stipite insititio glaberrimo rufo ; laraellis
angustis breviter adnatis albis.

On dead Pine leaves, Japan. — Approaches Collyhia.

83. M. TENER, Berk. & Curt. : ex albo siccitate umbrinus ; pileo
hemisphaerico striato subtiliter pulverulento ; stipite demum glabro
nitido non insititio basi parvula floccosa affix© ; lamellis latiusculis
adnatis.

On dead twigs, Bonin Islands. — Allied to 31. androsaceus.

84. Lentinus ptramidatus. Berk. & Curt.: pileo umbilicato
fibroso ; fibris in fasciculos pyramidatos stipatis margine involute
cirrhosis ; stipite sursum tomentoso deorsum furfuraceo ; lamellis in-
cisis, omnibus una desinentibus.

On logs, Nicaragua. — Allied to L. villosus.

85. L. NiCAEAGUENSis, Berk. & Curt.: pileo umbilicato strigoso;
strigis cirrhosis subfasciculatis cervinis ; stipite farinoso-tomentoso
deorsum modo pilei strigoso ; lamellis postice anastomosantibus.

On logs, Nicai'agua. — Nearly allied to the two last.

86. Panus infundibulum. Berk. & Curt.: albus; pileo duro lobato
infundibuliformi, margine tenui stipiteque excentrico sursum dilatato
tomentosis ; lameUis distantibus decurrentibus.

On dead trees, Nicaragua. — The surface of the pileus resembles
that of Lactarius vellereus.

87. Xerotus fuliginosus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo reniformi tenui
sursum e lateritio brunneo rugosiusculo parce striato ; lamellis angustis
antice ramosis vel anastomosantibus.

On dead twigs, Hong Kong.

88. X. FRAGiLis, Berk. & Curt. : pileo reniformi tenui e lateritio
luteo-fusco striato ; lamellis venoso-connexis, intermediis pluribus.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands.

89. X. PUSILLUS, Berk. & Curt. : minutus ; pileo reniformi con-
chato brunneo sulcato-striato ; lamellis paucis alutaceis ; interstitiis
laevibus.

On dead Fern leaves. Hong Kong.

90. Lenzites Japonica, Berk. & Curt. : pileo dimidiato lobato
albido zonato scabroso-hirsuto postice rugoso ; lamellis tenuibus den-
tatis margine poriformibus ; contextu niveo.

On dead wood, Japan. — Allied to L. hetulina.

VOL. IV. 16

122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

91. Boletus rhodomyces, Berk. & Curt.: pileo subviscoso brun-
neo ; stipite brevi erythrino e mycelio roseo oriundo ; tubulis compositis
decurrentibus.

On shaded hills, Japan.

92. PoLTPORUS (Mesopus) ochrotinctus, Berk. & Curt.: pileo
6 flabelliformi orbiculari ochraceo glaberrimo polito sulcato-zonato ;
stipite concolori nitente ; hymenio albo, poris parvis rotundis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands and Japan.

93. P. POCULA, Berk. & Curt. : pusillus, poculosformis ; pileo um-
brino f'arinaceo ; stipite utplurimum verticali insititio ; hymenio concave
pallido. {Sphceria pocula, Schwein. !)

On dead sticks, Nicaragua,

94. P. (Anodermei) nitidulus, Berk. & Curt.: pileis lateraliter
connatis sublobatis brevibus deraum rufescentibus nitidulis subzonatis,
obscure lineatis ; hymenio albo ; poris minimis angulatis.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands.

95. P. (Placodermei) marmoratus, Berk. & Curt. : pileo convexo
ligneo zonato subtiliter pulverulento laccato contextu hymenioque fer-
rugineis ; poris minutis punctiformibus.

Nicaragua.

96. P. (Placodermei) linteus. Berk. & Curt.: durus, ponderosus;
pileo dimidiato sulcato radiatim rimoso brunneo villo albicante- deal-
bato, margine tenui ; contextu ferrugineo ; hymenio cinnamomeo ; poris
minutis punctiformibus.

On bark, Nicaragua.

97. P. NiCARAGUENSis, Berk. & Curt. : ungulatus ; pileo ex albido
pallide umbrino subtiliter tomentoso lajvi, contextu umbrino ; hymenio
irregulari brunneo ; poris minutis.

On dead wood, Nicaragua.

98. Hexagonia Thwaitesii, Berk. Herb.: cervina ; pileo tenui
glabro zonato unicolori hie illic lineatim rugoso ; poris magnis con-
coloribus.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to H. affinis.

99. H. VARiEGATA, Berk. Herb. : pileo reniformi tenui zonato
rigido variegato velutino glabrescente radiato-rugoso ; hymenio um-
brino ; poris mediis.

On dead wood, Nicaragua.

100. Hydnum (Mesopus) Wrightii, Berk. & Curt. : fuscum ;

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 123

pileo orbiculari lobato virgato sericeo vel tomentoso; stipite e fibris
floccisque nigris oriundo ; aculeis acutis elongatis.
Amongst leaves, Japan.

101. H. STALAGMODES, Berk. & Curt. : resupinatum, longe effusum,
luteo-albura ; aculeis subulatis dependentibus fasciculato-connatis denti-
culatis ciliatis.

On decayed wood, Bonin Islands. — Somewhat like H. memhrana-
ceum and udum.

102. Radulum ehabarbarinum. Berk. & Curt. : resupinatum,
effusum, irregulare, ferrugineum ; tuberculis fasciculatis subcylindricis
tenuibus, apicibus obtusis emarginatis.

On decayed wood, Nicaragua.

103. Craterellus aureus. Berk, ^c Curt. : pileo submembranaceo
tubjeformi pervio subflocculoso, margine primum deflexo breviter fim-
briato aureo ; hymenio persistenter Itevi glauco-luteo.

On the earth, Hong Kong. — Near G. odoratus.

104. Thelephora xerantha. Berk. & Curt. : pileo flabelliformi
subzonato pulverulento-tomentoso lineatim rugoso in petiolum attenu-
ato ; hymenio subferrugineo.

On roots of trees, Hong Kong. — Allied to T. laciniata.

105. Stereum Nicaraguense, Berk. & Curt. : pileo dimidiato
rugoso inrequabili villoso zonato candido, contextu umbi-ino ; hymenio
cinereo, margine tenui umbrino.

On logs, Nicaragua.

106. S. SUBCRUENTATUM, Berk. & Curt. : pileo dimidiato conchi-
formi decurrente albido postice cruentato zonato ; hymenio lasvi ochro-
leuco.

On dead wood, Japan.

107. Laschia peziz^formis. Berk. & Curt. : minuta, alba, resu-
pinata, pezizteformis, magine incurvo ; poris rotundis.

On dead Palm-leaves, Bonin Islands. — "We have the same from
Venezuela.

108. CoRTiciUM iRRiGATUM, Berk. & Curt.: pileo tenui reflexo
leviter zonato rugoso-tomentoso hymenioque Isevi cremoricoloribus.

Forming dense patches on rocks. Hong Kong.

109. C. ASCHISTUM, Berk. & Curt. : album, resupinatum, effusum,
Iseve, continuum, subtiliter pubescens, margine demum liberato tomen-
toso.

On decayed logs, Nicaragua. — Near C. puherum.

124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

110. C. REMOSissiMTTM, Berk. & Curt.: efFusum, resupinatum, cin-
namomeum, a matrice separabile, rimosissimum, contextu rufo-albido.

On dead Cane, Nicaragua.

111. Cyphella epileuca, Berk. & Curt.: galeaeformis vel conchi-
formis, tomentosa, e strato corticioideo oriunda ; hymenio IjEvi.

On dead panicles of Areca, Bonin Islands.

112. Clavaria decolor, Berk. & Curt.: ex albo umbrina; stipite
cylindrico e fibris ramosis oriundo sursum subdichotomo, ramis brevibus.

On hill-sides, Hong Kong. — Allied to C abietina.

113. Htmenula atrovirens, Berk. & Curt.: linearis, subconvexa,
atrovirens, sicca granulata.

On dead Canes, Nicaragua.

114. Rhizopogon piceus. Berk. & Curt. : imberbis ; pei'idio de-
mum piceo ; gleba alutaceo-umbrina ; sporis oblongis.

In steep banks, Hong Kong.

115. Geaster biplicatus, Berk. & Curt. : peridio exteriori tenui
irregulariter multifido e mycelio floccoso oriundo ; peridio interiori sub-
globoso nigrescente stipitato, basi stipitis e plicis peridii interioris im-
pressa, ore plicato, apice fimbriato.

On the ground, Bonin Islands.

116. G. PAPYRACEus, Berk. & Curt.: gregarius, e mycelio albo
membranaceo oi'iundus ; peridio externo extus subsericeo albo intus e
rufo fusco 5-6 fido, interiori brunneo sessili ; ore depresso sericeo-
fibroso.

On decaying vegetable matter, under Pines; Japan. On rotten
wood, Bonin Islands. "We have it also from Ceylon.

117. BoviSTA DELICATA, Berk. & Curt. : pusilla, globosa ; peridio
exteriori verrucis minimis consperso, tandem rimoso-deglubente ; sporis
argillaceis subroseis longe pedunculatis.

On the ground. Hong Kong. — Resembles B. cervina, Berk.

118. Lycoperdon purpurascens. Berk. & Curt.: pusillum, sub-
globosum, e purpurascenti brunneum basi subaculeatum sursum innato-
squamulosum ; strato sterili obsoleto ; sporis luteo-olivaceis.

On decayed logs, Bonin Islands. — Allied to L. pusillum.

119. L. Hongkongense, Berk. & Curt.: pusillus, pyriformis, bre-
viter radicatus, apice irregulariter dehiscens ; capillitio subrufo ; sporis
eUipticis, pedunculatis.

On the ground. Hong Kong.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 125

120. L. PLicATUM, Berk. & Curt.: parvum, subrotundum, ex albo
pallide fuscum, subtus plicatum ; epidermide verruculoso sursum fatis-
cente evanido ; sporis la^vibus brevissime pedunculatis.

On the ground, Japan.

121. LiCEA STiPiTATA, Berk. & Rav. : peridiis cylindricis ex incar-
nate rubidis stipite communi fusco intus cellulose suffultis.

On decayed logs, Bonin Islands. — Agrees exactly with South Caro-
lina specimens from Mr. Ravenel.

122. L. RUBiFOEMis, Berk. & Curt.: conglomerata, coccinea; peri-
diis urceolatis apiculatis liberis, basi vesiculosa.

On decayed wood, Behring's Straits.

123. Phojia ANGUiNA, Berk. & Curt.: maculis parvis nigris hie
ilhc confluentibus ; peritheciis depressis ; sporis subellipticis.

On dead stems of Alyssicarjnis bupleurifoUus, Behring's Straits.
[Probably from Hong Kong. Alyssicarpus is not found so far
north. A. G.]

124. Sph^ropsis arctica. Berk. & Curt. : peritheciis erumpen-
tibus elongato-prominulis papill^etbrmibus vel subcompressis ; sporis
hyalinis fusiformibus.

On cones of Pinus Ajanensis, Kamtschatka.

125. Septoria ARCTICA, Berk. & Curt.: peritheciis globosis, im-
mersis, siccis collabentibus ; sporis sursum attenuatis, linearibus, 3-7
septatis.

On culms of Dupontia Fischeri, Arakamtchetchene Island.

126. S. BoNiNENSis, Berk. & Curt.: peritheciis minutis epidermide
nigrifacto polito ocellato tectis ; sporis rectis mediis filiformibus cur-
vulis.

On petioles of an unknown leaf, Bonin Islands.

127. S. Photini^, Berk. & Curt.: peritheciis epidermide nigrifacto
medio ocellato tectis ; sporis rectis brevibus linearibus.

On leaves of Photinia, California.

128. DiscosiA OSTIOLATA, Berk. & Curt.: peritheciis elevatis;
ostiolo distincto prominulo perforate ; sporis 3-septatis.

On dead leaves, Bonin Islands.

129. Triphragmium binatum, Berk. & Curt.: sporis fuscis bicel-
lulosis spinis emarginatis asperis ; dissepimento verticali ; membrana
exteriore deglubente.

On leaves, with Lecythea pezizceformis ; Nicaragua.

/

126 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

130. PucciNiA TRIARTICULATA, Berk. & Curt. : soris oblongis epi-
dermide rimoso arete inclusis ; sporis elongatis triarticulatis breviter
pedicellatis.

On Elymus mollis, Behring's Straits.

131. P. D0CH3IIA, Berk. & Curt.: soris oblongis; sporis brevibus
obtusissimis fuscis ; pedunculo hyaline lateral!.

On leaves of Grasses, Nicaragua.

132. P. SEPULTA, Berk. & Curt. : maculis orbicularibus, supra bul-
latis brunneis, subtus concavis ; soris congestis in massam uniformem,
partim e pilis matricis celatis ; sporis obtusis pedunculatis.

On leaves of Ficus ? Nicaragua,

133. Uromtces Lupini, Berk. & Curt.: hypo-epiphylla ; soris ir-
regularibus ; sporis brunneis papilla crassa tei'minatis ; pedunculo spora
longiore.

On leaves oi Liqnnus, with No. 137 ; California.

134. U. Japonic A, Berk. & Curt.: maculis orbicularibus; soris
solitariis vel circinantibus ; sporis ovatis, apiculo terminali hyalino ;
pedunculo brevi, externa membrana evanescente.

On leaves of an Orcliid ? Japan.

135. U. Statices, Berk. & Curt. : hypo-epiphylla ; soris amplis
concentricis epidermide cinctis ; sporis obtusissimis.

On leaves of Statice, California.

136. Uredo asperata, Berk. & Curt.: maculis obsoletis; soris
sparsis gregariisque hypophyllis oblongis vel fusiformibus pallidis
granulatis.

On leaves of Xanthoxylum, Bonin Islands.

137. U. LupiNi, Berk. & Curt. : hypo-epiphylla ; maculis nuUis ;
soris sparsis irregularibus epidermide rupto cinctis ; sporis brunneolis
subglobosis Isevibus.

On leaves of Lupinus, California.

138. U. Bauhini^, Berk. & Curt. : hypo-epiphylla; maculis nuUis ;
sporis fuscis subglobosis echinulatis, membrana interna sa?pe polyhedri-
contracta.

On leaves of Bauhinia, Nicaragua.

139. U. CONSTELLATA, Berk, & Curt. : maculis pallidis, oppositis
nuUis; soris minutis tarde ruptis constellatis ; sporis argillaceis decolo-
rantibus verrucoso-aculeatis.

On living leaves, Hong Kong.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 127

140. Lectthea peziz^fokmis, Berk. & Curt. : soris minutis pe-
zizseformibus extus albis intus fuscis ; sporis obovatis echinulatis.

On under side of leaves, Nicaragua.

141. ^ciDiUJi Capense, Berk. & Curt.: maculis nullis; peridiis
elongatis cylindricis apice dilatatis dentatis.

On the fruit of an Asparagus or some allied plant, Cape of Good
Hope.

142. Helicoma fasciculatum. Berk. & Curt. : floccis fasciculatis
hie illic subconnatis parce articulatis ; sporis quadriarticulatis.

Under side of dead leaves, Japan.

143. Cladosporium pallidum, Berk. & Curt.: maculis orbicula-
ribus pulveraceis ; floccis erectis simplicibus ; sporis oblongis sinuatis.

On leaves, Nicaragua.

144. Campsotrichum circinatum, Berk. & Curt. mss. : atrum,
floccis apice cirrhiformibus.

On dead leaves, Bonin Islands. South Carolina specimens are on
leaves of AlagnoUa grandijiora.

145. Helvella pusilla, Berk. & Curt.: pusilla ; pileo deflexo
libero brunneo subtus griseo ; stipite glaberi-imo fistuloso cartilagineo.

On sandy flats, Behring's Straits. — Very distinct.

146. Peziza Japonica, Berk. & Curt.: fusco-atra; cupuHs con-
gestis subpedicellatis plicato-rugosis, e floccis brunneis in fasciculum
unitis oriundis.

On roots, Japan. — Allied to P. melcBtia.

147. P. BoNiNENSis, Berk. & Curt. : media ; cupula plana glabra
extus alba intus pallida rufa ; sporidiis subcymbiformibus.

On dead leaves, Bonin Islands. — Allied to P. rutilans.

148. P. INSITITIA, Berk. & Curt.: cupula alba anguste cyathiformi
subcostato setoso, margine squamis setiformibus ciliato ; stipite deorsum
attenuate sulcato farinoso ; hymenio pallide flavo ; ascis longissimis ;
sporidiis maximis cymbiformibus.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to P. tricholoma, Mont.

149. P. LEPiDA, Berk. & Curt. : media ; capula infundibuliformi e
stipite sursum attenuato gradatim oriundo, margine inflexo furfuraceo,
disco coccineo.

On burnt earth, Japan. — Allied to P. coccinea.

150. P. VERRUCULOSA, Berk. & Curt. : atropurpurea, rigescens,
sessilis vel breviter pedicellata, cupul^eformis vel explanata, extus
verruculis pyramidatis m{\rgine pulverulentis aspera.

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

On Stony hills, Behring's Straits. — Somewhat resembling P. ni-
grella.

151. P. PORPHTRA, Berk. & Curt. : sessilis ; cupula planiuscula,
extus fusca velutina, intus atropurpurea ; sporidiis globosis ; paraphy-
sibus furcatis.

On roadside banks, Japan. — A splendid species.

152. P. LEUCOPH^A, Berk. & Curt. : cupula concava, intus alba,
extus floccis brunneis subfasciculatis aspera; sporidiis longis filifor-
mibus.

On dead sticks, Japan.

153. P. INCONSPICUA, Berk. & Curt. : subsessilis ; cupula hemi-
sphgerica, margine incurvo, extus albo pruinoso, intus luteolo.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands.

154. P. HoNGKONGENSis, Berk. & Curt.: breviter stipitata; cu-
pula hemisphserica subtus lutea, margine incurvo ; hymenio convexulo
vel piano aurantiaco.

On dead twigs, Hong Kong. — This pretty species belongs to the
claviform section of MoUisia.

155. Htpocrea armeniaca. Berk. & Curt. : armeniaca, omnino
superficialis, convexa, basi orbiculari affixa ; ostiolis fuscis.

On living leaves of Apocyne(B, Bonin Islands.

156. Diatrype catervaria, Berk. & Curt.: stromatibus parvis in
maculas aggregatis papilla centrali notatis, quandoque confluentibus ;
ascis brevibus ; sporidiis globosis. — Sjjh. catervaria, Berk. Herb.

On leaves of Ficus, Hong Kong. — Also in Ceylon.

157. SpHiERiA (Connatae) pard alios, Berk. & Curt. : subiculo ex
albo citrino subceraceo ; peritheciis mediis e brunneolo nigris ; ostiolo
papillceformi.

On dead wood, Bonin Islands. — Allied to S. conjliiens.

158. S. CDLCiTELLA, Berk. & Rav. Fung. Carol. : subiculo aterri-
mo ; fibris repetiter dichotomis, apicibus furcatis ; peritheciis minutis
subglobosis glabris.

On dead wood, Nicaragua.

159. S. (Denudat£e) depolita. Berk. & Curt.: peritheciis subglo-
bosis basi applanatis politis nigerrimis ; ostiolo minuto papillreformi.

On Palm leaves, Bonin Islands.

160. Rhytisma ERYTHROSPORUJi, Berk. & Curt.: stromate tenui
piceo hie illic in papillas elevato ; ascis amplis ; sporidiis salmonicolo-
ribus magnis rectis vel curvulis utrinque apiculatis.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 129

Both sides of leaves of Querctcs virens [agrifolia'^'\, California. Re-
markable for the size and color of the sporidia.

161. DoTHiDEA PERMEANS, Berk. & Curt.: maculis irregularibus
substellato-orbiculatis nigris totam matricem permeantibus elevato-sub-
rugosis ; ostiolis indistinctis.

On leaves, Nicaragua.

162. D. TENUIS, Berk. & Curt.: picea; stromate subpenetrante
tenui supra e cellulis prominulis minute granuloso ; sporidiis hyalinis
oblongo-clavatis.

On leaves of Bauhinia, Nicaragua. — Allied to the preceding.

163. D. PLATTPLACA, Berk. & Curt.: stromate tenui nigro totam
mati'icem penetrante supra nitido subtus fertili opaco ; cellulis super-
ficialibus.

With D. permeans. — In some respects resembling S. demersa, Corda.

164. D. INCLUSA, Berk. & Curt.: stromate punctiformi margins e
matrice formate incluso ; cellulis subsolitariis ; sporidiis fusiformibus
ellipticis.

On leaves of Jacquinia, Nicaragua.

165. AsTERiNA VELUTiNA, Berk. & Curt.: maculis velutinis orbi-
cularibus fibris erectis subulatis obsitis ; peritheciis minutissimis fre-
quentibus ; ascis oblongis ; sporidiis oblongis uniseptatis.

On leaves. Loo Choo Islands.

166. A. OSTIOLATA, Berk. & Curt.: punctiformis, niger; subiculo
nuUo nisi peritheciali ; ostiolo distincto papillteformi.

Upper surface of leaves, with Cephaleuros virescens ; Nicaragua.

167. A. SEPULTA, Berk. & Curt.: subiculo repente epidermide diu
tecto ; peritheciis minutis ; ascis oblongis ; sporidiis uniseptatis.

On leaves of some Laurinea, Japan.

168. A. MEGALOSPORA, Berk. & Curt.: subiculo parcissimo fim-
briante ; peritheciis magnis hiantibus ; sporidiis maximis uniseptatis.

On living leaves, Bonin Islands. — Resembles A. Azarrce, Lev.

169. A. CONGREGATA, Berk. & Curt.: peritheciis minimis nitidis
congregatis ; subiculo parcissimo ; ore rotundo ; ascis helvolis ; sporidiis
angustis.

On dead leaves, Nicaragua. — Has the habit of Sph. maculcEforynis.

170. A. BULL ATA, Berk. & Curt. : maculis orbicularibus e matrice
elevata enatis, fills in stratum compactum tenue hie illic cellulosum
intertextis ; peritheciis proniinulis.

VOL. IV. 17

130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

On dead leaves, Nicaragua. — Has the habit of Strigula.

171. Meliola dichotoma, Berk. & Curt.: subiculo velutino ; pe-
ritheciis inagnis, appendiculis uni - bifurcatis, ramulis elongatis.

On leaves of some climbing plant, Japan.

CYSTOTHECA, Berk. & Curt.

Perithecia globosa, e floccis rigidis brunneis oriunda. Ascus unicus,
saccule hexagono-celluloso circumdatus. — Genus pulcherrimum Myxo-
thecio, PisomyxcE, &c. aifine, foliis innascens.

172. Ctstotheca Wrightii, Berk. & Curt. Forming thin choco-
late-colored patches on the under surface of leaves. Perithecia globose,
5-^ij inch in diameter, containing a single hyaline, globose, beautifully
reticulate sac, within which is an ascus of the same form. Sporidia in
our specimens imperfect.

173. AscOMYCES DEFORMANS, Berk. Mss. (Vide Gard. Chron.
1856, p. 470) : candidissimum, compactum, matricem deformans.

On Trientalis, Petropaulowski, Kamtschatka.

174. Sph^ria CuLLUMiiE, Berk. & Cui-t. : primum cpidermide
tecta, subpustulata, demum nuda, subglobosa, obtusa, ore minutissimo
perforata ; ascis brevibus curvis ; sporidiis biseriatis clavato-lanceo-
latis demum uni — triseptatis.

On leaves of Cullumia squarrosa. Cape of Good Hope. — Sporidia
at first simple, then binucleate, at length uniseptate, or very rarely tri-
septate, brown, x-^Vtr i^cli long, lanceolate, but broader at the upper
end. — On the same leaves there is a minute Leptostro^na, but without
fruit.

Four buudred and iifty-eiglith meeting.

January 11, 1859. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from the War
Department, accompanying Vols. II. - VIII. of the Pacific
Railroad Surveys ; from the Minister of the Interior of the
Netherlands, presenting folio 14 of the Geological Maps of
Holland ; and from Dr. I. I. Hayes of Philadelphia, acknowl-
edging the receipt of a copy of the resolutions of the Acad-
emy upon the subject of his proposed Arctic expedition.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 131

Professor Gray gave a series of illustrations of the Botany
of Japan in its relations to that of Central and Northern Asia,
Europe, and North America, — the communication being a
portion of one of the papers presented by him at the last pre-
ceding meeting.

He showed that the relations of the Flora of Japan with
that of the United States east of the Mississippi were pecu-
liarly intimate, as evinced by the great number of congeneric,
of closely representative, and of identical species in the two
floras, noting especially that most of the more striking points
of similarity were presented in species or in types which are
absent from the flora of Europe. Also, that although there is
a considerable number of species common to the western side
of the American continent and to Japan, yet that the likeness
was less strong between their floras than between those of
Eastern North America and of Japan, although the latter are
geographically separated by about one hundred and forty
degrees of longitude. Also, that far more Eastern Ameri-
can species or types are represented in Eastern Asia, than
of Western American in Europe, or even in Asia ; — thus
pointing to a remarkable interchange between the floras of
Eastern North America and Eastern Asia ; or to a former
homogeneousness of the temperate American and East- Asian
floras, to a degree equal, perhaps, to that of the Arctic or the
sub- Arctic flora at the present time.

Comparisons formerly instituted by Professor Gray between
the flora of the Northern United States and that of other
parts of the northern temperate zone had already suggested
to others, as well as to himself, the inference that the inter-
change between these floras had taken place mainly via Asia,
and not via Europe ; and it would be seen that our now
largely increased knowledge of the botany of the Japanese
and of the Himalayan regions strengthened this inference.

In presenting the subject, Professor Gray could hardly avoid
using the words " interchange " and " dispersion of species."
He had used them only in drawing his conclusions from the

132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

facts, and wished to do so without prejudging the question
involved. But he was free to say that the present investiga-
tion had confirmed his impression that such terms were prop-
erly employed. For although some of these facts would at
first seem most readily explicable upon the supposition of the
double origin of those species whose present geographical
areas are widely dissevered, yet, in his opinion, they would
be found, on considering the whole case, far more conforma-
ble to the hypothesis of a single local origin for each species
at an early time. And in his opinion the actual question
now is, — whether each species originated in one local area,
whence it has spread, as circumstances permitted, over more
or less broad tracts, in some cases becoming discontinuous in
area through changes in climate or other physical conditions
operating during a long period of time ; or, whether each
species originated where it now occurs, probably in as great
a number of individuals occupying as large an area, and gen-
erally the same area, or even the same discontinuous areas, as
at the present time. The latter is understood to be the view
of Professor Agassiz.

To this view Professor Gray objected : — 1. That it offers
no scientific explanation of the present distribution of species
over the globe ; but simply supersedes explanation, by affirm-
ing, that as things now are, so they were at the beginning ;
whereas the facts of the case — often very peculiar — ap-
pear to demand from science something more than a direct
reference of the phenomena as they are to the Divine will.

2. That the idea of the descent of all similar or conspecific
individuals from a common stock is so natural, and so inevita-
bly suggested by common observation, that it must needs be
first tried upon the problem ; and if the trial be satisfactory,
its adoption would follow as a matter of course.

o. That, since it is conceded that the present era of the
Avorld is of extremely long duration, and since it is most
probable, not to say certain, that the existing species of
plants of the regions in question, or a part of them, are of

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 133

high antiquity, dating back to the post-tertiary, or even
to the later tertiary epoch, — and therefore must have been
subject to great climatic changes, accompanied or caused by
no inconsiderable changes in the relative extent and configu-
ration of the land, — the objections formerly raised against
such wide dispersion of species lose most of their force.
And the explanation of such anomalies in the actual distri-
bution of species is to be sought in the vicissitudes to which
the species must have been subject in their earlier days.

Professor Gray proceeded briefly to intimate, that, if the
present flora of the northern hemisphere preceded the glacial
period, or even immediately succeeded it, the actual distribu-
tion of species, and the interchange between this continent
and Eastern Asia under similar parallels of latitude, could be
readily accounted for on the ordinary view ; or at least would
offer no greater difficulty than the Arctic ffora now does, — the
general homogeneousness of which round the world has never
been thought difficult of explanation. He proposed to illustrate
his views upon this part of the subject at a future meeting.

Professor Agassiz remarked, that the animal kingdom pre-
sented a resemblance between its representatives of Eastern
North America and Eastern Asia similar to that mentioned
by Dr. Gray in the flora, and that he has especially pointed
out this correspondence in detail in the order of Testudi-
nata, in his Contributions to the Natural History of North
America. He acknowledged the correctness of the views
ascribed to him by Dr. Gray, and would defend them on
the ground that, connecting the present state of things with
that which prevailed in earlier geological periods, it could
be shown that the present distribution of animals was linked
with that of earlier periods in a manner which excluded the
assumption of extensive migrations, or of a shifting of the
florae and faunae from one area to another.

He viewed the similarity between the fauna of North-
eastern America and that of Northeastern Asia, not as the
result of climatic changes over an area primitively more

134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

homogeneous in its organic productions and modified by
climatic changes, but as a primitive adaptation of organic
types to similar corresponding physical features, which have
remained respectively unchanged since the first introduction
upon earth of these organisms. Admitting with Dr. Gray
the immensely long duration of even the present period, he
did not think that the regular order and organic connection
which everywhere exist between the different types of ani-
mals and plants upon the whole surface of our globe, could
have been established by physical changes, or even essentially
modified by them. With reference to the single origin of
conspecific individuals, he thought that the warfare which so
many species wage upon others was in itself an insuperable
objection to the assumption that any one species could have
originated in a single pair.

The President remarked, that the appearance of the same
species on different or opposite parts of the globe admitted of
explanation by supposing that originally a zone, or isothermal
belt, which existed in each climate, contained all the species
capable of flourishing in that climate so long as the climate
remained stationary; and that in the lapse of ages a great
portion of these plants had disappeared or died out, under the
casualties to which plants are liable, some having disappeared
altogether, and others remaining only in localities, defined by
longitudes, in different parts of the same zone ; so that at
the present day, while the general character of the vegetation
is different in different hemispheres and countries, still a suffi-
cient number of species might be extant in, and common to,
both hemispheres, to represent a part of the original growth.
This explanation appeared to him more probable than the
supposition that these plants had more recently migrated
from any one country to its antipodes, passing over the inter-
mediate regions.

Professor Gray rejoined, that his views would in a good
degree harmonize with those of the President, with the im-
portant exception that he regarded any former more homo-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 135

geneous state of the temperate flora as itself a resulting, not
an original condition. Still less, therefore, could he coincide
with Professor Agassiz, in regarding the actually present
distribution, with all its dislocations, as a primitive state.
Whether a much larger number of species than now were
ever common to Japan and to New England, and whether
these at any one time inhabited the whole intermediate
ground, appeared to him uncertain, and was unnecessary
to suppose ; but he had no idea that recent migration had
anything to do in accounting for the present existence of
the same species in such widely separated stations.

Four bundred and fifty-niutli meeting'.

January 26, 1859. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from the Royal
Belgian Academy, Brussels, acknowledging the reception of
publications from the American Academy, and presenting its
own recent Memoirs. Also, a letter from the President of the
Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, Munich, announcing
the intended celebration of the centennial anniversary of the
foundation of that society on the 28th of March ensuing, and
inviting the participation of the American Academy.

On motion of Mr. Winthrop, seconded by Professor Felton,
Dr. Charles Beck, being now in Europe, was appointed to
represent this Academy upon that occasion.

Professor John Lindley was elected a Foreign Honorary
Member, in Class II. Section 2 (Botany), to fill the vacancy
made by the decease of the late Robert Brown.

Sir William E. Logan, Director of the Geological Survey
of Canada, was elected an Associate Fellow, in Class II.
Section 1 (Geology, &c.).

William Watson Goodwin, Ph. D., of Cambridge, was
chosen a Resident Fellow, in Class III. Section 2 (Philol-
ogy, &c.).

136

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

On motion of Mr. Henck, a special appropriation of two
hundred dollars was made, for the purchase by the Library
Committee of additional works upon mathematics, technol-
ogy, and engineering.

On motion of Professor Agassiz, special meetings for sci-
entific discussion were voted to be held, at the hall of the
Academy, on the fourth Tuesday of February, March, and
April ensuing.

Professor Peirce made a further communication upon the
tail of Comets, especially of Donati's Comet.

Mr. H. J. Clark read the following paper upon the use
of the microscope, as recently improved, in the investiga-
tion of the minute organization of living bodies : —

" I was incited to bring together my thoughts and experiences upon
this subject, by discovering, three or four months ago, a novel feature
in the so-called glandular dots of the wood of our common White Pine
{Pinus Strohus, Linn.).

"A dot of this kind is usually represented by a circle (Fig. 1, C, d),

in the centre of which is a single or
double ring (a, b), which has about
one third the diameter of the first
(d). The outer circle (d) is de-
scribed as the boundary of a len-
ticular space (A, e) between two
contiguous cells, and the inner double
circle (C, a, h) as the outskirts of
a perforation (A, a h) in the deposit
layer (/) of the cell. The double
circle arises, as is said, from the fact
that the perforation has the shape of
an extremely short truncate cone,
which, when viewed endwise, pre-
sents to the eye its two circular
ends concentrically ; the broader end,
which is always next the interior of
the cell, corresponding to the outer
(h), and the narrower end to tlie

Fig. 1.
g^ d f ecba

feg

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES, 137

inner circle (a). Thus are these dots described and illustrated, by
Mohl, Schleiden, and Schacht, as seen in the common European Pine
[Pinus sylvestris), and thus did they always appear to me, not only in
that species, but also when I observed them in Pinus Strohus, except
with this difference, that the perforation was bounded by an exceed-
ingly faint third circle (C, c), whose relations I could nof comprehend,
nor was I able to I'econcile its presence with the theory in regard to
the nature of the perforation. I therefore left it, doubtingly supposing
it to be some optical illusion. The microscope which I used, and
which I have been in the habit of using up to within the last six
months, is an Oberhaeuser's, made for Professor Agassiz some years
ago ; and yet at this very day I find it as good, with perhaps a single
exception, as any now made in Germany, and therefore just as trust-
worthy in the investigation of the glandular dots of the Pine.*

'* It may not be uninteresting to state here, that the first great microscope made
in Germany was constructed in 1 829 by Fraunhofer, for Professor Agassiz. This
microscope was represented in a copper-plate engraving, and described by Dollinger
in the Memoirs of the Munich Academy for 1829, or 1830. In January, 1831,
Agassiz went to Paris, and having given unlimited orders to Oberhaeuser for the
best microscope that could be furnished, according to the knowledge of those times,
he received from that maker, in 1832, an instrument which has not been surpassed
in all Germany to this very day ; at least, I have never seen any work from the
hands of the best observers there, whether zoologists, histologists, physiologists, or
botanists, which could not have been accomplished just as well by this microscope.
There may be one exception to this of a very recent date, but I am acquainted with
the instrument only through i-eport. With this masterpiece of Oberhaeuser Agas-
siz has gone ou to this time, doing his great work with remarkable success, as all
the world knows. Of late years it has become evident to Agassiz that his instru-
ment was not equal to the demands which the progress of his researches put upon
it ; that there was something beyond its reach, of which he now and then could get
a glimpse, just enough to warrant him in the belief that the study of the intimate
structure of organized bodies had hardly begun.

So long ago as 1852 he had opportunities to see the workings of an instrument
of the English pattern, made by Spencer; and although it was known as a rival, if
not superior to the Transatlantic microscopes, he did not become convinced that
it came up to his requirements.

Two or three years later I had the pleasure of bringing to his notice the results
of some of my own researches upon the value of recently constructed objectives of
English make. This gave him renewed hope, and, having heard of Spencer's con-
tinued rivalship and growing superiority, he determined to test his skill to the ut-
most. He therefore, in 1857, requested me to visit Canastota, in order to consult
Spencer, and advise him as to the nature of the work for which we wished to use
VOL. IV. 18

138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" For the last six months I have used one of the most recently im-
proved microscopes, made by Mr. Charles A. Spencer of Canastota,
N. Y. ; and witli this, between three and four months ago, I again
attempted to solve the mystery of the glandular dots. This I did with
the most complete success.

" When the focus was brought to bear upon the inner surface of the
dot, the innermost ring (B, C, «) of the perforation appeared first; a
little deeper, the next outer one (b) came into view, whilst the inner-
most (a) disappeared ; and still deeper the last (b) passed from my
sight, and the faint ring (c) of my old observations came out sharply
and clearly, as an exterior circle to the two others.

" I also observed, when passing from the innermost circle (a) to the
outermost (c), that the widening was gradual; and so, too, did it ap-
pear in the transit from the second ring (b) to the outermost (c). This
gave me the clew to the whole structure. I saw that these rings were
not the expression of a simple perforation, but of the outwardly curled
edge of this aperture, shaped in such a way as to form a sort of trum-
pet mouth.

"Although I would not trust to a transverse section alone, yet I
found that it confirmed me in my views as explained above. The
figures which I have given, — namely, a transverse section (B) with
dotted lines projected upon a face view (C) of the dot, — I think will
suffice to illustrate what I believe to be the true relations of these
rings.

" Now, why was it that the Oberhaeuser instrument would not
divulge these relations, when the microscope of Spencer succeeded
so satisfactorily ? This I will explain by showing the difference be-

his instruments. This consultation resulted in the conclusion that we must have
three sets of objectives ; — one, with the extremely flat field ; a second of the like
kind, but so put together as to allow working with it plunged in water ; and the
third with a depthing focus extending as far as possible beyond that of the ordinary
kind, for the purpose of viewing objects as a whole, in order to ascertain the rela-
tions of their different parts. And now Spencer is devoting those extraordinary
abilities, which show him to be a man of genius, to the construction of a microscope
which shall embody not only the optical excellences of the different systems of
lenses required for the various modes of investigation, but also those conveniences
of mounting which the long use of that instrument has taught us, to facilitate the
researches upon the living being in its normal condition, in its element, that we
may be no longer compelled to represent the tortured figures of a crushed body or
dismembered organism.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 139

tween the objectives of the two microscopes. I will compare the action
of the objective of Oberhaeuser to the manner in which a plano-con-
vex lens treats the rays of light which pass through it, from any object.
Those rays which pass near its axis are brought to a focus at the
farthermost possible point from the lens, whilst the rays which pass
through the periphery are converged at a much nearer point, and be-
tween the axis and periphery there are all degrees of convergence.
The difference between the farthermost and nearest points of conver-
gence may represent the distance or depth through which the objective
takes cognizance of things, and will accounf for the fact that I saw all
the rings of the Pine-dot at one time.

" The action of the objective of Spencer's microscope may be
compared to that of a parabolic lens, which converges all the rays
of light to one absolute plane, and therefore forms what is called a
flat Jield.

" Now out of this field, either above or below its horizon, it is not
possible to see anything, and on this account, when the innermost ring
(B, C, a) of the dot was in view, the others were not to be observed ;
and when the field was lowered to the second ring (h), the innermost
one (a), being above the horizon of the field, was invisible; and, again,
when the outermost and lowest ring (c) was reached, the middle one
(6) also vanished.

" Were this outermost ring as distinct as the others, it might have
been possible to detect its relations by means of the Oberhaeuser ;
but since it is the exceedingly delicate, reverted edge of the per-
foration, the narrow aperture of this ordinary objective does not
admit sufficiently oblique rays to define it, to say nothing of its
being confused with the other rings which are in view at the same
time.

" I would here remark, that this peculiar structure is most frequently
to be observed in old wood, when the cell-wall (B, y') has also become
perforated, and even has retreated from the deposit layer as far back
as the edge of the lenticular interspace. In young wood the perfora-
tion corresponds with the figures usually given. I have used this dis-
covery, not only to show how little may be understood of the structure
of a familiar and much treated of body, but also as a preliminary illus-
tration of the exceeding value of a flat field and a wide angle of aper-
ture in microscopic investigations.

140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" But this is not the first example which has occurred to me. As
far back as a year ago last summer I visited Mr. Spencer, and spent
several days with him in testing his objectives with the tissues of every
creature which we could find. I shall never forget the astonishment
and delight with which I occupied day after day, plunged into the hith-
erto unknown depths of organic life. I say this after having tested
from time to time some of the best English microscopes which have
been made since the ' Great Exhibition,' and therefore am not to be
supposed to have made so great a leap as if from an Oberhaeuser to a
Spencer. Since that visit, and another one also, made last summer,
when I obtained one of Mr. Spencer's quarter-inch objectives, with an
angular aperture of one hundred and forty-five degrees, I have from
time to tune made particular efforts to test the value of the flat field
and wide angle in the study of organized bodies. The results of my
investigations at Canastota, and also since my return, I have embodied
in this paper.

"One of the most valuable properties of the flat field is, that it
enables one to study an isolated cell, in a manner totally unexpected
to me, making it possible to obtain a section of such a body at any
horizon, as if it were actually cut across. As I have said before, the
flat field ignores everything above and below its horizon, and there-
fore, if it is brought on a level with the equator of a spherical cell, the
largest possible circle is obtained, and the actual thickness of the wall
becomes apparent ; and if it is raised or lowered, the circle grows
smaller and the wall seems thicker, because of the obliquity of the
section, and yet appears as distinct as the one at the equator. This
may go on until the field approaches very closely to the upper or lower
side, and then the inner surface of the cell appears. In an ordinary
microscope, the far-reaching power of the objective utterly precludes
the possibility of such a process of investigation.

" The relations of the Purkinjean vesicle to the yolk, and the num-
ber and position of the Wagnerian vesicles, have always been difficult
subjects to work out Avith the ordinary microscope. If the Wagnerian
vesicle was situated at the upper or lower side of the Purkinjean vesi-
cle, it has often been next to impossible to tell whether it might be
really within the latter, or was one of the very similar yolk-cells out-
side. There are many other instances of the like kind too numerous
to mention. All this difficulty I have seen obviated by the decided,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 141

section-like precision of the flat field, wliicli at once revealed to the eye
the exact and relative level of every vesicle or yolk-cell.

" I "was most forcibly reminded, not long ago, of the value of the
wide angle of aperture, and the accompanying great amount of light,
upon trying Spencer's objective upon the stem of a well-known Hy-
droid, the Clava leptostyla, Ag. In the manuscript of the forthcoming
volume of Professor Agassiz's " Contributions to the Natural History of
the United States of America," the outer wall of this Hydroid, and of
several others, I may say in passing, had been described as a structure-
less membrane ; but what Avas my surprise, in my last attempt, to find
that this wall was composed of a layer of polygonal cells, as distinct as
any in the other parts of the animal, and even readily discernible in
the more opaque parts, where the stem appeared like a simple black
surface under the ordinary microscope.

" In regard to the usually estimated Avorth of wide angles of aper-
ture, I would say, that, from numerous experiments upon living tissues,
objectives having this property are valuable, not so much because they
can admit extremely oblique one-sided rays, but because they allow rays
to enter from all sides at a very wide angle to the axis. One-sided
oblique rays throw the shadow, in a great measure, beyond any par-
ticular cell upon its neighbor, and this produces distortion ; Avhereas
when the rays converge at a wide angle, each cell becomes strongly
marked at its periphery by a dark, broad shade. A moderately
oblique, one-sided light, hardly tAventy degrees from the axis of the ob-
jective, ahvays appeared to be the most frequently serviceable. I was
surprised one day to find that the hitherto faintly visible circulation in
the cells of Spirogyra was rendered, by such a light, very distinct, and
the granules borne along in the current appeared like little specks with
a very sharp, thick, black outline.

" At first thought, there would appear to be an insuperable objection
to the Avide angle of such objectives, and that is the shortness of the
Avorking distance, Avhich Avill not alloAV one to take anything more than
a superficial vieAv of a body, even of moderate thickness. But this
objection has not the least force, and, on the contrary, the more
nearly absolutely flat the field is, especially in the lower powers, such
as the ^, f , and 1 inch, the better will they bear the use of the
higher eye-pieces. This is not a speculative suggestion, for I have
been told by Mr. Spencer, that he has been able to see the lines upon

142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Pleurosigma angidata with a one-inch objective of his make. Now
nothin'T but the enormously wide angle and the remarkably flat field
which he has introduced in such a low power, could enable one to
solve such a finely marked Diatom. Only a few years ago this little
unicellular plant was a test object for the highest powers of the best
microscopes.

" But if this image, or the image of any minute body, is to be mag-
nified to any extent which may be required, by the use of the higher
eye-pieces, the latter must be most exquisitely corrected, as regards
their spherical and chromatic aberration, or else everything comes to
the eye in a distorted state. On this account the Huyghenian ocular
is not fit to be used, since it lacks just what we need here. I have for
several years past asserted that the next step in the increase of the
magnifying powers of the microscope would be accomplished by the
construction of a new form of eye-piece, which would augment the
image formed by the objective to an almost unlimited extent. At last
I am happy to find my prediction verified, in the most practical man-
ner, by the 'orthoscopic ocular' invented by Spencer. With such
a range of powers, then, there is hardly any body of moderate trans-
parency but what may be minutely investigated to its very core.
If a subject is too thick for the short working distance of the higher
powers, a lower objective may be used, and the higher oculars
applied to make up the deficiency. Of course I do not mean to
say that a certain amplification obtained by a low objective and a
high orthoscopic ocular is fully as good as the same afforded by a
higher objective ; but in case the latter cannot reach a certain internal
structure, the former can be used, with very little appreciable differ-
ence, and is by far better than the usual methods employed in such
cases, such as pressure or dissections and the isolation of the organ to
be investigated.

" I have not had an opportunity to make frequent use of the ' ortho-
scopic eye-piece ' ; but Mr. Spencer has furnished me with another
form of ocular, the ' solid eye-piece,' invented by his pupil, Mr. Tolls.
This, Mr. Spencer tells me, so closely approaches the ' orthoscopic eye-
piece ' in quaUty, that none but a very expei'ienced eye could detect
the diffei'ence, and the former excels the latter in the admission of
light, because it has fewer reflecting surfaces. TVith this ocular and a
quarter-inch objective I have run the magnifying power up to two

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 143

thousand diameters, with wonderful results, which fully justify me in
saying all that I have in regard to the study of thick tissues with low
powers having Avide angles of aperture,*

" I will take a young fish as an example to illustrate the remarkable
efficiency of the flat field. In a view from above, one may see no less
than six or seven different layers or sets of organs resting one over
the other ; first the skin and the muscular layer, next the vertebra3,
within these the spinal marrow, and below the latter the chorda dor-
salis, and close to this the dorsal artery, then the intestines and their
appendages ; and yet every one of these may be plunged through and
totally ignored, on account of the peculiar properties of the flat field,
and the last, the intestines, minutely inspected, not only cell by cell,
but each cell may be studied, in every particular of detail, as if it were
isolated. And so may any set of organs be treated, whether situated
above or below in the animal. With such means at hand, as long as
cells may be seen with a very moderate light, it is utterly preposterous
to trust what may be worked out by separating these organs from the
animal, piecemeal. When intact, every cell may be measured, not
only transversely, but also with the greatest nicety in a perpendicular
direction, by the micrometer screw, which works the fine adjustment of
the objective ; every cell, indeed, may be treated as if it were a sepa-
rate body ; but who would warrant to measure, for instance, the size of
the cells of a nerve after it had been removed from its natural position,
and with more or less inevitable distortion ? Unfortunately, investiga-
tors have been compelled to do this too often, up to this very day ; but
now I hope for much better and more trustworthy results.

" In Embryology, how beautifully this almost transcendental defini-
tion of the objective applies ! All the cells of an embryo of a certain
age may be represented by a circle, with a smaller circle Avithin known
as the mesoblaat (nucleus). At successively later ages we find the

* In this connection I would urge upon students the necessity of avoiding the
higher powers of the microscope in the commencement of their studies. "When
they have learned to use the lower objectives, it will be a much easier matter to
master the higher ones. Students usually suppose that they can see everything
with the higher powers, whereas they are greatly mistaken ; as much as one would
be who should make a minute inspection of the stones of some great architectural
pile, and then think he had obtained a proper conception of its magnificent plan
and glorious proportions.

144 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

cells of the nerves, for instance, simply oval, as the first step to elonga-
tion ; next they are in rows ; then the ends in contact are without walls,
so that each cell opens into its neighbor ; and finally, all trace of the
separate cell-wall is lost in the straight sides of the nerve tubule, with
nothing but the mesoblasts to indicate the original position of the cells.
In the chorda dorsalis, intestines, vertebrae, muscles, &c., similar and
apparently gradual changes have been observed ; but each step, in most
instances, was investigated isolately from the previous one, and the
intervening space bridged over by the process of inductive reasoning
alone. This is not enough ; now we know that every second of the
life of a cell, or series of cells, may be traced most minutely, minute by
minute, hour by hour, and day by day. Day and night, watches have
been kept by observers in other depai'tments of science, and why may
not the naturalist do so? In some cases a very extensive series of
changes may be observed in a short time ; for instance, in the embryo of
the common Bream (Pomo<^s vifZ^ans), which Professor "Wyman has ob-
served to pass from the segmenting of the yolk to hatching in the space of
about forty hours. It is not possible, in any way, to trace the gradual
metamorphoses of cells and organs, except upon the living body ; other-
wise, every observation is a record of a detached fact, and no more ;
eveiy bit of an organ is subjected to all sorts of manipulations to bring
out what too often is not there according to the laws of the living being.
Reagents at one time, and pressure at another, reveal, not the truths of
nature, but our carelessness and presumption. I have in mind a re-
markable instance of the evils of the almost monomaniacal habit of
using pressure whilst investigating tissues. A celebi'ated physiologist,
in all probability, missed the most fortunate chance of discovering the
key to the whole history of the mode of origin of the embryo from the
yolk-cells, simply by using a bit of thin glass to cover the object on his
glass slide. Just before the segmentation of the yolk, the full-grown
yolk-cells of birds, turtles, if not all scaly reptiles, and sharks, are
very thin-waUed, hyaUne, globular vesicles, each one of which contains
a more or less darkened mesoblast, and within the latter are a certain
number of entoblasts (nucleoli). Now under the least pressure, the
cell-wall bursts quickly, and the mesoblast becomes fissured or wrin-
kled. In this condition the mesoblast was figured and described as the
yolk -cell proper, by no less careful an observer than Johannes Muller.
Now in the turtle, at least, the mesoblast undergoes self-division until

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 145

there are innumerable mesoblasts in the parent cells; and after the
latter have congregated to form the different layers of the incipient
organs of the embryo, and burst, the former unite side by side, and thus
become the original cells of the young tissues.

'' I feel that I cannot urge too strongly the utmost necessity of study-
ing living beings as nearly in a state of nature as is possible ; to at-
tempt this by all available means and contrivances, and, above all,
patiently, not begrudging the time, because more numerous observa-
tions might be obtained by making a piecemeal and hurried show of
dismembered Nature.

" It would certainly be more profitable, as far as living beings are
concerned, if the whole world of science should, for a while at least, in-
vestigate exclusively the few transparent animals that may be obtained,
than work over the numbex'less opaque ones which require the dissect-
ing-knife. The first having been investigated, the knowledge of them
would assist us the better to interpret the features and relations of the
tissues, which we would be obliged to study in a disconnected state, just
as fossils are recognized and restored by the comparative anatomist
after a careful research among living models.

" I have been anxious to present this communication, and to have it
recorded, because certain microscopists, who are considered as high
authority both in England and in this country, have attempted to de-
preciate the value of the flat field and wide angle of aperture in the
study of living objects. This is a little remarkable, since it comes from
a country where, until recently, the most finished microscopes of this
kind were made, and where they are now to be found in large num-
bei's. I will read a few passages, which may be found on page 196 of
Dr. Carpenter's work on the microscope. He says : ' The author
feels it the more important that he should express himself clearly and
strongly on this subject, as there is a great tendency at present, both
among amateur microscopists and among opticians, to look at the at-
tainment of that " resolving power " which is given by angular aperture,
as the one thing needful ; those other attributes which are of far more
importance in almost every kind of scientific investigation, being com-
paratively little thought of ; and he therefoi-e ventures here to repeat
the remarks he made upon this subject, in his recent Presidential Ad-
dress to the Microscopical Society, of the correctness of which he has
been since assured, by the approval of many of those who have most

VOL. IV. 19

146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

successfully employed the microscope in physiological investigations :
" The superiority in resolving power possessed by object-glasses of
large angular aperture, is obtained at the expense of other advantages.
For even granting that there is no sacrifice of that most important
element, defining power (which can only be secured, with a very wide
angle, by the utmost perfection in all the corrections), yet the adequate
performance of such a lens can- only be secured by the greatest exact-
ness in the adjustments. Only that portion of the object which is jore-
cisely in focus can be seen with an approach to distinctness, everything
that is in the least degree out of it being imbedded (so to speak) in a
thick fog ; it is requisite, too, that the adjustment for the thickness of
the glass that covers the object, should exactly neutralize the effect of
its refraction ; and the arrangement of the mirror and condenser must
be such as to give to the object the best possible illumination. If there
be any failure in these conditions, the performance of a lens of very
wide angular aperture is very much inferior to that of a lens of mod-
erate aperture ; and, except in very experienced hands, this is likely to
be generally the case. Now to the working microscopist, unless he be
studying the particular classes of objects which expressly require this
condition, it is a source of great inconvenience and loss of time to be
obliged to be continually making these adjustments ; and a lens, which,
when adjusted for a thickness of glass of i^-u", will perform with-
out much sensible deterioration Avith a thickness either of -gV" or of
y^-!s", is practically the best for all ordinary purposes. Moreover,
a lens of moderate aperture has this A'ery great advantage, that the
parts of the object which are less perfectly in focus can be much better
seen ; and therefore that the relation of that which is most distinctly
discerned, to all the rest of the object, is rendered far more apparent.
Let me remind you, further, that almost all the great achievements of
microscopic research have been made by the instrumentality of such
objectives as I am recommending. There can be no question about
the large proportion of the results which Continental microscopists may
claim, in nearly all departments of minute anatomical, physiological,
botanical, or zoological investigations, since the introduction of this
invaluable auxiliary ; and it is well known that the great majority of
their instruments are of extremely simple construction, and that their
objectives are generally of very moderate angular aperture. More-
over, if we look at the date of some of the principal contributions which

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 147

this country has furnished to the common stock, — such as the 'Odon-
tography ' of Professor Owen, the ' Researches into the Structure of
Shell ' carried out by Mr. Bowei'bank and myself, the ' Physiological
Anatomy ' of Messrs. Todd and Bowman, the first volume of the ' His-
tological Catalogue ' by Professor Quekett, and the ' British Desmideae '
of Mr. Ralfs, — we find sure reason to conclude that these researches
must have been made with the instrumentality of lenses, which would
in the present day be regarded as of very limited capacity. — I hope
that, in these remarks, I shall not be understood as in any way desirous
to damp the zeal of those who are applying themselves to the perfec-
tionizing of achromatic objectives. I regard it as a fortunate thing for
the progress of science, that there are individuals whose tastes lead
them to the adoption of this pursuit ; who stimulate our instrument-
makers to go on from one range to another, until they have conquered
the diflaculties which previously bafiied them ; and then apply them-
selves to find out some new tests, which shall offer a fresh difficulty to
be overcome. But it is not the only, nor can I regard it as the chief
work of the microscope, to resolve the markings upon the Diatomaceae,
or tests of the like difficulty ; and although I should consider this as the
highest object of ambition to our makers, if the performances of such
lenses with test-objects were any fair measure of their general utility,
yet as I think that I have demonstrated that the very conditions of
their construction render them inferior in this respect for the purposes
of ordinary microscopic research, I would much rather hold out the
reward of high appreciation {ive have no other to give) to him who
should produce the best worMng microscope, adapted to all ordinary
requirements, at the lowest cost." '

" Notwithstanding the approval of those, as Dr. Carpenter says,
' who have most successfully employed the microscope in physiological
investigations,' I do not hesitate for a moment to declare, that nothing
could be more pernicious to the best interests of science than these re-
marks. It is unfortunate that such mistaken views should be displayed
on this subject, where so great confidence has been placed, — by one, too,
whose elementary works on physiology have raised the belief, among
many, that he is perfectly conversant with those very tissues which re-
quire the nicest and most rigid microscopical investigation.

" The illustrations which I have given, of the great value of highly
corrected lenses in the study of minute structures, are sufficient, I

148 PROCEEDIIS'GS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

think, to refute these views ; but I would like to say a few words more
in conclusion, especially in reference to the general relations of micro-
scopical investigations to other departments of natural history.

" To say that objectives with a wide angle of aperture and a flat
field, are needed for only a few bodies, such as test objects, like the
Diatomaceae and other known difficult subjects, is to ignore the whole
great department of histology, and by that to refuse physiology one of
the most important aids ; in fact, an aid which, with the help of better
microscopes, in future, is likely to take the lead in the determination of
the laws of animal and vegetable life. I am well aware that the study
of histology has been pursued with the ordinary instruments, of the
German pattern, in a great measure ; but knowing what these have
done both in Europe and in this country, and having discovered, by a
few glimpses, how much more, and how much better, we might have
done, had we possessed one of these highly finished instruments, I can
confidently assert, that it is a grave error to tell opticians that they
had better devote themselves more particularly to the improvement of
the ordinary instruments, and let their transcendental corrections of
widely gaping objectives serve in the mean while as playthings for
curious amateurs.

" But it is a still more serious mistake to say to students, that an
instrument which performs under a variety of circumstances ' without
much sensible deterioration' is practically the best for all ordinary
purposes.

" So thought Ehrenberg, and yet we all now know what curious
mistakes he made. Embryology, too, comes under this proscription ;
for any one who has attempted to trace the development of animals,
especially the lower forms of life, must know that it is impossible to
separate the study of their cellular structure from the investigation of
their organs.

" I cannot more fittingly conclude this communication, than by
quoting, by Mr. Spencer's leave, a portion of a recent letter of his
to me. He says : ' It seems to me that there is every reason to hope
much from the earnest application of high powers with large angles.
So blind and inveterate has been the prejudice in favor of low powers
and small angles, in histology, that younger and less prejudiced micro-
scopists have a comparatively untrodden path before them. Every
day's thought convinces me more and more deeply of the radical mis-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 149

take that has been made in this direction. I have recently been mak-
ing some observations and experiments with low angles on certain well-
known structures, and have in several instances been struck with a
blank astonishment at the utterly false, though apparently reliable,
results obtained. It happens, too, that the physical and optical char-
acters of those tissues which, oftener than any others, are the subjects
of your study, are precisely such as will lead to the most frequent
errors ; and if you do not find that many a blunder has been made in
their study, heretofore, I shall be greatly surprised.' "

February 8, 1859. — Adjourned Stated Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of Hon. Josiah Quincy.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters,
viz. : from Der Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab,
Copenhagen, July 1, 1858 ; K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt,
Vienna, November 30, 1857 ; and the Zoologisch-Botanischer
Verein, Vienna, March 15, 1858, acknowledging the receipt
of the publications of the Academy ; — from Der Kongelige
Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, July 1, 1858 ; Societe Im-
periale des Naturalistes de Moscou, June 17, 1858 ; Die Ko-
niglich Siichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig,
April 28 and July 18, 1858 ; and Die K. K. Geologische
Reichsanstalt, Vienna, January 10, 1857, presenting their
various publications.

The recent decease of a distinguished Fellow, William
H. Prescott, the historian, was noticed in the following
remarks.

Rev. George E. Ellis said : —

" I rise, Mr. President, at your request, to engage the attention of
the Academy for a few moments in one of those sad but grateful offices
of respectful commemoration, which something better than mere usage
exacts of the living, when they miss from their pleasant fellowship an
honored associate. The late Mr. William Hickling Prescott was a

150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Fellow of this Academy. His election to it was among the very first
of that long succession of honors which the scholarly and scientific
associations of both hemispheres bestowed upon him ; feeling that they
needed the lustre of his sure fame, as much as he needed the patronage
of their applause. When I look around me now upon this circle of
gentlemen who represent so much of the higher intellectual culture of
our time, in all departments of thought, research, and genius, and when
my eye falls upon more than one who by age and intimacy has claims
far beyond my own to introduce this memorial tribute, I cannot but
shrink from what I have assented to undertake. But some grateful
motions for many, very many favors and kindnesses from our departed
friend, encourage me. They even constrain me. There is a relief for
sad feelings in the expression of grateful feelings, when they lie side
by side in the heart as engaged toward the same object. If, by speak-
ing my few sincei'e words in this presence, I can pay something of my
debt to the dead, I will do so.

" But one day more than a week has passed since — amid an assem-
bly composed of such as no other occasion would have grouped togeth-
er, and moved as by the sympathy of a very deep sorrow — we saw all
that was mortal of that cherished and eminent man, resting for a few
moments before the Christian altar where he had been wont to worship.
And then some of us saw the casket of the clay deposited in the last
repose, beside the dust of those revered parents who had remained with
him in life long enough to know his fame, and had gone before him not
so long as to be widely severed in the spaces of higher life. Some of
us associated here in the interests of the broadest range of literature,
science, and art, have already, in a circle more restricted in its object,
as devoted to his own special pursuit of history, united in a tribute to
the character and the splendid achievements of Mr. Prescott.* Nor will
those of us who thought, and felt, and listened there, soon forget the
spell from the tongues that spoke then the promptings of touched hearts.
A rare but most fitting succession of utterances ! His nearest friend in
the confidence of daily intercourse, and the most competent of all wit-
nesses as to matters of scholarship in Spanish literature ; next, the best
known and the longest in service of our American historians ; next, the
reverend President of the College, as his classmate ; then one who had

* The Massachusetts Historical Society.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES- 151

been his religious teacher and continued his attached friend ; and next
his companion in foreign travel in the bright days of their early man-
hood ; and then the emphatic tribute, without the frost and with all the
tenderness of age, offered by the Nestor of that Society, our host now, —
the venerated friend of the departed, and his father's friend. These
were enough ; but there were more, truthful and ardent tributes. But
the feeling stirred by such a loss to us, here, and there, and in how
many other places and fellowships, does not expire by its expression in
warm eulogistic utterances. And these are but the beginnings of a
series of memorials, which will need more than the months of this pass-
ing year for the gathering them into the wealth of posthumous honors.

" That long list of academic distinctions attached to Mr. Prescott's
name in the triennial Catalogue of Harvard, may represent the order in
which the most eminent of the scholarly confraternities of the civilized
world will leai-n of the bereavement which is so recent to us, and will
hasten to express, record, and transmit to a sad home, their successive
tributes. To them, for the most part, he is known only through his
works, and the report of his character as a man. To us, the familiarity
of those pleasant and winning features, of those gracious and refined
manners, of that courteous speech, and of those delightful hospitalities,
where he was so cordial, so attractive, so radiant, adds a charm that
plays over his pages, and makes real a sorrow such as strangers, remote
and distant, will not know.

" And what is the significance of these associated tributes, which such
fellowships of lettered and scientific men are prompted to render, first,
to the talents, and then, when truth allows, to the character, of their
more distinguished members ? If it were merely in friendship, through
private relationships of intercourse and esteem, or in sympathy with
the bereaved, it would be wiser to reserve speech. Those to whom it
was addressed might not be in the mood to hear it. But over the de-
parture from life of one who was eminent in the gifts of mind, and who
devoted them all, for the working period of a whole life, to the service
of the world, to instruct, to refine, and please, to extend the ennobling
sway of intellect in the toils of truth, — such personal tributes have a
warrant which needs no pleading to assure them. The only cautionary
suggestion to be remembered is, that we respect the most severe rules
of good taste in avoiding all exaggeration and flattery, and that we
think so exclusively of him that is gone, as to have no thought of bor-

152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

rowinty honor for ourselves or our association from his own worth. Mr.
Prescott's fame has ah-eady gone, on its own wings, to wider reaches
and recesses in distance and space, than any tribute from any associa-
tion is hkely to reach.

" He has done honorable and signal service to the world's literature,
and especially to American literature. "We cannot overestimate the
value of his service here. All that we can call our national literature,
leaving out of view works of merely local interest, has been gathered
during the years of Mr. Prescott's life, which was not a long one. With
the exception of the works of Franklin and Jonathan Edwards, every
book of American origin which foreigners would care much to read,
falls within this century. When the time came for us to begin, it was
well that we had master-builders to lay the foundations. Such a one
was Mr. Prescott. His many volumes — so faithfully wrought from
materials of prime value, gathered from wide research, at great cost,
sought at an opportune time, and furnished through rare impulses of
zeal and friendship by men in public and private stations aU over the
world, so happy to serve such a cause in such hands — are a noble
monument to his genius, to his industry, and to his systematic, perse-
vering, and enthusiastic devotion of time, heart, and life, under some
severe and depressing difficulties. We must not, however, exaggerate
those difficulties, nor forget his rare privileges. He himself occasion-
ally expressed regret, that where his works were best appreciated in
foreign journals, and in some quite near his home, he was represented
as wholly sightless, and as a hopeless, though very patient, invalid.
There was a sickly odor even in the praise which so overstated his
weakness of vision. He had rich and rare opportunities and facilities
for the work which he achieved. His true heart estimated them highly,
and so must we. They will not overshadow their results. He had a
finely organized nature, a placid temper, a home and parentage of the
most kindly and fostering and quickening spirit in all its sweet influ-
ences of gentleness and culture. His father was very wise, and very
good. His mother Avas all that, and saintly too. He had resources
from which to draw adequate means for every want. He had leisure
time to fill, an unprofessional life to occupy, and a just ambition to
crown with some fit end in existence. To him much was given. There
was a peculiar refinement and tenderness in his make, not womanly
either, but still manly, — a delicate grace of style and manner, which,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 153

when we see it in the favored few of our race endowed to finer uses,
half persuades us that, after all, there is a choice vein even in the mor-
tal clay which the elemental chemistry of the Creator works up for the
tabernacles of selecter human spirits. It was through this beautiful
nature that he won friends of all who approached him, and kept all
that he had won.

" With all these means and felicities, he was rightly held to accom-
plish some high service. An impaired vision turned for help to others'
eyes, and a frame not robust was spared the over-task, and was kindly
watched and exercised. Conscientiously truthful as a writer, he felt
the responsibility of stamping fair paper with records and judgments
about the dead, which would convey enduring impressions to the living.
He enjoyed the romance of his themes, and he intended so to deal with
them that his readers would be held closely to his narrative. In this
intent he succeeded. It was somewhat noticeable, that on the very day
of his obsequies, a few hours before the bookstores were to be closed
in sympathy with the sad service in the church, there was circulated
among them a prospectus and specimen sheet of a new and rival work
on the Conquest of Mexico. I saw the pamphlet, but did not feel dis-
posed then to open or to touch it. I have since read it, and find that
its claim is to a severer authenticity of narrative than is allowed to
Mr. Prescott's work, which is chai'ged with an excessive confidence in
monkish, legendary, and unreliable authorities. Mr. Prescott was well
aware that this criticism had been visited upon his History on its first
publication. The charge, however, is hardly warranted to the extent
to which it is pi'essed. The careful reader of his work will find many
cautionary and abating criticisms in his notes on these disputed author-
ities. But this is no time or occasion for pursuing such suggestions.
I wish only to add, that the promised work has lost the most interested
and candid reader that it would have had, in Mr. Prescott.

" Since he has left us, with the feeling natural at such a time, I have
been reading over, in a quiet hour, every personal memorial which I
have of him in note and letter. It is pleasant to find in them a series
of communications running parallel with his whole course as an author,
and with a score of years of most agreeable intercourse. His first
work, Ferdinand and Isabella, his gage to fame, was published just as
I was prepai-ing to leave my home, a stone's throw from his own, for
foreign travel. He asked me to assume the pleasant ofiice of convey-

VOL. IV. 20

154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

in*' copies of the book to some distinguished literary men abroad, and
of making researches for inaterials for his next projected work. Who
ever failed to serve himself in serving Mr. Prescott ? I find by one of
bis letters, dated exactly twenty years ago, that he thanks me for seek-
infT in Rome to engage that accomplished scholar, the Marquis Capponi,
to undertake an Italian translation of his work, and that he manifests
an intense ardor in the pursuit of his favorite studies.

" That projected work he completed, and others too ; and yet another,
in its midway course, he has left. But our regret for his arrested labor
on a great theme must not reflect back on his own life, as if that, too,
were incomplete, except as the exquisitely polished shaft lifted on its
base is incomplete till it receives its acanthus wreath. Every human
life is incomplete ; and the noblest, the most useful, the best devoted
lives are the least complete, because the highest purpose of them is the
least finished in its result. But neither to reason nor to Mth is there
a surer testimony to a life up and yonder, than an incomplete earthly
life when it has been pure and good, devoted, faithful, benedictive to
others.

" That library, the larger brain of him Avho was its grace and glory
to our eyes, we shall never enter again without a feeling of dreariness
and vacancy. Its fulness will express its emptiness. We shall seem
to hear in it the solemn apostrophe, so solemn, with which Sir Walter
Raleigh closes his History of the World, beginning, ' 0 Eloquent, Just,
and INIighty Death ! ' Among those gathered trophies of the world's
genius, with the choice gifts and mementos from all lands and many
hearts, he lay in death till the earth claimed her own. We believe
that Heaven had already had the better share in the spoil, — had
claimed the treasure and left the casket. I would offer to the Acad-
emy the following resolutions : —

" Resolved, That, as Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, while we bow in submission to that sovereign decree which
has closed the earthly life of our honored and cherished associate, Wil-
liam Hickling Prescott, we would join, with all our hearts deeply and
gratefully engaged in the tribute, in bearing our testimony alike to the
winning manners, the pure, unsullied life, the fine genius, the distin-
guished attainments, and the noble works in one of the highest depart-
ments of literature, which won to him such honors and such fame, at
home and abroad, during his allotted time of existence.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 155

" Resolved, That we regard his contributions to historical science as
reflecting the highest honor on this city of his residence, and on the
country which fostered and appreciated his genius ; and that every rec-
ognition, of the merits of those works, and of their author, from abroad,
is to us a renewed token of the true sympathy and union which all
liberal culture and all liberal studies will establish between the nations
of the earth.

" Resolved, That a copy of these Resolutions, signed by the Presi-
dent and the Secretary of the Academy, be transmitted to the family
of our late associate, with the expression of our profoundest sympathy
in their severe bereavement, measured only by the exalted regard, the
personal respect, and the fraternal esteem which we cherished in life
for him whom we now mourn."

The resolutions were seconded by Mr. Charles G. Loring,
as follows : —

" Mr. President, — It might perhaps seem enough simply to second
the motion now proposed, and to leave the adoption of the resolutions
to the spontaneous emotions with which the heart of every lover of
science, literature, and art, and of the beautiful and noble in character
and life, is filled in contemplating the death of William H. Prescott.

" But as one whose acquaintance with him began in the school-room,
and has continued for more than forty years in an association of the
most unreserved and familiar friendship, every member of which feels,
in his death, the sharp pang as of a domestic bereavement, I may ask
indulgence to pay a humble, simple tribute to his memory, though it
be only a pebble added to the monument which the world is raising
upon his grave.

" Of the lustre of his genius and achievements, and of the glory he
has shed upon his name and country, no one need now speak ; for the"
Avhole civilized world is familiar with them, and brighter and happier
in the consciousness of them. And least of all should I attempt to
emulate the tributes paid to them by the many gifted tongues and pens
from which such tribute may gracefully proceed.

" But of the claims — and may I not be permitted to say the higher
and holier claims ? — he had upon our affections while living, and should
have upon our fond recollections and reverential regard now that he has
left us, I feel privileged to speak, for the domain of the heart belongs

156 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

equally to all, and my acquaintance with his has been almost life-
long.

" The great foundation of his noble and beautiful character, of its
loftiness and its humility, of its strength and its loveliness, is to be
found in the wonderful equipoise of the mental and moral powers with
which he was so signally gifted, constituting, as it were, an atmosphere
in which they all had full and equal life and play, — their combined and
harmonious action giving a self-possession, for the accomplishment of
great results, far superior to physical bravery or nervous excitability,
or any capacity for extraordinary effort in great emergencies, — im-
buing him with a moral and intellectual consciousness, which needed
no summons of occasion to awaken it to action, no studied array of the
will against the seductions of passion, pleasure, or ease, and culminat-
ing in a courage which, revering and yielding to nothing but the truth,
fears nothing and which nothing can subdue, — all bathed in the con-
stant sunlight of a cheerful, genial, and affectionate temperament, per-
haps not less peculiar than his genius.

" This peculiarity of mental constitution — among the highest of the
gifts of Heaven — seems to have been a blest inheritance from a truly
noble ancestry ; evinced alike by his heroic grandfather, who retired
from the most glorious battle-field in the history of his country, where
he had imperishably interwoven his name with the achievement of her
independence, as seemingly unconscious of any unusual effort, or of any
personal meritorious achievement, as if resting from any ordinary toil
of daily duty ; and by his no less honored father, whose life was an
illustration of simple devotion to its highest duties, as unconscious of
the reverential affection and respect which everywhere surrounded
him, as he was unambitious of the public honors with which his fellow-
citizens would gladly have invested him.

" And here we have, as I think, the solution of our friend's success-
ful struggle against physical infirmity, and of his brilhant victory over
one of the most embarrassing and depressing privations which could
befall the student or aspirant for literary eminence, and particularly in
the department which he had selected ; and which privation has given
such touching interest to his works.

" Others, like him, have encountered the same calamity, — and with
equal resolution have not suffered it to impede their path ; some under
the stimulus of necessity which admitted of no halting ; others to gain

OF AKTS AND SCIENCES. 157

an otherwise inaccessible social position for themselves or families ; and
others by an overleaping ambition, knowing no rest and faltering at no
obstruction. But he whom we mourn was urged on by no such incite-
ment. The position and wealth of his family secured to him, without
effort on his part, all he could desire of rank or competency in social
life ; and he had none of the restless craving for distinction, or for sur-
passing others, too often the sole incentive of vulgar ambition : nor was
he pressed by the solicitations or flatteries of friends to seek for himself
a name among the eminent of the earth.

" But his noble struggle and glorious victory over the embarrass-
ments which environed him in the outset of his career, and which to
many would have seemed insurmountable, resulted from the natural
and unstrained workings of a self-poised mind, conscious of its powers
and duties ; loving, for their own sakes, the play of its mental and
moral faculties, and the truths to which it led ; and looking upon the
obstacles in his path only as suggesting the means of overcoming them.

"And here, too, we may find an explanation of the remarkable
equanimity and simplicity evinced amid the world-wide honor and
adulation showered upon him at home and abroad. They are attrib-
utable to no studied efibrt of self-control, and no premeditated disci-
pline of mind or heart, but were the natural result of this never-failing
moral self-possession, raising him above them. These honors had not
been the moving object of his efforts, nor the rewards he had been
seeking, great and precious as they may be justly esteemed. The
compensation he had sought for was found in the joyous exercise of
his faculties, and the gratifying results to which it led in his own mind
and heart. These outw^ard manifestations of his success were but the
adventitious circumstances attending those results. He was not, nor
indeed could he have been, unmindful of them, or of the just gratifica-
tions to be derived from them ; nor did he affect to disregard or under-
value them. He was modestly conscious of his honors, and enjoyed
them in communion with his friends, but most simply and unassum-
ingly.

" The character and manners of Mr. P^escott were distinguished
by a manly, prompt, and universal benevolence, — never checked nor
chilled, but pleasurably excited by the success of others ; and never
yielding to any gratification in their failures or errors, but throwing
over all the mantle of loving-kindness and charitable construction.

158 TROCEEDINQS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" His wit was indeed ever ready and inexhaustible, and be was
keenly perceptive of tbe ridiculous in every form. But his playful
raillery was never tinged with any unkindness, — more often turning
upon himself than upon others, or reaching others only through him-
self; while producing often uncontrollable merriment, it ever ended in
increased love and admiration of the genuine simplicity and nobleness

of his nature.

" It would be to me, Mr. President, a delightful theme to dAvell fur-
ther upon the noble and beautiful elements composing the character of
our friend, — the remembrance of Avhich, to those who knew him inti-
mately, is far more precious than that of his literary renown, great and
world-wide as that is ; — to delineate that marvellous combination of
manly strength with feminine delicacy and child-like simplicity ; that
ever sensitive conscientiousness regarding his own duty, united -with
such gentle charity for others ; that instinctive love of truth, combined
with such brilliant imagination, by Avhose light it was ever so beauti-
fully illustrated, but never distorted ; that wit and habitual merriness,
so exquisite and yet so harmless ; and that loyalty to friendship and
affection, in the fond remembrance of which so many heai-ts are bleed-
ing. But I must forbea:*, and leave the theme to a fitter place and
abler hands.

" I have, therefore, only to add, that, in seconding the motion for the
adoption of the resolutions, I do it in the conviction that the Academy
has never lost a member more worthy of an honored memorial upon
its records."

The resolutions were also supported by Professor Theophi-
lus Parsons, as follows: —

" When you intimated to me, Mr. President, your wish that I should
say a few words on the topic Avhich will occupy us this evening, it was
difficult to assent, but impossible to refuse. I know not in what words
to speak of Prescott. He was my oldest friend, — the last friend of
my boyhood. Our fathers were intimate friends, and their intimacy
fell to us as an inheritance. His genial face, and that cordial manner,
which was but the transparent vesture of his constant kindness, I shall
meet no more. But this is not the place to speak of my personal rela-
tions to him. Nor need I add my testimony to the universal recogni-
tion of the ability, the industry, the accurate learning, the admirable

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 159

judgment, and the perfect taste, which have placed him at the head of
our literature, and made him our pride.

" There was, however, one peculiarity in his character which I have
studied carefully, and have not as yet seen fully noticed by any of the
many who have spoken of him ; and I should be glad to say a few
words in relation to it. I refer to the blending in him of qualities
which are usually regarded, not only as opposites, but as antagonists,
and as mutually destructive.

" On the one hand, he was by nature soft, tender, and impressible.
I never knew a person who had so much capacity for enjoyment; and
I never knew one who had a greater love for it. And this was uni-
versal. It seemed as if he were alive to all the emotions, and possessed
all the sensibilities, which are divided among other men, and in their
division constitute the means of happiness for each. And I will add,
that he was naturally as susceptible as any one could be, of every
curled rose-leaf which threatened to mar his enjoyment.

" But, on the other hand, this man had an iron will ; before his
invincible energy, obstacles which to others would have seemed, and
would have been, insurmountable, melted away. By his strength of
purpose, obstructions were converted into helps. He had a resolute
and unflinching self-control and self-restraint, and an unfailing power
of self-government, upon which he knew that he could depend, and on
which he did depend, always advancing, never losing a step that he
had gained, and never doubting that he should gain the next, until, at
length, he stood upon the eminence which from the beginning had been
his goal, and upon which death found him.

" It has seemed to me that these qualities concealed each other, even
from those who knew him. They who were most assured that he had
won his high position by a stern devotion to his own lofty aims, and by
unexampled force of character, sometimes imagined that such a man
could not be sincere in his ready sympathy with all, in his full enjoy-
ment of common pleasures, in the cordiality with which he came forth
to meet all who approached him, in the smile which made all who saw
it believe that he was happiest when he c6uld make others happy ;
and it seemed to them as if this must be only a thin varnish, a mask of
courtesy, which his knowledge of the world taught him to wear.

" Nothing, nothing could be more untrue. Believe me, Mr. Presi-
dent, when I say that an experience of more than fifty years justifies

160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

my assertion, that it was out of the abundance of his full and overflow-
in'' heart that his mouth spake his many words of kindness. And
they who were certain of this, — who saw him day after day, entering
with as ready gladness into all social pleasures as if he were the merest
idler, and giving himself up to the enjoyment of the hour as if lie had
no other use for his time but to give it wings, — they found it difficult
to believe that there was not something of unreality in his world-wide
fame ; or that something of accident had not helped him in his extraor-
dinary career ; or that his unconquerable will had fairly paid for his
great success the full price of severe labor, of effort, and of sacrifice.
As difficult as it might be for one who looks on a mountain clothed
with beauty and fruitfulness from its foot to its summit, — whose flowers
breathe fragrance and whose foliage bends to the summer wind, — to
remember while he looks, that its framework and substance are of the
everlasting granite thlit bids defiance to accident and to the assault of
the tempest.

" Prescott will ever give a valuable lesson to all who knew him, and
to all who, without knowing him, form a just idea of him, — and they
must be many, for surely History will long love to speak of him, —
and this lesson will be, that all of a man's nature may be cultivated
and exercised and indulged and enjoyed, if only all its qualities are
duly arranged and subordinated. These two elements of character of
which I have spoken did not merely co-exist in him, but co-operated.
If either had been absent, or either had been less, he never would have
done all that he has done. Every one admits, that, without his un-
yielding energy and his invincible endurance, he could not have ac-
complished his great works, in defiance of the great obstacles which
cumbered his path. I am quite as sure, that even this energy and this
endurance would have failed and fainted, if they had not been con-
stantly invigorated, and refreshed, and filled with new life, by his ex-
quisite sensibility to all innocent enjoyment.

" Let no one who would pluck a leaf of laurel from the topmost
bough, imagine that he must nurse his strength for this achievement
by the sacrifice and suppression of whatever in him is sympathetic and
sensitive and responsive to others. Let Prescott tell him how aN the
gifts of a rich nature may be kept in full life, and may invigorate each
other. Let Prescott remind him that there was a laborious student,
whose hours of toil nothing was prmitted to interrupt, and whose de-

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 161

terrained industry nothing was permitted to abate, and yet whose com-
panionship was sought as no other man's was ; because, when the hour
for labor had passed, he went forth among his friends like sunshine,
and filled them with sympathetic gladness from his own joyous nature.
" We sometimes hear it said that a man has succeeded in some great
effort because he put his whole soul into it. This would be true of
Prescott in its ordinary meaning, which is only that he succeeded by
enthusiastic labor. But it is true of him in a more definite, and, as I
think, in a higher sense. If I were asked to give in the fewest words
the explanation of his career, I should say that he did great things in
despite of great difficulties, because he was richly endowed with many
and various quahties and faculties, and in all his work the whole man
worked together, with a harmony which gave to every faculty the sup-
port and the strength of all the rest."

Mr. Charles Folsom also noticed the decease of Mr. Pres-
cott, as follows : —

" Mr. President, — After what has been so eloquently and fittingly
said of the talents and virtues of Mr. Prescott in various other rela-
tions, I cannot refrain from bearing my personal testimony, (for which
I may not have another opportunity,) as to their habitual exercise in
the details of his literary life, his life as a working scholar.

" It is now about forty-seven years since I was a spectator, at Cam-
bridge, of the calamitous accident which consigned him for many months
to a darkened room, with the entire loss of one eye and a permanent
injury of the other; — a dispensation of Providence, which, 'depriving
him of sight,' (it may be said, I believe, as truly in his case as in any
other,) ' gave him song.' From that painful hour my interest in him
began. Years of distant separation soon followed ; but when I next
met him, it was to be admitted to his close friendship, after the purpose
of his life was fixed and he had already put on that bright harness for
intellectual achievements, which he wore to the last. From that time.
Sir, I had the privilege to be cognizant (few were more intimately so)
of the inception, the progress, and the glorious completion of all his
published writings, from his essays — his prelusive attempts — in the
North American Review, down to the volume which is the most pre-
cious as his last.

" Of the ' calamities of authors ' he knew nothing from experience ;

VOL. IV. 21

162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

but no writer for the public can be exempt from the vexations of au-
thorship. The testimony I would now bear to our deceased friend is

tjiis ; that, amidst all the petty trials which to so many authors make

life one continued agony, or constant solicitude, he ever kept his seren-
ity, his superiority to bis work ; — that, though self-relying, because
conscious of his high faculties and of the scrupulous fidelity he had
used in seeking for the truth, he yet welcomed the contradiction of
friends while it could aid him in reviewing his own judgments (always
his own) whether as to fact or to expression. In such cases he was so
intent upon accuracy in fact and fitness in art, that his self-love never
was wounded by the sharpest criticism, right or wrong. It was a
personal matter, not with him, but with Truth, whom he served. If
wrong, it glanced off; if right, he laid it upon her altar. The self-
discipline which this implies in one so sensitive to literary applause, so
justified (if any one could be) in intellectual pride, can belong only to
noble natures ; and its exercise is a test of true magnanimity.

" Endowed with the imagination and fancy of a poet, he felt his
danger as an historian ; and he restrained his fancy with a giant's
grasp. Proportion, congruity, what sacrifices do they not require of a
mind so exuberant ! The ingenious thoughts, the briUiant images, the
felicitous phrases, which were discarded, — how great was the sum of
them ! The rejected stones were of the same material as the edifice in
its finished beauty. When he had established the facts relating to his
theme by the most laborious study, perhaps for years, and his mind
was full-fraught with materials, arranged in logical order, then ' he
mused, and the fire burned.' Then came the bounding play of his
finer faculties. He delighted to throw himself into the characters he
had to do with, in their own time and place, and to reason, feel, enjoy,
and suffer with them ; and this he thought necessary in order to pass a
fair judgment on them as human agents, — as they were in themselves,
and as influenced by circumstances. He 'suffered' with them, and
'learned mercy.' But he never failed afterward dispassionately to
take the judgment-seat. His mind had become eminently judicial,
trained in this respect by the most intimate communion with his
distinguished father. And if he has not often pronounced formal
sentences, — if, of all that was true in any case, he shows a marked
propension to what was unquestionably good in it, — he yet believed
that somewhere, in his text or his notes, he had left, in every such

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 163

case, evidence, not to be mistaken, of a moral judgment ■which would
stand the strictest scrutiny.

" With him composition was not necessarily connected with the use
of the pen. Such was the power of his disciplined memory, that, even
when abroad for exercise, he could go on ' weaving his lay,' and con-
fiding sentence after sentence to the faithful tablet within him. Be-
neath the hoary willows at Nahant, which bound and overshadow
' Prescott's Walk,' he might be seen, day after day, treading alone for
hours the short and well-worn path ; and sometimes heard, too, but
muttering no ' wayward fancies.' There he marshalled his armies, and
fought again battles that had once settled the fate of nations. There
gorgeous processions passed in review before him, or tropical scenery
clothed the rocks of Nahant. He more than once said to me, that
what he considered some of the happiest passages in his works were
not only thought out, but mentally fixed in precisely their present lan-
guage, on that narrow spot. It will hereafter be numbered among the
* remai'kable places ' associated with the history of remarkable minds.

" But, Sir, I will not anticipate his biographer, or further delay the
passage of the Resolutions before you, which I second with my whole
heart."

The resolutions were unanimously adopted.

Piofessor B. Peirce announced to the Academy the decease
of the late William Cranch Bond, Director of the Observatory
of Harvard University, as follows : —

" Mr. President, — How often is it noticed in the affairs of men that
affliction waits upon affliction ! It is my sad duty to swell the current
of the present sorrow, and draw the attention of the Academy to the
loss of another of our most eminent associates, whose far-reaching and
well-earned reputation has been reflected back from the older shore of
the Atlantic, in one of the distinguished honors so rarely conferred
upon those of American birth. William Cranch Bond, the Director of
the Observatory of Harvard College, and Phillips Professor of Prac-
tical Astronomy, has ascended to the nearer study of the stars, and
joined the constellation of the devout astronomers of past ages. I can
attempt no elaborate eulogy, but must depend upon those whom Heav-
en has gifted with diviner powers of utterance to express the emotions
to which we are all ready to respond.

164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" Durin» seventeen years I have been Mr. Bond's colleague in Har-
vard ColIe"-e, and this interval comprises the whole period in which he
had any favorable opportunity of astronomical investigation. Bi>t his
love for the science had been shown long before he came to Harvard,
and even a quarter of a century earlier he made a careful survey of
the Greenwich Observatory, at the request of Professor Farrar, with
direct reference to the superintendence of the erection of an observa-
tory at Cambridge. This was in the year 1815, at a time when only
a small fraction of the present members of this Academy had reached
the age of manhood, and while Bowditch was still in Salem, with his
great intellect just beginning to dawn upon the learned societies of
Europe. When Mr. Bond returned from England, he set up a small
observatory of his own, where he undertook the observation of occulta-
tions and eclipses. It was here that he developed one of the finest ele-
ments of genuine enthusiasm and true genius, that of accomj)lishing
much with small means. In this liberal age, when there is such a
generous flow of material aid to the laboratories of science, there may
be danger that the ostentatious display of the appliances for discovery
will be substituted for the performance. On the contrary, a healthy
state of pubhc opinion should demand that the intellectual product be
commensurate with the greatness of opportunity, and that the magni-
tude of donation should be proportionate to the reasonable anticipation
of the corresponding increase of knowledge among mankind.

" "While Mr. Bond was devoting himself to astronomy with simple
and unassuming zeal, he attracted the kind and approving regards of
men whose approbation and friendship were worthy of being secured,
and who never deserted him. When, in the year 1842, he was drawn
to Cambridge by the strong hand of President Quincy ; when the cause
of the Observatory was undertaken by the unflinching and irresistible
vigor of my friend, Mr. J. Ingersoll Bowditch ; when even the heavens
came to our assistance, and that wonderful comet of 1843, appearing at
mid-day in close proximity to the sun, and seeming to send off in a few
hours its immense train of two hundred millions of miles in length, ex-
cited most opportunely a universal interest in celestial phenomena, —
it was then apparent that the aftection for Mr. Bond was the chief
strength of the occasion, and to that were we mainly indebted for the
successful attempt to obtain the unrivalled equatorial of the University,
and to lay the foundations of the Observatory. In the history of Amer-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 165

ican science there is no more memorable epoch. An Observatory was
finally established, — that natural and almost necessary centre and
nucleus of science. The mathematicians must thenceforth concentrate
upon it, the physicists must gather upon the geometers, and then the
chemists, geologists, physiologists, and the whole sphere of the sciences,
must condense and organize around it, by a law as certain as that by
which the stone tends to the centre of the earth, as organic as that by
which the homogeneous egg grows into a living being, with all its
system of vital organs and intricate machinery, and as comprehensive
as that by which the nebulaj are condensed, through spirals, rings, and
spheroids, into astral and solar systems. The habitations of the other
sciences are free to move from place to place, but the temple of astron-
omy is fixed in its position ; with its towers and piers, it stands immov-
able, and the wise men who would worship in it must seek it beneath
the star which" stands above it. The observatory is immovable, with
its foundations deeply imbedded in the solid earth, but its telescope
ever points in that direction where all science must begin and end, —
toward God's throne, toward the perpetually moving and infinitely
deep ocean of the stars, — and ever raises us neai*er and nearer to the
lessons which the Creator has written upon the firmament. Is it not,
then, the truest type of eternal progress founded upon immutable prin-
ciple ?

" The astronomical researches of Mr. Bond while at the Observatory
are so recent, that I need only allude to them. By the habits of his life
his attention was especially drawn toward the improvement of the in-
strumental means of observation. Hence we have from him, and under
his administration, — 1st. The ingenious Observing-Chair of the great
equatorial ; 2d. The Spring- Governor, which, whatever may be the
rival claims as to the invention of the admirable telegraphic method of
observation, which is replacing all other methods, has even been intro-
duced into the Observatory of Greenwich, and is everywhere known as
the American method, is generally admitted to be much the finest con-
trivance yet invented for the making and preserving of its records, and
which has also been recently adopted, with extraordinary success, for
the sustenance of a most exquisite form of uniform rotation ; and
3d. The application of photography to the sun, moon, and stars.

" In his original investigations, he naturally restrained himself to
those forms of observation which were fully within the reach of his

166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

own resources. He did not, therefore, seek those inquu-ies which could
only be accomplished by long, intricate, and profound mathematical
compulations, but preferred those which were merely dependent upon
the thorough discipline of the senses. He consequently availed himself
less of the remarkable capacity of his instrument for delicate and re-
fined measurements, than of its exquisite optical qualities. But when
observations were required which must be passed over to the computer,
his skill was not wanting to the occasion. Thus, in conjunction with
Major Graham, he made that choice series of observations from which
the latitude of the Observatory was determined. His observations, and
those made under his administration, upon the nebulte of Orion and
Andromeda ; the interesting discoveries as to their revolution and pe-
culiar configuration ; the researches into the physical aspects of the
different planets, and especially those upon the Saturnian system ; and
the remarkable discoveries of the larger ring and of the fluid constitution
of the ring, and of the eighth satellite, — need only be named. They
are known to all ; they have passed into the text-books of astronomy,
and our children's children will be familiar with the name of Bond.

" Permit me, Sir, to embody my high estimation of Mr. Bond in the
following Resolutions : —

" Resolved, That, as Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, we are grateful for the long and valuable services of William
Cranch Bond, who has proved that an American mechanic can accom-
plish one of the highest positions in science, and whose astronomical
discoveries have illustrated his country and his Observatory, and stamped
his own name honorably and indelibly upon the records of history.

" Resolved, That in the simplicity and sincerity of his Christian life,
which, purifying his spiritual atmosphere from all influences which
might disturb observation, imparted that serenity and tranquillity which
charmed his friends, and was manifest in the modesty, neatness, and
integrity of his various communications to the public, he was an exam-
ple which we grieve to have lost.

" Resolved, That a copy of these Resolutions be communicated to his
family, with the expression of the profound sympathy of the Academy
in their great and sudden bereavement.

" Resolved, That copies of these Resolutions be transmitted to the
different learned and scientific societies of which Professor Bond was
a member."

J

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 167

The resolutions were seconded by Hon. Josiah Quincy, in
the following words : —

" I cannot refrain from offering a brief tribute to the memory of
William Cranch Bond, with whom my acquaintance began early in
this century, and has continued to the present time. His name re-
calls that of his maternal uncle, Richard Cranch, of whom a transient
notice is not out of place. He was one of our number, and was
among the early associates of this Academy. As his position in-
dicates, he was one of the distinguished men of his day, — sought,
honored, and beloved. His look and countenance are almost identi-
cally expressed in the portrait of John Locke, prefixed to the folio
edition of his works ; and his contemporaries recognized in Mr. Cranch
the same searching, liberal, intelligent spirit. The character of Mr.
Bond was, I doubt not, influenced by that of this relative. In their
talents and temperament there was a marked similarity. Each of
them gentle, simple, and unobtrusive in mind and manners, — casting
a natural light on the objects of thought and discussion, without seek-
ing or expecting any self-illustration from the reflection of its rays.

"William Cranch Bond was born in Portland, Maine, in 1789.
The removal of his parents to Boston, in 1790, gave him the advan-
tage of the common schools for a short time, but pecuniary restrictions
obliged him to become an apprentice to his father, ' before,' as he said,
* he had learned the multiplication-table,' in the business of a watch-
maker and a regulator of chronometers. To acquire greater accuracy
in his employment, he was accustomed to take the altitudes of heavenly
bodies in hours stolen from business or sleep, and supplied the want of
adequate instruments by inventions of his own. His observations of
meridian transits were first made by adjusting sight-vanes to the side
of a house, over which he noted the appearance and disappearance of
the stars. To improve his sight, he was accustomed to gaze for some
time into a deep well before searching the sky for comets and indistinct
objects.

"The total eclipse of the sun in 1806 first directed the attention of
Mr. Bond to the study of astronomy, at the age of seventeen.

"In 1811 the observations he made on the comet of that year were
honorably noticed by Professor Farrar, and published in the third
volume of the Memoirs of the American Academy (page 308). This

168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

obicct was detected by liim four months before it was seen at Cam-
bric] "-e ; not by accident, for at this time he was in the habit of care-
fully noticing celestial phenomena, but with little assistance from in-
struments; and his talents and attainments now drew upon him the
attention of scientific men in this vicinity, — among others, of Professor
Farrar and Dr. Bowditch. By their influence, he received from the
Corporation of Harvard College, in 1815, a commission to examine
the Observatories and their instruments in Europe. On his return, he
constructed the model of a dome, which, in all essential respects, resem-
bled that erected thirty years afterwards at the Cambridge Observatory.
The mode now univdrsally adopted for supporting and moving it, is
claimed to be his original invention.

"In the autumn of 1839, I learnt that Mr. Bond was engaged under
an appointment and contract with the government of the United States,
with a well-adapted apparatus, in a series of observations on meteorol-
ogy, magnetism, and moon culminations, as also on all the eclipses of
the sun and moon, and Jupiter's satellites, in connection with those
which should be made by the officers of the expedition to the South
Sea, commenced under the authority of Congress, for the determina-
tion of longitude and for other scientific purposes. I was at that time
President of Harvard University, and being satisfied, by inquiry, of
the depth and extent of the scientific attainments of Mr. Bond, and of
his singular fidelity and exactness as an observer, I proposed to him,
before asking the sanction of the Corporation, to transfer his astronom-
ical observations from Dorchester to Cambridge, and to unite his astro-
nomical collections with those the University possessed, and carry
them on there, and thus draw the attention of the students and the
public more forcibly to astronomical science, and create a general in-
terest in the community on the subject, and perhaps form a nucleus for
an efficient institution.

" To this end I promised him the rent of a house, that three thou-
sand dollars should be raised by subscription and apphed to the erec-
tion of a building, which, though humble, should have the name and
some of the requisites of an Observatory. I intimated the hope that
by these means, aided by his labors, character, and influence, an im-
pression might be made on the public of the wants of the University
in this respect, and a desire created to supply them.

"This proposal, so in unison with his pursuits and talents, I expected

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 169

would be received witli pleasure, or at least some expression of satis-
faction. But it was far otherwise. In the spirit of that innate modesty
which predominated in his character, and apparently cast a shadow over
all his excellent qualities and attainments, Mr. Bond hesitated, doubted
his qualifications for the position. He said his habits were not adapted
to public station ; that our combined apparatus would be small, and that
something great might be expected ; that he preferred independence in
obscurity to responsibility in an elevated position. He raised many
other objections, which need not here be repeated, as they were over-
come ; and he ultimately transferred his astronomical collections to
Cambridge ; three thousand dollars were raised ; the Corporation pro-
vided him with a suitable house, on which a rotary rotunda was raised,
from which students of the University nightly watched falling stars,
and astronomical observations began more and more to interest them
and the community. The kind and unpretending demeanor of Mr.
Bond, united with his recognized attainments, greatly contributed to
effect the desired result. It is not too much to say, that the extent of
his knowledge, the winning urbanity of his manners, and his exemplary
exactness in life, and as an observer, in a great degree effected the
attainment of those large means and increased powers, which ulti-
mately raised to its present prosperous state the Observatory over
which, through subsequent life, he watched, and which he left at death
honored and improved by his labors and genius.

" I have expressed my sense of his worth and of his virtues ; it is
for others better qualified to analyze and dilate on his scientific ac-
quirements."

Mr. Quincy was followed by Hon. Robert C. Winthrop,
who said ; —

" I have no purpose, Mr. President, of detaining the Academy, at
this late hour of the evening, by adding superfluous words to so full, so
just, so appropriate a tribute, as that which has already been paid to
the memory of our lamented associate. The privilege of dealing with
such a career and character as Mr. Bond's belonged eminently to my
accomplished friend. Professor Peirce, and to our venerable host. Pres-
ident Quincy ; — and I am entirely conscious how small a claim I have
to unite with them in bearing testimony to the peculiar merits of so
distinguished a man of science.

VOL. IV.

22

170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" It has happened to me, however, for six or seven years past, to be
a member of the Committee, appointed by the Overseers of the Univer-
sity, for visiting the Observatory at Cambridge ; and, during three or
four of those years, to be the Chairman of that Committee. In this
■way, I have been brought into frequent connection and consultation
with the late Director, and have been one of the authorized witnesses
of the manner in which he discharged his responsible and arduous
duties.

" I desire, therefore, in a single word, to express my deep sense of
his devoted fidelity to the interests of the institution over which he
presided ; and, especially, of his uniformly kind and obliging attention
to every inquiry, recommendation, or suggestion of those who, from
year to year, were deputed to examine into its condition.

" His own scientific attainments never rendered him impatient to-
wards those of humbler pretension ; still less did they blind him to
higher truths than any which telescopes can reveal. I only echo the
sentiment of one of the pending resolutions of Professor Peirce in
saying, that a pure and beautiful spirit of Christian faith and love
seemed to actuate his whole conduct, manifesting itself, calmly but
clearly, alike whether he conversed with his fellow-men, or whether
he conversed with the stars.

" It is this which would alone make his memory precious to his
friends, even were his ingenuity forgotten, his inventions superseded,
his science obsolete. It is this which consoles them with the hope,
that, though he has now passed out of the field of mortal view, — far,
far beyond the range or reach of reflector or refractor, — he may here-
after be seen among those who 'shall shine forth as the sun in the
kingdom of their Father,'

" It may be well for us all, Mr. President, not to forget, at a mo-
ment when literature and science are mingling their tears over the
ashes of two of their most ardent and most successful votaries, that the
qualities of both which are now most fondly recalled, are not those
alone which peculiarly belonged to them as the historian and the
astronomer."

Mr. Charles Folsom next spoke, as follows : —

" Mr. President, — The gentleman who presented the resolutions be-
fore you, in his earnest and discriminating tribute to the merits of Mr.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 171

Bond as an astronomer, said that he saw around him so many of his
friends and neighbors, that it was hardly necessary to speak of his per-
sonal qualities as witnessed by them in private intercourse. To them,
indeed, it is not necessary. They anticipate at once all that can be
said on this point. But, Sir, Mr. Bond was for so long a time obliged
to consecrate whatever of time and health his physical infirmity left at
his disposal to the study of the heavens, that his earthly relations were
comparatively contracted ; and many who have been nigh dwellers have
had to regret that they could not, with a true regard for him, seek to
be neighbors. I happen to be one of the few persons present who
began to know him, in social and domestic life, long before he came to
the University ; and we know, that, to the last, in his domestic and
social relations he manifested the spirit of the heaven of heavens, —
there is but one word for it, — love. It was his very nature.

" President Quincy has informed us how the professional astronomer
was superinduced on the devoted father of a family. Mr. Bond was
also the staff of his own venerable father, to be again, in his turn,
blessed during his public scientific career with the support — the co-
operation of mind, heart, and hand — of one who has been to him at
the same time a son and as a brother. Allusion has been made. Sir, to
the beautiful blending of these relations in the case of the deceased
friend whom the Academy has just commemorated. The parallel
occurred to me when the parties were all living ; and I trust that the
mention of it now is not out of keeping in a meeting like this. I
heartily second the resolutions."

The resolutions were then unanimously adopted.

Four buudred and sixty-first meeting.

February 22, 1859. — Supplementary Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Professor Gray resumed the subject of his communication
to the meeting on January 11, upon the distribution of plants
in the northern temperate zone, and especially in North Amer-
ica and Eastern Asia, and undertook to indicate some of the
vicissitudes to which our extant vegetation must have been
exposed in earlier times, and which must have influenced the
geographical distribution of the species.

172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

He remarked that, for obvious reasons, the remains of
plants are not so likely to be found in recent terrestrial
formations, as the bones of animals ; but when they do
occur, they furnish most important data. Researches into
vetretable fossils of the tertiary and quaternary formations
have recently been commenced in this country by Mr. Leo
Lesquereux, who has already shown, in the very beginning
of these investigations, that some of our species of plants
were in existence anterior to the drift or glacial epoch, and
even in the later tertiary period. For instance, in the chalky
banks of the Mississippi River, near Columbus, Kentucky,
regarded by Mr. Lesquereux as anterior to the drift, this
accurate botanist had identified fossilized leaves of our Live-
Oak, Honey-Locust, Pecan, Planer-tree, Chinquapin Chest-
nut, and Prinos lucidus, besides those of an Elm and of a
Ceanothus, which were only doubtfully referable to existing
species. The position of the strata bearing these fossil leaves
had been indicated by Professor J). J). Owen " as about one
hundred and twenty feet lower than the ferrugineous sand in
which the bones *of the Megalomjx Jeffersonii were found " ;
so that if not anterior, they must have been immediately sub-
sequent to the glacial period; — most likely the latter, since
all the vegetable remains of this deposit, which were in a
determinable condition, were either positively or probably
referred to existing species of the North American flora,
although most of them now inhabited a region a few de-
grees farther south. Again, in a deposit, certainly older than
the drift, near Somerville, Tennessee, which Mr. Lesque-
reux regarded as belonging to the lower or middle pliocene,
among fossil leaves all apparently referable to genera of the
present flora, two fifths of the species were identified by Mr.
Lesquereux with existing species ; those of which the iden-
tification was undoubted, viz. Per sea Carolinensis, Prunus
CaroUniana^ and Quercus myrtifolia, now belonging to the
warm sea-coast and islands of the Southern States.

Professor Gray remarked that this coincided with other

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 173

evidence, which conspired to render it in the highest degree
probable, as he thought, that at least a considerable portion
of our temperate flora was in existence in the early post-
tertiary, and even in the later tertiary times. Also, that this
early temperate flora then ranged much farther north than
now. This he thought clear, both from the species identified
in these deposits, and especially from the character of the
land animals which in those days roamed over the plains of
the Nebraska, consisting of Camels, Horses, an Elephant, a
Mastodon, a Rhinoceros, &c. ; these herbivorous animals most
probably feeding in great part upon herbage like that of the
present period, since herbaceous plants and grasses are likely
to be more ancient than trees. And, since these animals
must have had a truly warm-temperate climate. Professor
Gray would positively infer that, in lat. 40° - 43°, they were
not living anywhere near the northern limit of the temperate
flora ; so that the temperate flora, which now crosses the six-
tieth parallel in Western Europe, must have then extended to
at least as high latitudes in Western North America ; and
this would make the temperate floras of North America and
of Northeastern Asia essentially conterminous, and therefore
commingle a certain number of species.

Subsequently, the glacial epoch, coming slowly on, did
not destroy the species, or at least did not destroy those
species which Mr. Lesquereux has identified with existing
ones, so that the same may be inferred of similar species.
Those which did survive through a period which brought
an arctic climate down to the northern part of the Southern
United States, it appeared certain to Professor Gray, must
have been pushed on still farther south, and between them
and the ice there must have been a band of cold-temperate
and of arctic vegetation, perhaps as broad as that now inter-
posed between Live-Oaks, Chinquapin Chestnuts, or Pecan-
trees, and the present ice. The existence at that period of
an arctic flora, of species identical with*the present, was
demonstrated by the arctic species which, retreating up our

174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

mountains as the climate gradually grew milder, still exist
scantily upon the highest peaks of the Alleghanies, and in
greater numbers upon the cooler mountain-summits of New
England and New York.

As the ice receded northward at the close of the glacial
period, the temperate flora would naturally follow it ; and
Professor Gray insisted, as a most important point in the
present discussion, that the temperate vegetation must have
again advanced, after the glacial epoch, much farther north,
and especially northwest, than it now does ; so far north,
indeed, that the temperate floras of North America and of
Eastern Asia — before conterminous, and then most widely
separated — must have again become conterminous. How-
ever it may have been in the ante-glacial period, — although
it appears certain that some, and probable that many, of our
species of plants then existed, — Professor Gray thought it
could not be doubted that most of our present species were
in existence immediately after the glacial period, and there-
fore liable to interchange with Eastern Asia at a time when
the temperate floras of the two regions were contiguous.

The evidence of such contiguity during what Professor
Dana terms the fluvial epoch, which succeeded the glacial.
Professor Gray remarked, was that a milder climate than the
present then supervened, — perhaps not so much higher in
the mean temperature of the year at the North, as more equa-
ble, — a more oceanic climate, such as would naturally result
from the extensive submergence of northern, or at least of
northeastern land, when the sea stood five hundred feet above
its present level in the basin of the St. LawTcnce, and our
great alluvial plains, from fifty to three hundred feet above
the present bed of the rivers, were flooded. Professor Gray
alluded to the character of the herbivorous animals of that
period, and their high northern range, as demonstrating
that our temperate flora then reached northward far beyond
the arctic circle ; for that was the era of the Megatherium,
Megalonyx, Mylodon, Mastodon, a Dicotyles, a wild horse,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 175

&c. in the United States ; when the Elephas Americanus
ranged north to Canada, and the Siberian Elephas primi-
g-enius from Canada to the Arctic Sea, as well as in Europe
and Asia from lat. 40° to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, —
in the Old World accompanied by a Rhinoceros, which in
Siberia ranged as far north as the Elephant. Taking this as
proof that the temperate floras on both sides extended fully
up to Behring's Straits, — if, indeed, these straits then ex-
isted,— Professor Gray was unable to suppose that species
of plants did not come or go when the Siberian Elephant
did.

This warm or mild period was followed by the terrace
epoch, as Dana terms it, — a time of transition towards the
present condition, bringing the northern part of this continent
up to its present level and down to its present cool tempera-
ture, so giving to the arctic flora its present extent, and again
separating the temperate floras of the New and of the Old
World to the extent they are now separated.

Professor Gray observed, that he could not appreciate the
objection that the admission of such vicissitudes militated
against the idea of a plan in creation, and in " the adaptation
of organic types to similar corresponding physical features,"
unless the objection goes to the extreme of implying that the
present state of things so strictly represents the primitive con-
dition as to exclude second causes, and to deny that physical
influences, known to have been in operation, should have pro-
duced their natural effects in former times as well as now.
Looking at the long and eventful history of vegetable species.
Professor Gray was not inclined to think that the Eriocaulon
septangular e of our Atlantic border was separately created
also in the Isle of Skye and a few of the neighboring Hebrides,
and in a local station on the western coast of Ireland, while
it occurs nowhere else in the Old World, and has not a single
generic or ordinal representative in Europe, — nor that the Gin-
seng was created in three widely-separated parts of the world,
viz. in Eastern North America, in Japan and Mantchuria, and

176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

in NeiDaul, — any more than that patches of Alpine vegeta-
tion, wholly of Labradorian species, were separately created
on Mount Katahdin in Maine, the White Mountains of New
Hampshire, and a few summits of the Green Mountains and
Adirondacks. ,

As respects the vegetation of former epochs, so far was
Professor Gray from conceding " that the present distribution
[of plants] was linked with that of earlier periods in a man-
ner which excluded the assumption of extensive migrations,
or of a shifting of the flora from one area to another," that he
was, on the contrary, struck with the remarkable dissimilar-
ity between the early tertiary and the more ancient floras of
Europe and America and that now existing ; for example, the
miocene flora of the coast of Oregon being very like that
of Switzerland of the same period, and in both a tropical flora
of predominant Australasian types ; the eocene flora of at
least some parts of Europe being prominently Australian ;
the flora of Europe, even since the creation of some existing
species, possessing numerous North American types of which
there are now no representatives whatever on that conti-
nent, &c.

In conclusion Professor Gray remarked, that, when we
speculate about the origin of species, we launch out beyond
the region of induction, and have only analogies or probabil-
ities to guide us, which we have to weigh one against another
as well as we can. And he deemed it very important to the
progress of science that different investigators should start
from independent and opposite preconceptions or lines of
thought. His preconception was that of the local origina-
tion of species ; not origination in single individuals or single
pairs, — which might or might not be the case in different
species. The improbability of single origin appeared to him
to be great in the lower grades of animals ; the probability of
it greater and greater as we rise in the scale of being. But
the local origination of each species appeared to him not
only the natural hypothesis to begin with, as he had before

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 177

remarked, but also the one which, on applying it to the case in
hand, he thought best adapted to explain the actual distribu-
tion of plants. Although not inclined to defer too much to
a priori reasoning, he thought it was suggested by philosoph-
ical considerations, as well as by the induction of observa-
tions ; being a natural inference from Maupertuis's principle
of least action, viz. "that it is inconsistent with our idea of
Divine Wisdom to suppose that God would use more power
than was necessary to accomplish a given end." According
to Professor Peirce, this principle is strictly verified in all the
mechanical arrangements of the universe ; so that we cannot
but think it applicable to the organic world also ; — in which
there would appear to be a vast waste of power, if, in the case
of beings endowed with such immense multiplying power as
plants, as many individuals were created ab initio as there
were ever subsequently to be.

The discussion was continued by Professor Agassiz, who
remarked that Professor Gray had fairly represented his view
of the origin of animals. Botanists, he said, have considered
the distribution of plants mainly in connection with the influ-
ence of physical agents, whereas zoologists had regarded the
distribution of animals from a palsBontological point of view,
and from this latter point of view he had himself been led to
the opinion that animals were primarily distributed about as
they are at the present time.

Professor Agassiz argued that climate has very little to do
with the distribution or specific characters of animals, from
the facts observable at the present time. Near the poles, he
remarked, the conditions of existence are quite uniform, and
in the tropics they are the same so far as climate is concerned.
In the arctic regions we find many animals absolutely iden-
tical in both hemispheres, and many very closely related to
each other ; in the regions of the tropics, on the other hand,
there is no similarity in the animal life of the two hemispheres,
although the climate is the same. It is evident, therefore, that
the peculiar characters of the Faunas of these regions cannot

VOL. IV. 23

178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

be ascribed to the influence of climate. In passing from the
arctic to the tropical regions, the uniformity of animal life in the
former passes gradually into the extreme diversity of that in the
latter, and in the causes of difference in the tropics Professor
Agassiz said he saw the reasons for all differences, wherever
observed. How far back, he asked, does this state of things
go ? In the tertiary times of Australia the peculiar types of
animal life existed which give at the present time the distinc-
tive character to its Fauna, and the same is true of the ter-
tiary Fauna of South America. These facts, and others like
them, have led him to believe that animals were primarily
distributed over the surface according to a plan hardly intel-
ligible as yet to us, but independent of climatic influences.
This plan he believed included the preparation for the earth's
surface and the various external conditions of their existence
for its inhabitants, before they were created, very much as a
householder lays his foundation and builds the superstructure
and arranges the furniture of the interior for his residence be-
fore occupying it.

Professor Gray had quoted a number of plants as identical
in the tertiary and the present period. Des Hayes and Lyell
had admitted the same with regard to the animals of these
periods. Professor Agassiz said he had doubted the fact in
the case of animals, and had therefore early in his scientific
career collected many specimens to settle the question, and
in every instance where he had sufficient materials he had
found that the species of the two epochs supposed to be
identical by Des Hayes and Lyell were in reality distinct,
although closely allied species. He was therefore inclined to
ask whether it might not be possible that the same is the case
with the plants of the tertiary period and those of the present
day ? He could not but believe that, if Professor Gray were
to exercise the same critical judgment upon the fossil Flora
which he does with reference to the existing Flora, he would
find differences between the species of the two epochs simi-
lar to those found in the animal world. There is not, at the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 179

present time, he added, an equal knowledge of all the facts in
Botany and Zoology.

Professor Agassiz referred to his former statements with
regard to the similarity of the turtles of Eastern Asia and
Eastern North America, and of those of Western North
America and Europe, and showed how these differences
seemed to be related to the geological age of these respec-
tive regions, and were at variance with the supposition of
an interchange of species, such as Professor Gray believes to
have occurred in the vegetable world : in the instance quoted,
there is an alternation of two fields of animal life of entirely
different types. In conclusion Professor Agassiz reiterated
his statement, that he believed that the present races of ani-
mals were originally created on the earth in about the same
proportionate numbers as they are found to have at the pres-
ent time, and in about the same localities as those they now
occupy.

Professor Peirce spoke of the changes of temperature which
had been referred to as having influenced the distribution of
plants and animals, and said he thought it an important in-
quiry, to discover how such a change could have taken place.
With regard to the supposed cooling down of the earth, he
showed that the conditions under which it could have taken
place were inconsistent with the existence of plants and ani-
mals on its surface, and the time when it must have occurred
must have been long before they were created. The sun's
temperature, he said, might have undergone changes from time
to time, but there was no proof that such had been the case ;
and if it had been so, the eflect on the earth would have been
uniform. The change of the area of the land, and the eleva-
tion of portions of the earth's surface, would account for the
glacial period, and climatic and meteorological changes might
have resulted from changes in the amount of the earth's at-
mosphere.

180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Four Iiuntlred and sixty-second meeting.

March 8, 1859. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of Dr. N. L. Frothingham.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from Mr. G. P.
Bond, in acknowledgment of one from himself communicating
the resolutions passed by the Academy on the occasion of his
father's decease ; and one from Mr. W. W. Goodwin, accept-
ing fellowship.

Professor C. C. Felton made the following communication
on Greek Pronunciation : —

" In the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the American Academy,
published in 1818, there is an elaborate paper on the Modern Greek
Language, by the late John Pickering of Boston. The materials for
this learned contribution were partly gathered from conversations with
a well-educated Greek, a native of Navarino, — the sandy Pylos of old
Nestor, — Mr. Ciclitira,* the mate of a Greek ship then lying in the
harbor of Boston. This gentleman had received a fair school educa-
tion in his youth : he could read Homer well ; and the letter addressed
by him to Mr. Pickering does credit to his acquirements, both in chi-
rography and style. It is an interesting illustration of the effects of
what the Greek patriots have done, in the latter half of the last cen-
tury and the opening of the present, to improve the intellectual condi-
tion of their oppressed countrymen. Mr. Pickering, with characteristic
zeal for knowledge, seized this opportunity to investigate the actual
condition of the Modern Greek language. By comparing the present
pronunciation of the spoken language with the statements of the old
grammarians, he came to the conclusion that it is, in all essential par-
ticulars, nearly identical with that which prevailed in the period imme-
diately following the Christian era.

" Since Mr. Pickering's time, the Modern Greek has been more
studied, and it is now understood by a larger circle of scholars. But
to him belongs the honor of having, earliest among the scholars of our
day, given the subject a thorough investigation, and of having published

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 181

tlie results to the world. I say the scholars of our day, because, as is
well known, when the study of the Greek language was generally intro-
duced into the universities and schools of Central and Western Europe,
by the learned Greeks who fled from Constantinople after the capture
of the city by the Turks in 1453, it was taught with the Byzantine
pronunciation of that day, and so continued to be taught until the time
of Erasmus, who proposed a new but theoretical system. The Greek
pronunciation of the Greek language gradually disappeared from the
schools of Europe, and has never been known in the schools of
America. It is now taught only in Harvard University.

" The visit of the Greek ship to the United States occurred three
years before the breaking out of the insurrection against the Turks.
For seven dreadful years Greece was overrun by swarthy hordes of
barbarians from Asia and Africa, and was reduced to the lowest stage
of poverty and distress. Yet the first revolutionary government made
provision for a system of public education, adopting as fundamental
principles of the provisional constitution under which the war was
carried on, the universal education of the people, and the perpetual
exclusion of slavery from the soil of Hellas. When, by the interven-
tion of the great powers of Europe, a portion of ancient Greece was
organized as an independent kingdom, and Prince Otho, the second
son of the king of Bavaria, was placed upon the throne, the system of
public education was among the earliest subjects of interest to the new
government ; the Constitution of 1843 embodies and extends the prin-
ciples already established ; and at the present moment the schools,
gymnasia, and University of Greece are objects of pride and affection
both to the people and the government, and are centres of light which
are rapidly illuminating all that part of the world.

" The Greek language had never ceased to be the written and spo-
ken speech of the descendants of the ancient Hellenes. It had never
been broken up and supplanted by foreign dialects. Even the ancient
grammatical forms and constructions had been preserved by writers,
-if not by speakers, down to recent times. But language is fluent and
changeable. It cannot remain absolutely fixed and immutable ; for the
human mind, of which it is the organ, is in perpetual motion, and lan-
guage silently but surely undergoes perpetual change. From Homer
to Demosthenes the Greek language passed through a wonderful series
of historical developments. From the time of Demosthenes to the

182 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Christian era still further changes took place. From the Christian
era to the establishment of the Byzantine Empire a similar process
went on, and during the long succession of ages through which that
empire lasted, the language, sharing its permanence, shared also its
vicissitudes. Again, during the four centui-ies of Turkish oppression,
the fortunes of the language corresponded to the unhappy condition of
the people. It was corrupted by the intermixture of foreign elements,
' and participated largely in the degradation of the race ; but with the
reviving sense of nationality and the growing desire of independence
which in the last quarter of the last century breathed the breath of a
new life into the Hellenic race, and finally led in the present century
to the establishment of the kingdom of Greece, commenced the process
of the purification and the improvement of the language. At the pres-
ent day the style of the educated, as exhibited in the literary and polit-
ical journals, in the lectures of the professors, in the parliamentary
debates, and in the eloquence of the pulpit, is good Greek. In all
these revolutions the language of the Greeks (to borroAv the expression
of Professor Sophocles) has never lost its consciousness, — has never
ceased in form or substance to be Greek.

" "What, then, has it lost ? In the pronunciation of the ancient clas-
sical languages there were two elements, both of which were carefully
attended to. These elements were accent and quantity. In modern
languages, on the contrary, quantity does not exist as a fixed element
of pronunciation. In the ancient Greek and Latin the pronunciation
of educated people combined both, and to mark them both was the test
of the education of a gentleman. It was almost one of the fine arts,
combining the musical proportions of time in a much larger degree than
any language now spoken with rhetorical accent and emphasis. It is
evident that this musical property of enunciation is more a matter of
art, and less vital to language as the organ of thought, than accent or
emphasis. Accordingly, when the prosperity of the state and the high
standard of education began to decline, musical proportion in common
speech began to disappear, and finally it was preserved only in artificial
compositions, formed upon the ancient rhythmical models, and resem-
bling the hexameters and pentameters written as school exercises in
our day. Accent, however, is a vital and indestructible element, both
in common and cultivated speech. More than anything else it gives
significance to words. Vowels and consonants frequently modify their

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 183

sounds in passing from age to age, and from country to country. But
the place of an accent seldom changes. Greek vowels have been mod-
ified, but the Greek accents remain. In the English language, compar-
atively few words have changed their accent since the time of Chaucer.
The verses of that delightful poet may be easily and intelligently pro-
nounced by the English reader of the present day, and the accent of
almost every word remains the same as when he wrote.

" What, then, has the Greek language lost ? It has lost quantity, or
the musical proportion of syllables, in its pronunciation ; but it has re-
tained the system of accents substantially as they existed in the time
of Demosthenes. When the Greek was taught to the Romans in an-
tiquity, it was taught by native Greeks, with quantity as well as with
accent. When it was taught in Western Europe, after the fall of Con-
stantinople, it was taught by native Greeks, without quantity, but with .
accent. In the Greek and Latin languages, quantity, though funda-
mentally different from accent, was connected with accent and influ-
enced by it ; but the relations between these two elements were dif-
ferent in these two languages. In the Greek the position and kind of
accent were to a great extent controlled by the quantity of the final
syllable, namely, the accent could go back no farther than to the pe-
nultimate if the final syllable was long, and might go back to the ante-
penultimate if the final syllable was short. In the Latin the place of
the accent was controlled by the quantity of the penultimate syllable ; if
that was long, it was also accented ; if short, the accent went back to the
antepenultimate. The coincidence of accent and long quantity in the
Latin penultimate has created the strange impression that accent and
quantity are identical. For example, in amaverunt, the third person
plural of the perfect tense of amo, the e in the penultimate is long ; it is
also accented, but it is not long because it is accented, but the reverse, —
its musical measure is long, — and the accent is a greater stress of voice
only ; the last syllable is equally long, but is not accented ; — and in the
word hominibus the accent is on the i of the antepenultimate, while the
quantity of that syllable is short. And yet by the English and Ameri-
can classical ear, accent and quantity are universally confounded ; and
in England and America it is supposed that, by reading Latin with the
Latin accent, we are observing the quantity of that language. More
strangely still, it is fancied that, by reading the Greek with the Latin
accent, we are observing the quantity of the Greek. That is to say, we

184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

have adopted it as a principle, that, having lost both Greek and
Latin quantity, by rejecting the Greek accent and substituting for it
the Latin accent, we have acquired a true Greek pronunciation. In
reality, we do not give the quantity in either Greek or Latin, and we
have simply transferred the Latin accent to the Greek. We may per-
haps understand the effect of this proceeding by transferring the Eng-
lish accent to the French language, and then reading a passage of it to
a highly cultivated Parisian. In England it is as much as a man's
reputation is worth to pronounce the word av6pco7ros with a Greek ac-
cent. The American scholar who should do so at Oxford or Cam-
bridge would be set down as a mere barbarian. He only knows Greek
who pronounces it wrong, that is, pronounces it according to the accents
of the Roman tongue.

" Following the changes in the pronunciation of the language, the
poetical rhythms of the Greek since the tenth or eleventh century, or
even an earlier period, have been founded on accent. The first known
compositions qf this kind are without rhyme. The poems of Ptocho-
prodromos are in unrhymed iambic tetrameter catalectic : most of the
Klephtic ballads are in the same measure, which is as much an estab-
lished rhythm in the Modern Greek as the dactyhc hexameter was
in the ancient. Rhyme, however, has long been naturalized in the
Modern Greek. In the poems of Christopoulos, Soutsos, Rangabes,
Valaorites, and others, rhymes are as freely and naturally employed,
as in those of Moore, Byron, Scott, and Longfellow.

" We must, therefore, admit that quantity is irrecoverably gone from
the Greek language : in this respect, the Modern Greek stands in pre-
cisely the same position with the other modern languages. The art of
combining accent and quantity is lost, and cannot be restored. Who
can recall a departed sound ? Who can revive the music of Linus and
Terpander? Ancient sculpture may be reproduced: the models are
before us. Ancient architecture may be imitated : there stands the
Tlieseum, there stand the glorious ruins of the Parthenon. The lyres
of Homer and Pindar are broken : their notes are dispersed in empty
air. No living ear has heard them, and no art of the scholar can
gather them up again.

"Ancient rhythms were composed to be chanted. We have sub-
stituted reading for the musical delivery of the Greek and Roman
poets. For quantity we substitute accent : and it so happens, that in

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 185

some of the rhythms — as the dactylic — the Roman accent more fre-
quently coincides with the ictus of the rhythmical time, than does the
Greek accent ; but in many of the rhythms it does not, and it does
not uniformly in the dactylic. For example, in the first line of the
-^neid, •

' Arma virumque cano Trojse, qui primus ab oris,'

in the word cano, the natural accent falls on the short syllable cd,
while the metrical ictus falls on the syllable no. The rhythmical ictus
and the natural accent coincide four times.
" In the first line of the Iliad,

M^i/ij/ aeiBe, 6ed, Ilr]\r]'idBea> 'AxtXX^of,

the metrical ictus and the natural accent coincide three times. Prob-
ably, take the languages through, the proportion of four to three rep-
resents the comparative frequency, in the Greek and Latin, of this
coincidence. In scanning both Latin and Greek verse, we substitute
accentual beat for musical time. In Latin, as well as Greek, the
natural accent does not coincide with the quantity. "We do not accent
a Latin hexameter as we accent the words which compose it in a prose
sentence. We do not accent a Greek hexameter, as we accent the
words which compose it, in a prose sentence, whether we accent these
words according to the Greek or Roman system. In the ancient
musical recitation, quantity was so predominating an element, that ac-
cent almost disappeared ; as the English accent disappears in singing
an English song. By our accentual reading of ancient verses, we pro-
duce only an analogous effect, not at all an effect identical with that of
the ancient musical recitation. There is all the difference between
them that there is between music and reading, — between singing and
saying.

" The learned Greeks of the present day admit the loss of quantity
from their language; and this has been conspicuously shown by the
singular fact, that some of their poets have lately introduced, among
their poetical rhythms, the accented hexameter, both in original poems
and in translations from the ancient classics. Alexander R. Rangabes,
one of the most learned professors in the University of Athens, now
the able Secretary of Foreign Affairs, — a gentleman of such indefati-
gable industry that, amidst all the cares and labors that fall upon him
as a leading member of the Cabinet, he has never omitted a lecture
in the University, — this gentleman, a distinguished poet, as well as

VOL. IV. 24

186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

scholar and statesman, has published several successful specimens of
accented hexameters. In a dramatic poem entitled ^poa-vvr], founded
on the tragic episode of Gardiki, in the reign of Ali Pacha of lannina,
the description of the bloody transaction is given by the priest Mele-
tios of Gardiki, in accented hexameters, commencing as follows : —

'Hroi/ r]jiepa XafiTrpd, dv6o(f)6pos Tuv eapos Kopt]
'PoBocrTepp.€v 17 avyrj els Tovs \6(f)ovs yekcoaa i(pdvrj
Kat TO TapbUi aKopr] dneaeie p.6\is tov vttvov, k.t.\.

The same author translated the first book of the Odyssey into accented
hexameters. I give the first two lines of the original, and then the
corresponding two lines of the translation, for the purpose of comparing
both the ancient and modern rhythms and the ancient and modern
language, begging you to remember that Homer lived three thousand
years ago, and that Eangabes is still a young man.

Original.
"Avbpa pov evvene, Movaa, irokvTponov os paka ttoXXo,
TiXayxdrj eVel Tpol-qs Upov TrroXiedpov errepaev.

Translation.
1'aXXe TOV avbpa, Bed, tov TroXvTponov, ocrrty toctovtovs
ToTTOVS 8iTJ\6e, ■7T0p6r]<Tas Tr^s Tpoias TrjV evbo^ov trokiv.

Another instructor in the University, Theodorus G. Orphanides, Pro-
fessor of Botany, but cultivating the flowers of poetry as well as those
of natural science, encouraged by the success of his colleague, has tried
his hand upon accentual hexameters, and obtained the prize in the
poetical competition of 1855 for a poem in this measure, entitled, 'Anna
and Phloros, or the Tower of Petra.' In his Preface to this poem he
says : —

" ' This measure has been until very recently neglected or despised
by most of our modern poets. And although many scholars both
before and after the Revolution made hexameters, their verses never-
theless — an imitation seldom beautiful of the Homeric lines — ap-
peared unharmonious to the most delicate ears, on account of the loss
of our ancient prosody. Grammatically considered, they were perhaps
wonderful ; with reference to harmony they were anything but verses.

" ' This immortal measure awaited a new artist to acquire fresh life
without losing anything of its ancient dignity, and that its harmony
might be felt by the ear of the modern Greek, who now only accents
the words, and does not mark the long or short syllables. Mr. Alex-

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 187

ander R. Rangabes was the first to attempt this. In his tragedy,
Phrosjne, Meletios describes in hexameters the heart-rending catas-
trophe of Gardiki, perpetrated by the bloodthirsty Ali Pacha, and in
his poems since published there is a flowing translation of the first
rhapsodies of the Odyssey, and a dedicatory letter to Professor Doucas
written in hexameters.

" ' I am not ashamed to confess that while reading these felicitous
attempts I felt for the first time all the charm of this measure, and now,
years after, I have dared to follow an example so worthy of imitation.'

" The poem opens as follows : —

KeiT v\lrr]\6s fxera^v ratv Qrj^av Koi tov Afjfiov rrjs Tlirpas
Hvpyos ^ap^dpov pvdpov, Trpbs bvapds Karappevaas ev pepet,
'Ex^av rrjv ^daiv eyyvs tcop ox^av ttjs KaXrjs KaTratbos, k. t. X.

"Upon this state of things an old question comes up with new
urgency for the scholars of the present day to consider, and that is,
whether we ought to continue to pronounce the ancient Greek lan-
guage without quantity and with the Latin accent, or to attempt the
restoration of the ancient union of quantity and accent, or to adopt the
modern pronunciation. The question may not be one of vital impor-
tance, but it is one of practical convenience in teaching that classical
tongue. And it has called out much discussion among the scholars of
Europe. There is no doubt that the modern pronunciation is gaining
ground. The venerable Professor Thiersch, of Munich, has long ad-
vocated it, having many years ago visited Greece and learned the
spoken language of the country. Throughout Germany the Greek is
pronounced according to its own accents, and not according to the
Roman, though the modern sounds of the vowels have not been gen-
erally adopted. In England, Mr. G. J. Pennington published in 1844
an elaborate work in octavo, agreeing in his conclusions with those of
Mr. Pickering, and strongly advocating the Modern Greek pronuncia-
tion. Sir George F. Bowen, also an English scholar well known for
his travels in Greece, lately appointed Secretary to the Lord High
Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, and married to an accomplished
Greek lady of the noble family of Roma, is very naturally a warm
advocate of the Modern Greek pronunciation. Professor Blackie, of
the University of Edinburgh, the admirable translator of ^schylus,
has written several excellent essays on the same side. He, too, has

188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AJMERICAN ACADEMY

learnt the living pronunciation of the language among the scholars of
Athens. Animated by his example, a young Scotch scholar, James
Clyde, left his employment as a classical teacher for the sake of study-
ing the Modern Greek under the shadow of the Acropolis. And since
his return, in 1854, he has published a little book on the subject, which
has received the well-deserved praises of an elegant scholar and most
competent judge. Lord Broughton, author of the Travels in Albania.
Many other European scholars have visited Greece, and all, so far as
I know, have come to the conclusion that the wisest course to take
would be to adopt the pronunciation of the cultivated Greeks of the
present day. As things are now, there is no uniform system. The
English, Scotch, Irish, French, Germans, and Americans have diiierent
methods, and even in different schools of the same country diiferent
systems of pronunciation prevail, and in some schools of every country
there is no system at all. It may be objected, as it often is, that the
modern Greeks neglect the quantity of syllables. That is true ; but it
is equally true of each and all the other systems of pronunciation. It
may also be objected, that by reading Greek with the modern accent
we spoil the rhythm of the ancient poets, and this is partly true ; but
it is also true of the system of reading Greek with the Roman accent.
In the schools of Greece, the difficulty is overcome by scanning the
verses just as we do ; that is, by marking the rhythmical ictus with an
accent, and not attempting to render the ancient musical time. Their
two modes of reading, the one with the natural accent and, the other
with a rhythmical accent, are no more incongruous, than our two modes
of reading Greek, the one with a Roman accent and the other with the
rhythmical accent. Another objection is, that the modern Greeks have
corrupted the ancient sounds of the vowels, and this is undoubtedly
true. But the Eetacism with which the Modern Greek has been re-
proached may be traced back beyond the Middle Ages, perhaps to the
Christian era. It would undoubtedly be a gratification to taste and
curiosity, if we could ascertain and reproduce exactly the tones and
qualities of the vowels as they were sounded from the lips of Demos-
thenes speaking to the Athenian Demos from the Bema. But this can
be done only partially, if at all ; and the question recurs. Is it not better
to adopt the living pronunciation of a people whose existing language
is inherited from an illustrious ancestry ? The scholars of the world
would at least gain these advantages : they would have the same pro-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 189

nunciation everywhere ; they would have the pronunciation of a living
and intellectual race, consisting of twelve or fifteen millions of souls, —
of a race who are making gigantic strides in education, literature, and
science, and who are destined to restore the fair regions and the sunny
islands of the -3^^gean Sea, which have been so long blighted by the
presence of bai'barous conquerors, to civilization and Christianity."

Mr. B. A. Gould remarked that the subject was interesting,
but he was not prepared to abandon the received pronuncia-
tion, and to adopt the accentual system of the modern Greeks.
He thought the system generally adopted by the English and
Americans furnished the means of a uniform standard, and
that a departure from it would introduce confusion. Be-
sides, the Modern Greek pronunciation not only destroyed
the rhythm, but injured the effect of those passages in Greek
poetry, in which the sound was supposed to correspond to
the sense, as in the TroXvcj^koia^oLo 6d\a(xa7]<i of Homer, which,
with the modern pronunciation, would be polyphleesveo tha-
lasses. For these, and other reasons, he was not in favor of
adopting the Modern Greek pronunciation.

Mr, Felton replied, that, in point of fact, the pronunciation
of the present day in Europe and America furnished no
uniform standard. Even in England, the pronunciation of
Greek is far from uniform ; and every nation differs from
every other nation. In America different systems prevail in
different parts of the country, and in many places there is no
system at all. Now, by adopting the Modern Greek pronun-
ciation, all nations would have a standard easily accessible ;
and really, it seemed to him that the only way to have any
standard at all was to take the pronunciation of the living
Greeks, just as we take the pronunciation of living French-
men for our standard in the French.

As to those passages alluded to by Mr. Gould, in which
the sound is an echo to the sense, no doubt there is much in
that idea ; but it still remains to decide what is precisely the
sense intended in any given passage. The words cited by
Mr. Gould are part of a line, describing the priest Chryses

190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

as he departed from the Grecian camp, disappointed in the
hope of recovering his captive daughter : —

B7 S' cLKeav irapa 6lva 7roXv^Xoicr/3oio daXdcrarjs.
" And he went silent along the shore of the much-rcsounduig sea."

Now, what sea, and what sound of the sea, are we to under-
stand ? Is it the Atlantic Ocean, driven by a winter storm,
and breaking and roaring against the rocks of Nahant ? No.
It is the sparkling Hellespont, on a summer day, sweeping
up the long beach on the coast of Troy, and rippling over
the sands, as he had often seen and heard it, while riding at
anchor, or sailing by those classic shores ; — and this sound
is more nearly represented by the Modern Greek polt/phleesveo
thaldsses, than by our more sonorous but somewhat mouthing
way of pronouncing the words.

Mr. Charles Folsom remarked, that the discussion brought
to memory an incident in his early travels. He was formerly
of Mr. Gould's opinion ; but on one occasion, in Smyrna, he
was walking with an accomplished Greek gentleman, when
the conversation turned upon this question. He had; cited
to his Greek friend the very passage cited by Mr. Gould.
The Greek gentleman reminded him that they were now in
the midst of the scenes familiar to Homer from his earliest
youth (the Smyrniotes still claim Homer for their country-
man), and the water of the beautiful harbor of Smyrna rip-
pling against the shore, as they beheld it at the moment, was
what the poet was describing. Mr. Folsom further remarked,
that reflection and observation had convinced him that the
only mode of securing uniformity in the pronunciation of the
Greek was to adopt that of the Modern Greeks.

Remarks were also made on the communication of Pro-
fessor Felton by President Quincy, Dr. Jacob Bigelow, and
the Rev. Thomas Hill.

Dr. Pickering called the attention of the members to the
Coptic alphabet, formed as early at least as the fifth century,
and affording evidence that, from the time of its formation,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 191

little or no change has taken place in the pronunciation of
the Greek letters. This result was arrived at by comparing
Professor Sophocles's account of the Modern Greek pronun-
ciation, and especially the chapter in which he undertakes to
spell English words with Greek letters.

In applying the Greek letters to the Coptic language, the
Copts first exhausted the Greek alphabet; and for the remain-
ing articulate sounds, that could not be expressed in Greek,
were obliged to invent new characters. Accordingly, we ob-
serve : —

1. That, the sound of the English d not existing in the
Greek language, the Copts were obliged to invent a new
character to represent this sound.

2. That, though the Copts made use of the Greek 0, they
were not satisfied with it ; but invented a new character for
the full Roman and English/.

3. That the Copts invented a new character for the sound
of the English h.

4. That the Copts rejected the Greek 7, and invented a
new character, that seems to correspond to our English^g",
or gh.

5. That the Copts invented new characters for tsh, or the
Italian c ; for dsh, or g soft ; and for the English sh ; none of
these three sounds existing in Greek.

Dr. Pickering regarded several of the Greek sounds of let-
ters as deviations from normal original sounds, but deviations
which have been transmitted from a very ancient period. He
had, however, obtained evidence that the normal sound origi-
nally belonging to the character B was much as in the
Greek, — was, in fact, easy respiration, or the English v.

When writing first began to be practised, there seem to
have been no superfluous letters; and the Greek language
in the course of ages has unquestionably experienced some
losses. It may be regarded as certain that the three vowel-
characters, ?7, t, V, were not originally sounded alike. The
Greeks have also lost the digamma, or w. Aristophanes

192 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

gives the voice of the pig as kol, or kwee : it may therefore
be inferred, that in his day ol was pronounced ivee, and
oi/co9, loeekos ; but in spelling week, a modern Greek would
be obliged to place a prefix to the ancient word, for instance,

OVOIK.

Professor Peirce presented a communication from Mr. Saf-
ford on the mode of determining the places of planets, and
one by himself on the personal peculiarities of astronomical
observers.

On motion of Professor Parsons, it was voted that Mr. Saf-
ford's paper be referred to Professor Peirce for examination.

Dr. C. T. Jackson exhibited specimens of Tetradymite, or
tellurid of bismuth, from Spottsylvania in Virginia; also an
allied new mineral from Dahlonega, Georgia, viz. Bornit, with
its composition and formula ; he also exhibited gold from the
same mine, in the matrix as well as washed, and gave an ac-
count of the gold-washing processes carried on in that State.

Four hundred and sixty-tliird meeting.

March 22, 1859. — Supplementary Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from Sir William
E. Logan, Montreal, March 7th, and from John Lindley, Lon-
don, February 28th, in acknowledgment of their election, the
former as Associate Fellow, the latter as Foreign Honorary
Member of the Academy ; also from William Sharswood,
Philadelphia, March 17th, offering certain books for the ac-
ceptance of the Academy, and proposing certain exchanges.

The discussion at the last special meeting was continued
by Dr. Charles Pickering, who read the following paper upon
the subject : —

" Dr. Pickering had been practically engaged with the subject, in
ascertaining the geographical distribution of species ; had visited, and
acquired local knowledge, at many different points of the earth's sur-
face ; and anywhere upon the planet would probably know his where-
abouts by looking at the animals and plants.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 193

" He regarded the subject as destined to throw light upon history ;
but, as far as he was connected with it, instead of applying his expe-
rience, he had been called upon to impart it.

" He had constructed illustrative maps : yet, even with their aid,
personal inspection seemed indispensable, extending to the species
absent from a country, as well as those present. After various unsuc-
cessful trials, he had adopted a plan of numbering the species geograph-
ically, according to the countries arranged in a particular order : the
numbers will then supply the place of personal inspection, will point
ojit where a genus or a species commences, and in a genei-al way where
it terminates : by following always the same conventional route, some
idea of the distribution of species may perhaps be gained, without actual
voyaging.

" In regard to the origin of species, Dr. Pickering's observations
have all tended to confirm an opinion he has long entertained. The
term ' local areas ' is, however, not his own ; but seems preferable to
that of ' centres of diffusion,' formerly used by him, and he will adopt
the improvement. He considers, then, that sjiecies originated upon
local areas ; and are spread over as much of the earth's surface as they
have had a chance to reach and occupy.

" He regards the question as half decided by the fact, that very
many species are confined to local areas to the present day ; often,
too, under circumstances that seem to preclude wider diffusion at any
former period.

" 1. The class Mollusca affords instances of the two extremes in
diffusion ; many of the land species being local, and many of the ma-
rine species widely diffused. At the Hawaiian Islands, each separate
island has in a general way its own set of land shells ; some species, at
least, that do not reach the other islands of the group, nor reappear
upon any other portion of the globe. While among the marine shells,
he had himself seen living specimens of the Cyprea tigris, or leopard
cowry, at the Hawaiian Islands, as at other points in the Pacific, and
throughout the East Indian Archipelago and the Indian Ocean to the
African coast, a distance from east to west of fifteen thousand miles.
The explanation probably rests in the ova ; those of the Cyprea tigris
being marine, and preserving their vitality in sea-water, and those of
the land mollusks perishing on immersion.

" 2. The Anseridce, or species of goose, are grazing birds, and, being

VOL. IV. 25

194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

thickly coated with feathers, inhabit in preference chilly climates, arc-
tic or else antarctic. The dreary summits of the Peruvian Andes are,
however, inhabited by a peculiar species of goose ; and another pecu-
liar species occurs in the Hawaiian Islands, upon Mauna Roa, — only
upon this one mountain, keeping amid or just above the zone of clouds,
at the elevation of 6500 to 7000 feet, but visiting the country below, a
small flock being often met with around the great crater. There are
probably not more than three or four hundred pairs of this bird in
existence ; nor, perhaps, have there ever been at any one time ; but
commercial demand, should it ever arise, might in a few years multiply
the pairs into millions, scattered all over the globe.

" 3. The ocean-island of St. Helena is quite small, and its whole
outer and lower portion is desert. On the very summit, comprising
only five or six square miles of surface, some remarkable species of
plants are grooving, not to be found elsewhere. There seems no escape
from the conclusion, that within this limited space on St. Helena the
creative act has been exercised.

" This exercise of creative power took place many thousand years
ago, as can be determined approximately. The coral-islands in the
Pacific are many of them as widely insulated as St. Helena, and of
larger area ; but coming out of the water after the existing species of
animals and plants had been created, too late for the visit of creative
power, they contain no additional species. This, at least, is certain in
resrard to the low coral-islands : and as to the two or three minute
land shells on the elevated coral-island of Metia, while so many rocky
islands widely scattered around remain unexplored, it will not be safe
to draw conclusions.

" That species continue unchanged in aspect during thousands of
years, there is abundant evidence ; — in the imbedded shells of these
same coral-islands, for many ages above the waves, yet exactly similar
to wave-washed living species close at hand ; — in the animals and
plants figured fifty-five hundred years ago on Egyptian monuments, in
every instance identical with living species ; — in the bodies of a vari-
ety of animals mummified in Egypt during the last three thousand
years ; — and in Gliddon's mummy of a man who lived in the days of
the prophet Elijah, showing that that generation did not differ physi-
cally from ourselves."

The special subject for the evening's discussion, namely,
the Classification of the Animal Kingdom, as exhibited in the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 195

pala30zoic period, was next treated at length by Professor
Agassiz.

In reference to Professor Agassiz's communication on the
paleozoic animals, all of them aquatic, Dr. Pickering re-
marked, that the oceanic animals of the present day are
almost as universally diftused as were those of paleozoic
times. At least, a division into tropical and non-tropical
will require the oceanic tropic to be placed full fifty degrees
from the equator : there will then remain, outside of this
belt of a hundred degrees, a few oceanic species that may
be regarded as non-tropical.

Dr. A. A. Gould mentioned the fact that the land shells of
the Sandwich Islands are peculiar in being distinct in their
characters for each island : they are species of the genus
Achatinella. The island of Metia has three species peculiar
to it. The shells of the Feejee Islands do not resemble those
of the Navigator's Islands, but are like those of the Society
Islands, twenty degrees distant ; a fact which Dr. Gould con-
sidered evidence of the former existence of an extensive con-
tinent now submerged.

Dr. Pickering said he did not think there was knowledge
enough as yet of the shells of the Society Islands in the pos-
session of naturalists to assert positively that the Metia shells
do not exist on them. If this be really the case, it would be
evidence of comparatively modern creation, as the island of
Metia is a coral-island.

Professor Agassiz mentioned that even the fishes of differ-
ent islands of the Sandwich group differ from each other, as
had been proved by specimens in his possession.

Professor Gray, in a brief rejoinder to the remarks of Pro-
fessor Agassiz upon his communication at a former meeting
(p. 177), suggested that an obvious reason why the terrestrial
species of the arctic regions were so generally alike round the
w^orld, while those of the temperate zone were less so, and
those of the tropics mostly different, might be found in the
geographical position of the regions in question, — the masses
of land in the former being essentially contiguous, in the lat-

196 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ter widely remote ; so that species might naturally have been
diffused round the whole circumpolar regions, but this could
not be expected in the widely separated tropical regions, ex-
cept as to maritime species ; and, in fact, the strictly mari-
time plants were largely the same on both sides of the ocean.
That is, the actual distribution was as if species had spread
over as much of the earth's surface as they have had a chance
to reach and occupy. Professor Gray, moreover, did not
think that " the climate is the same " throughout the tropical
regions of the two hemispheres, or comparable with the arctic
regions in respect to uniformity, but he supposed that the
great diversity of species in the former stands in relation to
diversities of climate, station, and other physical circumstan-
ces, though these, of course, are not the cause of the diversity.
Finally, the interposition in Western North America of a
flora generally different from that of Japan and of Eastern
North America, Professor Gray thought perfectly compati-
ble with the theory of an interchange between the two last,
since the line of dissemination must have followed the iso-
thermals, — the curves of which appear to have been essen-
tially the same in tertiary and post-tertiary times, — and
therefore trended far to the north on the western side of the
American continent, leaving the existing Oregon-Cahfornian
flora always as peculiar as now.

Dr. C. T. Jackson read an analysis of a specimen of Bornite
from Dahlonega, Georgia, as follows: —

" Form, hexagonal plates, which split like mica, or molybdenite.
Lustre, brilliant metallic; color, between that of tin and polished
steel; flexible; sectile; hardness, 2| ; density, 7.868.
Results of Analysis of 1 Gramme.

Bismuth, 0.7908

Tellurium, 0.1800

Selenium, 0.0118

Gold (in fine scales), 0.0060

Loss, 0.0114

1.0000
" This species has not been found heretofore in the United States,
and is exceedingly rare in Europe."

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 197

Fowr Iiuudred and sixty-fourth meeting.

April 12, 1859. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of Dr. J. M. Warren.

The President in the chair.

Professor Peirce reported favorably on Mr. SafFord's paper,
which had been reftrred to him at the last monthly meet-
ing, recommending its reference to the Committee of Pub-
lication. The report was accepted, and the recommendation
adopted.

Dr. Warren exhibited a specimen of Cheironcctes, and ex-
plained some of its peculiarities of structure and habits.

Dr. Warren also exhibited a suite of specimens of crania
and casts of crania of the different species of Ourang, includ-
ing the great Troglodytes Gorilla of Western Africa, together
with stuffed specimens of the Chimpanzee : he pointed out
the characteristic features of the different species, and exhib-
ited lithographic illustrations of the gigantic Gorilla now in
Paris. He also exhibited specimens illustrating the progress
of the new art of photolithography.

Professor Peirce gave the following abstract of a memoir
on the personal peculiarities of astronomical observers.

" The first portion of this memoir considered the changes which
occur in the personal equations of observers. The materials for this
inquiry were derived from that vast reservoir of astronomical investi-
gation, the ' Greenwich Observations,' since it has been under the able
administration of Professor Airy. The mode of determining the per-
sonal equation adopted at this observatory, from the regular obser-
vations, and not from especial observations instituted for this purpose,
is the only one which is safe and trustworthy. From these observa-
tions, it appears that observers differ greatly fi-om each other in the
continuity and regularity of their habits. There are those who retain
for many years, as nearly as it can be ascertained, an invai'iable per-
sonal equation. Others change uniformly and regularly. Others seem
to vary by a uniformly increasing or decreasing rate of change ; while
others, on the contrary, are subject to sudden and abrupt variations,

198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

in wbicli there is no evidence of law. Examples were given of all
these various peculiarities.

" In the second portion of the memoir, the mental time-scales by
which different observers subdivide the second were subjected to analy-
sis, and the extraordinary gain to science which has accrued from the
American method of observation was carefully discussed. The time-
scale of each observer was inferred from the relative, number of times
which each tenth of a second occurred in his observations. It was
shown that the habits of the observer were invariable in this respect,
and were not subject to change with time or circumstance. It was
also shown that the reference of this peculiarity to the inequality of the
time-scale was the only just and consistent theory. It appears that,
although some of the oldest and most experienced observers, such as
Henry and Main of the Greenwich Observatory, are peculiarly prone
to excessively defective time-scales, from which the younger observers,
such as Ellis, Dunkin, and Rogerson of Greenwich, and Keith and
Almy of Washington, are comparatively free, yet the veteran Arge-
lander manifests, in this respect, the great superiority of his training.
But with the American method the irregularity of time-scale vanishes,
and in this first step with which America has commenced its astro-
nomical career, we must, when we examine it historically and critically,
claim to recognize the future promise of the country in this science,
when the field shall be fairly opened. The American method is the
unquestionable product of the Coast Survey of the United States, and
was the legitimate result of the rigid and profound methods of research
which are uniformly adopted in this magnificent work. The first con-
ception was in the mind of the Superintendent himself. Professor
Bache, and its complete development and ultimate success were owing
to the united action of Professor Bache and his friend and assistant,
Mr. Sears C. Walker. The details of the instrumental invention and
execution were intrusted to Messrs. Saxton, Bond, Mitchel, and Locke.
Difierent plans were proposed, but that of Mr. Bond is the one which
is at present adopted in the Coast Survey, although some of the others
possess peculiar advantages, Avhich deserve further examination and
experiment. The ingenious apparatus which has been adopted by
Professor Airy, at Greenwich, differs radically from either of the
American forms, although this distinguished astronomer candidly ad-
mits the American origin of the method, and states distinctly that ' the

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 199

practical introduction of galvanic chronograpliic apparatus, in a form
available for the purposes of an observatory, is entirely due (so far as
I am aware) to American astronomers.' The injurious effect of intro-
ducing the make-circuit signal instead of the break-circuit signal, which
latter has been rigidly insisted upon by Dr. Gould, is quite manifest in
the Greenwich record. There are other difficulties, however, of a more
recondite nature, which deserve thoi'ough examination, as well as those
of the other methods, none of which have received the proper investi-
gation from the different inventors, although they cannot fail to be
detected or explored by the severe criticism of the Coast Survey.
This research would be materially accelerated, if our observatories
would devote a due proportion of labor to the use and investigation of
the established and received methods of observation with which they
are so generously endowed and so magnificently equipped, instead of
employing me great mass of their time in the invention of new pro-
cesses, and should recall the fundamental principle of their existence, —
that science, and not art, is the final end of an astronomical ohser-
vatory."

Dr. C. T. Jackson exhibited specimens of vegetable wax
from Japan, together with specimens of the fruit of the plant
from which it was obtained, a species of Rhus (ii. succe-
da7iemn, L.). He also showed a fragment of a Trilobite in
calcareous slate from St. Mary's Bay, Newfoundland, prob-
ably a Paradoxides.

Mr. H. J. Clark made the following remarks : —

" A few months ago a French physiologist, Pouchet, revived the
long-exploded doctrine of equivocal or spontaneous generation, and
asserted that he had been able to obtain certain living beings from
substances which were entirely shut off from the outer world, and in
which, after having undergone certain preparations, there could not
possibly be any germs of these animals. A discovery, which I made
on the 20th of March, may not be uninteresting, as it has more or less
relation in its nature to the theory so earnestly advocated by Pouchet.
There ar« certain well-known bodies described as animals by Ehren-
berg, under the name of Vibrio ; their peculiarity consists in that they
are composed of a single row of globular bodies, resembling a string of
beads, more or less curved, and move in a spiral path with great

200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

velocity, even faster than the eye can follow in many cases. They
exhibit, by their activity, more plausible signs of animality than any of
the Desmidere or Diatomacea^, and fully as convincing indications of
life as the spores of Algte, to which they were first referred by the late
lamented Dr. "W. J. Burnet, and after him by Rudolph Wagner and
Leuckart. They have always been spoken of as developing around
decaying animal and vegetable matter. I was very much surprised to
discover the manner in which they originate from such substances. I
was studying the decomposing muscle of a Sagitta, a little crustacean,
as I consider it, — which, in passing, I would observe was found by
me a year ago last March, for the first time in this country, at Lynn
Harbor, — when I noticed large numbers of Vibrio darting hither and
thither, but most frequently swarming about the muscular fibres. I
was struck with the similarity of these bead-like strings to the fibrillie
of the muscle, and upon close comparison I found that the former were
exactly of the same size, and had the same optical properties as the
latter. Some of these appeared to be attached to the ends of the flat,
ribbon-like fibres, and others at times loosened themselves and swam
away. I was immediately impressed with the daring thought, that
these Vibrios were the fibrillfe set loose from the fibres ; but as this
was a thing unheard of, and so startling, I for the time persuaded
myself that they must have been accidentally attached and subsequently
loosened. However, I continued my observations until I found some
fibres in which the fibrilliTe were in all stages of decomposition. At one
end of the fibre the ultimate cellules of the fibrillce were so closely
united, that only the longitudinal and transverse strise were visible ;
further along, the cellules were singly visible, and still further they
had assumed a globular shape ; next, the transverse rows were loosened
from each other excepting at one end ; and finally, those at the extreme
of the fibre were agitated and waved to and fro as if to get loose, which
they did from time to time, and, assuming a curved form, revolved
each upon its axis and swam away with amazing velocity. There was
no doubting, after this, the identity of the Vibrios and the muscular
fibrilhe ; but I thought such a strange phenomenon ought to have a
second witness to vouch for it, and therefore went for the best that
could be wished for, Professor Agassiz. I simply placed the prepara-
tions before him, and, without giving him the least hint of the origin of
the muscle, I was pleased to have him rediscover what I had seen but

or ARTS AND SCIENCES. 201

fifteen minutes before. The number of ultimate cellules in a moving
string varied from two to fifty ; tbe greatest number of strings were
composed of only three or four, often six to eight, and rarely as high
as fifty. Very rarely the fibres split longitudinally, and in such in-
stances the fibrillie were most frequently long, and moved about with
undulations rather than a wriggling motion. A single ultimate cellule,
when set loose, danced about in a zigzag manner ; but whenever two
were combined, the motion had a definite direction, which corresponded
to the longer diameter of the duplicate combination ; and if only three
were combined, the spiral motion was the result of their united action.
What it is that causes these cellules to move, I do not profess to know,
but certainly it is not because they possess life as independent beings.
This much is settled, however, that we may have presented to us all
the phenomena of life, as exhibited by the activity of the lowest forms
of animals and plants, by the ultimate cellules of the decomposed
and fetid striated muscle of a Sagitta. I do not pretend to say that
everything that comes under the name of Vibrio or Spirillum is a de-
composed muscle or other tissue, although I believe such will turn out to
be the fact ; but this much I will vouch for, and will call on Professor
Agassiz to witness, that what would be declared, by competent au-
thority, to be a living being, and accounted a certain species of Vibrio,
is nothing but absolutely dead muscle."

Professor Agassiz corroborated Mr. Clark's statements most
fully, and spoke of the discovery as one of the very greatest
interest and importance.

Dr. A. A. Gould, in reference to the discussion on the dis-
tributipn of plants and animals, made some statements, illus-
trating the power of external agencies, with reference to the
shells of Japan. Out of nearly nine hundred shells from
these islands which he had examined, only seventeen had
been found both on the island of Niphon and on Jesso,
which are separated by a passage of only some forty miles
in width. The fact is accounted for by the existence of a
strong marine current from the north and west, which passes
through the strait.

Dr. Asa Gray communicated two papers, as follows : —

I. Characters of Ancistrophora, a new Genus of the Order

VOL. IV. 26

202 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

CompositsB, detected by Mr. Charles Wright in the Eastern
Part of Cuba.

II. On the Genus Croomia, and its place in the Natural
System.

Four Iiuuclred and sixty-fiftli meeting.

April 26, 1859. — Supplementary Meeting.

In the absence of the President and Vice-President, the
Corresponding Secretary took the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from the Asiatic
Society, dated Calcutta, December 10, 1858, acknowledging
the receipt of the Academy's publications.

Professor Peirce gave the following analysis of his memoir
upon the Tail of Donati's Comet.

" 1. The theory proposed by Bessel, in Vol. XIII. of the Astrono-
mische Nachrichten, is adopted as the basis of the theory, and it is
proposed to determine the special values of the repulsive force from
the sun, and of the initial impulse given by the comet, which are most
reconcilable to the observed phenomena. In the first approximation,
the initial impulse was neglected, because it was assumed to be quite
small.

" 2. Rigorous formulfe are adopted in place of the approximations
given by Bessel, which are only available at a short distance from the
head of the comet, whereas the critical portions of the investigation
are those which apply to the part of the tail which is most remote from
the head. The approximate formula were employed by Pape in his
researches upon Donati's comet, which is astronomically designated as
1858 V.

" 3. The observations of the tail which have served as the basis to
this investigation are those given by Pape in the Astronomische Nach-
richten, and an admirable series made at the Dudley Observatory, by
Mr. Searle and Mr. Toomer, under the judicious direction of Dr.
Gould.

" 4. The observations of the front edge of the Donati comet are
very well satisfied by a solar repulsive force = — \^, if gravity is
adopted as the unit of force. The comparison of theory with observa-

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 203

tion was illustrated by diagrams, in which the observations were all
combined into three tails, which may be designated as normal tails,
and of which the dates were respectively the second, the ninth, and
the fifteenth of October.

" 5. An attempt was next made to satisfy the observations by a
sensible initial velocity arising from the action of the comet's nucleus,
and in which there should be neither repulsive nor attractive force
exerted upon the particles of the tail. But it was found impossible to
accomplish this result.

" 6. It was found equally impossible to satisfy the observations by
Pape's theory, in which the solar force is supposed to be attractive,
or slightly repulsive ; and the difference between this result and that
obtained by Pape must be attributed to the defects of the approxi-
mative formulae envployed by Pape. It may otherwise be regarded
as objectionable to Pape's theory, that it assumes the solar force to be
so variable in its action, and the initial velocity arising from the action
of the comet's head to be so large.

" 7. In the present theory, however, the solar force is not found to
be constant for all the particles of the tail, but to vary from the
extreme repulsion = — 1^ down to zero, or even to be attractive for
the particles upon the back edge. But the back edge is so badly
defined, that the observations upon it cannot contribute much to the
accuracy of these investigations.

" 8. The streaks of light, which were observed about the time of
greatest brilliancy, towards the extremity of the tail, are probably to
be attributed to the continuous discharge of material from different
points of the nucleus. It was an amusing and juvenile play of fancy
which saw in this phenomenon indications of concentration into new
comets.

" 9. The suggestion that the dark line in the tail, near the head,
may be shadow, is quite absurd. The shadow of so small a nucleus
could not have been in the least degree perceptible to us, and the
accurate measures which were taken, as they should have been, by the
most competent observers, show that the direction of this dark line
sensibly deviated from that of the radius-vector from the sun, which
must have been the direction of li shadow. A diverging shadow in
this case is too preposterous for argument. The darkness can only
be explained by an actual deficiency of the matter of the tail, and

204 PKOCEEDINGS Or THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

corroborates the inference from the form of the tail, that the matter is
not ejected from the head with any great velocity, but that it passes off
before and behind, so as to be but little expanded in a direction per-
pendicular to the plane of the orbit.

" 10. The successive envelopes ascend uniformly towards the sun,
at the rate of about thirty-five miles an hour.

"11. This law of ascent is peculiarly consistent with that of a vapor
in an atmosphere. The appearance of the envelope of Halley's comet
in 1835, as described by Herschel, was also that of a fine vapor.

" 12. The uniformity of the law of ascent is iri-econcilable with the
hypothesis of a mass rising in a free space under the combined action
of accelerating and retarding forces, which emanate from the comet
and the sun. The continuance of the ascent by the same law, during
the approach to perihelion and the removal from it, is opposed to the
ingenious explanation of Herschel, which attributes the apparent in-
crease of magnitude, when the comet recedes fi-om the sun, to the de-
posit of vapor as the comet cools. The phenomena exhibited by other
comets seem to confirm these views.

" 13. The great extent of atmosphere which this theory, or that of
Herschel, requires the comet to possess, involves the necessity of a
much greater mass of the comet than is usually supposed, although the
mass will not exceed the limits adopted by Laplace in the case of
Lexell's comet. While, on the other hand, the small volume of the
nucleus into wi4iich this mass is chiefly concentrated will give a density
to some of the comets which will exceed that of the planets, and even
be metallic in its nature. With such a mass and density, the blow
of a comet might be quite disastrous to the inhabitants of a planet. The
metallic density of the two comets of 1680 and 1843, which approached
so near the sun, seems to be a necessary condition for the preservation
of their internal continuity and coherence, when they are melted by
the great heat of the sun. This metallic character of the comet is
analogous to that of meteoric stone.

" 14. The nearly spherical outlines of the envelope are simply
results of uniform ascent of a vapor ; but they differ sensibly from the
level surfaces which would be given either by th§ theory of Roche or
by that of Herschel.

" 15. After a careful examination of the observations of the head of
the comet, Pape did not find any established law of vibration, like that

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 205

which Bessel demonstrated in the Halley comet of 1835. But from
a new examination, upon a different basis, it appears that there was
such a vibration, that each new envelope had its own initial period of
vibration, that there was one common law of vibration, and that the vi-
bration continued as long as the envelope was near the nucleus. The
phenomena seemed to be those Avhich would be exhibited if the nucleus
were in a state of magnetic oscillation, as suggested by Bessel, or if it
were rotating about an axis pointed towards the sun, and if each
envelope were projected from a different point of the comet's surface.

"16. The phenomenon attributed to the resisting medium would
be fully as accurately explained in the mode suggested by Herschel.
The loss of the repelled matter must involve an apparent augmentation
of the weight of the attracted portion without that corresponding in-
crease of velocity which is required to preserve the mean distance
and time of revolution. Thus, in the equation

V

.2

2 1

II r a'

the increase of the denominator of the first member is analytically
the same with the decrease of the numerator; or, physically, to in-
crease the gravity is the same as to decrease the velocity. The
apparent resistance, in the case of Encke's comet, might be accounted
for by a loss of about -gu^^^ of its mass at each return. But even
without the loss of mass, an approach to the same phenomenon would
result from the mere separation of the polar forces of the comet under
the solar influence, which would draw one portion towards the sunny
side of the comet, and drive the repelled force to the opposite side.

" 17. The driving off the tail would tend to give rotation to the
comet, or rather to return to the comet as rotation part of the force
which had been taken out as translation. The opposite phenomenon
might be exhibited in the case of a planet, on account of its rotation
being in the same direction with the revolution of the planet about the
sun. It is possible that this may account for the decrease of mean
motion, which is indicated, with some uncertainty, by Leverrier's pro-
found investigations of the planet Mercury, so that there may be ex-
hibited a transformation of rotation into translation.

" 18. The formation of the comet's tail is not without analogy in the
terrestrial phenomenon of the thunder-cloud. Here, at least, is ex-
hibited the phenomenon of a vapor rising in an electrified condition.

206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

under the action of the sun. "Were the earth to be carried near enough
to the sun, the clouds which were pi'operly electrified would be repelled,
and might be driven off to form a terrestrial tail. It may be, indeed,
that the Aurora Borealis is the exhibition of such a phenomenon."

Remarks were made on Professor Peirce's communication
by Professor G. P. Bond and Professor W. B. Rogers.

Dr. B. A Gould referred to the recent decease of Manuel
J. Johnson, Director of the Radcliffe Observatory of Oxford,
and introduced the following resolutions.

" Whereas, by a recent afflicting dispensation of Providence, Manuel
John Johnson, Director of the Radcliffe Observatory of Oxford, has
been suddenly removed from the field of his useful labors, and the
Academy deprived of one of its bright and valued ornaments, —

^^ Resolved, That the Academy has heard with pain the sad an-
nouncement of this severe bereavement, lamenting the heavy loss
which Science has sustained by the removal of one of her mpst suc-
cessful and devoted ministers.

" Resolved, That the sympathies of the Academy be offered to the
family of the deceased astronomer, together with the assurance that
the name, example, and character of their departed husband and
father will long serve as an incentive and example to those who aim
at progress in the high calling which he adorned."

On motion of Professor Peirce, the resolutions were unani-
mously adopted.

Four hundred and sixty-sixth meeting.

May 10, 1859. — Monthly Meeting.

The Academy met at the house of the Hon. Nathan Apple-
ton.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from the Sec-
retary of the American Antiquarian Society, dated April 27,
1859, communicating the thanks of the Society for the use
of the Academy's hall.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 207

Mr. H. J. Clark made the following remarks on apparent
equivocal generation.

"At the close of our last social meeting I was asked if I had seea
any trace of organization in the globules of the Vibrio-like fibrillte of
the muscle of Sagitta. My answer was in the negative. No longer
ago than yesterday I was fortunate in discovering the origin of another
form, or rather of several forms, of these pseudo-animate bodies, called
Infusoria. Whilst watching the decomposition of the inner wall of the
proboscis of a young Aurelia Jlavidula, our common jelly-fish, I ob-
served that the whole component mass of cells was in violent agitation,
each cell danced zigzag about within the plane of the wall. If any
one will shake about a single layer of shot in a flat pan, he can obtain
an approximate idea of the appearance of this moving mass. In a
perfectly healthy condition these cells lie closely side by side, and do
not move individually from place to place, but yet are active on one
side, which constitutes the surface of the stomach, where they are
covered by vibratile ciliae. As the young Aurelia grows, this wall
becomes separated from the outer one, but not completely, for the cells
of the two adhere to each other by elongated processes, varying in
number from one to six or seven. Each cell of the inner wall con-
tains numerous red or brown granules, a few transparent globules, and
a siiigle large, clear mesoblast.

" When decomposition ensued, these cells became still further sepa-
rated from each other, and danced about in the manner which I have
just described. The vibratile cilias were not observed to share in this
movement ; in fact, I could not detect their presence, because, no
doubt, they had become decomposed and fallen away ; but the elongated
processes, which heretofore had remained immovable and stiff, lashed
about with very marked effect upon the cells to which they belonged,
and caused them to change place constantly. At last the inner
wall fell to pieces, and every cell moved independently and in any
direction. If at this time they were placed before the eyes of Ehren-
berg, or any one of his adherents, he would at once pronounce every
cell with a single process a Monas ; the red or brown granules would
be recognized as the stomachs filled with food, the transparent globules
as the empty stomachs, and the large mesoblast as the genital organ,
or propagative apparatus. Those with two processes would be to him
a CMlomonas, or some other genus closely related to it ; those with

208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

three or four on one side would be the Oxyrrhis of Dujardln ; and those
with six or seven processes, the Hexamita of the same author.

" To complete the apparently truthful determinations of these micro-
scopists, I would only have to place before them some of these cells
which I have found in a state of self-division, each half possessing its
genital-like mesoblast. In all their various shapes and actions, and in
the mode of self-division, there is a remarkable and undistinguishable
resemblance to numerous moving bodies which go under the name of
Infusoria, and which may be found, unconnected with any living or-
ganism, in various kinds of infusions."

The character of these movements being discussed, Mr.
Clark remarked, that he was disposed to attribute them to
endo-exosmotic action.

Mr. Folsom read an extract from some philological notes,
containing the results of an investigation he had recently
been called on to make for an immediate practical end, in
reference to lexicography. The subject was the common
English words Turtle and Tortoise, their origin and history,
and especially their complication with each other in modern
use.

" This has been an occasion of perplexity to English lexicogra-
phers ; but it does not appear that the subject has ever been histori-
cally investigated, or that it has yet engaged the attention of those
philologists who, in England and in this country, are now so intent on
tracing the pedigree, and exhibiting the successive changes in the
meaning, of the words that make up our composite language. Who-
ever attempts to investigate it may well take for his motto the Greek
proverb that will presently have to be cited.

" There is no difficulty as to the word turtle in itself, for it has
always been applied to the bird from whose note it was originally
taken ; toor * representing it in Hebrew, toortoor (among other names)
in Arabic, and turtur in Latin. Beautiful changes are rung upon it, as
it passes into the languages derived from the Latin. Tortorella, tour-
terelle, tortola, and other sweet diminutives, are heard in the Italian,
French, and Spanish tongues. In Anglo-Saxon it was slightly modi-
fied into turtel, which form it also bears in other languages of the same

* linn Sl'pi , " and the voice of the turtle."

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 209

stock.* But it is important here to remark, that in none of these lan-
guages is the word turtel ever applied to any other animal than the bird.
As an Anglo-Saxon element, it kept its place in the English of Chaucer
and WicklifFe in the fourteenth century ; it has come down to us with
its original meaning ; and, until comparatively late times, it has borne
no other.

" The word tortoise is not so readily disposed of. Whatever be its
derivation, it seems to have no affinity with any word in Anglo-Saxon
or any other Teutonic language ; nor is it found at all in the earliest
English writers. Indeed, neither the Anglo-Saxon nor early English
exhibits any distinctive name for this order of reptiles ; which is doubt-
less to be accounted for by the fact, that the tortoise is not indigenous
to Great Britain,! and in early times was not familiarly known there.
It is hardly so known even at the present day ; for the land-tortoise
is imported from the Continent, to be kept enclosed in gardens, and
the sea-tortoise from the West Indies, as a special luxury for the rich
in great cities.

" What, then, was the earliest word applied to this animal by Eng-
lishmen who had occasion to see it abroad ? Sir John Mandeville, who
died in 1372, and is generally regarded as the earliest English prose
writer, may answer the question. In his book of ' Travels in the East '
he says, ' And yee schulle undirstonde that I have put this bok out of
Latyn into Frensche, and translated it agen out of Frensche into Eng-
lyssche, that every man of my nation may understonde it^ (p. 5.)
Now, where he speaks of the island of Java, in his Latin book he uses
these words : 'Sunt in hoc territorio testudines terrihilis quantitatis,
fitque de majoribus regi ac nobilibus delicatus ac pretiosus cibus : men-
tior si non quasdam ibidem viderim testudinum conchas in quarum una
se tres homines occultarent.' In his French version it is, ' II y a aussi
dans ce pais des tortues d'une enorme grandeur,' &c. And in his Eng-
lish translation he says, ' There ben also in that contree, a hynde of
snayles, that ben so grete that many persones may loggen hem in
here schelles,' &c.

* In these it is prefixed to some derivative from the Gothic dubo, dove, makino-
a Latin and Gothic compound, like turtle-dove in English. The Gothic itself, the
oldest Northern source of English, does not exhibit the word turtel in the few writ-
ten monuments of it that are extant; but, for "turtle-doves" (Luke ii. 24), it has
" hraiva-dubono," mourning doves.

t See Bell's " History of British Eeptiles," p. 16.
VOL. IV. 27

210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" Another instance, belonging to a period hardly later than the
fourteenth century, appears in a treatise on the Art of War, in which
the testudo, the Roman military contrivance used in attacking walled
towns, is thus described : ' They had also all manere of gynes [engines]
.... that nedful is [in] taking or seging of castel or of citee, as snayles,
that was nought else but .... targetis, under the which men, when
they foughten, were heled [protected], .... as the snayl is in his house ;
therefore they clepid them snayles.^ *

" It would seem, therefore, that snail (Anglo-Saxon sncsgel) was, in
the state of our language at that time, of necessity used to embrace
also the tortoise, as a creeping thing covered with a shell. f This com-
prehensive meaning was inserted in the earliest dictionaries (English-
Latin), and, through the conservatism of lexicographers, has been kept
in all subsequent dictionaries of the kind, down to the present day.J
That this meaning had not quite died out of literature at the close
of the seventeenth century, is evident from more than one example.
Howell, for instance, in 1660, says that ' Apelles used to paint a good
housewife upon a snayl,' to intimate that she should be silent and
'home-keeping.' Dryden, in 1693, has an unequivocal passage in
the Dedication of his ti-anslation of Juvenal. He says, that ' When
he had once enjoyned himself so hard a task, he then considered the
Greek proverb^ "HSet x^^<^^^s '^P^'" (^ayei", rj fifj cpaydv,^ that he must
either eat the whole S7iail, or let it quite alone ' ; — no great feat
surely, if a modern snail were meant.

" If, then, the word tortoise was not a denizen of the English lan-
guage in the time of Mandeville, when did it first make its appearance,
and from what quarter ?

* As quoted by Halliwell from a manuscript.

t A precisely analogous case is afforded in the word worm, which in Anglo-
Saxon and early English comprehended also serpents ; and Cffidmon, in his para-
phrase of Scripture, makes Eve listen to the wyrmes geweaht, " counsel of the
worm" (Milton's "false worm"). So Shakspeare's "mortal worm," and "the
pretty worm of Nilus " on the breast of Cleopatra. A trace of this use still lingers
in modern English, in the name of the blind-worm or slow-worm, which passes for
a serpent.

} Barret's "Alvearie" (1575), as re-editcd by Fleming in 1580: " Snaile,
limax, testudo, cochlea." So Rider, Gouldmann, Littleton, Ilolyoke, and Ains-
worth (even in the latest editions). And Minshew, in his Spanish Dictionary
(1G17), has " GalApago, tortoise, snail."

§ A gastronomic precept, preserved in Athenreus, which passed into a proverb,
like Pope's "Drink deep, or taste not."

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 211

" Among the earliest names conferred by Columbus, in his first
voyage, on islands in the West Indies, was Tortuga ; * and the abun-
dance and enormous size of the sea-tortoises there, and the supply of
food they furnished to the mariners and first settlers, caused them to
figure afterwards in the Spanish accounts of their transactions in the
New World.

In 1554, on the solemn entry into London of Philip the Second and
Queen Mary, just after their marriage, Richard Eden, transported, as
he says, by the magnificence of the scene, determined to make his
countrymen acquainted with the exploits of Spain in the New World,
and immediately translated the ' Decades ' of Peter Martyr, and Ovi-
edo's ' Natural History of the Indies,' which, in one volume, he pre-
sented to Philip and Mary in 1555. This book contains, probably,
the first printed account in the English language of the West Indian
tortoise, and furnishes the earliest use of the word to which this inves-
tigation has led.f Where Oviedo says, ' En la ysla de Cuba se hallan
tan grandes tortugas que diez y quinze hombres son necesarios para
sacar del agua una dellas,' Eden translates thus : ' In the island of
Cuba we found great tortoyses {ivJiich are certain shell-fishes) of such
byggenesse that ten or fifteene men are scarcely able to lift one of
them out of the water.' The explanatory words, inserted by the trans-
lator in a parenthesis for the benefit of English readers, seem to show
that the term was either wholly new to the language, and coined by

* Spanish etymologists are not agreed on the origin of this word, early applied
to the Mediterranean tortoise on the coast of Spain. (See Cobarruvias.) It is com-
monly referred, with the Italian tartaruga and the French tortiie, to the Latin tortus,
as importing the crookedness of the animal's legs. (See Diez, Etym. Worterbuch.)

Afterwards the Spanish also gave their name of the land-tortoise (galdpago) to
a group of islands off the Western coast of America, abounding in gigantic animals
, of the sort. Spanish etymologists consider this word as belonging to the Arabic
portion of their language ; and from it came, through sailors, our name denoting
the upper shell, calUpash (at first written, nautice, "galley patch"), softened by the
French into carapace (which English naturalists now begin to adopt), and further
transformed into carapax, -acis, as a Latin noun of the third declension, by a French
naturalist, to enrich, as he says, that language for the use of his hrethren. — Callipee,
which is found used as early as 1657, by Lygon in his "History of Barbados,"
seems to he a word coined by cooks in the West Indies, as a convenient counter-
part to calUpash, to distinguish the under from the upper shell : — " Lifting up
his belly, which we call his caUipee."

t Thirty years earlier than Kichardson's earliest citation, which purports to con-
tain the earliest instance known to him.

212 TROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

him for the occasion from the Spanish word, or, what is more probable,
that he had heard it from the seamen of that day, with whom it is
known he associated,* and who had caught it from Spanish sailors,
and modified it with a sailor's usual license.f

" However this may have been, tortoise appears as the English
name, and the only one, in all the original narratives of the great
series of English voyages to the West Indies, which began shortly after
the publication of Eden's book, and lasted to the end of the century. J

" Nor was it long confined to seamen's narratives. In 1576 it was
adopted by Abraham Fleming, in his translation of JElian's ' Various
History,' as the rendering of xf^w*"? ; in 1580 it appears in Barret's
Latin-English Dictionary ; great writers of Elizabeth's reign — Bacon,
Shakspeare, and others — gave it general currency with their royal
stamp; in 1611 it was set in the English Bible; and all English
writers since, whether in literature or science, have continued to use it
as the ' plain English ' word for testudo,^ and the only one comprising
all kinds of testudinous animals.

" In the early part of the seventeenth century, however, a new
name for the marine tortoise of America makes its appearance in some
of the sea narratives of that day. In 1602 Captain Bartholomew

* Sebastian Cabot, who was still living when Eden wrote, was one of them, and
he had been in the West Indies.

t The plural tortugas, rapidly uttered, has a near resemblance in sound. It is
worthy of note that where seamen under Sir Walter Raleigh's command write
" tortoyses egges," he, the accomplished scholar, always writes " tortugas egges,"
and tortoise does not appear in his own narratives.

X Published in Hakluyt's Collection (1600). In the narrative of the second of
these voyages to America (that of Hawkins, in 1564-65), written by John Sparke,
who was in it, we have, probably, the first printed English account, by an Eiujlish
eyewitness, of the sea-tortoise of the West Indies. " Certain islands of sand, called

the Tortugas These islands bear the name of Tortoises, because of the number

of them which there do breed, whose nature is to live both in the water and upon
land also, but breed only upon the shore, in making a great pit, wherein they lay
egges, to the number of 300 or 400, and covering them with sand, they are hatched
by the heat of the sunne ; and by this means cometh the great increase. Of these
we took very great ones, which have both back and belly all of bone, of the thick-
ness of an inch; the fish whereof we proved, eating much like veale ; and finding
a number of egges in them, tasted also of them, but they did eat very sweetly." —
Hakl. III. 610. .

§ " Testudo, lacerta, .... in plain English tortoise, lizard" — Dr. John Mason
Good (1812), in his Lectures before the Surrey Institution.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 213

Gosnoltl made his voyage, so memorable in the history of New Eng-
land, to the shores of Massachusetts. Gabriel Archer, one of his com-
panions, wrote an account of it. In this he says, ' I commanded some
of my companie to seeke out for crabbes, lobsters, turtles, &c., for
sustayning us till the ship's return.' He uses the same word in one
other passage. In these two passages we have probably the first
occurrence in print of the word turtle with this application. But John
Brereton, another of the same ship's company, who also wrote an
account of Jhe voyage, addressed to Sir Walter Raleigh, does not use
it, and speaks of the ' whales, tortoises, both on land and sea, scales,
cods,' &;c. Tortoise alone is found in the accounts of voyages to
America immediately afterwards ; viz. in Gilbert's to Virginia (1603),
Waymouth's to Penobscot (1605), and Nicol's to the West Indies
(1605).* But in 1610 turtle recurs in two independent narratives f of
the wreck of an English ship at Bermuda, in consequence of which
a company of English gentlemen and sailors, bound to "Virginia, were
detained on this hitherto uninhabited island for nine months. One of
the narrators, William Strachey, who was one of the company, writes :

' Then the tortoyses came in The tortoyse is reasonable toothsom

(some say) wholesome meate One turtle {for so we called them)

feasted six messes We should find five hundred [eggs] .... in

* These, and the subsequent accounts of English intercourse with America, before
1625, are found in Purchas's Pilgrims, printed in that year. But Purchas, speak-
ing in his own person, uniformly adheres to " tortoise." — In tracing the history of a
word, one must resort to original writers. Captain Southey, in his " Chronological
History of the West Indies" (1827), quotes substantially these early voyagers,
but, with the habitude of a modern sailor, in more than one instance he substitutes
for tortoise another name, unknown in their day; and the remarkably accurate Dr.
Holmes, in his "Annals of America," o?!ce (under 1593) lapses into the anachro-
nism of " turtle-fat" for " oil of tortoises." Perhaps he was put off his guard by
having become familiar with this compound term during several years' residence,
in early life, near the coast of Georgia.

t Memorable for their effect on Shakspeare's imaginatfon when he created
Prospero's Island. — The Spanish pronunciation of the name of Juan Berinudez, the
first discoverer of the island where the English ship was wrecked, is exactly rep-
resented in Shakspeare's " still-vexed Bermoothes " (the th being soft) ; which ac-
counts for the uncouth appearance of the name. Neither this, nor the corrupted
form Bermudas, has any plurality in it. The first boy born in the wrecked com-
munity was christened Bermudas, from which a feminine was made for the first-born
girl, Bermuda.

214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the opening of a sliee turtle At the day appointed of nature ....

there creepeth out a multitude of tortoyses, as it were pismires out of
an ant-hill.'

" The writer of the other narrative, Sylvester Jourdan (likewise of
the company), says : ' There are also great store of tortoses (which
some call turtles), and them so great,' &c. ' The tortose itself is all

very good meate We carried away with us a good portion of tor-

toyse oil.'

"In 1612 appeared a further account of Bermuda, a colony having
now been planted there, the second English colony in the New World,
and the first insular one. In it occurs this passage : ' TiirUes [sic]
there be of mighty bigness. One turhle will serve or suffice three or
four score at a meal, especially if it be a shee turMe.'

In 1622 Richard Norwood published a still later account of this
colony, in which he says : ' Of two particulars .... I will speak. The
first shall bee the tortoyse, which they call a turtle.* .... And, first, of
the TURCKLE [sic] They are like to fowle in respect to the small-

* Why did they give it this new name ? No aboriginal name appears to resem-
ble it (though tourehe, the Abnaki word for tortue, according to Father Rasles, and
" torope, or little turtle," used in 1613 by Whittaker, a minister in the Virginia
colony, may point to the source of terrapin). Was it not, then, a direct waggish
transfer of the name of the bird which is proverbial for conjugal tenderness and
fidelity to these briny monsters, as observed by sailors in their pairing-time ? The
ludicrousness of the contrast will only heighten the probability to those who have
been conversant with sailors, especially in boating excursions for purposes of Natural
History. A turn for the ludicrous is always apt to show itself in the names they
bestow on objects new to them. Even their own rude play they call " sky-larking ";
and it was in a " light-horseman " that Captain Gosnold's people, in 1602, brought
off to their ship probably the first turtles on record. " We went in our UgJit-horse-
man from this island [Cuttyhunk] to the main [near the site of New Bedford],"
where the natives gave them " furres, tobacco, turtles,'" &c. — The tortoise seems
always to have been, in one way or another, associated with birds, now for some
contrast, and again for some striking resemblance. " Testudo volat " was the
Roman proverb for an impossibility; yet we^ow know, from the highest living
authority on such subjects, that the sea-tortoise does, in fact, literally ^^ through
the water, having in its fore extremities true wings, as to the bony structure and
the mode of action. In their manners, too, testudinous reptiles present both a
contrast and a resemblance to birds. Though they have not " billing and cooing,"
they are not without " a voice " and certain endearing ways. " Professor Jeffries
Wyman had once the rare opportunit}' of watching two chrysemys picfa [not,
however, sea-tortoises] while making love, and he saw the male patting and caress-

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 215

ness and fashion of their heads and neckes, which are wrinkled hke a
turheyes, but white, and not so sharp-billed. They also breed their

young of the egges which they lay They are very wittie

Shortlie after their coming in, the male and female couple, which wee
call cooling ; * this they continue some three days together, during
which time they will scarce separate, though a boat come to them, nor

hardly when they are smitten The shee turckle comes up by

night upon some sandie bay. They are easily taken .... when they
are cooling^

" As Virginia, Massachusetts, and other parts of the continent, and
various West-India islands, were successively colonized by Englishmen,
the use of the words turtle and turkle spread with the colonists, the
form turhle taking that precedence in the common speech f of New Eng-
land and the middle colonies, which it holds to this day ; while turtle^

ing the head of the female with its fore feet for several minutes." — Agassiz,
Contributions, &c. I. 300.

It might at first be supposed that sailors could be little acquainted with the habits
of the turtle-dove ; but it is a singular fact that the early voyagers to America, from
the beginning, speak of the turtle, or turtle-dove, as among the birds they most
commonly met with, and it frequently figures on the same page, and sometimes
in the same sentence, with the tortoise. Spanish voyagers early bestowed their
name for this bird on the West-India island, Tortola.

*■ Here, also, there is probably allusion to a bird which is prominently mentioned
in these Bermuda narratives. See the accounts of the Common Coot in Wilson's
and other books on ornithology, particularly as to their manner of assembling to
breed near the shore, but not on it. Indeed, they can hardly be said to live on
drij land. The word cooling is not registered in Dictionaries, but it is found
afterwards in use in the West Indies (" Cooting-tlme," Hughes's History of Barba-
does, 1750) ; and in the Fauna of Georgia, at this day, there are counted among the
tortoises four different kinds o{" coolers." (White's " Statistics of Georgia," 1849.)

t Rarely, however, found in books. Wood, in his "New England's Prospect"
(1639), thus celebrates the wealth of Massachusetts Bay : —

" The luscious lobster, with the cod-fish raw,
The brinish oyster, muscle, periwigge.
The tortoise, sought by the Indian squaw," &c. ;

and Cotton Mather ("Christian Philosopher," 1721), bom and bred here, never
departs from the old use, though " his Essays are not altogether destitute of
American communications."

But Josselyn, in his "New-England Rarities" (1673), says, that, among the
" fishes " here, he found the " tortoise, torteise, tortuga, tortisse, turcle, or turtle, of
divers kinds." Turkle soon became a confirmed spoken provincialism among the
less educated, and was applied alike to all tortoises, in spite of the Bible and com-

216 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

prevailing at the South and in the British "West Indies, got into Eng-
lish books of voyages and travels in those parts. The word, however,
with the meaning in question, did not appear in any dictionary till
1671, when Skinner's ' Etymologicon ' gave this account of it : 'NautiK
etiam testudines marinas turtles vocant.'*

" About the middle of the last century the marine animal itself began
to be imported into London, as a luxury for the table, under its West-
Indian name, which then took a place in the language of the market
and the kitchen ; turtle-feasts were instituted ; f and turtler came to be
heard, as well as whaler. Polite literature sported with it in light
essays and satirical verses on the manners of the town,! but ignored
it in any other relation. Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, published in

mon-school books. TurUe would seem to be nearly as old a name as turtle ; and,
if it had prevailed in print to the exclusion of the latter, it would have had less
ambiguity.

* It must not be supposed, however, that all sailors at all times employed this
word. Dampier (1679), in the narrative of his cruising in the "West-India seas
with a fleet of privateers under " Captain "Wright, Captain Yanky," and others,
and of his subsequent voyage round the world, which contributed so much to the
natural history of those days, uses the two words indiscriminately, " green tor-
toise," " green turtle," and, in the same breath, " turtle-doves and sea-turtle." Defoe
(1719), versed in such narratives (which he counterfeited to the life), in order to be
understood by everybody, makes Eobinson Crusoe begin by finding " a large tortoise
or turtle. This was the first I had seen." All afterwards were turtles. Our Mar-
blehead Eobinson Crusoe, Philip Ashton, whose interesting narrative (1722) has
just been found and published by Colonel Swett, had, at the island of Roatan, "no
knife or instrument of iron by which to cut up a tortoise, when he had turned it."
Even resident natives of the "West Indies, at this day, do not hesitate to write
thus : " By far the greater part of the sea and land tortoises exposed for sale in
our markets come from the Main." — Verteuil's " Trinidad," &c., 1858 (dedicated
to his countrymen).

t These novel feasts attracted so much notice in 1753 - 54, that they were repeat-
edly chronicled, among grave matters, in the " Historical Department " of the
Gentleman's Magazine; e.g. " Saturday, July 13 [1754]. The Right Hon. Lord
Anson made a present to the gentlemen of "White's Chocolate House of a turtle,
which weighed three hundred pounds weight, and whicii laid five eggs since in their
possession."

I Lord Lyttleton, in his "Dialogue's of the Dead" (1751), makes Apicius (who
had just got intelligence from a freshly-arrived London alderman) tantalize, with
an account of the new-found luxury, another London epicure who had come below
in 1738, several years too soon. In 1753 appeared a Number of " The "World,'-"
containing a humorous description of a turtle-feast at the house of a returned

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 217

1755, humorously disposed of it thus: 'Turtle; 1. A species of dove.
2. It is used among sailors and gluttons for a tortoise ' * ; to which
Mason, in his 'Supplement,' replies in earnest: 'This assertion is not
even true ; for the appellation of turtle does not extend to tortoises
in general. If all the land-men who call a sea-tortoise a turtle are
therefore gluttons, everybody who understands the word must incur
the imputation.'

" But, notwithstanding Johnson's disparagement, it was destined to
win its way into the halls of Science. Just before this time it had begun
to be introduced into formal treatises on Natural History, as a conven-
ient subordinate name for the sea-tortoise. Hill (who had recently
been at a famous turtle-feast at the London Tavern), adopted it in
his ' History of Animals,' printed in 1752. Catesby (who had lived
much in America) says (1754): 'The sea-tortoise is by our sailors
vulgarly called turtle, whereof there are four different kinds.' Gold-
smith, in his 'Earth and Animated Nature' (1774), writes: 'Tortoises
are usually divided into those that hve upon land, and those that
subsist in the water ; and use has made a distinction even in the name,
the one being called tortoises and the other turtles.' Martyn, in 1785,
in his ' New Dictionary of Natural History, ' has this article : ' Turtle ;
an appellation by which the moderns express that kind of tortoise
which is found only in the sea, or on^its shores.' And with this re-
stricted meaning it has continued to appear, in Encycloptedias, in
Transactions of learned societies, and in separate works on Natural
History, down to the present day. When it is so used, neither ludi-

West-India " nabob," and headed with the punning motto (highly relished at the
time from the novelty of the subject, and famous since in the annals of wit) : —

" Dapibus supremi
Grata testudo Jovis." — Hor.
In 1764 Christopher Smart thus translated Phsedrus, with a hit at contemporary
manners : —

" An eagle on a tortoise fell,
Then, mounting, bore him by his shell."
The crow proposes a wise method of getting at the meat.
" The eagle follows her behest,
Then feasts on turtle with his guest." —

[" Magistra; large divisit dapem."]
* Dr. Campbell, great adept as he was in the use of English, seems to have first
learned the existence of this use from Johnson's Dictionary. — Philosophy of
Ehetoric.

VOL. IV. 28

218 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

crous nor homely associations can any longer adhere to it. The sci-
ence that adopts it, dignifies it for the occasion. Its progress to a
post so respectable has been sloio, it is true ; but that post is at last
attained ; and it would now seem that lexicographers need not be
at a loss how to treat this and the related word in accordance with the
present state of the English language." *

Professor W. B. Rogers spoke of the estimates which had
been made of the probable thickness of the earth's crust,
based on the rate at which the temperature increases from
the surface downwards ; and he remarked that recent ex-
periments tend to show that the crust must be much thicker
than had been supposed. Bunsen, especially, has shown
that the fusing point of some substances is greatly raised
by pressure ; but this has been demonstrated only in the
case of certain substances, and could not be true of all ; ice
being a well-known exception, melting, as it does, under

* Present " national use " (see Campbell) is well ilhistrated by the two follow-
ing examples, one from each side of the Atlantic, and both belonging to the
present year.

Mr. Francis T. Buckland, in his just published " Curiosities of Natural History,"
says : " Not long ago I met a man in Oxford Street who was wheeling along a
truck full of tortoises of different sizes. He said he had bought them as a specu-
lation, from the captain of a ship then in the Victoria Docks, who had got a cargo
of them. In order to get customers, he assured the passers-by that they were
capital things to ' keep the kitchen clear of black beetles.' This was simply untrue,

for this kind of tortoise is purely a vegetable cater I bought the largest of the

•lot, and took him home on the top of an omnibus. The driver had evidently not
had a zoological education, for he could not make out the nature of my prize at all.
After patiently listening to my lecture on tortoises in general, he relapsed into
silence," &c. (pp. 395, 396.) Glance at the next page, and the word " suffers a sea-
change " at once : " A few weeks ago, when on my way to see the great iron ship
opposite Greenwich, a boy got into the steamer at London Bridge, carrying a turtle

on his back He told me his business was to fetch turtle from London, when

wanted for one of the hotels at Greenwich," &c. (p. 397.)

The c\i-Atlantic example is furnished by one who, while a " chorded shell " is
reposing on his left hand, writes thus with the other : " A turtle — which means a
tortoise — is fond of his shell ; but if you put a live coal on his back, he crawls out
of it. So the boys say." The animal that New-England boys have to do with
possesses the more perfect type of the order to which it belongs ; and a local idiom
is here translated for the benefit of the entire belt of English readers that now en-
circles the earth.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 219

pressure in glaciers at a temperature below 32°. He thought
the same might be the case with other crystalline bodies ;
and if true of granite, the earth's crust must be much thin-
ner than is generally supposed. So that, at present, all the
current estimates of the thickness of the earth's solid crust
must be very uncertain.

Professor Felton (through Mr. Goodwin) communicated a
continuation of his paper upon the Modern Greek language.

" I desire to add to the remarks submitted by me at a former meet-
ing, on the pronunciation of the Greek language, a few observations, by
way of illustrating its present condition, and the manner in which it
adapts itself to the wants of modern society. When we consider that
the earliest monuments of the Greek language, which belong to a
period dating at least a thousand years before Christ, are of such
perfection as necessarily implies a long previous cultivation, and that
the language has been spoken and written uninterruptedly through all
changes, social, religious, and political, down to the present day, and
that all these changes act directly upon language, as the organ of
human thought, we naturally expect corresponding changes in the
forms and construction and pronunciation of the language. Dividing
all this extent of time in a general way, and without any attempt at
precision, we may say that there are three great periods : the first,
that of the Ancient Classical Greek ; the second, the Byzantine Greek ;
and the third, the Modern Greek. The period of the Ancient Greek
would last as long as the forms of the ancient inflections and the
constructions of the ancient syntax continued to be used in literature
and society. The Byzantine form of the Greek, as its name indicates,
would embrace those modifications of the language which were gi-ad-
ually introduced during the time of the Roman domination and the
Byzantine Empire, and the ecclesiastical Greek. The Modern Greek
may be considered as embracing those modifications of the language
gradually introduced among the people in the Middle Ages, son^etimes
called the Romaic, and the improvements made upon that basis by the
scholars of the last half-century, forming the cultivated language of
the present Greeks. This, however, is a very crude arrangement.
In point of fact, the Ancient Greek not only had a variety of con-
temporary dialects, but underwent great changes from age to age.

220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

From Homer to the Attic Tragedians, every age had its peculiarities.
From the Attic Tragedians to the Alexandrian period ; from the
Alexandrian period to the establishment of Christianity and the By-
zantine Empire ; through all the mutations of culture and thought
during the long existence of that empire, down to the time of the
Crusades; from that time to the capture of Constantinople by the
Tui'ks, and the subjection of the Greeks to the dominion of the Sultan ;
during the three centuries and a^half of Turkish oppression, — the lan-
guage was constantly adapting itself to the condition of the times,
but it remained essentially Greek. Of the Modern, as well as of the
Ancient Greek, there were many contemporary varieties spoken by the
inhabitants of the JEgean Islands, the Asiatic coasts, and the Phanar
in Constantinople, by the Rayas of Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus, and
Thessaly, and by the population of Central and Southern Greece
and of the Ionian Islands. The dialects of some of the islands, to
adopt Mr. Clyde's statement, were more or less corrupted with the
Italian ; those of Asia Minor, Thrace, Thessaly, Boeotia, and Attica
were corrupted with the Turkish ; the dialects of Macedonia, Epirus,
and Peloponnesus were corrupted with the Slavonic. This division is
not to be taken as exact. Many Turkish words obtained a general
currency throughout Greece, and the same may be said of some Sla-
vonic and Italian words and phrases.

" When, towards the close of the last century, a revival of the spirit
of nationality in the Gi'eek race commenced, the literaiy men, with
Coray at their head, began the systematic improvement and purifica-
tion of the language. In this process three courses were suggested :
first, to adopt the Modern or Romaic as it then existed ; second, to re-
store the Ancient Greek ; third, to purify the Modern from its corrup-
tions, to retain its inflections and syntax, and to supply its deficiencies
from the treasure-house of the Ancient Greek. The last of these three
courses was seen to be the best, and was favored and supported by
the ablest men. Turkish, Italian, and Slavonic words were expelled
from the language, and the vocabulary has been enlarged to meet the
necessities and demands of the present age, by taking pure Ancient
Greek words, and by making new compounds out of old Hellenic
roots. This process has gone steadily on for half a century, and the
language now established in Greece, taught in the schools, written in
the newspapers and literary journals, spoken in the legislative halls, the

or ARTS AND SCIENCES. 221

courts of justice, the pulpit, the professor's chair, and in the educated
society of Athens, is pure Greek, though greatly modified, and this
has been especially called the Neo-EXXrjviKrj, or New-Hellenic. The
process above alluded to has not essentially changed the character of
the language : even the broken dialects of the Eomaic spoken by the
rudest and most ignorant mountaineers were substantially Greek, and
those forms of the Romaic found in the Klephtic poems are marked
by poetical beauties of no common order. The New-Hellenic, as
now employed by writers and speakers, has already proved itself
adequate to every form of literary composition, whether in poetry
or prose. The works of Soutsos, Rangabes, Orphanides, and others,
have shown that it is capable of all the varieties of rhythmical com-
bination exhibited by any other modern language. They all depend
upon accent, as in the other modern languages.

" The greatest change, perhaps, is in the application of the language
in adapting it to the modern cast of thought'; in doing which, it has
been found necessary to make out of ancient elements new words,
which, though not classical, are easily understood by the classical
scholar, or by using classical words with secondary or analogical
meanings. This process I propose to illustrate by a few examples
taken from recent books, journals, advertisements, public notices, and
from the signs of the shops in the streets of Athens.

" There is still a struggle, in some cases, between the common and
the classical. The traveller who steps into a shop, wishing to buy an
umbrella, and asks for a aKidbeiov, may be told that the shopkeeper
has no such article, though he sees the very thing in the window ;
and when he points it out, the seller exclaims, 'O/xTrpeXXa ! o/x7rpeXXa !
If, wishing a flannel under-waistcoat, he asks classically for a xf'Twi/toi^,
he is likely enough to hear of fanella. Asking for a cup of vSwp, it
will be given to him under the name of vepo. And so on.

Some of the signs are as follows : —

'YTToSTy/iaTOTToioy, Shoemaker.

KaTacTTTjiia Evpa>TTaiKa)v ^ope/iar<oi', S/iop (ov establishment) for Eu-
ropean clothing.

Ta\(iKTOTra)\e7oi/, 6 lldv, Mlllc-shop, the Pan.

^aixnavla rrjs Trpcorr/f TToiorrjTos, Champagne of the first quality.
(Spelled on the sign, however, TnoVjjro?, which has the same pronuncia-
tion, but would mean drhikability, — a mistake perhaps made on pur-
pose.)

222 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

'EinropopdTTTTjs, Mercfiant-tailor.
'ixdvoTTuiXflov, Fish-market.
'OTTcBpoTTcoXetov, Fruit-market.

From Newspapers.

ElBoTToiTjo-is Tols crvv8pop.rjTals, Notice to subscribers.
'H avvSpofifj TrpoTTXrjpcdTea, Subscription to be paid in advance.
'O vTTfvdvvos (TvvTdKTT]s, Tfic rcsponsible editor.
Tviroypacjif'iov, Printing-office.

Notices, Advertisements, &c.

'AyyeX/a rov Ae^tKoO, &c., Advertisement of the Lexicon.

Ilvpa(T(})a'ki(rTiK^ 'Eraipia, 6 ^oti/tl, The Phoenix Fire Insurance Com-
pany.

'Ar/xoTrXoiKj) 'Eratpt'a, Steamboat Company.

'EXXrjviKri drpoTrXoia, Greek steam-navigation.

'ATpoirXoLKri avyKoivuivia pera^v Heipaias ical rav irapaKlav t^s HfXoTTovvf)-
a-ov, Steam communicatioyi between Peirceus and the coast of Pelopon-
nesus.

Judicial Process.

Alexander Soutsos, the famous writer, has been lately prosecuted
for a libel on the government. The trial is reported in a paper, called
the'llXtos' (Sun), conducted by the poet's brother. From this report
I select a few words and phrases. The accused was found guilty.

The verdict of guilty is KaraBiKaa-TiKr} iTvprjyopta.

Counsel for defence, hiKr\yopoi r^s VTrepaa-rria-eoys.
Drawing the Jury., rj KXfjpcocns rmv evopKcov.

The Prosecution challenged (such and such persons), 17 Ela-nyyiKla

i^Tjpfcrev.

The indictment, to eyKXr]Tr)piov.
3Iy client, 6 irekarqs pov.
Gentlemen of the Jury, "Avtpes i'vopKoi.
Retire to your room, dTroxtoprjo-aTe tls t6 tcopdnov.
In the course of the trial the judge called one of the lawyers to
order : Keep to your subject, Mr. Counsellor, Trepiopia-drjTi fls to 6ipa,

Kvpif biKTjyopf.

In Legislation.

The House of Deputies, in Athens, is called /SouXj; ; the Senate,
yepova-ia. The ancient eKKKrja-ia, the popular assembly, has, from early
times, been appropriated to the Church.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 223

Deputies are ^ovXevral ; Senators, yepova-iaa-Tai In the legislature
of the Ionian Islands, the representatives are avTiirpoaaiioL ; as, in a
recent discussion on the question of union with Greece, 6 dfrtTrpoVwTros

TTjs AevKciSof, Kvptos 'icodwr^s Mapivos avr^yyiikiv avTT}v, the representative
of Leucadia reported it.

From the report : 'EvSeKa^eXTjs eniTpoTrri (KKexOrja-^rai, a committee of
eleven members shall be chosen ; the subject to be referred to them
being a SiaKtjpv^is rrepi ivwa-eas, a proclamation concerning union.

A tariff bill has been recently discussed in the legislature at
Athens. From the debate I select a few terms and phrases appro-
priate to this subject : —

To TrpoaTarevTCKov <TV(rTr]p.a, the protective system.

Ot TvpoaTarevTiKoi, the protectionists.

'EXevdepia tov efiiropiov, freedom of trade.

'E^evdepa efirropeia, free trade.

Udyios 8a(rp6si afxed duty.

At (Tv^rjTrjads nepl roii viov vopov t&v (TiTtjpciv tov KarapyovvTOs Trjv xXtjuaKa,
77ie debates on the new Corn-law abolishing the sliding-scale.

To f»?r7/)Lia IriOri ets ■^r](po(f)op[av, the question was piut to the vote.

'H TponoKoyia dneppLcfidr], the amendment ivas rejected.

The debate on the Telegraph Bill is called 'H a-v^rjTrjcns tov nepl

TTi\eypd(f)ov vopocrxediov.

" One or two more illustrations must suffice. In their Declaration
of Independence, in 1821, the Greeks did not employ the old term,
avTovopla, which expresses nearly the idea, but a modern compound,
dve^apTTjo-ia, resembling in its etymology our word independence, which
to an ancient Greek would have meant the not hanging from some-
thing. The modern abstraction, nationality, is expressed by idvcKOTTjs ;
and national, by idviKos.

" A few years ago, when table-tipping was spreading over Europe, it

visited Athens also. There is an amusing article on the subject in the

Almanac for 1854, from which I take the following pleasant account

of a table which imprudently disclosed the age of a lady who was

. present : —

" ' Kal povov av fKivelro Koi civ TrepieTrdret ! dXX' rj dvaTpocjir] ttjs (fiaiverai oar]-
pipai Tf'KfiOTTOiovpfVT]. "Odev rj8r] kol SpiXd Kol ypd({)et, Koi dpidpel, Kal ^dWei,
KoX )^opevei ! Med' oXcov 8e tovto>u t<ov yvvaiKeiwv TrpoTeprjpaTcov 8ev ecu aTTTjX-
\aypevr] Kal Tivav tS>v TrpoTrerws vno Tav dvhpav ovopaadevTav yvvaiKelav iXaT-

224 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

TafidrcDV. Eiuai, (pep elnelv, XaXoy Ka\ dBiuKpiros, Koi r^y y\(i(Ta7js, fj pdXKov
Tov TToSof, oil Kparovaa. Ovtws els iaTrepivfjv Trore a-vvavaaTpo(j)r]v, dcf) ov
TToXXa ipcorrjdelaa dnfjvTTjcre npbs Koivbv Oavpaa-pou /cat Koivi]v biaaKeBaaiv,
ipu>Trj6ri reXos Koi TvepX t?]s r}Xt/<ias Kvpias tlvos eic t(ov napevpiaKonepau. 'H
Tvovrjpa rpdnf^a tj-yeipe p-era ttoXX^s Kop'^orrjTos tov eva ti]s ttoSo, koi TJpxifTe
KTvnaxra eXacjypas to e8a(f}os, Tvpos peyi(TTTjv ^apav anavTav, Koi t^s Kvpias npo
■ndvTOiV, tJtis e/3Xe7rej/ iavTTjV dvTiKfipevov Trjs koivtjs Trpoa-oxrjs. Kai (KTinrrjcrev
€V, 8uo, TTfVrf, 8eKa, Koi fj Kvpia eyeXa- deKunevTe, SeKaeTrrd* Koi eyeXa irdu-
TOTe. 'AXX' f] Tpdire^a i^rjKo\ovd(i, koL al 6(})pvs Trjs Kvpias rfp^iaav va avoTeX-
Xwj/rat. 'E(crv7r7;o-ei' eiKOcri, et/cotrteV, Kai ai X^^pf? ttjs Kvpias fTddrjaau • elKoai8vo,
elKOcriTpla, elicoanrevTe , Koi fj KVpla p,e6' oXtjS t^s bvvdpeais ttjs e^dpvvev enl ttjs
Tpaire^Tjs • aXXa to dcfxapKrpivov (TKeiios e^tjKoXovdei dvevdoTov, (Ikoo-ioktw,
elKocrievvia, TpiaKovra • Koi tov TeXevToiov avTov dpidpbv eKTvirrjcre pe peydXijv
(T(po8p6TT]Ta, cos Kvpovaa avTov ttjv dXfjdeiav. 'Svyxpovoos Se fj irpoboBelaa Tpia-
KOVTOvTis vfavLS evrecrfv dcji eTepov vnTia Koi Xenrodvpova'a, koi irdvTes iipoXoyrj-
aav OTi TO. ireipdpaTa twv Tpane^av elaiv eTriKivSwa, a>s Trpoa^aXXovTa to vevpiKov
aiXTTijpa.'

" * If it only would move and walk about ! But its education seems
to be improving every day. It already talks and writes, and counts
and sings and dances. But with all these feminine accomplishments,
it is not free from some of what are impertinently called by men
feminine faults. For example, it is talkative, thoughtless, and unable
to govern its tongue, or rather its foot. Thus, at an evening party
once, after it had answered many interrogatories to the general wonder
and diversion, it was finally questioned about the age of one of the ladies
present. The mischievous table, with much grace, raised one of its feet,
and began striking the floor lightly, to the very great gratification of
all, and especially of the lady, who saw herself the subject of gen-
eral attention. It struck one, two, five, ten, and the lady laughed ;
fifteen, seventeen, and she continued to laugh. But the table kept on,
and the lady's eyebrows began to contract. It struck twenty, twenty-
one, and the lady held up her hands ; twenty-two, twenty-three, twenty-
five, and the lady pressed down on the table with all her might ; but
the cursed piece of furniture continued obstinately, twenty-eight,
twenty-nine, thirty ; and it struck the last number with great force,
in confirmation of its truth. But on the other hand, at the same
moment, the betrayed thirty-years-old young lady fell backwards in a
fainting fit, and all confessed that the experiments of the tables are
dangerous, as affecting the nervous system.'

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 225

" These illustrations might be indefinitely extended. They show
the direction in which the internal changes of the language are mak-
ing. Some of these new terms are made strictly according to analogy ;
others not so happily ; but usage soon establishes them. The Greek
language is a wonderful phenomenon. It stands alone in the history
of human speech, like the wonderful race which first created and still
preserves it."

Four bundred and sixty-seT-eutli mectiug.

May 24, 1859. — Annual Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from the Libra-
rian of the Royal University of Bonn, November 25, 1858;
Societe de Geographic, Paris, November 20, 1858 ; Academic
Royale des Sciences a Amsterdam, December 20, 1858 ;
Koniglich Sachsische Bergakademie zu Freiberg (Sachsen),
November 20, 1858 ; K. L. C. Akademie der Naturforscher,
Jena, November 13, 1858 ; Academic Royale des Sciences de
Stockholm, November 15, 1858 ; and the Societe Imperiale
des Sciences Naturelles de Cherbourg, September 1, 1858,
acknowledging the receipt of the Academy's publications ; —
from the Academic Royale des Sciences de Stockholm, No-
vember 15, 1858, and the War Department, Washington, May
5, presenting their publications ; — from the K. Preussische
Akademie der Wissenschaften, August 12, 1858, acknowledg-
ing the receipt of the Academy's publications, and presenting
its own ; — and from the K. Bayerische Akademie der Wis-
senschaften, December 28, 1858, acknowledging the receipt
of the Academy's publications, and asking that missing num-
bers may be supplied.

The Treasurer presented his annual report upon the finan-
ces, of the Academy, which was ordered to be entered in full
upon the record-book.

Professor Lovering, in behalf of the Committee of Publica-
tion, and Dr. A. A. Gould, from the Committee on the
Library, severally presented their annual reports.

VOL. IV. 29

226 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The Council submitted nominations for one Foreign Hon-
orary Member, and three Associate Fellows ; also a general
report upon the actual state of the Academy, with notices
of the members deceased during the past year, as follows : —

The following changes Lave occurred in the personelle of the Acad-
emy since the last Annual Meeting.

Nine members have been elected, to wit : seven Resident Fellows,
one Associate Fellow, and one Foreign Honorary Member.

The Foreign Honorary Member, Professor Lindlet, was chosen
to fill the vacancy in Class II. Section 2, occasioned by the death of
Mr. Brown.

The Associate Fellow, Sir "William E. Logan, the Government
Geologist of Canada, belongs to Class II. Section 1.

Of the seven Resident Fellows, two belong to the First, three to the
Second, and two to the Third Class.

Three Resident Fellows, one Associate Fellow, and four Foreign
Honorary Members have deceased during the past year ; in all eight,
or one less than the accessions.

The Resident Fellows lost from our ranks are "William Cranch
Bond, of Class I. Section 2 ; Dr. Ichabod Nichols, of Class III.
Section 1 ; and William H. Prescott, of Class III. Section 3.

The Associate Fellow is Professor Parker Cleaveland, of Class
I. Section 3. •

The Foreign Honorai-y Members are Baron Humboldt, Manuel
John Johnson, Robert Brown, and Johannes Mltller.

The Academy will observe that, although this list of its members
recently deceased is not remarkably numerous, yet it mainly consists
of most illustrious names.

The eulogies pronounced upon the distinguished historian and the
eminent astronomer, who were almost simultaneously removed from
our immediate ranks, are still fresh in our remembrance. The remain-
ing name is that of an accomplished scholar and divine, whose age and
infirm health had prevented his attendance at our meetings since his
residence in this vicinity.

Our late Associate Fellow, Professor Cleaveland, of Bowdoin
College, died at Brunswick in October last, at the age of seventy-eight
years. He was graduated at Hai'vard College in 1799, where he be-
came a Tutor in 1803. Two years afterwards he was appointed Pro-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 227

fessor of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and Minei'alogy
in Bowdoin College, the whole duties of which chair he performed until
the year 1828, when he was relieved from the Mathematics, and with
this exception until the year of his death, a period of more than half a
century. Although somewhat later in the field than Maclure, Gibbs,
and Silliraan, and although he gave place in later years to Shepard
and Dana, yet Professor Cleaveland may well be called the father of
American Mineralogy. His celebrated Treatise on Mineralogy and
Geology, published in 1816, and in a second and enlarged edition in
1822, gave a great impulse to the study of those sciences in this coun-
try, and made for him a deservedly high reputation, both at home and
abroad. That he did not follow up a career of such promise by the
original researches and authorship for which his talents and his great
and various knowledge eminently fitted him, must be explained by his
devotion to the immediate interests of the institution with which he
was identified almost from its foundation, and by his conscientious ab-
sorption in the duties of his triple or quadruple professorial office, each
department of which he is known to have filled w'ith signal ability
and faithfulness. Something may also be attributed to his tempera-
ment, and to his singularly stationary habits. He is said never to
have entered a railroad carriage, and rarely any other vehicular con-
veyance.

Considering that Professor Cleaveland made no appearance before
the public during the last thirty years, it may be noted to the credit
for discernment of the officers of the Smithsonian Institution, and as
a just recognition of the services of a pioneer in American science,
that our lamented associate was chosen one of the first and very few
honorary members of that Institution.

The four names which now disappear from the list of our surviving
Foreign Honorary Members represent so many great lights of science
lately extinguished ; two of them, Miiller and Johnson, ere they had
attained their full meridian.

Johannes Muller, who was perhaps universally regarded as the
most eminent physiologist of the present era, died on the 28th of April,
1858, therefore nearly a month before our last anniversary ; but the
melancholy tidings had not then reachisd us. Though old in fame, he
was still comparatively young in years, having barely reached the age
of fifty-seven.

228 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Manuel John Johnson, the late Director of the Radcliffe Obser-
vatory, Oxford, was, by a disease of the heart, suddenly removed from
the scene of his important labors, on the 28th 'day of February last.
He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of this Academy only
about two years before ; and, from his early death, it has hap-
pened that his name does not appear upon any published list of our
actual members. Educated at Addiscombe, Mr. Johnson entered the
Royal Artillery in the year 1821, and it was while stationed on mil-
itary duty at St. Helena that his taste and talent for astronomical
observation unfolded. Here his leisure, during a residence of ten
years, was turned to good account in collecting materials for his St.
Helena Catalogue of the mean places of six hundi'ed and six principal
fixed stars of the Southern Hemisphere, which was published in 1835 ;
a work which, from its sharp accuracy, won for its author at once an
enviable reputation. On his return to England he was entered, at a
later age than is common, at Magdalen Hall, Oxford ; and in 1839, im-
mediately upon taking his degree, he received the appointment of Rad-
cliffe Observer, and began the labors which have raised the Radcliffe
Observatory to its present high rank. Established in this favorable
position, he immediately commenced his principal scientific undertak-
ing, the determination, upon a regular and most judicious plan, of the
places of the close ckcum polar and the chief northern stars, as far as to
the 45th degree of declination. This undertaking he consistently and
most persistently carried out, for nineteen years, in each of which a
volume of his " Radcliffe Observations " promptly made its appearance.
This work was virtually finished, and its value is everywhere recognized
from the portions which have long been in use. It only remained to
crown the whole by the combination of all the results into a sytematic
catalogue. Even this was well-nigh done ; and the first proofs of the
volume which was to embody this consummation lay before him, when
his hand was suddenly arrested by death.

In his employment of the heliometer, — the most complex of astro-
nomical instruments ; in the choice and plan of liis investigations ;
in the refinement of his methods and the rigorous exactness of his
observations ; in the soundness of his judgment ; and, not least, in the
conscientious faithfulness and patience with which he assumed and
endured such unremitting toil, without making, and without expecting
to make, any brilliant discoveries, — he is thought to have manifested the

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 229

best qualities of the practical astronomer, and to have secured a high
place in the annals of the science. Personally, Johnson is said to
have been strongly marked in the simplicity and independence of his
character, and most attractive by his frankness, geniality, and the full
and hearty co-operation which he loved to extend to all his fellow-
astronomers.

The two remaining names represent stars of the very first magni-
tude, which, as they pass from the field of sight on the completion of
a long and illustrious course, leave no equals behind them.

Beyond the immediate pale of science, and the circle of its most
devoted cultivators, this association of the names of Humboldt and
Brovtn may seem new and strange ; — the one, a name familiar to the
whole civilized world ; the other, hardly known to a large portion of
his educated countrymen. Yet these names stand together, in the
highest place, upon the rolls of almost every Academy of Science in
the world ; and the common judgment of those competent to pronounce
it will undoubtedly be, that although these vacant places upon those
honorable rolls may be occupied, they will not be filled, in this, per-
haps not in several generations.

Upon the death of Robert Brovtn, which occurred on the 10th
of June last, in his eighty-fifth year, it was remarked that, next to
Humboldt, his name adorned the honorary list of a greater number of
scientific societies than that of any other naturalist or philosopher.
It was Humboldt himself who, many years ago, saluted Brown with
the appellation of Botanicormn facile Princeps ; and the universal
consent of botanists recognized and confirmed the title. However the
meed of merit in science should be divided between the most profound,
and the most active and prolific minds, — between those who divine
and those who elaborate, — it will probably be conceded by all, that
no one since Linnaeus has brought such rare sagacity to bear upon
the structure, and especially upon the ordinal characters and natural
affinities of plants, as did Robert Brown. True, he was fortunate in
his time, and his opportunities. Men of great genius, happily, often are,
or appear to be, through their power of turning opportunities to good
account. The whole herbaria of Sir Joseph Banks, and the great col-
lections which he himself made ai'ound the coast of Australia, in Flin-
ders's expedition, and which he was able to investigate upon the spot
during the four years devoted to this exploration, opportunely placed in

230 .PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Brown's able hands as it were the vegetation of a new world, as rich
as it was peculiar, — just at the time, too, when the immortal work of
Jussieu had begun to be appreciated, and the European and other
ordinary forms of vegetation had begun to be understood in their
natural relations. The new, various, and singular types which render
the botany of New Holland so unlike all other, Mr. Brown had to
compare among themselves, — to unravel their intricacies with scarcely
a clew to guide hini, except that which his own genius enabled him to
construct in the process of the research, — and to bring them harmo-
niously into the general system of botanical natural alliance as then
understood, and as he was himself enabled to ascertain and display it.
It was the wonderful sagacity and insight which he evinced in these
investigations, which, soon after his return from Austraha, revealed the
master mind in botanical science, and erelong gave him the position
of almost unchallenged eminence, which he retained, as if without
effort, for more than half a century.

The common observer must wonder at this general recognition,
during an era of great names and unequalled activity, of a claim so
rarely, and as it were so reluctantly, asserted. For brief and com-
paratively few — alas ! how much fewer than they should have been ! —
are Mr. Brown's publications. Much the largest of them is the Pro-
dromus of the Flora of New Holland, issued fifty years ago, which
begins upon the one hundred and forty-fifth page, and which stopped
short at the end of the first volume. The others are special papers,
mostly of small bulk, devoted to the consideration of a particular plant,
or a particular group or small collection of plants. But their simple
titles seldom foreshow the full import of their contents. Brown de-
lighted to rise from a special case to high and wide generalizations ; and
was apt to draw most important and always irresistible conclusions from
some small, selected data, or particular point of structure, which to
ordinary apprehension would ajipear wholly inadequate to the purpose.
He had unequalled skill in finding decisive instances. So all his
discoveries, so simply and quietly announced, and all his notes and
observations, sedulously reduced to the briefest expression, are fertile
far beyond the reader's expectation. Cautious to excess, never sug-
gesting a theory until he had thoroughly weighed all the available
objections to it, and never propounding a view which he did not know
how to prove, perhaps no naturalist ever taught so much in writing

(

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 231

SO little, or made so few statements that had to be recalled, or even
recast ; and of no one can there be a stronger regret that he did not
publish more.

With this character of mind, and while carefully sounding his way
along the deep places of a science the philosophy and grounds of which
were forming, day by day, under his own and a few contemporary
hands, Brown could not have been a voluminous writer. He could
never have undertaken a Systema Regni Vegetahilts, content to do his
best at the moment, and to take upon trust what he had not the means
or the time to verify, — like his contemporary, DeCandoUe, who may
worthily be compared with Brown for genius, and contrasted with him
for the enthusiastic devotion which constantly impelled him to publica-
tion, and to lifelong, unselected, herculean labor, over all the field, for
the general good.

Nor could Brown ever be brought to undertake a Genera Planta-
rum, like that of Jussieu ; although his favorable and leisurely position,
his vast knowledge, his keen discrimination, and his most compact
mode of expression, especially indicated him for the task. Evidently,
his influence upon the progress of Botany might have been greater, or
at least more immediate and more conspicuous. Yet, rightly to estimate
that influence now, we have only to compare the Genera Planiarum of
Endlicher with that of Jussieu, — separated as they are by the half-
century which coincided with Brown's career, — and mark how largely
the points of difierence between the two, so far as they represent
inquiry, and genuine advancement in the knowledge of floral struc-
ture, actually originated with him. Still, after making due allowance
for a mind as scrupulous and cautious as it was clear and profound,
also for an unusually retiring disposition, which even in authorship
seems to have rendered him as sedulous to avoid publicity as most
writers are to gain it, it must be acknowledged that his retentiveness
was excessive ; and that his guarded published statements sometimes
appear as if intended — like the anagrams of the older mathemati-
cians and philosophers — rather to record his knowledge than to reveal
it. But this was probably only in appearance, and rather to be
attributed to his sensitive regard for entire accuracy, and his extreme
dislike of all parade of knowledge, — to the same peculiarity which
every where led him to»condense announcements of great consequence
into short paragraphs or foot-notes, and to insert the most important

232 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

facts in parentheses, which he who runs over the page may read,
indeed, but which only the most learned and the most reflecting will
be apt to comprehend. In candor it must be said, that his long career
has left some room for the complaint that he did not feel bound to
exert fully and continuously all his matchless gifts in behalf of the
science of which he was the most authoritative expositor.

But if thus in some sense unjust to himself and to his high calling,
Brown could never be charged with the slightest injustice to any
fellow-laborer. He was scrupulously careful, even solicitous, of the
rights and claims of others ; and in tracing the history of any discov-
ery in which he had himself borne a part, he was sure to award to
each one concerned his full due. If not always communicative, he
was kind and considerate to all. To adopt the words of one of his
intimate associates, " those who knew him as a man will bear unani-
mous testimony to the unvarying simplicity, truthfulness, and benevo-
lence of his character," as well as to " the singular uprightness of his
judgment."

The remaining, and the most illustrious name of all, — and one in
its wide renown strongly in contrast with the last, — has only just now
been inscribed upon our obituary list.

The telegraph of the last week brought to us the painful intelligence
that the patriarch of science, the universal Humboldt, died at Berlin
on the 6th of May. Born in 1769, a year more prolific in great
men than any equal period of all preceding time,* Humboldt had,
before the end of the eighteenth century, exhibited qualities of
the very highest order, and obtained a place of acknowledged celeb-
rity in Europe. This, however, was the mere prelude to his career,
for with the close of that century he commenced, with Bonpland, his
wonderful exploration of Spanish America, which continued during
five years. This journey must be considered in all future time as,
substantially, the scientific discovery of Spanish America ; and whether
we measure its results by the amount of knowledge through the wide
fields of Astronomy, Geography, Geology, Mineralogy, Meteorology,
Zoology, Botany, and Political Economy, or the personal qualities by
which this knowledge was collected and reduced to its place in the

* Napoleon, Wellington, Mehemet Ali, Soult, Lanires, Ney, Castlereagh, Cha-
teaubriand, Cuvier, and Humboldt.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 233

records of science, we cannot hesitate to place the expedition as
amongst the most important and successful ever executed by man.

On his return to Europe, in 1805, Humboldt was employed several
years in reducing his immense collection of materials to form for publi-
cation. From that time to his death, a period of almost half a cen-
tury, he resided (except for a short time, in which he made his journey
to Northern Asia) in Europe, mostly in France and Germany. The
last twelve or fifteen years of this great man were principally employed
in the production of his Cosmos, ' — the ci'owning labor of his long life,
the harvest of his mature wisdom, — a work that could not have
been produced by any other man, simply because no other msm pos-
sessed the treasures, or a key to the treasures, of the various knowl-
edge contained in it.

From his return to Europe to his death, he possessed, indisputably,
the fii'st place amongst philosophers, for the vast extent of his acquire-
ments. Without doubt, at all times during the present century there
have been men much greater than Humboldt in each special depart-
ment of science, but no one to compare with him in the number of
subjects in which he had but few superiors, — no one who could, like
him, bring all the sciences into one field of view, and compare them as
one whole, through their relations and dependences. It was probably
this extent of knowledge that led him to generalization rather than
particular discovery ; to trace connections and relations, rather than to
search for new and minute facts or particular laws ; to produce the
Cosmos, rather than discover the atomic theory or the cellular forma-
tion of organic structures. Many other men have been masters of
several specialties. Humboldt alone brought the whole range of the
physical and natural sciences into one specialty.

We cannot close this brief notice of the character and career of our
illustrious associate without one moment's allusion to his amiable moral
nature, his love of justice, and his superiority to all merely personal
ends. So strong was his desire to give the influence of his high scien-
tific position to the cause of civilization and the progress of knowledge,
by assisting all applicants for his opinion and advice upon scientific
subjects, that he permitted a correspondence to be extorted from him
which in his last days became a load too great to be borne, and com-
pelled a cry for relief that had hardly subsided when the news of his
death reached us.

VOL. IV. 30

234 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Such is the faint outline of a man whose name is indelibly written
with those who have been most eminent in this wonderful asre of sci-
entitle activity. The Academy claims the privilege, in common with
the learned societies with which he was associated throughout the civ-
ilized world, to express its sorrow for his death, and to offer its tribute
of honor to his memory.

The Academy now consists of »

153 Resident Fellows,
78 Associate Fellows, and
71 Foreign Honorary Members.

Of tlie Foreign Honorary Members

26 belong to the First Class,

26 « « Second Class, and

19 " " Third Class.

Of the Associate Fellows,

32 belong to the First Class,

29 " « Second Class, and

17 " « Third Class.

Of the 153 Resident Fellows,

45 are ranked in the First Class,

46 « " « Second Class, and
62 « " « Third Class.

Their distribution into the several sections need not here be detailed ;
for the printed list, newly revised, is just now issued.

A clause in the statute. Chap. I. § 2, makes it " the duty of this
Council " " to exert its influence to obtain and preserve a due propor-
tion in the number of Fellows in each of the Sections." In view of
which, the Council venture to call attention to the fact, that the First
and Second Classes of the Resident Fellows are as nearly equal as
possible, while the Third Class, instead of one third, now comprises two
fifths of the Resident Fellows.

Professor Agassiz then said : —

"Gentlemen, — I have been requested to present on this occasion
some remarks upon the scientific career of Humboldt. So few days
have elapsed since the sad news reached our shore, that I have had no
time to prepare an elaborate account of that wonderful career, and I
am not myself in a condition in which I could have done it, being

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 235

deprived of the use of my eyes, so that I had to rely upon the hand of
a friend to make a few memoranda on a slip of paper, which might
enable me to present my thoughts in a somewhat regular order. But
I have, since the day we heard of his death, recalled all my recollec-
tions of him ; and, if you will permit me, I will present them to you
as they are now vividly in my mind.

" Humboldt — Alexander von Humboldt as he always called
himself, though he was christened with the names of Frederick
Heinricii Alexander — was born in 1769, on the 14th of Septem-
ber, — in that memorable year which gave to the world those philoso-
phers, warriors, and statesmen who have changed the face of Science
and the condition of affairs in our century. It was in that year that
Cuvier and Chateaubriand were also born ; and among the warriors
and statesmen, Napoleon and the Duke of Wellington are children
of 17 CD ; and it is certainly a year of which we can say that its
children have revolutionized the world. Of the early life of Humboldt
I know nothing ; and I find no records, except that in his tenth year
he lost his father, who had been a major in the army during the Seven
Years' "War, and afterwards a chamberlain to the King of Prussia.
But his mother took excellent care of him, and watched over his early
education. The influence she had upon his life is evident from the
fact, that, notwithstanding his yearning for the sight of foreign lands,
he did not begin to make active preparations for his travels during her
lifetime. In the winter of 1787-88, he was sent to the University of
Frankfort on the Oder, to study finances. He was to be a statesman ;
he was to enter high offices, for which there was a fair chance, owing
to his noble birth and the patronage he could expect at the court. He
remained, however, but a short time there.

" Not finding those studies to his taste, after a semester's residence in
the University, we find him again at Berlin, and there in intimate
friendship with "Wildenow, then Professor of Botany, and who at that
time possessed the greatest herbarium in existence. Botany was the
first branch of natural science to which Humboldt paid especial atten-
tion. The next year he went to Gottingen, being then a youth of
twenty years ; and here he studied Natural History with Blumenbach,
and thus had an opportunity of seeing the progress Zoology was mak-
ing in anticipation of the great movement by which Cuvier placed that
science on a new foundation. For it is an unquestionable fact, that in
first presenting a classification of the animal kiogdom based upon a

236 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

knowledge of its structure, Blumenbach in a measure anticipated
Cuvier; though it is only by an exaggeration of what Blumenbach
did, that an unfair writer of later times has attempted to deprive Cuvier
of the glory of having accomplished this object upon the broadest pos-
sible basis. From Gottingen he visited the Rhine, for the purpose of
studying Geology, and in particular the basaltic formations of the
Seven Mountains. At Mayence he became acquainted with George
Forster, who proposed to accompany him on a journey to England.
You may imagine what an impression the conversation of that active,
impetuous, and powerful man made upon the youthful Humboldt.
They went to Belgium and Holland, and thence to England, where
Forster introduced him to Sir Joseph Banks. Thus the cempanions of
Captain Cook in his first and second voyages round the world, who
were already venerable in years and eminent asspromoters of physical
science, not yet established in the popular favor, were the early guides
of Humboldt in his aspii-ations for scientific distinction. Yet Hum-
boldt had a worldly career to accomplish. He was to be a statesman,
and this required that he should go to the Academy of Commerce at
Hamburg. He remained there _five months, but could endure it no
longer ; and he begged so hard, that his mother allowed him to go to
Freyberg and study Geology with Werner, with a view of obtaining a
situation in the Administration of Mines. See what combinations of
circumstances prepare him for his great career, as no other young man
ever was prepared. At Freyberg he received the private instruction
of "Werner, the founder of Modern Geology, and he had as his fellow-
student no less a man than Leopold von Buch, then a youth, to whom,
at a later period, Humboldt himself dedicated one of his works, in-
scribing it ' To the Greatest Geologist,' as he was till the day of his
recent death. From Freyberg he made frequent excursions into the
Hartz and Fichtelgeberg and surrounding regions, and these excur-
sions ended in the publication of a small work upon the Subterranean
Flora of Freyberg, {^Flora Suhterranea Frihergensis,) in which he
described especially those cryptogamous plants, or singular low and
imperfect formations, which occur in the deep mines. But here ends
his period of pupilage. In 1792 he was appointed an officer of the
mines {Oherhergmeister). He went to Baireuth as director of the
operations in those mines belonging to the Frankish Provinces of
Prussia. Yet he was always wandering in every direction, seeking for
information and new subjects of study. He visited Vienna, and there

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 237

heard of the discoveries of Galvani, with which he made himself
familiar ; went to Italy and Switzerland, where he became acquainted
with the then celebrated Professors Jurine and Pictet, and with the
illustrious Scarpa. He also went to Jena, formed an intimate acquaint-
ance with Schiller and Goethe, and also with Loder, with whom he
studied Anatomy. From that time he began to make investigations of
his own, and these investigations were in a line which he has seldom
approached since, being experiments in Physiology. He turned his
attention to the newly discovered power, by which he tested the activ-
ity of organic substances ; and it is plain, ft-om his manner of treating
the subject, that he leaned to the idea that the chemical process going
on in the living body of animals furnished a clew to the phenomena of
life, if it was not life itself. This may be inferred from the title of the
book published in 1797, — Ueber die gereizte Muskel- und Nerven-faser,
mit Vermuthtmgen iiber den chemise/ten Process des Lehens, in Thieren
und Pfianzen. In these explanations of the phenomena we have the
sources of the first impulses in a direction which has been so beneficial
in advancing the true explanation of the secondary phenomena of life ;
but which, at the same time, in its exaggeration as it prevails now, has
degenerated into the materialism of modern investigators. In that
period of all-embracing activity, he began to study Astronomy. His
attention was called to it by Baron von Zach, who was a prominent
astronomer, and at that time Avas actively engaged upon astronomical
investigations in Germany. He showed Humboldt to what extent
Astronomy would be useful for him, in his travels, in determining the
position of places, the altitude of mountains, &c.

" So prepared, Humboldt now broods over his plans of foreign travel.
He has published his work on the Muscular and Nervous Fibres at the
age of twenty-eight. He has lost his mother ; and his mind is now
inflamed with an ungovernable passion for the sight of foreign, and
especially tropical lands. He goes to Paris to make preparation by
securing the best astronomical, meteorological, and surveying instru-
ments. Evidently he does not care where he shall go, for on a propo-
sition of Lord Bristol to visit Egypt, he agrees to it. The war prevents
the execution of this plan, and he enters into negotiations to accompany
the projected expedition of Captain Baudin to Australia; but when
Bonaparte, bent on the conquest of Egypt, started with a scientific
expedition, Humboldt wishes to join it. He expects to be one of the
scientific party, and to reach Egypt by way of Barbary. But all these

238 PROCEEDINGS OF TUE AMERICAN ACADEMY

plans failing, he goes to Spain with the view of exploring that country,
and finding perhaps some means of joining the French expedition in
Egypt from Spain. "While in Madrid, he is so well received at the
court, — a young nobleman so well instructed has access everywhere,
— and he receives such encouragement from persons in high positions,
that he turns his thoughts to an exploration of the Spanish Provinces
of America. He receives permission not only to visit them, but in-
structions are given to the officers of the colonies to receive him every-
where and give him all facilities, to permit him to transport his instru-
ments, to make astronomical and other observations, and to collect
whatever he chooses; and all that only in consequence of the good
impression he made when he appeared there, with no other recom-
mendation than that of a friend who happened to be at that time
Danish Minister to the Court of Madrid. But with these facilities
offered to him, he sails in June, 1799, from Corunna, whence he
reaches Teneriffe, makes short explorations of that island, ascending
the peak, and sails straightway to America, where he lands in Cu-
rnana in the month of July, and employs the first year and a half in
the exploration of the basin of the Orinoco and its connection with the
Amazon. This was a journey of itself, and completed a work of sci-
entific importance, establishing the fact that the two rivers were con-
nected by an uninterrupted course of water. He established for the
first time the fact, that there was an extensive low plain, connected by
water, which circled the high table-land of Guiana. It was an impor-
tant discovery in Physical Geography, because it changed the ideas
about water-courses, and about the distribution of mountains and plains,
in a manner which has had the most extensive influence upon the pro-
gress of Physical Geography. It may well be said that, after this
exploration of the Orinoco, Physical Geography begins to appear as a
part of science. From Cumana he makes a short excursion to Ha-
vana, and, hearing there of the probable arrival of Baudin on the west
coast of America, starts with the intention of ci'ossing at Panama.
He arrives at Carthagena, but is prevented by the advance of the
season fi*om crossing the Isthmus, and changes his determination from
want of precise information respecting Baudin's expedition. He de-
termines to ascend the Magdalena River and visit Santa Fe de Bogota,
where, for several months, he explores the construction of the moun-
tains, and collects plants and animals ; and, in connection with his
friend, Bonpland, who accompanied him from Paris, he makes those

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 239

immense botanical collections which were afterwards published by Bon-
pland himself, and by Kunth, after Bonpland had determined on an
expedition to South America. In the beginning of 1802 he reaches
Quito, where, during four months, he turns his attention to everything
worth investigating, ascends the Chimborazo to a height to which no
human foot had reached, anywhere ; and having completed this survey,
and repeatedly crossed the Andes, he descends the southern slope of
the continent to the shore of the Pacific at Truxillo, and, following the
arid coast of Peru, he visits finally Lima. I will pass lightly over all
the details of his journey, for they are only incidents in that laborious
exploration of the country, which is best appreciated by a considera-
tion of the works which were published in consequence of the immense
accumulation of materials gathered during those explorations. From
Lima, or rather from Callao, he sails in 1802 for Guayaquil and Aca-
pulco, and reaches Mexico in 1803, where he makes as extensive ex-
plorations as he had made in Venezuela and the Andes, and after a
stay of about a year, having put all his collections and manuscripts in
order, revisits Cuba for a short time, comes to the United States, makes
a hurried excursion to Philadelphia and "Washington, where he is wel-
comed by Jefferson, and finally returns with his faithful companion
Bonpland to France, accompanied by a young Spanish nobleman, Don
Carlo de Montufar, who had shared his travels since his visit to Quito.
" At thirty-six years of age, Humboldt is again in Europe, with col-
lections made in foreign lands, such as had never been brought to-
gether before. But here we meet with a singular circumstance. The
German nobleman, the friend of the Prussian and Spanish Courts,
chooses Paris for his residence, and remains there twenty-two years to
work out the result of his scientific labor ; for, since his return, with
the exception of short journeys to Italy, England, and Germany,
sometimes accompanying the King of Prussia, sometimes alone, or
accompanied by scientific friends, he is entirely occupied in scientific
labors and studies. So passes the time to the year 1827; and no doubt
he was induced to make this choice of a residence by the extraordinary
concourse of distinguished men in all branches of science with whom
he thought he could best discuss the results of his own observations.
I shall pi'esently have something to say about the works he completed
during that most laborious period of his life. I will only add now,
that in 1827 he established himself in Berlin, having been urged of
late by the King of Prussia again and again to return to his native

240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

land. And there he delivered a series of lectures preparatory to the
publication of Cosmos ; for in substance, even in form and arrangement,
these lectures, of which the papers of the day gave short accounts, are
a sort of prologue to the Cosmos, and a preparation for its publication.
" In 1829, already sixty years of age, he undertakes another great
journey. He accepts the invitation of the Emperor Nicholas to visit
the Ural Mountains, with a view of examining the gold-mines and
localities where platina and diamonds had been found, to determine
their geological relations. He accomplished the journey with Ehren-
berg and Gustavus Rose, who published the result of their mineralogi-
cal and geological survey in a work of which he is the sole author ;
while Humboldt published, under the title of Asiatic Fragments of
Geology and Climatology, his observations of the physical and geo-
graphical features made during that journey. But he had hardly
returned to Berlin when, in consequence of the Revolution of 1830,
he was sent by the King of Prussia as extraordinary ambassador to
France, to honor the elevation of Louis Philippe to the throne. Hum-
boldt had long been a personal friend of the Orleans family, and he
was selected as ambassador on that occasion on account of these per-
sonal relations. From 1830 to 1848, he lived alternately in Berlin
and in Paris, spending nearly half the time in Paris and half the time
in Berlin, with occasional visits to England and Denmark ; publishing
the results of his investigations in Asia, making original investigations
upon various things, and especially pressing the establishment of mag-
netic observatories, and connected observations all over the globe.
He obtained the co-operation of the Russian government and that
of the government of England ; and at that time those observatories
in Australia and in the Russian Empire to the borders of China
were established, which have led to such important results in our
knowledge of terrestrial magnetism. Since 1848, he has lived unin-
terruptedly in Berlin, where he published, on the anniversary of his
eightieth year, a new edition of those charming first flowers of his
genius, his Views of Nature, the first edition of which was published in
Germany in 1808. This third edition appeared with a series of new
and remodelled annotations and explanations ; and that book in which
he first presented his views of nature, in which he drew those vivid
pictures of the physiognomy of plants, and of their geographical dis-
tribution, is now revived and brought up to the present state of science.
The 'Views of Nature' is a work which Humboldt has always cherished,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 241

and to which in his Cosmos he refers more frequently than to any-
other work. It is no doubt because there he had expressed his deepest
thoughts, his most impressive views, and even foreshadowed those inti-
mate convictions which he never expressed, but which he desired to
record in such a manner that those that can ' read between the hues '
might find them there ; and certainly there we find them. His aspira-
tion has been to present to the world a picture of the physical world,
from which he would exclude everything that relates to the turmoil of
human society and to the ambitions of individual men. A life so full,
so rich, is worth considering in every point of view, and it is most in-
structive to see with what devotion he pursues his work. As long as
he is a student, he is really a student, and learns faithfully, and learns
everything he can reach. And he continues so for t.wenty-thi'ee years.
He is not one of those who are impatient to show that they have some-
thing in them, and with premature impatience utter their ideas, which
become insuperable barriers to independent progress in later life.
Slowly, and confident of his sure progress, he advances, and while he
learns, he studies also independently of those who teach him. He
makes his experiments, and to make them with more independence he
seeks for an ofiicial position. During five yeai's he is a business man,
in a station which gives him leisure. He is Superintendent of the
Mines, but a Superintendent of the Mines who can do much as he
pleases ; and while he is thus ofiicially engaged journeying and super-
intending, he prepares himself for his independent researches. And
yet it will be seen he is thirty yeai's of age before he enters upon his
American travels, those travels which must be said to have been the
greatest undertaking ever carried to a successful issue, if judged by the
results ; they have as completely changed the basis of physical science,
as the revolution which took place in France about the same time has
changed the social condition of that land. Having returned from these
travels to Paris, a new period of his life begins, — that of concentrated
critical studies. He works up his materials then with untiring ardor
and devotion ; and he is not anxious to appear to have done it all
himself. Oltmanns is called to his aid to revise his astronomical
observations and his barometrical measurements, by which he has de-
termined the geographical position of seven hundred different points,
and the altitude of more than four hundred and fifty of them.

" The large collection of plants which Bonpland had begun to

VOL. IV. 31

242 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

illustrate, but of which his desire of seeing the tropics again has pre-
vented the completion, he intrusts to Kunth. He has also brought
home animals of different classes, and distributes them among the
most eminent zoologists of the day. To Cuvier he intrusts the inves-
tigation of that remarkable Batrachian, the Aeolotel, the mode of
development of which is still unknown, but which remains in its adult
state in a condition similar to that of the tadpole or the frog during
the earlier period of its life. Latreille describes the insects, and Valen-
ciennes the shells and the fishes ; but yet, to show that he might have
done the work himself, he publishes a memoir on the anatomical
structure of the organs of breathing in the animals he has preserved,
and another upon the tropical monkeys of America, and another upon
the electric properties of the electric eel. But he was chiefly occupied
with investigations in Physical Geography and Climatology. The
first work upon that subject is a dissertation on the geographical dis-
tribution of plants, published in 1817. Many botanists and travellers
had observed, that in different parts of the world there are plants not
found in others, and that there is a certain arrangement in that distri-
bution ; but Humboldt was the first to see that this distribution is
connected with the temperature of the air, as well as with the altitudes
of the surface on which they grow, and he systematized his researches
into a general exposition of the laws by which the distribution of
plants is regulated. Connected with this subject he made those ex-
tensive investigations into the mean temperature of a large number
of places on the surface of the globe, which led to the drawing of the
isothermal lines so important in their influence in shaping Physical
Geography and giving accuracy to the mode of representing natural
phenomena. Before Humboldt we had no graphic representation of
complex natural phenomena which made them easily comprehensi-
ble, even to minds of moderate cultivation. He has done that in a
way which has circulated information more extensively, and brought
it to the apprehension more clearly, than it could have been done by
any other means.

" It is not too much to say, that this mode of representing natural
phenomena has made it possible to introduce in our most elementary
works the broad generalizations derived from the investigations of
Humboldt in South America ; and that every child in our schools has
his mind fed from the labors of Humboldt's brain, wherever geog-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 243

rapliy is no longer taught in the old routine. Having completed his
American labors, Humboldt published three works, partly connected
with his investigations in America, and partly with his further
studies in Europe since his return ; and, among others, a book which
first appeared as a paper in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Natu-
reJles, but of which separate copies were printed under the title of
Essai stir la Constitution des Roches dans le deux Hemispheres. This
work has been noticed to the extent which it deserved by only one
geologist, Elie de Beaumont. No other seems to have seen what
there is in that paper, for there Humboldt shows for the first time,
that, while organic nature is the same all the world over, — granite
is granite, and basalt is basalt, and limestone and sandstone limestone
and sandstone, wherever found, — there is everywhere a difference
in the organized world, so that the distribution of animals and plants
represents the most diversified aspects in different countries. This
at once explains to us why physical sciences may make such rapid
progress in new countries, while Botany and Zoology have to go
through a long process of preparation before they can become popular
in regions but recently brought under the beneficial influence of civili-
zation. For while we need no books of our own upon. Astronomy,
Chemistry, Physics, and Mineralogy, we have to grope in the dark
while studying our plants and animals, until the most common ones
become as familiar to us as the common animals of the fields in the
old countries. The distinction which exists in the material basis of
scientific culture in different parts of the world is first made evident by
this work. By two happily chosen words, Humboldt has presented
at once the result of our knowledge in Geology at the time, in a most
remarkable manner. He speaks thex-e of ' independent formations.'
Who, before Humboldt, thought there were successive periods in the
history of our globe, which were independent one of the other ?
There was in the mind of geologists only a former and a present
world. Those words expressing the thought, and expressing it in
reference to the thing itself, for the first time occur in that memoir ;
thus putting an end to those views prevailing in Geology, according
to which the age of all the rocks upon the earth can be determined by
the mineralogical character of the rocks appearing at the surface.
The different geological levels at which rocks belonging to the same
period have been deposited, but which have been disturbed by subse-
quent revolutions, he happily designated as ' geological horizons.'

244 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

"It was about the time he was tracing these investigations that he
made his attempt to determine the mean altitude of the continents
above the sea. Thus far geographers and geologists had considered
only the heights of mountain chains, and the elevation of the lower
lands, while it was Humboldt who first made the distinction between
mountain chains and table-lands. But the idea of estimating the
average elevation of continents above the sea had not yet been enter-
tained ; and it was again Humboldt who, from the data that he could
command, determined it to be at the utmost nine hundred feet, assum-
ing all irregularities to be brought to a uniform level. His Asiatic
travels gave him additional data to consider these depressions and
swellings of continents, when discussing the phenomena of the depres-
sion of the Caspian Sea, which he does in a most complete manner.

" There is a fulness and richness of expression and a substantial
power in his writing, which are most remarkable, but which render his
style somewhat involved. He has aimed to present to others what
nature presented to him, — combinations interlocked in such a compli-
cated way as hardly to be distinguishable, and his writings present
something of the kind. You see his works, page after page, running
into volumes without division into chapters or heads of any sort ; and
so conspicuous is that peculiarity of style in his composition, that I
well remember hearing Arago turning to him, while speaking of com-
position, and saying : ' Humboldt, you don't know how to write a
book ; you write without end, but that is not a book, — it is a picture
without a frame.' Such an expression of one scientific man to another,
without giving offence, could only come from a man so intimately asso-
ciated as Arago was with Humboldt. And this leads me to a few
additional remarks upon his character and social relations. Humboldt
was born near the court. He was brought up in connection with
courtiers and men in high positions in life. He was no doubt imbued
with the prejudices of his caste. He was a nobleman of high descent.
And yet the friend of kings was a bosom friend of Arago, and he was
the man who could, after his return from America, refuse the highest
position at the Court of Berlin, that of Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, preferring to live in a modest way in Paris, in the society of
all those illustrious men who then made Paris the centre of intel-
lectual culture. It was there that he became one of that Societe
d'Arcueil, composed of all the great men of the day, to which the
paper on Isothermal Lines was presented, and by which it was printed,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 245

as all papers presented to it were, for private distribution. But from
his intimate relations especially to the Court of Prussia, some insinua-
tions have been made as to the character of Humboldt. They are as
unjust as they are severe in expression. He was never a flatterer of
those in power. He has shown it by taking a prominent position, in
1848, at the head of those who accompanied the victims of the Revo-
lution of that year to their last place of rest. But while he expressed
his independence in such a manner, he had the kindliest feelings for
all parties. He could not oiFend, even by an expression, those with
whom he had been associated in early life ; and I have no doubt that
it is to that kindliness of feeling we must ascribe his somewhat indis-
criminate patronage of aspirants in science, as well as of men who were
truly devoted to its highest aims. He may be said to have been,
especially in his latter years, the friend of every cultivated man, wish-
ing to lose no opportunity to do all the good of which he was capable ;
for he had a degree of benevolence and generosity which was un-
bounded. I can well say that there is not a man engaged in scientific
investigations in Europe, who has not received at his hands marked
tokens of his favor, and who is not under deep obligations to him.
May I be permitted to tell a circumstance of this kind which is per-
sonal to me, and which shows what he was capable of doing without
giving an opportunity of mentioning it. I was only twenty-four years
of age when in Paris, whither I had gone with means given to me
by a friend ; but I was at last about to resign my studies from want
of ability to meet my expenses. Professor Mitscherlich was then on
a visit in Paris, and I had seen him in the morning, when he asked
me what was the cause of my depressed feelings ; and I told him that
I had to go, for I had nothing left. The next morning, as I was seated
at breakfast in front of the yard of the hotel where I lived, I saw the
servant of Humboldt approach. He handed me a note, saying there
was no answer, and disappeared. I opened the note, and I see it now
before me as distinctly as if I held the paper in my hand. It said : —

" ' My friend, I hear that you intend leaving Paris in consequence
of some embarrassments. That shall not be. I wish you to remain
here as long as the object for which you came is not accomplished. I
enclose you a check for £ 50. It is a loan which you may repay when
you can.'

" Some years afterwards, when I could have repaid him, I wrote,
asking for the privilege of remaining for ever in his debt, knowing that

246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

this request would be more consonant to his feelings than the recovery
of the money, — and I am now in his debt. What he has done for me,
I know he has done for many others, in silence and unknown to the
world.

"I wish I could go on to state something more of his character,
his conversational powers, &c., but I feel that I am not in a condition
to speak of them. I will only say, that his habits .were very pe-
culiar. He was an early riser, and yet he was seen at late hours
in the saloons in different parts of Paris. From the year 1830 to
1848, while in Paris, he had been charged by the King of Prussia
to send reports upon the condition of things there. He had before
prepared for the Iving of Prussia a report on the political condition of
the Spanish colonies in America, which no doubt had its influence
afterwards upon the recognition of the independence of those colonies.
The importance of such reports to the government of Prussia may be
inferred from a perusal of his political and statistical essays upon
Mexico and Cuba. It is a circumstance worth noticing, that, above all
great powers, Prussia has more distinguished scientific and literary
men among her diplomatists than any other state. And so was Hum-
boldt actually a diplomatist in Paris, having been placed in that
position, not from choice, but in consequence of the benevolence of the
King, who desired to give him an opportunity of being in Paris as
often and as long as he chose.

" But from that time there were two men in him, — the diplomatist,
living in the Plotel des Princes, and the naturalist, who roomed in the
Rue de la Harpe, in a modest apartment in the second story, where
his scientific friends had access to him every day before seven. After
that he was frequently seen working in the library of the Institute,
until the time when the Grand Seigneur made his appearance at the
Court or in the saloons of Paris.

" The influence he has exerted upon the progress of science is incal-
culable. I need only allude to the fact that the Cosmos, bringing every
branch of natural science down to the comprehension of all classes of
students, has been translated into the language of every civilized na-
tion of the world, and gone through several editions. With him ends a
great period in the history of science, a period to which Cuvier, La-
place, Arago, Gay-Lussac, DeCandolle, and Robert Brown belonged,
and of whom only one is still living, — the venerable Biot.

" Gentlemen, I present the following resolutions for your considera-
tion : —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 247

" Resolved, That the members of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences have heard with deep sorrow of the loss the world has
sustained in the recent death of their late foreign associate, the Baron
Alexander von Humboldt.

" Resolved, That they recognize in their late associate a most illus-
trious example of devotion to the noblest objects and pursuits. From
early life to the last days of an old age protracted far beyond the
usual limit of intellectual activity, he has been vigorously and assidu-
ously engaged in advancing, by his own labors, and by the impulse and
support he has given to the labors of others, the boundaries of human
knowledge. The results of his all-comprehending researches he has
presented to the world in suiih simple and attractive forms as to render
them the common property of mankind. To the loftiest gifts of intel-
lect he has added never-failing generosity, disinterestedness, and
humanity. His memory, therefore, deserves and will receive the ven-
eration of all future ages. "While we grieve that the world is deprived
of the light of his presence, we rejoice that his vast powers remained
undiminished to the last, and that we may pronounce his life eminently
happy, since he has enjoyed, during its long course, the warmest affec-
tion of all who have known him, and has been graciously permitted to
close it in the midst of the sublimest occupations, and without suffering
calamity."

The resolutions were unanimously passed.
The annual election was held, and the following officers
were chosen for the ensuing year : —

Jacob Bigeloav, President.
Daniel Tread well, Vice-President.
Asa Gray, Corresponding Secretary.
S. L. Abbot, Recording Secretary.
J. P. Cooke, Librarian.
Edward Wigglesworth, Treasurer.

Council.
J. I. Bowditch, y
Joseph Lovering, > of Class I.
E. N. Horsford, )
Louis Agassiz,

Jeffries Wyman, S of Class II.
J. B. S. Jackson,

248 . PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

James Walker, ^

Henry W. Torrey, ( of Class III.

Robert C. Winthrop, )

The Standing Committees, nominated by the President,
were elected as follows : —

Rmnford Committee.

Eben N. Horsford, Joseph Lovering,

Daniel Treadwell, Henry L. Eustis,

Morrill Wyman.

Committee of Publication.

Joseph Lovering, Jeffries Wyman,

Cornelius C. Felton.

Committee on the Library.

A. A. Gould, W. B. Rogers,

George P. Bond.

Committee to Audit Treasurer's Accounts.
Thomas T. Bouve, C. E. Ware.

Committee of Finance.

Jacob Bigelow, Edward Wigglesworth,

j. i. bowditch.

M. LiouviLLE, of Paris, was elected a Foreign Honorary
Member, to fill the vacancy in Class I. Section 1 (Mathe-
matics), caused by the death of the late M. Cauchy.

The Hon. John Henry Clifford, of New Bedford, and the
Hon. Emory Washburn, of Cambridge, were elected Fellows,
in Class IH. Section 1 (Philosophy and Jurisprudence).

Professor Gray communicated (by title), —

" Characters of some New Musci and Hepaticce, collected
by Charles Wright in the North Pacific Exploring Expedi-
tion, under the command of Captain John Rodgers. By
William S. Sullivant and Leo Lesquereux."

" Characters of New Algas of the same Expedition. By
Professor William H. Harvey."

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 249

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
FROM APRIL 16, 1858, TO APRIL 15, 1859.

Editors of the American Journal of Science and Arts.

Vol. L. General Index to Forty-nine Volumes. 1819 - 45. 8vo.
New Haven. 1847.
Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Belles-Lettres, Dijon.

Memoires. Annees 1810, 1818, 1823, 1825 - 27, 1833, 1837 - 40,
et Tome V. 2« Serie. 1856. 9 vols. 8vo. Dijon. 1810-40,
1856.
Imperial Society of Natural Sciences, Cherbourg.

Memoires. Tome IV. 8vo. Paris et Cherbourg. 1856.
L, Nodot.

Description d'un Nouveau Genre d'Edente Fossile, renfermant
plusieurs Especes voisines du Glyptodon. Atlas. Ouvrage publie
par I'Acad. des Sciences, Arts, et Belles-Lettres de Dijon. 4to.
Dijon.
Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vienna.

Denkscbriften. Phil.-Hist. Classe, Band VIII. Math.-Natur.
Classe, Band Xin. 4to. Wien. 1857.

Sitzungsbericbte. Math.-Natur. Classe, Band XXIII. Heft 2 ;
XXIV. Heft. 1 und 2. Phil.-Hist. Classe, Band XXIII. Heft.
1-4. 8vo. Wien. 1857.
Royal Danish Academy.

Oversigt over det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhand-
linger i Aaret 1856, 1857. 8vo. Kjobenhavn.

Skrifter 5'^ Reekke, Histor og Philos. Afdeling. 2"''^ Binds Forste
Hefte, og 2"'^^ Hefte. 4to. Kjobenhavn. 1856-57.

Supplement aux Tables du Soleil de MM. P. A. Hansen et
C. F. K. Olufsen, par P. A. Hansen. 4to pamph. Copenhague.
1857.
Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries.

Atlas de I'Archeologie du Nord, representant des Echantillons de
I'Age de Bronze et de I'Age de Fer. Public par la Soc. Roy. des
Antiq. du Nord. 1 vol. 8vo. Copenhague. 1857.

Sur la Construction des Salles dites des Geants. Par S. M. Le
Roi Frederic VII. de Danemark. 8vo pamph. Copenhague.
1857.

VOL. IV. 32

250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Cabinet d'Antiquitcs Americaines a Copenhague. Rapport Ethno-
grapliique par C. C. Rafn. 8vo pamph. Copenhague. 1858.
Observatory of Breslau.

Grundziige der Schlessischen Klimatologie Aus den von

der Schlessisclien Gesellschaft fiir vaterlandisclie Cultur seit dem
Jahre 1836 veranlassten und einigen alteren Beobachtungsreihen
ermittelt und nacli den in der Jaliren 1852 - 55 ausgefuhrten Rech-
nungen der Herren W. Gunther, R. BUttner, und H. v. Rotbkirch
zusammengestelt und fur den Druck vorbereitet von Dr. J. G. Galle,

Director der Stern warte 4to pamph. Breslau. 1857.

Hon. Charles Sumner.

United States Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern
Hemisphere, during the Years 1849, -50, -51, -52. Vol. VI. Mag-
netical and Meteorological Observations under the Direction of Lieu-
tenant J. M. Gilliss, LL. D., Superintendent. 4to. "Washington.

1856. [Ex. Doc]

Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, showing the
Progress of the Survey during the Year 1855. 1 vol. 4to. Wash-
ington. 1856. [Ex. Doc]

Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, showing the
Progress of the Survey during the Year 1856. 1 vol. 4to. Wash-
ington. 1857. [Ex. Doc]

Map of the Patuxent and St. Mary's Rivers, Maryland. From
Sui'veys by Major J. J. Abert, Topographical Engineers, and Major
J. Kearney, Topographical Engineers, in 1824. Washington, 1857.

Report on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey
made under the Direction of the Secretary of the Interior, by Wil-
liam H. Emory, Major First Cavalry and United States Commis-
sioner. Vol. I. 4to. Washington. 1857. [Ex. Doc]

Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the Construction and
Distribution of Weights and Measures. 1 vol. 8vo. Washington.

1857. [Ex. Doc]

United States Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern
Hemisphere, during the Years 1849, -50, -51, -52. Vol. III.
Observations to determine the Solar Parallax. By Lieut. J. M. Gil-
liss, Superintendent. 1 vol. 4to. Washington. 1856. [Ex. Doc]

Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1857. Arts
and Manufactures. 3 vols. 8vo. Washington. 1858. [Ex. Doc]

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 251

Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1857.
Agriculture. 1 vol. 8vo. Washington. 1858. [Ex. Doc]
Samuel Nicolson.

The Nicolson Pavement, invented by Samuel Nicolson of Boston,
Mass. 8vo pamph. Boston. 1855.

Peat Coal. Its Value to the Northern and Northeastern States.
4to pamph. Boston. 1857.
Chicago Historical Society.

Illinois Geological Survey. Abstract of a Report on Illinois
Coals, etc. 8vo pamph. Chicago. 1858.
Dr. Nicolas B. L. Manzini.

Plistoire de I'lnoculation Preservative de la Fievre Jaune. 1 vol.
8vo. Paris. 1858.
John George Metcalf, M. D.

The Study and Practice of Midwifery. A Discourse read before
the Massachusetts Medical Society at its Annual Meeting in Boston,
May 28, 1856. 8vo pamph. Boston. 1856.
Royal Academy of Sciences, Ainsterdatn.

Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Konink. Akad. van Wetten. —
Afd. Natuurkunde. Deel V. Stuk 2, 3; Deel VL Stuk 1-3;
Deel VII. Stuk 1 - 3. — Afd. Letterkunde. Deel II. Stuk 2 - 4 ;
Deel III. Stuk 1 - 3. 8vo. Amsterdam. 1856-58.

Verhandelingen. Deel IV. - VI. 4to. Amsterdam. 1857 - 58.

Jaarboek van Apx'il, 1857 — April, 1858. 1 vol. 8vo.

Amsterdam. 1858.

Catalogus van de Boekerij der Kon. Akad Eersten

Deel. Eerste Stuk. 8vo pamph. Amsterdam. 1857.

Octaviee Querela. Carmen, cujus Auctori Johanni van Leeuwen,
e Vico Zegwaart, Certaminis Poetici Prjemium Secundum e Legato
Jacobi Henrici Hoeufft adjudicatum est. 8vo pamph. Amstelo-
dami. 1857.
D. F. L. von Schlechtendal.

Linn^ea. Ein Journal fur die Botanik in ihrem ganzen Umfange.
Band XXVIII. Heft. 4 - 6 ; XXIX. Heft. 1-3. 8vo. Halle.
1856-57.
Royal Irish Academy.

Catalogue of the Antiquities of Stone, Earthen, and Vegetable
Materials in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. By W. R.
Wilde, M. R. I. A. 1 vol. 8vo. Dublin. 1857.

252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

.Academie des Sciences de VInstitut Imp. de France.

Comptes Rendus. Tom. XL VI. ; Tom. XL VII. Nos. 1 - 20 ; Tom.
XL VIII. Nos. 1 et 2. — Table des Matieres du Tomes XLV. et
XLVL 4to. Paris. 1858-59.
Society of Geography of Paris.

Bulletin. 4^"= Serie. Tomes XIV. - XVL 8vo. Paris. 1857-
58.
B. F. Shumard and G. G. Sivallow.

Description of New Fossils from the Coal Measures of Missouri
and Kansas. 8vo pamph. St. Louis, Mo. 1858.
Natural History Society of Montreal.

Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, and Proceedings of the Nat.
Hist. Soc. of Montreal. Vol. IIL and Vol. IV. No. 1. 8vo. Mon-
treal. 1858 - 59.
Societe Imperiale Zoologique d'Acclimatation.

BuUetin. Vol. V. Nos. 3 - 11 ; Vol. VL No. 1.
Liste Generale des Membres de la Societe, etc. 8vo. Paris.
1858-59.
Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.

Journal of the Society of Arts, and of the Institutions in Union.
Vol. V. and Vol. VL Nos. 261 - 305. 8vo. London. 1857 - 58.
Royal Institution of Great Britain.

Notices of the Meetings of the Members of the Royal Institution
of Great Britain. Pt. VIL Nov. 1856 -July, 1857. 8vo pamph.
London. 1857.
Observatory of Edinhurgh.

A Catalogue of 3735 Circumpolar Stars observed at Redhill in
the Years 1854, 1855, and 1856, and reduced to Mean Positions for
1855.0. By Richard Christopher Carrihgton (Fellow and Secretary
of the Royal Asti'onoraical Society of London). PHnted at the
Public Expense, by Order of the Lords Commissioners of the Ad-
miralty. 1 vol. fol. London. 1857.
Royal University of Nortcny.

Forhandlinger ved Skandinaviske Naturforskeres fjerde Mode, i
Christiania den 11-18 Juli 1844. 1 vol. 8vo. Christiania.
1847.

Observations sur les Phenomenes d'Erosion en Norvege recueil-
lies par J. C. Horbye 4to pamph. Christiania. 1857.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

253

Quelques Observations de Morphologie Vegetale faites au Jardin
Botanique de Christiania par J. M. Norman. 4to pamph. Cbris-
tiania. 1857.

"Inversio Vesicae Urinarife," og " Luxationes Femorum Con-
genita)," hos samme Individ, iagttagne af Lektor Voss 4to

pamph. Christiania. 1857.

Beschreibung und Lage der Universitats Sternwarte in Christi-
ania Herausgegeben von Christopher Hansteen. 4to pamph.

Christiania. 1849.

Beitra^e zur Lateinischen Grammatik I. Von L. C. M. Aubert,
Prof. 8vo pamph. Christiania. 1856.

Das Chemische Laboratorium der Universitat Christiania

Herausgegeben von Adolph Strecker. Dir. des Laboratoriums. 4to
pamph. Christiania. ^ " t.

Das Christiania-Silurbecken. Chemisch-Geognostich Untersucht
von Tlieodor Kjerulf. 4to pamph. Christiania. 1855.

Index Scholarum in Universitate Regia Fredericiana Octogesimo
Septimo ejus Semestri Anno 1856 ab Augusto mense Ineunte

Habendarum — Octogesimo Nono Anno 1857. 2 pamph.

4to. Christiania. 1856-57.

Physikalske Medelelser ved Adam Arndtsen Udgivne

af Dr. Christopher Hansteen. 4to pamph. Christiania. 1858.

Bidrag til Kundskaben om Middelhavets Littoral-Fauna, Reise-
bemaBrkninger fra Italien af M. Sars. II. II. Classis : Hydrome-
duso3. 8vo pamph.

Bemterkninger angaaende Graptolitherne af Christian Boeck,
Prof 4to pamph. Christiania. 1851.

Fortsatte lagttagelser over de erratiske Phsenomener af I. C.
Horbye. 8vo pamph. Christiania.

QEuvres Completes de N. H. Abel, Mathematicien, avec des
Notes et Developpements, Redigees par Ordre du Roi, par B. Holm-
boe, Prof. Math., etc. Tome Premier et Second. 2 vols, in one.
4to. Christiania. 1839.
El Ohservatorio 3Iarma de San Fernando.

Almanaque Nautico para el Ano 1859. Calculado de Orden de
S. M. en el Ohservatorio de Marina de la Ciudad de San Fernando.
1 vol. 8vo. Cadiz. 1857.
Massachusetts Historical Society.

Collections. Vol. IV. 4th Series. 8vo. Boston. 1858.

254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Lieut.-CoJ. J. D. Graham, U. S. A.

Report on the Commerce and Improvements of Western Lake

Harbors Part I. for 1854 and 1855 ; Part II. for 1856.

1 vol. 8vo. Washington. * 1857. [Ex. Doc]

Report on Lake Harbor Improvements for 1857. 1 vol. 8vo.
Washington. 1858. [Ex. Doc]
Rev. Charles F. Barnard.

Proceedings of the Twentj-First Annual Meeting of the Asso-
ciation for the Support of the Warren Street Chapel, together with
Mr. Barnard's Report. 12mo pamph. Boston. 1858.
B. A. Gould, Jr., P. D.

Astronomical Journal. Vol. V. Nos. Yl -1^. 4to. Albany.
^ 1858.

Defence of Dr. Gould by the Scientific Council of the Dudley
Observatoiy. 8vo pamph. Albany. 1858.

Dudley Observatory. An Address to the Citizens of Albany, and
the Donors and Friends of the Dudley Observatory, on the Recent
Proceedings of the Trustees ; from the Committee of Citizens ap-
pointed at a Public Meeting held in Albany on the 13th of July,
1858. 8vo pamph. Albany. 1858.-

Inauguration of the Dudley Observatory at Albany, August 28,
1856. Second Edition. 8vo pamph. Albany. 1858.

The Dudley Observatory and the Scientific Council. Statement
of the Trustees. 8vo. Albany. 1858.

Reply to the " Statement of the Trustees " of the Dudley Obser-
vatory. By Benjamin Apthorp Gould, Jr. 1 vol. 8vo. Albany.
1858.
American Antiquarian Society.

Proceedings in Boston, April 28, 1858 ; in Worcester, October
21, 1858; in Worcester, February 10, 1859. 3 Pamph. 8vo.
Boston. 1858 - 59.
Professor William B. Rogers.

On Ozone Observations. [From Edin. New Philos. Jour., Vol.
VIL N. S.] 8vo. Edinburgh. 1858.

Some Experiments on Sonorous Flames, with Remarks on the
Primary Source of their Vibration. [From Am. Jour, of Science
and Arts, 2d Series, Vol. XXVL, July, 1858.] 8vo. New Haven.
1858.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 255

K. K. Geologischen HeicJisanstalf, Wien.

Jahrbuch. VII. und VIIL Jahr. 8vo. Wien. 185G-57.
Royal Prussian Academy.

Abhandlungen der Konigl. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.
Aus dem Jahr 1856. 1 vol. 4to. Berlin. 1857.

Monatsbericht, Jan. - Aug. 1857. 8 nos. 8vo. Berlin. 1857.
Royal Society of Sciences, Leipzig.

Abhandlungen der Ivon. Sach. Gesell. der Wissenschaften. —
Math.-Physisch. Classe. Band IV. pp. 1-252. 8vo. Leipzig.
1857.

Berichte. — Math.-Physisch. Classe. 1856, No. 2 ; 1857, Nos.
1 - 3 ; 1858, No. 1. — Philol.-Histor. Classe. 1856, Nos. 3, 4 ; 1857,
Nos. 1, 2 ; 1858, No. 1. 8vo. Leipzig. 1857 - 58.
Royal Bavarian Academy.

Abhandlungen der Math.-Physili. Classe der Konigl. Bayerisch.
Akad. der Wissenschaften. Band V. Abth. 2 und 3 ; Band VII.
Abth. 1 und 2; Band VIIL Abth. 1. — Philos.-Philol. Classe.
Band VII. Abth. 3 ; Band VIIL Abth. 2. 4to. Munchen. 1848
to 1857.

Gelehrte Anzeigen. Band XLIV. 4to. Munchen. 1857.

Ueber die Physik der Molecularkrafte, Rede in der off. Sitz. der
Ivon. Akad. der Wissen. am 28 Mtirz 1857, zu ihrer 98 Stiftungsfeier,
vorgetragen von Prof. Dr. Jolly. 4to pamph. Munchen. 1857.

Ueber die Griindung der Wissenschaft altdeutscher Sprache und

Literatur. Festrede von Dr. Konrad Hofman. 4to pamph.

Miinchen. 1857.

Ueber den Anbau und Ertrag des Bodens im Konigreiche Bayern,

I Abtheilung-Vortrag von Dr. F. B. W. von Hermann.

4to pamph. Miinchen. 1857.
Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg.

Memoires. VI""" Serie. Sciences Mathematiques, Physiques, et
Naturelles. Tome VIIL Premiere Partie. Sciences Mathema-
tiques et Physiques. Tome VI. 1 vol. 4to. St. Petersbourg.
1857.

Compte Rendu de I'Acad. Annde 1856. 1 vol. 8vo. St. Peters-
bourg. 1857.
Administration of 3fines of Russia.

Annales de I'Observatoire Physique Central de Russie. Ann^e
1854, Nos. 1 et 2. 2 vols. 4to. St. Petersbourg. 1856.

256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Imperial Society of Naturalists, 3Ioscoiv.

Bulletin. Annce 1856, Nos. 2-4; Annee 1857, Nos. 1-4;
Annee 1858, No. 1. 8vo. Moscou. 1856-58.
Observatory of Prague.

Magnetische und Meteorologisclie Beobacbtungen zu Prag. 17
und 18 Jabrgang. 2 vols. 4to. Prag. 1857-58.
Observatory of KiJnigsberg.

Astronomiscbe Beobacbtungen auf der Koniglichen Universitiits-
Sternwarte zu Konigsberg. — Abtb. 31 und 33. Folio. Konigs-
berg. 1857-58.
Society of Sciences, Harlem.

Natuurkundige Verbandelingen van de Hollandscbe Maatscbappij
der Wetenscbappen te Haarlem. Tweede Verzameling. Dertiende
Deel. 4to. Haarlem. 1857.
Academia Naturce Curiosorum.

Novorum Actorum Acad. Cses. Leopold. Nat. Curios. Vol.
XXIII. Supplement. Vol. XXVI. Pars Prior. 4to. Vratislavia3
et Bonnaj. 1856 - 57.

Verzeicbniss der Mittglieder zum 1 Februar, 1858. 16mo

pampb. Breslau und Bonn. 1858.
Observatory of Cambridge.

Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory of Cambridge,
by tbe Rev. James Cballis, M. A., F. R. S. Vol. XVIII. For tbe
Years 1849-50 and 1851. 4to. Cambridge. 1857.
Linnean Society of London.

Transactions. Vol. XXII. Part 2. 4to. London. 1857.
Journal of tbe Proceedings. Botany. Vol. I. No. 4 ; Vol. II.
Nos. 5 and 6. — Zoology. Vol. I. No. 4; Vol. II. Nos. 5 and 6.
8vo. London. 1857.

List of tbe Society for 1857. 8vo pampb.

Address of Thomas Bell, Esq., F. R. S., etc., tbe President.
Read at the Anniversary Meeting of the Linnean Society on JMon-
day, May 25, 1857. 8vo pampb. London. 1857.
Imperial Academy of Sciences, BeUes-Lettres, and Arts, Lyon.

M^moires. Classe des Sciences (Nouv. Ser.) Tome II. 1852.
Classe des Lettres (N. S.) Tome 11. 1853. 8vo. Lyon.
1852-53.
Linnean Society of Lyon.

Annales. Ann^e 1852-53 (N. S.) Tome L 8vo. Lyon. 1855.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 257

Elias Fries.

Monographia Hymenomycetum Sueciae. Vol. I. Sistens Agaricos,
Coprinos, Bolbitios. 8vo. Upsalige. 1857.
Hon. Henry Wilson.

Report of the Superintendent of tlie Coast Survey, showing the
Progi-ess of the Survey during the Year 1856. 1 vol. 4to. Wash-
ington. 1856. [Ex. Doc]
Theodorus Magnus Fries.

De Stereocaulis Pilophoris Commentatio 8vo pamph.

Upsalioe. 1857.
Salem Athenceum.

A Catalogue of the Library of the Salem Athenfcum in Salem,
Massachusetts, to which is prefixed a Brief Historical Account of
the Institution, with its Charter and By-Laws. 8vo pamph. Boston.
1858.
Academy of Science, St. Louis.

Transactions. Vol. L No. 2. 8vo. St. Louis. 1858.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.

Proceedings. 1858, pp. 89 - 128, 177 - 184 ; 1859, pp. 45 - 84.
8vo. Philadelphia. 1858 - 59.

Journal. New Series, Vol. IV. Pt. 1. 4to. Philadelphia.
1858.
Samuel Kneeland, Jr., M. D.

Institutiones Chemiae Pud. August. Vogel, M. D., Prof etc. 1 vol.
16mo. Francofurti et Lipsias. 1762.
City of Boston.

Proceedings at the Dedication of the Building for the Public Li-
brary of the City of Boston, January 1, 1858. 1 vol. 8vo. Boston.
1858.
Professor Asa Gray.

Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Victoria

Including the Papers and Proceedings for the Past Year, ending in
July, 1855. Vol. I. 8vo. Melbourne. 1855.
Lieut. J. 3L Gilliss.

United States Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern
Hemisphere, during the Years 1849 - 52. Vol. III. Observations
to determine the Solar Parallax. By Lieut. J. M. Gilliss, LL. D.,
Superintendent. 1 vol. 4to. Washington. 1856. [Ex. Doc]
VOL. IV.- 33

258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

State of Ifassachiisetts.

Public Documents of Massachusetts ; being the Annual Reports
of various Public Officers and Institutions for the Year 1857 ; to-
gether with the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution of
the United States, and the Constitution of Massachusetts. 1 vol.
8vo. Boston. 1858.

Acts and Resolves passed by the General Court of Massachusetts,
in the Year 1858 ; together with the Messages, Changes of Names
of Persons, &c. 1 vol. 8vo. Boston. 1858.
3Iercantile Library Association of the City of New Yorh.

Thirty-Seventh Annual Report of the Board of Direction

May, 1858. 8vo pamph. New York.
Commodore Thomas J. Page, U. S. N.

Track Survey of the River Parana. Sheets No. 3-7 and 9. —
Reference Chart to the Track Survey of the Tributaries of Rio La
Plata. Track Survey of the River Uruguay, &c. Sheets Nos. 1,
2, 8. Surveyed by Commodore Thomas J. Page, United States
Steamer Water-Witch, 1855. Map of the Basin of La Plata,
based upon the Results of the Expedition under the Command of
Thomas J. Page, U. S. N. 11 Charts. New York.
Albany Institute.

Transactions. Vol. IV. Part 1. 8vo. Albany. 1857.
New York State Library.

Catalogue of Maps, Manuscripts, Engravings, Coins, &c. Vol.
HL 8vo. Albany. 1857.
Hon. Joseph Holt.

Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1856. Arts
and Manufactures. 3 vols. 8vo. Washington. 1857.
Professor James P. Espy.

Message from the President of the United States, communicating,
in Compliance with a Resolution of the Senate of July 24, 1854,
the Fourth Meteorological Report of Professor James P. Espy.
1 vol. 4to. Washington. 1857. [Ex. Doc]
William Sharswood, Esq.

Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum Veterum Collegit Auxit Re-
censuit ac Potiorem Lectionis Varietatem Adjecit Fridericus Linde-
mannus Sociorum Opera Adjutus. 4 volumes in 3. 4to. Lipsiae.
1831.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 259

Museum Wormianum seu Historia Eerum Rariorum, tarn Natu-
ralium, quam Artificialium, tain Domesticarum, quam Exoticarum,
qua3 HafnifB Danorum in ffidibus Authoris servantur, Adornata ab
Olao Worm. Med. Doct. & in Regia Hafniensi Academia, olim
Professore publico. 1vol. Folio. Amstelodami. 1655.

Report of the Council of the British Meteorological Society.
Read at the Fifth Annual General Meeting, May 22, 1855. 8yo
pamph. London.

Address delivered at the University of Pennsylvania, before the
Society of the Alumni, on the Occasion of their Annual Celebration,
December 10,1856. By George Sharswood, LL. D. 8vo pamph.
Philadelphia. 1857.

The Interpretation of the Astronomical Indications of Virgil, con-
sidered and adapted to common usage and common sense. By a
Member of the British Association. 8vo pamph. London. 1851.

The Works of WiUiam Smith, D. D., Late Provost of the College
and Academy of Philadelphia. 2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia. 1807.

Town Talk, The Fish Pool, The Plebeian, The Old Whig, The
Spinster, &c. By the Authors of the Tatler, Spectator, and Guar-
dian. 1 vol. 12mo. Dublin. 1790.

A Short History of the Electrical Clocks, with Explanations of
their Principles and Mechanism, &c. By Alexander Bain. 8vo
pamph. London. 1852.

A Few Remarks on the Present State and Prospects of Electrical
Illumination, &c. By Joseph J. W. Watson, Ph. D., &c. 2d
Edition. 1 Pamph. 8vo. London. 1853.
Societe d' Agriculture, Sciences, et Arts, de la Sarthe.

Analyse des Travaux de la Societe Royale des Arts du Mans,
depuis I'Epoque de son Institution, en 1794, jusqu'a la fin de 1819.
1'^ Partie. Sc. Math, et Physiq. 1 vol. 8vo. Mans. 1820.

Bulletin. Tome VIIL 1848-49. IP Serie. Tomes L- IV.
et V. 1st - 3d Cahier. 6 vols. 8vo. Le Mans. 1849 - 58.
Philological Society, London.

Proceedings. 1842-56. 9 vols. 8vo. London. 1844-56.
Royal Society, London.

Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1857. 4to. London.
1858.

Proceedings. Vol. VIIL No. 27 ; Vol. IX. Nos. 28 - 31. 8vo.
London. 1857 - 58.

260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Abstracts of the Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
Vol. I. 1800-14; Vol. 11. 1815-30. 4to. London. 1832-83.

List of Fellows. November 30, 1857. 4to pamph. London.

Six Discourses delivered before the Royal Society at their Anni-
versary Meetings on the Award of the Royal and Copley Medals.
By Sir Humphrey Davy, Bart., President of the Royal Society. 4to
pamph. London. 1827.

Report on the Adjudication of the Copley, Rumford, and Royal
Medals ; and Appointment of the Bakerian, Croonian, and Fair-
child Lectures. Compiled by James Hudson, Assistant Secretary
and Librarian. 4to pamph. London. 1834.

Astronomical and Magnetical and Meteorological Observations
made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the Year 1856 ; under
the Direction of George Biddell Airy, Esq., M. A., Astronomer
Royal. 1 vol. 4to. London. 1858.

Ninth Annual Report to the Council from the Committee of the
Royal Museum and Library, Peel Park, Borough of Salford, No-
vember, 1857. 8vo pamph. Salford. 1857.
K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft, Wien.

Mittheilungen. L Jahr. 1857, Heft 1 und 2; IL Jahr. 1858,
Heft 1. 8vo. Wien.
Salem Z/yceum.

Proceedings upon the Dedication of Plummer Hall at Salem, Oc-
tober 6, 1857 ; including Rev. Mr. Hoppin's Address, and Judge
White's Memoir of the Plummer Family. 8vo pamph. Salem.
1858.
Dr. Carl Friedr. Phil, von Martins.

Denkrede auf Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger. 4to pamph.
Munchen. 1858.

Ueber die Pflanzen-Namen in der Tupi-Sprache. 4to pamph.
Munchen. 1858.
Essex Institute.

Proceedings. Vol. IL Pt. 1. 1856-57. 8vo pamph. Salem.
1858.
L. A. Huguet Latour, Capitaine.

Twenty-Seventh Annual Report of the Natural History Society
of Montreal, 18 May, 1855; Twenty-Eighth, 19 May, 1856;
Twenty-Ninth, 18 May, 1857. 3 Pamph. 8vo. Montreal.
1855-57.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 261

Report of Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada for
1855. 1 vol. 8vo. Toronto. 185G.

Report on the Exploration of the Country between Lake Supe-
rior and the Red River Settlement. 1 vol. 8vo. Toronto. 1858.

Report of Walter Shanly, Esq., on the Ottawa Survey. 1 vol.
8vo. Toronto. 1858.

Report of the Commissioner of Crown Lands of Canada, for the
Year 1857. 1 vol. 8vo. Toronto. 1858.

Tables of the Trade and Navigation of the Province of Canada,
for the Year 1856. [Compiled from Official Returns.] 1 vol. 8vo.
Toronto. 1857. [Legislative Documents.]
American PJiilosophical Society.

Proceedings. Vol. VI. Nos. 59, 60. 8vo. Philadelphia. 1858
-59.
John H. Redfield.

Observations in Relation to the Cyclones of the Western Pacific ;
embraced in a Communication to Commodore Perry, by William C.
Redfield. 4to pamph.
Jonathan P. Hall.

The Chemical Works of Caspar Neumann, M. D., Professor of
Chemistry at Berlin, F. R. S., &c. Abridged and Methodized ;

with large Additions By William Lewis, M. B., F. R. S.

2d Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. London. 1773.

Elements of the Theory and Practice of Chymistry. Translated
from the French of M. Macquer, Member of the R. A. S., and Pro-
fessor of Medicine in the University of Paris [By Andrew

Reid.] 2d Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. London. 1775.-

Dr. Boerhaave's Elements of Chymistry, faithfully abridged from
the late genuine Edition. Published and signed by himself at

Leyden, to which are added curious and useful Notes,

by Edward Strother, M. D. 3d Edition. 1 vol. 8vo. London.
1749.

Emporium of Arts and Sciences, conducted by Thomas Cooper,
Esq. New Series, Vol. I. Nos. 1 - 3 ; Vol. II. Nos. 1 and 3 ; Vol.
IIL Nos. 1 and 3. 8vo. Philadelphia. 1813-14.

A Manual of Chemistry, or a Brief Account of the Operations of
Chemistry, and their Products. Translated from the French of M.

Beaume [By John Aikin.] 1 vol. 12 mo. Warrington.

1778.

262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASIERICAN ACADEMY

Charles M. Wetherill, Ph. D., M. D.

Report on the Chemical Analysis of the White Sulphur Water
of the Artesian Well of Lafayette, IncL, with Remarks upon
the Nature of Ai-tesian Wells. 8vo pamph. Lafayette, Ind.
1858.
Hon. Nathan Appleton.

Inti'oduction of the Power-Loom, and Origin of Lowell. 8vo
pamph. Lowell. 1858.
Smithsonian Institution.

Nereis Boreali-Americana : or Contributions to the History of the
Marine Alg£e of North America, by William Henry Harvey, M. D.,
M. R. I. A., F. L. S., &c. Pt. III. Chlorospermete. 4to. Wash-
ington. 1858. [Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.]

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of
the Institution for the Year 1857. 1 vol. 8vo. Washington.
1858. [Pub. Doc]
Radcliffe Trustees.

Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Rad-
cliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year 1856, under the Superin-
tendence of Manuel J. Johnson, M. A., Radcliffe Observer. Vol.
XVIL 8vo. Oxford. 1858.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Report of the Twenty-Seventh Meeting, held at Dublin in Au-
gust and September, 1857. 1 vol. 8vo. London. 1858.
Imperial Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Belles-Lettres, Caen.

Memoires. 1858. 1 vol. 8vo. Caen. 1858.
Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin.

Memorie, Serie Seconda. Tomo XVIL 4to. Torino. 1858.
Royal Academy of Sciences, Naples.

Memorie dal 1852 in Avanti Vol. 11. che contiene

quelle dal 1855 al 1857. 4to. Napoli. 1857.

Memorie nell' Anno 1854. pp. 237 - 346, di Vol. L 4to. Napoli.
1857.

Rendiconto della Society Reale Borbonica Accademia delle
Scienze. Anno 5 e 6. Nuova Serie. 1 vol. 4to. Napoli. 1857.
Imperial Society of Agricidture, S^c, Lyons.

Annales des Sciences Phys. et Nat. d'Agricult. et d'Industrie.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 263

2" Serie, Tome VIII. 1856; 3^ Serie, Tome I. 1857. Eoyal 8vo.
Lyon et Paris. 1857.
Royal Society of Scie7ices, Gottingen.

Abliandlungen. Band XVII. von den Jahr. 1856 und 1857.
4to. Gottingen. 1857.

Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts-Universitat und der Kon.
Gesell. der Wiss. zu Gottingen vom Jabre 1857. N"" 1 - 23.
1 vol. 16mo. Gottingen. 1857.
Museum of Natural History in Paris.

Archives. Tome X. Livr. 1 et 2. 4to. Paris. 1858.
Society for the Advancement of the Physical Sciences, Freiburg, I. B.
Berichte liber die Verbandlungen der Gesellschaft fiir Beforderung
der Naturwissenscbaften. Heft. 1-3, und 4, N'° 25-31. 8vo.
Freiburg, I. B. 1855 - 58.
Oherheissen Gesellschcft fiir Nattir- und Heilkunde, Giessen.

Bericbt. IV., V., und VI. 8vo. Giessen. 1854-57.
Observatory of Cracow.

Stlindliche Barometer-Beobacbtungen zu Krakau in den Jabren

1848 - 56 von Dr. Maximilian Weisse, Director der K. K.

Sternwarte und Dr. Adalbert Kunes, Adjunct der K. K. Sternwarte.
1 vol. 4to. Wien. 1857.
William H. Prescott.

History of tbe Reign of Philip the Second, King of Spain, Vol.
III. 8vo. Boston. 1859.
Henry I. Bowditch, M. D.

An Address on tbe Life and Character of James Deane, M. D.,
of Greenfield, Mass., August 4, 1858. 8vo pamph. Greenfield.
1858.
War Department.

Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain tbe most Prac-
ticable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi
River to the Pacific Ocean. Vols. II. - VIII. 4to. Washington.
1855-57.
Right Hon. Secretary of State for War.

Ordnance Trigonometrical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland.
Accoimt of the Observations and Calculations of the Principal Tri-
angulation ; and of the Figure, Dimensions, and Mean Specific
Gravity of the Earth, as derived therefrom Drawn up by

264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Captain Alexander Eoss Clarke, R. E., F. R. A. S.,* under the
Direction of Lieut.-Colonel H. James, R. E., F, R. S., M. R. I. A.,
&c., Superintendent of the Ordnance Survey. Text and Plates.
2 vols. 4to. London. 1858.
Samuel Willard.

History of the Rise, Progress, and Consummation of the Rupture,
which now divides the Congregational Clergy and Churches of Mas-
sachusetts, in a Discourse delivered in the First Church in Deerfield,

Mass., September 22, 1857 8vo pamph. Greenfield. 1858.

Netherlands Government.

Geologische Kaart van Nederland, vervaardigd door Dr. W. C.
H. Staring, uitgevoerd doorhet Topographisch Bureau van het De-
partement van Oorlog. uitgegeven op last van zijne Majesteit den
Koning. Blad 14. Chart. Folio. Haarlem. 1858.
Essex Institute.

Journal of the Essex County Natural History Society. 1 vol.
8vo. Salem. 1852.
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture.

Transactions. New Series, Vol. I. 8vo. Boston. 1858.
Royal Academy of Sciences, 8fc. of Belgium.

Bulletins de I'Academie Royale des Sciences des Lettres et des
Beaux- Arts de Belgique. 26""' Annee. 2'"' Ser. Tomes I. - III.
8vo. Bruxelles. 1857.

Memoires Couronnes et Autres Memoires publies par I'Academie

Royale Collection in 8vo. Tome VH. 8vo. Bruxelles.

1858.

Annuaire de I'Academie Royale 1858. 24 Annee.

1 vol. IGmo. Bruxelles. 1858.

Annales de I'Observatoire Royale de Bruxelles. Tome XII. 4to.
Bruxelles. 1857.

Sur les Etoiles Filantes et le Magnetisme Terrestre. Par M. Ad.
Quetelet. 8vo pamph. Bruxelles.

Observations des Passages de la Lune et des Etoiles de Meme
Culmination. Par M. Ad. Quetelet.

Der Naturen Bloeme van Jacob van Maerlant. Met Inleiding.

Varianten van HSS., Aenteekeningen en Glossarium voor

de eerste mael uitgegeven door J. H. Bormans. Eerste Deel.
Royal 8vo. Brussel. 1857.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 265

Rymbybel van Jacob Van Maerlant. Met Voorrede, Varianten
van HSS., Anteekeningen en Glossariura, &c., voor de eerste mael

uitgegeven door J. David, Vr Eerste Deel. Royal 8vo.

Brussel. 1858.
A. Quetelet.

Observations des Phenomenes P^riodiques. [Extr. du Tome
XXXI. des Mem. Acad. Eoy. de-Belgique.] 4to pamph. Bruxelles.
Annuaire de I'Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles, 1858. 25" Annee.
1 vol. 16mo. Bruxelles. 1857.
State of Massachusetts.

Ichnology of New England. A Report on tlie Sandstone of the
Connecticut Valley, especially its Fossil Footmarks, made to the
Government of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. By Edward
Hitchcock, Professor of Amherst College. 1 vol. 4to. Boston.
1858.
Isaac Lea, LL. D.

Descriptions of the Embryonic Forms of Thirty-Eight Species of
Unionidse. 4to pamph. Philadelphia. 1858.

Observations on the Genus Unio, together with Descriptions of
New Species, their Soft Parts and Embryonic Forms, in the Family
Unionida3. 4to pamph. Philadelphia.

Descriptions of Twenty-Seven new Species of Uniones from
Georgia. Remarks on some Unionidae, &c. 8vo pamph. Phil-
adelphia. 1859.
A. Osborn.

Field Notes of Geology. 12rao pamph. New York. ' 1858.
Zoologisch-Botanischer Verein zu Wien.

Verhandlungen. Band VII. Jahr. 1857. 8vo. Wien. 1857.
Personen- Orts- und Sach-Register. 1851-55. 1vol. 8vo.
Wien. 1857.
Nalurforschenden Gesellschaft in Emden.

Dreiundvierzigster Jahresbericht fiir 1857. Svo pamph. Emden.
1858.

Kleine Schriften. 8vo pamph. Emden. 1858.
Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences.

Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde uitgegeven
door het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen.
3 vols. 8vo. Batavia. 1855-56.
VOL. IV. 34

266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Professor Joseph Wlnlock.

American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac for the Year 1861.
1 vol. 8vo. Washington. 1858.
James D. Dana.

Synopsis of the Report on Zoophytes of the United States Ex-
ploring Expedition around the World, under C. Wilkes, U. S. N.,
Commander, in the Years 1838 - 42. 1 vol. 8vo. New Haven.
1859.
State University of Michigan.

Catalogue of the Officers and Students for 1859. 8vo pamph.
Ann Arbor. 1859.
.John C. Dalton, Jr., M. D.

A Treatise on Human Physiology ; designed for the Use of Stu-
dents and Practitioners of Medicine. 1 vol. Royal 8vo. Phila-
delphia. 1859.
Elizur Wright.

Third Annual Report on Loan Fund Associations, by the Insur-
ance Commissioners, January 1, 1859. 8vo pamph. Boston. 1859.
[Pub. Doc. No. 9.]

Fourth Annual Report of the Insurance Commissioners of the
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, January 1, 1859. 8vo pamph.
Boston. 1859. [Pub. Doc. No. 8.]
American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Proceedings of the Twelfth Meeting, at Baltimore, Maryland,
May, 1858. 1 vol. 8vo. Cambridge. 1859.
Charles W. Parsons, M. D.

Fifth Report to the General Assembly of Rhode Island, relating
to the Registry and Returns of Births, Marriages, and Deaths in
the State, for the Year ending December 31, 1857. Prepared under
the Direction of John R. Bartlett, Secretary of State. 8vo pamph.
Providence. 1858.
Josiah Curtis, M. D. "

Sixteenth Report to the Legislature of Massachusetts, relating to
the Registry and Return of Births, Marriages, and Deaths in the
Commonwealth, for the Year ending December 31, 1857. By Oliver
Warner, Secretary of the Commonwealth. 1 vol. 8vo. Boston.
1858. [Pub. Doc. No. 1.]
Lyceum of Natural History of Nexo YorJc.

Annals. Vol. VI. Nos. 8 - 13. 8vo. New York. 1858.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 267

Captain George G. Meade, U. S. Top. Engineers.

Survey of the Northei-n and Northwestern Lakes, made in Obe-
dience to Acts of Congress, under the Direction of the Bureau of
Topographical Engineers of the War Department. 13 Charts.
Washington.
City of Bologna.

Compendio Storico della Scuola Anatomica di Bologna dal Rina-
sciraento delle Scienze e delle Lettere a tutto il Secolo XVIII., con
un Paragone fra la sua Antichitk e quella delle Scuole di Sjflerno e
di Padova. Scritto da Michle Medici. 1 vol. 4to. Bologna.
1857.
Professor Francesco Zantedeschi.

Resultamenti ottenuti da un Giroscopio. 8vo pamph. Vienna.
1856.

Nuovi Esperimenti risguardanti 1' Origine della Elettricita Atmo-
sferica, etc. 8vo pamph. Venezia. 1854.

Ricerche sul Calorico Raggiante. 8vo pamph. Wien. 1857.

Ricerche sulle Leggi della Capillarita. 8vo pamph. Venezia.
1856.

Della Lunghezza delle Onde Aeree, della loro Velocitti nelle
Canne a Bocca, e dell' Influenza che esercitano i varii Element!
sulla loro Tonalita. 8vo pamph. Wien. 1858.

Dello Sdoppiamento delle Onde Corrispondenti ai Suoni Armonici,
e della Coesistenza di piii Onde vibranti nella medesima Colonna
Aerea. 8vo pamph. Wien. 1858.

Delle Dottrine del terzo Suono, ossia della Coincidenza delle Vi-
brazioni Sonore, con un Cenno sulla Analogia che presentano le Vi-
brazioni Luminose dello Spettro Solare. 8vo pamph. Wien. 1857.

Della Corrispondenza che monstrano fra loro i Corpi Sonori sulla
Risonanza di piii Suoni in uno. 8vo pamph. Wien. 1857.

Della Unita di Misura dei Suoni Musicali, dei loro Limiti, della
Durata delle Vibrazioni sul Nervo Acoustico dell' Uomo, e deli'
Innalzamento del Tono fondamentale avvenuto nel Diaspason di
Acciajo, in virtu di un Movimento spontaneo moleculare. 8vo
pamph. Wien. 1857.

Dei Limiti dei Suoni nelle Linguette libere, nelle Canne a Bocca,
6 dei loro Armonici, studiati in relazione alia Legge di Bernoulli.
8vo pamph. Wien. 1858.

Delia Legge archetipa dei Suoni Ai-monici delle Corde, del Moto

268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Vibratorio, dal quale derivano, e della Interpolazione dei Suoni
Armonici negli Intervalli dei Toni degli Strumenti ad Arco e della
Voce Umana precipuamente. 8vo pamph. Wien. 1858.

Studio Critico-Sperimentale del Metodo comunimente seguito dai
Fisici nella Determinazione dei Nodi e Ventri delle Colonne Aeree
vibranti entro Canne a Bocca. Svo pamph. Wien. 1858.

Della Correlazione delle Forze Chimiche Molecolari colla Ee-
frangibilita delle Irradiazioni Luminose e Calorificlie Oscure. Svo
pam^. Padova. 1857.

Deir Origine e del Progresso della Fisica Teorica Sperimentale
neir Arcliiginnasio Padovano Prelezione. 8vo pamph. Venezia.
1858.

De Mutationibus qusB contingunt in Spectro Solari fixo. 4to
pamph. Miinchen. 1857.

Nouveau Spectrometre. 4to pamph. Padova. 1857.

De la Vision St^reoscopique des Images et des Couleurs Com-
plementaires. 4to pamph. Padova. 1857.

Apparato per la Communicazione del Moto. 8vo pamph. Wien.
1857.

Experiences de M. Zantedeschi sur I'Hypothese de Wells relative
k rOrigine de la Rosee et de la Gelee Blanche. 8vo pamph.
Padova. 1857.

Nascita, Studi, Posizione Sociale, e Bibliografia delle Principali
Opere e Memorie di Francesco Zantedeschi. 8vo pamph. Padova.
1857.

Zantedeschi et Borlinetto. Question des Foyers Chimiques et
Lumineux. Des Irradiations Chimiques au point de vue de la
Photographie. 4to pamph. Padova. 1857.

Delle Irradiazioni Chimiche e della Necessita del loro

Foco separato da quello delle Irradiazioni Calorificlie e Luminose al
conseguimento della Purezza e Perfezione delle Prove Fotografiche
negative ottenute coi loduri d' Argento. Svo pamph. Wien. 185G.

Dei Limiti di Impressionabilita delle Sostanze Foto-
grafiche ; deir Influenza delle Superficie nei Fenomeni Fotogenici ;
della loro Chimica Natura ; dei Miglioramenti apportati all' Arte
Eliografica. Svo pamph. Wien. 1856. .

Suir Influenza del Vuoto e di alcuni Gaz ne' Fenomeni

Chimici, che presentano i loduri d'Argenti esposti alia Luce Solare.
Svo pamph. Wien. 1857.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 269

Four liundred and sixty-eiglitli meeting.

August 9, 1859. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters of acceptance
from the Hon. John H. Clifford and the -Hon. Emory Wash-
burn, who were elected Fellows at the preceding meeting.
Also letters relative to the exchanges of the Academy.

Dr. C. T. Jackson communicated the results of the exami-
nation, made by Mr. John H. Blake and himself, of the Fro-
zen Well in Brandon, Vermont ; which was examined by
them on the 10th and 11th of June last, in behalf of the
Boston Society of Natural History.

This well is situated about half a mile west of the Brandon Hotel,
and is on the estate of Abraham Trombley. It was dug in the month
of November, 1858.

After sinking through loam and sandy sub-soil twenty feet, a bed
of frozen gravel, with lumps of ice, was met with, and the whole bed
was frozen to the thickness of about fifteen feet. The gravel con-
sisted of large and small pebbles, imbedded in mud, which was all
froi^en. Some lumps of ice, of the size of twelve-pound cannon-balls,
were taken out. Below this frozen deposit, sand was struck at the
depth of thirty-five feet from the surface, and three springs of water
came in from below, and still supply water.

The well is regularly walled with stones, and has a cover of mar-
ble, with a circular hole eighteen inches in diameter cut through it.
Over the well there is a curb with a windlass, covered with a roof
to keep the rain from the rope ; this covering prevents any direct
radiation of heat from the surface of the water in the well. At the
bottom of the well, for five feet above the water, a crust of solid ice
exists, attached to the walls of the well. In the winter and early sum-
mer the surface of the water freezes over, even as late as the month
of June. On measuring the depth of the well, it was found to be
35.4 feet deep, and there were 2.4 feet of water in it. The tempera-
ture of the water on the 10th and 11th of June last was ^° Cen-
tigrade, or 33° F., while there was a thick crust of solid ice extend-
ing to the height of five feet above the water, and closely attached to

270 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the sides of the well. A boy was sent down in the bucket, and he
broke off masses of this ice with a hammer, and sent it up for us to
examine.

Since ice daily forms on the sides of the well, it is evident that the
temperature of the gravel-bed must be considerably below the freezing
point. The hquid water which supplies the well comes from the sandy
stratum below, and is warmer than the stratum which overlies it.

A lighted candle was lowered down into the well, and it continued
to burn ; the flame was not in any manner deflected ; so there was
no current of air in the well. Numerous sj^n-ings and wells in every
direction around the frozen well were examined, and none of them
were frozen, or were remarkable for coldness of their waters.

It was thus ascertained that the frozen stratum in which Trom-
bley's well was sunk is quite limited, and that it is confined to the
gravel-bed, or to the mass of frozen drift-pebbles, which shows itself
on the road-side at the Hogback, four hundred and fifty feet northwest
from the well. This gravel-bed dips directly towards the frozen well,
and undoubtedly is the same stratum that was dug through in sink-
ing it.

On examining this out-crop, we saw six feet in thickness of coarse
pebbles, consisting of water-worn boulders and smooth pebbles of
quartz, sienite, and blue limestone. Above this was about one foot in
thickness of sand, and over that about two feet of mixed sand and clay,
and above this the usual sandy loam of the country. The hill rises
forty-five feet from the level of the top of the well, and the land slopes
towards it at an angle of six degrees, the distance being four hundred
and fifty feet. Northwest from this hill, and all around it, the rocks
are blue-gray compact limestone, probably of Silurian age, but destitute
of fossils. On the surface of these limestone rocks are abundant drift
boulders, consisting of rocks that do not occur in place in that part
of Vermont. They are drift-boulders from the north. The surface of
the limestone ledges is much worn by drift action, presenting the well-
known appearance of les roches moutonee of glacial regions.

It may be premature to propose any theory to account for the facts
here stated, since we intend to make more extended researches, and
through the liberality of a gentleman of this city (Uriah Boyden, Esq.)
we are provided with the pecuniary means. It is proposed to sink
another well to the gravel-bed, at a point half-way between the out-

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 271

crop at the Hogback and the present well, in order to discover the
extent of the frozen ground ; and this we shall do now at the close of
the summer months, when the heat shall have penetrated as far as it is
likely to go.

Several hypotheses have been proposed, to account for the exist-
ence of this bed of frozen gravel ; such as its being, perhaps, a fossil
glacier of a period of intense cold, during the drift epoch ; or that the
cold air of the winter months may have penetrated through even a
pebble-bed; or that the longer continuance of winter cold may have
caused freezing of the gravel-bed, and that the heat of our short sum-
mers has not been able to reach the ice to melt it.

The committee as yet adopt no conclusions, but are collecting the
elements for a solution of the problem, and hope in due time to
arrive at trustworthy results. They have procured from Mr. David
Buckland, of Brandon, (one of the Smithsonian observers,) a series
of thermometrical tables of observations, extending from 1853 to
1859, which will enable them to estimate the temperature of the
climate for each month of those years, and the mean annual temper-
ature.

Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, made a
verbal communication relative to the application of the tele-
graph to the prediction of changes of the weather, particu-
larly in the city of Boston and its vicinity.

It has been fully established by the observations which have been
made under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, and from
other sources of information, that the principal disturbances of the
atmosphere are not of a local character, but commence in certain
regions, and are propagated in definite directions over the whole surface
of the United States east of the Eocky Mountains.

From a careful study of all the phenomena of the winds of the tem-
perate zones, it is inferred that over the whole surface of the United
States and Canada there are two great currents of air continually
flowing eastward. These currents consist of an upper and a lower,
the former returning the air to the south which was carried by the
latter towards the north. The lower current, which is continually flow-
ing over the surface of the United States, is about two miles in depth,
and moves from the southwest to northeast. The upper or return

272 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

current, which is probably of neai'ly equal magnitude, flows from north-
Avest to southeast, or nearly at right angles to the other, and the
resultant of the two is a current almost directly from the west. The
reaction of these two currents appears to be the principal cause of the
sudden changes of weather in our latitude. They give definite direc-
tion to our storms, accordingly as the latter are more influenced by
the motion of the one or the other of these great aerial streams. The
principal American storms may, from our present knowledge, be di-
vided into two classes ; namely, those which have their origin in the
Caribbean Sea, and those which enter our territory from the north, at
the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. Those of the first class,
which have been studied with much success by the lamented liedfield
and others, follow the genex'al direction of the Gulf-Stream, and, over-
lapping the eastern portion of the United States, give rise to those
violent commotions of the atmosphere which are in many instances so
destructive to life and property along our eastern coast. These storms
from the south are frequently two or three days in traversing the dis-
tance from Key West to Cape Race, and their approach and progress
might generally be announced by telegraph in time to guard against
their disastrous effects. Though the general direction of these storms
appears to be made out with considerable certainty, much remains to
be done in settling the theory of their character and formation.

The materials which have been collected at the Smithsonian Insti-
tution during the last seven years, relative to the other class of storms,
have enabled us to establish general facts of much value, not only in a
scientific point of view, but also in their application to the prediction of
the weather. [This statement was verified by a series of maps, exhib-
ited to the Academy by Professor Henry, on which were indicated the
beginning and pi'ogress of some remarkable changes of weather.] From
these maps it appears that the great disturbances of the atmosphere
which spread over the surface of the United States enter our territory
frotn the possessions of the Northwest Company, about the sources of
the Saskatchawan, at the base of the Rocky Mountains, and are thence
propagated south and east, until, in many instances, they spread over
the whole of the United States, and probably a large portion of the
British possessions.

For example, the great depression of temperature which occurred in
January of the present year, and which will be remembered by every

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 273

one as the most marked cold period of the season, entered the territory
of the United States at the point before mentioned on the 5th of Janu-
ary, and on the 6th reached Utah, on the 7th Santa F^, and on the 8th
the Gulf of Mexico, and, passing onwards, it was felt in Guatemala on
the 10th. While it was advancing southward, it was spreading over the
continent to the east ; on the 7th, it reached the Red River settlement,
and all places under the same meridian, down to the Gulf of Mexico.
It reached the meridian of Chicago on the 8th, the western part of
the State of New York on the 9th, New England on the 10th, and
Cape Race on the 13th. It moved with a'bout equal velocity over the
Southern States, and was observed at Bermuda on the 12th.

The remarkable frost of last June, so far as it has been traced, had
the same origin, and followed the same eastward course. The fact was
also illustrated by the maps before mentioned, that the warm periods
which have occurred in past years have followed the same law of pro-
gression, and consequently their approach could have been announced
to the inhabitants of the Eastern States several days in advance, bad a
proper system of telegraphic despatches been established.

The value of the telegraph in regard to meteorology has been fully
proved by the experience of the Smithsonian Institution. The Morse
line of telegraph has kindly furnished the Institution during the last
twelve months, free of cost, with a series of daily records of the
weather, from the principal stations over the whole country east of the
Mississippi River and south of New York. In order to exhibit at one
view the state of the weather over the portion of the United States just
mentioned, a lai'ge map is pasted on a wooden surface, into which, at
each station of observation, a pin is inserted, to which a card can be
temporarily attached. The observations are made at about seven
o'clock in the morning, and as soon as the results are received at the
Institution, an assistant attaches a card to each place from which intel-
ligence has been obtained, indicating the kind of weather at the time ; —
rain being indicated by a black card, cloudiness by a brown one, snow
by a blue one, and clear sky by a white card.

This meteorological map is an object of great interest to the many
persons from a distance who visit the Institution daily ; all appear to
be specially interested in knowing the condition of weather to which
their friends at home are subjected at the time. But the value of the
map is not confined to the gratification of this desire. It enables us to "

VOL. IV. 35

274 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

study the progress of storms, and to predict what changes in the weather
may be expected at the east, from the indications furnished by places
farther west. For example, if a black card is seen in the morning on
the station at Cincinnati, indicating rain at that city, a rain-storm may
confidently be expected at Washington at about seven o'clock in the
evening. Indeed, so uniformly has this prediction been verified, that
last winter the advertising in the afternoon papers of the lectures to
be delivered at the Institution that evening was governed by the
condition of the weather in the morning at Cincinnati, — a rainy
morning at the latter inducing a postponement of the lecture.

It must be evident, from the facts given, that if a system of tele-
graphing over the whole country east of the Rocky Mountains were
established, information could be given to the Middle and Eastern
States of the approach of disturbances of the atmosphere of much
value to the agricultui'ist, the ship-owner, and to all others who transact
business affected by changes of weather, as well as of importance to
the invalid and the traveller. Indeed, with a proper combination of
the lines now in operation, daily intelligence might be obtained in
the city of Boston which would be of the highest interest to its in-
habitants. Professor Henry mentioned Boston in particular, because
this city is so situated that the storms, both of the southern and
western class, reach it after they have been felt in New York, and in
other places which are not as far east and north. It is necessary to
remark, that the same use of the telegraph is in a measure inapplica-
ble to the inhabitants of Western Europe, since they live on the east-
ern side of an ocean, and cannot be apprised of the approach of storms
from the west. For the same reason, the general laws of storms are
more conveniently studied by the meteorologists of this country than
by those of Great Britain and France.

It should be distinctly understood, that the remarks which have been
made in this communication relate to the more violent changes of the
weather which occur in autumn, winter, and spring. The thunder-
showers which occur almost daily during the warm weather in summer
have somewhat of a local character, and commence at the same time,
and frequently at the same hour, for several days in succession, at the
same and different places ; but wherever they commence, they move
eastward over the country until they are exhausted.

Professor Henry also spoke of the facts collected in regard to the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 275

nature of American storms, and their connection with the two great
aerial currents continually flowing over the temperate zone. He
considered that the great changes of the weather are principally due
to the gradual production of an unstable equilibrium in the two cur-
rents, by the accumulation of heat and moisture in the lower.

He spoke in high terms of the importance of the labors of Mr.
Espy in developing the theory of the upward motion of air, and the
evolution of latent heat in the production of storms.

In reply to a question as to the possibility of crossing the Atlantic
in a balloon, the Professor stated that? he had little doubt, if the bal-
loon could be made to retain the gas, and to ascend into the upper
current, it would be wafted across the ocean in the course of three or
four days. If it descended into the lower current, it would be carried
to the north of east ; and if it continued in the upper current, it would
reach Europe south of the same point. The course could be changed,
within certain limits, by ascending and descending from one current
to the other. The late balloon voyage from St. Louis to Jefferson
County, New York, was of interest in confirming the theoretical direc-
tion of the great lower current of this latitude.

The Corresponding Secretary presented the following paper
upon the Mosses collected in Captain Rodgers's recent explor-
ing voyage ; which is published by permission of Captain
Rodgers.

Characters of sortie new Musci collected hy Charles Wright in
the North Pacific Exploring Expedition* under the Command

* Of the very interesting collection of Mosses brought home by the Expedition,
eighty-six were gathered in Japan and adjacent islands, and seven on the coast
of China. Of these ninety-three species, the fifty-four following are identical
with species occurring either in Europe or in North America, or in both coun-
tries : —

Sphagnum squaiTOSum, Phascum crispum, Weisia viridula, Rhabloweisia fugax,
Dicranella curvata, Dicranum scoparium, Trematodon longicollis, Leucobryum
glaucum, Trichostomum pallidum, T. inflexum, Barbula unguiculata, Ceratodon
purpureus, Eustichium Norvegicum, Orthotrichum fastigiatum, Hedwigia ciliata,
Entosthodon acuminatum, E. ericetorura, Bryum pyriforme, B. nutans, B. torques-
cens, B. pallescens, Mnium punctatum, Bartramia pomiformis, B. fontana 1 Atri-
chum angustatum, Pogonatum aloides, P. alpinum, Polytrichum juniperinum, P.
commune, Hypnum scitum, H. minutulum, H. Starkii, H. crassinervium, H, popu-

276 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of Captain John Rodgers. By William S. Sullivant and
Leo Lesquereux. August, 1859.

1. FissiDENS LAXUS (sp. nov.) : dioicus, perpusillus, acfocarpus,
simplex ; foliis 5 - 6-jugis oblongis longius acuminatis costa excurrente
cuspidatis laxe areolatis, ai'eolis hexagono-rotundis permagnis ; capsula
ovali leptodermi.

Hong Kong, China.

2. FissiDEXS INCRASSATUS (sp. nov.) : dioicus, pusillus, acrocarpus,
ramosus ; foliis 8 - 10-jugis oblongis lineari-oblongisve subito acumi-
natis dense minute areolatis, costa vix excurrente ; capsula ovali-oblonga
pachydermi ; operculo longe rostrato ; calyptra dimidiata.

On rocks at Camoens' Grotto, near Macao; also at Hong Kong,
China.

3. FissiDENS PUKGENS (sp. nov.) : monoicus, acrocarpus, pusillus,
simplex; foliis 10-14-jugis anguste linearibus sensim acuminatis,
costa sub apice desinente ; capsula ovali rostrato-operculata ; calyptra
anguste conica ; flQfibus masculis axillarjjjus.

On rocks in shaded ravines, Hong Kong, China.

leum, H. salebrosum, H. velutinum, H. rutabulum, H. serpens var., H. adnatum,
H. denticulatum, H. serrulatum, H. microcarpum, H. brevii'ostre, H. triquetrum,
H. splendens, H. Oakesii, H. pratense, H. Haldanianum, H. cupressiforme van, H.
polymorphura, H. cuspidatum, Hookeria lucens var. ? Anomodon tristis, Pylaisasa
velutina.

These species are distributed as follows : — eight occur only in Eastern North
America, and six in Europe ; two occur in Europe, and in Western North America ;
seven in Europe and in Eastern and Western North America; and thirty-one are
common to both Europe and Eastern North America. Or, in other words, forty
are found both in Europe and in North America ; of the remaining fourteen, six
are restricted to Europe, and eight to North America.

Closely aUied to these fifty-four species are the twenty-four Japanese and
Chinese species here characterized as new.

From these data it is apparent that the similarity of the bryology of Japan to
that of Europe and North America, particularly their Western and Eastern portions
respectively, is even greater than that which prevails (as recently shown by Pro-
fessor Gray's admirable papers on the subject) in the PIia;nogamous floras of those
countries; and indeed, excluding a Uypopteiijr/ium and a few Macromitria, — the
latter represented by one species on the Southern Alleghany Mountains, — if all
the species of the Japan collection should be found in New England, it would ex-
cite no other surprise than that they had so long escaped detection.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 277

4. ORTnoTRiCHUM Japonicum (sp. nov.) : monoicura, laxe pulvi-
natum ; foliis e basi elongato-lanceolata linearibus ; capsula exserta
obovata longicolla 8-sti"iata ; peristomii duplicis dentibus bigeminatis,
ciliis nodoso-articulatis carinatis ; calyptra campanulata multoties plicata
epilosa.

On trees in shaded ravines, Hakodadi, Japan. *

5. DiCRANELLA OBSCURA (sp. nov.) : dioica, dense caespitosa, sub-
simplex ; foliis e basi lanceolata longissime subulatis subsecundis apice
dentatis, costa percurrente ; capsula ovali-cylindracea microstoma
pachydermi ; operculo aciculari-rostrato erecto ; annulo obscuro ;
calyptra magna ; sporis majusculis.

On steep banks near Hong Kong, China.

6. Pttchomitrium Wilsoni (sp. nov.) : monoicum, caespitosum ;
caulibus robustis ; foliis confertis lineari-lanceolatis superne margine
incrassata serratis, costa sub apice evanida ; capsula elongato-ovali
microstoma ; operculo rectirostro ; perist. dentibus subtrifidis hie illic
pertusis ; calyptra permagna campanulata rostrata plicata basi lobata.

On rocks and hill-sides, Simoda, Japan.

7. Trichostomum tortuloides (sp. nov.) : monoicum, dense
ca3spitans ; caulibus brevibus congesto-foliosis ; foliis lineari-lanceolatis
costa excurrente cuspidatis, marginibus incurvis subundulatis integer-
rimis ; capsula cylindracea curvula ; perist. dentibus modice contortis
inferne nodoso-articulatis ; operculo longe rostrato ; calyptra longa an-
gusta contorta.

On rocks among hills, near Simon's Town, Cape of Good Hope.

8. Mnium flagellare (sp. nov.) : dioicum ; caulibus simplicibus,
innovationibus numerosis filiformibus erectis appresso-microphyllis in-
fra perichfet. et perigon. oriundis ; foliis caulinis ascendendo majoribus
laxis erecto-patentibus oblongis elliptico-oblongisve superne duplicato-
serratis dense minute rotundato-areolatis papillosis, costa percurrente ;
paraphysibus subclavatis : fructu non viso.

Rocks, on the summit of mountains, northeast of Hakodadi, Japan.

9. Leucobrtum Boninense (sp. nov.) : dioicum, subgracile ; fohis
lineari-lanceolatis strictiusculis superne convolutis apice serratis dorso
Isevibus, pericha^tialibus interioribus longe vaginantibus subito attenu-
atis ; capsula obovato-oblonga strumosa ; pedicello breviusculo : flo-
ribus masculis aggregatis.

Bonin Islands.

278 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

10. Macrojiitrium nreuLARUM (sp. nov.) : dioicum, compacts
ca3spitans ; ramis brevissimis densifoliis ; foliis ligulatis acutis erecto-
incurvis apice involutis, cellulis inferne lineari-oblongis subpellucidis
supei'ne rotundatis minutis carnosulis papillosis, costa cum apice de-
sinente ; capsula ovali microstoma brevipedicellata ; operculo recte
rostrato ; calyptra mitriformi pilosissima.

On trees, Loo Choo Islands, Ousima ; also Simoda, &c., Japan.

11. Macromitridm gymnostomum (sp. nov.) : dioicum, tenellum,
dense deplanato-coespitans ; ramis brevissimis incrassatis ; foliis ligulatis
acuminatis strictis erecto-patentibus inferne oblongo- superne minute
rotundato-areolatis papillosis, costa sub apice evanida ; capsula oblongo-
ovali striata gymnostoma ; operculo e basi depressa oblique aciculari-
rostrato ; calyptra cuculliformi plicata epilosa.

On rocks and trees, Simoda, Japan ; and Ousima, one of the north-
ern Loo Choo Islands.

12. PoGONATUM Japonicum (sp. nov.) : elatum ; caule simpHci sub
perichastio innovante inferne aphyllo ; foliis confertis siccitate circinato-
tortilibus humidis patentissimis lineari-lanceolatis spinuloso-serratis
brevius lamellosis ; capsula cylindracea erecta subcurvula papillosa
brevipedicellata.

Mountains northeast of Hakodadi, Japan.

13. Bryuji HUMIDULU3I (sp. nov.) : dioicum, innovationibus gracili-
bus ramosum ; foliis oblongo-lanceolatis sensim attenuatis costa exce-
dente aristatis lineari-rhomboideo-areolatis superne denticulatis margine
revolutis ; capsula pendula elongata cylindraceo-clavata curvula late
annulata ; operculo magno hemisphjerico papillato ; peristomio nor-
mali.

Moist places among mountains, near Simon's Town, Cape of Good
Hope.

14. Brtum crudoides (sp. nov.) : dioicum ; caule simplici ; foliis
ascendendo majoribus, inferioribus lanceolatis, comalibus erecto-patenti-
bus lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis apice denticulatis areolatione lineari,
costa valida evanida ; capsula suberecta oblongo-elliptica brevicoUa
microstoma ; peristomio B. polymorphi : flore masc. capituliformi.

Behring's Straits.

15. Bryum Wrightii (sp. nov.) : monoicum vel synoicum, dense
csespitans, pusillum ; caulibus ramisque perbrevibus ; foliis gemmaceo-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 279

imbricatis, comalibus lanceolatis longe acuminatis costa cnspidatis su-
perne denticulatis laxius oblongo-areokitis marginibus anguste revolutis ;
capsula pendula globoso-pyriformi microstoma annulata ; perist. intern,
ciliis linearibus perforatis, ciiiolis subnullis ; operculo depresso-conico.
Arakamchetchene Island, Behring's Straits.

IG. Bryum megalodictyon (sp. nov.) : dioicum, pusillum ; foliis
erectis superne congestis oblongo-ovatis acutis concavis evanido-costatis,
cellulis hexagono-oblongis amplissimis ; capsula suberecta oblongo-
pyrifbrmi annulata ; ciliis perist. intern, linearibus ciiiolis nullis ;
operculo hemisphtBrico-conico papillato.

" On walls at the Capitol," Loo Choo Islands.

17. Bartramia inserta (sp. nov.) : dioica, exigua, dense ca^spi-
tosa, luteo-viridis ; foliis suberectis lineari-lanceolatis attenuatis sparse
papillosis toto ambitu serratis marginibus recurvis, costa subpercur-
rente ; capsula erecta globosa sulcata gymnostoma ; operculo convexo
minute conico.

On damp vertical rocks among hills, near Simon's Town, Cape of
Good Hope.

18. Hypnum assurgens (sp. nov.) : dioicum, homophyllum ; caule
arcuato-assurgente subpinnato-ramuloso eparaphylloso ; foliis erecto-
incurvis apei-tis e basi lata cordato-ovata lineari-lanceolatis papillosis
apice serrulatis marginibus revolutis cellulis guttulatis opacis, costa
pellucida sub apice evanida ; capsula gibboso-pblonga cernua annulata ;
pedicello tuberculoso ; operculo longirostrato ; peristomio normali.

On decayed logs, shady hill-sides, Ousima, Loo Choo Islands.

19. Hypnum dispersum (sp. nov.) : monoicum ; caule prostrato
diviso pinnato-ramuloso paraphylloso ; foliis patentibus e basi late
ovata subito lanceolato-attenuatis serrulatis papillosis, costa (prsecipue
in pericha3tialibus) valida sub apice evanida ; capsula oblonga vel
cylindracea curvula ' horizontal! annulata ; operculo convexo-conico
obtuso.

On dry ground, shaded hill-sides, Simoda, Japan ; and Loo Choo.

20. Hypnum oblongifolium (sp. nov.) : monoicum, prostratum,
subpinnatum ; caulibus ramisque laxius compresso-foliosis ; foliis e basi
brevissima convoluto-angustata oblongis acutis apice serratis lineari-
areolatis ; capsula (an normali ?) gibboso-ovali inclinata ; operculo
convexo-conico apiculato ; peristomio hypnoideo.

Hong Kong, China.

280 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

21. HTPNU3I SiMODENSE (sp. nov.) : dioicum, vage et subpinnatim
ramosura ; foliis confertis concavis ovato-ellipticis subito longe filiformi-
acuminatis elongato-areolatis raargine recurvis, costa supra medium
evanescente ; capsula oblongo-ovali suboequali plagiostoma erectius-
cula ; operculo conico brevirostro ; peristomio H. Iceti.

Simoda, Japan.

22. Hypnum macrostegium (sp. nov.) : dioicum ; subfastigiato-
ramosura ; foliis confertis e basi oblongo-ovata sensim longe acuminatis
plicato-striatis serratis elongato-areolatis margine basilar! recurvis,
costa subpercurrente ; capsula cylindraceo-ovali erecta annulata ; int.
perist. ciliolis subnullis ; operculo conico longe rostrato.

Steep banks, among bills, near Simoda, Japan.

23. Hypnum flaccidum (sp. nov.) : monoicum, prostratum, sub-
pinnatim^ ramosum, laxe foliosum ; foliis subbifariis horizontalibus
ovato-lanceolatis sensim filiformi-acuminatis ecostatis integerrimis lax-
issime oblongo-areolatis ; capsula oblonga vix curvula longicolla hori-
zontali ; operculo breviconico obtusato.

On banks, shaded hill-sides, Simoda, Japan.

24. Hypnum spinulosum (sp. nov.) : monoicum, irregulariter sub-
pinnatimve ramosum, arctius deplanato-foliosum ; foliis divergentibus
ovato-lanceolatis setiformi-attenuatis ecostatis toto ambitu serratis den-
sius elongato-areolatis ; capsula obovato-oblonga basi attenuata curvula
horizontali.

Simoda, Japan.

25. Hypnum thelidictyon (sp. nov.) : monoicum, vage subfasti-
giato-raraosum ; caulibus ramisque assurgentibus compressis ; foliis
laxis e basi constricta oblongis sensim longius acuminatis concavis
ecostatis toto margine serratis, cellulis elongatis grosse unipapillatis,
alaribus utrinque 3 — 4 amplissimis vesiculiformibus ; capsula minuta in
pedicello laevi oblonga subpendula; operculo longissime aciculari-
rostrato.

Hill-sides, Ousima : rocks in ravines. Hong Kong, China.

26. Hypnum POHLiiECARPUM (sp. nov.) : dioicum, prostratum, parce
ramosura ; foliis bifariam complanatis ovato-lanceolatis brevius recte
vel oblique acuminatis apice grosse serratis, cellulis linearibus, costellis
binis brevissimis ; capsula cylindracea longicolla vix incurva subpen-
dula ; operculo conico brevirostrato.

On steep shaded banks, Simoda, Japan.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 281

27. Htpnum erectiusculum (sp. nov.) : dioicum, subprostratum ;
caule vage diviso ramuloso compi'esso ; foliis deorsum falcatis late
ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis apice serrulatis dense lineari-areolatis,
costellis subnullis ; capsula gracili cylindracea erectiuscula annulata ;
operculo conico obtuso.

Hakodadi, Japan.

28. Htpnum Rodgersianum (sp. nov.) : dioicum, majusculum ;
caule assurgente simplici vel semel diviso regulariter pinnato-ramuloso ;
foliis oblongo-lanceolatis acuminatis deorsum falcatis serrulatis ecostatis
tenui-areolatis ; capsula oblonga breviuscula turgida gibboso-incurva,
sicca estriata ; operculo obtuse conico.

On the ground, shady mountain sides, Katonasiraa, between the
proper Loo Choo group and Japan.

29. Htpnum eximium (sp. nov.) : monoicum, exiguum, prostratum,
pinnato-ramulosum ; foliis laxis bifariis oblongis ovato-oblongisve acutis
ecostatis superne serratis laxius elongato-areolatis ; capsula gibboso-
oblonga turgida incurva subhorizontali annulata ; operculo convexo-
conico.

On decayed wood, mountain-sides, Bonin Islands.

30. Htpnum subalbidum (sp. nov.) : monoicum, exiguum, pros-
tratum, vage subpinnatim ramulosum ; foliis compressis divergentibus
oblongo-lanceolatis tenuiter acuminatis integerrimis ecostatis lineari-
areolatis ; capsula subovali vix curvula horizontali exannulata ; oper-
culo conico brevirostrato.

On damp decayed wood, Simoda, Japan ; also Bonin Islands.

31. Htpnum Smallii (sp. nov.) : dioicum, exiguum ; caule pros-
trato subpinnatim ramuloso ; foliis subcompresse imbricatis erecto-
patentibus lanceolatis longe acuminatis ecostatis obsolete serrulatis,
cellulis compactis angustissimis ; capsula elongato-elliptico-oblonga hori-
zontali pendulave ; operculo conico rostrato.

On decayed logs, shaded hill-sides, Ousima ; also Bonin Islands.

32. Htpnum Ometepense (sp. nov.) : monoicum, laxe csespitosum ;
caule tenui repente ; ramis arcuato-erectis fasciculato-ramulosis ; foliis
lanceolatis acuminatis patentibus superne serratis, cellulis linearibus,
costellis binis brevissimis ; capsula in pedicello elongate obovato-oblonga
macrostoma subpendula ; operculo e basi conica tenuiter brevi-rostrato.

On bushes, summit of a mountain on the Island of Ometepe, in
Lake Nicaragua.

VOL. IV. 36

282 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

33. HOOKERIA Wrightii (sp, nov.) : dioicum, majusculum, pros-
tratura, dense pinnatim ramulosum, subcompresse foliosum ; foliis
oblongo-ovalibus subito in acumen longum tenue flexuosum productis,
marginibus infra acumen convolutis, cellulis angustissime linearibus,
costis binis ad medium evanidis ; capsula oblonga ingequali macrostoma
inclinata ; peristomio normali eciliolato ; operculo convexo-conico recte
rostrato ; calyptra e basi mitriformi multifida longe rostrata.

Growing with Hypniim Ometepense.

The following paper was also presented through the Corre-
sponding Secretary.

A Synonymic List of the Echinodermata of the Palaeozoic
Rocks of North America. By S. S. Lyon and S. A.

Casseday.

In devoting the leisure hours of the last few months to the study of
the Crinoidea of Kentucky and other of the principal Western States,
we found, at the very outset, that the principal difficulty attending such
researches was the entire absence of any concise summary of the
labors of American paheontologists among this interesting family of
fossil remains. In order to supply this deficiency, the following syno-
nymic list was formed for our private use ; but, hoping it might aid
others engaged in similar studies, it was determined to offer it for pub-
lication. It embraces only the Crinoidea of the Palteozoic Rocks ; as
our acquaintance with those of the newer systems is necessarily exceed-
ingly limited, owing to their imperfect development in the States to
which reference has been made above. Besides, the rocks above the
Permian afford comparatively few species of these organisms.

It was at first intended to divide the subcarboniferous into upper
and lower ; but the imperfect knowledge of the stratigraphy of the
Western rocks precludes the feasibility of such a division.

These labors have been retarded, and possibly left imperfect, on ac-
count of the few facilities within our reach. Unable to command an
extensive collection of authorities, we have been forced to gather here
and there, in private libraries, the required information.

Some of the species recognized in the table were evidently founded
upon mere fragments, which, however interesting in themselves, are
wholly insufficient for characterizing species. They are enumerated,
however, in order that the table may be as complete as the materials
within reach would allow.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 283

List of PalcEozoic Echinodermata of North America.

ACROCRINUS, Yandell, Sill. Jour., 1855, Vol. 20, p. 135.

A. Shumardi, Yandell, Sill. Jour., 1855, Vol. 20, p. 135, with wood-
cut. Suhcarboniferoiis. Archimedes limestone.

A. URN^FORMis, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 690, PL 25, fig. 9, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

ACTINOCRINUS, Miller, 1821.

A. ABNORMis, Lyon, Geol. Survey of Kentucky, Vol. 3, p. 479, PI.
4, fig. 1, a, b. Devonian. Beargrass Creek, Kentucky.

A. iEQUALis, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 592, PI. 11, fig. 4, a, b. Sub-
carboniferous. Bui'lington limestone. •

A. BiTURBiNATUs, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 616, PI. 16, fig. 5, 6, a, b, c.
Subcarboniferous. Keokuk limestone.

A. BREVicoRNis, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 571, PI. 10, fig. 4, a, b.
Subcarboniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. BREVis, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 567, PI. 10, fig. 3, a, b. Subcar-
boniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. c^LATUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 585, PI. 10, fig. 14, a, b. Sub-
carboniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. Chrystti, Shumard, Geol. Survey of Missouri, Part 2, p. 191,
PL A, fig. 3. Subcarboniferous. Actinocrinites, Chrysty,
Letters on Geology, PL 1, fig. 1, 2. Encrinital limestone.

A. CONCINNUS, Shumard, GeoL Survey of Missouri, Part 2, p. 189,
PL A, fig. 5. Subcarboniferous. Encrinital limestone.

A. CORNICULUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 566, PL 10, fig. 1, a-c.
Subcarboniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. CORNIGERUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 576, PL 9, fig. 12, a-c.
Subcarboniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. DiscoiDEUS, Hall, Iowa, VoL 1, p. 594, non Jcon. Subcarbon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

A. (Bato) eikosiadacttlus, Casseday, Zeitschrift der Deutschen
GeoL Gesell. Berlin, 1854, p. 238, PL 2, fig. 1, a-c, 3.
Subcarboniferous. Spurgen Hill, Iowa, in the Archimedes
limestone.

A. GouLDi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 613, PL 15, fig. 6, a, b. Subcar-
boniferous. Keokuk limestone.

284 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A. (Bato) irregularis, Casseday, Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Geol. Gesell., p. 240, PI. 2, fig. 2, a - c. Subcarboniferous.
Spurgen Hill, Iowa.

A. KoNiNCKi, Shiimard, Geol. Survey of Missouri, Part 2, p. 194,
PI. A, fig. 8, a — c. Subcarboniferous. Encrinital limestone.

A. LONGiROSTRis, Hall, Vol. 1, p. 589, PL 2, fig. 2, a, b, 4, c, d.
Subcarboniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. LowEi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 611, PI. 15, fig. 5, a, b. Subcar-
boniferous. Keokuk limestone.

A. MINOR, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 573, non icon. Subcarboniferous.
Burlington limestone.

A. MissouRiENSis, B. F. Shumard, Geol. of Missouri, Part 2,
p. 190, PI. A, fig. 4, a-c. Subcarboniferous. Encrinital
limestone.

A. MULTiRADiATUS, B. F. Shumard, Trans, Acad. Sci. St. Louis,
1857 - 8, Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 75, PL 1, fig. 5. A. multiradiatus,
Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 579, PL 10, fig. 9. Subcarboniferous.
Burlington limestone.

A. MULTiBRACHiATUS, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 580, PL 10, fig. 10.
Suhcarboniferoiis. Burlington limestone.

A. (DoRTCRiNUs) MississiPPiENSis, Roemer, Ai'chiv fur natur-
geschichte. Von Troschel, Jahrgang XIX., Bd. 1, 1853. Sub-
carboniferous. His genus was based merely upon the re-
markably long thorns which protrude from the upper surface.

A. Nashvilli^, Hall, Iowa, Vol, 1, p. 609, PL 15, fig, 4; PL 16,
fig. 4, a, b ; Troost, Monograph, MSS, Subcarboniferous.
Keokuk limestone ; White's Creek, Tennessee.

A. ORNATUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 583, PL 10, fig. 12, Subcar-
boniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. PARVUS, B, F, Shumard, Geol. Survey of Missouri, Part 2,
p. 193, PL A, fig. 9, Subcarboniferous. St. Louis limestone.

A. PENTAGONUS, Hall, lowa, VoL 1, p. 579, PL 10, fig. 6, a, b.
Subcarboniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. PERNODOSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, pp. 608, 617. PL 15, fig. 3, a,
b ; PL 16, fig. 7. Subcarboniferous. An adult specimen of
A. verrucosus, Hall,

A. PERNODOSUS, var,. Hall, Iowa, Vol, 1, p. 617, PL 16, fig, 7,
Subcarboniferous. Keokuk limestone.

A, PLUMOSUS, Vide Glyptocrinus plumosus.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 285

A. PROBOSciDALis, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 584, PI. 10, fig. 13.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. PTRAMiDATUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 565, non icon. Suhcar-
boniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. PYRiFORMis, B. F. Shumard, Geol. Survey of Missouri, Part
2, p. 192, PI. A, fig. 6, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Encrinital
limestone.

A. RAMULOSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 615, PI. 15, fig. 7. Suhcar-
honiferous. Keokuk limestone.

A. ROTUNDUS, Yandell and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Missouri,
Part 2, p. 191, PI. A, fig. 2, a, b. See Chrysty, Letters,
PI. 1, fig. 3, 4. Suhcarhoniferous. Encrinital limestone.

A. SCULPTUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 582, PI. 10, fig. 11, a, b. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. SUBACULEATUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 570, PI. 10, fig. 2, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. SUPERLATUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 572, non icon. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

A. sTMMETRicus, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 574, PI. 10, fig. 8, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. TENUIRADIATUS, Hall, Palteont. of New York, Vol. 1, p. 18, PI.
4, fig. 8, 9. Silurian. This is Palceocystites tenuiradiatas.

A. TRICORNIS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 569, non icon. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

A. TRiNODUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 575, non icon. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

A. TURBiNATUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 587, PI. 11, fig. 1. Suhcar-
honiferous. Burlington limestone.

A. TURBINATUS, var. ELEGANS, p. 588, PL 11, fig. 5. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

A. UMBROSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 590, PI. 11, fig. 3, a, b. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. UNICORNIS, Owen and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Minnesota, 1852, p. 593, PL 5, A, fig. 12, a, b.
A. unicornis, Hall, Iowa, p. 568. Suhcarhoniferous. Bur-
lington limestone.

A. VENTRicosus, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 595, PL 11, fig. 6, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

286 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A. VERRUCOSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 578, PI. 10, fig. 7, a, b. Sub-
carboniferous. Probably a younger specimen of A.pernodosus.

A. Verneuilianus, B. F. Shumard, Geol. Survey of Missouri,
Part 2, p. 193, PI. A, fig. 1, a, b. Subcarboniferous. En-
crinital limestone.

A. Yandelli, B. F. Shumard, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 1857,
Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 76. Actinocrinites, Yandell and Shumard,
Contributions, p. 24, fig. 5, a, b. Subcarboniferous. Button-
Mould Knob, Kentucky.

AGARICOCRINITES, Troost, MSS. (Sub-genus of Actinocrinus,
Hall, 1858.)

A. BULLATUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 562, PI. 9, fig. 11, a, b. Sub-
carboniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. STELLATUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 564. Subcarboniferous.
Burlington limestone.

A. TUBEROsus, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 617, PI. 16, fig. 2, a, b, c.
A. tuberosus, Troost, MSS., Cat. Amphoracrinus Atneri-
canus? Rocmer, in Bronn, Lethea, Vol. 11, p. 50, PI. 4, fig.
15, a, b. Subcarboniferous. Keokuk limestone ; Warsaw
limestone, White's Creek, Tennessee.

A. Whitfieldi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 621. Subcarboniferous.
Keokuk limestone.

A. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 619, PI. 16, fig. 1. Subcar-
boniferous. Keokuk and Warsaw limestone.

AGASSIZOCRINUS, Troost, MSS.; Hall, 185.8, Iowa, Vol. 1,
p. 684.

A. CONICUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 687. Astylocrinus Icevis, F.
Roemer, See Owen and Shumard, Rep. Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Missouri, p. 597, PI. 5, fig. 6. Subcarboniferous. This fossil
has a wide range : it extends from Iowa to Tennessee.

A. CONSTRICTUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 687, PI. 25, fig. 10. Sub-
carboniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

A. DACTYLiFORMis, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 685 ; Troost, MSS. ; Shu-
mard, Red River of Louisiana, p. 199. Subcarboniferous.
Kaskaskia limestone.

A. GIBBOSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 686, PI. 25, fig. 6, and 6, b.
Subcarboniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 287

AGELACRINUS, Vanuxem, 1842.

A. DiCKSONi, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palaeont., Dec. III.

p. 84, PI. 8, fig. 3, 3 a, 4, 4 a. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
A. Habiiltonensis, Vanuxem, Geol. 3d Dist. New York, p. 306,

158. Devonian. Hamilton group.
A. Kaskaskiensis, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 696, PI. 25, fig. 18.

Suhcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

AMYGDALOCYSTITES, Billings, 1854.

A. FLOREALis, BiUings, Canadian Journal, Vol. 2, p. 270 ; Survey
Eeport, 1856, p. 289 ; Palaeontology, Dec. III. p. 63, PI. 6,
fig. 1, a — e. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

A. TENUiSTRiATUS, Rep. Geol. Survey of Canada, 1857, p. 289;
Canad. Journ. Vol. 2, p. 271 ; Palaeont., Dec. III. p. 64,
PI. 6, fig. 2 a, 2 b. Silurian. Lower Silurian.

A. RADiATUS, Rep. Geol. Survey of Canada, 1857, p. 289; Canad.
Journ., Vol. 2, p. 271 ; Palaeont., Dec. III. p. %b, PI. 6, fig.
3, a, b. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

APIOCYSTITES, Forbes, 1848.

A. ELEGANS, Hall, Nat. Hist, of New Y'ork, Palaeontology, Vol. 2,
p. 243, PI. 51, fig. 1 - 17. Compare A. pentremoides, Forbes,
Mem. Geol. Soc. of Great Britain, 1848, Vol. 2, Part. 2,
p. 502, PI. 45. Silurian. Niagara group.

ARCHEOCIDARIS, McCoy. Echinocrinus, Volborth, 1832.
Pal^ocidaris, Desor.

A. ACULEATUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, Vol. 1, No. 2,
1858, p. 223. Coal measures.

A. Agassizi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 698, PI. 26, fig. 1, a-d. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

A. BIANGULATUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, Vol. 1, Part 2,
p. 224. Middle coal measures.

A. Keokuki, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 699, PI. 26, fig. 2, a, b. Suhcar-
honiferous. Keokuk limestone.

A. MEGASTYLUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, Vol. 1, Part
2, p. 225. Upper coal measures.

A. NoRWOODi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 701, PI. 26, fig. 5, a-e.
Suhcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

A. Shumardiana, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 699, PI. 26, fig. 3, a - d,
Suhcarhoniferous. "Warsaw limestone.

288 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A. Vermiliaxa, King, Per. Foss., PL G, figs. 22-24; Swallow
and Hahn, Trans. Acad. Nat. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. 1, No. 2,
p. 180. In the Permian rocks of" Kansas.

A. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 700, PI. 26, fig. 4, a-g.
Stihcarboniferous. St. Louis limestone.

ASTERIAS, Linnaeus, 1748.

A. ANTiQTTA, Troost, Trans. Geol. Soc. of Pennsylvania, Vol. 1,
p. 232, PI. 10, fig. 9 ; 5th Rep. Geol. Tennessee, p. 58 : non
Hist. Sueci, p. 89, t. 26, f. 6. Silurian. Mountain lime-
stone.

A. ANTiQUATA, Prof. Locke, Proceed. Acad. Philad., Vol. 1, p. 32.
Silurian. Cincinnati, Ohio.

A. MATDTiNA, Hall, Palffiont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 91, PI. 29, fig.
5, a, b. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

A. Sp. indet.. Hall, Pateont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 18, PI. 4, fig. 11,
a, b. Silurian. Chazy limestone.

A. Sp. indet., G. Graham, J. G. Anthony, and U. P. James, Sill.
Jour., 2d Series, Vol. 1, p. 441, with wood-cut. Silurian.
Cincinnati, Ohio.

ASTEROCRINUS. J^ide Plerotocrinus.

ASTYLOCRINUS. Vide Agassizocrinus.

ASTROCRINITES, Conrad (non Austin).

A. PACHTDACTYLUS, Courad, in Mather, Geol. New York, p. 346,
347 ; Sill. Jour., 1st Series, Vol. 27, p. ZQ>o. Silurian.
Pentamerus limestone.

ATELEOCYSTITES, Billings, 1858, Geol. Survey of Canada,
Palaeont., Dec. III. p. 72. Silurian. Lower Silurian.
A. HuxLEYi, Billings, Palaeont., Dec. HI. p. 72. Silurian. Trenton
limestone.

BATOCRINUS. Vide Actinocrinus.

CARYOCRINUS, Say, 1825, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., IV. 9.
C. ORNATUS, Hall, Palaeont. New York, Vol. 2, PI. A, 41, fig. 1,
PI. 49, fig. 1, a - z, PI. 49 A, fig. 1, a - d. Von Buch, Uber
Cystideon, Taf. 1, fig. 1 - 7. Silurian. Niagara Group.

CLOSTEROCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

C. ELONGATUS, Hall, Palojont. New York, Vol. 2, p. 179, PI. A, 41,
fig. 2, a - f. Silurian. Clinton Group.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 289

COD ASTER, McCoy.

C. ALTERNATUS, Lyon, Gcol. Survey of Kentucky, Vol. 3, p. 493,

PL 3, fig. 3, a, b. Devonian. Beargrass Creek, Ky.
C. Americanus, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, 1858, Vol. 1,

No. 2, p. 239. Devonian. Falls of the Ohio.
C. Kentdckiensis, Shumard, 1. c. PL 9, fig. 5. Suhcarhoniferous.

See Pentremites Kentuckieusis.
C. PYRAMID ATUS, Shumard, L c. p. 238, PL 9, fig. 1, a- e. Devo-

nian. Beargrass Creek and Falls of the Ohio.

COMAROCYSTITES, Billings, 1854, Geol. Survey of Canada,
Palasont., Dec. III. p. Gl. Canad. Journ. Vol. 2, p. 269.
GeoL Survey Rep., 1856, p. 288.
C. PTJNCTATUS, Billings, 1. c. PI. 5. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

CYATHOCRINUS, Miller, 1821.

C. BDLLATUS, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 624, PL 28, fig. 1, a. Suh-
carhoniferous. Keokuk limestone.

C. COKNUTUS, Owen and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 591, PL 5 A, fig. 8, a, b. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington, Iowa.

C. DivARiCATUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 554, PL 9, fig. 5. Suhcar-
honiferous. Burlington limestone.

C. (?) FLOREALis, Yandell and Shumard, Contributions, p. 24, PL 1,
fig. 1. Suhcarhoniferous. Greyson Co., Kentucky.

C. GRAULIFERUS, Shumard, Red River, p. 199. Suhcarhoniferous.

C. iNTERMEDius, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 627, PL 28, fig. 10. Suh-
carhoniferous. Keokuk limestone.

C. lowENSis, Owen and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 591, PL 5 A, fig. 11, a-c. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington, Iowa.

C. MAGisTER, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 628, PL 28, fig. 2, a, b, 3, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Keokuk limestone.

C. MALVACEUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 554, PL 9, fig. 4, a, b. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

C. (?) 31 ANiFORMis, Yandell and Shumard, Contributions, p. 25, fig. 2.
Suhcarhoniferous. Greyson Co., Kentucky.

C. PENTALOBUS, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 687, PL 25, fig. 5, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.
VOL. IV. 37

290 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

C. PROTUBERANS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 626, PI. 28, fig. 9. Suh-
carhoniferous. Keokuk limestone.

C. PTRiFORMis, Sill. Journ., 1st Series, Vol. 48, p. 314. Silurian.
Lockport, New York.

C. RAMOSUS, (?) King, Perm. Fossils, PI. 6, fig. 15-21. Swallow
and Hahn, Rocks of Kansas, 1858, in Trans. Acad. St.
Louis, p. 186. Permian rocks of Kansas.

C. ROTUNDATUS, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 555, PI. 9, fig. 7, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

C. SPURius, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 625, PI. 28, fig. 78. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Keokuk limestone.

C. STELLATUS, Hall, 1. c. p. 623, PI. 16, fig. 3, 8. Troost, Monogi-.
and Proceedings. Suhcarhoniferous. Keokuk limestone.

C. TUMiDUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 624, PI. 18, fig. 1, b, c. Suh-
carhoniferous. Keokuk limestone.

CYCLOCYSTOIDES, Billings and Salter, 1858. Silurian. From
the lower and middle Silurian rocks of Canada.
C. Davisi (Salter), Billings, Geo!. Survey of Canada, Palaeont.,
Dec. III. p. 89. Silurian.

C. Halli, Billings and Salter, Geol." Survey of Canada, Palaeont.,

Dec. III. p. 86. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

DENDROCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

D. LONGiDACTYLTJS, Hall, Palajont. New York, Vol. 2, p. 193, PI.

43, fig. 1, a-k; PL, 42, fig. 7, a, b. Silurian. Niagara
group.

DICHOCRINUS, Munster, 1839,

D. CORNIGERUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, Vol. 1, No. 1,
p. 72, PI. 1, fig. 1, a - d. Suhcarhoniferous. Buzzard Roost,
Alabama.

D. OVATUS, Owen and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa,
and Minnesota, p. 590, PI. 5 A, fig. 9, a, b. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Burlington, Iowa.

D. PROTUBERANS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 689, PI. 25, fig. 7. Suh-
carhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

D. SEXLOBATUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, 1857, Vol. 1,
No. 1, p. 73, PI. 1, fig. 3, a-c. Suhcarhoniferous. Archi-
medes limestone.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 291

D. SIMPLEX, Shuraard, 1. c. p. 74, PI. 1, fig. 2, a, b. Hall, Iowa,
Vol. 1, p. 654, PI. 22, fig. 12, a, b. Siibcarboniferous. Archi-
medes limestone, Warsaw limestone.

D. STRiATDS, Owen and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 590, PI. 5 A, fig. 10, a, b. Suh-
carboniferoiis. Burlington, Iowa.

DOLATOCRINUS, Lyon, 1857.

D. LACUS, Lyon, Geol. Survey of Ken., Vol. 3, p. 482, PI. 4, fig. 2,

a - c. Devonian. Beargrass Creek ; Falls of the Ohio.

DORYCRINUS. Vide Actinocrinus.

ECHINOENCRINITES, ll. von Meyer, 1826.

E. ANATiFORMis, Hall, Pala3ont. New York, Vol. 1, p. 89, PI. 29,

fig. 4, a- f. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

ECHINOSPHERITES, Wahlenberg, 182L

E. ? Hall, in Foster and Whitney's Rep. Superior, Part 11.

p. 208, PI. 25, fig. 3, a, b. Silurian.

EDRIOASTER, Billings, 1858. Cyclaster, Geol. Survey of Can-
ada, Rep. 1856, p. 292.
E. BiGSBYi, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palteont., Dec. III.
p. 82. Cyclaster Bigshyi, Survey Rep. 1856, p. 293. Silu-
rian. Trenton limestone.

ELiECRINUS. F^We Nucleocrinus.

ELEUTHEROCRINUS, Yandell and Shumard, 1856.

E. Cassedayi, Y^'andell and Shumard, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phil., Vol. 8, p. 74, PI. 2, fig. 1-5. Devonian. Beargrass
Creek, near Louisville, Kentucky.

EUCALY^PTOCRINUS, Goldfuss (Agas.), 1834.

E. c^LATUS, Hall, Palajont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 210, PI. 47, fig.
4, a-e. Hypanthocrinites ccelatus, Hall, Geol. Rep. 4th
District, 1843, p. 113, fig. 1. Silurian. Niagara group.

E. DECORUS, Hall, Palajont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 207, PI. 47, fig.
l,2a-h, 3a-d. Hypanthocrinites decorus, Phillips, Mur-
chison, Sil. Syst., 1839, p. 672, PI. 17, fig. 3. H. decorus,
Hall, 1843, Geol. Rep. 4th Dist. N. York, p. 113, fig. 2, 3.
Compare H. coelatus ut supra. Silurian. Niagara group.

E. PAPULOSUS, Hall, Palajont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 211, PI. 47,
fig. 5, a, b. Silurian. Niagara group.

292 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

FORBESIOCRINUS, De Koninck and Lehon, 1854.

F. Agassizi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 630. Suhcarhoniferous.

•F. GiDDiNGSii, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 633, PI. 17, fig. 2-4. Sub-
carboniferous. Keokuk limestone (?).

F. Meeki, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 631, PI. 17, fig. 3. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Keokuk limestone.

F. Shumardianus, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 671, PL 17, fig. 1. Suh-
carhoniferous. St. Louis limestone.

F. Whitfieldi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 632. Suhcarhoniferous.
Keokuk limestone.

F. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p^ 632, PI. 17, fig. 5. Suhcar-

honiferous. Keokuk limestone.

GLYPTOGRINUS, Hall, 1852.

G. DECODACTYLUS, Hall, PaliKont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 281, PI. 77,

fig. 1 ; PI. 78, fig. 1. Silurian. Hudson River group.

G. • FiMBRiATUS, Shumard, Geol. Surv. Missouri, Pt. 2, 1855, p. 194,
PI. A, fig. 8, a - c. Silurian. Cape Girardeau limestone.

G. PLUMOSUS, Hall, Palfeont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 180, PI. A, 41,
fig. 3, a — g. Actinocrinus phimosus. Silurian. This spe-
cies is made out entirely from the fingers and tentacula.

G. ? Hall, Palaiont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 181, PI. A, 41,

fig. 4. Silurian. Clinton group.

GLYPTOCYSTITES, Billings, 1854, Canadian Journ., Vol. 2, p. 215.
G. MULTiPORUS, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palajont., Dec. III. p.

54, PI. 3 ; Canad. Journ., Vol. 2, p. 215; Rep. 1856, p. 281.

Silurian. Lower Silurian. *
G. LoGANi, Geol. Surv. Canada, Palfeont., Dec. III. p. 59, PI. 4,

fig. 1, a-h. Rep. 1856, p. 282. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
G. LoGANi var. gracilis, I. c. p. 59, PI. 4, fig. 2. Silurian.

Trenton limestone.
G. FoRBESi, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palasont., Dec. III. p. 59,

PI. 4, fig. 3. Silurian. Chazy limestone.

GLYPTORASTER, Hall, 1852.

G. BRACHiATDS, Hall, Paloiont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 187, PI. 41,
fig. 3, a, b. Silurian. Niagara group.

GONIASTER, Agassiz, 1834.

G. sp. indet., Graham, Anthony, and James, Sill. Journ., 2d Series,
Vol. 1, p. 441. Silurian. Cincinnati, Ohio.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. " 293

GRAPHIOCRINUS, De Koninck and Lehon, 1854.

G. 14-BRACHiALis, Lyoii, Geol. Survey of Kentucky, Vol. Ill, p.
477, PI. 1, fig. 1, 2 a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Near base of
Millstone Grit, Crittenden Co., Kentucky.

HEMICYSTITES, Hall, 1852.

H. PARASITICA, Hall, Paloeont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 246, PI. 51,
fig. 18, 19, 20, 20'. Silurian. Niagara group.

HETEROCYSTITES, Hall, 1852.

H. ARMATus, Hall, PalfBont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 229, PI. 49, A,
fig. 3, a - c. Silurian. Niagara group.

HETEROCRINUS, Hall, 1847.

H. (?) GRACILIS, Hall, Palceont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 280, PI. 76,

fig. 3, a, b. Silurian. Hudson River group.
H. HETERODACTTLUS, Hall, Palseont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 279, PL

76, fig. 1, a-o. Silurian. Hudson River group.
H. SIMPLEX, Hall, PaliBont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 280, PI. 76, fig. 2,

a — d. Silurian. Hudson River grovip.

HOMOCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

H. CYLiNDRicus, Hall, PalfEont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 186, PI. 41,

fig. 2, a - c, 3, a - c. Silurian. Niagara group.
H. PARVUS, Hall, PalfEont. New York, Vol. 2, p. 185, PL 41, fig.

1, a-f. Silurian. Niagara group.
H. POLYDACTTLUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, VoL 1, No.

1, p. 78, PL 1, fig. 6, a, b. Cyathocrinites, Chrysty's Letters,

PL 1, fig. 7, PL 3, fig. 1. Silurian. Hudson River group,

Richmond, Indiana.

ICHTHYOCRINUS, Conrad, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. 8,
p. 279.

I. BuRLiNGTONENSis, Hall, lowa, Vol. 2, p. 557, with diagram.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

I. (?) Clintonensis, Hall, Palteont. New York, VoL 2, p. 181, PL
A, 41, fig. 5. Silurian. This species is predicated upon
• fragments of the arms alone.

I. LJEVis, Conrad, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., VoL 8, p. 279, PL
15, fig. 16. I. Icevis, Hall, Palajont. N. Y^ork, VoL 2, p. 196,
PL 43, fig. 2, a- h. Silurian. Niagara group.

I. TiAR^FORMis, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 558, with diagram. Suh-
carhoniferous. White's Creek, Tennessee.

294 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

LECANOCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

L, CALicuLUS, Hall, Palceont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 203, PI. 46,

fig. 3, a, b. Silurian. Niagara group.
L. MACROPETALUS, Hall, Paljeont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 199, PI. 45,

fig. l,a-h. Silurian. Niagara group.
L. ORNATUS, Hall, Palfcont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 201, PI. 44, fig. 2,

a - m. Silurian, Niagara group.
L. SIMPLEX, Hall, Palieont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 202, PI. 46, fig. 2,

a - e. Silurian. Niagara group.

LEPOCRINITES, Mather, 1830.

L. Gebhardi, Mather, Geol. N. York, p. 347. Silurian. Pen-
tamerus limestone.

LYRIOCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

L. DACTYLus, Hall, PaliEont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 197, PL 44, fig. 1,
a — g. Marsupiocrinites dactylus, Hall, Geol. Rep. 4th Dist.,
p. 114, fig. 4, p. 113, 1843. Silurian. Niagara group.

MACROSTYLOCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

M. ORNATUS, Hall, Pala^ont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 201, PI. 46, fig. 4,
a - g. Silurian. Niagara group.

MALOCYSTITES, BilHngs, 1858.

M. Bawandi, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palaiont., Dec.

III. p. 66, PI. 7, fig. 1, a - i. Silurian. Chazy limestone.
M. Mdrchisoni, Billings, 1. c. p. 67, PI. 7, fig. 2, a - c. Silurian.
Chazy limestone.

MARSUPIOCRINITES. Vide Lyriocrinus.

MEGISTOCRINUS, Owen and Shumard, 1852. Hall, Iowa, Vol. 2,
p. 479, makes it a subgenus of Actinocrinus. "We doubt if
it is a subcarboniferous fossil.

M. EvANSi, Owen and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
Vol. 2, Part 1, p. 68 ; Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Minnesota, 1852, p. 594, PI. 5 A, fig. 3, a, b. Subcarbon-
iferous (?).

M. LATUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 480, PI. 1, fig. 1, a, b. Devonian.
Hamilton group.

MELOCRINITES, Goldfuss (Agas.), 1834.

M. scuLPTus, Hall, Pateont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 228, PI. 49 A,
fig. 2, a- d. Silurian. Niagara group.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 295

MELONITES, Owen and Norwood, 1846.

M. MULTiPORA, Owen and Norwood, Sill. Journ., 2d Series, Vol.

II, p. 225, with figure. Remarks on same, Engelmann in
Vol. 3, p. 124. Sicbcarhoniferous. St. Louis Limestone.
This fossil has since been restored to Palcechinus multipora.

MYELODACTYLUS, Hall, 1852.

M. BRACHiATUs, Hall, Palojont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 232, PI. 45,

fig. 7, a — e. Silurian. Fragments of arms.
M. CONVOLUTUS, Hall, Palseont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 192, PL 42,
fig. 5 a, b, 6 a - h. Silurian. Niagara group.

NUCLEOCRINUS, Conrad, 1842. Olivanites, Troost's List in
Proceed. Amer. Assoc. 1849. El^acrinus, Roemer, 1852.

N. ELEGANS, Conrad, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. 8, Part 2,
p. 235. Devonian. Hamilton group.

N. Halli, Conrad, Geol. 3d Dist. New York, p. 163. Devonian.
Hamilton group.

N. Verneuili, Troost, List and Proceedings. Pentremites Ver-
neuili, 6th Rep. Tennessee, 1841. Beadle (D'Orb.), Prodrom,
1, p. 102. Elceacrinus Verneuili, Roemer, Monograph,
Blastoid. 1852, p. 59, PI. 5, fig. 1, a - e. Olivanites Verneuili,
Lyon, Geol. Survey of Kentucky, Vol. 3, p. 490. Devonian.
Falls of the Ohio ; Beargrass Creek.

N. AFGULARis, Lyon, Geol. Survey of Kentucky, Vol. 3, p. 492,
PI. 5, fig. 2, a, b. Devonian. Beargrass Creek.

PAL^ASTER, Hall, 1852.

P. Niagarensis, Hall, Paljeont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 247, PI. 51,
fig. 21, 22, 23. Siluria7i. Niagara group.

PAL^OCIDARIS. Vide Archeocidaris.

PAL^OCYSTITES, Billings, 1858, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palse-
ont., Dec. HL p. 68.
P. Chapmani, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palteont., Dec.

III. p. 71. Silurian. Lower vSilurian rocks of the age of
the Trenton and Chazy limestones and Hudson River group.

P. Daws ONI, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palaeont., Dec.
III. p. 70. Silurian. Chazy limestone.

P. TENUiRADiATUS, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1. c. p. 69.
Actinocrinus tenuiradiatus. Hall, Palaeont. N. York, Vol. 1,
p. 18, PI. 4, fig. 8, 9. Silurian. Chazy limestone.

296 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

PALASTERINA, McCoy, 1851, British Foss., p. 59.

P. STELLATA, BilHngs, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palteont., Dec.
III. p. 76, PI. 9, fig. 1, a, 15. Geol. Rep. 1856, p. 290.
Silurian. Trenton limestone.
P. RUGOSA, Billings, 1. c. p. 77, PI. 9, fig. 2, a - e. Geol. Rep. 1856,
p. 291. Silurian. Hudson River group.

PENTREMITES, Say, 1820. Pentatremitites, Bronn, Index,
and European authors genei'ally.

P. BiPTRAMiDALis, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 607, PI. 15, fig. 2.
Suhcarboniferous. Keokuk limestone.

P. CERViNus, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 690, PI. 25, fig. 11, a, b. Suh-
carhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

P. Cherokeus, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 691, PI. 25, fig. 12, a, b;
P. Cherokeus, Troost, MSS. and Cat. P. sulcatus, Rcemer,
Monograph. Suhcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

P. CONOID eus. Hall, Trans. Albany Inst., Vol. 4 ; Hall, Iowa, Vol.
1, p. 655, PI. 22, fig. 8, 9, 10. Suhcarhoniferous. Warsaw
limestone.

P. CURTUS, Shumard, 1855, Geol. Survey of Missouri, Part 2, p.
187, PI. B, fig. 3, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Archimedes
limestone.

P. DECUSSATUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, 1858, Vol. 1,
No. 2, p. 242, PI. 9, fig. 6, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Button-
Mould Knob.

P. ELONGATUS, Shumard, 1855, Geol. Survey of Missouri, 2d Rep.
Part 2, p. 187, PI. B, fig. 4. Suhcarhoniferous. Encrinital
limestone.

P. FLOREALis, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. 4, No. 9 ;
Sowerby, Zool. Journ., Vol. 2, p. 311, PI. 2, fig. 2. ■Suhcar-
honiferous. See P. Godoni.

P. GLOBOSUS, Troost, MSS.; Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 695, PI. 25, fig.
17. Suhcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

P. Godoni. Kentuchj Asterial fossil, Parkinson, 1808, Org. Rem.,
Vol. 2, p. 235, PL 13, fig. 36, 37. Encrina Godoni, De
France, 1818, Diet. Sci. Nat., Tom. 14. Encrinites fiorealis,
Schlotheim, 1820, Pet. Got. Pentremites fiorealis. Say, 1822,
Sow. Zool. Journ., Vol. 2, p. 311, PI. 11, fig. 2; Troost,
Tr. Geol. Soc. Pennsylvania, Vol. 1, p. 224, PI. 10, fig. 8.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 297

Pentatremitites jlorealis, Roemer, 1852, Monogr. Blast., p. 33,
Taf. 1, fig. 1 - 4 ; Taf. 2, fig. 8. P. Godoni, Hall, Iowa, Vol.
1, p. 692, PI. 25, fig. 13, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia
limestone ; Chester, Illinois ; Mt. Sano, Alabama, &c.

P. Grosvenori, Shumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, Vol. 2, No. 2,
1858, p. 240, PI. 9, fig. 2, a - d. Suhcarhoniferous. Archi-
medes limestone.

P. GRANULATUS, Rcemer, 1852, Monogr. Blast., p. 43, Taf. 3, fig.
13. Granatocriniis cidariformis^ Troost, 1849, List and
Proceed., p. 62. Suhcarhoniferous. Allen Co., Kentucky.

P. (CoDASTER ?) Kentuckiensis, Shumard, Trans. Acad. Sci. St.
Louis, Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 239, PI. 9, fig. 5. Suhcarhoniferous.
Encrinital limestone.

P. KoNiNCKiANA, Hall, Trans. Albany Inst., Vol. 4, 1856 ; Hall,
Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 656, PI. 22, fig. 11, a -c. Suhcarhoniferous.
Archimedes limestone.

P. LANTERNiFORMis, Owcn and Shumard, 1850, Jour. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philad., Vol. 2, p. 66, PI. 7, fig. 15. P. ohliquatus,
Roemer, 1852, Monogr. Blast, p. 47, Taf. 3, fig. 11, a, b ;
Owen and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Iowa, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota, p. 592, PI. 5 A, fig. 15. Suhcarhoniferous.
Archimedes limestone.

P. LiNEATUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. Nat. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. 2,
No. 2, p. 241, PI. 9, fig. 3, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Encri-
nital limestone.

P. Melo, Owen and Shumard, 1850, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
New Series, Vol. 2, p. 65, PI. 7, fig. 14, a-c. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Encrinital limestone.

P. NoRWOODi, Owen and Shumard, 1. c. p. 64, PL 7, fig. 13, a-c.
Suhcarhoniferous. Encrinital limestone.

P. OVALIS, Say, Sill. Journ. 1st Series, Vol. 2, p. 36 (non Roemer).
Silurian. Lockport, New York.

P. OBESUS, Lyon, 1857, Geol. Survey of Kentucky, Vol. 3, p. 469,
PI. 2, fig. 1, a-d; Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 695, PI. 25, fig.
15. Suhcarhoniferous. Iowa, Illinois, and Kentucky.

P. PTRiFORMis, Say, 1822, Journ. Acad. Nat, Sci. Philad., Vol. 4, p.
294 ; Troost, Trans. Geol. Soc. Penn., Vol. 1, p. 288, PI.
10 ; Sowerby, Zool. Journ., Vol. 2, p. 315 ; Roemer, Monogr.
VOL. IV. 38'

298 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Blast., p. 84, Taf. 2, fig. 9, a -c; Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. G93,

PI. 25, fig. 1 6. Pentremites, n. sp., D. D. Owen, Sill. Journ.,

Vol. 43, 1824, p. 20, fig. 3. Suhcarboniferous. Kaskaskia

limestone, Iowa.
P. RcEMERi, Sliumard, 1855, 2d Rep. Geol. Missouri, Part 2, p.

186, PI. B, fig. 2, a- d. Devonian. Chemung group.
P. Reinwardtii, Troost, Trans. Geol. Soc. Penn., Vol. 1, p. 224,

PL X. Pentatremitites Reinwardtii, Roemer, 1852, Monogr.

Blast., p. 52, PI. 3, fig. 18, a-c. F. Roemer, Leonhard and

Bronn, Jahrb., 1848, p. 296. Silurian. Lower Helderberg

group.
P. Sati, Sliumard, 1855, 2d Rep. Geol. Survey of Missouri, Part

2, p. 185, PI. B, fig. 1, a— d. Svhcarhoniferous. Encrinital

limestone.
P. STELUFORMis, Owen and Sliumard, 1850, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philad., New Series, Vol. 2, p. 67, PI. 7, fig. 16, a, b ; Geol.

Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 593, PI. 5

A, fig. 16, a, b. Suhcarboniferous. Encrinital limestone.
P. SUBTRUNCATUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 485, PI. 1, fig. 3. Devo-
nian. Hamilton group.

P. SULCATUS, Roemer, 1852. Pentatremitites sulcatus, Monogr.
Blast., p. 34, Taf. 3, fig. 10, a-c. Suhcarboniferous. Ar-
chimedes limestone.

P. STJiMETRicus, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 694, PI. 25, fig. 14. Sub-
carboniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

P. TRUNCATA, Conrad, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. 1, p.
334. Suhcarboniferous.

P. Verneuili. See Ducleocrinus Verneuili.

P. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 606, PI. 15, fig. 1. Suhcar-
boniferous. Keokuk limestone.

PETRASTER, Billings, 1858, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palasont.,
Dec. III. p. 79. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
P. RiGiDUS, Billings, 1. c. p. 80, PI. 10, fig. 3. Palasterina rigidus,
Geol. Rep. 1856, p. 291. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

PLATYCRINUS, Miller, 1821.

P. Americanus, Owen and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philad., 2d Series, 1851, p. 89, PI. 11, fig. 1, a, b ; Geol.
Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 594, PI. 5

B, fig. 1, a, b. Subcarboniferoiis. Burlington limestone.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 299

P. BuRLiNGTONENSis, Owen and Shuraard, 1. c. Geol. Survey of
Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 589, PL 5 A, fig. 5.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. CANICULATUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 539. Suhcarhoniferous.
Burlington limestone.

P. CAVUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 527, PI. 8, fig. 1, a, b. Compare
P. corrugatus, Owen and Shumard, Geol. Survey of Iowa,
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, p. 589, PI. 5 A, fig. 2, a - d. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. CORRUGATUS, Owen and Shumard, 1. c. See P. cavus. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. DiscoiDEUS, Owen and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
New Series, Vol. 2 ; Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Minnesota, p. 581, PI. 5 A, fig. 1 ; Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 535,
PI. 8, fig. 8, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. EXSERTUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 539. Suhcarhoniferous. Bur-
lington limestone.

P.NODOBRACHIATUS, Hall, 1. c. p. 542, diagram. Suhcarhonifer-
ous. This may be the young of some known species.

P. NODULOSUS, Hall, 1. c. p. 541. Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington
limestone.

P. NUCLEiPORMis, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 540, diagram. Suhcar-
honiferous. Burlington limestone.

P. piLEiFORMis, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 529, PI. 8, fig. 3, a, b. Suh-
carhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. PLANUS, Owen and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
New Series, Vol. 2, 1851 ; Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa,
and Minnesota, p. 587, PI. 5 A, fig. 4 ; Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1,
p. 533, PI. 8, fig. 6, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington
limestone.

P. pcECiLLiFORMis, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 528, PI. 8, fig. 2, a, b.
Suhcarhoniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. Saffordi, Troost, MSS. ; Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 634, PI. 18,
fig. 5, 6. Suhcarhoniferous. Keokuk limestone.

P. Sar^, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 673, PI. 17, fig. 4. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Keokuk limestone.

P. SCULPTUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 536, PI. 8, fig. 2. Suhcarhon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

300 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

P. Shumardianus, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 532, PI. 8, fig. 5. Sub-
carboniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. SUBSPINOSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 536, PI. 8, fig. 9, 10. Sub-
carboniferoiis. Burlington limestone.

P. TUBEROSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 534, PI. 8, fig. 7, a, b. Sub-
carboniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. TRUNCATULUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 538, Diagram. Subcar-
boniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. TRUNCATUS, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 537, Diagram. Subcarbon-
, iferous. Burlington limestone.

P. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 530, PI. 8, fig. 4. Subcar-
boniferous. Bui'lington limestone.

P. Yandelli, Owen and Sliumard, Journ. Acad. Nat- Sci. Philad. ;
Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 587,
PI. 5 A, fig. 6, a, b. Subcarboniferous. Burlington, Iowa.

PLEUROCYSTITES, Billings, 1854, Canad. Journ., Vol. 2, p. 250 ;

Survey Rej). 1857, p. 284. Silurian. Lower Silurian.
» P. Anticostiensis, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palteont.,

Dec. III. p. 52, PI. 1, fig. 3. Silurian. Hudson River group.
P. ELEGANS, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palaeont., Dec. HI.

p. 51, PI. 2, fig. 2, a-d. Siluria7i. Trenton limestone.
P. EXORNATUS, BiUiugs, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palajont., Dec.

III. p. 52. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
P. FiLiTEXTUS, BiUings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palteont., Dec.

III. p. 50, PI. 2, fig. 1, a, b. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
P. ROBUSTUS, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palnaont., Dec.

III. p. 49, PI. 1, fig. 2, a. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
P. SQUAMOsus, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Pala^ont., Dec.

in. p. 49, PI. 1, fig. 1, a-d. Silurian. Trenton lime-
stone.

POTERIOCRINUS, Miller, 1821.

P. ALTERNATUS, Hall, PaL«ont. N. York, Vol. 1, 1847, p. 83, PI.
28, fig. 1, a - f. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

P. CALYCULUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 553, PL 9, fig. 6, a, c. Sub-
carboniferous. Burlington limestone.

P. GRACILIS, Hall, Palajont. N. York, Vol. 1, 1847, p. 84, PI. 28,
fig. 2, a - f. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 301

P. HEMisPHJERicus, Sliumard, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. 1,
No. 2, 1858, p. 221. Coal measures.

P. LONGiDACTTLUS, Sliumard (non Austin, Crin., PI. 11. Vide
P. Missouriensis. Snhcarhoniferous. St. Louis limestone.

P. Meekianus, Sliumard, Geological Survey of Missouri, Part 2,
p. 188, PL A, fig. 7, a, b. Snhcarhoniferous. Encrinital
limestone (?).

P. Missouriensis, Sliumard, Trans. Acad. St. Louis, 1857, Vol. 1,
No. 1, p. 80. P. longidactylus, Geol. Survey of Missouri,
p. 188, PI. B, fig. 5, a- c. Suhcarhoniferous. Sliumard pro-
poses P. 3fissouriensis instead of P. longidactylus (Austin),
which he had unwittingly appropriated.
* P. occiDENTALis, Owcn and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Pliilad., Vol. 2, 2d Series, 1851 ; Geol. Survey of Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Minnesota, p. 596, PL 5 B, fig. 5, a, b. Suhcar-
honiferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

P. RHOMBiFERUS, Owen and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philad., 1851 ; Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Min-
nesota, p. 595, PL 5 B, fig. 2, a - c. Suhcarhoniferous. Bui"-
lington limestone.

P. RUGOSUS, Shumard, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. 1, No. 2,
p. 223. Suhcarhoniferous. Coal measures.

P. SPINOSUS, Owen and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
2d Series, VoL 2, 1851 ; Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa,
and Minnesota, p. 596, PL 5 B, fig. 4. Suhcarhoniferous.
Chester, Illinois, in Kaskaskia limestone ; Greyson Co., Ken-
tucky.

P. TUMiDUS, Owen and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., 2d Series,
Vol. 2, 1851 ; Geol. Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Min-
nesota, p. 595, PL 5 B, fig. 3, a, b. Suhcarhoniferous. Kas-
kaskia limestone.

PTEROTOCRINUS, Lyon and Casseday, 1859.*

P. CAPiTALis. Asterocrinus capitalis, Lyon, Geological Survey of

* The name Asterocrinus was given to a new genus of fossil crinoids described
by Lyon. As this name had already been appropriated by Miinster, we deem it
necessary to change the generic appellation to Pterotocrinus. We have, in manu-
script, descriptions of several new species of this peculiar genus of Crinoidea.

302 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Kentucky, A^ol. 3, p. 472, PL 3, fig. 1, a-k. Suhcarhon-
iferous.
P. cORONARius. A. coronarius.) Lj'on, 1. c. p. 476, PI. 1, fig. 1, 1 a.
Suhcarhonifero us.

PYGORYNCHUS, Agassiz, 1839.

P. GouLDi, Bouv^, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Dec, 1846, p. 192.
Its position (Millstone Grit) as given by M. Bouve is, we
think, exceedingly doubtful.

RHODOCRINUS, Miller, 1821.

R. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 556, PI. 9, fig. 8, a- c. Suh-
carboniferous. Burlington limestone.

SACCOCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

S. SPECiosus, Hall, Palceont. N. York, Yol. 2, p. 205, PI. 46, fig.
1, a -n, fig. 2. Silurian. Niagara group.

SCAPIHOCRINUS, Hall, 1858, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 549.

S. DACTTLiFORMis, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 670, PI. 17, fig. 6. Suh-
carboniferous. St. Louis limestone.

S. DECABRACHiATus, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 679, PI. 25, fig. 1.
Subcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

S. DiCHOTOMUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 553, diagram. Subcarbon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

S. iNTERNODius, Hall, lowa. Vol. 1, p. 679, PI. 25, fig. 2. Sub-
carboniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

S. SCOPARIUS, Hall, loAva, Vol. 1, p. 680, PI. 25, fig. 3, a, b. Sub-
carboniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

S. SIMPLEX, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 551, PI. 9, fig. 10. Subcarbon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

SCHIZOCRINUS, Hall, 1847.

S. NODOSus, Hall, Pateont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 81, PI. 27, fig. 1,

a-h; Foster and Whitney, Lake Superior, p. 208, PI. 25,

fig. 2, a — c. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
S. STRiATUs, Hall, PalcTont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 316, PI. 28, fig. 4,

a — c. Silui'ian. Trenton limestone.
S. sp. indet.. Hall, 1. c. p. 86, PI. 29, fig. 1. Silurian. Trenton

limestone.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 303

SCHYPHOCRTNUS, Hall, 1847.

S. HETEROCOSTALis, Hall, Palreont. N. York, Vol. 1, p. 85, PI. 28,
fio;. 3, a - f. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

STENASTER, Billings, 1858. Silurian. Lower Silurian.

S. PULCHELLUS, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Palajont., Dec.

HI. p. 79, PL 10, fig. 2. Silurian. Trenton limestone.
S. Salteri, Billings, 1. c. p. 78, PI. 10, fig. 1, a, b. Silurian.

Trenton limestone.

STEPHANOCRINUS, Conrad, 1842.

S. ANGULATUS, Conrad, Joui'n. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. 8, p.
279, PI. 15, fig. 18; Hall, Paleeont. N. York, Vol. 2, p.
212, PI. 48, fig. 1, a-m. Silurian. Niagara shale. Lock-
port.

S. GEMM^FORMIS, Hall, 1. c. fig. 2, a - i. Silurian. Niagara group.

SYNBATHOCRINUS, Phillips, 1836.

S. DENTATUS, Owcn and Shumard, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,

Vol. 2, 2d Series ; Idem, Geol. Sui'vey of Wisconsin, Iowa,

and Minnesota, p. 597, PI. 5 B, fig. 7, a, b. Subcarbon-

iferous. Burlington limestone.
S. MATUTiNUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 483, PI. 1, fig. 2. Devonian

Hamilton group.
S. SwALLOVi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 672, PI. 17, fig. 89. Subcar-

honiferous. St. Louis limestone.
S. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 560, PI. 9, fig. 9. Subcar-

boniferous. Burlington limestone.

SAXOCRINUS, Phillips, 1836.

S. iNTERSCAPULARis, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 482, PI. 1, fig. 3.
Devonian. Hamilton group.

T^NICASTER, Billings, 1858.

T. CYLiNDRicus, Billings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Pala?ont., Dec.
HI. p. 81, PI. 10, fig. 4, a, b. Silurian. Trenton limestone.

T. SPINOSUS, Billings, 1. c. PI. 10, fig. 3, a -d. PalcBOcoma spinosa,
BiUings, Geol. Survey of Canada, Rep. 1856, p. 292. Silu-
rian. Trenton limestone.

304 PROCEEDIISrGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

THYSANOCRINUS, Hall, 1852.

T. ACULEATUS, Hall, Palaeont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 190, PI. 42, fig.

3, a - cl. Silurian. Niagara group.

T. CANALICULATUS, Hall, Pala^ont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 189, PI. 42,

fig. 2, a - d. Silurian. Niagara group.
T. iMMATURUS, Hall, Palaeont. N. York, Vol. 2, p. 191, PI. 42, fig.

4, a - f. Silurian. Niagara group. .

T. LiLiiFORJUS, Hall, 1. c, fig. 1, a-f. Silurian. Niagara group.

VASOCRINUS, Lyon, 1857.

V. SCULPTUS, Lyon, Geol. Survey of Kentucky, Vol. 3, p. 486, PI.

4, fig. 3, b - e. Devonian. Beargrass Creek, Kentucky.
V. VALENS, Lyon, 1. c. fig. 3, 3 a. Devonian. Beargrass Creek,

Kentucky.

ZEACRINUS, Troost, MSS. (Hall).*

Z. DEPRESsus, Troost, MSS.; Hall, Iowa, Vol. 2, p. 546. Siib-
carhoniferous.

Z. ELEGANS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 547, PI. 9, fig. 12. Suhcarhon-
iferous.

Z. iNTERMEDius, Hall, lowa, Vol. 1, p. 681, PI. 25, fig. 4. Suhcar-
honiferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

Z. MAGNOLi^FORMis, Troost, MSS.; Hall, I.e. pp. 684, 545, 544.
Subcarboniferous. Pentremital limestone, Tennessee.

Z. MANiFORMis, Hall, 1. c. p. 682, PI. 25, fig. 8. Poteriocrinus
maniformis, Yandell and Shumard, Contrib., p. 24, PI. 1,
fig. 2. Cyatliocrinus maniformis, Yandell and Shumard,
Contributions. C. gracilis, Troost, Cat. Subcarhoniferous.
Kaskaskia limestone, Illinois ; Ai'chimedes limestone, Ken-
tucky.

Z. RAMOSUS, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, p. 548, PI. 9, fig. 3. Subcarbon-
iferous. Burlington limestone.

Z. WoRTHENi, Hall, Iowa, Vol. 1, pp. 545, 683, with diagram.
Subcarhoniferous. Kaskaskia limestone.

* " This genus begins its existence, so far as known, in the Burlington limestone,
and continues to the Chester limestone, becoming far more abundant and extrava-
gant in its forms in the latter period." — Hall.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 305

Foui'liundrecl and sixty-nintli meeting.

September 13, 1859, — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from M. Liou-
ville, of Paris, in acknowledgment of the notice of his election
as a Foreign Honorary Member. Also various letters relating
to the exchanges of the Academy.

Professor Peirce made a communication upon some of the
laws of Astronomical Cosmology.

Professor Horsford gave an account of the so-called sap-
sand found in maple sugar, which he had ascertained to be a
neutral tartrate of lime.

Dr. B. A. Gould, Jr. laid before the Academy a circular
from a committee of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, addressed to the friends of Astronomy,
being an appeal in behalf of a new attempt to determine the
solar parallax.

Dr. Beck mentioned, that while on his late tour in Europe,
being in search of manuscripts of the Satyricon of Petronius
Arbiter, he found, in the Bibliotheca Ricardiana at Florence,
and the Bibliotheca Vaticana at Rome, two small manu-
scripts of grammatical or bibliographical contents, which he
believes have not yet been published. Both manuscripts
bear the name Petronius Arbiter, the Vatican manuscript
with the addition, " de antiquis dictionibus." The relation of
this fragment to A. Gellius, Nonius, and other authors of this
class, and the question whether the author has borrowed from
them or from common sources, are of some interest. The
fragment, although not of great importance, is of sufficient
interest to justify its publication. Dr. Beck hopes to be able,
from the two manuscripts and other means, to construct,
with one or two exceptions, a reliable text, which he intends
to append to the result of his inquiries concerning, the text
and manuscripts of the Satyricon^ which he is now engaged
in preparing.

VOL. IV. 39

306 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Professor Gray presented the following paper : —

Notes upon some Paihiacece^ collected in the South Sea Explor-
ing- Expedition under Captain Wilkes. By Asa Gray, M. D.
(Continued from April, 1858 : vide p. 50.)

CopROSMA CALTCiNA : herbacea, repens, fere glabra ; foliis ovato-
rotunclis ciliolatis breviter petiolatis ; stipulis obsoletis ; floribus sub-
solitariis subsessilibus 4 - 5-meris ; calycis lobis ovato-lanceolatis foli-
aceis ovario obovato fequilongis corolla tubulosa vix dimidio breviori-
bus. Hedyotis repens, Clos in Gay, Fl. S,p. 208. — Chili, comnion in
the province of Yaldivia, &c., C. Gay. — It is odd that this jilant,
Laving been correctly described, except that the dry drupe is called a
capsule, should yet have been mistaken for a Hedyotis. It really forms
a connecting link between Nertera (of which it has the habit) and Go-
prosma ; but is peculiar for its large calyx-lobes, which persist on the
young fruit. According to Clos, it is monoecious or dioecious, which,
with the developed lobes of the calyx, would fix the plant in Coprosma.
But the only flower upon my specimen is hermaphrodite !

7. Corrections and Additions to the former article.

Psycliotria parvida, p. 13, is only a form of P. seypens, Linn., as ap-
pears upon a comparison with specimens from Hong Kong, and from
the Loo Choo and Bonin Islands.

P. turhinata, p. 12. — Mr. Bentham has distributed No. 2086 of
Spruce's Amazon collection under the same name ; but as the flowers
of that plant seem equally to be unknown, it may be best to retain
the name for the Feejean species, which can hardly be any else than
a Psycliotria.

Among some Polynesian RuliacecB, collected by Mr. Milne in the
recent cruises of the Herald, British surveying vessel, and placed
in my hands by Dr. Hooker, I notice two species which may be
referred to the genus Galycosia, p. 15, although their flowers are in
loose cymes : —

Calycosia pubiflora (sp. nov.) : foliis membranaceis glabris
oblongo-lanceolatis acuminatis in petioluin attenuatis (4 — G-poll. longis) ;
cyma laxa trichotoma calycisque tubo viscoso-pubescentibus, limbo cra-
teriformi extus puberulo ; dnipa turbinata, pyrenis chartaceis intus
excavatis. — Viti-levu, Feejee Islands, Mr. 3Iilne. — Limb of the calyx
apparently white, half an inch in diameter. Corolla hardly exserted.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 307

Calycosia Milnei (sp. nov.) : glaberrima ; foHIs oblongis siiblan-
ceolatisve basi attenuatis longiuscule petiolatis punctulatis (3 - 4-pollic.) ;
cyma diffusa repetito-trichotoraa ; pedicellis gracilibus. — " Anuteum
[Feejee Islands ?], Nov. 1853, a slender shrub, frequent on high
grounds," 3Ir. Milne.

8. ScypMophora.

Epitliinia of Jack has been identified by Korthals with the little-
known ScypMophora of the younger Gasrtner. Jack's description ap-
pears to be perfectly correct, so far as it goes (except as to the absence
of stipules). But — as respects the various subsequent attempts to
complete the generic character — it may be noted that the upper ovule
is not pendulous from the apex of the cell, as stated by Wight and
Arnott ; nor are the ovules solitary in each cell, as stated by Hasskarl ;
nor is the upper ovule prematurely abortive, as Miquel describes it.
The two long and narrow cells of the ovary each contain a pair of
anatropous ovules, borne on slender funiculi, which are inserted on the
dissepiment at the middle of the cell ; the upper one is erect, the lower
one pendulous. The funiculi are more or less thickened at their apex,
so as to cap the base of the ovule, as in the Guettardece generally.
Not rarely all four ovules are fertilized. In the fruit each cell becomes
constricted between the seeds into two imperfect locelli, one above the
other. The seeds are conformed to the cavity, and are somewhat curved.
In those examined, which were not perfectly mature, the albumen was
almost wanting ; the cotyledons oblong, flattish, and longer than the
radicle. The putamen does not readily separate into two pyrence.
The corolla is contorted in sestivation, and sometimes pentamerous.
The genus should perhaps be appended to the GuettardecB.

9. Bihhia.

Bihlda grandijlora, Reinw., or B. australis, DC, or more properly
B. tetrandra (Portlandia tetrandra of Forster), was collected at the
Friendly Islands, in fine specimens, by Professor Harvey. The corolla
is valvate in aestivation, as in Portlandia, but strongly reduplicate, so
that the summit of the flower-bud is cruciately four-angled or winged.
Stigma bilamellar ; the lobes short, oblong, and thickish. Ovules
oblono;, horizontal. Testa of the immature seeds conformed to the
nucleus.

308 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

10. CinchonecB.

The following are two new genera of this subtribe in the collection
of the South Sea Exploring Expedition ; one of them founded upon
Forster's Cinchona corymhifera, the other upon new discoveries.

BADUSA, Nov. Gen.

Calyx tubo clavato ; limbo brevi cupulato 5-dentato persistente.
Corolla hypocraterimorpha, glabra, 5-fida ; limbo tubum adasquante,
lobis lineari-oblongis aestivatione contorto-imbricatis (uno exteriore),
explicatis patenti-recurvis. Stamina 5, exserta : filamenta filiformia,
imge basi corollge inserta, inferne villosa ; antherge lineares, dorso supra
basim affixje, mox versatiles. Stylus filiformis, ramis 2 brevibus cum
stigmatibus subcapitatis intus planis in clavellam angulatam congluti-
natis. Ovarium biloculare. Ovula in placentis lineari-oblongis crassis
plurima, anatropa, sese imbricantia, superiora adscendentia, inferiora
pendula. Capsula clavato-oblonga, cartilaginea, bilocularis, polysperma,
ab apice ad basim septicida. Semina ovalia, modice alata. Embryo
rectus albumine carnoso paullo brevior; radicula tereti cotyledonibus
ovatis longiore. Frutices sempervirentes ? Oceanici, glabri ; stipulis
brevibus vaginatis ; pedunculis axillaribus apice foliatis cymoso-pluri-
floris ; floribus albis.

Badusa cortbibifera. Cinchona corymbifera, Forst. C. Philip-
pica, Cav. ? Exostemma, R. S^ S. — Distinguished from Exosteina by
the aestivation, the versatile anthers, and the inflorescence.

DOLICHOLOBIUM, Nov. Gen.

Calyx tubo cylindrico elongato ; limbo amplo submembranaceo cya-
thiformi truncato integerrimo (rariusve sublobato) persistente. Corolla
hypocraterimorpha ; limbo 4 - 5-partito, lobis oblongis obtusissimis
plurinerviis aestivatione contortis. Stamina 4-5, tubo infra faucem
inserta, glabra, inclusa: filamenta brevissima : antheras lineares, basifixaj,
introrsum adnatce. Stylus bifidus, ramis subspathulatis sursum peta-
loideo-dilatatis intus secus costam stigmatosis. Ovarium biloculare.
Ovula in placentis elongatis crassis numerosissima, minuta, sursum. im-
bricata, acicularia. Capsula siliquajformis, teretia, longissima (4 - 6-
pollicaris), calycis limbo crateriformi seu pateriformi (fructu multoties
latiori) plerumque coronata, demum septicida ? Semina creberrima,
nucleo ovali, a^a angustg, utrinque in caudam simplicem longissimam
sensim attenuata. Embryo in albumine parco carnoso rectus ; cotyle-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 309

donibus ovatis radicula infera parum brevioribus. — Frutices Vitienses ;
foliis membranaceis petiolatis recte penninerviis, venulis pulchre reticu-
lars ; stipulis interpetiolaxibus membranaceo-foliaceis distinctis obtusis
planis plerumque caducis ; pedunculis brevibus ex axillis superioribus
tri - paucifloris ; floribus majusculis ; tubo calycis et corollte (albie ?)
extus pube appressa indutis. — Genus Cosmihuence affine.

DoLiCHOLOBiUM OBLONGiFOLiUM {Gray,l. c.) : folus oblougis seu
elongato-oblongis utrinque acutiusculis (2J-5 poll, longis) ; flore pen-
tamero. — Collected at Sandal-wood Bay, Vanua-levu, one of the
Feejee Islands, in fruit, in the Pacific Exploring Expedition ; after-
wards, in blossom, by Mr. Milne, which afforded the materials required
for characterizing the genus.

DoLiCHOLOBiUM LATIFOLIUM {Gray, I. c.) : foliis latissime obovatis
basi rotundatis vel obtusissimis (o - 7 poll, longis) ; flore tetramero, an
semper ? — Ovolau, Feejee Islands.

Coufarea of Aublet has the aestivation of the corolla imhricative
(with the tube somewhat plaited), not induplicate, as stated by End-
licher, who thus led Weddell to rank the genus among those with
valvular or modified valvular gestivation. Endlicher has omitted to
mention that the corolla is curved or unequally ventricose in the bud.
In G. Mexicana the flowers are, at least sometimes, pentamerous.

11. jRandiecB.

From the South Sea Islands we have three species of Stylocoryne,
viz. : —

Stylocortne sambucina, which must take this name because it
is, as I suppose, Forster's Coffea samhucina, although one form of it
is certainly Bentham's Stylocoryne pepericarpa.

Stylocortne coff^oides, which I take for Forster's Goffea odo-
rata. It is the Stylocoryne racemosa of Hooker and Arnott in Beech-
ey's voyage (from Tahiti), but not, I suppose, of Cavanilles (from
Manilla), in which the calyx is described and figured as pretty strongly
5-toothed, while in this the limb is truncate and barely denticulate.

Stylocoryne Harveyi (Gray, I.e.): glaberrima; foliis chartaceis
oblongis acuminatis basi in petiolum longiusculum contractis ; cymis
axillai-ibus terminalibusque petiolum vix superantibus subsessilibus ;
calycis limbo quadrifido, lobis triangulari-subulatis tubo vix brevioribus;
coroUoa lobis 4 lineari-oblongis tubo longioribus, fauce imberbi. Aff.
priEcedenti. — Feejee Islands, Prof Harvey.

310 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

GOULDIA, Nov. Gen.

Calyx tubo obovato vel turbinate ; limbo brevi quadrifido. Corolla
hypocraterimorpha, subcoriacea, undique glabra ; limbo quadripartito,
lobis ffistivatione valvatis. Stamina 4, fauci corolltE inserta : filamenta
brevissima : antherjB inclusJB, oblongo-lineares, acutie. Stylus gra-
cilis, apice bifidus : stigmata filiformia, acuta, in una specie crassiora.
Ovarium' biloculare. Ovula in placentis crassis, medio dissepimento
utrinque insertis, plurima, parva, ampbitropa. Bacca drupacea bilo-
cularis, endocarpio pergameno ; placentis spongioso-carnosis alveolatis
oligo - pleiospermis. Semina angulata vel complanata, peltata, nunc in
alveolis placenta3 subimmersa : testa nucleo conformis, tenui-crustacea,
pellicula papuloso-reticulata. Embryo intra albumen subcartilagineum
rectus ; cotyledonibus ovatis parvis radicula vix brevioribus. — Fru-
tices vel arbusculre insularum ; foliis oblongis brevi-petiolatis ; stipulis
brevibus utrinque integris subvaginatis ; fioribus viridulis albidisve
cymosis vel subsolitariis.

GouLDiA Sandwicensis. Kadua affinis, Cham. ^ Schlecht. Var.
TERMiNALis. Petesia ? terminalis, Hooh S^ Am. Var. coIiiacea.
Petesia ? coriacea, Hook. Sf Am. Var. hirtella. — A polymorphous
species.

GouLDiA RoMANzOFFiENSis. Kadua RomanzofRensis, Cham. ^
Schlecht. Petesia carnosa, Hooh. ^ Am.

I have much pleasure in dedicating this genus to Augustus A. Gould,
M. D., a distinguished zoologist, author of the Natural History of the
Invertebrata of Massachusetts, and of the Conchology of the South
Sea Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes. These species were
taken for congeners by Chamisso and Schlechtendal, who included
them in their genus Kadua, and afterwards, quite independently, by
Hooker and Arnott, who referred them to the much-vexed or facti-
tious genus Petesia. On the whole, they appear to be properly asso-
ciated, although the differences between them are not unimportant.
G. Sandwicensis is more related to Stylocoryne. G. Romanzoffiensis,
with its distinctly vaginate, though very short, and conpetiolar stipules,
and with the large, pyriform, whitish, drupaceous berry opening at
maturity at the naked apex by a round hole or short chink, through
which it may discharge the seeds, is really allied to Kadua. But
besides the truly baccate or drupaceous fruit, with the limb of the
calyx obliterated, the few and peltate seeds are quite different. On

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 311

the other hand, the jestivation of the corolla and the bifid style per-
fectly distinguish this genus from Stylocoryne, as does the former char-
acter from FerneUa. As to Petesia, that genus is known to have
been founded upon species of Roiideletia, to which the wholly obscure
species added by Jacquin is thought to belong ; the P. spicata of
Swartz is probably Gonzalea spicata ; Gsertner's P. carnea, on which
De CandoUe founded his dubious genus Eumachia, is perhaps an Ixora ;
and finally the Philippine and Mexican species proposed by Bartling,
and adopted by De Candolle, are still obscure, and perhaps themselves
heterogeneous. There is small likelihood that any of them are con-
geners of the species here characterized.

12. Rondeletiece.

Lerchea caltcina ( Gray, I. c.) : foliis oblongo-lanceolatis acumi-
natis basi attenuatis, junioribus (prassertim costis venisque subtus cum
stipulis integerrimis ovato-lanceolatis caudato-acuminatis ramulis flori-
busque) ferrugineo-sericeis ; cymis condensatis ; lobis calycis lineari-
spathulatis foliaceis tubo coroUie pai-um brevioribus. — Ovolau, Feejee
Islands, in fruit only ; Viti-levu, Mr. Milne (in herb. Hook,), with
blossoms.

This is evidently a near relative of Keinwardt's XatithopLytmn fndi-
culosum. Indeed, should Blume's character, stipulce geminata, magnoR,
hifidce, be incorrect, nothing of consequence would remain in the de-
scription to distinguish that plant from the present. But Mr. Bennett's
remark (in PI. Jav. Ear., p. 101) implies that the festivation of the
corolla in the original Xantliophytum is imbricative (or rather convo-
lutive), as in Wendkmdia. In the present plant it is certainly valvular.
So that, whether X. fniticulosiim is to fall into Lerchea or not, our
present plant must do so, although the enlarged and foliaceous calyx-
lobes seem to be peculiar. The stigma is that of Xanthophytum. The
cocci are at length ventrally dehiscent and similar to those of the sub-
genus Diplophragma of Hedyotis; from which the large epigynous disk
and the interpetiolar stipules mainly separate it.

The species of Ophiorhiza are by no means well characterized. Of
the three here proposed, the first is the most peculiar ; the second and
the third are perhaps confluent.

Ophiorhiza peploides {Gray, I. c.) : herbacea, puraila, diffuse
ramosa ; ramis puberulis foliosis ; foliis parvis saepe 3 - 5-natis vel

312 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

pseudo-verticillatis si^atbulatis seu ovato-spathulatis basi longe attenu-
atis glabris ; floribus subsolitariis glabris ; filamentis filiformibus sty-
loque exsertis. — Feejee Islands ; also collected by Mr. Miliie, and
a smaller-leaved form by Prof. Harvey. The leaves resemble those
of PepUs Portula.

Ophiorhiza leptantha (sp. nov.) : fruticosa, fere glabra ; foliis
Ifetevirentibus oblongo- seu elongato-lanceolatis utrinque acuminatis
longe petiolatis ; stipulis utrinque binis setaceis ; cyma multiflora pu-
berula ; floribus plerisque secundis subsessilibus ; corolla alba gracili
pollicari, ore tenuissime barbato ; staminibus inclusis ; filamentis an-
thera fequilongis ; stylo glabro. — Feejee Islands : also collected by
Prof. Harvey.

Ophiorhiza laxa (sp. nov.) : fruticosa ; ramis junioribus saape
ferrugineo-puberulis ; foliis oblongis vel subovatis acuminatis longe
petiolatis ; cymis pauci - plurifloris laxis ; floribus pedicellatis ; corolla
semipollicari ; cajt. fere praecedentis, sed ramosior laxior. — Feejee
Islands : also gathered by Mr. Milne.

13. Hedyotece.

Oldenlandia, Houstonia, Hedyotis, etc. It is unnecessary to recapit-
ulate the history of the ancient genera Oldenlandia (1703), Houstonia
(1737), and Hedyotis (1747), previous to the consummation of their
union by Wight and Arnott into one polymorphous, or, as they justly
term it, compound genus, for which, following Lamarck, the latest of
the three names was adopted. Korthals has since proposed the estab-
lishment, or re-establishment, of all Wight and Arnott's principal sec-
tions as distinct genera. Bentham, taking an intermediate view, and
depending mainly upon dehiscence, adopts two of the Linnasan genera,
viz. Hedyotis (to which he refers Dimetia as well as 3facrandia and
Diplophragma) and Oldenlandia (to include Houstonia, Anotis, &c.),
and also admits Scleromitrion and Kohautia. I had adopted Ben-
tham's view, without particular investigation. But I now come to the
conclusion, that all three Litmaean genera equally merit restoration,
or at least that Houstonia is more definitely distinguishable from Olden-
landia than it is from Hedyotis, as the latter is received by Bentham.
For the Dimetice and 3fac7-andri(B generally, and many of the Diplo-
phragmcB, not only accord with Anotis in habit, in flowers, and in the
structure of the seed, but also in the dehiscence, which is loculicidal

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 313

across the vertex of the capsule in the first instance ; and although at
length the fruit may readily split septicidally, even into two cocci, so it
does in various Houstonice or Anotides, as is well seen in H. (A.) an-
gustifolia, of the United States.

Hedyotis, Linn,, proper, is well marked by its small, globular, hard
and nut-like fruit, either indehiscent or tardily septicidal into closed
cocci : and the seeds are peltate but not concave on th§ face ; the
corolla is short ; the inflorescence axillary and glomerate ; the stipules
are mostly setose ; and the leaves lineate-nervose.

Scleromitrion, equally Spermacoceous in aspect, differs from Hedyotis
in having the fruit loculicidal across the summit, and the seeds of
Oldenlandia.

Oldenlandia has a thin loculicidal capsule, with the very numerous
and small seeds angular or globular, mostly obpyramidal or trihedral,
not obcompressed nor hollowed on the face. Karamyscheivia of Fischer
and Meyer, from the Caucasian region, is an Oldenlandia, near 0.
umhellata, with two or more accessory calyx-teeth.

Kohautia, "■ too well marked in habit and character to be merged
into Hedyotis" has the capsule and seeds of Oldenlandia, from
which, irrespective of habit, it is distinguished only by the form of
the corolla.

Houstonia, besides the (mostly) elongated corolla, is distinguished
from Oldenlandia by the peltate seeds, hollowed or concave on their
inner face. These are few or moderately numerous, — never very
numerous, as in Oldenlandia. In Euhoustonia the seeds are deeply
crateriform or thimble-shaped, and the globular-didymous pod is partly
superior.*

* EUHOUSTONIE^ Americje Borealis.

1 . Capsula matura vix aut fere semisupera.

* CoroUse tubus calycem (stepius longe) superans.

M- Semina globuloso-acetabuliformia, pi. m. scrobiculata, carea hilari profunda sine

crista mediana, ore rotundo.

++ Pedunculi plerique axillares, fructiferi nutantes.
H. KOTUNDiFOLiA, Mickx. Seminum testa profundius scrobiculata.

■M- ++ Pedunculi erecti filiformes. Semina subtiliter scrobiculata.

H. SEEPTLLIFOLIA, Michx.

H. c^EULEA, Linn.

VOL. IV. 40

314 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The Indian H. Rheedii (Bedyotis Rheedii, "Wight & Ai'n.) should
probably be referred to Eiihoustonia, notwithstanding the reduction of
the ovules and seeds to a single pair. These closely resemble those of
the typical H. ccerulea. But Hedyotis Wightiana, Wall., associated
with the former by Wight and Arnott, is truly a Hedyotis ; the hard
nucumentaceous fruit (in good Hookerian specipiens) not being loculi-
cidal at the summit, but splitting readily through the narrow partition
into two closed, or at length ventrally dehiscent cocci, and the seeds
are not meniscoidal, but flat-lenticular, as in genuine Hedyotis.

Although I have not seen the seeds, I have little hesitation in pro-
posing to constitute a peculiar subgenus, Macrohoiistonia, for two shrub-
by, large-flowered, Mexican species which Kunth referred to Bouvardia.
This affinity in the case of one of them, H. trijlora, has been noticed
by Bentham ; for his Anotis longi flora, PI. Hartw. no. 206, is apparent-
ly Bouvardia triflora, H. B. K., the figure of which De Candolle has
omitted to quote. The other, H longiflora, is ^ginetia longiflora, Cav.,
Bouvardia longiflora, H. B. K. Coulter's specimens (no. 215, from
Real del Monte) want the fruit. But the seeds, as figured and de-
scribed by Cavanilles, appear to resemble those of H. rubra, but with
the thin margin more decidedly winged. Whether or not these plants

■t- -t- Semina depresso-acetabuliformia, Isevia, intra caveam hilo lincari elevato
notata, ore ovali : csii. pr£ecedentium.
H. PATENS, Ell. Hedyotis cterulea /3. minor et H. minima, Torr. ^ Gray, Ft. 2,
p. 38, pro parte.

* * CorolliE tubus lobos calycis amplos hand superans : pedunculi prcecociores
elongati, fructiferi patentes : semina fere H, cxeru'ece sed majora.
H. MINIMA, Beck. Hedyotis minima, Torr. ^ Gray, 1. c. pro parte, excl. char.
Planta vernalis ; caulibus demum ramosis 3 - 4-pollicaribus patentissimis ; foliis
scabris, imis ovatis vel spathulatis, superioribus oblongis sublinearibusve ; corollae
lobis tubo aequilongis. Calycis lobi scsquilineales.

2. Capsula apice tantum libera : semina fere sect. 3 : corolla parva : pedunculi fruc-

tiferi laterales patentissimi.
H. SUBVISCOSA. Oldenlandia subviscosa, C. Wright, in Gray, PL Wright. 2. p.
68, adn. Texas, Wright, Berlandier, coll. no. 991, 2421.

3. Capsula; matures | - 1 superae, e pedunculis brevissimis latcralibus recurvis pen-

dul£e : semina leevissima, patenti-crateriformia, lateribus tenuibus quasi alatls,
intus hilo lineari elevato notata.
H. HUMiFUSA. Hedyotis (Houstonia) humifusa. Gray, PL Lindl. 2. p. 216, &
PL Wright. 1. p. 82. — Corolla brcviuscula.
H. RUBRA, Cav. Corollte tubo elongato-filiformia.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 315

be admitted into Houstonia, they will hardly be left as congeners of
Bouvardia triphylla or Jacquini.

Anotis, DC. will constitute the largest snhge.n\i?, o? Houstonia, includ-
ing all of De Candolle's first and second sections, and of Arnott's third
division of his subgenus of this name, except perhaps Hedyotis mono-
sperma ; and also two of De Candolle's three species of his genus Rachi-
callis. For his R. nitida and R. Caracasana are inseparable from his
Anotis setosa, Sec. The accessory calyx-teeth or interposed seta3 are not
constant nor of any consequence, (several Houstonice and Hedyotidece
vary in this way,) and the a3stivation of the corolla is valvular, as in all
true HedyotciB* Not so, however, in R. rupestris, of the West Indies, the
obvious type of Rachicallis : in this the lobes of the corolla are strongly
imbricated, as in Rondeletia. The seeds of Anotis are meniscoidal,
cymbiform, or at least concave on the inner face, and marked with a
longitudinal hilar ridge : in some species they are undistinguishable
from those of true Houstonia. If in others their margins are not in-
flexed so as to be distinctly concave on the inner face, they are never
like those of Oldenlandia.

The nicer question remains as to what is to be done with sundry
groups of Indian, Chinese, and Insular species, which stand between
Anotis and true Hedyotis. I have examined a considerable number of
them, but must refer the question to some botanist who can command
fuller materials. As far as my examination extends, their seeds are
all much alike, and are essentially those of Hedyotis, being compressed-
lenticular and peltate, with a small, more or less protuberant hilum,
not at all hollowed on the inner face, but with acute edges. The speci-
mens I possess are reducible to two principal groups of species. First,
those in which the summit of the capsule is more or less exserted
beyond the calyx, and primarily loculicidal in dehiscence. In the re-
markable Hedyotis leptopetala, Gray,t the pod and its dehiscence ac-
cord very well with those of American Anotides. In H. scandens, one

* Wight and Arnott characterized their Hedyotis as having the lobes of the co-
rolla " imbricated (not twisted) in jestivation." This obvious eiTor has been copied
all along by Endlicher, by Torrey and Gray, and recently by Miquel.

t Botany of Japan, in Mem. Amer. Acad. 6, p. 394. The patent fact has since
ari'ested my attention, that this is the Leptopetalum Mexicanum of Hooker and Arnott,
in the Botany of Beechey's Voyage, where there is a good figure ; so that this be-
longed to that unfortunate parcel of specimens collected at the Loo Choo and Bonin
Islands, but supposed to have come from Mexico.

316 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of the types of Dimetia, and in H. recurva, Benth. (allied to H. ma-
crostema, Hook. & Arn., the type of the section 3Iacrandria, which I
have not seen), the free summit is very soon septicidal also. These
species, which may be taken to represent Wight and Arnott's Dimetia
and Macrandria, accord far better in aspect and character with Hous-
tonia (section Anotis) than with true Hedyotis, and would perhaps
form a subgenus of the former, if not to be distinguished from both.

On the other hand, all Wight and Arnott's species of their subgenus
Diploph'agma, having wholly inferior and purely septicidal-dicoccous
fruit, adhere more naturally to Hedyotis. Their third division of this
group appears strictly referable to that genus. Their remaining species
may compose a subgenus of the same ; but the dehiscence and the
calyx, produced beyond the ovary into a merely 4-toothed or 4-cleft
cup or limb, decidedly separate them from Houstonia. In the latter,
the calyx is adnate up to the origin of the lobes. So it is in

Kadua, Cham. & Schlecht., a genus of more or less shrubby plants,
natives of the Sandwich Islands, which was also reduced to the com-
pound genus Hedyotis by Endlicher. Through the smaller and sub-
herbaceous species, it does indeed nearly approach Kohautia. From
this and from all the other related genera, Kadiia may be technically
distinguished by the somewhat salient or reduplicate edges of the lobes
of the corolla in aestivation, and by the inflexion of their tips in all but
two of the species, which again are well characterized by their winged
seeds. The seeds, moreover, are compressed in Kadua, (not depressed
or obcompressed,) packed side by side, and attached by one edge, not
by one face. The capsule, also, is hard and firm, and tardily dehis-
cent, except by the transverse chink at its naked summit, in some
species perhaps slightly drupaceous before maturity; which led the
founders of the genus wrongly to refer hither two baccate species, then
imperfectly known, — as has already been mentioned.

Meyen's genus Weigmannia is only Kadua cordata ; and what is de-
scribed and figured in the Reliquice Meyenianse as a single large seed
in each cell evidently consists of a mass of seeds closely packed upon
the placenta.

The two wing-seeded species would fall into the subtribe Cinchonece,
according to the prevalent arrangement, which also too widely sepa-
rates Bouvardia from Houstonia, &c. ; but there are other cases known
in the family of winged and wingless seeds occurring in the same

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 317

genus. Rhomhospora of Korthals seems to be another Hedyotideous
plant, referred to the Cinchonece upon this sole technical character.
Indeed, even the whole distinction between baccate, drupaceous, and
capsular fruits in the polyspermous Ruhiacece. is in many cases so
indecisive, that in their classification it may answer better to proceed
still farther m the direction already indicated by Mr. Bentham, and
to take the primary characters from asstivation, placentation, and
stipulation, rather than from the texture of the fruit and the surface
of the seeds.

The following conspectus of the species of Kadua exhibits the diver-
sities which this genus presents : —

KADUA, Cham. 4- Schlecht.
§ 1, Flores in cymam terminalem thyrsumve congesti: folia coriacea.

* Semina alata ! Plantas centranthoidese, thyrsiflora^, subglaucaj, basi

tantum frutescentes ; foliis subsessilibus rigidis lineato-costatis ;
lobis calycis breviusculis ; corolla3 lobis asstivatione hand inflexis :
capsula apice baud producto fere plana.

1. K. CENTRANTHOiDES, HooJc. S^ Am. Glaberrima : folia ovato-
lanceolata seu cordata-ovata : stylus etiam glaber !

2. K. GLOMERATA, HooJc. 8; Am. Inflorescentia floresque pubes-
centes : folia caulina oblongo-lanceolata.

* * Semina complanata, scobiformia, nunc marginata vel subalata.

3. K. CORDATA, Cham. S)- Schlecht. Weigmannia glauca, Meyen.
Habitus inter prsecedentes et sequentes : folia superiora et floralia sub-
cordata, ea cymulas glomeratas involucrantia : lobi calycis ovato-lan-
ceolati ovario bis longiori, capsulam fere hemisphtericam vertice plani
usculam excedentes.

* * * Semina immarginata, compresso-angulata : corollse lobi in ala-

. bastro apice inflexi.
H— Caules suffrutescentes, 1 — 2-pedales ; calyces majusculi. Kohautice

aflfines.

4. K. CoOKiANA, Cham. 8f Schlecht. Gracilis, juncoidea, pauciflora ;
foliis anguste lanceolatis linearibusve rigidis nervuloso-reticulatis ; calycis
lobis subulato-lanceolatis ovarium longe superantibus ; capsuliB vertice
libero conico.

5. K. PARVULA, Gray, I. c. Glaberrima ; ramis gracilibus usque
ad apicem foliosis ; foliis coriaceis utrinque lucidulis conformibus (un-

318 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ciara longis) ovato-lanceolatis acutis, inferioribus petiolatis summis ses-
silibus, venis primariis inconspicuis ; floribus paucis (5 - 7) in cymula
terminali ; calycis lobis lato-lanceolatis tubo corolliB dimidio brevioribus
capsula turbinata vertice subplana ajquilongis.

G. K. GLAUCIFOLIA, Gray, I. c. Glaberrima ; ramis usque ad cymam
sessilem multifloram foliosis ; foliis subcoriaceis ovato-lanceolatis imisve
lanceolatis acute acuminatis breviter petiolatis (summis sessilibus) subtus
glaucis penninervis ; calycis lobis subulatis tubo corollce gracilis multo-
ties brevioribus capsula fere hemisphaerica vertice convexiuscula
paullo brevioribus.

-i— -1— Frutex sat altus : calycis lobi ovario breviores e capsula vertice
libero convexo vel conico demum decidui.

7. K. Menziesiana, Cham. 8; Scldecht. Hedyotis coriacea, Smith.
H. conostyla, Gaudich. Kadua Smithii, Hook. Sf Am.

§ 2. Flores axillares, irao supra-axillares : calycis lobi magni, soli-
tarii bini vel terni : pedunculi filiformes, fructiferi nutantes : corolla
viridula seu alba, limbo amplo, lobis acuminatis apicibus in alabastro
inflexis : ovarium tetraquetrum : semina angulata : frutices foliosi :
folia laxe penninervia sajpius membranacea.

8. K. acuminata, Cham. S^ Schlecht. Glaberrima; ramis gracilibus ;
foliis lanceolatis sensim acuteque acuminatis breviter petiolatis, juniori-
bus subsessilibus ; calycis lobis anguste lanceolatis.

9. K. PETiOLATA, Gray, I. c. Ramosa, glabra ; foliis oblongo-lanceo-
latis oblongisve subito acuteque acuminatis basi plerumque acutis longe
petiolatis laxe venosis ; calycis lobis lanceolatis seu triangulari-lanceo-
latis capsulam late turbinatam subaequantibus.

Var. OYALIFOLIA : major ; foliis ovali-oblongis (3 - 4-pollicaribus),
venis crassioribus.

10. K. GRANDis, Gray, I. c. Foliis amplis oblongis ovalibusque
breviter acuminatis perspicue penninerviis longiuscule petiolatis, juni-
oribus ad costam venasque stepius pubentibus ; calycis lobis foliaceis
ovato-lanceolatis capsula late turbinata acute 4-costata jequilongis ;
coroUaj lobis tubum ada^quantibus.

Species exclusce : — K. Homanzoffiensis, Cham. & Schlecht. =
Gouldia Romanzoffiensis. K. affinis, Cham. & Schlecht. := Goiddia
Sandwicensis.

Professor Gray also presented the following communica-
tion : —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 319

Notes vpon some Polynesian Plants of the Order Loganiacecs.

By Asa Gray, M. D.

These will naturally enoiigli follow the foregoing notes upon Ru-

hiacece.

1. Geniostomece (Geniostoma and Labor ded).

Under the name of Hcemospermum, Reinwardt, Blume long ago cor-
rectly described the pulpy placentae of Geniostoma, which enclose the
seeds tind fill the cells of the fruit. It is remarkable that this should
have escaped the notice of succeeding authors, even of Alphonse De
Candolle, when he reduced Hcemospermum to a species of Genio-
stoma upon the authority of an authentic specimeij ; and of Bentham,
when he recently revised the Loganiacece* and had Blume's detailed
character of Geniostoma before him ; t especially as in dried speci-
mens the seeds all cohere in a mass, and are covered with a pellicle
of dried pulp, which, when soaked, promptly swells up and encloses the
seeds, just as they doubtless are enclosed in the fresh fruit. It appears
from a supplementary note to Mr. Bentham's paper, that this struc-
ture has been noticed by M. Bureau, in his inaugural dissertation upon
this group of plants (which I have not seen) ; but I do not well under-
stand what is meant by " the curious expansions of the placenta " in a
" regular stellately-Iobed form." I am confident that there are no
distinct arilli severally enclosing the seeds, in the manner of Podo-
phyllum, but an equable pulpy development of the placenta. In this
lifht it is questionable if Bentham's G.fagrceoides (the flowers of which
are unknown) is really a Geniostoma. Although the pericarp is cap-
sular, the analogy of Geniostoma to Gardenia and the Randiece in the
placentation is not to be overlooked, especially as the a3stivation of the
corolla is similar. To this there are exceptions, however. Good as
characters of osstivation are in Ruhiacece, and as they are likely to be
in these " Ruhiacece with a free ovary," we can never trust implicitly to
the difference between the imbricative and the contorted or convolute.
No one can be more aware of this than Mr. Bentham, who will not
be surprised to learn that this distinction between the second and third
sections of his tribe Eidoganiece is untenable, — Geniostoma rupestre
having occasionally the {Estivation assigned to Logania, namely, with

* In Journal of the Proceedings of the LinnsEan Society, Vol. I. 1857.
t In Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat., Vol. 1, p. 238, 1850.

320 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

one lobe wholly exterior in the bud, while an unpublished Tahitian
species exhibits, in the few flower-buds we have for examination, a
regular quincuncial imbrication. That third section may, however,
be confirmed by admitting the nature of the placentae to a leading
place in the character.

The ovules of Geniostoma are amphltropous, as suggested by End-
licher, rather than anati'opous, as stated by Blume ; but the seeds
become almost anatropous. The minute embryo assigned by Blume,
and figured in his G. iasiostemon, is not borne out by G. ligustrifoliiim
and G. ruprestre, both of which have the cylindrical embryo nearly
as long as the albumen, as .remarked by Alphonse De Caudolle in the
Mauritian G. ovation.^

The corolla, as remarked by Bentham, is not at all funnel-form, but
almost rotate, — in fact, between rotate and campnnulate. The phrase
" corolla mhinfundibidiformis " found its way into the generic char-
acter from Forster's figure of the flower of G. rupestre, which repre-
sents the tube of the corolla much too long. It is really so short that
Sprengel, describing an original specimen, calls the corolla " suhrosacea
pentapetaloidea" The fine pubescence on the lobes is variable in the
same species, or even wanting. The villosity of the throat also vai'ies
in amount in different forms of G. rupestre, in some cases being re-
duced to a small tuft at the insertion of the short filaments, or merely
upon them ; in one of our species it is wholly wanting.

The stigma, I believe, is capitate throughout the genus, or at first
depressed-globose, after anthesis sometimes becoming obovate. Here,
again, Forster's " stigma cylindricum, " — utterly at variance with his
figure, and that, in turn, doubtless incorrect as to the strong lobulation
— has given rise, on the one hand, to De CandoUe's " stigma crassius-
culum" on the other, to Endlicher's " stigma sidcatuyn." Sprengel's
" stigma capitatum, pid)escens, sid)lamellosum" is better, and would be
better still without the last word. "While occupied Avith the pistil of
G. rupestre, I may remark that the difference between Forster's char-
acter '^^ stylus jiliformis tuho longior" and his figure (d), which exhib-
its a very short style (such as Sprengel terms "brevissimus"), is in
fact exemplified in what I regard as different forms of this species ; —
the style being often twice or thrice the length of the ovary and the
stigma, and sometimes reduced in length even to a minimum. As to
Sprengel's " stylus hasi villosus" that was probably suggested by Fors-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 321

ter's figure ; but that was intended to represent the whole pistil, and
the villous hairs ai-e placed, not upon the base of the style, but around
the ovary, — indeed, they belong to the corolla.

The inflorescence is axillary throughout the genus. This is stated
by Blume only ; but De CandoUe specifies the axillary flowers under
almost every species.

The species of our Polynesian collections are evidently three,
viz. : —

Geniostoma ligustrifolium, a. Cunn., of New Zealand, known
by its didymous or bicapitate stigma, and its triangular pointed stipules.

Geniostoma rupestre, Forst. ; a polymorphous species, to which
I should refer, not only Blume's G. Hcemospennum, but probably Ben-
tham's G. crassifolium, at least the variety glaherrimum, and even
a plant which has the calyx assigned to G. Ciimingianum, Benth.
Our forms of the species — besides the typical one, which is smooth,
and with rather small and pointed leaves, like those of the New Zea-
land species — may be arranged under the varieties ellipticum, macro-
phyllum, and puherulum. The species may be known from the last by
the transversely truncate stipules, and the entire stigma, raised on
more or less of a style, never absolutely sessile ; nor is the corolla
wholly glabrous within, as in

Geniostoma astylum {Gray, I. c.) : glaherrimum ; stipulis truncato-
bifidis ; foliis ovalibus ; sepalis ovatis ; corolla intus glabro testivatione
quincunciali ! ; stigmate integro subgloboso sessili ; fructu immature
anguste oblongo. — Tahiti, Society Islands.

The specimen in the Hookerian herbarium from the Sandwich
Islands referred by Bentham to his G. crassifolium, ^3. glaherrimum, if
really from those islands, is likely to belong to a species which on the
whole is better placed in the genus

Lahordea. Judging from the plate in the Botany of Freycinet's
Voyage, Bentham presumed the estivation of the corolla of this im-
perfectly known genus to be valvular, and the fruit to be baccate.
The first point would seem to have been verified by M. Bureau, who,
according to Mr. Bentham's supplementary note, " has been enabled
to dissect three flowers of this plant \_Lahordea fagrceoidea, Gaudich.].
He confirms the presumed valvular aestivation of the corolla, but al-
ways finds two cells only to the ovary, and very plausibly suggests
that the three-celled one examined by Gaudichaud was accidentally

vol. IV. 41

322 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

abnormal." Now, the herbarium of the South Pacific Exploring Ex-
joedition contains good flowering specimens of what I cannot doubt is
Gaudichaud's L. fagrceoidea (notwithstanding two discrepancies in the
details which are probably due to mistakes of the artist), and fruiting
specimens of another and nearly related species, which negative both
these presumptions, while they reveal the true affinity of the genus.
That is to say, in our flowering plant the lobes of the corolla in aesti-
vation decidedly, though narrowly, overlap in the convolute manner,
and are slightly twisted towards the observer's left. Probably the
flower-buds examined by Bureau were too young to show the nestiva-
tion properly. Also our fruiting plant is tricarpellary, in all the speci-
mens we possess, and, which is of more consequence, the fruit is a
capsule, just like that of Geniostoma, except in being trimerous, — the
placentos equally pulpy, and the seeds nidulant. Lahordea, therefore,
ranks next to Geniostoma, from which, so far as these materials show,
it would seem to be very well distinguished by its Gtertneroid habit,
the long and foliaceous divisions of the calyx, the tubular (instead of
rotate-campanulate) corolla, the elongated club-shaped (instead of glo-
bose or didymous) stigma, and the terminal inflorescence. The occa-
sional, if not the usual, tricarpellary ovary is at most a subsidiary dis-
tinction. It is not constant in L. fagrceoidea, and it can hardly be
expected to be so in the allied species. But the same collection (and
also Remy's, of later date) has supplied complete materials of a third
species, which almost exactly fills the interval between these two genera.
For, with the general habit and foliage, and the dicarpellary ovary of
Geniostoma, it combines the hypocrateriform corolla, the clavate stigma,
and the terminal inflorescence of Lahordea. The form of the corolla,
taken with that of the stigma, will surely outweigh that of the calyx,
and the terminal inflorescence affords a better distinction than the oc-
casionally trimerous gynnscium. So we must annex this ambiguous
species to Lahordea, unless we merge the latter genus in Geniostoma,
which at present would hardly be warranted. The known species
are : —

Labordea (Geniostomoides) tinifolia {Gray, I. c.) : glaber-
rima ; ramis gracilibos ; foliis oblongis chartaceis longiuscule petiolatis ;
cyma pedunculata composita laxiflora ; calycis segmentis triangulari-
ovatis acutissimis tubo coroUoe hypocraterimorpha? triple brevioribus ;
stylo gracili ; stigmate elongato-clavato ; capsula globosa bivalvi. —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 323

Sandwich Islands, in Kauai, Maui, Oahu, and Hawaii (coll. Expl.
Exped., and coll. Remy).

Labordea fagr^oidea (Gaudich.) : glabra, pallida ; foliis obo-
vato-oblongis oblongisve basi in petiolum breviusculum attenuatis pen-
ninerviis subcoriaceis ; cyma sessili quasi umbellato-contracta ; calyce
amplo fere 5-secto, sepalis lanceolatis foliaceis nervosis corollas tubum
subajquantibus ; stigmate elongato subclavato ; ovario 2 - 3-loculari. —
Our specimens are from Hawaii. On the same island was gathered an
imperfect fruit-bearing specimen, possibly of this very species, but the
vestiges of the calyx are much smaller, and the leaves are larger and
somewhat pubescent. Of the fruit, I can only say that it is narrower
than in the next, and bivalvular. Perhaps it is a distinct species, but
the materials are insufficient.

Labordea sessilis {Gray, I. c.) : foliis subsessilibus crasso-coriaceis
lineato-venosis oblongis seu lanceolato-oblongis, junioribus subtus ramis-
que pube brevi fusca hirsutis ; sepalis oblongo-lanceolatis ; capsulis
brevissime pedunculatis trivalvibus. — Oahu ; in fruit only.

2. Fagrcea. The two Polynesian species of this genus in the collection
are interesting as offering additional points of similarity with Lisian-
thus and related GentianacecB. They are, F. Berteriana, Gray, which,
with the corolla of F. Zeylanica, though smaller, (yet sometimes with
the tube three inches long,) has the bilamellar stigma of Lisianthus !
This is not mentioned in the character published in Bentham's revision
of the genus. The other species, which is mentioned by Bentham, but
not characterized, has the placentae so strictly parietal and sessile, that
they appear like four placentae approximate in two pairs, after the
manner of some Gentianece and OrohanchecB. It has no distinct stipules.
It is as impossible, therefore, to draw a marked line of distinction be-
tween Loganiaceoi and Gentianacece on the one hand, as between them
and Ruhiacece on the other. So true is it, that Loganiacece are not so
much an order per se, as a nexus, binding together four otherwise very
distinct orders. — The new Feejean species may be thus character-
ized : —

Fagr^a gracilipes {Gray, I. c.) : foliis lato-ovatis subcoriaceis
obtusis vel apiculato-acutis basi in petiolum longum abrupte decurrenti-
bus ; cyma terminali sessili multiflora foliis multo breviore ; calyce
parvo ; corolla e tubo angusto superne late obconico-ampliata ; sta-
minibus subexsertis ; stigmate capitellato ; ovario prorsus uniloculari,
placentis arete parietalibus. — Feejee Islands.

324 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

3. Finally, there is a new Polynesian genus, doubtless Loganiaceous,
although the coi-olla and consequently the stamens are unknown. It is
remarkable for having an indehiscent, nucumentaceous, or possibly sub-
drupaceous, club-shaped fruit, on which account it does not fall into
either of Bentham's four tribes. It is dedicated to Joseph P. Cou-
thouy, Esq., the zealous Conchologist of the Expedition of which the
plant is one of the fruits.

COUTHOVIA, Nov. Gen.

Calyx 5-partitus ; segmentis rotundatis crassis imbricatis intus basi
biglandulosis ? Corolla et stamina ignota. Ovarium liberum, ova-
tum, calyce subinclusum, stigmate sessili apiculatum, biloculare. Ovula
in placentis crassis, medio dissepimento adnatis, plurima, amphitropa.
Fructus lignosus, maturus forte subdrupaceus, clavatus vel fusiformis,
basi stipitiformi calyce parvo persistente stipata, bilocularis, indehis-
cens. Semina baud visa. — Frutex vel arbor Vitiensis, Fagrcea facie,
stipulis vaginatis Labordece ; cyma terminali ; floribus parvis.

CouTHOViA CORTNOCARPA (^Gray, I. c). — Ovolau and Sandal-wood
Bay, Feejee Islands.

Four Iiaudred and seventieth meeting.

October 11, 1859. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read several letters relative
to the exchanges of the Academy.

Professor Felton presented, from the Hon. George P.
Marsh, a circular letter in behalf of the new dictionary of
the English Language undertaken by the Philological So-
ciety of London.

Professor Felton also exhibited a series of recent photo-
graphs from Athens, representing different views of the Par-
thenon, and some sculptures discovered upon the Acropolis
in the course of excavations made during the present year.

Professor Lovering presented a memoir upon the Secular
Periodicity of the Aurora Borealis ; in which he referred to
the manuscript records of the Academy as follows : —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 325

It is well known that Dr. Holyoke, of Salem, kept a Meteorological
Journal from 1754 to 1828. That part which relates to the weather
has already been published in the Memoirs of the Academy. I have
consulted the manuscript records of Dr. Holyoke, which he presented
to the Academy, and have selected from them all the instances he has
recorded of auroras observed by him. Unfortunately, the copy which
the Academy possesses is not the original, until the year 1786; and,
being prepared for a special purpose, does not contain any record of
auroral appearances until that year. But the Academy possesses the
original manuscript Journal of Meteorology kept at Cambridge by
Professor John Winthrop, from 1742 to 1779 ; and also that of Pro-
fessor Edward Wigglesworth, also kept at Cambridge, from 1782 to
1793 ; and that of Dr. Enoch Hale, kept in Boston, from 1818 to
1848. In all these Journals, except the last, the auroras are noted
with great care ; and they altogether cover more than a century, in
which only two years are wanting, namely, 1780 and 1781. From this
storehouse I have been able to collect 501 recorded examples of
auroras, of which only 92 are duplicates ; these being subtracted, there
remain 409 independent auroras, of which 400 have never before ap-
peared in print. Professor Winthrop has recorded 116 exhibitions of
the aurora. Professor "Wigglesworth 123, and Dr. Holyoke 262. As
these observations have been made at two places only a dozen miles
apart, they are strictly comparable with each other, and furnish an
almost uninterrupted record of the aurora for one hundred years in
this immediate vicinity. The result of my discussion of these obser-
vations is, that during the thirty-three years from 1793 to 1827 there
are only 17 recorded examples of the aurora. For the thirty-three
years preceding 1793 there are 336 ; and in several instances, a single
year of the latter epoch fui-nishes more cases than the whole of the
former epoch; and in one year (1789) there are more than twice as
many exhibitions of the aurora as in the whole thirty-three years next
preceding 1827."

Dr. B. A. Gould laid before the Academy a circular from
the Berlin Academy of Sciences, proposing the establishment
of a foundation in memory of Humboldt, for the promotion
of scientific travels, &c.

Professor Peirce made a communication upon the Zodiacal
Light.

326 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Professor Agassiz stated that, during his recent visit to
Switzerland, interesting discoveries had been made in a rail-
road cutting on the shores of Lake Neufchatel, and in the bed
of the lake, at a period of unusual lowness of the water, of
a quantity of Celtic utensils, along with the remains of many
animals not existing in the vicinity, or even in Europe, at the
present time. Among them were stone hatchets, closely
resembling those of the North American Indians ; and other
implements with handles made from the horns of the Euro-
pean deer, now extinct in that vicinity ; also, bones of the
wild boar, which now exists only in the eastern and northern
parts of Switzerland ; and, in other places along the shore,
remains of pottery, bronzes, &c., indicating several different
social states at different periods.

Professor Gray communicated the Diagnosis of the Species
of Sandal-ivood ( Santalum) of the Sandwich Islands : —

The species of Santalum inhabiting the Sandwich Islands are of
considerable interest, inasmuch as they furnish the celebrated sandal-
wood, formerly exported from those islands in considerable quantities,
and not yet exhausted, though the supply is much diminished.

Although gathered long ago by Menzies, Santalum Freycinetianum
and S. ellipticum were first made known and imperfectly discrimi-
nated by Gaudichaud. Hooker and Arnott afterwards proposed a
third species, & panicidatum, which is evidently no more than a va-
riety of S. Freycinetianum growing in drier or more exposed places.
Indeed, it is questionable whether S. ellipticum is not likewise a mere
variety of that same species, so polymorphous in foliage, of which
Gaudichaud's S. Freycinetianum, as figured in the Botany of Frey-
cinet's Voyage, is probably the most narrow-leaved form. For the
present it may suffice to give such diagnoses as I am able to draw up,
fi'om the examination of a full suite of specimens, of these two species,
if such they be, and of a third and more distinct species, well marked
by its larger drupe with a strongly rimose or ruminated putamen,
which was discovered by the naturalists of Captain Wilkes's Expe-
dition on the island of Kauai.

1. Santalum Freycinetianum (G^aifc?ic/«.) : fohis coriaceis ovali-
bus obovato-oblongisve in petiolum brevem basi angustatis ; cymis

OF ARTS AND SCIEXCES. 327

plerumque terminalibus paniculatis ; perigonil tubo obconico, lobis
ovatis ; drupa ovoideo-globosa (baud semi-pollicari), putamine la^vius-
culo. — Oahu and Hawaii.

Var. LATiFOHtor : arboresccns ; foliis magis coriaceis brevius petio-
latis late ovatis ovabbus vel subrotundis ; cyma densiflora. — S. pani-
culatum, Hook. S^ Ai'n., Bot. Beech. Voi/. p. 94. — Craters of Hawaii
and Maui.

2. Santaluii ellipticum ( Gaudich.) : foliis cbartacels ellipticis
oblongis seu ovali-obovatis, petioli gracili ; cymis paniculisve sa?pius
axillaribus ; perigonii tubo brevi, lobis ovatis ; fructu S. Freycinetiani.

3. Santaltjji ptrularium ( Gray in Bot. ExpL Exped. vied.) : foliis
subcoriaceis oblongis supra lucidis venulosis subtus glaucis, petiole
gracili ; cymis sa?pius axillaribus ; perigonii tubo cylindraceo, lobis
oblongis ; drupa pyriformi (cum pedicello incrassato pollicari), puta-
mine valde ruminato-rimoso. — Kauai, Sandwich Islands.

Professor Gray also communicated a paper (read by title
at the Annual Meeting), being, —

Characters of Neiu Alg'cc, chiefly from Japan and Adjacent
Regions, collected by Charles Wright in the North Pacific
Exploring Expedition under Captain John Rodgers. Com-
municated by Request of the Commander of the Expe-
dition. By Professor William H. Harvey, of Dublin
University.

1. Sargassum (Schizophtlla) PiNXATiFiDuar : caule comprcsso
disticlie pinnato, pinnis e margine egredientibus ; phyllodiis linearibus
profunde pinnatifidis, laciniis paucis (2 - 4) costatis argute serratis vel
foliorum superiorum integris; vesiculis ellipsoideis folio sa^pe bipartite
serrato coronatis ; receptaculis longissime laxeque racemosis cylindra-
ceis inermibus.

Loo Cboo Islands.

2. Sargasso: (HoLornrLLA) filicixum: : caule filiformi longis-
simo (basi ignoto) ; ramis sa^pius secundis ; foliis longe petiolatis lineari-
oblongis tenuibus profunde pinnatifidis, laciniis alternis linearibus trun-
catis apice bi-tridentatis ; vesiculis spba^ricis folio pinnatifido coronatis ;
receptaculis siliqua?formibus apice ramulorum solitariis.

East coast of Japan.

328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

3. Sargassum (Holophtlla) Ringgoldianum: caiile compresso
pinnatitn ramoso, ramis horizontalibus complanatis ancipitibus flexuosis
pinnatim compositis, pinnulis angulatis ; foliis lanceolatis integerrimis
verticalibus crassis basi attenuatis immerse costatis, junioribus sub-
enerviis ; vesiculis maguis oblongo-ellipsoideis ad basin ramulorum
solitariis folio coronatis ; receptaculis racemosis junioribus inermibus.

East coast of Japan, and at Simoda.

4. Sargassum (Holophtlla) Rodgersianum : (caule ignoto)
ramis ad ortum retrofractis ? compressis flexuosis pinnatim decompo-
sitis, ramulis decompositis ; foliis omnibus patentissimis angustissirae
linearibus immerse costatis subenerviis integerrimis ; vesiculis longe
petiolatis sphasricis longissime mucronatis vel folio filiformi 1-2-
unciali coronatis ; receptaculis linearibus inermibus obtusis demum
racemosis.

East coast of Japan, floating at sea.

5. Sargassum (Holophtlla) siliquastrum ? (Ag.), var. ptri-
FERUM : (caule ignoto) ramis ramulisque ad ortum retrofractis com-
presso-i^lanis ancipitibus decompositis, superioribus in ramulis angus-
tissimis desinentibus ; foliis inferioribus lanceolatis oblongisve distanter
serrulatis immerse costatis, superioribus angustissime linearibus inte-
gerrimis subenerviis ; vesiculis magnis ad basin ramulorum solitariis
pyriformibus longe mucronatis ; receptaculis linearibus inermibus deni-
que in ramulo racemosis.

Simoda, Japan, on rocks at low tide.

6. Sargassum (Holophtlla) cortnecarpum : caule triquetro,
ramis ad ortum retrofractis ; foliis radicalibus inferioribusque elliptico-
oblongis latis subintegerrimis vel repando-dentatis crassis immerse cos-
tatis, superioribus ramuliformibus angustissimis costatis paucis ; vesiculis
magnis ellipsoideis mucronatis ; receptaculis clavatis plano-compressis
inermibus emarginatis racemosis.

Simoda, Japan.

7. Sargassum (Carpophtlla) assimile: caule tereti lasvissimo ;
foliis e basi valde obliqua cuneata oblongis obtusis minute glandulosis
argute dentatis nervo infra apicem evanescente costatis ; vesiculis in
petiolo sursum compresso ipsis vix breviori splia3ricis muticis ; re-
ceptaculis foliiferis saspius furcatis, laciniis integerrimis vel remote
denticulatis.

Loo Choo Islands, in tide-pools.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 329

8. Cystophtllum fusiforme : radice ramoso ; frondibus ex collo
in caulcs plures divisis ; caulibus indivisis tereti-compressis, ramis
lateralibus undique egredientibus ci-ebris brevibus ramulis subfasci-
culatis onustis, ramulis lineari-fusiformibus utrinque acutis medio sajpe
vesiculiferis ; vesiculis fusiformibus ; receptaculis ignotis.

Var. /3. CLAviGERUM : ramis ramulo longissimo claviformi infra
apicem vesiculifero subtensis, ramulis filiformibus.
On rocks at low tide, Simoda. /3. Hakodadi, Japan.

9. Fucus (Fucodium) Weightii : fronde lato-lineari complanata
decomposite dicbotoma ramosissima ; vesiculis ovalibus v. bilobis in ramis
superioribus vel soepe in axillis ipsis immersis ; receptaculis ignotis.

Straits of Sangar, Japan.

10. Fucus (Fucodium) Babingtonii : fronde angustissima com-
presso-plana decomposite dichotoma fastigiata ; vesiculis oblongis an-
gustissimis in ramis superioribus infra axillas immersis ; receptaculis
linearibus terminalibus simplicibus furcatisve.

Japan (Dr. Babington in Herb. T. C. D.) : rocks at Simoda ; Hong
Kong.

11. EcKLONiA Wrightii: stipite brevi robusto compresso apice
subpalmatim ramoso (vel crebre dichotomo ?) ; ramis in frondes pin-
nati-lobatas expansis, laciniis sublanceolatis basi angustatis injequaliter
argute serratis.

Simoda, Japan, on rocks at low tide.

12. Alaria pinnatifida : stipiti ancipite sursum complanato cris-
pato-raarginato in costam latam apice desinente ; lamina latissima pro-
funde pinnatifido-lobata, laciniis oblongis simplicibus furcatisve sinubus
rotundatis, pinnis crassis obovatis brevibus.

Simoda, Japan.

13. CoSTARiA TuRNERi (Grev.) ; var. pertusa : stipiti ex radice
ramosa piano in laminam longissimam (11 - 12-pedalem) lanceolatam
4-costatam bulloso-inflatam demum foraminibus pertusam expanso.

Straits of Sangar and Hakodadi Bay, Japan.

14. DiCTYOTA obtusangula: fronde anguste linear! incrassata
succulenta opaca decomposite dichotoma ; axillis omnibus latissime
rotundatis ; laciniis patentibus divaricatisve, supremis irregularibus,
apicibus obtusis nunc multifidis.

Loo Choo and Ousima. (Also common at the Friendly Islands.)
VOL. IV. 42

330 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY '

15. Odonthalia obtusangula : froncle plano-compressa in parte
superiori immerse costata lineari alterne decomposita, ramis distantibus
patentibus plus minus compositis juuioribus s^epe margine denticulatis,
ramulis alternis furcatis corymbosis erectis, laciniis ultimis anguste
subulatis ; axillis omnibus rotundatis apicibusque acutis.

Straits of Sangar, Japan ; floating.

16. Rytiphlcea complanata (Ag.) ; var. pusilla : fronde nana
complanata anguste lineari flabelliformi subfastigiata pinnatim decom-
posita, pinnis erecto-patentibus crebris pi. m. pinnatis, pinnulis subu-
latis alternis. — An. sp. distincta ?

Hakodadi, Japan.

17. Chondria crassicaulis : ironde crassissima succulenta vage
ramosa, ramis sparsis vel subverticillatis incrassatis flexuosis basi con-
strictis, ramulis sparsis fasciculatisve claviformibus obtusissimis basi
valde constrictis ; cystocarpiis ? — LaurencicB, sp. ? Harv. in Alg. Mor-
row, Japan Exped.

Japan : Simoda, Dr. Morrow ; Hakodadi.

18. PoLTSiPHONiA Stimpsoni: fronde capillai-i rigidiuscula vage
ramosa ; caule ramisque primarils corticatis arcuatis, ramis secundariis
horizontaliter patentibus divaricatisque subsecundis brevibus parum
ramulosis articulatis, ramulis subulatis patentibus, articulis diametro
aequalibus vel brevioribus 4-siplioniis, geniculis opacis ; ceramidiis ?

Japan ; dredged in Hakodadi Bay by 3Ir. Stimpson, the zoologist of
the Expedition.

19. PoLTSiPHONiA calacantha: fronde fuceseente capillari 4-
siphonia ecorticata vage ramosa, ramis sparsis flexuosis linearibus sira-
pliciusculisque per totam longitudinem ramulis brevissimis quadrifariis
horizontalibus divaricato-multifidis spinulosis confertissime onustis, ar-
ticulis brevissimis ; spinulis ramulorum apice fibrillifei'is. (Polysiph.
no. 13, Harv. Alg. Ceylon.)

Loo Choo Islands, and Tanegasima, Japan, south of Kiu-siu.

20. POLTSIPHONIA FLABELLULATA : pusilla, nigrcscens ; fronde
capillari flaccida brevi repetite dichotoma fastigiata, axillis acutis, apici-
bus vix attenuatis, articulis 6-siphoniis omnibus diametro brevioribus.

Tanegasima, Japan.

21. POLTSIPHONIA Harlandii : fronde 4-siphonia cortlcata tcssel-
lata setacea parum ramosa fuceseente, ramis virgatis simplicibus attenu-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 331

atis, ramulis quoquoversum egredientibus brevibus basi simpliclbus
nudis apice pluries furcatis fastigiatis, apicibus acutis, articulis ramulo-
rum pellucidis diametro subbrevioribus ; tetrasporis sub apice ramulo-
rum solitariis.
Hong Kong.

22. Wrangelia ? Tanegana : fronde corticata ; ramis quoquover-
sum egredientibus ramellis densissime vestitis, ramellis brevissimis ver-
ticillatis crassis bis terve furcatis mucronatis, articulis ramellorum
diametro gequalibus ad geuicula valde constrictis.

Tan egasima, Japan. — Fruit unknown : perhaps a Callithamnion or
Halurus.

23. Desmia Japonica: fronde latiuscula compresso-plana subfla-
belliformi decomposito-pinnata, pinnis irregulai'ibus lato-linearibus, pin-
nulis ina3qualibus subulatis, axillis omnibus rotundatis.

Simoda, Japan ; on rocks at low tide.

24. Gracilaeia gigas : fronde cartilagineo-carnosa crassissima
tereti siccitate collapsa elongata vage ramosa, ramis alternis secundisve
longissimis simpliciusculis nudis vel ramulis paucis filiformibus obsessis,
axillis rotundatis, apicibus attenuatis.

Simoda, Japan ; on rocks at low tide.

25. Gracilaria eucheumioides : fronde primaria decumbente
crassissima compressa vage et parce ramosa, ramis clava^formibus sim-
pliclbus vel apice furcatis compressis nudis vel hie illic tuberculis
onustis tunc erectiuscula pi. m. pinnatim ramosa, apicibus obtusis.
(Harv. Alg. Ins. Amic. no. 35.)

Ousima, and the proper Loo Choo Islands.

26. SuHRiA Japonica: fronde costa crassissima percursa lineari
(prolificationibus a costa et margine emissis) decomposite ramosa,
margine integerrimo ; sporophyllis ? sa3pius varie lobatis, apicibus ob-
tusissimis.

Simoda, Japan.

27. Caulacanthus compressus : fronde pusilla dichotomo-multi-
fida fastigiata, laciniis primariis sursum latioribus compressisque, stipite
ramulisque teretibus, axillis rotundatis, ramulis spinicformibus sparsis
patentibus simplicibus ramosisve.

Loo Choo Islands ; in rock-pools.

28. Galaxaura distenta : fronde tenui subcompressa continua

332 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

nitida decomposite dichotoma fastigiata, laciniis infra axillas cuneato-
dilatatis complanatis, axillis obtusis, apicibus perfossis.
Ousima, north of the Loo Choo group.

29. Gtmnogongrus ligulatus ; var. angustus : fronde stipitata
plano-compi'Bssa rigide cartilaginea flabelhformi lineari dichotoma, axil-
lis distantibus patentibus, ramis linearibus obtusis apice stepe proliferis.

Simoda, Japan ; on rocks at low tide.

30. GiGARTiNA lancifolia : stipite tereti-compresso ramoso ; ramis
basi compressis subcanaliculatis apice in folia lanceolata plana ciliata
utrinque spinulis conspersa desinentibus.

Hakodadi Bay, Japan ; on rocks at low tide.

31. GiGARTiNA AFFiNis : stipite tereti-compresso dichotomo ; ramis
frondes dichotomo-decompositas fastigiatas gerentibus, segmentis mar-
gine incrassatis subcanaliculatis pluries furcatis, laciniis linearibus,
apicibus obtusis ; papillis nuUis ? (Aff. G. mamillosce.)

With the preceding.

32. GiGARTiNA TENELLA : fronde pusilla compressa anguste lineari
distiche ramosa, ramis alternis sparsisve arcuatis attenuatis, ramulis
paucis subulatis patentibus stepius secundis, apicibus acutis.

Kaikai-sima, north of the proper Loo Choo group.

33. Halosaccion (Haloccelia) Japonicum, Harv. (charac.
emendato) : fronde simplicissima cartilaginea rigida basi et apice at-
tenuata ramulis crebris patentibus filifoi'mibus densissime obsessa.

Hakodadi, Japan.

34. Halosaccion (Haloccelia) Wrightii: fronde tenui-mem-
branacea flaccida simpliciuscula basi et apice attenuata pinnatim ramosa,
pinnis pinnulisque patentibus utrinque attenuatis acutis subdistichis.

Hakodadi, Japan.

35. Halosaccion (Haloccelia) intestinalis : fronde clavato-
intestingeformi longissima simplicissima basi attenuata apice obtusissima
coriacea ; strato peripherico crasso filis verticalibus constituto tetra-
sporas oblongas includente.

Arakamtchetchene Island, within Behring's Straits.

36. Gloiopeltis coliformis : fronde intestinaeformi membranacea
(filo centrali mox evanido) cava et inflata subsimplici basi et apice

I

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 333

attenuata nunc apice prolifera nunc furcata; cystocarpiis numero-
sissimis.

Japan {Dr. Bahington) : Ilakodadi and Straits of Sangar.

37. Endocladia complanata : fronde ex stipite tereti mox com-
pressa tunc complanata decomposite dichotoma, laciniis lato-linearibus
vel cuneatis ex margine et disco ramulos spinosos emittentibus margine
fimbriatis.

Simoda, Japan ; on rocks near high-water mark.

38. Caulerpa Amicorum : surculo crassiusculo glabro ; ramis
erectis basi nudis vage decomposite ramosis ramulis virgatis, ramentis
bi-trifariis subulatis incurvis acutis, inferioribus brevissimis conicis,
(Harv. Alg. Ins. Amic. no. 62.)

Ousima, north of the proper Loo Choo Islands. (Friendly Islands,
of larger size.)

39. Caulerpa brachtpus : surculo glabro ; phyllodiis subses-
silibus elliptico-oblongis basi et apice obtusissimis planis enervibus
integerrimis nunc hie illic constrictis vel proliferis.

Tanegasima, Japan.

HALICORYNE, Harv. (Nov. Gen.)

Frons calcareo-incrustata, claviformis, simplex, ex axi tubuliformi
monosiphonio continuo ramulisque verticillatis saccatis unicellulosis
demum sporiferis constituta. Sporae ex materia viridi ramulorum
vetustorum formatog, numerosse, sphtericse, nucleo denso viridi in peri-
dermide hyalino membranaceo incluso. — Alga habitu Dasyclado prox-
ima, fructu substantiaque diversa.

40. Halicortnne Wrightii. — Loo Choo Islands ; in muddy pools,
at low tide. Thinly incrusted with carbonate of lime.

41. Valonia Forbesii : cellula maxima pyriformi incurva basi in
stipite infundibuliformi attenuata.

Loo Choo Islands. (Also Ceylon.)

42. Enteromorpha ciERULESCENS : fronde ca3rulescente mem-
branacea longissime tubulosa vage ramosa, ramis filiformibus attenuatis
simiplicibus, ramulis sparsis setaceis.

Loo Choo Islands ; in stagnant pools of fresh water.

43. Cladophora "Wrightiana : maxima, ultra setacea ; fronde
stipitata rigide membranacea I'obusta trichotoma, ramis bis terve divisis

334 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

discretis erectis, ultimis virgatis; ramulis oppositis ternisve appressis
1 - 2-cellulosis ; articulis inferioribus diametro multoties ramulorum
5 - 10-plo longioribus ad genicula constrictis ; apicibus obtusis.
Simoda, Japan ; in rock-pools at low water.

44 Cladophora Stimpsoni : coespitosa, capillaris ; fronde tenui-
membranacea flaccida lajte virente di - trichotoma, axillis majoribus
iistantibus patentibusque, ramis pluries fui'catis, ramulis ad ramos
minores superiores SEepius pectinato-secundis longiusculis ; articulis in-
ferioribus longissimis filiformi-cylindraceis ; ramulorum diametro 5-8-
plo longioribus ad genicula subconstrictis ; apicibus subacutis.

Hakodadi Bay, Mr. Stimpson.

45. Cladophora densa: dense cjespitosa, fastigiata; fronde basi
radicante erecta stipitata biunciali capillari rigidiuscula dicbotoma ;
ramis pluries furcatis erectis, superioribus alternis sparsisve, araulis
paucis ; articulis primariis longissimis, cieteris diametro 5 — 10-plo lon-
gioribus ad genicula constrictis ; apicibus obtusis.

Hakodadi Bay, Japan ; on rocks at half-tide.

46. Cladophora fastigiata: casspitosa, nigro-viridis, basi radi-
cans ; fills vix uncialibus setaceis rigidis strictis trichotomis pluries
divisis fastigiatis, ramis ramulisque omnibus oppositis erectis vel ap-
pressis ; articulis diametro 8 - 10-plo longioribus, apicibus obtusis.

Loo Choo Islands.

47. Cladophora oligoclada : ctespitosa, Itetevirens, mollissima,
lubrica ; fills elongatis (3 — 4-uncialibus) capillaribus parcissime vage
et distanter ramosis, ramis longissimis simpliciusculis, ramulis secundis
brevissimis unicellulosis ; articulis ramorum diametro 4 - 6-plo longi-
oribus materie viridissima repletis pellucido-marginatis.

Loo Choo Islands.

48. Cladophora uncinella: pusilla, uncialis, densissime cKspi-
tosa, tetevirens ; fills trichotome ramosissimis capillaribus rigidiusculis ;
ramis primariis secundariisque oppositis, penultimis ramulisque falcato-
secundis crispatis ; ramulis valde hamatis ; articulis primariis diametro
pluries ramulorum 4 - 5-plo longioribus ; geniculis contractis.

Ousima, north of the proper Loo Choo Islands.

49. Cladophora polaris : crespitosa, lietevirens, mollis, nitlda ;
fills capillaribus strictissimis decomposite ramosis ; ramis ramulisque
erectis (axillis angustissimis), superioribus clavato-incrassatis succu-

I

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 335

lentis obtusissimis ; articulis inferioribus diametro 2 - 3-plo supremis
multoties longioribus.

Semiavinia Bay, Arctic Asia. (Also at Whalefish Islands, Davis's
Straits, and in the Arctic Ocean, lat. 76°, Dr. Lyall.)

50. RivuLARiA orACA: fronde (minori) vesiculosa difformi rigida
opaca nigro-viridi ; filis moniliformibus laxiusculis.
Loo Choo Islands.

51.-Ltngbta ATROVIRENS : cosspitibus longe fluitantibus atrovi-
rentibus comosis ; filis crassiusculis liberis glaucis densissime striatis ;
vagina crassa subopaca scepe rugosa.

Loo Choo Islands.

52. Lyngbya effusa : ca3spite effusa nigro-viridi ; filis semiunciali-
bus tenuibus intricatis flexuosis glaucis ; vagina angusta loevi.

Loo Choo Islands. An obscure production.

53. Lyngbya atropurpurea : coespite atropurpurea comosa ; filis
tenuissimis fluitantibus strictiusculis violaceis, striis inconspicuis. (Harv.
Alg. Ins. Amic. no. 118.)

Bonin Islands ; on corals. (Also at the Friendly Islands.)

54. Chroolepus Chinensis : majuscula, rupestris ; filis in ctespite
(2-unc.) tomentosa luteo-viridi siccitate pallide glaucescenti inter-
textis decumbentibus vage ramosis ; ramis horizontaliter patentibus
recurvis sa^pius secundis ; ramulis paucis multisve patentibus ; sporidiis
lateralibus sparsis ; articulis diametro duplo longioribus.

Hong Kong ; on damp rocks in the mountains.

Four Iiundred and seventy-lirst meeting.

November 9, 1859. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read several letters relative to
the exchanges of the Academy.

He also read a " Note upon the Allanite found at East
Bradford, Pennsylvania, by William Sharswood, A. M."

Professor Gabriel Valentin, of Berne, Switzerland, was
elected a Foreign Honorary Member in Class II. Section 2
(Botany).

336 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The following Associate Fellows were elected : —

Professor George C. Swallow of Columbia, Missouri, in
Class 11. Section 1 (Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of
the Globe).

Hon. Samuel G. Arnold, of Providence, in Class III. Sec-
tion 3 (Political Economy and History).

Edward B. Hunt, U. S. A., in Class I. Section 3 (Physics
and Chemistry).

The following Fellows were elected : —

Calvin Ellis, M. D., in Class II. Section 4 (Medicine and
Surgery).

Theodore Lyman, in Class 11. Section 3 (Zo(31ogy and
Physiology).

E. S. Ritchie, in Class I. Section 3 (Physics and Chem-
istry).

Professor Lovering inquired whether the following extracts
from Winthrop's History of New England do not indicate
the appearance of the Aurora in this country at a much earlier
date than that assigned to it in Holmes's Annals : —

" About raidniglit three men, coming in a boat to Boston, saw two
lights arise out of the water near the north point of the town cove, in
form like a man, and went at a small distance to the town, and to the
south point, and there vanished away." " The like was seen by many,
a week after."

In the second case : —

" A light, like the moon, arose about the northeast point in Boston,
and met the former at Nottles Island, and there they closed in one,
and then parted, and closed and parted divers times, and so went over
tlie hill in the island and vanished. Sometimes they shot out flames,
and sometimes sparkles."

This was on the 11th and 18th of April, 1643.

Professor Lovering, in behalf of the Committee of Publi-
cation, made the following report in regard to the printing of
Part I. of Volume II. of the Old Series of Memoirs, ordered
by the Academy at the last annual meeting.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 337

The Committee had directed 200 copies of this Part to be printed.
They had also found it necessary to print 200 copies of Judge Davis's
Eulogy upon Washington, belonging to the second part of the same
volume. This republication will enable the Academy at once to real-
ize 92 complete sets of the First Series of Memoirs ; and the reprint
hereafter, when the necessity arises, of another small portion, will
make complete 100 more sets. For there are in the possession of the
Academy 237 copies of Volume I. There are only 3 copies of Vol-
ume II. There are 18 additional copies of Part II. of that volume.
There are also 100 additional copies of Part II., with the exception
of Judge Davis's Eulogy on Washington. There are besides 68
extra copies of Plate I., 27 extra copies of Plate II. ; and the stone
on which the illustration of Dighton Rock is drawn is also in posses-
sion of the Academy. Of Volume III. there are 57 complete copies.
Then there are 64 separate copies of Part I. and 35 of Part II. Of
Volume IV. there are 245 complete copies ; and, in addition, 3 of
Part I. and 78 of Part II.

As the 24 additional pages to be printed, and the supply of three
woodcuts and a lithographed plate, have made the cost of republication
exceed by $50 the appropriation for this special purpose ($200), the
committee recommend that a subscription paper be opened to members
of the Academy for complete sets of the Old Series of Memoirs, at
$3 a volume, or S 12 the set. If 20 sets were purchased, the cost of
republication would be repaid to the Academy, and 72 complete sets
would remain immediately available.

Dr. Jenks gave an account of the organization of a literary
and scientific society at Shanghae.

Dr. J. B. S. Jackson exhibited a portion of a glass tube
which was accidentally broken while drawing a sponge through
to clean it ; one piece of which exhibited a very regular spiral
crack running from end to end.

Professor W. B. Rogers said he thought the direction of
the crack might result from an equality between the cohesive
attraction of the particles in a transverse and longitudinal
direction, causing the line of fracture to follow the diagonal
of these forces.

VOL. IV. 43

338 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Professor Levering suggested whether the nodal lines of
acoustic vibration had anything to do with the phenomenon.

Professor Peirce made an elaborate communication on the
tides.

Professor W. B. Rogers gave an account of some experi-
ments which he had been making on the phenomena of sub-
jective vision, to settle the question whether the two eyes
combined successively the different points of an object, as
Brewster supposed, or obtained an instantaneous recognition
of all parts at the same moment.

Mr. F. H. Storer read by title a " Memoir on the Alloys of
Copper and Zinc."

He also presented the following communication : —

On the Detection of Chrotnium in Presence of Iron.

It is customary, in the methods of analysis now most commonly em-
ployed in laboratories of instruction, to rely upon the solvent action
which the caustic alkalies exert upon hydrated sesquioxide of chromi-
um as a means of separating this base from the oxides closely allied to
it. It is well known, however, and the experiments of Northcote and
Church * have determined the fact quantitatively, that when a small
amount of sesquioxide of chromium is accompanied by a large quantity
of the oxides of manganese, cobalt, nickel, or of sesquioxide of iron, it
ceases to be soluble in the alkalies. From the frequency of its occur-
rence, as well as from the fact that it has the power of concealing a
larger amount of chromium than either of the other bases which have
been mentioned, the sesquioxide of iron in particular gives rise to
much inconvenience in practice. It is a constant source of annoyance
to beginners, who almost invariably fail to detect the presence of chro-
mium in solutions containing it given them for analysis, if these at the
same time contain iron also. In this case it may be detected, it is true,
by fusing the mixed precipitate of oxide of iron and of chromium
with nitrate of potash and carbonate of soda, and examining the aque-
ous solution of the mass obtained for chromic acid ; but the student
seldom applies this test, unless specially directed to do so. The oper-
ation is troublesome, since it necessitates the employment of a special

* Qu. J. Chem. Soc , VI. 53.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 339

set of tools, and occupies considerable time. It is as a rule distasteful
to the student, and is rarely resorted to even by experienced analysts,
unless the color of the solution, a preliminary blowpipe test, or some
incidental observation, has already indicated the probable presence of
chromium in the substance under examination.

It is obvious, that if the chromium in the mixed precipitate could be
oxidized in the wet way by some simple and rapid method, it would
not only be more readily detected in any case, but the chances of
overlooking it altogether — an event now so liable to occur — would be
materially lessened,

Frommherz * long ago noticed that chromic acid is formed when an
aqueous solution of a salt of chromium is treated with a solution of
permanganate of potash, — a fact which has since been corroborated
by Reynoso,t and still more recently by Cloez and Guignet.j Rey-
noso has suggested, moreover, that this reaction may be employed for
the detection of chromium, especially if the chromic acid formed be
subsequently converted into Barreswil's perchromic acid.

Chancel,§ on the other hand, has observed that chromic acid is
formed when sesquioxide of chromium is heated with solution of caustic
potash in presence of peroxide of lead ; as may be shown by acidify-
ing the filtrate from this mixture with acetic acid, chromate of lead
being precipitated. He has also proposed || that this reaction shall be
used as a test for the detection of chromiuni.

After a number of experiments upon the subject, I have satisfied
myself that peroxide of lead is as good an agent as any at our disposal,
if it is not the best, for effecting the oxidation of sesquioxide of chro-
mium by the wet way, while the formation of perchromic acid is un-
questionably the most delicate and characteristic reaction for chromic
acid which we possess. This note, therefore, must be considered as
being merely supplementary to the statements of Chancel and Reynoso.

Besides the observations of these chemists are those of Balard,^

* Schweigger's Journal f. Ch. u. Phys., 1824, XLI. 281.
t Ann. Ch. et Phys., 1851, (3), XXXIII. 324.
t Comptes Eendus, XL VII. 712.
§ Comptes Eendus, XLIII. 928.

II Loc. cit , and Precis d' Analyse Chimique Qualitative, par Gerhardt et Chancel,
(Paris, 1855,) pp. 112, 289.
1 Ann. Ch. et Phys. (2), LVII. 266.

340 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

that oxide of chromium is immediately changed to chromic acid when
treated with a solution of hypochlorous acid ; and of Carney,* who
has found that chromic acid is produced when a galvanic current is
caused to flow through a dilute solution of caustic alkali in which ses-
quioxide of chi'omium, even that which has been ignited, is suspended.

For my own part, I have observed that sesquioxide of chromium
may be converted into chromic acid in the wet way by the agency of
several substances besides those already mentioned, and that the pres-
ence of free alkali, so far from being necessary, as has been implied by
previous observers, with the exception perhaps of Frommherz, is not
by any means essential in most instances to the success of the opera-
tion, oxidation occurring very readily in several cases in strongly acid
solutions.

A dilute solution of chrome alum — which by experiment was as-
certained to contain no chromic acid — was acidulated with sulphuric
acid, a little peroxide of lead was added, and the whole boiled ; on-
filtering, the solution was found to be of a yellow color, and readily
afforded the reaction of chromic acid when tested with dilute solution
of peroxide of hydrogen, viz. a magnificent blue coloration due to the
formation of perchromic acid.

A solution of permanganate of potash, acidulated with dilute sul-
phuric acid, being substituted for the peroxide of lead in the preceding
experiment, produced a similar result. Peroxide of manganese also
replaces perfectly the peroxide of lead in this experiment.

It is not even necessary that these mixtures should be heated.
Dilute solution of chrome alum, acidulated with sulphuric acid, and
mixed with a small portion of peroxide of lead, having been allowed
to stand in the cold, was found to contain traces of chromic acid at the
end of half an hour ; after standing eighteen hours, a considerable
quantity of chromic acid had formed.

A similar solution, in which peroxide of manganese was used instead
of the peroxide of lead, gave a fine reaction of chromic acid at the end
of eighteen hours.

A quantity of solution of permanganate of potash, acidulated with
dilute sulphuric acid, having been added to a dilute solution of chrome
alum, also acidulated with sulphuric acid, retained its purple color after

* Proceedings of Boston Society of Natural History, VI. 409.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 341

having stood in the cold during twenty-four hours ; at the end of this
time, bits of paper were introduced in order to destroy this color, after
effecting which, the solution was tested : it contained no inconsiderable
amount of chromic acid.

The foregoing experiments were all repeated, with almost absolutely
identical results, with solutions prepared by dissolving chemically pure
hydrated sesquioxide of chromium in dilute sulphuric acid. The for-
mation of chromic acid in the cold may have been a little less rapid
in this case than in the experiments with chrome alum ; the mixture
containing peroxide of lead, however, afforded an abundance of it
when tested after having stood two hours, and still more at the end of
twenty-four hours. That containing peroxide of manganese also gave
a fine reaction of chromic acid after standing twenty-four hours. The
trial with acidulated permanganate of potash was not tested until the
purple color of the solution had disappeared ; this was found to have
occurred after the expiration of forty-eight hours ; the solution was
then yellow, and afforded the reaction of chromic acid.

Sesquioxide of chromium, dissolved in dilute nitric acid, is also con-
verted into chromic acid when the solution is boiled with peroxide of lead,
with peroxide of manganese, or with a solution of permanganate of pot-
ash acidified with dilute nitric acid ; minium produced the same result,
though somewhat more slowly. This action is much less rapid in the
cold ; the sample tested with permanganate of potash contained chromic
acid after having stood during twenty-four hours ; the solution to which
peroxide of lead had been added assumed a decided yellow color, and
afforded the reaction of chromic acid after standing three or four days ;
but the portion which had been mixed with black oxide of manganese
gave rto^ indication of chromic acid when examined at the end of the
fifth day.

When dilute chlorhydric acid is used, instead of the sulphuric or
nitric acids of the preceding experiments, similar results are obtained ;
at least with peroxide of manganese and with solution of chameleon
mineral, both in the cold and when heated. "With peroxide of lead,
however, the results are less satisfactory. I have not been able to
obtain any decisive indication of the formation of chromic acid in this
experiment, but at the same time am not sure that minute traces of
it may not have been present. The conversion of the peroxide into
chloride of lead apparently interferes with the production of chromic
acid.

342 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

In concentrated sulphuric acid sesquioxide of chromium is evidently
slowly converted into chromic acid by the action of peroxide of lead,
even in the cold, since the solution becomes yellow after standing
eighteen or twenty-four hours. This action is very rapid if the mix-
ture be heated, a fine yellow solution being obtained at once. I have,
nevertheless, found it somewhat difficult to prove the presence of
chromic acid in this solution, since it appears to be decomposed when
diluted with water. '

With peroxide of manganese, a yellowish solution is also readily
obtained by boiling. In the cold, no reaction could be perceived at
the end of five days.

"When a solution of sesquioxide of chromium in concentrated sul-
phuric acid is boiled with a small quantity of chlorate of potash, chro-
mic acid is formed. With very dilute sulphuric acid, this does not at
once occur ; but after boiling for some time, the acid becomes more
concentrated, and a portion of the chromium is then oxidized. Nitrate
of potash produces no similar result when used instead of the chlorate
in this experiment.

When dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, sesquioxide of chromium
is slowly oxidized by peroxide of lead in the cold, abundant indications
of it having been obtained at the end of eighteen hours. The reaction
occurs at once if the acid be boiled. Minium also, when boiled with
solution of sesquioxide of chromium in concentrated nitric acid, rap-
idly converts it into chromic acid. With peroxide of manganese, no
chromic acid was obtained, either by boiling or after standing in the
cold during a week. When a solution of sesquioxide of chromium in
concentrated nitric acid is boiled with a small quantity of chlorate of
potash, the chromium is rapidly and completely converted into chromic
acid. With very dilute nitric acid this does not occur. Nitrate of
potash having been substituted for the chlorate in this experiment, no
chromic acid was formed.

With concentrated chlorhydric acid and the above-mentioned oxi-
dizing agents, only negative results were obtained. As a general rule,
it is not easy to oxidize sesquioxide of chromium in the presence of
free chlorhydric acid, — a fact which accords with the well-known re-
ducing action exerted by this acid upon solutions of chromic acid or of
its salts.*

* Vid. Rose, Handbuch der analytischen Chemie, I. 355 (Braunschweig, 1851).

I

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 343

When dissolved, or merely suspended in dilute aqueous solutions of
the fixed alkalies, sesquioxide of chromium is readily converted, even
in the cold, into chromic acid, by the action of the peroxide of lead and
of manganese, by permanganate of potash, and with peculiar rapidity
and comjileteness by Bromine. The application of heat favors the
reaction in each of these instances. Iodine, also, at least when the
mixture is heated, appears to behave like bromine ; the oxidation is,
however, much less rapid. Chromic acid is also formed when red oxide
of mercury or hypochlorite of lime is heated with a mixture of ses-
quioxide of chromium and solution of caustic alkali; none was ob-
tained by the action of stannic or of arsenic acid, nor can minium be
used in place of peroxide of lead, since it does not appear to exert any
oxidizing action upon sesquioxide of chromium when in presence of
the alkalies.

When mixed with ammonia, oxide of chromium is readily oxidized
by peroxide of lead, peroxide of manganese, or by solution of chame-
leon, the free alkali of which has been neutraUzed, if heat be applied.
A similar oxidation also occurs, though slowly, in the cold. With bro-
mine no chromic acid was obtained, — a result not at all surprising, in
view of the violent reaction which occurs when this substance is mixed
with ammonia.

In studying the reactions which have just been described, I was met
at the outset by the difficulty that none of the tests for chromic acid —
viz. precipitation of sparingly soluble chromates of the metallic oxides —
which are in common use were sufficiently delicate for the purpose.
Indeed, besides the yellow color of solutions of the chromates, which is
of course far from being characteristic, there is no test for traces of
this acid which is susceptible of rapid and general application, except-
ing the formation of perchromic acid by means of peroxide of hydro-
gen. Having, like Reynoso, been compelled to resort to this reaction,
I have found it incomparably more sensitive and characteristic than
any of the other tests for chromic acid. Taken in connection with
the yellow color of solutions containing chromates, it affords a test of
remarkable delicacy. It depends, in brief, upon the fact, that when a
solution containing chromic acid is poured into a dilute * solution of per-

* It is of the first importance that the sohitioiis used should be dilute, since no
perchromic acid is formed in concentrated solutions ; or if formed, it is decomposed
again instantly.

344 PROCEEDINGS OF TUE AMERICAN ACADEMY

oxide of hydrogen, perchromic acid is formed ; this imparts a beautiful,
though exceedingly evanescent, blue color to the solution. The per-
chromic acid is soluble in ether, which removes it from its solution in
water without injuring its color, which indeed disappears far less rap-
idly from the ethereal than from the aqueous solution.

The details of the process to be followed in applying this test may
be found in Barreswil's Memoir upon Perchromic Acid.*

I have obtained satisfactory results by operating as follows. A so-
lution of impure pei'oxide of hydrogen is prepared by triturating per-
oxide of barium with water in a porcelain mortar, and pouring the
thin paste obtained by small portions into a quantity of common chlor-
hydric acid, which has previously been diluted with four or five parts
of water, the latter being agitated meanwhile with a glass rod. The
solution thus obtained may be kept for a considerable time without
undergoing change. I have not, for that matter, noticed any decom-
position in those with which I have operated.

A piece of peroxide of bai'ium as large as a pea is more than suffi-
cient to prepare 150 cubic centimetres of the solution. In testing,
some six or eight cubic centimetres of the solution of peroxide of hy-
drogen are to be placed in a narrow test-tube, and covered with a
layer of ether about half a centimetre in thickness. The solution sus-
pected to contain chromic acid is now to be poured little by little into
the solution of peroxide of hydrogen, the tube which contains the
latter being closed with the thumb, and gently inverted after each ad-
dition, so that the ether may dissolve the perchromic acid as fast as it
forms. All violent agitation of the mixture is to be avoided, since it
tends to hasten the destruction of the blue color. The result of the
test can hardly be deemed satisfactory, unless a blue ethereal solution
is obtained, for many of the salts of chromium impart a bluish-purple
color to their aqueous solutions. Since this color is persistent, how-
ever, it cannot be confounded in any case with the fugitive blue of
perchromic acid, although it might at times conceal the latter so long
as it remained dissolved in the water ; for the rest, it is absolutely in-
soluble in ether.

One or two experiments regarding the delicacy of the reaction may
be mentioned in this connection. A solution containing one part of

* Ann. Ch. et Phys. (3), XX. 364.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 345

noi'mal cliromate of potash in 20,000 parts of water afforded a per-
fectly distinct blue ethereal solution of perchromic acid, when tested
with peroxide of hydrogen as above described. A solution of one
part chromate of potash in 30,000 parts of water also gave a distinct
reaction, though the blue color was less deep than in the preceding ex-
periment. With 40,000 parts of water the reaction was faint, though
still discernible ; as much so, perhaps, as the yellow of the aqueous so-
lution of the chromate.

I have also detected, by means of this test, the presence of chromic
acid in the aqueous solution of a bead, of ordinary size, obtained by
fusing sesquioxide of chromium with borax in a loop of platinum wire
in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe. Plattner * had already sup-
posed that the yellowish color, which compounds of chromium impart
to borax in the oxidizing flame, was due to formation of chromic acid.
It is doubtful, however, whether the fact has been previously experi-
mentally proved.

Several experiments have also been made in order to ascertain
whether the presence of peroxide of iron would interfere with the
oxidation of the sesquioxide of chromium. "Weighed portions of pro-
tosulphate of iron were boiled with nitric acid in order to oxidize the
iron, and mixed with weighed portions of clirome alum ; the solutions
were then treated with a slight excess of caustic ammonia, and boiled.
After washing the precipitates formed, they were subjected to the
action of oxidizing agents.

I have operated upon mixtures composed of: —

No. 1.

Grammes.

OO FeOS03 + 7aq ^

Grammes. Per cent.

FeOu

0.8633 or 84.81

1.00 KOSO3; Cr^Os, 3 S03 + 24aq^

Cr^Oa

0.1546 or 15.19

No. 2.

3.00 FeOS03 + 7aq •)

FeOi,

0.8633 or 91.78

0.50 KOSO3; Cr2 03,3 S03 + 24aqi

Cr^Os

0.0773 or 8.22

No. 3.

5.00 FeOS03 + 7aq ^

FeOu

1.4389 or 97.38

0.25 KOSO3; Cr203,3 S03 + 24aqJ^

Cr^Oa

0.0387 or 2.62

* ProBirkunst mit dem Loethrohre, von Plattner, (Leipzig, 1853,) S. 144.
VOL. IV. 44

346 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

No. 4.
Grammes.

10.00 FeOS03 + 7aq ^

0.25 KOSO3; Cr^Oa, 3 SO3+ 24aql

Grammes. Per cent.

FeOu

2.8777 or 98.73

Cr^Oa

0.0387 or 1.27

FeOu

5.7554 or 99.33

Cr,03

0.0387 or 0.G7

No. 5.
20.00 FeOS03 + 7aq ]

0.25 KOSO3; 0-2 03,3 SO3 + 24 aq!

Portions of the precipitate produced by ammonia in each of these
solutions were dissolved in chlorhydric acid, and a part of this solution
was treated with an excess of cold potash lye of sp. gr. = 1.305 ; an
excess of caustic soda of sp. gr. = 1.07 being added to another por-
tion. After standing in the cold, out of contact with the air, during
eighteen hours, the alkaline mixtures were filtered, and the filtrates
thoroughly boiled. No precipitate of sesquioxide of chromium was
produced in any of them, nor did these filtrates afford any chromic
acid when boiled with peroxide of lead.

Other portions of the moist original precipitates were dissolved in
chlorhydric acid, and these solutions treated with a slight excess of
dilute caustic soda. A small quantity of peroxide of lead was now
added to the mixture, and the whole thoroughly boiled during two or
thi*ee minutes. On filtering, yellow-colored solutions were obtained in
every instance, and on testing these with peroxide of hydrogen the
characteristic reaction of chromic acid was very distinct in each.

The oxide of chromium in other portions of all of the original pre-
cipitates was also readily oxidized by boiling them with bromine in
presence of free alkali, as well as by dissolving them in concentrated
nitric acid, and boiling this solution with chlorate of potash. The
presence of chromium was, moreover, readily detected in Nos. 1 and 2
by boiling a mixture of precipitate and alkali with peroxide of man-
ganese, or with permanganate of potash ; but as these substances are
evidently less conveniently applied than the others which I have men-
tioned, no further experiments were made with them.

It should perhaps be stated, that the experiments upon the precipi-
tate from mixture No. 5 were made upon portions of it weighing two
or three grammes, the entire weight of the moist precipitate being
something more than a hundred grammes.

Among the various agents capable of oxidizing oxide of chromium

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 347

when in presence of sesquioxide of iron, it is not at first sight easy to
decide which one should be preferred to the others for common use.
Bromine in presence of the alkalies appears to be the most powerful
of them, but since the acid solution of peroxide of hydrogen, which
is used in testing, would react upon any bromide which might have
been formed in the alkaline solution, bromine would be liberated, and,
by imparting its color to the ether, would obscure the reaction. A
similar objection applies of course to iodine. This difficulty is easily
overcome by neutralizing the alkali with nitric acid, and boiling for
a few minutes to expel the bromine : an objection to this process, how-
ever, is the fact that the solution is considerably diluted thereby.

Chlorate of potash, with concentrated nitric acid, is in some respects
a very convenient agent : objections to it are, that some of the products
of the decomposition of the chlorate which remain in the solution,
appear to interfere with the formation of perchromic acid ; moreover,
if any nitrate of chromium remain unoxidized in the solution, it will
impart a bluish-purple tint to the aqueous solution of peroxide of hy-
drogen, which, though insoluble in ether, often interferes very materially
with the detection ©f the color of perchromic acid, if only traces of
the latter are present. This remark applies to any process of oxidation
in which nitric acid is employed. Both of these difficulties can gener-
ally be avoided by diluting the nitric acid solution with water, and
using a quantity of ether somewhat larger than is usually necessary
In any case where hyponitric acid is generated, it dissolves in the
ether, and may conceal the blue color of perchromic acid.

Black oxide of manganese is not only a less energetic oxidizing
agent than pm'oxide of lead, but the chromate formed in its presence
does not color the solution so strongly. The latter remark applies also
to permanganate of potash, another objection to which is the necessity
of destroying its own color whenever it has been used in excess, be-
fore testinsf for chromic acid.

On the other hand, the reagent of Chancel, peroxide of lead, is capa- .
ble, as I have shown, of oxidizing sesquioxide of chromium, even
when in presence of an enormous excess of peroxide of iron. It has
none of the disadvantages of the other substances to which allusion
has been made, and is especially to be preferred, since the chromate
formed in its presence imparts an intense yellow color to the alkaline
solution.

I

348 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

It must be remembered, however, that this coloration, although a
very delicate, is by no means a characteristic test,* and that the pres-
ence of even considerable quantities of chromic acid cannot be de-
tected in the solution by the methods in common use. For example
the yellow-colored filtrate obtained after having boiled a portion of the
precipitate from mixture No. 3 (which contained more than 2.5 per
cent of sesquioxide of chromium) with a solution of caustic soda and
some peroxide of lead, was slightly acidified with acetic acid, care
being taken not to dilute the solution unnecessarily. No precipitate
was formed even after the lapse of forty-eight hours ; the solution still
retained its yellow color, however, and afforded a fine blue ethereal
solution when treated with peroxide of hydrogen. Even in experi-
ment No. 1, the yellow alkaline solution of chromate of lead gave no
immediate precipitate when neutralized with acetic acid, nor did any
appear until after the lapse of considerable time.

When concentrated alkaline solutions are used in conjunction with
the peroxide of lead, it is best to acidify them, before testing with
peroxide of hydrogen, since the reaction might otherwise be disturbed.
This is not necessary, however, when dilute alkali is used.

The methods of oxidizing chromium which have been discussed in
this article are of course applicable to a great variety of cases. I
have only specially treated of the one in which this oxide is concealed
by an excess of peroxide of iron, since an improvement upon the ordi-
nary processes seems to be peculiarly needed in this instance. It will
be found, however, that, with the exception of the blowpipe tests, none
of the methods for the detection of chromium which are now in use
can be compared with the one herein proposed.

An apparent objection to this process is the doubt which suggests
itself whether peroxide of hydrogen may not be capable, under some
circumstances, of producing perchroraic acid when mixed with solu-
tions, not only of chromic acid, but also of simple sesquioxide of
chromium. It is indeed somewhat strange that this should not be
the case. I have not, however, been able to effect such transforma-
tion, although I have made a large number of experiments with so-
lutions and mixtures of the sesquioxide in the mineral acids and in
alkalies, under the most varied conditions as regards their temperature

* It is probable that by the use of the prism, as proposed by Gladstone (Qu. J. Ch.
See., X. 79), these colored solutions might be satisfactorily tested for chromic acid.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 349

and state of concentration. In short, I have seen nothing which mili-
tates in the least against the accui*acy of the test.

It is true that, when peroxide of barium is itself added to a solution
of sesquioxide of chromium in caustic alkali, and the whole is boiled,
a certain quantity of chromic acid is obtained. I have not been able to
procure any, however, by operating in the cold.

With caustic ammonia and peroxide of barium, the chromium is
gradually converted into a violet ammonia-chromium base in the cold.
On boiling the original mixture, a quantity of chromate of baryta is
formed. But when in solution in acids, sesquioxide of chromium does
not appear to be converted into chromic acid by the action of peroxide
of barium, either in the cold or when heated.

Four hundred, and seventy-second meeting.

November 22, 1859. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters of acceptance
from the Hon. S. G. Arnold of Providence, and Captain E.
B. Hunt, United States Engineer, who were elected Fellows
at the last stated meeting.

Mr. C. B. Elliott read a paper upon

The Influence of Legislation on Registration in Massachusetts.

The results in the following table are deductions from data fur-
nished by the Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Commonwealth,
relating to the registry and return of births, deaths, and marriages in
Massachusetts for the seven years from May 1st, 1841, to April 30th,
1848 (inclusive) ; for the nine years from January 1st, 1849, to De-
cember 31st, 1857 (inclusive); and from data furnished by the na-
tional enumerations of the population of the State made in the years
1840 and 1850, and the State enumeration of 1855.

The table exhibits the ratios of the births, the deaths, and the mar-
riages, registered in each of the years above mentioned, to the popula-
tion, estimated for the middle of each year. Also, the average of each
class of these ratios for the two years immediately preceding the op-

350 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

eration of the act of the Legislature approved in 1844 ; the average for
the Jive years intervening between the operation of the act of 1844 and
that of 1849 ; and the average for the eiffht or for the nme years follow-
ing the act of 1849. It also presents, for comparison with the foregoing,
like ratios for one hundred and sixty-six towns of Massachusetts in 1855,
which towns comprise about two thirds of the population of the State,
and which were selected, as furnishing trustworthy data, as the basis of
the construction of a Life Table for the State.* The table also shows
the greatest, the least, and the average ratios for England for the nine-
teen years 1838-56, the period during which an efficient system of
registration has there been in operation.

Inspection of these results shows that the passage of the acts of
1844 and 1849 produced an immediate and marked influence on the
completeness of the returns ; and also that the ratios, when not dis-
turbed by legislative enactments, remain comparatively constant, year
by year. These observations lead to the conviction, that, by judi"
cious legislation at the present time, the returns for the year 18 GO, and
all subsequent years, may be rendered so perfect, that cases will sel-
dom or never escape notice.

The ratios of the births, deaths, and marriages actually occurring in
the State to the population of the State, probably do not greatly differ
from those indicated by the returns of the one hundred and sixty-six
towns in 1855 ; that is, thirty-one (31.2) births, twenty-one (21.4)
deaths, and twelve (12.4) marriages to every thousand persons living.
It will be observed that the legislation of 1844 improved the record of
births, but rendered still more defective the record of deaths and of
marriages ; the average of the annual ratios of the number of births
to one thousand persons living, advancing from eleven to eighteen, but
that of deaths receding from thirteen to eleven, and that of marriages
from seven to six. The legislation of 1849 appears to have improved
tlie returns of each of the three classes of events ; advancing the
average of the rates of registered births from eighteen to twenty-nine,
of registered deaths from eleven to eighteen, and of registered mar-
riages from six to eleven to every thousand persons living.

Accepting the returns of the one hundred and sixty-six selected
towns of 1855 as furnishing just standards for comparison, it appears

* See Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Montreal Meeting, 1857, p. 51.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

351

that during the eight years 1850-57, eight per cent of the births,
and ten (10.5) per cent of the marriages, and during the nine years
19)^^ - 61 , fourteen per cent of the deaths occurring in the State
escaped registration. These deficiencies do not appear to have been
uniform throughout the State, many of the towns making apparently
full and trustworthy returns, while those of other towns are manifestly
so incomplete as to be of little value.

Few will be likely to estimate too highly the importance of a perfect
system for the registration of the births, the deaths, and the marriages
which occur in the State ; — first, historically and judicially, as facili-
tating the legal descent of heritable property, and as determining the
settlements of certain citizens (the latter now a source of frequent and
vexatious litigation between towns) ; and, secondly, statistically, as af-
fording fit material for the construction of life tables, not only for the
entire State, but also for different localities, classes, and pursuits, and
for the solution of many practical questions, the interest of which is
not limited to the people of our own State or hemisphere.

Ratios of the Births, Deaths, and Marriages, annually registered in
Massachusetts, to 1000 Persons living at the Middle of each Tear ;
also, the Average, the Greatest, and the Least Ratios for England
for the Nineteen Year's 1838-56.

Year.

Births.

Deaths.

Marriages.

Number of
Report.

May 1, 1841, to April

30, 1842, inclusive,

1842-3

11.1
10.9

12.3
13.3

7.4
7.3

I.
II.

Act approved March 16, 1844.

1843-4
1844-5
1845-6
1846-7
1847 - 8

17.9
18.3

18.7
18.9
17.8

10.3
10.3
10.5
12.1
12.1

5.2
5.7
6.0
6.0
5.7

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

Act approved May 2, 1849.

1849
1850
1851

1852

26.5

27.8
28.0
28.3

21.0
16.7
18.5
17.6

7.1
10.4
11.7
11.0

VIII.

IX.

X.

XL

352

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Year.

Births.

Deaths,

Marriages.

28.6

18.8

11.9

28.9

19.3

12.4

28.9

18.3

10.9

29.7

17.8

10.6

29.7

17.9

9.9

Number of
Report.

1853
1854
1855
1856
1857

XII.
XIIL
XIV.

XV.
XVI.

Average of tioo years
before Act of 1844,

Average of five years
before Act of 1849,

Average of eight years,
1850-57,

Births.

11.0
18.3

28.7

Deaths.

12.8

11.1

9 years, 1849-57.

18.4

Marriages.

7.3

5.7

11.1

Massachusetts.

166 towns, 1855

31.2

21.4

12.4

England and Wales.

Nineteen

years
1858-56,

( Average,
■< Greatest,
( Least,

32.9

34.5 (1856)

30.3 (1838)

22.4

25.1 (1849)

20.5 (1856)

8.2

8.9 (1853)
7.3 (1842)

Professor Peirce explained the principles involved in esti-
mating the actual value of the property of life assurance
companies.

Professor G. P. Bond stated that he had received from
England a successful photograph of Donati's comet, taken
near London by a common camera. It represented the nu-
cleus with a small part of the tail.

Professor Cooke made some remarks upon Mr. Storer's
paper on the Alloys of Zinc and Copper (presented at the
previous meeting), and illustrated the bearing of the facts
determined by Mr. Storer, and of others observed by him-
self, upon his view of the variation of chemical force.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 353

Four liuudred and seventy-third nneetiiig.

December 13, 1859. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Professor James Hall made a detailed communication upon
the fossil Crustacea of the genus Eurppterus, DeKay, its spe-
cies, and their geological relations ; illustrated by a full suite
of specimens, and by drawings.

Professor Agassiz discoursed upon the morphology of ihe
genus Euri/pterus, and its place in the zoological system. He
considered it an undoubted member of the family to which
Trilobites belong, and of which the genus Limulus is the pres-
ent representative.

Chief Justice Shaw read a paper upon the use of granite
as a building material, and upon the introduction of the
present mode of working it : —

The discussions which have recently taken place respecting the Han-
cock House have revived my recollections of the history of stone masonry
and the use of gi'anite as a building material in Boston, and offer an oc-
casion for stating vrhat appears to me to have been an important dis-
covery in the art of w^orking granite within a comparatively brief period.
It was said, I believe, of a great man of antiquity, as one of his highest
claims to the gratitude of his countrymen, that he found the city of
brick, and left it of marble. We think that every one feeling just
sentiments of pride for the beauty, permanency, and grandeur of the
city of his home, in the taste and utility of its public and private
buildings, must take a deep interest in knowing the value, cheapness,
and excellence of the building materials within its power for practical
use. The vast number and magnificence of the granite buildings
recently erected in various parts of the city increases the interest we
naturally feel, in knowing the steps which have led to this extension
of the art, by which granite is brought into use. My main object is to
state a fact respecting it which I have never seen stated, which appears
to me to be not generally known, and which came to my knowledge
under such circumstances as to command my belief.

It is believed that, although granite has always abounded near Bos-
ton, it was not till some time in the earlier part of the last century

VOL. IV. 45

354 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADExMY

that it was used for the building material of houses, but was used only
for wharves, cellars, and wells, where smooth and even walls were not
required. It is believed that during the first century of the existence
of Boston, when smooth building-stone was required to be used with
brick building, as for basements, corners, window-frames, or the like,
freestone was used, being the red-sandstone of Connecticut River.

At some time between the end of the first quarter and the middle of
the eighteenth century, that is, now a little more than one hundred years
ago, the practice of stone-hewing and hammering for the working of
granite was first introduced into Massachusetts by German emigrants.
It is understood that Brigadier-General Waldo brought a colony of
German emigrants from their native country, a large number of whom
settled at a place called Germantown, then in the town of Braintree,
now Quincy. A large part of this colony proceeded, under the care of
General Waldo, to Maine, and settled in a new township thence called
Waldoborough, from which many settlers of German origin spread into
other towns in Maine.

The Germans who remained in Braintree introduced several branches
of the mechanic arts, which had not before been in use in this coun-
try. That of stocking-weaving was one ; it was there introduced, and
has been practised by their descendants until within a few years, if it
is not continued to the present time.

Another of the arts was glass-making, which was probably the first
establishment of glass-works in this part of the country. They man-
ufactured glass-ware and toys, and it is believed window-glass, though
the glass was not sufficiently clear and transparent for good window-
glass, and the business was mainly confined to green-glass bottles and
other green-glass articles. Many families had quantities of bottles
made and stamped with the family name on the bottle. Such a one
is there occasionally seen.

But what is more material to my present purpose is, that this class
of German artisans first introduced into this country the practice of
preparing hewn or hammered stone, wrought to a plain surface, suf-
ciently straight and smooth to make a regular wall. The process
as then practised by them, and those who were instructed by them,
was understood to be extremely laborious, and of course expensive,
as the expense depended wholly on the amount of labor required for
preparing it. Without describing the process precisely, which I do not

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, 355

understand sufficiently to do, I understand the first thing to be done
was, if the rock was in a quarry, to blast out a portion of it by gun-
powder. By this process, fragments would come out in all sorts of
irregular forms, as by mere chance. The business of the workman then
was to take the pieces of more regular form, and reduce them to
smaller and more regular shapes, as wanted for building. This is
done by cutting a groove on a straight line with a hammer made with
a cutting edge like that of a common axe, then striking it with a very
heavy iron beetle on each side of the groove alternately, until it would
crack,- generally in the line of such groove. This would sometimes
split in a line nearly straight through, though it would often be irregu-
lar. In this mode, by dividing and subdividing, the pieces were
brought as nearly as practicable to the dimensions required ; and then
all the irregularities of surface must be removed by hard hewing with
very heavy instruments.

In this state of the trade, although stone might be got out and
dressed and made suitable for building, yet few buildings were erected,
probably on account of the great expense. Some of our older inhabi-
tants may perhaps recollect the stone house at what is now the corner
of Tremont and Somerset Streets, long the hospitable mansion of Jere-
miah Allen, Esq., a former Sheriff of SuiFolk, and celebrated for the
number of good dinners given there. There was another granite
house on School Street next below the Chapel, owned by John Lowell,
Esq., who removed it and erected Barristers' Hall on the same site.
But by far the most conspicuous dwelling was the Hancock House,
still standing, built by Mr. Thomas Hancock. He was a native of
Braintree, became a wealthy merchant, and probably chose to gratify
his townsmen and himself by adopting, as the material for his sumptuous
dwelling, one of these staples of his native town, without much regard
to the cost. He was the uncle of John Hancock, and, dying without
children, gave the house to him. Governor Hancock had been erect-
ing a house for himself at the corner of Court and Tremont Streets,
but having received from his uncle a gift of the Hancock House, about
the time his own was ready for occupation, it is believed he never lived
in the one he built.

One other granite building of the same period, the most important of
all, remains to be referred to, — the " King's Chapel." This was com-
menced in 1752 and finished about 1755 or 1756. It was built entirely

356 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of hammered stone obtained from the North Common in Braintree, cor-
responding nearly if not exactly with the present granite quarries in
Quincy. It was designed as an Episcopal Chui'ch for the accommo-
dation of the king's officers, of the Provincial government, revenue
officers, and Provincial gentry ; and was intended, in its sumptuous
character, to be as near an approximation as possible to an English
church, and was very properly denominated the " King's Chapel."

When this work was finished, it was the wonder of the country
round. People coming from a distance made it an object to see and
admire this great structure. The wonder was that stone enough could
be found in the vicinity of Boston fit for the hammer to construct such
an entii"e building. But it seemed to be universally conceded, that
enough more like it could not be found to build such another.

The stone-trade and stone-quarrying remained nearly in the same
condition, it is believed, until about the end of the last century. Soon
after that time, an extraordinary change took place; buildings of
wrought granite, both the light-colored granite of Chelmsford and
Tyngsboro' and the dark granite of Quincy, were used in erecting
private and public buildings ; a new spring was given to the busi-
ness of getting out stone, which has continued to the present time.
During the first few years of the present century, many new private
buildings were erected; in 1810 or 1811 the Court-IIouse in School
Street was built, after a plan by Mr. Bulfinch ; in 1814, the church on
Church Green, Summer Street, was completed, and many others fol-
lowed in regular succession up to the present time ; and now the city
seems rapidly filling with structures of granite of the most sumptuous
character.

It becomes a most interesting inquiry to what this great change can
be attributed. To call the attention of the public to this point, is the
sole purpose of this communication.

I have always understood that the change was caused by the art of
splitting granite with small wedges, which was unknown here till about
the time in question. This art, apparently not difficult, or requiring
any great skill, was yet of so great importance as to facilitate the
working of granite, and reduce the cost to such a degree, as to render
it a comparatively cheap building material, regard being had to its
strength, durability, and beauty.

The process, now so familiar, is a simple one, requiring no compli-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 357

cated apparatus, and no unusual skill or force when once known.
But if, as it is supposed, it has produced these great changes, fur-
nished the community with a most excellent building material at a
cheap rate, and has filled our city with the permanent and sumptuous
structures which are everywhere rising to constitute one of its chief
ornaments, it seems an object of laudable curiosity to ascertain its
origin and introduction, to learn who invented or first practised it, or
whether it was in use elsewhere, and brought here, and by whom.

This brings me to my main purpose, a statement given by the late
Governor Robbins of Milton, as to the origin of the art of splitting
stone. I give it with all the names and particulars, in order that the
statement may be verified, or refuted, by showing another and a differ-
ent origin of the introduction of this art, or by showing some other
mode in which it was invented, or brought here from elsewhere.

Prior to 1798, Castle Island in Boston Harbor, now Fort Indepen-
dence, was the prison of the State, where convicts were sent to be
punished by confinement and hard labor. About that time, the United
States, in anticipation of hostilities with the French, were desirous of
having possession of Castle Island, in order to erect thereon a strong
fortification for the defence of Boston, and for that purpose urged on
the Commonwealth the necessity of having immediate possession of
the island. The Commonwealth acceded, and caused the prisoners to
be removed, although the State prison at Charlestown was not built or
ready for their reception, nor was it so for some time after. This
fixes the time when the State prison was in the process of building.
Governor Robbins of Milton was one of the first Commissioners, and
in this capacity put himself into communication with all the workers
and dealers in stone, and found their prices very uniform, though, as he
thought, very high.

The narrative I am about to state he made to me some twenty
years after. I was then one of the agents for the public, in erecting
a stone building for the county, and probably that was the occasion of
my interview with him. It was this : —

Desirous of getting the stone for the prison on the best terms, and
believing the prices high, though general, he thought much and con-
versed much on the subject. In that state of mind, and deeply inter-
ested in the subject of stone, he had occasion to pass through Salem
in a chaise. In passing along a street, he noticed a building ap-

358 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

parently new, the basement story of which was of stone. He stopped
to look at it carefully. In doing so, he perceived along the margin of
each stone the marks of a tool at distances of six or seven inches
apart. This was something new. He had never seen it on hewn
stone. He immediately inquired for the owner, and saw him, and
asked if he knew how and by what process those stones were got out
and Avrought. He said he did not, but referred him to the contractor,
who did most of that species of work in Salem, by the name of Galusha.
As I took the name by the sound only, the orthography may be differ-
ent, Galoucia or Galooshy. He then proceeded to find Mr. Galusha,
and to ask him whether he got out those stones, and by what process.
He said he did not get them out himself; that they were obtained in
Danvers, two or three miles distant, and were furnished him by a man
named Tarbox. Upon asking for directions to find Mr. Tarbox, Gov-
ernor Robbins was told that he was a very poor man, being in an ob-
scure situation in Danvers, near the place where the stone was quarried.
Governor Robbins, determined to pursue the inquiry, immediately
proceeded to Danvers, and, after considerable inquiry, he found Mr.
Tarbox, in a small house, with a family, and with every appearance of
poverty about him. After some little preliminary conversation, he
asked Mr. Tarbox if he got out the stone in question, and if so his
method. He told him he had, and immediately proceeded to explain
the process, and showed him his tools, his mode of drilling the holes,
and inserting and driving the small wedges as above described.

Governor Robbins was at once struck with the idea that it was new
and peculiar, and might be a very important invention. Governor
Robbins did not say that he asked whether it was an invention of his
own, or whether he had learned it of anybody else. But as it was
new to himself, I think he was impressed witli the belief that it was
the invention of Tarbox. He seemed, however, not to feel that he
had any exclusive or peculiar interest in the use of this art. Governor
Robbins then asked him if he would consent to go up to Quincy and
work two or thi'ee months and split stone in his mode, so that other
workmen might practise it. He said it was impossible for him to
leave home ; that his family were dependent on him for their daily
bi'ead, and that he had no clothes suitable to go from home. Governor
Robbins obviated all his objections by making provision for the family
during his absence, also engaged to give him two or three times the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 359

monthly wages usually paid the best stone-cutters, and the man con-
sented. Having made the necessary arrangements, he took him to a
clothing-store in Salem, obtained him a suitable outfit, then took him
into his chaise and brought him to Quincy. Governor Robbins added,
that he introduced Mr. Tarbox to several of the principal stone-dealers,
and that it was not three months before every stone-cutter in Quincy
could split stone with small wedges as well as Mr. Tarbox. Also that
this improvement in the working of granite had in a veiy short time
the effect to reduce the price to five eighths of its former cost ; that is,
that the cost of the dimension stone wanted for the prison, which had
before been $ 4.00, was afterwards reduced to $ 2.50, and other granite
work in similar proportion.

I have been thus particular in naming persons and stating circum-
stances, in the hope that some persons still live, either at Salem or
Quincy, who can throw light on the subject. It would be very extra-
ordinary if an art of so much importance should be traced to a source
so obscure as poor Mr. Tarbox, who seems to have been hardly con-
scious that he was doing anything extraordinary. It may be that this
whole narrative rests on some mistake, and that a different origin for
this art of working granite may be shown ; if so, it is very desirable
that it should be made known to the public.

Four liuudred and scventy-fouvtli meeting.

January 10, 1860. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The correspondence of the Academy, since the preceding
meeting, was read by the Corresponding Secretary.

Professor Agassiz gave a sketch of the plan upon which he
is arranging the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cam-
bridge ; viz. in separate faunae, with also an assorted typical
collection to illustrate the general systematic arrangement.

Dr. C. T. Jackson exhibited a specimen of meteorite con-
taining olivine or chrysolites, like the celebrated Siberian
meteorite of Pallas. The specimen was detached from a
large mass, at least five feet in diameter, recently discovered
upon the summit of a mountain in Oregon, in the vicinity of
Rogue River. Dr. Jackson also exhibited specimens of some
other North American meteorites.

360 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Professor Horsford directed attention to instances of spon-
taneous combustion of saw-dust, used to catch the dripping
of oil from machinery.

Professor Jeffries Wyman read a paper on the anatomy,
and especially the muscular system, of Troglodytes Gorilla.

Mr. Folsom exhibited a specimen of the smallest ancient
gold coin known. It bears the head of Jupiter Ammon, and
is of an age anterior to B. C. 500. The only other specimen
known is in the British Museum.

Professor Agassiz presented his views of the tertiary de-
posits, as consisting, in each of its three great divisions, of a
greater number of successive deposits, and these of a much
more distinct character, than is generally thought. He ex-
pressed his conviction, not only that the tertiary shells which
have been regarded as identical with existing species are
specifically different, but also that in some cases shells of
successive beds of the same formation, which have been taken
for the same, really belong to two, three, or more species.

A discussion respecting the evidences of synchronism be-
tween distant deposits of the same epoch ensued between
Professor W. B. Rogers and Professor Agassiz.

Professor W. B. Rogers exhibited a stereoscopic slide,
which, by a simple contrivance, enabled the observer to rotate
two equal slips of ivory on a black ground in such manner
as to give them any desired inclination to one another,
thereby causing the resultant visual figure to assume various
perspective attitudes in the vertical plane, and, by alternate
convergence or divergence of the slips, giving it a vibrating
motion in that plane. This arrangement he offered as the
simplest experimental means of illustrating the principle of
visual relief, as produced by combining the twin pictures
of a stereoscope. He made some remarks in continuation of
former observations in regard to the theory of vision by the
successive combination of corresponding points, as maintained
by Sir David Brewster, and described a further experiment
which he regarded as wholly incompatible with that theory.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 861

The immediate purpose of the experiment is to present to
the two eyes the respective component pictures, not simiil-
taneously, as in the usual mode of binocular combination, but
in succession or rapid alternation. This is done most simply
by placing one of the common twin drawings, as of a crystal
or other solid traced by white lines on a black ground, at a
distance of about twice the limit of distinct vision, and, by a
proper arrangement, moving backward and forward over the
face of the drawing a slip of black pasteboard, so as alternately
to cover and expose first one and then the other picture, tak-
ing care that no part of one shall be in view while the other
is wholly or in part revealed. If, while the moving screen is
briskly vibrated, the optical axes be converged to an interme-
diate point, as in the combination of twin pictures by what
has been falsely termed the squinting process, the observer will
see the resultant picture in the same position, and with as com-
plete relief, as if both pictures were permanently uncovered.
As might be expected, the same effect is obtained with pic-
tures viewed in the stereoscope ; and in this case the experi-
ment is most readily made with transparent slides and an
opaque screen, caused to vibrate or to revolve near the surface
of the slide on which the light is received. As in these ob-
servations the corresponding points of the twin drawings can
never be seen at the same time, it is inconceivable that any
adjustments of the optic axes can be made to unite them pair
by pair, as is claimed by the theory of Brewster. The resul-
tant binocular perception is here due to a present picture in
the one eye, combined with the picture previously made in the
other, and which, by the well-known law of visual sensibility,
continues its impression for a short time after the occlusion
of the light. But this latter, having been impressed on par-
ticular parts of the retina, cannot be shifted to other parts
point by point, as would be necessary to efifect the combina-
tion with the corresponding actual ray-impressions on the
other eye. This experiment, therefore, confirms the conclu-
sion drawn by Professor Rogers at a former meeting from

VOL. IV. 46

362 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

observations on the binocular combination of visual spectra,
and offers, he thinks, a conclusive argument against the the-
ory maintained by Brewster, and which has been so widely
accepted.

Four hundred and seventy-fifth meeting.

January 25. 1860. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from Profes-
sor George C. Swallow, in acknowledgment of his election
as an Associate Fellow of the Academy.

Mr. Chauncey Wright and Mr. Simon Newcomb, of the
Nautical Almanac Office, Cambridge, were elected Fellows in
Class I. Section 1, Mathematics.

Professor Agassiz, followed by Professors Parsons, W. B.
Rogers, and others, discussed several points in natural history
and geology in reference to their bearing upon the origin and
distribution of species.

Professor Gray communicated, from the author, the fol-
lowing : —

Characters of some New Grasses collected at Hong Kong- and
Vicinity by Mr. Charles Wright in the North Pacific Explor-
ing Expedition. By Colonel William Munro, C. B., &c.,
of the British Armv.

1. Berghausia mutica (sp. nov.) : racemo decomposito ; pedicellis
apice barbatis ; spiculis muticis scahro-puheris ; foliis linearibus utrin-
que attenuatis margine pilis longis fimbriatis, vaginis glabriuscuHs
apice longe fimbriatis. — An Miquelia harhata, Nees in Rel. Mejen. ?
A Berghausia patida differt floribus majoribus, ai-ista nulla, pedicellis
etc. multo longioribus et dissitis.

Hong Kong.

2. Berghausia patula (sp. nov.) : racemo decomposito ; pedicellis
apice barbatis ; spiculis hirsutis seta simplici basi non torta aristatis ;
foliis lineari-lanceolatis utrinque attenuatis. — Gluma valde varians. —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 363

Csetera species, omnes Tndiese, sunt B. Courtallensis, Arn., et B. scopa-
ria, poIypogo)wides, et adscendens, Munro.
Hong Kong.

3. Aristida (ChuEtaria) Chinensis (sp. nov.) : panicula 10-
12-pollicari patula exserta, radiis solitariis geminisve usque ad basin
bipartitis 1 - 6-uncialibus nutantibus ad axillas barbatis supra bis di-
chotomis quandoque axillulis barbatis ; ligula ciliata. — Glumse inae-
quales, inferiori acuminata 5 lin. superiori sub 3 lin. longa. Flosculus
apice non torto nee articulate.

Whampoa and Cum-sing-moon.

4. Apocopis Wrightii (sp. nov.) : spica bifida ; spiculsE inferi-
oris sessilis gluma externa 8-nervi truncata obtusissima basi flava apice
rubro-marginata fimbriata, nervis apice obsoletis ; flosculis hermaphro-
ditis omnibus nisi intima aristatis, arista 9-liueali ; paleis fl. inf. masc.
glumas superantibus. — Aff. A. Royleance.

Cum-sing-moon.

5. IsCHiEMUM LEERSIOIDES (sp. nov.) : hirsuta ; culmo gracili; foliis
anguste linearibus ; spica simplici unilaterali curvata ; gluma spiculae
sessilis inferiori oblonga pectinata {nee alatd) apice obtusiuscula ; spi-
culis pedicellatis tabescentibus. — Aff. I. pectinato.

Whampoa, Lemma Island, and Hong-Kong.

6. IsCH^MUM OPHiouROiDES (sp. nov.) : spica simplici semicylin-
drica ; gluma spiculae sessilis quadrato-oblonga scariosa alata retusa
margine exteriore ciliis perpaucis abscouditis pectinato ; spiculis pedi-
cellatis tabescentibus ; foliis planis brevibus obtusis basi contractis et
ciliatis.

Whampoa.

Professor Gray read a paper, entitled,

A Revision of the Genus Forestiera. By Asa Gray.

FORESTIERA, Poir., Genus Oleacearum.

Adelia, Michx., non P. Browne. Borya, Willd., non Labill. Bigelowia, Smith,

non aliorum. Piptolepis, Benth.

* Folia membranacea, nunquam porulosa vel punctata.

1. F. ACUMINATA (Poir.) : glabra ; foliis ovato-lanceolatis ovatisve
utrinque acuminatis longiuscule petiolatis serrulatis vel subintegerri-

364 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

mis ; drupa oblonga vel fusiformi saspius acuminata. — Adelia acu-
minata, Michx., Fl. 2, p. 225, t. 48. Forestiera ligustrina, Gray,
Man. Bot., ed. 2, p. 358, non Poir. — Wet, shady grounds along
streams, Georgia to Illinois, Missouri, and Texas.

Var. /3. PARViFOLiA : foliis subpollicaribus, primordialibus sub-
spathulatis obtusis, sequentibus pi. m. acumiuatis ; drupa breviter
oblonga plerumque obtusa. — New Mexico ; near Santa Fe, Fendler,
no. 547. Below El Paso, Wright, no. 1699. Semeleuque Springs,
Dr. Bigelow, in Mex. Bound. Coll.

Dr. Torrey, in the Botany of the Mexican Boundary Survey, has
passed over specimens of this variety as belonging to F. ligustrina.
Fendler's specimens clearly show it to be a form of F. acuminata, the
fruit of which varies exceedingly in shape.

2. F. LiGUSTPtiNA (Poir.) : molliter pi. m. pubescens ; foliis obovatis
ovalibus seu obovato-oblongis obtusis serrulatis (pollicaribus et ultra)
basi in petiolum brevem angustatis ; drupa ovoidea.

Var. a. fohis adultis glabratis vel glabellis ; drupis subsessilibus. —
Rocky banks, Florida to Georgia and Tennessee.

Var. /3. PUBESCENS : foliis etiam adultis molliter pubescentibus ;
drupis pedicellatis. — F. pubescens, Nutt. in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.
n. ser. 5, p. 177. Florida, Arkansas, Texas, New Mexico, Chihuahua.
(Coll. Lindheimer, no. 700, &c.)

In the Botany of the Mexican Boundary Survey, Dr. Torrey has
doubtless correctly reduced Nuttall's F. pubescens to F. ligustrina ;
but the difference in the length of the fruiting pedicels, unnoticed by
him, is worthy of remark.

One or two mistakes of Richard, in Michaux's Flora, have led to
confusion in respect to F. ligustrina and F. acuminata, and to a mis-
take in my Manual of Botany, which it is one object of this notice
to correct. Richard characterizes Adelia ligustrina as with " foliis
integerrimis," A. acuminata with " foliis levissime serratis " ; whereas
in fact the leaves of the former are always serrulate ; but those of
the latter are sometimes entire, as indeed they are repi'esented in the
figure, which figure, with the character, identifies the species com-
pletely. Moreover, A. acuminata is said to inliabit Carolina and
Georgia, which is true, as to the latter State ; A. ligustrina, Illinois
and Tennessee, which is not the case, at least as to Illinois. In the
Manual, following the indication of this habitat, I called our only

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 365

Northwestern species F. ligustrina ; but it is certainly F. acuminata.
I suppose that the habitats of the two species are transposed in
Michaux's herbarium and Flora,

* * Folia coriacea impunctata.

3. F. SPH^ROCARPA (Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. Surv. p. 168):
tomentoso-puberula ; foliis parvis (semipollicaribus) oblongis vel ellip-
ticis obsolete crenulatis coriaceis subpetiolatis ; drupa globosa pedicello
subsequilonga. — Dry ravines of the Rio Limpio, Dr. Bigelow.

* * * Folia coriacea, adulta subtus porulosa-punctata.

4. F. RETICULATA (Torr. 1. c.) : glabra ; foliis ovatis seu ovato-
oblongis SEepe acuminatis (1 - 2-pollicaribus) serrulatis utrinque reti-
culato-venosis supra nitidis basi obtusis vel rotundatis ; drupa ovali-
globosa breviter pedicellata. — W. Tex^s, along the Limpio, Pecos,
&c., Wright, no. 627, 565, Bigelow, Schott.

5. F. PORULOSA (Poir.) : glabra; foliis oblongo-lanceolatis seu
anguste oblongis plerumque obtusis integerrimis (1 - 2-pollic.) basi
subpetiolatis, venulis baud conspicuis ; drupa ovoideo-oblonga pedi-
cellata. — Myrica segregata, Jacq. Ic. Par. 3, t. 625. Adelia
porulosa, Michx., Fl. 2, p. 224. Borya porulosa, Willd. Spec. 4, p.
711. Forestiera porulosa, Poir. Diet. Suppl. 2, p. 664. F. Jacqui-
niana, Didrichson in Ind. Sem. Hort. Haun. 1838, ex Zdnncea, 27,
p, 737. — West Indies ? Jacquin. Coast of Florida, Michaux, Dr.
Leitner. Eastern part of Cuba, Wright, no. 411.

Var. /3. PHILLYREOIDES : foliis ovato-oblongis parvulis (subpollic.)
subtus tomento laxo pubescentibus ; floribus nonnullis (ut in sp. fere
omnibus) hermaphroditis. — Piptolepis phillyreoides, Benth. PL Hartw.,
p. 29. Forestiera phillyreoides, Torr. in Bot. Mex. Bound. Surv.,
p. 167. Guanaxuato, Mexico, Hartweg, no. 259.

Var. y. ? ANGUSTIFOLIA : foliis glabris lineari-spathulatis oblongo-
linearibus lanceolatis vel anguste linearibus obtusissimis plerumque
aveniis. — F. angustifolia & F. phillyreoides, var. spathula^folia, Torr.
I. c. — Lower parts of Texas and Northern Mexico ; common. Coll.
Berlandier, no. 3024. Lindheimer, no. . Wright, no. 566.

Jacquin's figure, so long overlooked, but recently brought to notice
by Didrichson, exactly represents the West Indian plant, as it occurs
in Wright's collection (flowering specimens in coll. 1856-57, and fine
fruiting ones in coll. 1859 - 60) ; and these accord pretty well with a

366 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

fragment of the Florida species in Dr. Torrey's herbarium, collected
by the late Dr. Leitner. To the same species may safely be referred
Bentham's Piptolepis phiUyreoides, and probably Torrey's F. angiisti-
folia, although this is more doubtful, as completely intermediate forms
have not been met with. Piptolepis, as Dr. Torrey remarks, is iden-
tical with Forestiera, most, if not all, of the species producing some
hermaphrodite blossoms.

Four hundred and seventy-sixtli meeting.

February 14, 1860. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from Messrs.
Chauncey Wright and Simon Newcomb, of Cambridge, in
acknowledgment of the notification of their election as Fel-
lows. Also various letters relative to the exchanges of the
Academy.

The Hon. Josiah Quincy addressed the Academy upon the
subject of a memorial before the State Legislature, in behalf
of the Boston Society of Natural History, and other societies,
associated in the petition for a grant of land for practical sci-
entific purposes. The subject of the memorial was also ad-
vocated by Professor Rogers and Mr. Emerson ; and Messrs.
Parsons, Loring, and Charles Jackson were appointed a com-
mittee to further the memorial before the Legislature.

Mr. Treadwell read a communication

On the Strength of Cast-iron Pillars.

The great calamity which recently fell upon Lawrence having called
the attention of the public to the subject of cast-iron columns or pillars,
which are now so generally used in all our structures, I have thought
that a few words upon this subject may not be without interest to the
Academy. It may hajjpen, moreover, that after considering the state
of knowledge upon the subject, and the glaring discrepancies and con-
tradictions contained in the practical rules and tables in common use
by builders, the Academy may see fit to adopt some action tending to
a revision of these guiding rules.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 867

"We have no record of any experiments to determine the power of
iron to resist a force applied, in any of the four or five ways in which
it may be applied, to break it, until about a hundred years ago, al-
though such experiments might have been made and kept as secrets,
or passed as traditions in the trade. About a hundred years ago,
Musschenbroek made numerous experiments upon the direct tensile
or cohesive strength of both wrought and cast iron ; and, although the
experiments were numerous, the results obtained gave much more
strength to iron than later experimenters have been able to obtain.
But neither Musschenbroek, nor, as far as I have found, any other
experimenter, attempted to determine the power of cast-iron to resist
a compressing force, like that to which columns are subjected, until
near the commencement of the present century. As early as the year
1757, however, Euler published a paper in the Berlin Memoirs, which
seems to be a sequel to some previous work of his upon the subject
that I have not seen. This paper consists of an elaborate geomet-
rical investigation of the comparative strength of columns of the same
materials, but of different diameters and lengths, without, however,
determining the absolute strength of any one material, or any one size
of column, as this indeed could be done only by experiment. No
proper and useful practical rules, applicable to cast-iron or stone, could
therefore be drawn from the conclusions arrived at. But the theoreti-
cal conclusions of Euler deserve to be noticed, both on account of the
great mathematical power of the man, and the somewhat near con-
formity which his formula bears to the truth, as derived from the
latest and best experiments. Euler's results may be summed up in
a very few words. They were these : — With columns of the same
material and of equal diameters, but of different lengths, the strength
must be inversely as the squares of the lengths. If the lengths be
equal and the diameters unequal, the strength must be as the fourth
powers of the diameters directly. Thus, let A and B be two columns
of equal diameters, B being twice as tall as A. A will bear four
times the load carried by B. And if C and D be two columns of
equal height, D being twice the diameter of C, then D will bear

sixteen times the load borne by C, or, in general, P = — .

Here the application of science to columns, or at least to cast-iron
columns, rested, until some time near the commencement of the present

368 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

century, before which time, indeed, none were used in this country.
Younger men than I can well remember when there was not a
cast-iron pillar bearing up a single wall or floor in Boston, though
they now constitute the principal support of enormous piles scattered
through every street. In England the use of cast-iron commenced
somewhat earlier than in this country, as the material was there much
cheaper, and the art of founding it practised more perfectly. In both
countries, however, it was used with much caution. The engineers
best acquainted with it knew its uncertain, not to say treacherous
character. They proceeded, therefore, with great caution, taking care
to make a great allowance for defective workmanship, and the dis-
turbing influences of change of temperature, movements in foundation
walls by the yielding or freezing of the earth, vibrations from moving
loads, and the motion of machines, and other influences. By this
cautious mode of proceeding they kept within the limits of safety,
though sometimes, no doubt, with a prodigal use of iron.

It seems that in the year 1795, Mr. Reynolds, a well-known
engineer, made two or three experiments upon the powers of bars,
one inch square and three feet long, to sustain weights pressing upon
them endwise. But these experiments are not related with sufficient
detail to have furnished any useful conclusions.

In the year 1818, Mr. George Rennie published in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions an account of his experiments on the power of cast-
iron to resist a crushing force. These experiments were confined to
small specimens in the form of cubes and prisms. The largest cubes,
having sides of one fourth of an inch, being crushed by 12,6G6 pounds,
and the largest prisms, of one fourth of an inch base by one inch in
height, being crushed by 6,440 pounds. Experiments like these would
form a very insecure foundation for any rule to determine the strength
of long columns, however, because such columns are not destroyed by
being really crushed, but by being crippled by the compressing force,
bending sidewise and breaking transversely.

About two years after the publication of Mr. Rennie's paper, Mr.
Tredgold, a man who attained, and that deservedly, a high reputation
as a writer upon engineering, endeavored to find from the very scanty
materials then existing, by geometrical methods, the absolute strength
of cast-iron pillars of all sizes ; and to give rules to be used by prac-
tical builders, that should be trustworthy for their guidance. Mr.

J

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 369

Tredgold devised a formula, from which tables have been calculated
that have gone into general use, and are now in the hand-books used
by builders. I have here one of these hand-books, published by "VYeale
of London in 1859, and of which these tables form a part. I shall
return to them presently.

The next important step in these investigations, taking the order of
time, was made by Mr. Hodgkinson, about the year 1836. Mr. Hodg-
kinson was even then most advantageously known for his experiments
upon iron in the form of girders, or when exposed to cross-frac-
ture. His experiments upon columns or pillars were very numerous,
amounting to near three hundred, and were admirably contrived ; and
on reading his clear account of them, one only regrets that they were
not extended to greater instances, and not confined, as they were, to
loads of less than twenty-five tons, although, indeed, this is a greater
weight than had ever been used before for experiment. In the account
of these experiments, we have the weights required to destroy solid
pillars of from 60 inches in length down to 7^ inches, having their
diameters from half an inch up to two inches. To state a few of his
results in a very general way. He found that pillars 60 inches long,
half an inch in diameter, were broken by a weight of 143 pounds ; 30
inches long, half an inch in diameter, by 539 pounds ; 15 inches long,
half an inch in diameter, by 1,904 pounds.

These were the breaking weights when both ends of the pillars
were rounded so as to bear only upon the centre of the pillar. Now
these numbers are to each other as 1, S^, and 134. The squares of the
lengths, if taken inversely, would be 1, 4, and 16. These ratios were
maintained as well when the ends of the pillars were flat, as when they
were rounded ; but when flat, so as to bear upon every part of the
end, the actual power of the pillar to sustain pressure was increased
about threefold. Again, with pillars of the same length, viz. 60 inches,
but of different diameters, he found, that those with a diameter of half
an inch broke with a weight of 143 pounds ; those with a diameter
of one inch, with 1,902 pounds ; those with a diameter of two inches,
with 24,291 pounds.

These numbers are to each other as 1, 13^, and 170, while the
cubes of the diameters are to each other as 1, 8, and 64; the fourth
powers or squares of the squares are as 1, 16, and 256. The ratio,
therefore, is much above that of the cubes of the diameters, and below

VOL. IV. 47

370 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

that which Euler had assigned, namely, the squares of the squares or
fourth powers.

Mr. Ilodgkinson endeavored, by a careful and minute analysis, to
obtain fractional exponents that should express, in a single formula,
the relations of strength, for both difference of height and diameter, with
more exactness than any hitherto proposed ; and he arrived, after ex-
amining many other powers, at the formula ^, d being the diameter,
I the length, as giving the relation of strength for cast-iron pillars of
different sizes ; and this may be taken with perfect confidence as
giving the utmost strength within the limits to which experiment has
been carried. The above formula merely determines the comparative
strength of pillars of different sizes and proportions. To obtain the
actual sti-ength of any pillar, Mr. Hodgkinson, finding the diameter d,
in inches, and the length, I, in feet, and taking, for pillars with round

ends, 14.9 for a coefficient, gives 14.9 -^ =. W, the weight in tons
that the pillar will just break under; and changing the coefficient
14.9 to 44.7, he obtains the weight that will break pillars with square
or flat ends. These coefficients were obtained by him as a mean, from
a careful comparison of all his experiments, and appear to be, as I
have before said of his exponents, sufficiently near the truth to be
relied upon for all iron of good quality. At the same time, I think
we ought always to be aware of the caution given by Biot, and " trust
no such formula much beyond the light of experiment." "While Hodg-
kinson thus gives a much more exact formula than that of Euler for
cast-iron pillars, he retains that of Euler for wooden columns, as pref-
erable to his own.

Besides this course of experiments upon solid pillars, he made a
very good series upon those formed hollow. These ranged through
diameters from 1| inches up to 3| inches, the thickness varying from
.28 to .33 inch ; the same length, namely, 7-J- feet, being taken in all
cases. The greatest breaking weight used was 50,477 pounds. These
experiments seem to have been as well contrived and executed as
those upon solid pillars ; and while they show with more exactness than
had before been given the vast increase of strength obtained from a
given quantity of iron by casting it in the hollow, rather than in the
solid form, they did not reach up to sizes large enough to determine
beyond a doubt, from this law of increase, a rule which may be per-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 371

fectly relied upon for hollow pillars of very large size, with very thin
walls. He found that his formula, as applied to solid pillars, was
applicable to those of a hollow form, by merely changing (p-^ into
(p-^ — gs.e^ -j^ which d and e are the external and internal diameters,
respectively.

Mr. Hodgkinson likewise extended his experiments to some other
materials than cast-iron, as wood, wrought-iron, and cast-steel.

Taken altogether, these researches are undoubtedly the most val-
uable that have been made upon the subject. But after all, Mr.
Hodgkinson's paper must be considered in the light he intended it for ;
namely, as a scientific investigation of the strength of pillars, and not
a practical treatise, giving to architects and builders rules that they
may follow with confidence in their erections. As the matter now
stands, each architect or engineer who would follow this paper must,
after finding the limit of strength for any proposed column, determine
for himself how far he will keep within this limit, or where safety ends
and danger begins. To show how far it is required in practice to
carry the strength beyond that assigned by inferences founded upon
calculation, to obtain security against all disturbances, and the imper-
fections of workmanship, I will cite an example or two. A water-
pipe 12 inches in diameteiV, and half an inch thick, ought, from deduc-
tions made from the tensile strength of cast-ii-on, to sustain a column
of water more than 3,000 feet high. But where is the engineer that
would dare to load a series of such pipes with a column of 300 feet
high ? Again, a steam-boiler 30 inches in diameter and ^ of an inch
thick, ought to hold steam of more than 1,000 pounds' elastic force.
But in practice 60 pounds is considered enough for such a boiler.
These instances should certainly, in the case of cast-iron pillars, teach
us to keep widely within the ultimate, or what may be called the theo-
retical strength. No practical directions have, as far as I know, been
given in any engineering work founded upon Hodgkinson's experi-
ments. The tables by which architects in Boston are governed are
derived from the formula of Tredgold, to which I have before alluded.
I will finish what I have to say, by comparing a few of the numbers of
these tables with each other, and with the experiments and formula of
Hodgkinson. I take from these tables a solid pillar 2 inches in diam-
eter, 6 feet long. To this the load assigned is 61 cwt., while 2 inches'
diameter 12 feet long is made to carry 32 cwt. ; numbers very nearly

872 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

in the inverse ratio of the height. Hodgkinson gives for the ratio of
these lengths 1 to 3^, and Euler 1 to 4.
Again, I take from these tables a pillar

8 inches in diameter, 6 feet long, and the breaking weight is 1,315 cwt.
8 inches in diameter, 12 feet long, " " " 1,224 "

Or, it loses only about 9 per cent by being of double height. While
the ratios assigned, by Hodgkinson would be, as before, 1 to 3^, and by
Euler 1 to 4.

Again, how do these diameters compare, taking for the same lengths ?
We have :

12 feet long, 2 inches in diameter, bearing ... 32 cwt.
1 2 feet long, 8 inches in diameter, bearing . . . 1,224 "

Or about as 1 to 40. While the formula of Hodgkinson gives the
I'atios to these diameters as 1 to 147, and Euler's formula 1 to 256.

Next for a comparison of hollow pillars. Hodgkinson found that a
hollow pillar 7^ feet long, 3.36 inches in external diameter, and .36 of
an inch thick, being on round or hemispherical ends, bi'oke only under
a load of 50,477 pounds, or 22^ tons. Now, we have in the tables no
length under ten feet. Taking this height and the diameter at 3^ inches,
with a thickness of half an inch, and to this is assigned a breaking weight
of 3 tons 15 cwt., or 75 cwt. But according to Hodgkinson's formula,
carried but a very little way from his actual example, such a pillar will
sustain a weight of 18.9 tons or 379 cwt. with round ends, or 56.7 tons
or 1,138 cwt. with flat ends. Again, to find from the tables a hollow
column 10 feet long that will bear a weight of 18.9 tons, I find that it
should be 8 inches in diameter and f inch thick, and to bear 56 tons
it should be 11 inches in diameter and 1^ inches thick.

We see, therefore, that whatever discrepancies and incongruities
these tables may contain, they are all, most probably, within the limits
of safety, though the longest and smallest solid pillars ai*e but just
Avithin those limits ; while certainly the large and short ones are safe
to a somewhat prodigal use of iron. But ought these incongruous rules
to be followed ? Safety, absolute safety, against all ordinary, and some
even extraordinary cii'cumstances, should first be provided for ; beyond
that, weight of iron is almost waste of iron ; and it seems to me that
it would be a good service to mark out where this line is, under differ-
ent conditions, and to give rules for keeping safely within it, — rules

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 373

that shall be consistent with the law of strength for small as well as
for large columns.

Whereupon a committee, consisting of Daniel Treadwell
of Cambridge, J. B. Francis of Lowell, and J. B. Henck of
Boston, was appointed to examine and report upon the whole
subject.

Professor G. P. Bond communicated the results of a series
of photographic experiments, executed at his request by Mr.
Whipple, upon the light of the Sun and Moon, compared
with that of the planet Jupiter.

The results tend to support the suggestion that the latter is a self-
luminous body. Several analogies were pointed out. The physical
constitution of the atmospheres of the Sun and Jupiter, the periods of
the solar spots, and the phenomena attending the transits of the satel-
lites of Jupiter, were referred to in the same connection.

Professor Bond stated that a phosphorescent condition of the atmos-
pheres of the larger planets might be anticipated as a consequence of
Vaughan's theory of the source of solar heat and light, and that this
consideratij^i had first suggested the experiments in question. His
object, however, was not* at all to advocate the theory, but rather to
present a variety of facts, all tending to show a remarkable analogy
between the Sun and the largest planet of the system.

Dr. Holmes proposed the term Reflex Vision to characterize
the visual acts illustrated by the following experiments : —

1. Close one eye, leaving the other open. Hold a finger between
the open eye and some small object, so as to conceal this object. Open
the other eye, and the object will be seen as if through the finger.

2. Place the hand edgewise between the eyes, so that the eye last
opened cannot see the finger. The object will still be seen as if
through the finger.

3. Place a wafer on the back of a paper stereograph, so that it can
be seen in the instrument by one eye only ; for instance, the left. An
image of the wafer will be seen in the right side of the stereoscope,
which cannot always be distinguished from the wafer itself, except by
trying it with the finger, or in some similar way. The left image may
be called direct, the right, secondary.

374 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

4. Trace a circle round the secondary image with a lead pencil.
Fasten a wafer on the end of a narrow strip of card. Push this wafer
into the circle just traced. The two wafers will coincide, and appear
as one. Draw the wafer gradually away, and it will carry the second-
ary image with it, leaving the circle blank. Continue drawing it away,
and at a certain distance (about one diameter of the wafer, for in-
stance) the secondary image will separate from the moving wafer, and
sail very slowly back into the traced circle.

5. Close one eye and look at a window with the other. Now shut
both eyes, and there will be a spectrum of the window in the eye which
was opened, and in that only.

6. Repeat the experiment, keeping both eyes open, but in such a
position that only one shall see the window. Close both eyes, and
there will be a spectrum of the window in both eyes, most distinct, fre-
quently, in the eye to which the window was not visible.

These experiments appear to show that an image formed on one
retina produces a retinal spectrum undistinguishable in many cases from
a direct retinal image. That the seat of this secondary spectrum is the
retina, is shown by the fact that the eye must be opened in order that
it shall be perceived. The retina seems to require the -stimulus of
light in order to repeat the impression. Again, in the sixth experi-
ment, the spectrum in the eye which has not seen the object is like
that in the eye which has seen it ; and this is always recognized as a
retinal spectrum.

If the conclusion from these experiments is correct, the transfer of
impressions from one retina to the other falls into the great category of
reflected nervous actions, and is properly called Rejlex Vision. The
recognized connection of the retina by looped fibres, the decussation of
the optic nerves, the connection of the optic ganglia, afford abundant
anatomical confirmation of the probability of the suggestions offered.

To state the general result of the experiments briefly : —

If an object, A, is seen by one eye only, both being open, there will
be a direct image, o, and a reflex image, a'. The retinal impressions
will be represented by a -j- a'.

If ^ is seen by both eyes, the retinal expression will he a a' -\- a a'.

If A by one eye, and B by the other, a h' -\-b a'.

The direct and reflex impressions exactly coincide in the normal
state, except so far as ocular parallax makes a difference between

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 375

them. This want of precise coincidence between the superimposed
or coinciding direct and reflex images is associated with the idea of
solidity, and is reproduced in stereoscopic pictures.

Four liimdred and. seventy-seventh meeting.

March 6, 1860. — Special Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Mr. E. S. Ritchie exhibited a series of experiments in Mag-
neto-electricity. He gave a brief account of the several steps
which had led to the invention of the RuhmkorfF apparatus,
and spoke of the effect of the condenser first introduced by
Fizeau, which at once converted the instrument into a pow-
erful source of tensional electricity. After alluding to the
increased energy which he had been able, by certain modifi-
cations, to impart to the apparatus, he proceeded to show its
effects by a variety of experiments, exhibiting the spark as
transmitted through the air, the charging of the Leyden jar,
the illumination of the Torricellian vacuum and of various
gases and vapors when greatly rarefied, and the influence of
the poles of a powerful magnet on these luminous discharges.

In the course of these experiments he showed the eft'ect of
a current of air upon the form of the spark as first observed
by Du Moncel; the brilliant explosive spark of the Leyden
jar in the outer helix, discovered by Grove ; the common
and stratified discharges through a tall vacuum-tube contain-
ing vapor of turpentine ; the same through a tube of uranium
glass displaying the characteristic fluorescence ; the phenom-
ena of Gassiot's cascade, with the purplish fluorescence of the
outer glass and the green of the uranium goblet within ; the
various-colored light and its stratifications in the rarefied
gases of Geissler's Tubes ; the strong fluorescence of solu-
tion of sulphate of quinine when illuminated by some of
these lights ; the spectra furnished by others ; the attraction
and repulsion of a magnetic pole on the luminous strata ;

376 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and De la Rive's experiment of the revolution of the lumi-
nous streams in vacuo around the poles of a magnet.

Professor W. B. Rogers called attention to the nature and
extent of the improvements which Mr. Ritchie had made in
the Ruhmkorff apparatus.

In the construction used by Ruhmkorff and others, the outer helix
is wound in strata or courses parallel to the axis of the coil, separated
from one another by layers of insulating material. This brings into
proximity parts of the circuit which are really remote from each other
as measured along the course of the wire, and by the unequal tension
of the electric wave at these points tends to produce discharges within
the helix or around its ends.

In instruments having a moderate length of wire, the insulation is
sufficient to prevent such discharges ; but when the coil is made up of
a great number of these superimposed courses, the enormous difference
of tension between the outer and inner parts of the helix overcomes
-the resistance of the insulating material, and either destroys the action
of the instrument by an internal discharge, or wastes a great part of its
energy by frequent sparks around the extremities. If to obviate these
evils we increase the thickness of the insulating sheets, we augment in
the same proportion the distance through which the primary coil exerts
its inducing power upon the outer helix, and thereby in a still higher
ratio impair the energy of the induced curre'nt. Thus constructed,
therefore, it would appear that the power of the instrument is unavoid-
ably restricted within moderate limits.

It is but just to state, that Professor Poggendorff was the first to
point out this defect in the Ruhmkorff apparatus, and to attempt its
remedy by dividing the helix into short sections. But he made no
further application of the principle than to construct instruments with
eight short coils placed end to end, which, although somewhat more
effective, were still, as he confessed, too much exposed to " the
disturbing effects of internal sparks " to present a very decided
advantage.

Mr. Ritchie, abandoning the attempt to improve the apparatus on
the old construction, determined on huilding up the helix from a series
of thin strata or rings placed peipendicular to the axis. By this ar-
rangement the distance between the points of a stratum increasing with

or ARTS AND SCIENCES. 377

their difference of tension, the resistance is augmented in projoortion to
the tendency to discharge, and thus each stratum is efFectually precluded
from the production of sparks within itself. It only remains, therefore,
to interpose a sufficient insulation between the successive strata to pre-
vent discharges from one to the other, and the instrument becomes
secure from the enfeebling or destructive losses incident to the old con-
struction of the coil. Such was the theory of the impi-ovement ; and
Mr. Ritchie soon devised a contrivance for winding the helix in planes
perpendicular to the axis, carrying the wire alternately from the inner
to the outer circumference, and from the outer to the inner, and at the
same time securing perfect insulation within and between the strata.

The new construction proved eminently successful, conferring on the
coil a tension much greater than had hitherto been attained. By fur-
ther improvements in details, Mr. Ritchie has continued to add to its
power, so that now, while the best European coil cannot be relied on
for a spark of more than five inches, Mr. Ritchie's first-class instrument
projects its luminous flash across an interval of fifteen inches, and ex-
hibits other electrical phenomena on a scale of corresponding magnitude
and splendor.

Among the subordinate improvements devised by Mr. Ritchie is a
new construction of the breakpiece, in which a spring, bearing the pla-
tinum plate and pressing it firmly against the " anvil," secures a closer
contact than by the ordinary arrangement. The separation is made
by the blow from a spring-hammer worked by a small ratchet-wheel.
In this way the time of contact is sufficiently prolonged to allow the
iron core to be fully magnetized and the electricity to be developed
throughout the Avire, which, in a helix of thirty miles, must require an
appreciable time. This advantage is of course lost in the automatic
interrupter of De la Rive, where the armature is so instantly with-
drawn as in a moment to break the current. In Mr? Ritchie's plan,
moreover, the manipulation of the instrument is placed entirely under
the control of the operator, so that by varying the intervals of interrup-
tion he can vary the length and chai'acter of the spark, and by proper
adjustment obtain the greatest length of spark of which the apparatus
is capable. To prevent the discharge taking place through the primary
coil or its core, Mr. Ritchie, as a substitute for the insulating tube, in-
terposes a bell-glass closed at the top, and with its lower edge turned
outward in a flange. He makes the secondary helix in one or several

VOL. IV. 48

378 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

portions, each wound upon a gutta-perclia bobbin, so that one or all can
be lifted from around the glass bell, Avhich in like manner can be lifted
from the primary. The secondary helix of his first-class apparatus
contains about thirty miles of wire ; that of the apparatus giving a ten-
inch spark contains eighteen miles.

Another novel feature in the construction of the instrument, found
by Mr. Ritchie materially to augment its power, is the extension of the
primary helix and its core to some distance beyond the ends of the sec-
ondary. In the smaller instruments he adopts the proportion of two to
one, and in the larger, of about one and a half to one.

Mr. Ritchie, moreover, separates the condenser into several portions,
each connected with a screw upon the base of the instrument, enabling
the operator to vary at will the amount of condensing surface, or to
dispense with it entirely, and by these changes giving rise to many
remarkable varieties in the phenomena.

In addition to these peculiarities contributing to the superiority of
the instrument, it should be mentioned that Mr. Ritchie uses a much
finer wire in the secondary coil, and a much coarser in the primary,
than have heretofore been employed. It should not be omitted in the
comparison, that while the European ajiparatus requires for the full
development of its action a large intensity-battery, his coil is excited by
a few cells to the highest display of its power.

Professor Rogers called attention to the peculiar characters of the
spark of the induction coil when transmitted through the air at dif-
ferent distances between the terminals. When the distance is short,
as, for example, one or two inches in the instrument exhibited to the
Academy, the spark has the peculiar twofold character first noticed by
Du Moncel, and since minutely studied by him and Perrot and others ;
that is to say, it is formed of a slender, brilliant thread, enveloped by a
much wider and less luminous space of a somewhat ruddy, flame-like
aspect. As the striking distance is increased, this surrounding glow
becomes less conspicuous, in comparison with the brilliant thread of
light, and at last, when the interval has been sufficiently extended, it
nearly or wholly disappears, leaving the spark to consist of a slender,
jagged, brilliant line.

These two parts of the luminous discharge, which we may call the
flame-sparh and the thread-sparlc, present remarkable differences of
character, indicating very unlike states of tension in the currents or

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 379

portioi'is of current to wliicli they are severally due. Thus the flame -
spark possesses great heatmg power, while the thread-spark is almost
destitute of it ; hence the facility with which paper and other combus-
tibles are ignited, when placed in a short spark, and the entire failure
of this effect when they are made to intercept a long one.

The fact of the spreading out of the flame-spark under the impulse
of a transverse blast of air, while the luminous thread experiences no
change, would naturally suggest the comparatively sloiv motion of the
former ; and accordingly Robinson of Armagh, by applying the test of
"the revolving mirror, has proved that the velocity of the flame-spark is
very much less than that of the thread-spark.

Recently, Du Moncel and Perrot have made numerous experiments
on the two kinds of sparks, and the latter, availing himself of the effect
of a current of air on the flame-spark, has succeeded in separating the
two so completely as to be able to mark more certainly their respective
peculiarities. These observations have shown that the current belong-
ing to the flame-spark is endowed with decided magnetic and chemical,
as well as heating powers, while that of the other is as little efficient
in these respects as that of common frictional electricity. In view of
these various characteristics, we are entitled to conclude that the flame-
spark is due to a current of low tension, like that of an ordinary voltaic
arrangement, and the thread-spark to one of high tension, comparable
to the discharge of an electrical machine. Whether these currents are
to be regarded as simultaneous or alternating in their transit through
the coil, remains to be determined.

The very different character of the discharge through the air when
the terminal wires are near each other, and when far apart, is no doubt
dependent on the different degrees of resistance which the interposed
air presents to the passage of the current. When the terminals are at
a short distance asunder, the induced current, having comparatively
small resistance to overcome, begins to pass across before its tension
has been much exalted, and thus discharges itself continuously during
a short time and at a low tension. But when the terminals are widely
separated, the current is at first unable to make the transit, and has to
accumulate a vei;y high tension at the terminals in order to overcome
the greatly increased resistance ; "and when at length it forces a pas-
sage, it does so, as might be expected, with a correspondingly greater
velocity, and completes the discharge more nearly in an instant. Thus,

380 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

in the former case it shows itself chiefly as the flame-spark, in the
latter, as the thread-spark.

The remarkable difference of tension according to the distance be-
tween the terminals, or, in other words, to the length of the spark, is
no doubt one, and perhaps the only, reason for the effects observed in
attempting to charge a Leyden jar by the inductive machine. When
we connect the outer coating of the jar with one of the terminals, and
bring the knob quite near the other, we see the broad flame-sparks
passing in quick succession ; but only a feeble charge is imparted,
however we may prolong the experiment. When, however, the knob
is held at a much greater distance from the terminal, a few of the long
thread-sparks are sufficient to charge the surface strongly.

The beautiful phenomena of electrical light in rarefied gases, as ex-
hibited in the electrical egg and Gassiot's and Geissler's vacuum-tubes,
affoi'd many interesting subjects of inquiry. As the color of the light
is dependent on the specific nature of the gas, and as this is reduced to
an extreme degree of rarefaction, we have a means in some cases of
identifying such substances when their quantity is so minute as to defy
all other means of detection. With tubes of slender bore, affording, as
has been seen, a light of great intensity, we may obtain a brilliant pris-
matic spectrum, which, as Pliicker has shown, is marked in each case
by some characteristic peculiarity ; and with the same arrangement we
are able to trace the chemical changes which the enclosed gas or vapor
undergoes while subjected to the electrical action.

Perhaps the most important observations in this connection are those
recently made by Gassiot, whose ingenious application of the absorbent
power of potassa has enabled him to approximate more nearly to an
absolute vacuum than any previous experimenter. In a tube thus pre-
pared, he has found that the gas may be so excessively rarefied as to
be unable to transmit the current, at this stage ceasing to be luminous.
We may therefore conclude that the old notion of a vacuum being a
good conductor, which was founded on the electric illumination of the
Torricellian space, is entirely erroneous, and that in all cases conduc-
tion is dependent on the presence of some form of ponderable matter.

Adverting to the new evidences which these and other recent ex-
periments afforded of the electrical character of the Aurora, Professor
Kogers called attention to the action of a magnet on the electric light,
and more particularly to its power of arranging the illumination in me-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 381

ridional bands, and impressing upon them a movement of rotation, as
exhibited in De la Eire's experiment; and mentioned the ingenious
suo'o-estion of Grove, that the height of the aurora above the earth's
surface might perhaps be inferred from a knowledge of the degree of
rarefaction at which like luminous effects were obtained in the vacuum-
tubes.

In connection with the jiuorescent influence of the light of some of
the tubes, he mentioned the fact, that, during the bx-illiant auroral
displays of August and September last, he found that a solution
of sulphate of quinine showed its characteristic fluorescence quite dis-
tinctly when exposed during the height of the illumination.

In regard to the straiified character of the discharge, as exhibited so
strikingly in some of the experiments, Professor Eogers remarked that
this phenomenon, supposed hitherto to belong exclusively to the cur-
rent of the induction coil, has recently been produced by Gassiot
with machine electricity, and with the continuous current of a vol-
taic battery of very high tension. As to the conditions in which the
stratification originates, physicists are as yet undecided. The grada-
tion of the phenomenon in different stages of exhaustion does not seem
to have been sufficiently considered, and would naturally suggest an
hypothesis which may not be unworthy of attention.

When the experiment is made, while the process of exhaustion is
going on, the following stages in the effect may be observed: —

1. While the rarefaction is yet very incomplete, the tube is dark, and
no current transmitted.

2. When the exhaustion has advanced to a certain point, the current
passes and the tube becomes filled with a colored electrical light, which
as yet shows no appearance of stratification.

3. At a still higher stage of rarefaction, the column of light begins to
exhibit a multitude of extremely thin closely contiguous strata, discern-
ible with a magnifier before they become apparent to the naked eye.

4. As the rarefaction is pushed still farther, these strata become
larger and more distinct, with wider intervals of comparatively obscure
space between them.

5. Approaching the extreme limit of exhaustion, a few waves occupy
the whole extent of the tube, and finally the light ceases as the current
fails to be transmitted.

In view of these facts, may we not believe that, in every case where

382 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the current passes, it ts accompanied hy stratification, — in other words,
by a molecular vibration, or the formation of waves rapidly propagated
through the gas or vapor, — and that the increasing rarefaction allows a
greater amplitude for the oscillations, and thus gives rise to longer and
longer waves ?

In referring to the actinism of the electric light, Professor Rogers
described some experiments which, with the aid of Mr. Ritchie and
the distinguished photograper, Mr. Black, he had lately made on the
photographic energy of the different colored lights of the Geissler
vacuum-tubes. These, he stated, were but preliminary to more ex-
tensive observations on the subject, which he hoped, through the same
kind aid, to be able to report on hereafter. The most striking results
thus far noted are the following : —

1. The faint, bluish light surrounding the negative wire is superior
in actinic power to the more brilliant glow of the opposite bulb of the
apparatus.

2. The actinism of the rays emerging from the tube is greatly in-
creased by passing them through a solution of sulphate of quinine, so
as to impress them with the Jluorescent character.

3. The time required for a distinct photographic impression was
greatly less than by the ordinary daylight. In the case of a narrow
tube transmitting a bright purplish flash, a strong picture was made on
the collodion plate in less than half a second. This corresponded to
one turn of the ratchet-wheel, or twelve successive flashes of light
passed through the tube. Allowing each flash to occupy tenfold the
time of an electric spark, as measured by Wheatstone, we should have
an aggregate of time during which the twelve flashes acted of less than
TonWxrth of a second.

A number of positive impressions on paper, printed from
the original collodion surfaces, were exhibited as results of
these preliminary experiments.

On motion of Dr. C. T. Jackson, the thanks of the Acad-
emy were voted to Mr. Ritchie for his interesting and brilliant
exhibition.

. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 383

FoiH* Iiiiudi'ed aud seveiity-ciglitU meeting.

March 13, I860.— Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters relating to the
exchanges of the Academy. He also presented from the
author the following paper, viz. : —

Observations on North American and some other Lichenes. By
Edward Tuckerman, A. M.

Leptogidm dacttlinum, Tuckerm. in litt. : tliallo subeffuso imbri-
cato tenui fragili fusco-viridi, lobis minusculis adscendentibus rotundatis
crenato-incisis margine dactylino-dentatis ; apotheciis (mediocribus) vix
elevatis planis rufo-fuscis margine integerrimo albido demum disparente.
Spora3 ellipsoideaj diam. duplo longiores. (^yl- Syn. Lich. p. 123.)
"Rocks, Vermont, 3Ir. Frost. Nearest to small states of L. tre?neIloides,
rom wbicli it appears to be quite distinct.

Parhelia chlorochroa, Tuckerm. in litt. : thallo substellato-
multifido decumbente coriaceo la3vi nudo flavo-virescente (stramineo)
laciniis discretis laxe intricatis repetito-dichotomis marginibus recurvis
(conniventibus) subtus fuscis (nigrescentibus) fibrillis nigris subpanno-

sis ; apotheciis P. congruens, Herb. Floerk., non Ach. (Kamt-

schatka, Titesius in herb. Floerk.) On the earth, in sterile spots, on
the Upper Missouri, near Fort Clark, and near Cannon-ball River, Dr.
F. V. Hayden. On sand, Inscription Rock (U. S. Pacif. R. R. Sur-
vey), Dr. Bigelow, Herb. Torr. At the Black "Water of the Platte,
and the head of the Platte, Rocky Mountains, Dr. H. Fngehnann.
Near to P. conspersa, of which it might be taken for a state, differenced
by its peculiar habitat ; but unmistakably related also to P. Oamtscha-
dalis, Ach., which was founded on a specimen from Tilesius. Floerke
appears to have been acquainted with the collections of the latter (as
see Eschw. Bras. p. 202), but referred his specimen of the present
Lichen to another species. The P. congruens, Ach. Lichenogr. p. 491,
was founded on a specimen collected by Swartz, which the latter says
(Lich. Amer. p. 5) inhabits trees in North America, and particularly
New England. (" Licolit arbores Americte borealis. In Nova Anglia
observata." Sw. 1. c.) "Whatever this species may prove to be, — and
it is now quite unknown to Lichenists, — it is enough to say that the

384 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Lichen before us differs too much from the character of P. congniens,
and the figure in Swartz's work, to be referred to it. Our plant has
nothing of the look of a tree-lichen, and probably never inhabits trees ;
and there is little i*eason to suppose that it occurs in New England.

PHYSCIA, Njl. — This genus, as limited by Dr. Nylander, in-
eludes, beside the sharply defined section of Parmelia, of the same
name, of Fries, and the nearly akin group of Lichens represented
by P. parietina {Physcia, Koerb. pr. p.), also the more receding, ever-
niiform, subpendulous group {Evernice sp., Fr.) represented here as
yet only by P. jiavicans. So far as this species is concerned, it
appears far from diificult to connect it very closely with forms of
P. chrysophthalma, and so with the genus. I propose here to review
briefly all the North American Lichens known, referable to Physcia ;
and especially to consider what is probably the true rank of a number
of species described by authors from North American specimens.

The genus, with us, falls into two great sections, separated by color,
and also by the spores ; and between these two, P. euploca, from Tex-
as, appears to stand by itself. The first of these sections is made up of
P. parietina, and the Lichens related to it, distinguished by the more or
less yellow color of the thallus, and the colorless spores, in which the
contained fluid matter, or protoplasm, separates finally into two opposite
roundish masses, or sporoblasts, connected often by a narrow isthmus
(sporce pokiri-dyllastce, Koerb. Syst. Lich. Germ. p. 90). From this
group, P. euploca differs in its glaucous-fuscescent coloration, and simply
once-septate spores, which are still colorless. And the large remain-
ing section {Physcia, Fr.) is well defined by the glaucous-cinerascent
(or at length fuscescent) thallus, and once-septate fuscescent spores.

§ I. Species Jlavescentes sporis incolorihus p>olari-dyhlastis.

1. P. CHRYSOPHTHALMA (L.), DC, a. Parmelia chrysophthalma,
Auct. ; Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 254 ; Tuckerm. Lich. Exs. n. 80.
On trunks and branches of trees, especially near the coast ; and also
rarely inland. North America, Jacquin (Collect. 1, p. 117, t. 4), 1786.
Hoffmann (PL Lich. 2, p. 23, tab. 31, f. 1), 1794. Pennsylvania,
Muhlenberg. New York, Torrey. New England to Annapolis, Mary-
land ; and westward to Illinois, 3fr. Russell, and Minnesota, 3fr. Lap-
ham. Thickets and bottoms of the Blanco, Texas, Mr. Wright.

Var. /3. PUBEKA, Wallr. Flecht. 2, p. 333 ; Nyl. Enum. Gen. in
Act. Cherb., V. p. lOG. Borrera pubera, Ach. Licheuogr. p. 502. On

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 385

smaller brandies of trees, Texas, Mr. Wright. Monterey, California,
Dr. Gregg. Delicately downy ; the smallest states with the habit of
the species, but more slender : the larger ones scarcely distinguishable
■ from the next, which occurs pubescent according to Swartz (Wallr. 1. c.)
and Fries (Lichenogr. p. 28). Apothecia sparingly radiate-ciliate, or
oftener entire.

Var. y. FLAViCANS, Wallr. 1. c. ; Eschw. Bras. p. 224. Parmelia
dein Borrera, Ach. Physcia, DC. ; Nyl. Enum. Gen. 1. c. On trees.
South Carolina, 3fr. Ravenel. Elongated, as the last, but smooth;
pale yellow above ; the branches compressed at the axils, and often
channelled : apothecia with a thin, not ciliate, but obsoletely crenulate
thalhne margin, which at length disappeai-s, when the disk (as in other
species) appears to possess a thin, more or less evident proper margin.
iJouisiana, on trees, fertile, Dr. Hale. Wallroth (Naturgesch. der
Flecht. 2, pp. 333-340) was perhaps the first to connect the above
Lichens as forms of one species ; but his view embraces plants removed
even generically from the present type, and others of doubtful relation
to it. Eschweiler follows Wallroth as respects his own Brazilian spe-
cimens, and also adopts the general view of the former. The rich col-
lections of Mr. Wright, in Texas, where at least two of the forms occur,
sufficiently show that the elongated Southern Lichens are inseparable
from P. chrysophtliahna, except as varieties. Physcia exilis, Michx.
Fl. Bor. Amer. 2, p. 327 {Borrera, Ach. ; Parm. chrysoplithalma, c,
Fr. Lichenogr. p. 75 ; Physcia Jlavicans, var. exilis, Nyl. 1. c.) from
trees in Carolina, (Bosc, Ilichaux,) appears to be a smallish, slender,
pallescent condition of the present variety. I have Louisiana specimens
(Dr. Hale) which entirely resemble a South American Lichen referred
to P. exilis in Herb. Berol. — P. chrysophthalma is perhaps (as sug-
gested by Schi\3rer, Spicil. p. 489, and by Eschweiler, 1. c.) only P. ^ki-
rietina, ascendent, and at length elongated, analogous to the ascendent
and elongated states of P. speciosa ; and further attention may well be
given to this point on our sea-coast, where the typical forms of both
species grow copiously, and often together.

2. P. PARiETiNA (L., Duf.), Nyl., a, Auct. ; Tuckerm. Synops. Lich.
N. E. p. 30, & Lich. Exs. n. 79. On trunks and stones near the sea,
and also, more rarely, inland, New England. Bristol, Illinois, Mr.
Russell.

Var. ^. POLTCARPA (Ehrh,), Fr. : microphyllina, suborbicularis,

VOL. IV. 49

386 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

flava ; lobis coraplicatis ; apotheciis majusculis aurantiacis confertissimis.
Farm, parietina, f. Fr. Lichenogr. p. 73, & Lich. Suec. n. 106 ; Schaer.
Spicil. p. 477 ; Koerb. S. L. Germ. p. 91. On trees. Arctic Amer-
ica (the specimens intensely colored, and approaching S), Richardson
(Hook, in Frankl. Narr. p. 760). New England, common on apple-
trees, a conspicuous Lichen, -which has passed here for var. rutilans,
but differs in no I'espect from Fries's specimen above cited, except
greater size. Ohio, Lea. Lake Superior, Prof. Agassis. Wisconsin
and Minnesota, 3fr, Lapham. New Mexico (intensely colored, like 5),
Mr. Fendler. California (on Live Oak), Mr. Wright. The apothecia
in this are sometimes fibrillose beneath, as in the next.

Var. y. LYCHNEA, SchfEr. : microphyllina, suborbicularis, fulva, lobis
planis laciniatis apice palmato-incisis crenatis margine adscendentibus
pulverulentis granulosis ; apotheciis majusculis aurantiacis. On trees,
Cambridge. On trees and stones, IjDSwich, Mr. Oahes. The specimens
on stones are regularly orbicular, substellate, of the common pale-yellow
color of a, and differing in the narrower, divided lobes, which consider-
ably resemble those of var. ectanea, Ach., Schaer. (Zw. Exs. n. 57), to
which our plant might perhaps well be referred, notwithstanding that
the margins are more ascendent, and much more granulate ; but the
latter passes into states which I cannot well distinguish from the present
variety. This development is seen in the higher-colored tree-specimens,
in which the erectish, densely-granulate margins of the pulvinate thal-
lus give quite a crustaceous aspect to the Lichen, which resembles, often
also in color, the \ax. fulva, Schter. Lich. Helv. n. 383, which is hardly
other than a state of his var. lychnea, n. 549. A specimen from Ba-
varia {Physcia controversa, Massal., Koerb. Pai'erg. L p. 38), which I
owe to the kindness of Mr. Von Krempelhuber, is larger and better
developed than my specimens of the Swiss Lichen ; but the American
surpasses even that as a well-marked form of P. parietina. The spores
of our plant are entirely those of the species ; varying in size, but often
as large as in any form. The base of the apothecia is often fibrillose.
On cedars, Inscription Rock (Pacif. R. R. Survey), Dr. Bigehw.
Lobes flat, wide, but truncate, and irregularly heaped, the margins
scarcely ascendant, and naked in the specimens. On charred wood.
New Mexico, Mr. Fendler. With much the aspect of at least one of
the specimens of Schjer. Lich. Helv. n. 382 (P. candelaris), which I
cannot but refer here ; the learned author not distinguishing his vai*.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 387

lychnea from his var. candelaris, at the date of the Spicilegium. Arctic
America, Richardson (Herb. Hook.) ; approaching the next.

Var. S. LACiNiosA, Duf. : microphyUina, suborbicularis, lacero-dis-
secta, e flava aui-antiaca ; laciniis planis adscendentibus nudis. Parm.
farietina, e, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 73. Schser. Spicil. p. 477, & Lich. Helv.
n. 381. Koerb. S. L. Germ. p. 91. On trees. New England, very
common on the coast, the apothecia smallish and scattered ; and ex-
tending to Virginia. South Carolina, Mr. Ravenel. Alabama, 3£r.
Peters. Texas, Mr. Wright.

Var. e. EAMULOSA, Tuckerm. : microphyUina, e virescente flava ;
lobis pumilis dispersis laxe decumbentibus semiteretibus dichotomo-
ramulosis ; apotheciis concoloribus. Report on Lich. U. S. N. Pacif.
Expl. Exp. ined. On bushes, Mare Island, California, 3fr. Wright.
The lobes pass in this curious variety into subterete branchlets.
Spores as in the species.

Var. f. FiNMARKiCA, Ach. : microphyUina, flavo-aurantiaca ; lobis
erectis laceris lacunosis complicatis apice demum multifido-ramulosis.
Lecanora candelaria, var. Finmarhica, Ach. Syn. p. 192. P. parietina,
var. pygmcea, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 73 ; Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 743, d.
Rocks, Behring's Straits, Mr. Wright. An extreme form, referred to
Borrera, according to Fries, 1. c, by Bory.

3. P. CANDELARIA (Ach.), Nyl. Prodr. Gall. p. 60. Lecanora, Ach.
Lichenogr. p. 416, a; Syn. p. 192, a. Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 743,
a. Parmelia parietina, i. concolor, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 73 ; Tuckerm.
Synops. Lich. N. E. &c., p. 31. P. parietina, e. candelaris, Schser.
Spicil. p. 477, & Lich. Helv. n. 382, pr. p. Candelaria vulgaris,
Massal., Koerb. S. L. G. p. 120. On trees. Arctic America, Rich-
ardson (Hook, in Frankl. Narr. p. 760). Pennsylvania, Muhl. Catal.
New York, Halsey. New England. Ohio (infertile), Dr. Hay den.
Louisiana (infertile). Dr. Hale. Thallus spreading irregularly, green-
ish-yellow ; the crowded, minute, dissected squamules powdery at the
margin, and often passing into a subgranulose crust ; apothecia smallish,
of the same color. Spores smaller than those of the preceding species,
and the spore-sacs always containing many (20) instead of eight spores,
as in that. Distinguishable from the small-lobed varieties of P. parie-
tina, but the important character of the Lichen is the microscopical
one of polysporous spore-sacs ; the value of which, in the system, has
probably been over-estimated by those writers who have sought to
found a generical distinction upon it.

38S PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Var. STELLATA, Nyl. : thallo orbicular! stellato viridi-flavo ; laciniis
planis ambitu multifidis demum subconnatis ; apotheciis saturate flavis
rufescentibus margine thallino integro demum plicato subtus radiato-
fibrillosis. Sporfe minutre, ellipsoideaj, incolores, " polari-dyblastge,"
plures (c. 20) in tliecis. P. candelaria, v. stellata, Nyl. Enum. Gen. 1. c.
p. 106. Parmelia diversicolor, Ach. Syn. p. 210, pro p. P. {Physcia)
jilrosa, Fr. PI. Homon. p. 284 ; Lichenogr. p. 75. P. jihrosa j3. stel-
lata, Tuckerm. in Darlingt. Fl. Cestr. p. 440, & Lich. Exs. n. 88.
On trees and rocks. Pennsylvania, MuJilenherg, 1796 (e Hoffm. D.
Fl. 2, p. 159). New England, common. New York, Dr. Sartwell.
Ohio, Dr. Hayden. North Carolina, Dr. Curtis. South Carolina,
Mr. Ravenel. Alabama, Mr. Peters. Louisiana, Dr. Hale. Texas,
3Ir. Wright. The relation of this Lichen to Physcia was pointed out
by Fries, 1. c. ; but its full determination, as a stellate, foliaceous form
of the European Parmelia candelaria, a, of Acharius, was left for the
microscope, in the able hands of Dr. Nylander. The presence of
fibres on the under side of the thalline exciple is a far less uncommon
feature in American Lichens than it is in European.

§ II. Species thallo glauco-fuscescente ; sporis hyalinis uniseptatis.

4. P. EUPLOCA, Tuckerm. : thallo suborbiculari moUiusculo fragili
glabro e laciniis tereti-compressis dichotomo-ramosissimis apice furcatis
implexis appressis glauco-fuscescentibus subtus albidis nudis ; apotheciis
sessilibus disco fuscescente demum convexo marginemque crassiusculum
subcrenulatum excludente. Spora3 suboctona; in thecis, parvulte, ob-
longoe, incolores, uniseptatte, diam. 3 - 3^-plo longiores. Tuckerm.
Suppl. in Amer. Journ. Sci. 25, p. 424. Rocks on the banks of creeks
in the hills of the Blanco, Texas, Mr. Wright. An elegant species
without near affinity, that I can trace, to any other.

§ III. Species thallo glaucescente (fuscescente) ; sporis fuscescentihus

uniseptatis.

5. P. ERiNACEA, Ach. Lichenogr. p. 599 ; Syn. p. 222. On trees,
California, Menzies. Sea-coast of California, Dr. Parry (Herb. Torr.).
The entire thalline margin of the apothecia appears to distinguish this
Lichen, which, in the thallus, resembles the next species, and also some
forms of P. speciosa.

6. P. ciLiARis (L.) DC. var. angustata, Tuckex'm. Synops. p. 32.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 389

Borrera angustata, Bory in Herb. Berol. B. Boryi, Willd. in Fee, Ess.
p. 96, tab. 2, fig. 23, e Fr. Lichenogr. p. 76. Physcia soknaria, Dub.
Bot. Gall. II. p. 612, non Borr. solenaria, Ach. P. ciliaris, v. solenaria,
Auctt. On the earth and upon rocks. Arctic America {B. ciliaris),
Eichardson (Frankl. Narr. p. 761). Newfoundland, Bory in Herb.
Berol. Rocky Mountains, fertile. Herb. Hook. Shores of Lake Su-
perior, fertile, Mr. C. G. Loring, jun. Shores of Willoughby Lake,
Vermont, Mr. Frost. Does not appear to differ from a Corsican speci-
men of P. so/encma, Dub., from Von Krempelhliber, which is infer-
tile, but with yellowish " cephalodia " ; but the cited name, which was
given to a different Lichen by Acharius, is hardly to be preferred to
that of Bory. Apothecia similar to those of the species, but smaller ;
the disk black, with a white bloom ; the erect margin torn, or at length
radiate-fimbriate ; spores (of the species) large, olivaceous-fuscous, ob-
liquely ellipsoid, once-septate, about thrice longer than wide. The
Lichen is among our rarest.

7. P. AQUiLA (Ach.), NyL var. detonsa: e glauco fuscescens; laciniis
elongatis subplanis margine coralloideo-subfimbriatis. Parmelia detonsa,
Fr. Ph Homon. p. 284 ; Tuckerm. Synops. Lich. N. E. p. 32, & Lich.
Exs. n. 18. Trees and rocks. Pennsylvania (P. aquila), Muhl. Catal.
New England to Virginia, common in woods. Ohio, Mr. Lea. North
Carolina, Rev. Dr. Curtis. South Carolina and Georgia, Mr. Ravenel.
Alabama, 3Ir. Beaumont. Mississippi, Dr. Veitch. Louisiana, Dr. Hale.
Much as extreme forms of our Lichen differ from common European
states of the species, it is difficult to separate it, even as a variety. I
find no difference in the spores. Mr. Wright collected the same plant
in Japan. (U. S. N. Pacif. Expl. Exp.) The species appears to be in
intimate relations with P. ciliaris, and is also near to narrow states of
the next species, with which Dr. Nylander (Prodr. Gall. p. 63) com-
pares the American Lichen.

8. P. PULVERULENTA (Schreb.),Nyl. Parmelia {Physcia) pulveru-
lenta, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 79, a, thalli laciniis appressis margine nudis,
Fr. 1. c. P. pidveridenta, a, Tuckerm. Synops. p. 32. Parm. pidveru-
lenta, venusta, & muscigena, Ach. On trunks and rocks, and on the
earth, upon mosses. Pennsylvania, Bluhlenherg. Arctic America {P.
muscigena), Richardson. New England, common on trunks of Elm,
and other trees. New York, passing into narrow states reserabhng the
last, Dr. Sartwell. Nebraska, on the earth, a fragment. Dr. Hayden.

390 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Vai-. ^. riTYREA, Fr., thalli (magis cinereo-virentis) laciniis adscen-
dentibus subtus fibrillosis margine pulverulentis. Fr. 1. c. & Licli.
Suec. n. 105. Lichen, dein Parmelia pityrea, Ach. ; Moug. & Nestl.
Cr. Vog. n. 352. P. pulverulenta, y.grisea, Schtcr. Spicil. p. 446, &
Lich. Helv. n. 487. Lichen leucoleiptes, Muhl. in Herb. Willd. P.
pulverulenta, v. leucoleiptes, Tuckerm. Synops. Lich. N. E. p. 32, &
Lich. Exs. n. 107. On rocks and trees. Pennsylvania, Muhlenherg.
New England to Virginia, common. Texas, Mr. Wright. Mountains
of New Mexico, Mr. Fendler. Lobes often wider than those of a, and
rock-specimens of the present contrast strongly with tree-specimens of
the former. The present is analogous to, and often much resembles
P. speciosa /3. (^Parm. granulifera, Ach., in the state with the margins
of the lobes raised and powdery), but the two Lichens are distinguish-
able, and appear to represent different types ; this presenting the
strongly black-fibrillose underside of P. pulverulenta.

9. P. SPECIOSA (Wulf., Fr.) : thallo cartilagineo-membranaceo vire-
scenti-glauco subtus molliusculo e lacteo fuscescente ; laciniis obtusis
multifidis subciliatis ; apotheciis subpodicellatis disco rufo-fusco nigri-
cante margine thallino incurvo mox crenato-fimbriato. SporjE octonje,
majuscula3, fuscescentes, ellipsoideoe, uniseptatte, diam. 2-3-plo longioris.

Var. a. STELLATA : laciniis appressis subelongatis inciso-ramosis pin-
natifidis margine adscendentibus epruinosis subtus nisi apice epulveru-
lentis ; apotheciis subsessilibus mox nudis. Lichen speciosus, Wulf. in
Jacq. Coll. IIL p. 119, t. 7. Parmelia, Ach. Lichenogr. p. 480 ; Syn. p.
211 ; Fr. Lichenogr. p. 80, a; Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 635 ; Schier.
Spicil. p. 447, & Lich. Helv. n. 357 ; Tuckerm. Synops. Lich. N. E.
p. 33, & Lich. Exs. n. 81 ; Nyl. Prodr. Gall. 1. c. p. 61. On trunks
and mossy rocks in woods. Pennsylvania, Muhlenherg, 1796 (Hoffm.
D. Fl. IL 153). New England to Virginia, common in the mountains,
but somewhat rarely fertile ; the ascendent margins of the lobes often
powdery, or passing, on rocks, at the centre, into a thick powdery crust.
Lake Superior, Prof. Agassiz. Wisconsin, 3Ir. Lapham. North Car-
olina, infertile. Rev. Dr. Curtis. South Carolina, in the upper country,
infertile, Mr. Ravcnel. Alabama, infertile, Mr. Beaumont. Louisiana,
Dr. Hale.

Var. /3. GRANULiFEKA : stellata, appressa ; laciniis subplanis irregu-
lariter laciniatis dentato-crenatis (subpruinosis) granulis globosis niveis
aspersis margine demum adscendentibus subtus glabris e fusco nigri-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 391

cantibus ; apotheciis subsessilibus disco subnudo margine thallino cre-
niilato mox pulverulento. Spora? speciei. Parmelia granulifera, Ach.
Syn. p. 212. On trunks and rocks. Pennsylvania, fertile, Muldenherg.
Frederick County, Maryland, infertile. South Carolina, in the low
country, abundantly fertile, 3L\ Eavenel. Louisiana, fertile. Dr. Hale.
Texas, fertile, Mr. Wrigld. I have specimens compared by me with
one from Muhlenberg (from whom Acharius had the Lichen) in Herb.
Willd. It is a Southern form, and occurs, covered with apothecia, on
the low islands of the coast of South Carolina, while the typical form
prefers the mountains, southward, and is rarely fertile. The original
plant of Acharius is distinguished by its flatter, less divided lobules,
the margins of which are not raised, powdery, or ciliate. A state of
this evidently recedes towards P. stellaris, with which species it also
agrees in its nearly entire, glaucous-pruinose apothecia. But the Lichen
varies into a form (exactly P. granulifera, Meissn., from Brazil, in
Herb. Kunz.) well represented by the Carolina Lichen, which only
differs from the type in its shorter, wider, less discrete, and less di-
vided lobes, with margins somewhat minutely notched and powdery ;
and in its entirely smooth, and at length nigrescent underside. A
similar Lichen, also blackish beneath, occurs in Venezuela {Mr. Fend-
ler\ in which the raised margins of the lobes and the whole centre of
the specimen is densely w/tZmif-efiiorescent. And Mr. Wright found
specimens, growing with P. applanata, on maritime rocks in Japan
(U. S. N. Pacif. Expl. Exp.), which are colored similarly to the last,
and appear fully to belong here, but are besprinkled with regular and
rounded soredia.

Yar. y. hypoleuca, Ach. : stellata, glabra, nuda, appressa ; laciniis
planis multifidis subtus mollibus subpulverulentis ; apotheciis subsessi-
libus maximis nudis, margine crenato-folioloso. Sporas speciei. Par-
melia speciosa, v. hypoleuca, Ach. Syn. p. 211. P. hypoleuca, Muhl.
Catal. p. 105 ; Tuckerm. Synops. p. 33, & Lich. exs. n. 108. Montag.
& V. d. Bosch. Lich. Jav. p. 21. On trunks. Pennsylvania, Muhlen-
berg. New England to Virginia, not common, and abundantly fertile.
New York, Dr. Sartwell. Ohio (a state with erect lobules). Dr. Hay-
den. Texas, both the state above described, Avhich is only sparsely
fibrillose beneath at the margins ; and another, inseparable, which is
without pulverulence and rather thickly fuscous-fibrillose on the under
side ; Mr. Wrigld. The largest and handsomest state of the species

392 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

with US, and always distinguishable by its entirely smooth, scarcely
notched, often subconnate lobules, Avhicli are more or less powdery-
tomentose beneath. The Lichen also recedes towards P. stellaris, but
approaches it less nearly than a similar state of the last variety. The
Java Lichen, for which I am indebted to Dr. Van den Bosch, does not
appear to differ from ours.

Var. b. podocarpa: stellata, glabra; laciniis plano-convexis multifi-
dis lobulis simpliciusculis subadscendentibus subtus pulverulento-tomen-
tosis margine villoso-fibrillosis ; apotheciis elevato-podicellatis pruinosis
margine crenato-lobulato. Sporte speciei. Parmelia podocarpa, Bel.
Voy. Ind. Or. IL pag. 122, cit. Montag. & V. d. Bosch. Lich. Jav. p.
2L P. leucomela, v. podocarpa, NyL Enum. Gen. 1. c. p. 106. On
branches of trees in thick woods, Cuba, 3Ir. Wright. But the Lichen is
only an intermediate state between the aj)pressed conditions of the
pi-esent species, and the immediately following erectish state, into both
of which it distinctly passes, both in Cuba and in Louisiana (Dr. Hale).

Var. e. GALACTOPHTLLA, Tuckerm.: adscendens, glabra ; lobis abbre-
viatis superne dilatatis repandis subtus pulverulento-tomentosis margine
villoso-fibrillosis ; apotheciis oblique subpodicellatis pruinosis margine
crenulato-sublobatis. Sporge speciei. Parmelia involucrata, Mey. in
Spreng. Syst. Veg. Cur. Post. p. 328, e descr. P. comosa, Eschw. Bras,
p. 199 ; Nyl. Enum. Gen. 1. c. p. 106. P. echinata, Tayl. in Hook.
Journ. Bot. 6, p. 166, e Nyl. Lich. Exot. P. cillaris, var. galacto-
phylla, Tuckerm. Synops. p. 32. P. speciosa, var. galactophylla, Ejusd.
Lich. Exs. n. 82. Parmelia galactophylla, Willd. Herb. On trees,
very rare northward, and less fibrillose, when it does not appear to
differ from the widest states of P. leucomela, var. latifolia, Flot. <5c
Mey. (Herb. Kunze. Herb. Berol.), and is sometimes {P. erinacea,
Hamp. in Herb. Kunze, from Peru) almost undistinguishable from
European states of P. ciliaris ; — but southward becoming common
and densely fibrillose, the fibres at length covering every part of the
surface, as in the state described by Eschweiler. Maine, infertile, 3Ir.
Oakes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, on Red Cedar, infertile, very rare.
Hingham, on Red Cedar, infertile, Ifr. Russell. Pennsylvania, 3Iuh-
lenherg, fertile, 1796 (Hoffm. D. Fl. H. p. 144, where it is cited under
P. ciliaiis, under which species Floerke also placed the Lichen, with a
mark of doubt, in his herbarium. Herb. Berol.). Ohio, on Red Cedars,
fertile, 3Ir. Lea. Mountains of Virginia, B. D. Greene, Esq. North

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 393

Carolina, Rev. Dr. Curtis. South Carolina, Mr. Ravenel. Alabama,
Mr. Peters. Mississippi, Dr. Veitch. Louisiana, Dr. Hale. Texas,
Mr. WrigJit. At first sub-stellate, and scarcely dilated, when the fer-
tile specimens only differ from the last variety so far as the apothecia
are less strikingly pedicellate ; and the infertile ones from substellate
less canaliculate specimens of the next, in nothing but the elongation
which is so characteristic a tendency in the latter : — but the short,
dilated, erectish lobes of the fully developed and fertile Lichen, and its
peculiarly conspicuous, milk-white under-side (which furnishes a more
constant distinction than that indicated by the name adopted by Esch-
weiler), are sufficiently striking. Cuban specimens of the present vari-
ety are often more or less suffused, especially at the tips of the lobes,
and the margins of the apothecia, with a (sometimes intense) brick-red
color ; this occurs equally in the preceding variety, and according to
Montague and Van den Bosch (Lich. Jav. p. 22), who consider it ad-
ventitious, was regarded as characteristic of his P. podocarpa by Be-
langer. I observe the same in Cuban specimens of the typical form.

Var. C' LEUC03IELA, Eschw. : adscendens, glabra, e substellata mox
diffusa, eiongata ; laciniis attenuatis ciliato-fibrillosis subtus pulverulento-
tomentosis ; apotheciis subpodicellatis pruinosis niargine demum radiato-
lobatis. Sporaj speciei. Lichen leiicomelas, L., Sw. Obs. Bot. tab. 11,
f. 3. Physcia, Michx. Fl. Bor. Am. 2, p. 326; Dub. Bot. Gall. 2,
p. 612 ; Nyl. Enum. Gen. 1. c. p. 106. Parmelia, Ach. Meth. p. 256 ;
Fr. Lichenogr. p. 76 ; Montag. Crypt. Canar. 1. c. p. 111. Borrera,
Ach. Lichenogr. p. 499 ; & Syn. p. 222. Parmelia speciosa, b. Fr.
Lichenogr. p. 80 ; Moug. & Nestl. Crypt. Vog. n. 941. P. speciosa,
var. leucomelas, Eschw. Bras. 1. c. p. 198. Lichen comosvs, Bory, Voy.
cit. Ach, On trees, and probably also, as in Cuba, on rocks. Trees,
Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina, the specimen belonging to the
wider states, Michaux. On Red Cedars, infertile, Ohio, Mr. Lea. On
trees in the mountains of Virginia, Rev. Dr. Curtis ; and of Carolina,
Mr. Ravenel. Florida, Herb. Russell. Texas, i>r. Parry. The Ohio
specimens were found growing with those of the last variety, which
looks like the fertile state of the same lichen ; nor is it possible to
distinguish narrow-lobed specimens of that from others of the present
variety except by the difference of size, and especially of elongation.
Excluding from this the short, wide-lobed South American forms (P.
leuco7nela, var. latifolia, Mey. & Flot. pr. p.), which, as already re-

VOL. IV. 50

394 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

marked, are inseparable from states of the last, we appear to have in
the Lichen now under consideration — which passes, without any break
in the connection, from the substellate and nearly horizontal form of
the middle of Europe (Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Yog. n. 941, with which
the Ohio, and most of the other North American specimens accord)
to the much elongated, almost filamentous, loosely decumbent states
of the tropics (P. leucomela, var. angustifolia, Mey. & Flot.) — the
extremest atypical development of our species in a centrifugal direc-
tion, as, in the nearly erect variety galactopliylla, in a centripetal.
Professor Fries first observed that this species passed into several
varieties (" vario modo mutatur," Lichenogr. 1. c.) in America ; and
did not hesitate also to refer here the P. leucomela of Middle and West-
ern Europe, though he retained, as specifically distinct, the narrower,
subtropical form. And I owe to him the suggestion that P. comosa,
Eschw., should be placed here, rather than under P. ciliaris. But
this last-named species appears itself almost too near to states of P.
speciosa already cited ; — differing, however, to a degree in color, and
receding rather towards P. aquila.

10. P. Leana, Tuckerm. in litt. Parmelia {Physcia) Leana, Tuck,
in Lea, Catal. PI. Cincinn. p. 45. On trees. Ohio, Mr. Lea. Thallus
thin and brittle, naked and smooth on both sides ; the somewhat ascend-
ent, loosely imbricated lobes multifid, much as in common states of the
last species, with flat, nearly entire lobules, which are glaucous-fusces-
cent above (reminding in this respect of pale states of P. ohsciira) and
pale beneath, where occur a few scattered fibres at the margins of the
same color. The apothecia are smallish (compared with those of the
last species), subsessile, and entire. The spores are smaller, narrower,
and more acute. The Lichen appears to partake at once of the char-
acters of P. speciosa and P. obscura, but I cannot refer it to either.
Rocks and trees, Burlington, Vermont, with marginate soredia, 3fr.
Russell; who compares the Lichen with P. speciosa; to which Profes-
sor Fries considered the Ohio Lichen as approaching nearest. Rocks
in the "White Mountains, Mr. Oahes ; similar to the last. Trees, Texas,
Mr. Wright, a smaller-lobed state, like the last two, growing with P.
ohscura ; which is distinguishable at once, by its black and densely
black -fibrillose under-side. These latter states, which generally agree
with the described plant, appear to approach P. ohscura, much as that
does P. speciosa.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 395

11. P. STELLARI3 (L.) : tliallo subcartilagineo glaucescente epruinoso
subtus glabro e pallido nigricante fibrilloso ; laciniis multifidis ; apothe-
ciis sessilibus, mai'gine tumidulo subintegro, disco fusco-atro subpruinoso.
Fr. Lichenogr. p. 82, panels mutatis. Spora3 octonai', ellipsoideaj, fus-
cescentes, uniseptatas.

Vax'. a. AiPOLiA, Schser. : stellata, nuda, glabra ; laciniis convexiusculis
subtus pallidis. Lichen stellaris, L. pro parte. Parmelia, Ach. ; Fr.
Lichenogr. 1. c, a; Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 163; Schaar. Spicil.
p. 438, & Lich. Helv. n. 350, 351 ; Tuckerm. Synops. Licb. N. E.
p. 33, & Lich. exs. n. 83 ; Nyl. Prodr. Gall. p. Gl. On trees, dead
wood, and rocks. Pennsylvania, Muhlenberg. New York, Torrey.
Arctic America, Richardson. New England, exceedingly common,
in forms with the lobes subconnate (P. aijiolia, Ach.), and more dis-
tinct {P. aipolia, v. a7ithelina, Ach.), and a slender rock -form diverging
yet farther (P. phcea, Tuckerm. in Darlingt. Fl. Cestr. p. 440) and
continuing common southward to Virginia. North Carolina, Rev. Dr.
Curtis. South Carolina, Mr. Ravenel. Alabama, Mr. Peters. Louis-
iana, Dr. Hale. Texas, Mr. Wright. New Mexico, 3£r. Fendler. All
the specimens from Carolina southward shoAV a tendency to pass into
smaller, narrower states, which appear to be inseparable, specifically,
from the next.

Var. /3. ASTROIDEA : stellata, nuda, glabra, microphylla ; laciniis planis
mox sorediatis subtus e pallido demum nigris. P. astroidea, Clem.
Ens. Add. p. 302, cit. Ach. ; Fr. Lichenogr. p. 81 ; Tuckerm. Enum.
Lich. N. Amer. p. 50 ; Nyl. Prodr. Gall. p. 62. P. Caricce, Clem.
1. c. Lecanora, Ach. Syn. p. 188. P. Clementiana, Ach. Lichenogr.
p. 483 ; Syn. p. 201 ; Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 737. P. Clementi,
Turn, in Linn. Trans. IX. p. 140, tab. 13, fig. 1. P. sidei-alis, Ach.
Syn. p. 207. P. ohsessa, Ach. Syn. p. 213; Montag. Cuba, p. 227.
P. astroidea, var. ohsessa, Nyl. Lich. Exot. 1. c. p. 255. On trees. New
England to Virginia, becoming more common southward. Pennsyl-
vania (Partn. ohsessa), Muhlenberg. North Carolina, Rev. Dr. Curtis.
South Carolina, Mr. Ravenel. Alabama, Mr. Peters. Louisiana, Dr.
Hale. Texas, Mr. Wright ; who has also collected the same plant in
the Loo Choo Islands (U. S. N. Pacif. Expl. Exp.) and in Japan ; the
latter only differing from the type in its rounded soredia ; also in Cuba
and Nicaragua. The North American Lichen referred here occurs in
forms which I cannot distinguish from normal Portuguese specimens

396 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of P. astroidea, and in others which pass imperceptibly into P. stel-
laris. These conclusions are results of much, oft-repeated study of
large collections of specimens, in numerous states of development and
degeneration. The smooth, normal Lichen, as it occurs in Texas and
Cuba, may be referred, with equal right, to P. astroidea or P. stellaris.
And the more northern, sorediate form (P. ohsessa, Acli.) only differs
from sorediate European' states in the greater size and regularity both
of the thallus and the soredia. But in tropical America, our plant
departs much farther from its type, acquiring not merely a greater
smoothness and elegance, but becoming entirely black beneath (P. ob-
sessa, Montag. Cuba, 1. c), a condition which now resembles, in general
habit, the present variety ; is now larger, on rocks, with the aspect of
P. stellaris ; and finally, occurs on trees, with all the characters, except
the color of the under side, of P. Pomingensis, Montag. Acharius de-
scribes his P. ohsessa as black beneath, while I have always found the
northern form, here referred to his species, pale on the under side ; but
there is no reliance to be placed upon this character in the specimens
from Cuba and Nicaragua, which occur, entirely similar above, but
now black and now pale-fuscous beneath, and varying in the same
manner in the color of the little ring of fibres which often surrounds
the base of the thalline exciple.

Var. y. DoMiNGENSis : stellata, nuda, platyphylla ; laciniis planis
margine ssepius pulverulentis subtus pallidis. Parmelia {Physcia) Do-
mingensis, Montag. Cuba, p. 225 ; Nyl. Enum. Gen. 1. c. p. 106. On
trees. Seaboard of South Carolina, Mr. Pavenel. Key "West, Florida,
Dr. Blodgett. Louisiana, Dr. Hale. Bottoms of the Blanco, Texas,
Mr. Wright. Passes into the last variety, in Cuba ; and an entirely
smooth state, from the Bonin Islands, near Japan (U. S. N. Pacif.
Expl. Exp. Mr. Wright), exhibits at once the larger and wider lobes
of the present, and the smaller and more divided ones of var. astroidea.
But the American Lichen is almost always and elegantly characterized
by its powdery margins. The plant also approaches P. speciosa, var.
gramdifera (P. gramdifera, Ach. Syn.), especially that state with pow-
dery margins (P. granulifera, Meissn. in Hb. Kunz.), but is always, so
far as my specimens go, distinguishable from that, by a certain diver-
gence of habit, resulting in part from a different lobation ; the wider
and always flat divisions of P. Domingensis, Montag., with their reg-
ular palmate summits and slightly notched lobules, contrasting with

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 397

the more irregular laciniation, and the rather convex and strongly
toothed lobes, of P. granulifera ; which, in the state here referred
to, may be P. Domingensis, Ach. ; a distinct Lichen, according to Dr.
Ny lander (1. c.) from that so named by Montagne.

Var. 8. (tribacia) Fr. : subadscendens, microphylla ; laciniis planis
margine eroso-granulosis in crustam dein granulosam conglobatis. Par-
melia stellaris, c, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 83 ; Tuckerm. Synops. Lich. N. E.
p. 34, & Lich. exs. n. 85. Lecanora tribacia, Ach. Syn. p. 191, pr. p.
On trees, very common, from New England to Virginia. South Caro-
lina, Mr. Ravenel. Louisiana, Dr. Hale.

Var. c. HiSPiDA, Fr. : adscendens ; laciniis subabbreviatis hispido-
fibrillosis apice tubuloso-inflatis. Lichen hispidus, Auct. e Fr. Loharia,
HofFm. D. Fl. 2, p. 151. Parmelia stellaris, b. hispida, Fr. Lichenogr.
p. 82 ; Tuckerm. Synops. Lich. N. E. p. 34, & Lich. Exs. n. 84. Lichen
tenellus, Scop. Carn. p. 1406. Parmelia, dein Borrera, Ach. Syn. p.
221 ; Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 450. Physcia, DC. Fl. Fr. 2, p. 39G.
Parm. stellaris, v. tenella, Schosr. Spicil. p. 439, & Lich. Helv. n. 352,
562. Trees and rocks. Avciic America., Richardson (Hook, in Frankl.
Narr. App. p. 761). New England, not uncommon. Analogous to P.
speciosa, e. galactophylla {P. comosa, Eschw.).

12. P. c^siA (Hoffm.), Nyl. Prodr. Gall. p. 62. Parmelia, Ach.
Lichenog. p. 479 ; Syn. p. 216 ; Fr. Lichenogr. p. 83. P. pulchella,
Schogr. Spicil. p. 437.

Var. a. (stellata) Fr., Tuckerm. Lich. Amer. Exs. n. 86. On
stones and dead wood. Pennsylvania, Muhlenberg. New York, Halsey.
New England, not very uncommon.

Var. /3. TRIBACIA, Fr. : subadscendens, microphylla ; laciniis convex-
iusculis margine demum eroso-granulosis conglobatis. Parmelia cmsia,
c, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 84. Lecanora tribacia, Ach. Syn. p. 191, pro p.
Parmelia, Sommerf. Lapp. p. 109. On rocks, New England; very
like P. stellaris, S, but differing in the convexity of its somewhat pin-
natifid, ash-colored lobules.

Var. y. TENELLA, Fr. : adscendens ; laciniis hispido-fibrillosis. P.
ccBsia, b. tenella, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 84. Parmelia leptalea, Ach. Meth.
p. 198. Physcia, DC. Fl. Fr. 2, p. 395. Borrera tenella, iS. leptalea,
Ach. Lichenogr. p. 498 ; Syn. p. 221. On rocks and dead wood. New
England ? Differs but little from P. stellaris, e, but the same form has
indubitably been traced back (Fr. 1. c.) to both species. P. ccBsia is a

398 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

northern Lichen, near to the last species, but occurring here in the same
distinctness as in Europe ; nor have I observed any intermediate states.
It is, however, by no means as common with us as the last. There are
some respects in which one might consider it as bearing possibly the
same relation to P. stellaris that P. ciliaris bears to P. speciosa sensu
latiori.

13. P. APPLANATA (Fee), Nyl. Enum. Gen. 1. c. p. 107. Parmelia
applanata, Fee Ess. p. 126, tab. 32, fig. 2, & Suppl. p. 123, tab. 42, n.
18; Montag. Cuba, p. 223, tab. 8, fig. 1. P. plumosa, Tayl. in Hook.
Lond. Journ. Bot. G, p. 173, e descr. On trees. Seaboard of South
Carolina, Mr. Ravenel ; of Florida, Herb. Gray ; and of Alabama,
Herb. Sartwell. Louisiana, Dr. Hale. Texas, in the valleys of the
Blanco, and the Rio Grande, 3fr. Wright. Thallus thickish, softish,
stuppeous-membranaceous, closely agglutinate-appressed, from green-
ish at length white-glaucescent ; beneath scarcely fibrillose, becoming
black ; lobes confluent, crustaceous-concrete at the centre, radiant and
somewhat pinnate-plicate at the circumference ; besprinkled at length
with rounded soredia ; apothecia scattered, a thin, entire thalline mar-
gin bordering an at length convex, violet, naked disk, which becomes
black, and rests on a black hypothecium. Spores narrow-ellipsoid,
scarcely a little curved, fuscescent, the length about thrice exceeding
the width. I possess the same Lichen, a strongly marked and distinct
type, but connected with Northern types through the next, from many
parts of the warmer regions of the earth, and also from Japan (U. S.
N. Pacif. Expl. Exp.), Mr. ' Wright.

14. P. OBSCURA (Ehrh.), Nyl. Lichen ohscurus, Ehrh. PI. Cr. dec.
18, n. 177, cit. Ach. Parmelia (Physcia), Fr. Lichenogr. p. 84 ; Scha;r.
Spicil. p. 441, & Lich. Helv. n. 353 - 4 - 5. Physcia, Nyl. Prodr.
Gall. p. 63, & Lich. Par. n. 34. Parm. cycloselis, chloantha, & ulothrix,
Ach. Syn.

Var. a. CILIATA : adpressa, substellata, livido-fuscescens ; lobis planis
linearibus subdigitato-multifidis subciliatis subtus nigrescentibus nigro-
fibrillosis (pannosis) ; apotheciis subtus fibrillosis. Lichen ohscurus,
Ehrh. 1. c, L. ciliatus, HofFm. Enum. Lich. p. 69, tab. 14, fig. 1. Lo-
haricc, HofFm. D. Fl. 2, p. 155. Lichen ulothrix, Ach. Prodr. p. 113.
Parmelia, Ach. Meth. p. 200 ; Lichenogr. p. 481 ; Syn. p. 217. P. ol-
scura, /3. ulothrix, Fr. Lichenogr. p. 85. Tuckerm. Synops. p. 34, &.
Lich. Exs. n. 87. P. ohsctira, var. ciliata, Scha^r. Spicil. p. 442. On

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 399

trees, dead wood, and rocks. Pennsylvania, Muhlenberg. Arctic Amer-
ica (P. cycloselis), Richardson (Hook, in Frankl. Narr. p. 761). New
York, Halsey. New England to Virginia, common. Ohio, Mr. Lea.
Wisconsin, Mr. Lapham. North Carolina, Rev. Dr. Curtis. South
Carolina, 3Ir. Ravenel. Mississippi, Dr. Veitch. Louisiana, Dr. Hale.
Texas, Mr. Wright. Very variable. P. ulothrix, Ach. is perhaps the
most perfect condition of the Lichen, which hardly occurs here without
more or less ciliate apothecia, while the ciliation of the lobes appears
to be unreliable as a distinction. The present variety includes all our
most' perfect states of the species, and I have equally fine specimens of
the same variety, from Sweden (^Mr. Torssell), and the finest possible,
in all respects, from Japan (U. S. N. Pacif. Expl. Exp.), Mr. Wright:
but in the South of Europe the Lichen appears to degenerate, and
Schajrer distinguishes (Spicil. 1. c.) the present from P. cycloselis, Ach.,
"omnium partium minutie." I have collected in New England and
New York a large, glaucescent state of this (as I confidently consider
it), with proportionately Avider lobes, densely pannose-fibrillose beneath,
and the black, tomentose hairs showing also at the margins, — which
may well be Parmelia setosa, Ach. Syn. p. 203. There is also, in our
mountains, a greenish-glaucous state, with largish, bright-chestnut apo-
thecia (commonly ciliate at the base) which might be passed by for
Parmelia tiliacea. The following varieties are still more remarkable.

Var. )3. ERYTHROCARDiA : strato medullar! aurantiaco-rubro. Par-
melia stuppea, Tayl. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. G, p. 175. P. endo-
coccina, Koerb. Parei-g. Lich. 1, p. 36, e descr. On trees. California,
Beechey, Herb. Hook. (Taylor, 1. c). New England, common, and Avith
the lobes and apothecia of the type. Mountains of Georgia, Mr. Ra-
venel; less ciliate, and the apothecia scarcely so. Does not appear
to differ from the type, except in the internal color. Dr. Koerber's
Lichen, from the Tyrol, can scarcely differ from ours.

Var. y. ADGLUTiNATA, Sch^r. : arete adnata, membranacea, glauco-
fuscescens ; lobis demum confluentibus margine phcatis apicibus nigre-
scentibus subtus pallidis. Parmelia adglutinata, Floerk. D. L. 4,
p. 7 ; Moug. & Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 543. P. ohscura, y. ^adglutinata,
Schjer. Spicil. p. 442 ; Nyl. (sub Physcia) Prodr. Gall. p. 63 ; Lich.
Par. n. 33. On trees (Hickory, Red Cedar, &c.), Massachusetts.
Pennsylvania, Dr. Michener. North Carolina, Rev. Dr. Curtis. South
Carolina, il/r. Ravenel. Louisiana, Dr. Hale. Texas, Mr. Wright.

400 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Appears to be inseparable from the species, and equally so from the
European variety (the Louisiana specimens being quite as depauperate
as most of my foreign ones), .but generally a finer plant than the latter,
and when perfect, scarcely differing from states of P. applanata, except
in color, and in the colorless hypothecium. Parmelia viridis, Montag.
Crypt. Guyan., & Syll. p. 329, {Parm. picta, Montag. Cuba, p. 221,
tab. 9, fig. 3, non Ach.), appears to be scarcely separable from the
North American Lichen ; and these varying conditions are perhaps
comparable with the American forms of the European P. astroidea.

Pyxine Meissneri, Tuckerm. in litt. : thallo orbiculari cartilagineo
radiatim laciniato glabro glaucescente intus sulphureo ; laciniis subplanis
appressis pinnatifidis imbricatis subtus nigris ambitu fibrillosis ; apothe-
ciis primitus thallo concoloribus excipulo thallino subintegro tumidulo
discum planum nigrum cingcnte mox superne nigricantibus margine
demum tenuescente nitido disco convexo subexcluso. Sporce suboctonsB,
oblongo-ellipsoideaj, uni-septat?e, mox fuscescentes, diam. plusquam 3-plo
longiores. On trees in Cuba, and also in Nicaragua, M?-. Wright. And
I possess a fine Brazilian specimen, referred to Physcia by Dr. Meiss-
ner of Halle, from my kind friend, the late Professor Kunze of Leipzig.
Thallus differing from that of the next species in its entire smoothness,
and its light-yellow medullary layer. The apothecia are at first ex-
ceedingly like those of Physcia applanata, but the exciple soon blackens
above, and presents finally a convex disk enclosed by a shining margin
of the same color, thinner than the original thalline border, and often
looking, but not really, distinct from it. Professor Fries, in estab-
lishing this genus (PI. Homon. p. 266), indicated its relations to Um-
hiliearia, but did not regard either as Parmeliaceous. In venturing,
some years since, to take this view with respect to Pyxine (Synops.
Lich. N. E. p. 24, and 35) the writer had before him only the more
northern Lichen {Pyxine sorediata, Fr.), the " at first closed, palish "
apothecia of which, " becoming patellisform, and, with the altered thai-
line margin, black," he considered as indicating " a modification of Par-
melia, near to " the section " Amphiloma, Fr." ; a conclusion which the
foliaceous thallus, with its compact, crust-like centre, and often dense
hypothallus, served to strengthen. But the present species is as clearly
inseparable from Parmelia, in the sense of Fries, as it is from Pyxine ;
and its position as respects the new tribe Parmeliei, as acutely limited,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 401

in the light of our present knowledge of the spores and spermogones,
by Dr. Nylander, may still perhaps be regarded as between Physcia
{Parmelia § Physcia, Fr.) and Pannaria {Parmelia § AmpMloma and
Psoroma, Fr.) : and Eschweiler, it is 'observable, places his Lecidea
albo-virens (Lich. Bras, in Mart. Fl. Bras. 1, p. 256), which is clearly
Pyxine sorediata, as first observed by Montagne (PL Cell. Cub. in
Sagi-a's Hist. Cub. p. 188), in the near neighborhood of his Lecidea
(now Pannaria) micropkylla, in which, moreover, he only followed
Acharius. There are several points in Dr. Montagne's description
and illustration of his P. sorediata (Cuba, 1. c. p. 188), and especially
his figure b, seemingly indicating our present species, which is finally
very like smoothish states of the next, and may well occur without
any trace of its originally Physciaceous fructification ; in which case it
should hardly be separable from P. Cocoes {P. sorediata, Fr.), unless
by the color of its medullaiy layer, to be considered farther on. And
thus the remarkable development of the apothecia of P. Meissneri
mig-ht be taken as of value rather as enabling us to determine the true
structui'e and natural position of the genus, than- as a specific distinc-
tion ; but, however the final state of the new species may approach the
old, I have examined many hundreds of specimens of the latter, in its
best condition (P. Cocoes )3. sorediata), without finding the least trace
or indication of the originally Lecanorine fructification of the former.
Spores of P. 3feissneri, lineai'-oblong, and more than thrice as long as
wide, at first colorless and simple, an elongated sporoblast occupying
the centre, but soon becoming fuscescent, and the sporoblast separat-
ing into two roundish ones, which are connected by a narrow isthmus,
remaining at least until the central dissepiment appears : these sporo-
blasts finally increasing in size till they meet the walls of the spore,
when the well-marked limit of each, and the empty ends of the spore
beyond it look like other dissepiments and sporoblasts, and the spore
might be called 3-septate (comp. Montag. Cuba, 1. c, but the descrip-
tion, as I understand it, is not illustrated by the figure given ; and also
Eschweiler, 1. c, p. 246), which I think it is not.

Pyxine Cocoes (Sw.), Nyh Enum. Gen. 1. c. p. 108. Lichen Co-
coes, Sw. in Ach. Prodr. p. 106. Lecidea, Ach. Meth. p. 84; Li-
chenogr. p. 216; Syn. p. 54. On Cocoa Palms in Jamaica, Swartz
(ex Ach.) ; and in Cuba, 3Ir. Wright. Also in Nicaragua, 3Ir. Wright
(U. S. N. Pacif. Expl. Exp.). Acharius distinguished this from his

VOL. IV. 51

402 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Lecidea sorediata, mainly by the lighter color and thinner texture of
its smoother lobes, and their smoothish under-side ; and Mr. Wright's
Cuban collections appear fully to confirm Dr. Nylander's opinion (Lich.
Exot. in Ann. Sci. 4, 11, p. 239), that neither of these differences, nor
that of size, which extends even to the spores, is sufficient to separate
specifically the tropical form from the more northern one. The present,
so far as my specimens go, appears to be a smaller and less imbricated
Lichen than P. Meissneri, from which it also differs in its white medul-
lary layer, and especially in its apothecia, which are exactly those of
the genus, as described by Fries, and, more at large, by Eschweiler.
There is also in P. Cocoes a tendency to sorediate efflorescence, which
becomes marked and characteristical in the northern Lichen, which, I
cannot but think, deserves still a separate, if a subordinate place.

Var. /3. SOREDIATA : thallo cartilagineo glauco-cinerascente intus
fusco-sulphureo (pallescente), laciuiis rugoso-plicatis ; sorediis rotun-
datis csesiis marginalibus exasperatis subtus subspongioso-fibrillosis ;
apotheciis ca^sio-pruinosis (nudis). Lecidea sorediata, Ach. Syn. p. 54.
Pyxiiie, Fr. PI. Homon. p. 267. Lecidea (§ Pyxine), Eschw. Bras.
1. c. p. 245. Parmelia (§ Pyxine), Tuckerm. Synops. Lich. N. E.
p. 35, & Lich. Exs. n. 19. Lecidea albo-virens, Eschw. Bras. 1. c.
p. 256. On trees and rocks, Pennsylvania, Muhleixberg (Ach. Syn.
1. c. 1814). New England to Virginia, not rare, especially on moun-
tains. Westward to the Rocky Mountains, Herb. Hook. North Car-
olina, Rev. Dr. Curtis. South Carolina and Georgia, Mr. Ravenel.
Alabama, Mr. Peters. Mississippi, Dr. Veitch. Louisiana, Dr. Hale.
Texas, where occur also small forms like a, 3fr. Wright. The same
unwearied botanist has collected the Lichen also in Cuba, and in Japan.
And I am indebted to Dr. Hooker for an infertile, but otherwise
undistinguishable specimen from the Himalaya, and to Dr. Van den
Bosch for satisfactory ones from Java. It was upon this Lichen, first
observed by Muhlenberg, that Fries constituted his genus. The plant
differs from the earlier P. Cocoes (Sw.), Nyl., in being every way
larger ; in its darker, finally ashy color ; its regular soredia ; and
densely spongy-fibrillose under-side : but approaches P. Meissnei-i (to
which P. sorediata, Montag., Cuba, 1, c, should perhaps be referred,
in part at least) in its dark-yellow (sometimes fuscous, and often pal-
lescent) medullary layer ; which is observable (as indicated by Esch-
weiler in his Lecidea albo-virens), if nowhere else, immediately beneath

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 403

the hypotliecium. P. sorediata, var. endochrysa, M. & V. d. Bosch, in
Montag. Syll. p. 345, "thalli strato meduUari fulvescente (chamois),"
described from specimens of Junghuhn, is an indication of the last-
mentioned feature, which appears to me to show itself (though doubt-
less finally disappearing, and unknown in a) with moi'e or less distinct-
ness, in most of my specimens. In P. coccinea, M. & V. d. Bosch,
Lich. Jav. p. 40, the same layer is described as blood-red. As already
remarked under our first species, the present differs from that in pos-
sessing the pseudo-Lecideine apothecia of the genus, as defined by its
illustrious author, and others ; only varying from their descriptions in
the fructification, being at first pale (as indicated by the present writer,
1. c.) and also, in the variety now before us, bespread at length with a
gray bloom (comp. Eschweiler's " apothecia . . vix canescentia " in his
Lecidea albo-virens, 1. c), which is very often wanting. The spores of
the present foi'm do not differ appreciably from those of other species,
unless in proportional dimensions. They are often ellipsoid, slightly
constricted at the middle, once-septate, and fuscous ; about two and a
half times longer than wide : but occur perhaps more commonly in a
rather elongated, oblong, less colored and less simple state, in which
the protoplasm develops at first (as in many spores) into a square, or
oblong sporoblast, which then divides into two, which are connected by
a narrow isthmus (like the neck of an hour-glass, or, more often, of
dumb-bells) through the middle of which passes the dissepiment of the
spore ; which reaches, in this state, to nearly the length of the spores
of P. 3Ieissneri. The ends of the sporoblasts towards the (empty)
tips of the spore are so well defined that it is diflicult not to describe
these sporoblasts as becoming at length larger, oval, and once-septate,
and the spore as thus thrice-septate (and this view has been taken by
eminent writers), but I venture to propose the above as perhaps the
true one ; and to regard the genus as possessing spores typically once-
septate ; and as approaching, therefore, species of Physcia as closely in
this respect, as it does also, according to Dr. Nylander (in his observa-
tions on P. 3Ieissneri, in Lich. Exot. 1. c, p. 255) in its spermogones.

Pyxine retirugella, NyL Lich. Exot. 1. c, p. 240, is the only
remaining species known, not above noticed. In this, which was col-
lected in Nukahwa, growing on stones and rocks, by Mr. Jardin, the
thallus is described as reticulate-rugulose, like that of Parmelia saxa-
tilis ; and the apothecia as resembling those of the last species. Very

404 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

elegant specimens, collected by Mr. Wright, from stems of Pandanus,
in the Bonin Islands (Herb. U. S. N. Pacif Expl. Exp.), with linear,
elongated, discrete lobes, which are brought into relief by the black
hypothallus, have just the marking above described, and the regular
soredia, and whole asyect oi Pyxine ; but are without fructification.

Pannaria leucosticta, Tuckerm. in litt. : thallo e squamulis
cartilagineo-membranaceis glauco-fuscescentibus ambitu expansis sub-
elongatis pinnato-incisis centro adscendentibus imbricatis dissectis
dentato-crenatis, crenis albo-pulverulentis, hypothallo creruleo-nigro
marginante ; apotheciis appressis convexis rufis margine thallino
persistente subincurvo crenulato mox pulverulento. Sporoe ovoidete,
simplices, incolores, diam. 1^-2-plo longiores. — Parmelia (Psoromci)
leucosticta, Tuckerm, in Darlingt. Fl. Cest. p. 441. On trees and
rocks. New England to Virginia, not uncommon. Pennsylvania, Dr.
Michener. North Carolina, Rev. Dr. Curtis. South Carolina and
Georgia, Mr. Pavenel. Alabama, Mr. Beaumont. Louisiana, Dr.
Hale. Approaching P. microphylla, from which it differs in the colors,
in its larger, dissected thallus, and also in the apothecia and spores.
And it also approaches (but is always, so far as I have observed, dis-
tinguishable from) subsquamulose states of P. ruhiginosa. P. cras-
pedia, Koerb. Parerg. 1, p. 45 (1859) from Istria, appears to have
some (possibly unessential) features of agreement with our Lichen.
But it is interesting, in this connection, that one or two other Lichens,
first observed in North America, as Cetraria Oahesiana ( C. Bavarica,
Krempelh., and now published also, though I know not from what
locality, in Massalongo's Italian Herbarium Exsicc), and possibly
Physcia ohscura, var. erythrocardia {Parm. stuppea, Tayl., which can
hardly be distinct from P. endoccina, Koerb. 1. c. p. 36, from Tyrol),
are, with more or less certainty, inhabitants of the South of Europe.

Pannaria crossophylla, sp. nov. : thallo minusculo membranaceo
glauco-cinerascente e squamulis subelongatis expansis plumoso-multi-
fidis, lobulis linearibus teretiusculis subtus subconcoloribus ; hypothallo
nigro obsolescente ; apotheciis appressis convexis rufo-fuscis biatorinis
vel excipulo thallino (spurio) tenui crenato demum subcinctis. SporjB
ellipsoidece, limbata3, subincolores, diam. mox 4-plo longiores. — On
slaty rocks, Brattleborough, Vermont, 3fr. Russell. This Lichen, of
which I have also received fine specimens from Mr. Frost, appears to
differ from all described species in the narrow, teretish divisions of its

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 405

elegantly brancli-lobed thallus, the longer portions of which closely
resemble a delicate feather, or (as implied in the Latin terms pliima-
rins and plumatilis) fine embroidered work, or lace. Of the species
nearest related, which are all flat-lobed, P. tryptophylla differs in the
colors, in the lobation of its very flat and thin divisions, and in its
apothecia ; P. microphylla in its closely imbricated crust of small,
notched (but " never laciniate-dissected," Fr.) true squamules, and its
smaller, oWo?z(7-ellipsoid spores ; and P. Sauhinetii (Montag.), Nyl., a
tree-lichen, of which I have been kindly favored with a specimen by
the generous author, in the colors, the distinct configuration of the
scarcely lobate, larger, and flatter scales, and, like the last, to which it
is much nearer than is the present, in its oblong spores. Beneath,
our plant is much of the same color as above, but traces of a blackish
hypothallus are more or less discernible at the centre. Apothecia
somewhat immersed, bright brownish-red, convex, and the thin, bia-
torine exciple (which has sometimes an apparent, more or less perfect,
crenate, but spurious thalline border) scarcely discernible. Spores
ellipsoid, rather sharp at the tips, wdiich are often somewhat elongated ;
more or less tinged with a hue like that of the gonimous granules ; lim-
bate, and the protoplasm commonly separating into irregular, more or
less rounded sporoblasts, which are often in polar opposition ; from
twice to four times longer than wide.

Lecidea microps (Fr. Herb, sub Parmelici), sp. nov. : thallo
minusculo granuloso-subsquamaceo imbricato glaucescente ; apotheciis
minimis biatorinis rufescentibus concavis vel excipulo thallino tenui
integro receptis, Spone octona?, ovoidere, incolores, simplices, diam.
2 - 2|-plo longiores. Lecidea pezizoidea, Schwein. Herb., non Ach.
Parmelia microps, Fr. Herb. On the earth, Salem, North Carolina,
Schweinitz. I possess only a fragment, given to me by Professor
Fries, who had it from Schweinitz. The Lichen has points of re-
semblance to Lecanora amniocola, but differs in the spores. It may
also be compared with Lecidea coarctata, but appears certainly distinct
from it. The whole is so small, that an ordinary lens is hardly suflli-
cient to examine its characters ; and I offer it here only for further
investigation.

Lecidea oidalea, sp. nov. : thallo crustaceo tenui subcartilaglneo
demum contiguo la3vigato rimoso verrucoso-areolato flavo-viridi-glau-
cescente; hypothallo nigro sublimitato; apotheciis (mediocribus) cupu-

406 PROCEEDINGS OE THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

laribus sessilibus nigris disco nudo opaco subscabrido intus albo hypo-
thecio fusco-nigro imposito mox convexo-protuberante marginemque
tenuem subobscurum excludente. Sporte majusculaj, oblongae, atro-
fuscescentes, murali-divissB, diam. 3-plo longiores. On trunks of Oaks,
Alcatraz, California, Mr. Wright (U. S. N. Pacif. Expl. Exp.). And I
possess a fragment of the same Lichen, from trees on the banks of the
Columbia, in Oregon Territory, Dr. Newherry. Crust with much of the
habit of states of L. disciformis, from similar habitats, but greenish ;
and the margins of the protuberant apothecia perhaps more obscure
than in that species. The spores are quite different. These are always
without dissepiment, showing at first a grumous protoplasm, which, as
the spore attains to its maturity and very dark color, assumes a cellu-
lar configuration resembling mason-work, as in L. atro-alba, and other
species of the same group (^Rhizocarpon, Koerb.).

Lecidea Africana, sp. nov. : thallo crustaceo adnato radioso-lobato
mox squamuloso-areolato, areolis applanatis crenulato-lobatis ambitu ri-
moso-multifidis Isevigatis luteis subtus nigris ; apotheciis areolis innato-
sessilibus cupularibus nigi'is, margine tenui crenulato-rugosulo flexuoso,
disco opaco nudo intus albo demum convexiusculo subexcluso. SporiB
ellipsoidea^, apicibus acuta3, 1 - 3-septata3, ati'O-fuscescentes, diam. 1|- -
2^-plo longiores. On rocks (friable sandstone) on hills near Simons-
town, Cape of Good Hope, Mr. Wright. Thallus in young plants crus-
taceous-foliaceous, radiate-lobate ; but the centre passing into mostly
flattish, areolate, crenulate squamules, which are somewhat palmate-
multifid at the circumference, and black beneath ; bright-yellow, be-
coming whitish in some specimens. Apothecia always black ; the
slightly tumid or obtusish, wrinkled-crenulate margin at length almost
excluded by the convex, naked disk, which is white within and rests
upon a black hypothecium. Spores smallish, ellipsoid, with rather
acute tips, the at first simple protoplasm dividing into two round spo-
roblasts, and crossed by a central dissepiment ; the sporoblasts then
divided, and the spore appearing twice or thrice septate, according
as the central dissepiment is more or less apparent ; finally blackish-
brown, and the dissepiments more or less obscure. The Lichen has,
at first sight, a good deal of resemblance to L. geographica, (as Moug.
& Nestl. Cr. Vog. n. 640, a Sc /3,) but differs in its at first lobulate, at
length squamulose and effigurate thallus, and scarcely less in its apo-
thecia and spores, which last are never many-septate. Specimens with

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 407

more convex lobules occur, and these have something (in miniature) of
the plicate aspect of L. Waldenhergii, but the latter is entirely distinct,
both in thallus and in its very short and obtuse ellipsoid once-septate
spores.

Professor Sophocles read the following communication, —

On the Difficulty of Identifying- Plants and Animals mentioned
by Ancient Greek Authors.

Few things connected with Greek philology present more perplexity
to the scholar than the identification of plants and animals whose names
occur in ancient Greek authors. With regard to the Greek naturalists,
as a common rule, they were content to mention only some of the most
striking peculiarities of plants and animals. Minuteness of observation
and accuracy of description were apparently undervalued by most of
them. Consequently they had no technical language, properly so called ;
the popular language of the day being deemed sufficiently definite for
their purpose. And as each Greek city had its local peculiarities, it
was natural that more names than one should be employed to designate
a given species. Thus, the dpin ( Quercus Ilex) of most of the Greeks
was called ^eXAo'Spvs (literally cork-oak) by the Arcadians.

The definitions of classical names of plants and animals found in
later and Byzantine glossarists are to be received with caution ; for
in many instances they are nothing more than cliildish conjectures.
Thus, according to one of Homer's commentators, cpvXia is a kind of
olive ; according to another, a wild olive. A third tells us that it is
a kind o? fig-tree ; and a fourth, a kind of oak. Apion supposes it to
be a species of tree. Ammonius regards it as identical with the mastic-
tree (o-x'ws). Lastly, a scholiast gravely affirms, that the cfivXia is a
kind of olive called (f)v\la ! Again, the xotpoypvXKios of the Septuagint
corresponds to the Hebrew shaphan H^^^y It was one of the ani-
mals whose flesh the children of Israel were forbidden to eat. The
Jewish doctors of later times imagined it to be the same as the rabbit
(the co7iy of the English version of the Old Testament). St. Jerome,
who lived many years in Palestine, where this animal abounded, de-
scribes it in such a manner as to leave very little doubt that it was the
Hgrax Syriacus of zoologists. His Italian readers, however, finding
that his description of it applied equally well to the Alpine marmot,

408 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

had no difficulty in believing that the xotpoypvXXto? of the Alexandrian
Jews was identical with their marmot. Thus, the Latin glossarist
recently edited by Dr. Beck, in his definition of choirogryllus (which
implies x°'-P°yp'"^^°^^ another form of xotpoypvWios), follows St. Jerome
in every particular, except one : he refers the animal to Italy {i?i
Italia ahimdans), and not to Palestine. The Byzantines regarded
XoipoypvWios, dKavdoxoipos {hedgehog), and varpi^ {porcupine), as sy-
nonymous terms.

A considerable number of plants and animals mentioned by ancient
Greek authors may be identified with the help of the modern language
of Greece, as spoken by the common people, provided the following
proposition be admitted ; that, ivhen the ancient name of a plant or
animal is still heard among the Greeks, the presumption is that it is the
traditional name of that plant or animal Thus, there is no reason
why the modern p.rjKid, apple-tree, avKid, fg-tree, 6^vd, beech, ^TeSia,
elm, (^CKvKa (also QCKvkl or 6\vki), Rhamnus alaternus, irpivdpt or -rrovp-
vdpi, Quercus coccifera, dpcos or dpd8i, Quercus Ilex, a-cpevTopi, map>le,
should not be regarded as the representatives of the ancient prfkia,
avKea, o^ia, TrreXea, (piKvKr], irplvos, dpla, acpevSapvos, respectively. At
the same time we must bear in mind that not unfrequently the same
plant has different names in different parts of Greece and Turkey.
We must remember, also, that the same name is sometimes applied
to different species of the same genus, or to different genera of the
same order. In some few instances the same name is given even to
genera belonging to two different orders. Thus, (})\6p.os or acpikopos
in most places represents the Verbascum of botanists ; but in Pelopon-
nesus (if I am correctly informed) it is used with reference to the
Euphorbia of botanists, elsewhere called yaXar^iSa (from yd\a, milk),
on account of its milky juice.

Ancient Greek names of plants are often heard in regions that have
never been under foreign influence, such as the smaller islands of the
iEc^ean, and some of the mountainous districts of European Greece and
Turkey. As to the Greeks living among the Turks, they are apt to
call fomiliar objects by their Turkish names. In places once occupied
by Slavs, some plants have Slavic names ; as jSovft, dwarf-elder, from
the Russian buzina {hovCrj^d) ; 'keTTovvrid or XoTrowna or Xo/3oSta, clieno-
podium, from the Russian lebedd (Xebcda).

A compound of aypios, ivild, in good Greek would naturally denote

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 409

the wild state of the plant or of the animal whose name appears in the
second component part. The Romaic, however, often violates this rule.
Thus, dypioXvKos, wild wolf (or savage ivolf), represents the Bartsia
Trixago of botanists.

Some of the domestic animals are called by names once belonging
to the dialect of slang, as developed in the large cities of the Gra^co-
Roman empire ; as mTfivos, code, literally, the winged one ; aXoyov,
horse, literally, the irrational animal. A few of them have foreign
names ; as [lovKdpi (diminutive of the mediaeval novXa, mida), mule ;
yaros, cat, fi'om the Italian gatto ; yd8apos (formerly also yaei8apos,
delBapos), ass, a modification of the Persian dxBapi.

With regard to wild animals, most of them still retain their ancient
names, probably because they wei-e seldom seen in large cities, where
linguistic alterations and distortions usually commence. Fishes also
are often called by their ancient names. For although they were
often exposed for sale in the markets of large places, yet their natural
history (so to speak) was known chiefly to Jishermen, a veiy small
portion of the population of the empire, and the last class of men to
tamper with language.

President Felton gave an account of the recently-discov-
ered papyri, containing portions of the lost works of Hype-
reides, the Attic orator.

After a general summary of the contents of these interesting docu-
ments, which were found in Egypt, and which are now in the posses-
sion of the British Museum, he proceeded to discuss the fragments of
the Oration of Hypereides against Demosthenes, and the bearings they
have upon the charge of accepting a bribe from Harpalus, under which
Demosthenes was condemned. He thought the leading points of the
argument could be clearly made out from these fragments. In order
to set the subject in a proper light, Mr, Felton recapitulated the prin-
cipal facts in the political history of the times referred to, — sketched
the characters of Harpalus, Hypereides, and Demosthenes, and their
j elations to one another, — and then examined the argument, as pre-
sented in the fragments, against Demosthenes, giving the reasons why,
under the circumstances of the trial, Hypereides doubtless brought for-
ward everything that could be said on that side. It was shown that
Hypereides made the best of a bad cause ; that he everywhere assumed

VOL. IV. 52

410 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the guilt of the accused, pressing into the case collateral topics, Avith
appeals to the popular fears and passions of the moment, so as to weave
a web of apparent reasoning out of nothing but surmises, unproved as-
sertions, and vague possibilities ; that though the duty of prosecuting
was laid upon him officially, there was added the stimulus of personal
resentment growing out of recent political collisions ; that as no proofs
were given, no proofs could have existed ; and that the entire line of
attack shows that Demosthenes was sacrificed to the terrors of the mo-
ment, and to appease the wrath of Alexander.

Chief-Justice Parker discussed the question in the light of
the principles of modern law, and sustained the conclusion to
which the remarks of President Felton pointed.

Professor Agassiz made the first of a series of communi-
cations, which maintain the position that varieties, properly
so called, have no existence, at least in the animal kingdom.

Professor Peirce moved, and the motion was adopted, that
special meetings for scientific discussion should be held, at
the hall of the Academy, on the fourth Tuesday of March,
April, and May.

Four liuudred and seveniy-iiiiitli meeting.

March 27, I860.— Special Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Mr. J. A. Lowell, Professor Bowen, and Professor Agassiz
discussed adversely the hypothesis of the origin of species
through variation and natural selection. The latter reiter-
ated his denial of the existence of varieties, properly so
called, in the animal kingdom, in the wild state, insisting
that what were so called were either stages of growth or
phases of cyclical development, and that domesticated vari-
eties were of no account in the matter, having no counterpart
in nature.

Mr. Lowell suggested that the supposed varieties in the
vegetable kingdom were the result of hybridation. He also
criticised the hypothesis in question on scientific and philo-
sophical grounds, and condemned its tendency.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 411

Professor Bowen raised similar objections; contending that
tliis hypothesis is one of cosmogony rather than of natural
history, and makes such huge demands upon time, that the
indefinite becomes virtually infinite time, so rendering the
theory dependent on metaphysical rather than inductive
reasoning ; he denied the validity of all reasoning from the
variability of plants to that of animals, or that the two had
enough in common to warrant inferences from the one to
the other; he also denied the variability of instinct in any
animals, or that there was any evidence of the heritability
of variations of structure or instinct except in a few sporadic
cases, and in these only for two or three generations. He in-
sisted that there was no reason why, on the theory, instinct
and structure should vary contemporaneously ; and finally he
maintained that the theory denied the doctrine of the per-
manence of type, as received by all naturalists, was incom-
patible with the whole doctrine of final causes, and negatived
design or purpose in the animate or organic world.

Four hnudred and eiglitietlx meeting.

April 10, 1860. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Professor Horsford introduced Mr. Du Chaillu, who, invited
by the Academy, gave some account of his travels in Western
Africa, and of his observations of the habits of the Gorilla.

Professor Gray criticised in detail several of the positions
taken at the preceding meeting by Mr. Lowell, Professor
Bowen, and Professor Agassiz respectively ; — premising that
he had no doubt that variation and natural selection would
have to be admitted as operative in nature, but were prob-
ably inadequate to the work which they had been put to.
He maintained : —

1. That varieties abundantly occur in nature, at least among plants ;
and that very fcAv of them can be of hybrid origin ; that hybridation

412 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

gives rise to uo new features, but only mingles, and, if continued,
blends, the characters of sorts before separate ; and that a hybrid
origin was entii-ely out of the question in species which had no con-
geners, or none in the country to which they were indigenous ; yet that
such species diverged into varieties as readily as any other. As to the
general denial, 1. that there is any such thing as natural selection,
and 2. that there is any variation in species for natural selection to
act upon, he could not yet conceive how such denial was to be sup-
ported ; but to answer its purpose it would have to be carried to the
length of denying that the individuals of a species ever have anything
which they did not inherit ; — slight variations, accumulated by inher-
itance, being just what the theory in question made use of, — taking
little or no account of more salient and abrupt variations, though in-
stances of the latter kind could certainly be adduced.

2. In opposition to the view that such variations as cultivation or
domestication so copiously affords are of no account in the discussion,
and have no counterpart in nature. Professor Gray maintained, that the
varieties of cultivation afforded direct evidence of the essential varia-
bility of species ; that no domesticated plant had refused to vary ; that
those of recent introduction, such as Californian annuals, mostly began
to sport very promptly, sometimes even in the first or second genera-
tion ; man having done nothing more than to sow the seed here instead
of in California, perhaps in no better soil. Here the variations were
as natural as those of the wild plant in its native soil. Man produces
no organic variation, but merely directs a power which he did not
originate, and by selection and close breeding preserves the incipient
variety which else would probably be lost, and gives it a choice oppor-
tunity to vary more. Consider, he remarked, how small the chance of
the survival of any variety when originated in its native habitat, sur-
rounded by its fellows, — when not one seed out of a hundred or a
thousand ever comes to germinate, and not a moiety of these ever suc-
ceed in becoming a plant, — and when, of those that do grow up and
blossom, the danger is imminent that the flowers may be fertilized by
the pollen of some of its abundant neighbors of the unvaried type, —
and it will be easy to understand why plants vary so promptly in our
gardens, mostly raised from a small quantity of seeds to begin with, prob-
ably all from the same stock, where they are almost sure to self-fertilize
in the first generation, — where every desirable variation is watched for,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 413

and cared for, and kept separate ; — and it may be confidently inferred
that they vary in cultivation, at first, much as they would have varied
in the wild state, if such favorable opportunity had there occurred.
Continued cultivation under artificial selection would of course force
some of these results to an extreme never reached in nature, giving to
long-cultivated varieties a character of their own. Yet they may not
deviate more widely from the wild type than do some of the wild vari-
eties of many plants of wide geographical range. Moreover, Professor
Gray maintained that there occur in nature the same kinds of varia-
tion as those to which we owe our improved fruits, &c. ; that such
originate not rarely in nature, and develop to a certain extent, enough
to show the same cause operating in free as in controlled nature ;
enough to have shown the cultivator what he should take in hand ;
enough to render it likely that most of our cultivated species of fruit
began their career of improvement before man took them in hand.
Instances of such variations in the wild state were adduced from our
Hawthorns, especially Cratoegus tomentosa, from our Wild Red Plum,
Wild Cherries, and especially from our Wild Grapes and Hickories.

3. The view taken by Mr. Lowell, and especially by Professor
Bowen, that the indefinitely long periods of time which the theory
required and assumed was practically equivalent to infinity, and there-
fore rendered the theory " completely metaphysical in character,"
Professor Gray animadverted upon, mainly to remark that the theory
in question would generally be regarded as too materialistic and physi-
cal, rather than too metaphysical in character ; and that, a fortiori,
physical geology and physical astronomy would on this principle be
metaphysical sciences.

4. Exceptions were taken against the assumption of such a wide
distinction, or of any sharply drawn distinction at their confines, be-
tween the animal and the vegetable kingdoms, and especially against
the view that instinct sharply defines the animal -kingdom from the
vegetable kingdom on the one hand, and from man on the other, and
Avhich denies to the higher brutes intelligence, and to man instinct.

5. Also, against the view that the psychical endowments of the
brute animals, whether instinct or other, are invariable and unim-
provable ; and a variety of instances were adduced, as recorded in
the works of Pritchard and of Isidore St. Hilaire, as well as some
from personal observation, in which acquired habitudes or varied

414 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

instincts were transmitted from the parents to their offspring. That
such acquirements, once inherited, would be likely to continue herit-
able, was argued to be the natural consequence of the general law
of inheritance, the most fundamental law in physiology ; that it is
actually so, Professor Gray insisted was well known to every breeder
of domestic animals.

6. For decisive instances of the perpetuity by descent or fixity,
under inter-breeding, of altered structure, Professor Gray adduced
Manx cats and Dorking fowls ; and he alluded to well-known cases
of six-digited people, and the like, transmitting the peculiarity to
more than half of their children, and even gi-andchildren ; showing
that the salient peculiarity tended to be more transmissible than the
normal state at the outset ; so that, by breeding in and in, it was
likely that hexadactyles could soon be made to come as true to the
breed as Dorkings.

7. As to the charge that the theory in question denies permanence
of type. Professor Gray remarked that, on the contrary, the theory not
only admitted persistence of type, as the term is understood by all
naturalists, but was actually built upon this admitted fact as one of its
main foundations ; that, indeed, one of the prominent advantages of
this veiy theory was, that it accounted for this long persistence of
type, which upon every other theory remained scientifically unac-
counted for.

8. Finally, as to the charge that the hypothesis in question repudi-
ated design or purpose in nature and the whole doctrine of final causes,
Professor Gray urged : — 1. That to maintain that a theory of the deri-
vation of one species or sort of animal from another through secondary
causes and natural agencies negatived design, seemed to concede that
whatever in nature is accomplished thx'ough secondary causes is so
much removed from the sphere of design, or that only that which is
supernatural can be regarded or shown to be designed; — which no
theist can admit. 2. That the establishment of this particular theory
by scientific evidence would leave the doctrines of final cause, utility,
special design, or whatever other teleological view, just where they
were before its promulgation, in all fundamental respects ; that no new
kind of difficulty comes in with this theory, i. e. none with which the
philosophical naturalist is not already familiar. It is merely the old
problem as to how persistence of type and morphological conformity

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 415

are to be reconciled with special design, (with the advantage of offering
the only scientific, though hypothetical, solution of the question,) along
with the wider philosophical question, as to what is the relation be-
tween oi'derly natural events and intelligent efficient cause, or Divine
agency. In respect to which, we have only to adopt Pi-ofessor Bo wen's
own philosophy of causation, — viz. " that the natural no less than the
supernatural, the continuance no less than the creation of existence,
the origin of an individual as well as the origin of a species or a
genus, can be explained only by the direct action of an intelligent
cause," — and all special difficulty in harmonizing a theory of the
derivation of species with the doctrine of final causes will vanish.

Professor Parsons made a communication upon the general
subject. He remarked that : —

The new theory rested wholly on the assumption that the changes
or variations by which the author supposed that species were estab-
lished, were always minute, and effiscted their purpose only by accu-
mulation through ages. But Mr. Parsons regarded this as wholly
unnecessary. The records of monstrosity show that aberrant variation,
in the direction of loss or degradation, may go very far indeed. And
we have no reason whatever for holding it to be a law, that aberrant
variation may not, possibly, in some instances, go equally far in the
direction of gain and improvement. Supposing this to be possible,
we reconcile the theories of Darwin and Agassiz. Admitting all the
new creations which Agassiz requires, the question then occurs, How-
are these creations created? We must choose, either chance, and
chance is a word only and not a thing, or creation at once out of noth-
ing, by creative will ; or from earth and water and chemical elements
summoned to a proper place, at a proper time, in proper proportions,
by the same exertion of Omnipotence. One of these we must choose,
or else accept the theory that these new creations were created by
means of some influence of variation exerted upon the ovum of some
existing kindi'ed creature, either before or at conception, or during
uterine nutriment. This last supposition Mr. Parsons deemed by far
the most reasonable and philosophical. Thus, if we suppose that the
time had come for a dog to exist for the first time, and become the
father of all dogs, it is far easier to believe that he was born of a wolf,
a fox, a hyena, or a jackal, than that he suddenly flashed into exist-

416 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ence out of nothing, or from a few pounds of chemical elements. Mr.
Parsons then remarked upon some of the facts in geology that seem
to favor this view ; particularly the noticeable circumstance, that, as
the great classes of animals succeed each other, they are not separated
by periods of nothingness, but lap over each other, and are joined by
connecting links. By way of illustration, he referred to trilobites,
which run up through all the paleozoic rocks ; and as they are begin-
ning to thin out, we have in the old red sandstone the Pterichthys and
the Cephalaspis, which was long held to be a trilobite of the genus of
Asaphus, until Agassiz determined both to be fishes ; and Mr. Parsons
quoted Murchison's statement, that he regarded them both as the con-
necting links between the Crustacea and the fishes. So after fishes
were well established, we have the Placodus, the Dendrerpeton, and
the Archegosaurus, all of which were for some time held by Agassiz
to be fishes, but, upon further and final investigation, were determined
by him to be reptiles ; and these may therefore be regarded as the
connecting links between fishes and reptiles, — between marine animals
and land animals. So, the line between the Protozoa and the Pi'oto-
phyta is constantly shifting and uncertain. And in the same connec-
tion, Mr. Parsons adverted to the singular fact, that man, who begins
in the uterus as a nucleated cell, or monad, on his way to birth puts on
the traces and characteristic indications of all the great families of
animals. Asserting that the time had come when science must either
adopt the doctrine of creation out of nothing, or else admit that new
ci'eatures may exist as the aberrant ofi^spring of kindred parents, he
preferred the latter ; nor did he think that reason or religion would be
shocked if science should hereafter declare it probable, that the earliest
human beings were not called into existence out of nothing, or directly
from the dust of the earth, but were children of Simite nearest in
structure to men, and were made, by some influence of variation, to
difl^er from their progenitors in having a brain and general structure
such, and so formed, that the breath of immortal life could be breatlied
into them, and distinguish them for ever from the animals from whom
and above whom they had risen.

Professor Bowen replied at length to the arguments and
criticisms of Professor Gray, but reserves his remarks for
publication in another form.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 417

Foui' liuiiclred and eiglity-iirst meeting*

April 24, 1860. — Special Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters relative to the
exchanges of the Academy.

Mr. S. Newcomb read a paper on the secular variations and
mutual relations of the orbits of the Asteroids, of which the
following is an abstract : —

The tests to which it is possible to put any theory respecting the
common origin of the asteroids may be divided into two classes. The
one is per se demonstrative, and consists in determining by actual trial
whether the orbits of the asteroids could ever have fulfilled the condi-
tions which may be required by the hypothesis. It may, however, be
subject to practical difficulties in its applications, which impair its de-
monstrative vigor.

Another method is furnished by the method of probabilities, and
might, perhaps, if the asteroids were sufficiently numerous, approach
very nearly to certainty in its results. It is founded on the suppo-
sition, that the hypothesis examined will imply a high probability of
some general relationship among the orbits of the asteroids, if the latter
are sufficiently numerous; and consisting in observing whether any
such relationship is observable between the elements of the asteroids.

Take, for example, the hypothesis of Olbers. It seems highly prob-
able that, if this hypothesis be true, the fragments of the exploded frag-
ment would have been thrown promiscuously in every direction ; and
that the velocities of those thrown in one direction would not differ ma-
terially from that of those thrown in another. From this hypothesis
we easily deduce the following conclusions : —

1. The exploded planet, supposing it to have moved in an orbit with
a small eccentricity, was at a distance from the sun about equal to the
average distance of the asteroid, or 2.6.

2. The asteroids, of which the mean distance is nearly equal to 2.6,
ouo-ht on the whole to have much smaller eccentricities than those at a
greater or less distance.

3. The eccentricities ought on the whole to be more than twice as
great as the inclinations ; and the average quantity by which the mean

VOL. IV. 53

418 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

distance difiers from 2.6 should be about 5.2 times the inclination, or
2.4 times the eccentricity.

Now, the orbits of the asteroids are very far indeed from fulfilling
either of the last two conditions. The mean value of the eccentricities
is almost exactly the same as that of the inclinations, and the variations
in the mean distances are much less than they ought to be.

Again, it would seem highly probable, on Olbers's hypothesis, that
the smaller fragments would be projected with greater velocities than
the large ones, and would thus be found to have larger eccentricities,
inclinations, and ranges of mean distance. Such, however, is not found
to be the case.

The orbits of the asteroids do not seem to have been materially af-
fected by a resisting medium. Such a medium would affect the smaller
ones more than the larger, and thus cause the former to approach the
sun more rapidly than the larger. But no tendency among the smaller
asteroids to be near the sun is observable, other than what proceeds
from the less brilliancy (and consequently less susceptibility of discov-
ery) of the more distant ones.

It has frequently been remarked, that a large majority of the aste-
roids have their ascending nodes and perihelia in the first semicircle
of longitude. This fact throws no light on the question of their origin,
since it is the almost necessary efiect of known causes. The principal
cause is the attraction of Jupiter ; and the eflfect may be expressed by
saying that there will always be a tendency in the nodes of the aste-
roids to comcide with the node of Jupiter, and in the perihelia of the
asteroids to coincide with that of Jupiter.

It is possible that the hypothesis that the asteroids were formed by
the breaking up of a revolving ring of considerable eccentricity and in-
clination might account for the general relations of their elements.

Dr. I. I. Hayes, of Philadelphia, addressed the Academy, by
special invitation, upon the subject of his proposed expedition
to the Arctic Seas. He was introduced by Dr. B. A. Gould,
who said : —

More than eighteen months ago, upon the first announcement by
Dr. Hayes of his desire to organize an expedition to the North Polar
regions to complete the work of the Grinnell expedition under Dr.
Kane, resolutions were unanimously passed by this body, commend-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 419

ing his daring and self-sacrificing plans, and ofFering him the sympa-
thy and influence of the Academy; appointing at the same time a
committee of seven Fellows for the purpose of co-operating with him,
and of rendering him scientific aid and counsel. The efforts of Dr.
Hayes to obtain the equipment for his expedition last year were unsuc-
cessful, and he is now engaged, as the Academy is aware, in renewed
efforts to obtain means of conducting a party of exploration to the Arc-
tic Pole, and of thus definitely solving the chief geographical problem
of our times, — that of the supposed open Polar Sea, its boundaries,
approaches, physical characteristics, and the vegetable and animal in-
habitants of its shores and waters.

It may, I think, safely be said, that the great majority of scientific
men believe in the existence of such an open sea around the North Pole,
for reasons of various kinds, with which the Academy is familiar, ^- rea-
sons derived from the course of the Gulf Stream, from known habits and
habitations of the whales, from the form of the isothermal lines, and
from various reports of different explorers since 1810. The evidence
brought back by Dr. Kane's expedition tended strongly to corroborate
this belief in the public mind ; and now, guided by the experience and
discoveries of that expedition. Dr. Hayes proposes to aim directly for
the Pole, to complete the work so brilliantly begun by the Grinnell ex-
pedition, and to secure for our own land the honor which such an enter-
prise, successfully conducted, cannot fail to receive.

At our last meeting Dr. Hayes was, by a unanimous vote, invited to
address the Academy this evening upon the subject so near his heart,
and in acceptance of this invitation he is here. He naturally desires to
enlist the immediate personal interest of gentlemen present, in behalf
of his plans, that their influence may aid him with the community to
which he proposes to appeal for help.

Of the feasibility of the exploration, of the extent to which our pres-
ent experience promises to enable us to surmount difficulties hitherto
encountered, of the details of the plan which he has so carefully matured
for the equipment of a party and the prosecution of his undertaking,
Dr. Hayes will speak. But before taking my seat, I beg leave to
urge one important consideration upon the notice of the Academy,
namely, the great danger that, if the efforts of Dr. Hayes are unsuc-
cessful in organizing his expedition during the present season, the
opportunity may be lost to our country. The Arctic service is ex-

420 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

tremelj popular in the British navy ; a large number of living officers
have participated in the searches for Sir John Franklin, and have thus
become familiar with the peculiarities of navigation in high latitudes ;
and at this very time efforts are making on the other side of the Atlan-
tic for exploring these untraversed regions of our own hemisphere. If
this expedition be not equipped at present, there is every reason to be-
lieve that a European one, next year, upon a larger scale, will super-
sede it ; and that the discoveries and explorations which now reflect
such lustre upon the names of Kane and of Grinnell may be thrown
into the background by the achievements of those who, while profiting
by their experience, may yet overshadow their record. An American
expedition ought to be equipped now ; and if equipped, who should lead
it but Dr. Hayes ? What other living citizen unites the experience
with the knowledge needed for the enterprise ? Those of us who have
read his modest narrative of that heroic boat journey towards Upernavik
will appreciate that union of chivalry with caution, of daring with dis-
cretion, so important for the leader of a hazardous enterprise. They
will remember the boldness, the tact, the nerve, and the thoughtfulness
which were so conspicuous in that memorable journey.

Dr. Hayes comes to us supported by the commendation of the lead-
ing institutions and men of science throughout the land, and bringing
their earnest desires for his success in carrying out his heroic aims.
His hopes now rest upon Boston, and it remains for our own city to
say whether he shall lead his daring company northward.

Permit me now, Mr. President, to introduce Dr. Isaac I. Hayes, sur-
geon of the late Grinnell expedition under Dr. Kane.

Dr. Hayes then spoke substantially as follows: —

I am highly honored, Mr. President, by the invitation which the
Academy has extended to me ; and am greatly gratified at having this
opportunity to bring to your notice the plan which I have proposed for
continuing the researches of the late Dr. Kane. With Dr. Kane's
scheme of exploration you are already quite familiar. It was based
upon the idea that the great Arctic ice-belt was more readily traversed
through Baffin's Bay and Smith Strait than in any other region. He
was arrested by the ice at Rensselaer Harbor, in latitude 78° 37', on
the eastern side of Smith Strait. Here he passed the winters of 1853
and 1854. During the summer of 1854 he conducted his explorations

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 421

over the ice northward, with sledges ; and finally discovered open water
north of the ice-belt. This was traced to latitude 81°, and beyond
this point no ice was seen. Dr. Kane's position was an unfavorable
one, from causes which will be readily perceived, upon a reference to
the map. Smith Strait runs in a northeasterly direction, and diago-
nally to the general direction of the current which sets south through
Kennedy Channel. This current piles the ice upon the Greenland
coast, and breaks it into confused ridges ; in consequence of which ob-
struction, Dr. Kane's parties were greatly embarrassed in their efforts
to surmount these hummocks.

I propose to avoid these difficulties by selecting the western shore,
where we shall find a protection against the drift-ice ; and, in conse-
quence of this protection, hope to attain to a higher latitude than was
attained by Dr. Kane on the opposite side. Along this shore I think
it not impossible that, under the protection of the land, it will be possi-
ble to penetrate into Kennedy Channel, and through this to find a water
communication to the Pole. In any case I feel well assured that the
parallel of Cape Frazer, lat. 79° 42', can be reached, and here a fine
harbor can be secured for wintering. Thence northward the coast
presents no salient capes to arrest the ice, and we shall doubtless meet
a favorable field for our sledge travel. We shall remain mainly inac-
tive during the winter ; but before the earhest return of sunlight in the
spring we will push forward our provision depots with dog-sledges, and
early in April a boat mounted upon runners will be started. With
this equipment we can continue to move northward until we have met
the object of our search, when, if such fortune awaits us, we will launch
our little vessel and push oflT directly for the Pole.

That we shall meet the open water, I have no doubt. It may not
be found as far south as when discovered by Dr. Kane, (namely, lat.
80° 20',) for we shall be nearly two months earlier in the season ; but
we can readily convey our full equipment over the ice, in the manner
already described, as far as latitude 83°, when we shall probably be
obliged to await the disruption of the ice.

While these operations are going on, I shall, if found practicable,
dispatch parties to the eastward and westward, with the view of com-
pleting the survey of the northern coasts of Greenland and Grinnell
Land. The region covered by these several parties will be a most
important one for scientific surveys. I need not in this presume to

422 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

dwell upon the vast importance of the observations which may there
be collected, upon the magnetism, meteorology, natural history, and
general physics of the globe.

The ditficulties which will be encountered are far less than those
which have attended Arctic exploration in former years. The expe-
rience of the English and American explorers during the last twelve
years, while prosecuting the search for Sir John Franklin, has reduced
Arctic travel almost to a science. The dogs are a powerful auxiliary,
and, by using them almost wholly for draught, I shall be obliged to
take only a small number of men. The ice which embarrassed Dr.
Kane is readily avoided by avoiding the crossing of Smith Strait.
The cold is no longer an obstacle to successful travel. The scurvy,
hitherto a great scourge to crews of vessels wintering in the Arctic
Seas, is now readily resisted, by the abundant use of such food as can
now be readily obtained and preserved quite fresh. From this disease
and from all other causes combined, the mortality on board of the ves-
sels which have gone in search of Franklin, during the past twelve
years, has been less than three per cent of the whole number of per-
sons engaged.

In concluding, Dr. Hayes thanked the Academy for the
courteous hearing which they had given him.

Professor Agassiz expressed himself warmly in favor of the
enterprise. It would, if successful, bring to us data which
were much needed in almost every department of science.
Everything seemed to indicate the existence of an open Polar
Sea. The Gulf Stream flowing northward beyond Spitz-
bergen would carry warm water into the Arctic Basin, and
there was every reason to suppose that the bed of the ocean
was much depressed in the region of the Pole, and that the
existence of land in that quarter was counter-indicated. If
there is no land there, it is not probable that there is much
ice. In support of his view, that at the centre of the Arctic
Ocean the water is very deep. Professor Agassiz called the
attention of the Academy to the fact, that the lands invest-
ing it are found to descend rapidly from the crests of the
great mountain ridges of the northern hemisphere, in both its
eastern and western divisions.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 423

If Dr. Hayes could make in those high northern latitudes
collections of the lower forms of animal life, they would have
exceedingly great value. Indeed, there is scarcely any quar-
ter of the world that would yield richer results to an earnest
naturalist.

Professor Agassiz regarded the question as in a certain
sense an American one, and thought that since an American,
Dr. Kane, had been the first to penetrate to the Polar Sea
through Smith Strait, it is the duty of Americans to carry on
the work.

Professor Lovering, chairman of the special committee
appointed in October, 1858, for the purpose of co-operating
with Dr. Hayes, stated that three vacancies had occurred in
the committee by death or removal from the State, and
moved that these be filled by the chair. This having been
done, the committee was announced to consist of the follow-
ing gentlemen : —

Prof. Joseph Lovering, Prof. H. L. Eustis,

Hon. Nathan Appleton, Dr. B. A. Gould, and

Prof. Theophilus Parsons, Theodore Lyman, Esq.
Edward Wiggles worth, Esq.,

Professor Lovering then offered the following resolutions,
which w^ere unanimously adopted : —

Resolved, That the Academy has heard, with gi-eat interest and
satisfaction, the development and explanation by Dr. Hayes of his
plans for a continuance of the explorations commenced by Dr. Kane,
and takes this occasion to renew the expression of its approval and
sympathy.

Resolved, That the Academy commends the enterprise proposed by
Dr. Hayes to the favor and support of the American people, and most
cordially joins in the commendation bestowed upon it by other institu-
tions of science throughout the country.

Resolved, That the committee, hereafter appointed to co-operate
with Dr. Hayes, be authorized to take such action as they may deem
expedient for promoting the interests of the proposed expedition, and

424 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

that they be requested to co-operate with any other committees ap-
pointed for a similar purpose.

Professor Agassiz mentioned the fact that Smelts ( Osmenis
viridescens) were about sixty years ago introduced into Ja-
maica Pond, and that they still exist there in a thriving con-
dition.

A desultory discussion ensued upon some questions rela-
tive to the inheritance of acquired habits, and the reversion
of feral animals to the original state, in which Professors
Bowen, Agassiz, Wyman, Gray, and Dr. Kneeland took
part.

On motion of Professor Bowen, it was voted that the spe-
cial meeting appointed for the 22d of May be held on Tues-
day, the first day of May.

Four hundred and eiglity-second meeting.

May 1, 1860. — Special Meeting.

The Vice-President in the chair.

Professor Gray resumed the discussion upon the questions
mooted at the preceding meetings, in a rejoinder to Professor
Bovven's last remarks.

Premising that he had never accepted the Darwinian theory of the
origin of the species as anything more than a legitimate hypothesis,
just beginning to stand its trial, and that he had been occupied only
in the endeavor to expose and rebut what he thought inconclusive or
irrelevant arguments here brought against it, Professor Gray defended
and illustrated the positions he had before taken. He maintained that
no thoughtful theistic philosopher, and least of all, Professor Bowen,
could be justified in charging that a theory of the diversification of spe-
cies through variation and natural selection was incompatible with final
causes or purpose ; that the argument for design from structure and
adaptation, in the case of any animal, say a dog, took all its validity
from the consideration of the animal itself, wholly irrespective of its
origin, — was as valid in the instance of an individual dog produced by

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 425

natural generation, as it would have been in the case of the first dog if
suddenly presented for inspection ; that, if the argument for design is
not weakened because our dogs are known to come from similar parent
dogs, nor because Newfoundland dogs were dei'ived from mastiffs or
some other variety many years ago, neither would it be weakened if
both varieties, and many others, came from some species of wolf, as
is the prevalent opinion, nor if this wolf were derived from some post-
tertiary or tertiary wolf, and this from some earlier one, the remote
ancestor of all existing wolves and dogs ; that it is all the same as to
the argument for design, this resting on the adaptation of structure to
use, irrespective of the particular manner in which the adaptation may
be conceived to have been brought about. He also insisted, that no
theist is entitled to hold that the so-called accidental element in natural
selection negatives design, though it may render it more difficult to prove
design in opposition to the atheist ; and he adduced a series of anal-
ogies and parallels from the relations of one animal to another and to
plants, — from the relations of both to the inorganic world, — from the
gradual preparation of the earth's surface, in the theist's view, for man's
existence and well-being, — from the evolution of our solar system, and
the development of the actual state of our planet, which no one now
doubts was a progressive development, while most theists consider the
results not only as compatible with design, but as, in the largest sense,
designed results, — as all showing that the argument he was opposing, if
it proved anything, proved far too much. To the objection, that, while
a variation which was an improvement survived through natural selec-
tion, a vast number being no improvements, but perhaps the contrary,
perished, — that the latter " were therefore useless, if not injurious,
therefore without a purpose, without a final cause," — and therefore
that the theory negatived design altogether, — Professor Gray replied,
that the same might be said of the vast number of rain-drops which were
raised from the surface of the ocean only to fall back into it, while a
smaller number, wafted inland, supported vegetable and animal life ; and
also of the vast proportion of pollen and sperm, which were designed to
impregnate ovules and ova, and of seeds, eggs, &c., which, though
potential plants and animals, perish undeveloped, and are therefore pur-
poseless in the same sense, and only in the same sense, as are the un-
improved, unused, or unperpetuated variations referred to.

As to the relation of theories of origination to efficient and intelligent

VOL. IV. 54

426 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

cause, Professor Gray remarked that the question was mainly as to tlie
■way in which we may suppose creative power to be exerted, and upon
what exerted, — whether always upon nothing to evoke something into
existence, and this repeatedly, when small alterations would make all
the difference between successive species. And enumerating the three,
and only three, general views of efficient causation which may claim to
be both theistic and philosophical ; — viz. : 1. that of its exertion at the
beginning of time, endowing created things with blind forces which pro-
duce the phenomena ; 2. the same view, with that of insulated interpo-
sitions, or occasional direct Divine action, engrafted upon it ; and 3.
that of the constant and orderly immediate action of an intelligent cre-
ative Cause ; — Professor Gray insisted that Professor Bowen, in adopt-
ing the latter view, was precluded from bringing the objections he did
against the new theory ; that the difference between Professor Bowen's
and Mr. Darwin's view was thereby reduced to this : the one asserts
that the origination of an individual, no less than that of a species,
requires and presupposes Divine power as its efficient cause ; the other,
that the origination of a species is natural, no less than the origination
of an individual ; — propositions which do not appear to contradict each
other.

Professor Gray then entered upon various questions of fact and of
detail, and also insisted that, if psychologists w^ould scrutinize facts of
observation as they had those of consciousness, they would not confound
together all the psychical manifestations of the brute animals as one fac-
ulty, but would discriminate (as they largely might) between their in-
stinct, which prevails in the lower, and their intelligence, which is mani-
fest in the higher animals. In respect to the proper intelligence of the
latter, he adduced the very explicit and unqualified published testimony
of Agassiz ; and the fact of the heritability both of acquired habits and
aptitudes, and of certain modified structures, was supported by additional
examples.

Professor Bowen replied at length, but furnishes no ab-
stract, and the discussion was continued by Professor Agassiz,
and others, in incidental remarks. Also in a written note,
contributed by Dr. Kneeland, as follows : —

At the last meeting of the Academy I stated my impression that
Mr. Gordon Gumming, in the chapter referred to by Professor Bowen,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 427

as to the barking of the wild dogs in Southern Africa, had intimated
that they might be feral dogs, or dogs once domesticated and afterward
becoming wild. That I find is not the case ; as in Vol. I. p. 152 (note),
he makes no allusion to a feral condition, distinctly calling them " wild
dogs." But what is the extent of the argument that can be drawn from
his authority as to the fact of wild dogs barking ? In the first place,
if it be argued from this that wild dogs bark, the argument would seem
to go too far; for the reason that the wild dogs seen by Gumming and
other travellers are not what we should call dogs ; in fact. Gumming
says (p. 152) that these animals seem "to form the connecting link
between the wolf and the hyena ; " this quotation indicates the so-
called dogs to belong to the genus Lycaon, like L. venaticus, the hunt-
ing hyena, a canine animal, but hardly more a dog than a hyena.

He says that these dogs kept up a " chattering and growling,"
making most unearthly sounds, and barking " something like collies ; "
but he does not tell us how nearly this resembled the barking of collies,
nor what is the bark of collies. Such indefiniteness of language is very
poor proof that his wild dogs barked, in the common acceptation of the
term. On another page of the book he is more definite, and says
that the voice of these wild dogs consists of three different kinds of
cry, each of which is used on special occasions : — first, a sharp, angry
hark, uttered when they suddenly behold a strange object; — second, a
kind of chattering, hke a number of monkeys, or men conversing when
their teeth are chattering violently with cold, emitted at night when
excited by any particular occurrence, " such as being barked at by
domestic dogs ; " (in regard to this the question arises, if the bark be
natural to them, why do they not return the compliment of domestic
dogs by harking instead of chattering ?) — and third, the most common,
a rallying note to bring the members of the pack together, — soft,
melodious, and distinguishable at a great distance, like the second note
of the cuckoo. Still, no great proof that these dogs barked, as the
term is generally understood.

All canines have a natural voice, which may in certain cases resem-
ble a short, snapping bark, as in the prairie-wolf, the fox, &c. ; but no
one would be likely to confound this with the monotonous, oft-repeated
note of the domesticated dog. Though domesticated dogs would be
expected to howl like a wolf, or snap like a fox, or utter other natural
canine noises, according to their derivation, when terrified or in pain ; we

428 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

have no right, on the contrary, to expect, and there is no decided proof
that we do find, in wild canines, other than feral dogs, a true bark.

The bark is the language of the domesticated dog, and by it he ex-
presses the various emotions of joy, anger, fear, or suffering ; and, as
in human language, it must have been the work of ages to develop
canine education to the point of a domesticated bark.

As far as Gumming goes, then, there are no proper wild dogs in
Africa, but only jackals, hyenas, and lycaons, which may on rare occa-
sions make noises which the vivid imagination of a Gumming might
magnify into the bark of a collie.

Taking the word harh as we generally understand it, there seems no
reason to affirm that wild dogs bark, any more than that wild felines
mew; and it must be a very acute sense of hearing that would detect
the bark of the dog in the voices of the wolf, fox, and jackal, or the
mew of the cat in the growls of the lion "'and tiger. Though it be a
difference of degree and not of kind, it is precisely the degree brought
about by domestication alone. Even the half-civilized Esquimaux dog
does not bark, his education not having reached that degree of refine-
ment.

Comments were offered by Professors Bowen, Agassiz,
Gray, and others.

The subjoined abstract of Mr. J. A. Lowell's remarks be-
long to a preceding meeting, and should have been introduced
on page 410.

Mr. Lowell said that the book* recently published by Mr. Darwin on
the origin of species had deservedly attracted great attention, both in
this country and in Europe. It is written with admirable candor, and
rests on an ample and patiently accumulated collection of facts. Had
the author, however, confined himself to the subject indicated in his
title-page, his work would scarcely have inspired such universal inter-
est. It is because he has unfolded a new theory of creation, that his
views are espoused or combated with so much zeal. His facts are ap-
parently, for the most part, uncontroverted ; and it is precisely this
admission of the facts that takes the inquiry from the exclusive domain
of science, and opens it to all who are qualified to examine it merely
as a deduction from acknowledged premises. The argument may be
summed up in this : —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 429

1. The intervention of man has produced, by careful and continued
selection, very remarkable changes in races both of domestic animals
and plants.

2. Nature constantly produces varieties. Therefore,

3. Nature, which commands indefinite periods of time, may, by seiz-
ing accidental varieties in which some peculiarity appears favorable to
the individual in the great struggle for life, so extend and improve this
peculiarity as gradually to evolve new and more gifted species.

It was clear that he could not logically stop here, and he does not
shrink from the conclusion, that in like manner genera have been evolved
from species, orders from genera, and so on, until at last you come back
to one original pair, progenitors of all the visible animated creation.

To this reasoning Mr. Lowell objected : —

1. That man acts with means of seclusion that Nature does not
possess, and that accordingly varieties always tend to return to the origi-
nal type, instead of diverging from it.

2. That the changes produced by human agency are all within spe-
cijic limits ; that is, that the operation consists in developing certain
observed tendencies, and discouraging others ; but that there is not the
slightest approach towards generic changes. The most improved South-
down ram, or Ayrshire bull, is but a ram or a bull after all. You can-
not, therefore, reason from this analogy, whatever time be assumed, to
any changes differing in kind from specific changes.

3. The theory rests entirely on the second proposition, that Nature
is constantly producing varieties. Mr. Darwin must therefore be held
to strict proof of this. The existence of varieties in the animal king-
dom is denied by very high authority. As to the vegetable kingdom,
so long as botanists took it for granted that all hermaphrodite plants
were self-fertilized, every departure from the normal type was of course
a variety. But Mr. Darwin has shown by numerous instances that
fertilization is constantly occurring by the intervention of insects, who
transport to one flower the pollen of another, and that this occurs not
only between plants of the same species, but also between those of dif-
ferent species. He even doubts whether any species can be long main-
tained by self-fertilization alone. Such being the case, it becomes a
legitimate subject of inquiry whether all the so-called varieties are not
produced by hybridization. We know that, in crossing breeds, one off-
spring will resemble one parent, one the other, and others have a type

430 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

intermediate between the two. May not all the forms which seem to
link one species with another be explained on the same principle ?

4. The use of the word accidetital in this connection is not warrant-
able. For the question will resolve itself at last into a question of de-
sign, and the use of this word is therefore a begging of the matter at
issue.

5. If geological investigations showed an ascending series, while the
lower forms wei'e extinguished, there might be some ground for this
theory ; though even then it might be difficult to conceive why in all
cases the intermediate forms were wanting in the great record. But
forms of the lowest type are as frequent now as ever ; the Lingula lives
at the present day in perfect harmony with the Clam, which should have
superseded it.

6. The word indefinite, as applied to time, has no clear meaning to
distinguish it from infinite. A million or ten millions of years would
not be an indefinite period. Now we know some of the properties of
the infinite, as in the case of the summation of series; but the idea of
infinity itself we cannot grasp, and we have no right to invoke it in the
solution of any finite question.

7. Long as are the periods established by geology, the author is
obliged to resort to a much longer time to account for the development
of such a curious and exquisite organism as that of the eye from a mere
nervous thread accidentally sensitive to light. For in the earliest
stratified rocks the Trilobites are already gifted with complex organs of
vision, and that comparatively modern animal, the Ichthyosaurus, has
an eye that any reptile at the present day might envy.

8. A yet more serious objection lies against the evidently forced and
painful attempt to trace the development of reason from the lower forms
of animal instinct. With regard to man, so recent has been his intro-
duction on the earth, that we might reasonably expect to find the inter-
mediate forms which must have existed between him and the anthropoid
apes.

9. The whole theory rests on the assumption, that there may be forms
more favored and better fitted to succeed in the struggle for life, than
those originally created. But is this proved ? Observe, that as fast as
any species, by this theory, improves, just so fast its enemies must im-
prove also. While Nature avails itself of an accidentally harder pro-
boscis, to enable an insect, now become a borer, to lay its eggs within

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 431

the tree, that the young larvoe may avoid destruction, — the bird, mean-
whik^, is by a Hke careful selection, acquiring claws fitted to climb, and
a beak fitted to pierce the bark, and so has become a woodpecker. After
all the prolonged and patient eflforts of Nature, through countless ages,
the relative numbers remain precisely at the point from which they
started.

Finally, if this theory is true, it should be carried much farther.
For why stop at the limits of human vision ? Why at those of the best
microscopes ? Why even at those which we may expect the microscope
ultimately to attain ? Beyond and below these, there may exist myri-
ads of forms, myriads of created organisms, equally entitled, on all prin-
ciples of reasoning, to claim that they have been formed in the image
of that original pair.

Four hundred and eighty-tliird meeting.

May 8, 1860. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Dr. Kneeland, in reference to some criticisms which his
communication at the last meeting, upon the barking of
dogs, had called forth, remarked, —

That, as regards the testimony adduced, which he said was the same
as had been extolled on the other side of the question, he had in-
troduced the testimony of the same hunter-naturalist, and his only, to
show that the wild dogs in question were widely different from the
common type of dogs, and that their voice could not be fairly compared
to the educated bark of domesticated dogs.

As to the occurrence of indigenous wild dogs south of the Equator,
he maintained, on the authority of Hamilton Smith and others, that
the South American wild dogs are aguara or fox-dogs, and not true
dogs ; and also, on the authority of many naturalists, that the South
Pacific dogs have been inti'oduced from the Asiatic continent by their
Polynesian masters ; that, according to Dr. Pickering, there is prob-
ably no aboriginal dog in New Zealand ; that the dogs of the Namaqua
region in Southern Africa, on the authority of Anderssen, are half-
reclaimed jackals ; and that the Australian dingo, an exception to the
zoological character of that region, on the authority of Dr. Carpenter

432 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and others, is more likely to have been introduced from Asia, and to
be the progeny of the Indian dhole, (rendered the more probable by
the wolf-like characters of the dingo,) than to be the sole indigenous,
carnivorous, placental mammal on that continental island. Seeing that
it must be a mere matter of opinion, he considered the question of the
occurrence of indigenous wild dogs south of the Equator as at best still
subjudice.

Mr. C. Wright made some remarks on the architecture of
bees, in reference to previous discussions upon the instinct of
the honey-bee.

Mathematicians have regarded the economical characteristics of the
honey-cell too exclusively, to the neglect of those symmetries which
Maraldi pointed out.

The more prominent of these symmetries are the regularity of all the
solid angles of the cell, and fhe consequent equality of all the angles
made by the sides and rhombs with each other to 1 20°, or to |^ of a right
angle. Another important symmetry which follows from these is seen
in the position of that point in the axis of the cell which is directly
over the middle points of the rhombs ; for this point is at the same
distance from all the nine planes of the cell, and just opposite similar
points in the nine contiguous cells ; so that little spheres which would
just fit the honey-cells Avould, if pressed to the bases of the cells on
both sides of the comb, touch the rhombs in their middle points, and the
sides in their middle lines, by points in the spheres themselves, at which
they would touch each other but for the thickness of the intervening
walls.

While the common mode of considering the form of the honey-cell
regards it as the effect of rational economy, these symmetries show how
the cell might be the natural result of simple or sensible economy, as
applied to the building of simple nests, the common type of which is a
cylindrical cavity with a hemispherical base. The construction of a
series of such nests side by side, and with the bases of two opposite se-
ries in closest contact, would, by the simple removal of the interstitial
material, result in two series of cells like the normal ones of the honey-
comb, both in the forms and the arrangement of the sides and bases.
Hence, as the bee builds the two series of cells from their common bases,
making the incipient depressions on one side form the interstitial eleva-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 433

tions around the cavities of the other side, and as it builds by continual
trimming and saving, we may infer that the form of the honey-cell does
not require, in the bee's instinct, any reference to supersensible prop-
erties of form, but only a reference to sensible economy and facility of
construction ; especially as no one would contend that the utility, to
innumerable nest-building animals, of spherical and cylindrical surfaces,
depends upon their economy (which is still greater than that of the
honey-cell), rather than upon their far more obvious symmetries and
facilities for construction. It appears, therefore, that the instinct of the
bee does not differ in kind from instincts in general.

Mr. Newcomb discussed the objections raised by Mr. Mill,
and others, against Laplace's presentation of the doctrine of
probabilities.

Many objections have within late years been brought against the fun-
damental basis of the theory of probabilities as laid down by Laplace.
Some of these proceed from an entire misapprehension of the mathe-
matical and logical signification to be attached to the term prohahility ;
others from a defect in Laplace's theory considered as a philosophical
structure, which, although not necessarily leading to any error in the
treatment of any special problem, has nevertheless been adduced as a
reason why Laplace fell into the assumed mistakes. However, as it
is conducive to sound reasoning to have the fundamental principles of
every deductive science laid down with as much logical clearness and
accuracy as possible, let us first consider the question, What is proba-
bility?

The pi-obability of a proposition has sometimes been defined as the
amoimt of our belief in the truth of that proposition. Here, however,
a difficulty arises from the fact, that neither belief, nor any other affec-
tion of the mind, admits of being measured as a quantity. We may
apply the terms greater or less to belief, but we cannot say how much
greater or less. Nor does this inability proceed from the imperfection
of the faculties, as when we experience a difficulty in determining by
the feeling whether one weight is twice as heavy as another. It is in-
herent in the nature of things. In order that we may say of one thing
that it is twice as large as another, we must be able to conceive of it
as susceptible of division into two independent parts, or as formed by
the superposition of two such parts, each of which can be considered

VOL. IV. 55

434 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

separately. Now it is obvious that belief cannot be considered as
formed by the superposition of several less beliefs.

But although belief itself cannot be considered as a quantity, we may
submit to mathematical computation those combinations of circum-
stances which induce partial belief. The whole mathematical doctrine
of probabilities may be considered as founded on the following defini-
tion : —

If of m events one and one only must occur (or have occurred) ; and
if an individual is entirely ignorant of any reason why one of these
events should occur rather than another, and if n of these events belong

to a class A, then we call the fraction — the prohahility, for the mind
of the individual in question, that the event which will occur, or has oc-
curred, belongs to the class A. The probability might equally have

been expressed by the fraction ; but this would be less conven-

ient for mathematical computation, although more in accordance with
the language of common life.

The solution of every possible mathematical problem in probabilities
consists simply in determining, from the conditions of the question, the
values of m and m, or rather of their ratio.

It will readily be perceived that probability, as thus defined, (and this
is equivalent to the usual definition,) is not a quality inherent in the
event itself. The latter may be determined by laws as exact as those
which regulate the motions of the heavenly bodies. The principle that
every event which occurs is the result of law, and neither has or ever had
any absolute uncertainty inherent in it, may be regarded as an induction
almost as perfect as the laws of motion.

Suppose that a die is loaded on one side. As long as we are
entirely ignorant of any reason why the load should be on one side
rather than another, the probability of any one side turning up will
still be ^ by definition. If we found the same side of a die to be
thrown four times out of five, we should be disposed to inquire
whether the frequency with which it was thrown was the result of
chance or of law. Expressed in exact philosophical language, our
question should be as follows : —

Were these successive sixes the result of separate and independent
causes, conditions, or determining reasons ?

Or was there a common element in the causes or determining
reasons which produced them ?

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 435

But, it may be asked, is not the shaking of the box by the same indi-
vidual in either case a common element in the causes of all the throws ?

I answer, that we are not to look for the common element in those
causes which are concerned only in producing the whole class of
effects, the relationship of which we seek ; but in those additional
and unknown circumstances which determine why one of these effects
should be produced rather than another.

Now, the shaking of the box is supposed simply to cause the result,

A side is thrown,

while the cause of the side six being thrown may be a loading of the
die, or an ability in the thrower to cause what side he pleases to turn
up, either of which would be a common cause, acting through the sev-
eral throws, and having a special relation to the side six.

The proportionate number of times which an event will occur in a
great number of times is called by Laplace its facilittj, which word
may be defined as follows : —

If a constant system of causes is combined within an infinite suc-
cession of independent causes ; and if, of the infinite number of effects
thus produced, a certain proportion belong to a class A, then is the
facility of production of an effect of that class represented by the frac-
tion representing the above-mentioned proportion. Or, we might say
that the constant system of causes is combined with every possible
independent cause, and represents the facility by the fraction expressing
the ratio of the effects of the class A to the whole number of effects.

We easily see that the facility of an event depends on the constant
causes alone. It is therefore the probability of the event to a mind
acquainted with all the constant causes, or with the laws of their action.

Owing to the complicated manner in which the constant and the va-
riable or independent causes are combined, and the general vagueness
and difficulty of definition of the former, we can seldom determine with
accuracy the facility of an event, except in a few simple mathematical
cases. Thus, if we wish to construct a perfect table of mortality, if we
select our lives from individuals of nearly the same place and time, the
examples will not be sufficiently numerous to assure us that the inde-
pendent causes have acted in every possible way ; and if we select
them from many countries, and during a long course of time, the cir-
cumstances of climate, general external condition, &c., which ought to
be constant, will differ with the different individuals.

436 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A few examples may serve to elucidate the above principles.
A bag contains black and white balls in an unknown ratio. The
probability of drawing a white ball will be one half. But the facility
will be represented by the ratio of the white balls to the whole num-
ber, supposing them to be mixed indiscriminately, and when this ratio
is known, it will also be the probability.

So long as the deaths of individuals in any particular country all
proceed from independent causes, we expect their number to agree
with those deduced from a table of mortality, within certain limits of
error. If, however, the country were ravaged by an epidemic, or any
change were to take place in its climate, we should no longer expect
the deaths to follow the laws of the tables of mortality. Here, how-
ever, would be a single cause, producing, or effecting in some way, the
deaths of a number of individuals.

The neglect of the distinction between probability and facility has
never led to any error, (except, perhaps, of interpretation,) because
every answer to a question in chances must represent a probability.
If we are ignorant of any of the constant causes, we can only deduce
the most probable value of the facility, which may not be the real
value ; — if we know the law of action of all the constant causes, the
probability and facility are the same.

Let us now consider a question which has been the subject of some
dispute, viz. the nature of the argument by which, from the fact of the
near approach of several stars, it is deduced that their proximity is not
the result of chance. Writei-s on probabilities have generally agreed
that such proximity indicates a physical connection between the stars.

The real argument for the connection is to be expressed in the fol-
lowing form : —

1. If the causes which fixed the position of each star were entirely
independent of those which fixed the position of every other ; or, in
other words, if the stars were scattered by chance, it is exceedingly
improbable that these (two, three, or seven) stars should be found as
near each other as they actually are.

2. It is not very improbable that such proximity should result from
the existence of a common element in the causes which determined
their positions.

3. Therefore, such proximity being an ascertained fact, it is in the
highest degree probable that it resulted from the existence of a com-
mon element, etc.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 437

This reasoning is logically perfect. The first premise (if I may be
allowed to call it so) is proved mathematically ; the second is consid-
ered evident, and has seldom or never been expressed by writers on
the subject, and the conclusion follows from the obvious principle, that,
when compelled to adopt one of two possible suppositions, we select the
most probable one.

The most elaborate argument in favor of the first premise is that
given by Mr. Michell in the Philosophical Transactions for 1767.
Professor J. D. Forbes of Edinburgh has taken some exceptions to
Michell's methods, and to the general logical accuracy of his method
of treatment, besides pointing out one of two mathematical errors in his
computations,* in an article in the Philosophical Magazine for Decem-
ber, 1850. He raises the following objections: —

" FiusT Objection. — The doubt existing in the mind of a reason-
able person whether an event still future, and ivhich may happen many
ways, shall occur in a particular given way, is erroneously considered
as equivalent to an inherent improbability of its happening or having
happened in that way"

Second Objection. — To assume that every star is as likely, not
hypothetically, but actually, to be in one situation as another, leads to
conclusions obviously at variance with the idea of random or lawless
distribution, and is therefore not the expression of that idea.

He also negatives the following conclusions, which he conceives must
be maintained by Michell's followers : — 1. That there is any calctdable
probability, such as 9570 to 1, against the observed occurrence of tAvo
stars out of more than 1000 within 4" of one another having been for-
tuitous. 2. That the fact of two stars being seen within an infinitely
small distance of each other amounts to a mathematical proof of the
certainty of their being physically connected. 3. That were the stars
uniformly spaced over the heavens, or arranged with perfect symmetry,
no argument could be alleged against such arrangement being the re-
sult of chance, but any deviation from symmetry would raise such an
argument.

With regard to the first objection it may be remarked, that, except
the word inherent, what Professor Forbes objects to is equivalent to the
very mathematical definition of the word probability. It seems likely
that he uses the word in that sentence to express the idea or entity

* Neither of these errors affects the general character of the result.

438 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADExMY

which I have called facility ; if so, the objection is well taken against
the general principle. It does not, however, affect Micliell's result.

The second objection is also aimed at what seems to me not only a
mathematical, but a common-sense definition. If I correctly under-
stand it, Professor Forbes attempts to sustain it by showing that it
follows from the assumption alluded to in his objection, that a uniform
distribution of the stars is that which would be most probable as the
result of random scattering. This is true, but the most jjrobahle result
of a trial may be almost infinitely improbable. We shall consider this
more fully hereafter.

In the first conclusion denied by Professor Forbes, it is not made
clear whether is meant (I.) the a priori probability that such an event
would occur as the result of chance ; or (2.) the a posteriori probability
that, having occurred, it was the result of chance ; or between the first
and third propositions in the method of reasoning cited above. Let p
be the a priori probability of the first proposition, I the a priori prob-
ability that the resulting pi'oposition would result from some law, or of
the second proposition. Then by the fundamental theorem of the prob-
abilities of causes, the probability that the observed contiguity is the

result of law is - — —-j, and the probability that it is the result of chance

is .-J—- Now, as above remarked, it is tacitly assumed by nearly all
writers, that I, though a small fraction, is very great compared with p.
Now p is, to a certain extent, capable of being expressed in exact num-

bers, but I is not ; therefore r-i — is not. Professor Forbes is therefore

l-\-p

correct if he refers to the second of the above meanings, as was re-
marked by Professor Boole in a subsequent number of the Philosoph-
ical Journal. At the same time, however, we may, by the aid of nu-
merical calculation, make an approximate estimate of the probability
of the proposition used in its second meaning.

The second proposition is a demonstrable mathematical certainty, un-
less it be held that it is infinitely imjyrobable that two stars should be
infinitely near as the result of law, which I apprehend no one will
maintain. In fact, p will become infinitely small, while I remains finite,

SO that ,—, — will become infinitely small.

The third proposition does not follow at all from Michell's argument.
A certain calculable amount of irregularity, or grouping, is to be ex-
pected as the result of a random distribution. If the amount of group-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 439

ing is much greater than this, it indicates that the components of each
group were together in consequence of some common cause determining
them to nearly the same position. Vice versa, if the stars are equally
spaced over the heavens, it would indicate that some constant cause had
operated, tending to prevent them from occupying positions near each
other. Law and chance are not necessarily the antithesis of each other
in the mathematical expression of their effects. Law is indicated by a
deviation from what ought to he the results of chance, in whatever di-
rection this deviation may be.

Let us in this connection return to the second objection of Professor
Forbes, to see in what sense a uniform distribution is the most probable
result of chance. It is so only when, supposing the heavens to be di-
vided into a given number of equal spaces, we are required to specify
exactly how many stars each sjjecial division contains. Suppose the
heavens to be divided into 100 portions, and 200 stars to be distributed
at random ; then, if a person is required to guess how many stars the
first space contains, how many the second contains, and so on to the
hundredth, he ought to guess two for each space. Yet the chances are
millions to one against the correctness of such a guess ; but they would
be still greater were he to guess differently. But suppose he were
simply required to guess how many spaces contained no stars, how many
contained one, &c., without specifying the particular spaces which con-
tained the several numbers. Theory shows that, in the case supposed,
the probability that a space selected at random contains n stars is very

nearly —r—^, e being the Neperian base. The individual ought, there-
n ! e'

fore, to guess that 14 spaces were devoid of stars,
27 spaces contained 1 star each,

27 " " 2 "

18 " " 3 «

9 « « 4 "

4 " "5 "

1 " "6 stars.

This guess, however, would include a number of guesses of the first
class, equal to the number of possible permutations of 100 things, 14
of which were of one class, 27 of another, &c., to express which num-
ber would require ninety-seveii significant figures. Yet the guess would
in all probability be wrong in some respects, although there is no rea-
sonable probability that it would differ much from the truth.

440 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

As another illustration, suppose that a die, of which four sides are
white, is thrown thirty times. If the die is fair, white every time is
evidently more probable than any other system of throws, supposing
that in specifying the system we state what color is thrown on each spe-
cific trial. Yet such a result would prove beyond all reasonable doubt
that the die was not fair. This statement will not appear paradoxical,
if we consider that a constant series of throws of one color would 7iot
be very improbable on the supposition that the die was loaded, while
they would be very improbable on the supposition that the die was fair.
"We therefore select the most probable series of circumstances, and say
that the die is not fair. If an indiscriminate series of white and black
throws result, the former being about twice as numerous as the latter,
such result, describing what color was thrown on each throw, would be
still more improbable than a constant series of whites on the supposition
that the die was fair. But the former result would be billions of times
less probable than the latter on the supposition that the die was loaded ;
so that, if the former result occur, we select the supposition of a fair
die as the more probable.

It will be perceived that the degree of speciality with which a phe-
nomenon is described affects very materially its a priori probability,
but the full development of the results of this fact is reserved for a pa-
per on the applications of the theory of probabilities to natural phenom-
ena. I may remark, however, that much confusion has arisen from
confounding the different degrees of probability which a proposition will
have when expressed in the different forms,

A is X,

AisV,

A is Z, Sec,
when all V is X, all Z is V, &c., but V is an exceeding small portion
of X, Z of V, &c. In such a case the a priori probabilities of the suc-
cessive propositions will diminish with great rapidity. If, in the case of
the above-mentioned die, supposed fair, one were to guess that the 2d,
5th, 8th, Sec. throws would be black, and all the rest white, he would
be 1024 times more likely to be wrong than if he guessed that they
would all be white. But if he guessed simply that twenty throws would
be white, and ten black, which guess would include the former, he would
be myriads of times more likely to be right than if he guessed that they
would all be white.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 441

Professor Peirce made a communication upon the grounds
of the probability of intermercurial planets, and upon polar
forces.

Professor Agassiz gave an account of his recent investi-
gations of the structure of the Radiata, and discussed their
general homologies in reference to the natural limits of that
branch of the animal kingdom. He proceeded to a compari-
son of their special homologies, and concluded that the Radi-
ata embrace only three distinct classes, the Polyps, the Aca-
lephs, and the Echinoderms ; that the Hydroids are genuine
Acalephs, as well as the Ctenophoras, and that the Siphuncu-
loids must be excluded from the type of Radiata.

An oral communication was received from a delegation
from a committee of citizens engaged in promoting the con-
templated expedition of Dr. Hayes to the Arctic regions, and
the influence and good offices of the individual members of
the Academy were solicited in its favor.

VOI-. IV. 56

INDEX TO VOL. IV.

A.

Acrocrinus Shuraardi, 283.

urn?eformis, 283.
Actinocrinus abnormis, 283.

fequalis, 283.

biturbinatus, 283.

brevicornis, 283.

brevis, 283.

cfelatus, 283.

Chrystyi, 283.

concinnus, 283.

corniculus, 283.

cornigerus, 283.

discoideus, 283.

(Bato) eikosiadactylus, 283.

Gouldi, 283.

(Bato) irregularis, 284.

Konincki, 284.

longirostris, 284.

Lowei, 284.

minor, 284.

Missouriensis, 284.

multiradiatus, 284.

multibrachiatus, 284.

(Dorycrinus) Mississippiensis,
284.

Nashvillia;, 284.

ornatus, 284.

parvus, 284.

})entagonus, 284.

pernodosus, 284.

pluraosus, 284.

proboscidalis, 285.

pyramidatus, 285.

pyriformis, 285.

ratnulosus, 285.

Actinocrinus rotundus, 285.
sculptus, 285.
subaculeatus, 285.
superlatus, 285.
symmetricus, 285.
tenuiradiatus, 285.
tricornis, 285.
trinodus, 285.
turbinatus, 285.
umbrosus, 285.
unicornis, 285.
ventricosus, 285.
verrucosus, 286.
Verneuilianus, 286.
Yandelli, 286.
Adiantum monochlamys, 110.
^cidium Capense, 127.
Agaricocrinites buUatus, 286.
stellatus, 286.
tuberosus, 286.
Whitfieldi, 286.
Wortbeni, 286.
Agaricus alopecius, 115.
adianticeps, 112.
alphitophyllus, 112.
arenulosus, 115.
asotus, 117.
auctus. 111.
Behringensis, 114.
Cacao, 117.
Californiensis, 112.
chffitodes, 113.
chlorophos, 113.
cladophyllus, 113.
connatus, 115.
cyanophos, 113.

444

INDEX.

Agariciis depravatus, 111.

dicranophyllus, 113.

efflorescens, 112.

Ephippium, 114.

flavo-livens, 117.

fusco-niveus, 118.

glauci-bru linens, 116.

hasmatites, 117.

hemileucns, 113.

hemisoodes, 111.

holocirrhus, 116.

Japonicus, 116.

leiophyllus, 115.

leucochrysos, 117.

leucoconis, 113.

liratus, 116.

lividulus, 115.

microspilus, 115.

Nocotiana, 116.

On?iraae, 114.

palraicola, 112.

palmularis, 117.

periporphyrus, 111.

pityrodes, 114.

plnmbarius, 114.

poigenus, 112.

porphyromiges, 114.

porphyrophyllns, 118.

primipilus, 117.

prometheus, 115.

rliodoconis, 113.

ruficeps, 114.

scyinnodes, 117.

sqnamnla, 115.

stellulatus, 116.

talpinus, 112.

tympaniticus, 111.

uber, 117.

usta, 114.

virescens, 116.

venifer, 116.
Agassiz, Communications from,

8, 17, 19, 108, 138, 194, 326,

353, 359, 362, 410, 422, 424,

426, 441.
Agassizocrinus conicus, 286.

constrictus, 286.

dactyliformis, 286.

gibbosus, 286.

Agelacrinus Dicksoni, 287.

Hamiltonensis, 287.

Kaskaskiensis, 287.
Alaria pinnatifida^ 329.
Algffi, Characters of New, 248, 327.
Amygdalocystites florealis, 287.

tenuistriatus, 287.

radiatus, 287.
Ancistrophora, 201.
Andersson, N. J., Salices, 50.
Animal Kingdom, Classification of

the, 194.
Apiocystites elegans, 287.
Apocopis Wrightii, 363.
Appropriations for Library, 93, 1 36.

for Meteorology, 93.

for Publications, 93, 106.
Arcbeocidaris aculeatus, 287.

Agassizi, 287.

biangulatus, 287.

Keokuki, 287.

megastylus, 287.

Norwood!, 287.

Shumardiana, 287.

Vermiliana, 288.

Wortheni, 288.
Architecture of Bees, 432.
Arctic Expedition of Dr. Playes,

103, 418, 420.
Aristida Chinensis, 363.
Arsenious Acid, Antidote for, 96.
Ascorayces deformans, 130.
Associate Fellows deceased, 226.
Associate Fellows elected : —

Arnold, Samuel G., 336.

Hunt, Edward B., 336.

Logan, William E., 135.

Ravenel, St. Julien, 7.

Robinson, Edward, 7.

Swallow, George C, 336.
Asterias antiqua, 288.

antiquata, 288.

matutina, 288.

sp. indet., 288.
Asterina buUata, 129.

congregata, 129.

raegalospora, 129.

ostiolata, 129.

sepulta, 129.

INDEX.

115

Asterlna velutina, 129.

Asterocrinus, 288.

Asteroids, On the Secular Varia-
tions and Mutual Relations of
the Orbits of, 417.

Astrocrinites pachydactylus, 288.

Astronomical Cosmology, Laws of,
305.

Astronomical Observers, On the
Personal Peculiarities of, 197.

Astylocrinus, 285.

Ateleocystites Huxleyi, 288.

Athyrium cystopteroides, 110.

Aurora Borealis, Secular Periodi-
city of, 324.

B.

Badusa corymbifera, 308.

Bailey, Pkof., Obituary Notice
of, 2.

Bartramia inserta, 279.

Batocrmus, 288.

Beck,'Dr., Communication from,
305.

Bees, Architecture of, 432.

Berghausia mutica, 362.
patula, 362.

Berkeley, M. J., Communication
from, 111.

Bikkia grandiflora, 307.

Bobea brevipes, 36.
elatior, 36.

Bolbilius Oryzffi, 118.

Boletus rhodomyces, 122.

Bond, G.P., Communications from,
100, 352, 373.

Bond, William Cranch, Obitu-
ary Notice of, 1 63.

Bornite, Analysis of, 196.

Botany of Japan, 130.

Bout WELL, George S., Commu-
nication from, 100.

Bovista delicata, 124.

Bowen, Prof., Communications
from, 410, 416, 426.

Brewer, T. M., Communication
from, 18.

Broavn, Robert, Obituary Notice
of, 229.

Bryum crudoides, 278.
humidulum, 278.
megalodictyon, 279.
Wrightii, 278.

c.

Calycosia, 47.

Milnei, 307.

petiolata, 48.

sessilis, 48.
Carapsotrichum circinatum, 127.
Cantharellus Behringensis, 119.

nivosus, 119.
Canthium sessilifolium, 39.
Cary, T. G., Communication from,

13.
Caryocrinus ornatus, 288.
Casseday, S. a., Communication

from, 282.
Cast-Iron Pillars, On the Strength

of, 366.
Caulacanthus compressus, 331.
Caulerpa Amicorum, 333.

brachypus, 333.
Channing, W. F., Communica-
tions from, 11, 20, 31, 79, 97.
Chasalia Amicorum, 43.

pyriformis, 44.
Chomelia? Sandwicensis, 30.
Chondria crassicaulis, 330.
Chromium in Presence of Iron,

On the Detection of, 338.
Chroolepus Chinensis, 335.
Cladophora densa, 334.

fastigiata, 334.

oligoclada, 334.

polaris, 334.

Stirapsoni, 334.

uncinella, 334.

Wrightiana, 333.
Cladosporium pallidum, 127.
Clark, H. J., Communications

from, 136, 199, 207.
Clavaria decolor, 124.
Cleveland, Prof., Obituary No-
tice of, 226.
Closterocrinus elongatus, 288.
Codaster alternatus, 289.

446

INDEX.

Codaster Americanus, 289.

Kentuckiensis, 289.

pyramidatus, 289.
Comarocystites punctatus, 289.
Comet, Tail of Donati's, 202.
Cooke, Prof., Communications

from, 94, 352.
Copper and Zinc, Memoir on the

Alloys of, 338.
Coprinus modestus, 118.

subglobatus, 118.
Coprosma, 48.

calycina, 306.

ernodeoides, 49.

foliosa, 48.

longifolia, 48.

Menziesii, 49.

persicfefolia, 50.

pubens, 49.

rhynchocarpa, 48.
Coptic Alphabet, 190.
Corticium aschistum, 123.

irrigatum, 123.

rimosissimum, 124.
Cortinarius Wrightii, 118.
Costaria Tiirneri, 329.
Couthovia corynocarpa, 324.
Council, Report from, 92, 226.
Craterellus aureus, 123.
Crawford, Thomas, Obituary

Notice of, 9.
Cromia, 202.

Crust of Earth, Thickness of, 28.
Curtis, M. A., Communication

from, 111.
Cyathocrinus bullatus, 289.

cornutus, 289.

divaricatus, 289.

florealis, 289.

grauliferus, 289.

intermedins, 289.

lowensis, 289.

magister, 289.

malvaceus, 289.

maniformis, 289.

peutalobus, 289.

protuberans, 290.

pyriformis, 290.

ramosus, 290.

Cyathocrinus rotundatus, 290.

spurius, 290.

stellatus, 290.

tumidus, 290.
Cyclocystoides Davisi, 290.

Halli, 290.
Cyphella epileuca, 124.
Cystophyllum fusiform'e, 329.
Cystotheca "Wrightii, 130.

D.

Dendrocrinus longidactylus, 290.
Desmia Japonica, 331.
Diatrype catervaria, 128.
Dichocrinus cornigerus, 290.

ovatus, 290.

protuberans, 290.

sexlobatus, 290.

simplex, 291.

striatus, 291.
Dicranella obscura, 277.
Dictyota obtusangula, 329.
Discosia ostiolata, 125.
Dogs, On the Barking of, 426,431.
Dolatocrinus lacus, 291.
Dolicholobium, 308.

latifolium, 309.

oblongifolium, 309.
Donati's Comet, 100.

Tail of, 202.
Dorycrinus, 291.
Dothidea inclusa, 129.

permeans, 129.

platyplaca, 129.

tenuis, 129.
Du Chaillu, Mr., Communication

from, 411.

E.

Eaton, Daniel C, Communica-
tion from, 110.

Echinodermata of the Palaiozoic
Rocks of North America, List
of, 282.

Echinoencrinites anatiformis, 291.

Echinosphoerites, 291.

Ecklonia Wrightii, 329.

INDEX.

447

Edrioaster Bigsbyi, 291.
Elfecrinus, 291.

Eleutherocrinus Cassedayi, 291.
Elliott, C. B., Communication

from, 349.
Endocladia complanata, 333.
Enteromorpha CEerulescens, 333.
Eucalyptocrinus caelatus, 291.

decorus, 291.

papulosus, 291.
Eurypterus, 353.

EusTis, Prof. H. L., Communi-
cation from, 106.
Expedition to the Arctic Seas, On

the proposed, 418, 420.

F.

Fagrsea gracilipes, 323.

Fellows deceased, 1, 93, 149, 163,

226.
Fellows elected : —

Andrews, William T., 7.

Bell, Luther V., 106.

Bryant, Henry, 93.

Clark, Thomas Edwards, 93.

Clifford, John Henry, 248.

Ehot, Charles W., 7.

Elliott, Ezekiel Brown, 7.

EUis, Calvin, 336.

Farmer, Moses G., 2.

Goodwin, Wm. Watson, 130.

Lyman, Theodore, 336.

Newcomb, Simon, 362.

Peirce, Benjamin, 107.

Putnam, Dr. Charles G., 2.

Ritchie, E. S., 336.

Robbins, Chandler, 107.

Runkle, John D., 2.

Storer, Frank H. 7.

Storer, Horatio R., 93.

Washburn, Emory, 248.

Weinland, David, 2.
. Wright, Chauncy, 362.
Felton, C. C, Communications

from, 5, 9, 23, 31, 103, 106,

180, 219, 324, 409.
Filices, Character of New, 110.
Fishes, Classification of, 8, 108.

Fissidens incrassatus, 276.

laxus, 276.

pungens, 276.
Forestiera, Revision of, 363.

acuminata, 363.

ligustriua, 364.

porulosa, 365.

reticulata, 365.

sphterocarpa, 365.
FOLSOM, C, Communications from,

20, 28, 79, 190, 208, 360.
Forbesiocrinus Agassizi, 292.

Giddingsii, 292.

Meeki, 292.

Shumardianus, 292.

Whitfieldi, 292.

Wortheni, 292.
Foreign Honorary Members de-
ceased, 1, 226.
Foreign Honorary Members elect-
ed : —

Grimm, J., 2.

Lindley, John, 135.

Liouville, M., 248.

Mitscherlich, 2.

Mohl, 2.

Valentin, Gabriel, 355.
Frozen Well of Brandon, Vermont,

Results of the Examination of,

269.
Fucus Babingtonii, 329.

Wrightii, 329.
Fungi, New, 111.

G.

Galaxaura distenta, 331.
Geaster biplicatus, 124.

papyraceus, 124.
Generation, Apparent Equivocal,

207.
Geniostoma astylum, 321.

ligustrifolium, 321.

rupestre, 321.
Gigartina affinis, 332.

lancifolia, 332.

tenella, 332.
Gloiopeltis colifoi'mis, 332.
Glyptocrinus decodactylus, 292.

448

INDEX.

Glyptocrinus fimbriatus, 292.
plumosus, 292.

Gljptocystites multiporus, 292.
Logan i, 292.
Forbesi, 292.

Glyptoraster brachiatus, 292.

Goniaster, 292.

Gould, A. A., Communications
from, 100, 195, 201, 206.

Gould, B. A., Communications
from, 189, 305, 325, 418.

Gouldia Romanzoviensis, 310.
Sandwicensis, 310.

Gracilaria eucheumioides, 331.
gigas, 331.

Granite, Use of as a Building Ma-
terial, 353.

Graphioerinus 14-brachialis, 293.

Grasses, Charactei's of some New
Species, 362.

Gray, Asa, Communications from,
2, 21, 33, 98, 99, 102, 109,
131, 171, 195, 201, 248, 275,
282, 306, 318, 326, 362, 383,
411, 424.

Greek Language, Modern, 219.

Greek Pronunciation, 180.

Guettardefc, 33, 38.

Gymnogongrus ligulatus, 332.

H.

Halicoryne Wrightii, 333.
Hall, James, Communication

from, 353.
Halosaccion intestinalis, 332.
Japonicum, 332.
Wrightii, 332.
Hates, A. A., Communications

from, 19, 28.
Hates, Dr. L L, Communication
from, 420.
Letter from, 97.
Proposed Arctic Expedition
of, 103.
Hclicoma fasciculatum, 127.
Helvella pusilla, 127.
Hemicystites parasitica, 293.

Henck, J. B., Communication

from, 28.
Hepaticte, 248.
Heterocrinus gracilis, 293.

heterodactylus, 293.

simplex, 293.
Heterocystites armatus, 293.
Hexagonia Thwaitesii, 122.

variegata, 122.
Hiatula Boninensis, 118.

gracilis, 118.

luteola, 118.

nivosa, 118.
Holmes, Dr., Communication

from, 373.
Homocrinus cylindricus, 293.

parvus, 293.

polydactylus, 293.
Hookeria Wrightii, 282.
HoRSFORD, Prof., Communica-
tions from, 7, 8, 12, 28, 100,

360, 411.
Houstonia, 312, 313.

cterulea, 313.

humifusa, 314.

minima, 314.

patens, 314.

rotundifolia, 313.

rubra, 314.

serpyllifolia, 313.

subviscosa, 314.
Humboldt, Obituary Notice of,

232, 234.
Hydnophytum longifolium, 42.
Hydnum Wrightii, 122.

stalagmodes, 123.
Hygrophorus pictus, 119.
Hypereides, Portions of the Lost

Works of, 409.
Hymenula atrovirens, 124.
Hypnum assurgens, 279.

dispersum, 279.

erectiusculum, 281.

eximium, 281.

flaccidum, 280.

macrostegium, 280.

oblongifoliura, 279.

Ometepense, 281.

pohlia3carpum, 280.

INDEX.

449

Hypnum Eodgersianum, 281.

Simodense, 280.

Smallii, 281.

spinulosum, 280.

subalbidum, 281.

thelidictyon, 280.
Hypocrea ai'meniaca, 128.

Ichthyocrinus Burlingtonensis, 293.

Clintonensis, 293.

laevis, 293.

tiarteformis, 293.
Individuality, Question of, 17.
Ischa^mum leersioides, 363.

ophiouroides, 363.
Ixora amplifolia, 40.

eriantha, 40.

Saraoensis, 40.

Vitiensis, 40.
IxorejE, 39.

Jackson, Dr. Charles T., Com-
munications from, 5, 100, 192,
196, 197, 199, 359.

Jackson, J. B. S., Communications
from, 102, 337.

Japan, Illustrations of the Botany
of, 130.

Jenks, Dr., Communication from,
337.

Johnson, Manuel J., Resolutions
in reference to decease of, 206.
Obituary Notice of, 228.

Jupiter, On the Light of, compared
with the Sun, 373.

K

Kadua, 317.

acuminata, 318.
centranthoides, 317.
Cookiana, 317.
cordata, 317.
glaucifolia, 318.
glomerata, 317.

VOL. IV. 57 .

Kadua grandis, 318.
Menziesiana, 318.
parvula, 317.
petiolata, 318.

Kneeland, Dr. S. S., Communi-
cations from, 7, 426, 431.

Labordea, 321.

fagrjeoidea, 323.

sessilis, 323.

tinifolia, 322.
Lactarius lividatus, 119.
Language, Modern Greek, 219.
Laschia peziza^formis, 123.
Lastrea lacera, 110.
Lecanocrinus caliculus, 294.

macropetalus, 294.

ornatus, 294.

simplex, 294.
Lecidea Africana, 406.

microps, 405.

oidalea, 405.
Lecythea peziza^foi'mis, 127.
Lentinus Nicaraguensis, 121.

pyramidatus, 121.
Lenzites Japonica, 121.
Lepocrinites Gebhardi, 294.
Leptogium dactylinum, 383.
Leptopetakim Mexicanum, 315.
Lerchea calycina, 311.
Lesqueredx, Leo, Communica-
tion from, 275.
Letters received, 5, 6, 7, 8, 19, 20,

21, 31, 78, 95, 103, 107, 130,

135, 149, 180, 192, 202, 206,

225, 269, 305, 324, 335, 349,

359, 362, 366, 383, 417.
Leucobryum Boninense, 277.
Library, Donations to, by

Academia Naturae Curioso-
rum, 256.

Academic des Sciences de
rinstitut Imp. de France,
86, 252.

Academy, Imperial, des Sci-
ences, Arts, et Belles-Let-
tres, Caen, 262.

450

INDEX.

Library, Donations to, by

Academy, Imperial, des Sci-
ences, Belles-Lettres, et
Arts, Lyons, 256.

Academy, Imperial, of Sci-
ences, St. Petersburg, 81,
255.

Academy, Imperial, of Sci-
ences, Vienna, 84, 249.

Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, 85, 257.

Academy des Sciences, Arts,
et Belles-Lettres, Dijon,
249.

Academy of Science, St.Louis,
Missouri, 257.

Academy, Royal Bavarian, 81,
255.

Academy, Royal Danish, 249.

Academy, Royal Irish, 251.

Academy, Royal, of Sciences,
Amsterdam, 81, 251.

Academy, Royal, of Sciences,
&c., Belgium, 88, 264.

Academy, Royal Prussian,
86, 255.

Academy, Royal, of Sciences,
Stockholm, 90.

Academy, Royal, of Sciences,
Turin, 87, 262.

Adams, Charles Francis, 84.

Adler, a J., 92.

Alvord, Major Benjamin, 83.

Appleton, Nathan, 90, 262.

Argelander, Fr., 92.

Association, American, for the
Advancement of Science,
80, 266.

Association, British, for the
Advancement of Science,
91, 262.

Association for Natural Sci-
ences, Nassau, 91.

Association, Mercantile Li-
brary, of the City of Bos-
ton, 86.

Association, Mercantile Li-
brary, of the City of New
York, 86, 258.

Library, Donations to, by

Association, Zoological and

Botanical, at Vienna, 90,

265.
Athenjeum, Salem, 257.
Barnard, Charles F., 82, 254.
Beke, Charles T., 90.
Bologna, City of, 267.
Bopp, Franz, 91.
Boston, City of, 257.
Bowditch, Henry I., 263.
Brown, John Allen, 91.
Caldwell, George C, 89.
Cauchy, M. le Baron, 86.
Chandler, Charles F., 89.
Curtis, Josiah, 266.
Dalton, John C, 266.
Dana, James D., 266.
Desor, Edouard, 83.
Editors of American Journal

of Arts and Sciences, 249.
Espy, Prof James P., 258.
Fries, Ehas, 257.
Fries, Theodorus Magnus, 257.
Gilhss, Lieut. J. M., 257.
Gould, B. A. Jr., 83, 254.
Government, British, 85.
Government, Netherlands, 80,

264.
Graham, Lieut.-CokJ.D., 254.
Gray, Prof. Asa, 257.
Hall, Jonathan P., 261.
Holmes, Francis S., 91.
Holt, Hon. Joseph, 258.
Hunt, T. Sterry, 92.
Institute, Albany, 91, 258.
Institute, Essex, 260, 264.
Institute, Imperial Geological,

Vienna, 84, 255.
Institution for the Blind,

Brunswick, 89.
Institution, Royal, of Great

Britain, 252.
Institution, Smithsonian, 86,

262.
Jordan, Alexis, 83.
Kneeland, Samuel, 88, 257.
KupfFer, A. T., 87.
Latour, L. A. Iluguet, 82, 260.

INDEX.

451

Libraiy, Donations to, by-
Lea, Isaac, 83, 265.
Library, Astor, Trustees of,

91.
Library, New York State,

258.
Lyceum of Natural History

of New York, 91, 266.
Lyceum, Salem, 260.
Martins, Dr. C. F. P. von,

260.
Massachusetts, State of, 258,

265.
Meigs, R. J., 87.
Metcalf, Jolm George, 251.
Meade, Capt. George G., 267.
Mines of Russia, Administra-
tion of, 82, 255.
Museum of Natural History

in Paris, 84,363.^
Nicolson, Samuel, 251.
Nodot, L., 249.
Observatorio, El Marina de

San Fernando, 87, 253.
Observatory of Breslau, 250.
Observatory of Cambridge, 85,

256.
Observatory of Cracow, 263.
Observatory of Edinburgh,

252.
Observatory of Kiinigsberg,

80, 256.
Observatory of Prague, 87,

256.
Observatory, Royal, Brussels,

87.
Observatory, Washington, 87.
Olmsted, Denison, 89.
Osborn, A., 265.
Page, Com. Thomas J., 87,

258
Parsons, Charles W., 266.
Patent-Office, United States,

90.
Peters, Dr. C. A. F., 90.
Prescott, William H., 263.
Quetelet, A., 88, 365.
Radcliife Trustees, 262.
Redfield, John H., 261.

Library, Donations to, by

Redfield, ^Y. C, 85.

Rhces, William J., 85.

Rogers, Prof. William B., 254.

Rokitansky, Dr. Carl, 81.

Runkle, John D., 87.

Scheutz, Edward, 86.

Schlechtendal, D. F. L. von,
80, 251.

Sharswood, William, 258.

Shumard, B. F., 252.

ShurtlefF, Dr. N. B., 83.

Societe d' Agriculture, Scien-

• ces, et Arts, de la Sarthe,
259.

Societe Imperiale Zoologique
d' Acclimation, 252.

Society, American Antiquari-
an, 85, 254.

Society, American Oriental,
82.

Society, American Philosophi-
cal, 83, 261.

Society, Batavian, of Arts and
Sciences, 265.

Society, Chicago Historical,
251.

Society for the Advancement
of Physical Sciences, Fi-ei-
burg, Briesgau, 88, 263.

Society for the Improvement
of Horticulture in the Prus-
sian States, 80.

Society, Hessian, for Natu-
ral History and Medicine,
Giessen, 263.

Society, Imperial, for the Ac-
climation of Animals, 80.

Society, Imperial Geographi-
cal, Vienna, 360.

Society, Imperial Mineralogi-
cal, St. Petersburg, 81.

Society, Imperial, of Agricul-
ture, &c., Lyons, 262.

Society, Imperial, of Natu-
ralists in Moscow, 82, 256.

Society, Imperial, of Natu-
ral Sciences, Cherbourg,
249.

I

452

INDEX.

Library, Donations to, by

Society, Imperial, of Sciences,

Agriculture, and Arts, Lille,

87.
Society of Arts, Manufactures,

and Commerce, 84.
Society of Geography of Par-
is, 86, 252.
Society, Linntean, of London,

256.
Society, Linnsean, of Lyons,

256.
Society, Massachusetts, for

Promoting Agriculture, 264.
Society, Massachusetts His-
torical, 253.
Society of Natural History,

Boston, 91.
Society of Natural History, in

Emden, 82, 265.
Society of Natural History of

Montreal, 252.
Society of Natural History of

the Prussian Rhineland and

Westphalia, 80.
Society, New York Historical,

85.
Society of Arts, Manufactures,

and Commerce, 252.
Society of Sciences, Haarlem,

256.
Society, Philological, London,

259.
Society, Physico - Medical,

Wiirtzburg, 91.
Society, Royal Bohemian, of

Science, 80.
Society, Royal, London, 82,

259.
Society, Royal, of Northern

Antiquaries, 249.
Society, Royal, of Sciences,

Gottingen, 86, 263.
Society, Royal, of Sciences,

Leipzig, 81, 255.
Society, Royal, of Sciences,

Upsal, 81.
Society, Zoological, of Lon-
don, 90.

Library, Donations to, by

Suranei', Hon. Charles, 90,
250.

Swallow, G. C, 92, 252.

Tuttle, David K., 89.

University, Royal, of Christi-
ana, Norway, 252.

University, State, of Michigan,
266.

War Department, 263.

Wetherell, Charles M., 262.

Willard, Samuel, 264.

Wilson, Hon. Henry, 257.

Winlock, Prof. Joseph, 266.

Wright, Elizur, 266.

Zantadeschi, Prof. Francesco,
91,267.
Licea rubiformis, 125.

stipitata, 125.
Lichenes, Observations on North

American, and some other, 383.
Loganiacese, 319.

LovERiNG, Prof., Communica-
tions from, 6, 12, 32, 79, 100,

103, 324, 336, 338, 423.
LovTELT., J. A., Communications

from, 410, 428.
Lycoperdon Hongkongense, 124.

plicatum, 125.

purpurascens, 124.
Lyngbya atropurpurea, 335.

atrovirens, 335.

effusa, 335.
Lyon, S. S., Communication from,

282.
Lyriocrinus dactylus, 294.

M.

Macromitrium gymnostomum, 278.

insularum, 278.
Macrostylocrinus ornatus, 294.
Magneto-Electricity, Experiments

in, 375.
Malocystites Bawandi, 294.

Murchisoni, 294.
Marasmius acicola, 121.

acicularis, 120.

alphitodes, 120.

INDEX.

453

Marasmius alutaceus, 120.

cremoriceps, 119.

dichrous, 120.

exustus, 120.

galeatus, 119.

glabrescens, 120.

luteo-fuscus, 119.

luteolus, 119.

parvulus, 120.

petalinus, 119.

sordescens, 120.

tener, 121.

umbonifer, 120.
Marsupiocrinites, 294.
Megistocrinus Evansi, 294.

latus, 294.
Meliola dichotoma, 130.
Melocrinites sculptus, 294.
Melonites multipora, 295.
Menander, Fragment from, 23.
Meteorological Observations, Re-
port of Committee on, 32.
Microscope, on use of, 136.
Mnium flagellare, 277.
Morinda bucidiefolia, 41.

lucida, 41.

mollis, 41.

myrtifolia, 41.
Morindeai, 40.
Mosses, 275.

MuLLER, Johannes, Obituary No-
tice of, 227.
MuNRO, William, Communication

from, 362.
Musci, Characters of New, 248,

275.
Myelodactylus brachiatus, 295.

convolutus, 295.
Myrmecodia imberbis, 42.

^.

Neviusia Alabamensis, 99.
Newcomb, S., Communications

from, 417, 433.
Nucleocrinus angularis, 295.

elegans, 295.

Halli, 295.

Verneuili, 295.

O.

Odonthalia obtusangula, 330.
Officers, 3, 94, 247.
Oldenlandia, 312, 313.
Ophiorhiza laxa, 312.

leptantha, 312.

peploides, 311.
Origin of Species, 410, 411, 415,

424, 426, 428, 431.
Orthotrichum Japonicum, 277.

Paljeaster Niagarensis, 295.
Palseocidaris, 295.
PalfEOcystites Chapmani, 295.

Dawsoni, 295.

tenuiradiatus, 295.
Palaeozoic Echinodermata, 283.
Palasterina stellata, 296.

rugosa, 296.
Pentremites bij^yramidalis, 296.

cervinus, 296.

Cherokeus, 296.

conoideus, 296.

curtus, 296.

decussatus, 296.

elongatus, 296.

florealis, 296.

globosus, 296.

Godoni, 296.

Grosvenori, 297.

granulatus, 297.

Codaster, 297.

Koninckiana, 297.

lanterniformis, 297.

lineatus, 297.

Melo, 297.

Norwoodi, 297.

ovalis, 297.

obesus, 297.

pyriformis, 297.

Iio3meri, 298.

Reinwardtii, 298.

Sayi, 298.

stelliformis, 298.

subtruncatus, 298.

sulcatus, 298.

454

INDEX.

Pentremites symmetricus, 298.

truncata, 298.

Verneuili, 298.

Wortheni, 298.
Pannaria crossophylla, 404.

leucosticta, 404.
Panus infundibulum, 121.
Papyri, 409.

Parpelia chlorochroa, 383.
Parsons, Prof., Communication

from, 415.
Pkirce, Prof., Communications

from, 108, 109, 136, 192, 197,

202, 305, 325, 338, 352, 441.
Personal Peculiarities of Astro-
nomical Observers, 197.
Petraster ingidus, 298.
Petronius Arbiter, 305.
Peziza Boninensis, 127.

Hongkongensis, 128.

inconspicua, 128.

insititia, 127.

Japonica, 127.

lepida, 127.

leucophaja, 128.

porphyra, 128.

verruculosa, 127.
Phoma anguina, 125.
Physcia, 384.

applanata, 398.

aquila, 389.

cajsia, 397.

candelaria, 387.

chrysophthalma, 384.

ciliaris, 388.

erinacea, 388.

euploca, 388.

Leana, 394.

obscura, 398.

parietina, 385.

pulverulenta, 389.

o>t

speciosa, o

90.

stellaris, 395.

Pickering, Dr., Communications
from, 190, 192, 194.

Piplilema, 46.

Plants and Animals mentioned by
Ancient Greek Authors, On
Difficulty of Identifying, 407.

Plants, On Distribution of, in North

Temperate Zone, 171, 192.
Platycrinus Americanus, 298.

Burlingtonensis, 299.

caniculatus, 299.

cavus, 299.

corrugatus, 299.

discoideus, 299.

exsertus, 299.

nodobrachiatus, 299.

nodulosus, 299.

nucleiforrais, 299.

pileiformis, 299.

planus, 299.

poecilliformis, 299.

Saffordi, 299.

Sara;, 299.

sculptus, 299.

Shumardianus, 300.

subspinosus, 300.

tuberosus, 300.

truncatulus, 300.

truncatus, 300.

Wortheni, 300.

Yandelli, 300.
Pleurocystites Anticostiensis, 300.

elegans, 300.

exornatus, 300.

filitextus, 300.

robustus, 300.

squamosus, 300.
Pogonatum Japonicum, 278.
Polynesian Plants, Notes on, 319.
Polyporus linteus, 122.

marmoratus, 122.

Nicaraguensis, 122.

nitidulus, 122.

ochrotinctus, 122.

pocula, 122.
Polysiphonia calacantha, 330.

flabellulata, 530.

Harlandi, 330.

Stimpsoni, 330.
Poteriocrinus alternatus, 300.

calyculus, 300.

gracilis, 300.

hemisphcericus, 301.

longidactyhis, 301.

Meekianus, 301.

INDEX.

455

Poteviocrinus Missouriensis, 301.
occidentalis, 301.

rlionibif'erus, 301.

rugosus, 301.

spinosus, 301.

tumidus, 301.
Prescott, William H., Qbituary

Notice of, 149.
Probabilities, La Place's Doctrine

of, 433.
Psycbotria apocynifolia, 47.

apodantha, 46.

Brackenridgii, 44.

calycosa, 45.

closterocarpa, 44.

cordata, 46.

filipes, 46.

Forsteriana, 44.

gracilis, 45.

hypargyra3a, 46.

insularum, 45.

macrocalyx, 46.

parvula, 45, 306.

Pickeringii, 47.

platycocca, 47.

serpens, 306.

turbinata, 45, 306.
Psycliotrie^, 41.
Pterotocrinus capitalis, 301.

coronarius, 302.
Ptycbomitrium Wilsoni, 277.
Pticcinia docbmia, 126.

sepulta, 126.

triarticulata, 126.
Pygorynchus Gouldi, 302.
Pyxine Cocoes, 401.

Meissneri, 400.

retirugella, 403.

Q.

QuiNCY, JosiAH, Communication
' from, 366.

E.

Radiata, Classification of, 441.
Radulum rhabarbarinum, 123.
Reflex Vision, 373.

Registration in Massachusetts, In-
fluence of Legislation on, 34'J.

Report from

Committee on Arctic Expe-
dition, 103.
Committee on the Library, 1,

93, 225.
Committee of Publication, 1,

93, 225, 336.
Council, 96, 226.
Treasurer, 1, 93, 225.

Rhizopogon piceus, 124.

Rhodocrinus Wortheni, 302.

Rhytisma erythrosporum, 128.

Ritchie, E. S., Communication
from, 375.

Rivularia opaca, 335.

Rogers, W. B., Communications
from, 12, 22,31,33,218,337,
338, 360, 376.

Rubiacete, Notes upon, 33, 300.

RuhmkorfF Apparatus, Improve-
ments in, 376.

Rytiphloea complanata, 330.

S.

Saccocrinus speciosus, 302.
Salices Boreali-Americanfe, 50.
Salix acutifolia, 57.

adenophylla, 65.

alba, 55.

alpestris, 69.

amygdaloides, 53.

arbuscula, 71.

arctica, 68.

Barclayi, QQ.

Bigelovii, 58.

brachystachys, 00.

Candida, 60.

capreoides, 60.

cinerea, 60.

cordata, 64.

Coulteri, 58.

curtiflora, 70.

Cutleri, 73.

desertorum, 68.

discolor, 63.
J Drummondiana, 03.

456

INDEX.

Salix eriocepliala, 57.

Fendleriana, 54.

fragilis, 55.

Geyeriana, 63.

glacilis, 72.

glauca, 68.

gracilis, 67.

herbacea, 74.

Hindsiana, 56.

Hookeriana, 59.

hurailis, 67.

irrorata, 57.

lanata, 59.

Lapponum, 59.

lasiolepis, 58.

longifolia, 55.

loiigipes, 53.

lucida, 54.

macrocarpa, 64.

Myrsinites, 70.

myrtillifolia, 74.

myrtilloides, 65.

nigra, 53.

ovalifolia, 72.

petiolaris, 67.

phlebophylla, 72.

phylicoides, 63.

polar is, 74.

Pseudo-myrsinites, 70.

purpurea, 57.

repens, 67.

reticulata, 74.

rhamnifolia, 71.

sericea, 66.

sessilifolia, 56.

Sitchensis, 66.

speciosa, 59.

subcordata, 69.

taxifolia, 56.

tristis, 67.

vagans, 61.

viminalis, 57.

viridis, 55.

Wrightii, 55.
Sandal-wood of the Sandwich Isl-

lands, Species of, 326.
Santalum ellipticum, 327.

Freycinetianum, 326.

pyrularium, 327.

Sargassum assimile, 328.

corynocarpum, 328.

filicinum, 327.

pinnatifidum, 327.

Ringgoldianum, 328.

Rodgersianum, 328.

siliquastrum, 328.
Saxocrinus interscapularis, 303.
Scaphiocrinus dactyliformis, 302.

decabracliiatus, 302.

dichotomus, 302.

internodius, 302.

scoparius, 302.

simplex, 302.
Schizocrinus nodosus, 302.

striatus, 302.
Scyphiophora, 307.
Schyphocrinus heterocostalis, 303.
Sharswood, William, Commu-
nication from, 96.
Shaav, Chief Justice, Communica-
tion from, 353.
Sherwin, T., Communications

from, 19, 79.
Sophocles, Prof., Communica-
tion from, 407.
Species, On the Origin of, 410,

411, 415, 424, 426, 428, 431.
Sphairia culcitella, 128.

Cullumia;, 130.

depolita, 128.

pardalios, 128.
Sphccropsis arctica, 125.

Boninensis, 125.

Photinije, 125.
Stenaster pulchellus, 303.

Salteri, 303.
Stephanocrinus angulatus, 303.

gemmajformis, 303.
Stereoscopic Slide, 360.
Stereum Nicaraguense, 123.

subcruentatum, 123.
Storer, F. pi., Communication*

from, 79.
Storer, H. R., Communications

from, 109, 338.
Straussia, 42.

Hawaiensis, 43.

Kaduana, 43.

INDEX.

457

Straussia Mariniana, 43.
Stylocoryne coflxeoides, 309.

Harveyi, 309.

sambucina, 309.
Suhria Japonica, 331.
SuLLivANT, William S., Com-
munication from, 275.
SwETT, Samuel, Communication

from, 100.
Synbathrocrinus dentatus, 303.

matutinus, 303.

Swallovi, 303.

Wortheni, 303.

Taenicaster cylindricus, 303.

spinosus, 303.
Tarotea, 39.

Telegraph, Application of, to Pre-
dict Changes of Weather, 271.
Telegraph Cable, Submarine, 97.
Tendrils, On the Coiling of, 98.
Thelephora xerantha, 123.
Thysanocrinus aculeatus, 304.

canaliculatus, 304.

immaturus, 304.

liliiformis, 304.
Timonius, 35.

afRnis, 36.

Forsteri, 35.

sapotaefolius, 35.
Tortoise, Origin and History of

the Word, 208.
Treadwell, D., Communication

from, 366.
Trichomanes latemarginale. 111.
Trichostomum tortuloides, 277.
Triphragmium binatum, 125.
Turtle and Tortoise, Origin and

History of the Words, 208.

U.

Uredo asperata, 126.
Bauhinise, 126.
constellata, 126.
Lupini, 126.

Uromyces Japonica, 126.
Lupini, 126.
statices, 126. -

Valonia Forbesli, 333.
Vasocrinus sculptus, 304.

valens, 304.
Vibrio resulting from Decomposed

Muscular Fibre, 199, 207.
Vision, Reflex, 373.

W,

Warren, Dr., Communication
from, 197.

Weinland, Dr., Communications
from, 5, 6.

Willows, Synopsis of North Amer-
ican, 50.

Woodsia, polystichoides, 110.

Wrangelia Tanegana, 331.

Wright, C, Communication from,
432.

Wtman, J., Communications from,
17, 360.

X.

Xerotus fragilis, 121.
fuliginosus, 121.
pusillus, 121.

Y.

Yellow-Metal Sheathing, On the
Corrosion of, 28.

Zeacrinus depressus, 304.
elegans, 304.
intermedius, 304.
magnolifeformis, 304.
maniformis, 304.
ramosus, 304.
Wortheni, 304.

END OF VOL. IV.

/

15'

MBL/WHOl LIBRARY

UH lA7n 3