HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

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MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

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PROCEEDINGS

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American Philosophical Society

HEED Ad PHTcADECPETEA

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PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME LIV
1915

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NULLO DISCRIMINE
MDCCXXVIL

PHILADELPHIA
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

195

PRESS OF
THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY
LANCASTER, PA.

CONTENDS

The Problem of Adaptation as Illustrated by the Fur Seals of
theweribilot Islands: By |GEORGEUEA TeARKER J n)).) ei) sole.
The Large Fruited American Oaks. By WILLIAM TRELEASE. .
The Swedes, Governor Printz and the Beginning of Pennsyl-
waa, IByy) IMEKOMmuAs \WAnEONKE, IeVurelstyb ag Joon ob dopo oduun
General Results of the Work in Atmospheric Electricity
Aboard the Carnegie, 1909-1914. By L. A. Bauver.......
The Rights and Duties of Neutralized Territory. By CHARLE-
VIG CONFESS OWES RU atte ge ie) etal eelener een Mane eateMtae cpa aysiccl tates Tey ety 8) ious 0s
The Pronouns and Verbs of Sumerian. By J. DyNELEy
IEARTEN GC Bate wee ea tye lois aia! al ebe oeichcteel AUSMNGFsl ch el ony shaven er esr oy els ey

Miinemelalleands Corbino, Directs) | Bypliatles -NDAMIS sir erleraery
Some Results from the Observation of Eclipsing Variables.
IB get CANVANOINIDD i Sees WIGAN aia res sis ctu ae iC ons) cua eleven sieyrey ase: crac one

Some Present Needs in Systematic Botany. By L. H. Battey.
The Variable Stars, TV, TW, TX Cassiopeie and T Leonis
Mitonise bie (Rea UIMGIDTARNEMD Eyer ceils ox. eicle lo etirtenoei
An Interpretation of Sterility in Certain Plants. By E. M.
SANG Tae ee peeienei age ec unceiadee MRM 4, HA aan gated er csls Siew tales ved ohcilan ona, ele
Additions to the Fauna of the Lower Pliocene Snake Creek
Beds (Results of the Princeton University 1914 Expedition
FLOM Neb tasi<a))n ey, VILE TAM Jen OUNCE ATRE rai ere itd
Explorations Over the Vibrating Surfaces of Telephonic
Diaphragms Under Simple Impressed Tones. By A. E.
IKGRNINET GQ eA ND dl, « ONDA VE ORs gure nie tia ecteie'o. «) ailets ot ciniensce
The Ruling and Performance of a Ten Inch Diffraction Grat-
Mao Sy Ne VET CEDEL SONI inusyetetensions Chal oes = scie)/sca-s clierare ede
The Constitution of the Hereditary Material. By T. H.
VIO RGAING ee U be seas Bie Usi ia) «tle soy ea Rem M yet a ealallets ihe est Pay aptlts: a 3
Spontaneous Generation of Heat in Recently Hardened Steel.
Bye GEAR ES MeO ERUS He oi) 0.5 5 <(-volea meaopels cise tals asl wish sates a aio
Relationships of the White Oaks of Eastern North America.
With an Introductory Sketch of their Phylogenetic History.
IB yPVEAR GARE TMVEsCOBB Ei. 0e acc yee mente Sonera stcts/s sil shsiiei a
A New Form of Nephelometer. By J. T. W. MarsHaALit AND
STERN PepISPAUN KGS tO) Se a fay csh.ty lea skaue tee MME oOo citsualare ae) sh alien er hss

Ts)

96
Ey
143

154

165

iv CONTENTS

The Role of the Glacial Anticyclone in the Air Circulation of
ne Clore, ey Wise Jaber IORI. oascanecooc5ens
The Test of a Pure Species of CEnothera. By BrapLEy Moore
EWA VA SIRS esc etel cco nahncr ah oye sseite oat eb ap tehieyeameiied eqane orsicis eace eee
Concretions in Streams Formed by the Agency of Blue Green
Alsewand: Related Plants: | By @Ee) justin RoppyeweViese
PDE kas eieteene amen cesit 3! schaeabeulinie eo) alls ocho eys teen a
The Conditions of Black Shale Deposition as Illustrated by the
Kupferschiefer and Lias of Germany. By CHARLES
SCHWICEIER TI ay sciciegieitrs co & oc cise a) dine ee ene
On the Rate of Evaporation of Ether from Oils and its Applica-
tion in Oil-ether Colonic Anesthesia. By CHARLES BASKER-
Vilete gee MDM GS iti canto. algae ke Calan eel ey cate te err
Symposium on the Earth: Its Figure, Dimensions and the
Constitution of its Interior:
I. The Interior of the Earth from the Viewpoint of Geol-
Ooy. by dee C2 CHA MBBRIEEN gars )c. er. Ge Caen
II. Constitution of the Interior of the Earth as Indicated
by Seismological Investigations. By Harry Fretp-
UNGAR ETD, Wl sb oh. Sila sepa e Maciel slesels oie ae ease
Ill. The Earth from the Geophysical Standpoint. By
JOEUN HE. ELAY FORD: Urayerse wy eee coi) ets ae
IV. Variations of Latitude: Their Bearing upon our Knowl-
edge of the Interior of the Earth By FRANK
SCHMESINGER a. <6: <u shaials ty Ree eee ee eee
Morphology and Development of Agaricus rodmami. By Gero.
ES HAUEKEDN SON) fe rtiaie Weinyes ies Gos 6+ 010 ee cena a clara tele Sina eyel a
The Euler-Laplace Theorem on the Decrease of the Eccen-
tricity of the Orbits of the Heavenly Bodies under the Secular
ACen Oi a INCsigsrares hukeobhbhon, a7 I, Io Wo Sitihisocosoc00-
A Practical Rational Alphabet. By BENJAMIN SmMiTH LyMAN
The Cambrian Manganese Deposits of Conception and Trinity
Bays eNewroundland say, INEESON@ Cal ATE shen sere

185

226

246

259

270

279

290

298

351
309
344
359

371

@hituanyNoticetor WicmberssDeceasedenae a ne arene i1i—X1i
IDEN OGHOSH ay aes olan. SSM eI. Siac a GANA 66 '6:0\0 ili-Xv

ePyPaAds
TU i

Vans
PROCEEDINGS

OF THE Ap RBA
\

al Society

ra ay

ee Pilosaghie

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

\

Se VOL: LUI. ; JANUARY—APRIL, 1915. - i NO 2aG.
CONTENTS

a The Problem i Adaptation as Illustrated by the Fur coe of the
53 -Pribilof Islands. By GEoRGE H. PARKER - _— - Be Sea |
The Large Fruited American Oaks. By WittiAM TRELEASE - 7

‘The Swedes, Governor Printz and the Beginning of Bene
nia. By THomMAs WILLING BaLcH - - - 12

General Results of the Work in Atmospheric Bicchicaty (Aboard
| the Carnegie, 1909-1914. By L. A. BAUER - - - 14

3 The Rights and Duties of Neutralized Territory. By Cuan
MAGNE TOWER - - - - - - 18

_ The Pronouns and Verbs of Sumerian. By i: DYNELEY PRINCE 27

- The Hall and Corbino Effects. By E. P. ADAMs = = - 47

Some Results from the Observation of pene Variables. By
-Raymonp S. DucANn - - - - - 52

~ Some Present Needs in Systematic Borsa. Ry Bay H. BAILEY 58

The Variable Stars TV, TW, TX Cassiopeiz and T Leonis Minoris.

By R. J. McDiarmip.- ee, le

An Interpretation of oe in Clean Plants ByE Ez M. East 70

- Minutes - - a 2 Cone

oe Notices oe Members Deceased = - - - =, 4
PHILADELPHIA

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1915

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Vou. LIV , JANUARY-APRIL, I915 No. 216

iE eROBEEM OF ADAPTATION AS ILLUSTRATED BY
Wise, ISUIX (SlvESy Ole INshs, IARINBILOI USIVAINIDS,

By GEORGE H. PARKER.
(Read April 23, 1915.)

The breeding habits of the Alaskan fur seals are so unusual as
to make these animals unique among mammals. During much of
the year, these seals are strictly pelagic roaming over the eastern
expanse of the northern Pacific as far southward as the latitude of
southern California. As summer approaches, practically the whole
herd consisting of several hundreds of thousands of individuals re-
pairs to the two small islands of St. George and St. Paul in Bering
‘Sea for the breeding season. It is the relative proportions of the
various constituents of the herd during this breeding period that
affords material for interesting speculation.

The movements of the fur seals in their arrival and departure
from the Pribilof Islands take place with much regularity. Early
in May and June the mature males or bulls, having made their way
through the passes of the Aleutians, reach the breeding beaches or
rookeries on the islands of St. George and St. Paul. Here they
take their positions, fighting all intruders while they await the com-
ing of the females or cows. The cows arrive on the islands chiefly
during June and July. They associate themselves with particular
bulls and the bull with his group of cows constitutes the family unit
or harem. In 1914 the average harem was not far from one bull

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 216 A, PRINTED JUNE Ig, 1915.

1

2 PARKER—THE PROBLEM OF ADAPTATION. [April 23,

to sixty cows, and the range extended from harems containing one
cow to some that contained over a hundred. Because of the many
years of commercial killing, chiefly directed against the males, it is
impossible to state what the size of the normal average harem should
be, but probably not far from one bull to thirty or forty cows.

Within a short time after the arrival of the cow, in the harem,
1. €., within a few days or a week or so, she gives birth to a single
young or pup. So far as is known, cows do not produce more than
one pup atatime. Shortly after the birth of her pup, the cow goes
into heat, pairs with the bull, and becomes pregnant again. As
these are annual occurrences, the period of gestation in the fur seal
must be a few days less than a year. The pups are born males and
females in about equal numbers. The counts of former years, as
well as those of 1914, show a slight predominance of males, the
excess being from a little over two per cent. to about seven per cent.
of the total births.

The breeding season closes toward the end of July or early in
August and this close is marked by the disintegration of the harems.
During August most of the bulls begin their migrations back to the
Pacific, and the pups, which heretofore have remained on the
beaches, begin to take to the sea. They and the cows stay about
the islands till November, when they too start on their migration to
the open ocean. The only important constituent of the herd that
has not yet been mentioned is the class known as the bachelors, 1. e.,
the young males that have not yet attained to breeding. The bache-
lors move with the cows, arriving for the most part in June and
July, and departing in November, though some are found on the
islands in December or even later. The bachelors do not mingle on
the beaches with the rest of the herd, but gather to one side of the
breeding grounds proper in the so-called bachelors hauling grounds,
where they lead an idle rollicking existence suggested by their name.

The maximum age of the fur seal is believed to be about twelve
to fourteen years for both males and females. In the migration,
the males return to the islands approximately in the sequence of
their ages; the old bulls arrive first in May and June followed by
the younger bulls and bachelors and lastly by the yearling males,
which arrive in the latter part of July and in August. The year-

1915.] PARKER—THE PROBLEM OF ADAPTATION. 3)

ling males on arrival associate with the pups and cows rather than
with the other bachelors. The bachelors may begin breeding at
five years of age or even four, but they do not normally undertake
this function until they are six or seven years old, when they desert
the bachelors’ hauling grounds for the breeding rookeries. The
period of their normal breeding life covers, therefore, a term of
perhaps some seven years or more.

It is not impossible that the yearling females do not return to
the islands or, if they do, it is probable that they do so only in small
numbers and late in the season. The two-year-old females return
to the islands in July and August as virgin females, pair with the
younger bulls, and reappear a year later, the end of their third year,
with their first pup. From that time on they enter into the regular
breeding of the herd and continue in all probability to produce one
pup annually. Their breeding life, therefore, extends over some
ten or more years.

These in brief are the main facts concerning the breeding habits
of the Alaskan fur seal, an animal that exhibits one of the most re-
markable examples of concentrated and localized breeding known.
When it is recalled that these seals range over thousands of miles
in the northern Pacific and that all sexually active members of the
species without exception congregate in the appropriate season on
the two small islands of St. George and St. Paul for breeding, the
very exceptional nature of their reproductive activities must be
evident.

The proportion of the two sexes at birth is very nearly equal,
yet when the breeding age has been reached, the natural relations
are not far from one male to thirty or forty females. As there is
no reason to suppose that the death rate is higher in males than in
females and as the length of the breeding life of the two sexes is
not very different, about seven years for the bulls and about ten for
the cows, it follows from the sexual proportions already mentioned,
that we should expect an excess of bulls to be present. Asa matter
of fact, such is the case, for even in 1914, after the excessive com-
mercial killing of males in the past, the so-called idle bulls were
much in evidence. It thus appears that the Alaskan fur seal pro-
duces at birth approximately equal numbers of males and females

4 PARKER—THE PROBLEM OF ADAPTATION. [April 23,

and yet in its breeding activities needs only relatively few males, a
condition which when viewed as a whole seems to be a misadjust-
ment rather than a close adaptation to the actual needs of the species.
The measure of this misadjustment would be the proportion of idle
bulls naturally present. Unfortunately, the commercial activities
of the past in exploiting the herd for its fur prevent the possibility
of accurate statement on this point, but the presence of idle bulls
in the herd today is enough to show that this class under natural
conditions would be abundantly represented.

The fur seal, however, is not the only one of the higher animals
to show this misadjustment in the ratio of males to females. A
prosaic example of the same kind is seen in the barn-yard fowl.
Here the sexes hatch in nearly equal numbers, there being perhaps
a slight predominance of females, but in maturity the cock holds
sway over a flock of hens. This condition is almost exactly parallel
with that of the fur seal except that it occurs under domestication.
Nevertheless it has probably been inherited from the wild stock, for
Finn states that though the red jungle fowl will live quite happily
with a single hen, this is not universal and harems are often found.
he bullvor the American’ ell or swapitt) as my, creme
Phillips tells me, also forms, during the breeding season, a harem of
cows from which he will drive away other bulls of his own kind,
much as the fur seals do. Dr. Phillips further informs me that
there are among the higher vertebrates many other instance of that
particular form of polygamy in which one male during the breeding
season naturally associates with many females. Such examples are
found among some of the larger antelopes, wild sheep, and wild
goats, and among certain birds such as the black grouse, capercaillie,
and wild turkey. Although in these several species, the propor-
tions of sexes at birth, so far as I am aware, are not definitely
known, they probably follow the rule of approximate equality so
common among many of the other higher animals and thus in reality
illustrate much the same condition as that seen in the Alaskan fur
seal.

Among the lower animals, particularly the insects, exceptional
ratios in the sexes have long been known, the classic example of
the honey bee being the most commonly quoted. Here a few

1915.] PARKER—THE PROBLEM OF ADAPTATION. 3)

males, the drones, are set off against one perfect female, the queen,
and a host of imperfect ones, the workers. These cases differ from
those in the higher animals, however, in that the sex ratios appro-
priate for the breeding colony are determined from the beginning,
i. e., the young are not produced males and females in equal num-
bers. Such cases as the honey bee and other like insects exhibit,
therefore, in their sex ratios much more accurate adjustments to
their breeding requirements than do the higher animals ; in fact they
may be said to show a very high order of intracolonial sex adap-
tation.

Throughout the animal kingdom as a whole sexual reproduction
seems to be best adjusted where the sexes are represented in ap-
proximately equal numbers and this relation is probably determined
by the production of equal numbers of male-determining and female-
determining sexual elements. The sperm cells of most species of
animals, perhaps of all, are apparently the prime factors in this de-
termination, and the dimorphism of these cells in the sense that one
class is made up of male-determiners and the other of female-de-
terminers as well as the production of these two classes in equal
numbers may be looked upon as the chief adaptation of the animal
kingdom so far as sex ratios are concerned. But the reproductive
activities of a limited number of animals, such as the honey bee and
the fur seal, have developed in directions in which equal numbers
of the two sexes serve no longer as an advantageous combination.
To meet these new conditions, further adaptation would be needed
and, from what has been said, this adaptation would involve read-
justments in the powers of the sex-determining reproductive cells.
Such readjustments seem to have been carried out in the insects as
seen in the honey bee, etc., where through the development of nat-
ural parthenogenesis the usual sex ratio has been entirely set aside
and a new one favorable to the new requirements has been estab-
lished. This has not been accomplished by the fur seals and other
higher animals which in this respect remain poorly adapted to their
new relations. From this standpoint, then, such lower animals as the
insects show a higher order of adaptation than either the mammals
or the birds. An explanation of this paradox may be found in
the fact that the rate at which generation follows generation in in-

6 PARKER—THE PROBLEM OF ADAPTATION. [April 23,

sects is enormous compared with that in the higher animals and
further that geologically speaking the insects are much older than
the mammals or birds. Hence they have had a much greater op-
portunity to adapt themselves to their conditions than has fallen to
the lot of the higher animals. If the maladjustments of the sex
ratios as exhibited by the fur seals and other higher animals are to
be interpreted in the way indicated, it is clear that the evolutionary
processes by which adaptation is brought about must often be slow
and imperfect with the result that adaptation itself is better de-
scribed, in the words of Bateson, as a poor fit than in the extravagant
terms of eulogy with which many of the older writers clothed it.

Harvarp UNIVERSITY,
April 23, 1915.

THE LARGE FRUITED AMERICAN OAKS.

By WILLIAM TRELEASE, Sc.D., LL.D.
Pirates I-III.
(Read April 23, I9T5.)

When Alphonse de Candolle monographed the oaks of the
world something over a generation ago,’ he distinguished with a
varietal name a form of our common white oak with small acorns
some 8 X 14 mm., which Engelmann had sent him—the usual fruit
of Quercus alba measuring about 14x 18 mm. Those who have
examined numerous specimens of our common red oak, Q. rubra,
and its double, Q. Schneckii, have noted that they occur in forms
varying in diameter of the acorn from about 10 to about 20 mm.
The assemblage of forms clustering about the Californian Q. chry-
solepis, the oldest of our existing types of oak, geologically, also
show a comparable or even greater difference in the size of the fruit
of what are otherwise held to be mere variants of a single species ;
and the polymorphic Q, dumosa presents a similar if less extended
range of fruit size.?

The most surprising of our species in this respect is the bur oak,
which joins to its great range in size a difference in fruit which is
even more startling; for while the usual diameter of the acorns of
this species is somewhere about 25 mm., and of the cup five or ten
millimeters more, the acorns frequently measure 40 mm. in diameter
with a cup fully 50 mm. across on the one hand, while on the other
hand they may scarcely reach a diameter of 10 mm. Perhaps no
oak presents so great a range of cup characters as this species does.?
While the round or ovoid scaly-fringed form covering the acorn
nearly or quite to its top is taken as the most typical and has given
to the tree its common name of mossy or overcup oak, it is not un-

1 Quercus alba nucrocarpa A. de Candolle, Prodromus, 162 22. 1864.
2 On these consult Sargent, Silva, vol. 8.

7

8 TRELEASE—LARGE FRUITED AMERICAN OAKS. [April 23,

common to find a broad saucer-shape assumed with the fringe of
slender scales either seemingly absent, because closely inflexed beside
the acorn, or extended in its development over a considerable part of
the outside of the cup; and it is even possible, as Professor Pieters
has recently shown me by material collected about Ann Arbor, for
the cup of the smaller type of fruit to be shallow and thin as in
the post oak, and either delicately ciliate at top or entirely without
a fringe even on a single tree.

Even the largest acorns produced by these or our other familiar
oaks seem small when compared with those of some tropical species
of Quercus, or of the related genus Pasamia. On our own conti-
nent, where the true oaks extend from the far north into the high
Andes of Colombia, these large-fruited species are of both the red—
and white-oak groups,—the former in Guatemala and Chiapas, and
the latter in the last-named state of Mexico and along the flanks
of the eastern Sierre Madre range above Vera Cruz. In contrast
with these, which may reach a diameter of 50 or even 60 mm., the
smallest acorns, also Guatemalan and Mexican, and of the group
of red oaks, scarcely measure 5 mm. in diameter.®

Some two years ago, while looking over a series of type photo-
graphs that I had made in the course of a systematic revision of
the oaks of tropical America, Mr. Walter Swingle, of the National
Department of Agriculture, expressed considerable interest in some
of the east-Mexican large-fruited white oaks as affording a hope-
ful field for experimentation both in direct propagation and hybrid-
ization, with reference to our own tropical and subtropical regions,
and Mr. David Fairchild, of the same government department, con-
sidered the matter of sufficient interest to undertake importations
through the interest of Dr. C. A. Purpus, whose collections in the
southern republic have done much of recent years to make its
vegetable wealth known. The purpose of the present communica-

3 Quercus parviglans n. nom.—Q. microcarpa Liebmann, Overs. Dansk.
Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl. 1854: 184—Liebmann-Oersted, Chenes Amer. Trop.
26. pl. 6—Not Q. microcarpa Lapeyrouse, Hist. Abr. Pl. Pyren. 582. 1813.
Equally small are the racemed acorns of an as yet unpublished group of west-

and south-Mexican species of the red oaks; and the east-Mexican white oak,
QO. glabrescens, possesses an equally small-fruited variety.

1915.] TRELEASE—LARGE FRUITED AMERICAN OAKS. 9

tion is to give a connected account of these large-fruited species,
because of this popular interest that they possess.

The first of the large-fruited tropical American species to be
made known is Quercus Skinneri* collected by Hartweg at Quezalte-
nango, Guatemala, which Bentham noted and illustrated in 1841
and described the following year. Skinner’s oak is a large tree
with long-petioled, ovate, acute, rather blunt-based aristately toothed
glabrous leaves about 5 & 9 cm., producing solitary or paired short-
stalked fruit resembling that of our common red oak but on a much
larger scale, the shallow cup 50 mm. in diameter and the short-
ovoid acorn of about that length. It is a red oak with the usual
characters of apical abortive ovules and tomentose interior of the
shell, but the latter is thicker than usual and with the septa intruded
into the kernel so as to make the latter somewhat three-lobed. Of
recent years Q. Skinneri has been collected only by Cook and Griggs,
at the Finca Sepacuite, Guatemala. A similar, if not the same, red
oak, but with larger duller winter buds and lance-elliptical leaves as
much as 20 cm. long, was collected at Chinantla, in the Mexican
State of Oaxaca, by Liebmann in the fall of 1842, but of it nothing
else is known: as with Furcrea longeva, the species seems to range
extensively through the Cordillera. )

Closely related to Skinner’s oak is a species recently collected by
Dr. Purpus in the Mexican state of Chiapas, the similar acorns of
which may reach a diameter of over 35 mm., their very shallow cups,
with thickened scales, sometimes measuring 45 mm. across. This,
which differs markedly from Quercus Skinneri in having acutely
lanceolate very short-stalked leaves about 5 X 12 cm., may be called
Q. chiapasensis.® Like the other oaks here under consideration, it
appears to become a tree of very large size,

The year following the full description of Quercus Skinneri, the
Belgian botanists Martens and Galeotti described under the name

4 Quercus Skinneri Bentham, Gard. Chron. 1841: 16. f.; Pl. Hartweg. go.
1842.—Hooker, Icones Plant. 5. p/. 4o2——Liebmann-Oersted, J. c. pl. B, 2.

5 Quercus chiapasensis n. sp. Arbor grandis: foliis brevipetiolatis, acutis,

lanceolatis, aristato-dentatis; fructu magna; cupula plana, glabra, crassa;
glande semiglobosa, 35 mm. diametro. Q. Skinneri affinis.

10 TRELEASE—LARGE FRUITED AMERICAN OAKS. [April 23,

QO. insignis® what must be regarded as most notable in its genus be-
cause of the enormous height of the trees and the production of
acorns occasionally fully 60 mm. in diameter and thus out of coim-
parison with those of any black oaks and even with those of such
Asiatic Pasanias as P. cornea. Quercus insignis, which occurs
along the upper flanks of Mount Orizaba in eastern Mexico, is a
white-oak, with the interior of the acorn shell not woolly, and with
deeply lateral ovules. Its short-petioled elliptical-oblanceolate
more or less acuminate leaves are sharply low-serrate but without
bristle-like tips to the teeth, and measure 5 X 10 cm. or more. The
fruit, which matures the first season, as seems to be true of all
white oaks, is typically biscuit-shaped and about one-fourth shorter
than thick, and the rather shallow cup, which may reach 80 mm. in
diameter, is covered with coarse heavy loosely ascending scales.

Martens and Galeotti do not appear to have seen more than one
form in the oaks of this kind; but the type collection of Galeotti
as represented in the museum at Budapest contains acorns of
two sorts, one depressed, and the other acuminately conical and
about as long as thick. At about the same time that Galeotti’s col-
lections were made, the Danish botanist Liebmann collected in the
same general region materials of an oak similar to Q. insignis but
differing in bearing subconical acorns about as long as broad and
with more turbinate cups. This was published by its discoverer
in 1854 under the name Q. strombocarpa." Subsequently when a
series of exquisite drawings of Mexican oaks prepared under Lieb-
mann’s direction were published by Oersted, the latter added a
plate of a very similar form, which he called Q. insignis strombo-
carpoides.® It is hard to see how the latter can be distinguished
from Q. strombocarpa, and the Galeotti collection shows that, dif-
ferent as the fruit extremes are, the discoverer of Q. insignis did
not separate from its typical form the conical-fruited form to which
apparently both of the later names refer,

6 Quercus insignis Martens and Galeotti, Bull. Acad. Brux. 102: 219. 1843.
—Liebmann-Oersted, /. c. pl. K, 20.

7 Quercus strombocarpa Liebmann, Overs. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. For-
handl. 1854: 176.—Liebmann-Oersted, /. c. 24. pl. 27—Oersted, Bidrag Kundsk.

Egefamilien. 346. f. E.
8 Q. insignis strombocarpoides Liebmann-Oersted, J. c. pl. 28.

1915.] TRELEASE—LARGE FRUITED AMERICAN OAKS. 11

Wishing materials that should throw light on this question, I
turned in 1912 to my amiable correspondent, Dr. Purpus, who was
then in eastern Mexico: but before my letter reached him, Dr.
Purpus had gone into southern Mexico. The result of my appeal,
therefore, was not further specimens of Quercus insignis, but col-
lections of an equally large and almost equally large-fruited white
oak which appears to be characteristic of the Chiapas region. With
somewhat similar but more deeply toothed leaves about 7 20 cm.,
equally short-petioled, this combines a stoutly stalked turbinate
cup as much as 60 mm. in diameter, the scales of which are barely
if at all free at tip with their bases connate in zones; and the
ovoid pointed acorn measures 40-50 & 50-60 mm. ‘Though closely
related to Q. insignis, this species is so distinct in its collective char-
acters as to stand as the type of a separable group of white oaks,
and it has been called Q. cyclobalanoides® because of its very peculiar
cup-markings.

EXPEANATION OF PEADES:
(All figures are of natural size.)
PEATE le

Quercus macrocarpa. Above, three acorns from a very small-fruited
Michigan tree (Pieters), partly with and partly without fringe to the
cup, and a single fruit of the largest and “ mossiest” type from Illinois
(Adams). Below, two of the more typical acorns of different cup-depth, and
a cup showing a not infrequent inrolling of the inner scales, also fnom
Illinois (Adams).

PuaTeE II.

Above, two cups and three acorns of the large-fruited Mexican
ted oak, Quercus chiapasensis (Purpus). Below, basal and side view of
two acorns of the large-fruited Chinese oak, Pasania cornea (after pho-
tographs by Fairchild).

Priate III.

Above, two fruits of the Mexican ring-scaled white oak, Quercus cyclo-
balanoides (Chiapas, Purpus). Below, a fruit of the great-acorned Mexican
white oak, Quercus insignis (Huatusco, Purpus).

THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS,
March 8, Io1s.

9 Quercus cyclobalanoides n. sp. Arbor grandis; foliis brevipetiolatis,
acutis, oblanceolatis, mucronato-dentatis: fructu magna; cupula turbinata,
luteo-tomentosa, pluriannulata; glande ellipsoidea, sub 50 mm. diametro.
Quercus Insignes valde affinis, sed sectio distincta, Cyclobalanoidex, constitu-
ens.—Q. insignis Journal of Heredity, 5: 407. f. 12. 1914—not Martens and
Galleotti, J. c.

LEE SWEDES GOVERNOR® PRIUNGZ 7 ANID sabe
BEGINNING OF PENNSYLVANIA.

By THOMAS WILLING BALCH.
(Read March 5, 1915.)

Of the original thirteen States, those south of the Middle States
as well as those known under the collective name of New England,
were settled by men and women of English race. New York, New
Jersey and Delaware were first settled by Hollanders. The whole
area of the Dutch settlements was known as New Netherland, and
the chief city of the Hollanders in the new world was called Am-
sterdam in New Netherland, though historians afterwards thought
fit to change the name into New Amsterdam,’ doubtless because
the English had renamed the town New York. The settlements in
the valley of the Hudson and in what is now New Jersey passed
by conquest into the hands of the English. The Dutch settlement
in Delaware was destroyed after six months by the Indians. Sub-
sequently, the Swedes took over the inchoate title of the Dutch to
present-day Delaware. The Swedes later lost Delaware to the
Dutch by conquest, who in their turn were afterwards conquered
by the English,

No European Power, however, occupied and took possession of
what today constitutes the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, until
Lieutenant-Colonel John Printz,.who was the fourth Governor of
New Sweden, moved up from Delaware to Great Tinicum Island
and there established, in 1643, his seat of government, the first
capital placed in the territory of the present State of Pennsylvania.
He thereby became the first governor of the territory now known
as Pennsylvania.

That Sweden was the first European nation to possess itself of
what is present-day Pennsylvania was supported by the International

1] have to thank Mr. Robert H. Kelby, the learned librarian of the New
York Historical Society, for this information.

12

1915.] BALCH—BEGINNING OF PENNSYLVANIA. 13

Law of the seventeenth century. Towards the end of the sixteenth
century there grew up as a rule of international law that, in order
that a member of the family of nations could claim as its own a
newly discovered and virgin land, it was necessary for that nation
to actually occupy and possess that virgin land. The act of merely
discovering and christening such an unoccupied land did not give
the right of possession. The act of possession must be an actual
occupancy through the establishment of forts and settlements in
that land. Queen Elizabeth enunciated this principle clearly in
1580 in a notable answer she made at her court to the Spanish Am-
bassador, Mendoza.?_ It was thus recognized by England through
the lips of her sovereign, a sovereign who well knew how to main-
tain the dignity and interests of her realm abroad. That rule be-
came more and more recognized both by the publicists in their
writings and by the nations in their acts, and has remained a rule of
international law until the present day.

The sovereignty of Sweden over the land now known as Penn-
sylvania passed later by conquest to the States General of the United
Netherlands, and subsequently again by conquest to the British
crown, by whom it was afterwards granted to William Penn.

The fact that the sovereignty of Pennsylvania, alone of the orig-
inal thirteen, goes back to Sweden for its beginning and that Printz
was the first in the line of its governors, is known to only a very few.
It would seem well then, that proper monuments to Printz and his
Swedish settlement should be erected, so that future generations
may know of the beginning of this province and state. And no
place would seem more appropriate than the ancient hall of this

venerable society of learning, the oldest existing society of learning
not only within the bounds of Pennsylvania but also in all of the
new world as well, to suggest that, first a bronze tablet should be
erected in memory of Governor Printz and his capital called Nya
Goteborg on Great Tinicum Island; and second, a bronze statue of
Governor Printz, either of life or heroic size, should be placed at
some conspicuous place in the city of Philadelphia.

2Camden’s “ Annals,’ 1580; see translation in Sir Travers Twiss’s
“Oregon Question.”

GENERAL RESULTS OF THE WORK IN ATMOSPHERIC
ELECTRICITY ABOARD THE CARNEGIE, 1909-1914.

IBN IL Waly IByeN USAR,
(Read April 24, 1915.)

Notable progress, it is believed, has been achieved by the de-
partment of terrestrial magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington during the past year in the perfection of the instru-
mental appliances for observations in atmospheric electricity. In
various articles by Drs. Swann and Hewlett, which have appeared
in the Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec-
tricity, 1913-1914, new points of theory were brought out, serious
errors in certain instruments were made known, and improved
methods and instruments were devised. As a result considerable
improvement has been made in the work in atmospheric electricity
aboard the Carnegie, especially on her present cruise.

It is now deemed worth while to expand the work of the depart-
ment in atmospheric electricity in two directions: (a) Continuous
observations, by self-recording means, at the department’s labora-
tory in Washington and at such observatories elsewhere as the de-
partment may be able to establish in the near future. (0b) A gen-
eral electric survey of the globe, implying observations at points
distributed over the earth’s surface, somewhat as in a magnetic
survey.

Probably the late Professor Rowland was one of the first, in his
address before the Congress of Electricians, held at Paris, Septem-
ber, 1881, to point out the need in atmospheric electricity “of a
series of general and accurate experiments performed simultaneously
on a portion of the earth’s surface as extended as possible.”* He
says that “the principal aim of scientific investigation is to be able
to understand more completely the laws of nature, and we generally
succeed in doing this by bringing together observation and theory.”

1 Physical Papers of Henry A. Rowland, Baltimore, 1902, p. 212 et seq.
14

1915.] BAUER—ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 15

On Professor Rowland’s motion the Congress resolved “that an
international commission be charged with determining the precise
methods of observation for atmospheric electricity, in order to gen-
eralize this study on the surface of the globe.”

Unfortunately, in the past, the observations in atmospheric elec-
tricity have often been found to be counterfeits of nature because
of the errors inherent in the instruments and methods used. ‘Ac-
cordingly the much-desired discovery of nature’s laws by “ bringing
together observation and theory” has not been effected in the
measure desired. None of the proposals for a general electric sur-
vey of the earth which have been made repeatedly to learned acad-
emies, one of the last having been presented to the International
Association of Academies, has been put into effect, doubtless be-
cause of the discouraging experiences encountered.

In spite of the vast work already done by notable investigators,
we still have no generally accepted theory of the origin of atmos-
pheric electricity.

Probably one of the most important of recent contributions to
the observational data is the series of observations obtained on the
past cruises of the Galilee and the Carnegie. A report giving the
results up to the end of 1913, obtained by the department observers
and others, was prepared by Dr. Hewlett and published in the Sep-
tember, 1914, issue of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
Electricity. The observations comprised, in addition to the usual
meteorological measurements, those of the potential gradient, at-
mospheric conductivity and radioactive content of the atmosphere.
Perhaps the most important result was a confirmation of the some-
what striking phenomenon, that while the conductivity over the
ocean is, on the average, at least as great as over land, the radio-
active content is much smaller. The values of the potential gra-
dient obtained at sea were of the same order of magnitude as those
on land.

Dr. Swann has just completed a report on the atmospheric-
electric observations taken during the third cruise of the Carnegie
while under the command of Mr. J. T. Ault, in 1914. The general
course of the Carnegie during this cruise was as follows: Leaving
Brooklyn on June 8, 1914, she arrived at Hammerfest on July 3.

16 BAUER—ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. ~~ [April 24,

Sailing again from Hammerfest on July 25 she entered the harbor
of Reykjavik, Iceland, on August 24, having reached the latitude of
79° 52’ North, off the northwest coast of Spitzbergen. Leaving
Reykjavik on September 15, the Carnegie arrived at Greenport,
Long Island, on October 12, returning to Brooklyn on October 21,
IQI4.

The observations in 1914, comprised, in addition to the magnetic
and meterological data, measurements of the potential-gradient, the
conductivities for the positive and negative ions, and the radioactive
content. Measurements of the ionic numbers were also made during
the passage from Greenport, through Long Island Sound to New
York. The whole of the observations, with the exception of a few
measurements in Long Island Sound by Dr. Swann, were taken by
Observer H. F. Johnston.

The average values of the potential-gradient, atmospheric con-
ductivity, and radioactive content for the whole cruise were, re-
spectively, 93 volts per meter, 2.52 x 10% E. S. U., and 23, the last
number being expressed in Elster and Geitel units. The average
value of the earth-air current for the whole cruise was 7.7 X 10“
13,5 Sp We jose Sah cena

The atmospheric-electric elements were measured daily between
the hours of 9 A. M. and 12 noon. The observations as far as they
go indicate a general increase of the potential-gradient from sum-
mer to winter, which is in accord with land observations for the
daily mean values. The conductivity also shows a general increase
from the beginning of the cruise (June 8, 1914) to about the end of
September, when a maximum occurs, after which the conductivity
falls.

No marked variation of the atmospheric-electric elements with
temperature or humidity was found. However, an indication is
shown of a variation of the conductivity with latitude; a maximum
for the latitudes involved occurring in the neighborhood of 50°
North. These conclusions with regard to the variation of the ele-
ments with season, latitude, etc., must be looked upon as tentative
owing to the small number of data involved.

The conductivity appears to have an especially low value in the
neighborhood of the American coast. In Long Island Sound,

1915.] BAUER—ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. iy

measurements were made of the ionic numbers ”, and m_, and the
results indicate that the low values of the conductivity referred to
above are to be attributed partly to a low value of the specific
velocities of the ions (v, and v_). The mean values of v, and wv
for observations on three days in Long Island Sound are respec-
tively 0.77 and 0.83 cm./sec. per volt per cm. The average value of
n, and n_ for observations taken on three days in Long Island Sound
are 340 and 280 ions per c.c. respectively.

By making use of the value (23) given above for the radio-
active content, and of the empirical relation obtained by Kurz, for
the reduction of the Elster and Geitel unit to absolute value, it
turns out that the average radioactive content for the whole cruise
amounts to about 12 curies of radium emanation per cubic meter as
against 80 curies per cubic meter which is about the average value
found over land. The emanation content is thus too small to ac-
count for the conductivity observed over the sea, which conductiv-
ity is as great or greater than that measured over land.

A criticism of the ordinary method of drawing conclusions as to
the nature of the radioactive products in the atmosphere, by com-
paring the decay curve with one obtained by a wire exposed in a
closed vessel, is given in Dr. Swann’s report. The activity curves
are analyzed in the report mathematically, use being made of the
theory of radioactive disintegration, and it is found that while
some of the curves can be explained by radium emanation alone,
others require the presence of a product of longer decay period than
radium A, B or C. The possibility of this extra product being a
product of thorium emanation, as is generally assumed to be the
case on land, is discussed by Dr. Swann.

An attempt to calculate the actual amount of radium emanation
in the air directly from the theory of the Elster and Geitel method,
without assuming any empirical relation results in a much smaller
value for the radium-emanation content than that given by the
empirical relation unless it is assumed that the average specific
velocities of the active carriers are much smaller than is generally
supposed.

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC,, LIV. 216 B, PRINTED JUNE 19, I9I5.

DHE RIGHTS AND: DUTIES TOE INE Uae ZED
RINT @O RNG

By CHARLEMAGNE TOWER.
(Read April 23, 1915.)

Although the growing importance of the United States and their
extended influence as a world power have made the subject one of
prime interest to them in many respects heretofore, there has prob-
ably never been a time when the principle of neutrality has had for
us in America the same weighty consideration that it has under the
existing circumstances in the world today.

Never, probably, have the rights and duties of neutrals been so
carefully scrutinized by American public opinion, or so sensitively
tested by the responsible authorities of our Government. And very
justly so, because, with almost the whole of Europe inflamed before
us in this great war, there is scarcely a day in which some serious
question does not present itself in the maintenance of our public
policy, some delicate situation which affects our national honor,—
both in our character of neutrals and our relations with the bel-
ligerent powers, and in their dealings with us in return.

It may be of interest, therefore, to consider one or two of the
underlying principles of the rights and duties of neutral nations;
not the less so, perhaps, because of the fact that neutrality, in its
present recognized form, is the most recent and most modern of the
effective rules of international law.

Indeed, the nations of antiquity had not only no conception of
what we call neutrality, but they had not even a name by which to
convey our meaning of the term. The Romans alluded to those not
engaged in the war as medii, amici or pacati; and their dealings
with them were regulated, as far as we can judge, by the feeling
that they were peaceful and friendly; at all events that they were
not openly to be regarded as the enemy. And this appears to have
been the view of their position throughout the Middle Ages. It

18

1915. ] OF NEUTRALIZED TERRITORY. 19

was only in the seventeenth century that the term neutralis,—mean-
ing to the minds of the people of that day, non hostis,—was
brought into general use by the publicists, and that since then the
condition of the neutral has been established, somewhat artificially,
as is considered by some writers,’ under the process of which the
term neutral has been extended to the flag of a nation which
chooses to take no part in the war, to its ships, its commerce and its
citizens.

From this point of view it has been declared that neutrality is
“the continuation of a previously existing state.’ That is to say:
Powers which go to war and become belligerents alter their condi-
tion,—whilst those which choose to be neutral remain as they were
before. Consequently, in their case, their international rights are
unchanged; and “neutral states and their citizens are free to do in
time of war between other states what they were free to do in time
of peace.’”?

But, under the rules of international law, the state of neutrality
carries with it certain rights and obligations which do not exist
when there is no war. It has been settled that neutral governments
may regulate the furnishing of certain articles to belligerent cruisers
that seek hospitality in their ports, though they are bound to pro-
hibit the supply of certain other articles, as, for instance, arms and
ammunition. They have the right to enforce the respect for the
neutrality of their waters, though they must not allow their territory
to be used for fitting out or equipping armed expeditions against
any belligerent. So also, the commerce of neutral individuals is
subject to certain restrictions, as, in the matter of contraband of
war, which do not exist in time of peace.

But the theory of the law is that these are merely the changes
in certain details produced by common consent of the nations,—by
the condition of war; though the principle remains permanently
fixed, that the rights of a neutral continue, uninterrupted, in time
of war precisely as in time of peace,—his rights of trade and com-
merce, his rights of free intercourse with either belligerent, or with
anyone else; and that every restriction upon these activities that

1 Holland, Fortnightly Review, July, 1883.
2 Lawrence, “International Law,” par. 243.

20 TOWER—RIGHTS AND DUTIES [April 23,

are lawful in a state of general peace must be based upon a clear
and unquestioned rule of international law; the burden of proof
being upon him who seeks to enforce the restraint.

As a general statement, the obligations of all neutral states are
the same, so also are their rights, as non-belligerents and non-
participants in the war; they decide by their own motion to occupy
a neutral position, aside from and between the belligerents, with all
of whom they voluntarily remain at peace. This is called “ perfect
neutrality,” and is accepted by all the powers. But there are two
classes of neutrals into which the whole body of neutral nations is
divided, whose relations to the war are different in this respect:
that, one set of them abstain by their own free will from entering
the war; whilst the others are restrained from taking part in the
hostilities and are obliged to remain out of it by the conditions of
their existence. This difference between them marks the difference
between neutrality and neutralization; between neutral and neutral-
ized territory. And it is to this latter that I beg leave for a moment
to direct attention.

A neutralized state, then, is one which is and must remain
neutral under all circumstances. Its independent existence rests
upon that condition. It is a state which has been constituted by
common consent of the great powers, which has received from the
powers the right to subsist, provided that it take no part whatever
in any conflict that may arise between its neighbors and shall have
no right of its own to take up arms except to repel attack or to
defend its territory. Thus a neutralized state is, in fact, allowed to
exist because the operative forces of self-interest of its neighbors
find sufficient benefit accruing to themselves,—as, for instance, that
it forms an intervening space between themselves and their own
powerful neighbors whose proximity threatens their peace,—to in-
duce them to agree to its existence. There are neutralized states,
under international law, and neutralized individuals; and this char-
acter may be extended also to seas and waterways, to buildings,
ambulances and ships.

A distinguished authority (Professor Holland) defines the proc-
ess of neutralization as “the bestowing by convention of a neutral
character upon states, persons and things which might otherwise

1915.] OF NEUTRALIZED TERRITORY. 21

hel

bear a belligerent character.” But, “so great a change in their
legal position cannot be made without the consent of all the parties
affected by it. It must be made as the result of international agree-
ment, in order to be valid, and must be accepted by all the im-
portant states.’

Neutralized states, therefore, are those which, whilst remaining
politically independent, have yielded up a part of their sovereignty
as the price of their existence, and are dependent upon the powers
to protect them,—though they do not belong to the councils of the
great powers, nor have they the right to discuss questions of policy
which may ultimately lead to the employment of force, except in
defence of their own frontiers.

The two conspicuous examples of this kind are Switzerland and
Belgium. Thecases are similar; each forms with its intervening terri-
tory a barrier between the threatened conflicts of powerful neighbors.
Switzerland, lying as it does, between Germany, Italy and France,
is so situated that if the passage through its territory were open,
the Austrians might proceed freely from the valley of the Danube
to the Rhone and the Po, and menace the western boundary of
France throughout its entire length; and, indeed, that is what
happened during the French Revolution, when the neutrality of
Switzerland was disregarded and her territory invaded by all the
contending parties, whilst the French, Austrians and Russians used
her soil for their hostilities against each other. Again, in 1813, the
Austrian army passed through Switzerland and crossed the Rhine
at three places, in its campaign against France.

A short time later, the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland was
recognized by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815; but, upon the re-
turn of Napoleon from Elba, the Allies called upon the Swiss Con-
federation to join in the general coalition against France, in order
to assist them in promoting the common welfare of Europe and
prevent the reestablishment of the revolutionary authority in
France. They declared that they knew the importance attached
by Switzerland to the maintenance of the principle of her authority,
and that they did not intend to violate that principle; but with the
view of accelerating the time when it might be made permanent

3 Lawrence, ubi supra, paragr. 245.

22 TOWER—RIGHTS AND DUTIES [April 23,

and advantageous, they called upon the Swiss to assume an attitude
and to take such measures as might be in proportion to the extra-
ordinary circumstances of the moment, without forming a rule in
this respect for the future. That is to say, the allied forces claimed
the right to pass through Switzerland, recognizing her neutrality but
agreeing that if it were violated by them they should not regard
their act as a rule in the future. In truth, her neutrality was vio-
lated during the war by the contending parties on both sides.

But, after the reestablishment of the general peace in Europe, a
declaration was finally made, at Paris, in 1815, which fixed the po-
litical status of the Swiss Confederation, and upon that foundation
it has rested ever since. By that declaration, both France on the
one side and the allies on the other, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia
and Russia, formally recognized the perpetual neutrality of Switzer-
land and guaranteed the integrity and inviolability of her territory.
They declared also that the neutrality of Switzerland, and her in-
dependence of all foreign influence, were conformable to the true
interests of the policy of all Europe.

The situation of Belgium renders it in this respect similar geo-
graphically to that of Switzerland; for it is the barrier which lies
interposed between Holland and Germany on the one side and
France on the other, and by means of its territory the boundary
lines of these great powers are separated from each other in such
a manner as to remove the menace of irritation which is always
present in Europe where the common frontier is marked by a single
line. With this barrier maintained, also, both France and Germany
are protected from immediate attack at several of the most vulner-
able points in the territory of each; as has been made evident by
the conflicts that have taken place between the rival powers on the
continent for hundreds of years, which have made Flanders and
the low countries the battleground of Europe.

The territory of the present kingdom of Belgium was incor-
porated with that of Holland, in 1815, by the Congress of Vienna,
in order to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, and for the dis-
tinct purpose of placing a barrier between the territories of Ger-
many and France. But, quarrels of a domestic character having

1915.] OF NEUTRALIZED TERRITORY. 23

broken out in the low countries, Belgium separated itself from the
kingdom of the Netherlands, in 1831, the outcome of which was
that a treaty was made, on the 19th of April, 1839, establishing
peace between Belgium, as an independent kingdom, and Holland ;
and, on the same date, in 1839, another treaty was entered into by
Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia and Russia with the king of
the Netherlands, recognizing that the union between Holland and
Belgium, in virtue of the Treaty of 1815, is dissolved, and that Bel-
gium, which is to be composed of certain provinces specifically de-
limited and set forth, shall become an independent state.*

This, then, is the origin and constitution of the kingdom of Bel-

gium as we know it today. The powers agreed that, within certain
boundary lines, it should be allowed to exist as a separate kingdom.
They went further than that, and agreed also, by Article VII. of
that Treaty, that:
We have in this a well-defined example of neutralized territory, as
we are considering it today. Belgium was granted all the privileges
of independence, with the right to make her own laws, regulate her
own domestic affairs and administer her own government; always
provided, however, that she should maintain, in her foreign rela-
tions, the strictest neutrality toward all other states. And this, it
is believed, she has faithfully performed.

But, it will be observed that, whilst Belgium is thus bound to
the great powers as to her neutrality, there is no agreement for
specific performance upon their part in this respect, beyond their
ratification of the convention itself and their general undertaking
to carry out all of its provisions, in which the powers themselves
had not entire confidence. It was evidently not regarded by them
as a sufficient safeguard in the event of war, for when Germany
and France declared war upon each other, in 1870, there was such
grave danger that both the independence and the neutrality of Bel-
gium would be disregarded in the course of the conflict, that it was
considered necessary to assure her safety by special agreement hay-
ing regard to the circumstances of that time.

4Hertslet, “ The Map of Europe by Treaty,” II., p. 984.

“Belgium, within the limits specified, shall form an independent and per-

petually neutral state. It shall be bound to observe such neutrality towards
all other states.”

24 TOWER—RIGHTS AND DUTIES [April 23,

Therefore, Great Britain entered into a separate treaty with

Prussia, in August, 1870, by which it was agreed that :°
ra oa during the hostilities the armies of France should violate the neu-
trality of Belgium, Great Britain would be prepared to cooperate with Prussia
for the defence of the same in such manner as may be mutually agreed upon,
employing for that purpose her naval and military forces to insure its ob-
servance, and to maintain, in conjunction with Prussia, the independence and
neutrality of Belgium.”
And Great Britain entered into a separate treaty with France, at
the same time, making provision in the same terms for the coopera-
tion with her for the defence of Belgium in case that Belgian ter-
ritory should be invaded by the armies of Prussia. These separate
treaties were made binding in each case upon the parties during the
continuance of the War of 1870, and for twelve months after the
ratification of the treaty of peace. Thus Belgium was protected
against invasion or disturbance during the Franco-Prussian War ;
though since that time both her independence and her neutrality
depend upon the old agreement between the five powers, made in
1839.

But, as an old French writer has well said: “ With such neigh-
bors there is always a chance for trouble.” The unfortunate situa-
tion of Belgium leaves her always open to danger when her power-
ful neighbors begin to fight over her head. She has her defence
in the old agreement of the powers, it is true. But will that be a
sufficient defence when either or all of the powers, engaged in a
desperate conflict amongst themselves, find that their own self-inter-
est, then of prime importance to each of them, places the considera-
tion of Belgium in the background? Evidently not; and in this re-
spect all the powers appear to be alike.

For instance, Sir Edward Grey in his great speech in Parlia-
ment, on the 3d of August, 1914, whilst advocating the neutrality
of Belgium in the present war, pointed to the interests of Great
Britain as the determining factor in the observance of the guarantee
entered into by the powers, in 1839.° He quoted to the House the
speech which Mr. Gladstone had made in Parliament, upon the
same subject, in 1870, when he said, in regard to Belgian neu-
trality:

5 Hertslet, ‘‘ Map of Europe,” III., p. 1886.

6 The Times, London, August 4, 1914.

1915.] OF NEUTRALIZED TERRITORY. 25

“There is, I admit, an obligation of the treaty. It is not necessary, nor
would time permit me to enter into the complicated question of the nature
of the obligation under that treaty. But I am not able to subscribe to the
doctrine of those who have held in this House what plainly amounts to the
assertion that the simple fact of the existence of a guarantee is binding on
every party to-day irrespectively altogether of the particular position in which
it may find itself at the time when the occasion for acting on the guarantee
arises. The great authorities upon foreign policy to whom I have been accus-
tomed to listen, such as Lord Aberdeen and Lord Palmerston, never to my
knowledge took that rigid, and if I may venture to say so, that impracticable
view of the guarantee. The circumstance that there is already an existing
guarantee in force is, of necessity, an important fact, and a weighty element
in the case to which we are bound to give full and ample consideration.”

Sir Edward Grey added to this his own statement, that:

“The treaty is an old treaty—1839. It is one of those treaties which are
founded not only on consideration for Belgium which benefits under the
treaty, but in the interests of those who guarantee the neutrality of Belgium.”
' Unfortunately this is true. That treaty is evidently an obligation
of convenience. Germany, upon her side, took the same view.
The German Chancellor in his speech before the German Parlia-
ment alluded in this connection to “the wrong which we were doing
in marching through Belgium.” The German government declared
that “it had in view no act of hostility against Belgium.” It ex-
pected the Belgians to maintain an attitude of friendly neutrality
toward Germany,—in return for which it undertook, at the conclu-
sion of peace, to guarantee the independence of the Belgian king-
dom in full. The Chancellor hoped that the Beigian authorities
would yield to the inevitable and “retire to Antwerp under protest.”

I do not intend to pursue this inquiry in the direction in which
it has given rise to the controversy on both sides, and possibly the
world over, as to whether the Allies were ready to pass through
Belgium if the Germans had not done so. We are concerned
merely with the law. Of course, if Belgium had taken the slightest
step toward uniting her forces with either of the belligerents as
against the others, she would have forfeited her attitude of neu-
trality and become herself a belligerent, subject to be treated as an
enemy. And this would be the end of her independent existence;
for that is based upon the neutrality which the convenience of the
great powers has determined upon as the condition precedent of
her national life.

26 TOWER—RIGHTS AND DUTIES [April 23,

But, assuming that she committed no breach of neutrality,—
what rights has Belgium or Switzerland or any other neutralized
territory? It has the right to defend itself, as Belgium has done.
She is not obliged to defend herself, but may choose whether she
will do so or not. For, if she yield to superior force, that can not
be looked upon as an un-neutral act; though it may place her dur-
ing the war upon the side of one of the belligerents, as is the case
of Belgium today in consequence of her defence. Still, Belgium
had undoubtedly the right to defend her soil. The law is on her
side in that regard.

But, on the other hand, what protection has she? Evidently
nothing but the agreement under which she lives,—and that depends
either upon the “interests” of the powers who made the agreement,
as Sir Edward Grey said, or upon the convenience of respecting it,
as the advance of the German army has proved.

In the heat of a savage conflict, the reasons for the agreement
are destroyed and the agreement itself is torn to shreds; for there
is no one to enforce it. The only force that exists is being ex-
hausted in the war. The neutralized territory has rights that are
not only recognized but also defined by international law. It has
its guarantees as well,—equally recognized and defined, though, as
in the present case, the authority of the law is gone, and how shall
a method be found by which to guarantee the guarantees?

PHILADELPHIA,
April, 1915.

THE PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN.

By J. DYNELEY PRINCE.
(Read April 23, 1975.)

The pronouns of a language are relics of its earliest demonstra-
tives. The first desire of the primitive speaker must have been to
indicate objects. So soon as nouns had evolved themselves in his
mind, the next step was the development of an abbreviated form
which could indicate substantives without repeating the noun itself,
and these abbreviations or indicators were nothing more than pro-
nouns. It is possible that there existed originally in primitive
speech only a single impersonal element of this character, which
was at first used, supplemented by gestures, to indicate objects of
all three persons. Subsequently, the same syllable may have been
tonally differentiated to indicate the ‘I, thou, that’ idea and still
later, additional syllables were called into play to aid in differen-
tiating the first, second and third persons. It is interesting to ob-
serve that in the very evidently extremely primitive system of
Sumerian pronouns, all the personal particles contain the common
demonstrative element e, which appears most prominently in the
third personal ene.

The object of the present paper is to present in a concise form
the results of grammatical investigations regarding the Sumerian
pronominal particles and also to weigh these theories and conclu-
sions from a philological point of view, especially in connection with
the incorporation of the pronominal elements in the verbal struc-
ture. It is interesting to note that the distinction between the
nearer and farther subject-object, herein noted in connection re-
spectively with the b and n particles, is a most natural linguistic
phenomenon which would have followed almost arbitrarily the evo-
lution of the general demonstrative idea.

The material used in this treatise has been taken partly from the

27

28 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN, [April 23,

new vocabularies published in Arno Poebel’s “ Grammatical Texts,’
with the main conclusions of which the present writer is forced to
disagree, as the material offered by Delitzsch, Langdon and Prince
seems to disprove Poebel’s chief thesis of the hidden vowel of the

first person.
Ie

SEPARABLE PRONOUNS.

Ma-e, ‘I, according to Delitzsch, § 28—= ma + demonstrative -e.
Langdon, p. 102, thinks that md-e was pronounced mod, as he regards
a-e as a diphthong, indicating an Umlaut. This is possible, espe-
cially as the writing me-a—anaku, ‘I, also occurs. The pronun-
ciation was more likely méd than md. The form md-e was invari-
ably used for the status rectus; note that in such cases as IV. R. 17,
40-41 3 md-e mu-un-Si-in-gi-en =1aSsi iSpuranni, “he has sent me,’
the md-e is really a status rectus in prolepsis and not an accusative,
which would be regularly represented by the oblique ma (see just
below). It is interesting to notice that Delitzsch gives me-e in-
stead of md-e as the usual form, which is again an indication that
ma-e was not pronounced in two syllables, but really indicated an
Umlaut. Delitzsch is, therefore, probably right in supposing that
the writing md-e really indicated original ma, the element of the
first person, + the indicative e. All authorities are agreed that a-e
may represent e or 0 (cf. Delitzsch, § 18b).

The oblique form of md-e is generally ma, as Poebel: gen. ma-a-
(k); cf. ma-a-kam, ‘it is mine,’ Poebel, p. 43; ma-a-ge-es ge-ti=
assumia liblut, “for my sake may he live.’ The Dative is regular:
ma-a-ra, ma-ra, ma-a-ar (passim). In the locative, Poebel finds

1 The following abbreviations have been used: AJSL: “ American Jour-
nal of Semitic Languages”; ASKT. = Paul Haupt, “ Akkadische und Sumer-
ische Keilschrifttexte’”; Br.—R. Brtinnow, “Classified List of Cuneiform
Ideograms,” Leyden, 1887; Del. = Delitzsch: Friedrich Delitzsch, “ Sumer-
ische Grammatik,” Leipzig, 1914; EK. = Eme-ku dialect; ES. = Eme-sal dia-
lect; HT.= ASKT.; JRAS. XVII. =“ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,”
quoted Poebel, pp. 63 ff; Langdon = Stephen Henry Langdon, “ Sumerian
Grammar,” Paris, 1911; MSL.=J. D. Prince, “ Materials for a Sumerian
Lexicon,” Leipzig, 1908; P.= Poebel: Arno Poebel, “Grammatical Texts,”
Philadelphia, 1914; P. AO. 5403: quoted, Poebel, pp. 62-63; P. 142: quoted,
Poebel, pp. 57 ff; PSBA. = “ Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeol-
ogy”; Sfg.= Paul Haupt, “ Sumerische Familiengesetze.”

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 29

ma-a, ‘on me’ (not in Delitzsch). The regular accusative is also
ma-a.

Poebel (p. 42) gives mu-me-en as the full separate form of
ma-e, which clearly contains the first personal element m(u) + me-
en of the verb ‘to be’ =‘it is I who am’ (cf. s.v. me-ne, ‘we’).

The regular suffix of the first person is -mu, not to be confused
with the third personal -mu referred to below. It is now practically
established that the first and second persons suffered a change of
vowel in the oblique relation, and that the -mu in such cases became
-ma; as e-ma, ‘in my temple’; uwru-ma, ‘in my city’; lugal-ma, * for
my king,’ etc. The difficulty in establishing any definite rule in this
connection lies in the fact that both mu and ma appear indiscrim-
inately for both status rectus and oblique (see both Langdon and
Delitzsch for numerous examples). The probability is that the
original usage of the earlier language was mu for rectus and ma for
oblique, but, even in the early documents, we find the confusion of
forms so evident, as to make it impossible to come to a definite con-
clusion. The former theory that -ma was the ES. form for EK.
mu is undoubtedly incorrect. On -ni=1 p. suffix, cf. below, s.v. e-ne,
“Ine, Sees le.

Za-e, ‘thou,’ according to Delitzsch, § 29 za + demonstrative
e, as in the case of md-e, ‘I.’ Similarly Langdon, p. 102, thinks that
za-e represented 20, but this, like mda-e==mo, was probably pro-
nounced zo. (6==a-e). Zac-e, like ma-e, was the invariable form of

the status rectus. In such phrases as kdtu amdtka = ga-e e-nim -su,
‘thy word,’ Ratu is really the separable pronoun in nominative ap-
position. Cf. the remarks above on md-e—v1asi. Note that the
second personal pronoun is also given as ge, in ge-me, ‘thou art’
(passim) and occasionally zi-me, Br., 3387.

The oblique of ga-e is generally za; note Poebel: gen. ga-a(k),
ga-a-a(k); ga-a-ge; dat. ga-ra, ga-ar; Za-a-su (KU), ‘unto thee’
and pure locative zga-a, ‘on thee’ (Poebel), a case not in Delitzsch.
The oblique za is always used with the postposition as ga-da, ‘ with
thee, from thee,’ etc.

Poebel gives also the separable ze-me-en, corresponding to mu-
me-en, ‘I’ (see, however, s.v. ga-e-me-en, s.v. the second person
plural).

30 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. [April 23,

The regular suffix of the second person is -zu, with usually ob-
lique -ga, as in the case of -me, -ma (see just above). But here
also -gu is found as both rectus and oblique, although -za seems to
have been the original oblique form. Cf. md-e eri-za, ‘I am thy
servant’ (-ga for -zu, L., § 158) ; ga-zu-ta, ‘at thy command’ (prob-
ably should be ga-za-ta, etc.). It is not possible to predicate a regu-
lar usage for -2u; -Za.

E-ne, ‘he, she, it’; according to Delitzsch, § 30 = demonstrative
e+ demonstrative ne—vné, ‘this. This is clearly the same ne,
seen in the plural of nouns and verbs. Langdon (p. 107) thinks
that e-ne =a reduplicated m with apocope of the first 1; 7. e., a sort
of plural form. This idea has little foundation, as the demonstra-
tive e-element is well established in other forms (as, for ex., ma-e,
ga-e, lugal-e, the king, etc.) Poebel gives no separate form for e-ne,
the probability being that e-ne itself served as such. ‘There is no
distinct oblique form of e-ne which is declined like a noun: gen.
e-ne-ge (KIT) ; dat. e-ne-ra, e-ne-ir ; loc. e-ne-a, ‘upon him’ ( Poebel).

The suffix of the third person has a twofold aspect; viz., 1)
-(a)-ni and -ni, the former being rarer in occurrence than the latter ;
the oblique of this form is -ma; and 2) -(a)-bi and -bi, the former
being rarer than the latter ; the oblique form of this is -ba (Delitzsch,
§ 37). The same confusion of usage is seen here as that between
-mu, -ma and -zu, -za, fully pointed out by Delitzsch, § 38; ki-ba, ‘in
its place’ ; Su-na, ‘into his hand,’ regularly oblique, but a-na—abusu,
‘his father’ (for a-ni) and dam Sa-ga-a-m, ‘the man of his heart,’
instead of -a-na, etc. As to the meaning of the -- and -b- suffixes,
Langdon (p. 105) believed that -2i, -na as both noun suffixes and
verbal elements, originally denoted animate beings, while -bz, -ba in-
dicated inanimates, but the logical continuance of this theory is not
borne out by the facts. We may note that in one of Langdon’s own
examples bi-e-nad-di-en, ‘he slumbers,’ bi-, here as verbal prefix,
represents an animate subject (cf. my review, AJSL. XXVIII. p. 73).
Note also HT., p. 76, 1 and 9: su-mu-ug-ga-ni and su-mu-ug-ga-b1,
‘his suffering,’ in both cases animate. Delitzsch, § 40, also gives
many examples. The suffix -mi is used for the first person in Br.,
5334: i-de tum-a-mi=ublim paniya; ud tur-ra-m-ta=ultu tim
cixriku, ‘from the days of my youth’; lal-a-ni—candaku, ‘I am

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 31

yoked.’ The only possible explanation is that the translator delib-
erately transferred the persons. The possibility that the -n- and
-b- elements were originally used to denote the remote and nearer
subject or object respectively, has already been pointed out by
Thureau-Dangin, ZA. XX., pp. 380-404, and fully discussed by
Poebel (ZA. XXI., pp. 218-230; Prince, AJSL., pp. 364-365).
This theory, although not yet capable of entirely satisfactory dem-
onstration, lends itself more readily to credence than the animate-
inanimate idea. In the later language, which represents a period of
grammatical decay, the m and b-suffixes appear to be used arbitrarily.
It is probable, however, that in the earlier phases of Sumerian, these
endings must have had the force of remote and nearer demonstra-
tives respectively.

Me-ne, me-en-ne, ‘we.’ Poebel gives me-en-de, me-de, me-en-
de-en, which, however, should be read me-en-ne, me-ne, me-en-ne-en.
He uses the d-element, because he finds the oblique form me-en-da-
na, ‘without us’ (p. 47) and also nam-da-me-en-da-na, ‘ without
us’; viz., nam negative + prep. -da + first person plural me-en +
prep. da repeated ++ -na, probably negative, repeated. Poebel’s own
form me-da-nu (p. 34, line 34), ‘without us’ clearly shows that the
me-en in these me-en-da-forms is the me-en of the first person.
Thus, me-en-da-nu = men first person + prep. da + negative nu.
A form me-en-de eliminates the evident combination of me = first
person + plural -ne. Similarly, Poebel’s separate forms me-de-en-
de and me-de-en-de-en must be read me-ne-en-ne and me-ne-en-ne-
en, respectively ; me-en-ne =‘ we’-+ en, element of the verb to be;
lit. “it is we who are’ (cf. mu-me-en, s.v. ma-e above).

According to Delitzsch, -me-ne, etc. ma- ene, ‘I and he,’ a
sort of exclusive ‘we.’ But if this were the case, we should expect
to find also an inclusive ‘we’—‘I and thou,’ which would have the
form me-en-zi-en (or me-ze), but this form actually occurs with the
equation attunu ‘you,’ plural (just below). It is much more likely
to suppose that me-en-ne, me-en-ne-en represent a pure plural of the
first personal mé(n) ; i. e., mé(n) + ne or ne-ne + the verbal -en,
when the form ends in -72. The pluralizing of the first person
singular occurs for example in Central American Tule an-mala— an
‘I’-+ the collective -mala. Indeed, the form men-men is actually

32 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. [April 23,

a reduplication of the first personal singular —me-- verbal -n.
We find the reduplicated suffix -mu-mu ‘our’ (see below), which
confirms this view.

Me-en-ne declines regularly, although no genitive has been found
as yet; probably = me-en-ne-ge (K1T); dat. me-en-ne-ra, me-en-
ne-ir ; loc. me-en-ne-a, these last two cases being given by Poebel.

The suffix of the first person plural appears as 1) -mu-mu, Lang-
don, p. 109, n. 1, although this is rare; 2) Clay, Miscellaneous
Tablets, has found: dumu-mu-mes ‘our child,’ a direct plural of
-mu; 3) as -men : en-men ‘our lord,’ Langdon, p. 103 (Delitzsch,
§ 33, gives -men as frequent in this sense) ; 4) the common suffix is
-me: ad-da-me ‘ our father’; ama-me ‘ our mother’ ; ki-me-ta = ittim
‘with us,’ etc. The curious form ki-me-ne-ne=ittisunu ‘with
them,’ Delitzsch, § 43, probably was wrongly translated and means
‘with us’;7. e., ki ‘with’ + me-ne-ne, a pluralized form of the usual
-me. There seems to be no distinction in these suffixes between
rectus and oblique. This is clearly indicated by the series of suffixes
an-ne-en, en-ne-en, in-ne-en, me-en-ne-en, un-ne-en, all which are
used for the first person plural (MSL., p. xxii, $5) and are not
honorifics as l'thought (A)SI., XX VIM |p: 73) hese) anemenrchy,
plural first personal suffixes with possible connecters (cf. just below
s.v. me-en-zi-en). The -nen element which appears in all of them
must represent -me-n.

Me-en-zi-en — atttinu ‘you’ (given by all sources) and also gi-ne
‘you,’ a real plural of the second personal element 21 (ze—za-e),
Langdon, p. 104. Note the parallel me-ne ‘we.’ In view of the
fact than ga-e-me-en also—attinu, IV. R. 21, 1 B. rev. 3, clearly =
za-e + men=—=‘ thou and I,’ it is probable that me-en-zi-en also—‘I
and thou’ (me, ‘I1’+ verbal -en-+ zi(se), ‘thou-+verbal -en).
But this za-e-me-en is equivalent to Poebel’s full form of ga-e (see
above s.v. za-e). It is impossible that za-e-me-en could have been
a second personal singular separate form and at the same time a
second person plural! If it were really used in both senses there
must have been a different tone for each usage of men = respectively
the verb ‘to be’ and the first person. Note that the odd reading
NI-e-me-en, HT. 139, § 7, clearly = 2a(1)-e-me-en.

Of me-en-zi-en no genitive has been discovered, but it probably

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 33

was me-ne-zi-en-ge (KIT); dat. me-en-gi-en-ra and ga-ra-an-zi-en
(!); loc. ga-a-an-zi-en. In these two latter forms, we have a re-
duplication of the second person; i. e. sa dat. -ra- verbal
(a)n-+ the second personal zi with verbal en = szaranzen and za-a
loc. + (a)n=second person + gi with verbal en= zdnzen.

The suffix of the second plural is -gu-ne, as mu-lu-gu-ne, ‘ your
lord,’ Langdon, p. 104. Note that in Delitzsch, “ Sumerisch-Akka-
disch-Hettitische Vokabularfragmente,” p. 19, the form d-zu-Su-ne-
a-ds = ana ittikunu, ‘for your wage’ ==the suffix -gu-ne, with infixed
preposition s% (Ku) + directive a-ds, an unusual and interesting
example of infixation. The suffix gu-ne-ne often occurs, Delitzsch,
§ 42: u-gu-gu-ne-ne = elikunu, ‘upon you’; nam-en-un-un-Zsu-ne-ne
= macartikunu, etc. Here we have plainly the pure plural of the
second personal element and no indication of ‘thou and I.’

As in the case of the first person plural, there seems to be no
distinction between rectus and oblique. This is indicated by the
series of suffixes similar to those just cited in connection with the
first person plural; -ab-ci-en, -an-ci-en, -en-ci-en, -ib-ci-en, -ib-ci-en,
In-C1-en, -me-ci-en, -me-en-ci-en and -un-ci-en. The forms -me-ci-en
and -me-en-ci-en may contain an ‘1 and thou’ element. These all
represent the second personal suffix with possible connecters.

E-ne-ne-ne, ‘they’; according to Delitzsch, $32; ene + enene, ‘he
and they,’ but this form is more likely to be ene, ‘he, she, it’ + the
reduplicated plural element -ne, as in the case of me-ne and -zu-ne-
ne, cited above. The short form e-ne-ne is also common. Poebel |
gives e-ne-ne-ne as the full separate form, but without sufficient
foundation, as either e-ne-ne or e-ne-ne-ne might have served in
this capacity, as in the case of the singular e-ne.

The third person declines regularly ; gen. e-ne-ne-ge(XKIT) ; dat.
e-ne-ne-ra, e-ne-ne-tr ; loc. e-ne-ne-a.

The third plural suffix, as in the case of the third person singular,
is twofold; 1) (a)-ne-ne, the a not being always present, in fact it is
usually part of the prolonged root, as dug-ga-nene. It appears regu-
larly Su-ne-ne, ‘their hand’; gir-ne-ne, ‘their foot; ki-ne-ne-ta—=
ittisunu, ‘with them’ (on ki-me-ne-ne=ittisunu, Delitzsch, § 43,
see above s.v. me-en-ne). 2) The endings with the b-element:
bi-e-ne-ne, bi-e-ne, Delitzsch, § 43; be-ne-ne, Langdon, p. 108, and

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. LIV, 216 C, PRINTED JUNE 21, 1915

34 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. [April 23,

be-ne, Langdon, p. 108, are also common: sib-bi-ne, ‘their shep-
herd’; mug-bi-ne-ne =elisunu (Langdon, p. 108). The distinction
between remote and nearer subject and object, respectively -ne-ne
and -bi-ne, is no more logically carried out in the later language than
in the case of -mi, -bi of the third person singular (q.v.), but their
original remote and nearer force seems just as probable.

The third person plural possessive is frequently expressed by the
singular suffixes of the third person: -m1, -b1, a phenomenon which

TABLE OF PRONOUNS.

I Thou He, She, It
Nom. ma-e Separate: mu-me-en za-e Separate: za-e-me-en e-ne
Coa eee sa-a(k) e-ne-ge
’ \ ma-a-ge ca-a-a(k)
ma-a-ar sa-a-ge
Dat. | ma-ra { ga-ra e-ne-ra
ma-a-ra ea-ar
f{ ga-a e-ne-a
Lee, hare \. (za-a-st, ‘to thee’)

SUFFIXES SUFFIXES SUFFIXES

a)-ni, -nit
Rectus? -mu -2u? (
i eed (a)-na, -na

} -hi -hbi4
Oblique -ma -2a Pee ss
(-ni very rare and es

probably an error)

We You They
{ e-ne-ne

Nom. me-ne, me-en-ne -en-ne-en me-en-si-en
i sy Fe ; etd e-ne-ne-ne

Gen. *me-en-ne-ge *me-en-s1-eNn-ge e-ne-ne-ge
Dae { me-en-ne-ra { me-en-Z1-en-ra { e-ne-ne-ra
me-en-ne-Ir ga-ra-an-z1-en e-ne-ne-ir
Loc. me-en-ne-a £a-d-an-zi-en e-ne-ne-a
SUFFIXES? SUFFIXES? SUFFIXES?
-me-en -su-ne -(a)-ne-ne, -ne-ne
-me -2U-Ne-Ne
-mu-mu } { -be-e-ne-ne?
. ¢ rare
-mu-mes -be-ne-ne, etc.
CONNECTING SUFFIXES CONNECTING SUFFIXES
an-ne-en, en-ne-en, ab-ci-en, an-ci-en,
in-ne-en, me-en-ne-en, en-ci-en, ib-ct-en,
un-ne-en ib-ci-en, in-ci-en,
mue-ci-en, me-en-ci-en,
un-ci-en

2 Confused usage.

3 No distinction between rectus and oblique.

4 Probable distinction between nearer and farther subject and object.
5 Used only with participles, so far as is known. See below.

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 35

is seen in other languages, as, for example, in Central American
Tule, where a‘ti, 1ti can indicate both “he, she, it’ and also ‘ they’
(Prince, Amer. Anthropologist, XV., p. 484; the a‘ti, 1‘ti -element
may be pluralized by the collective suffix -mala, which, however, is
often omitted).

JE

SUMERIAN VERB WITH PRONOUNS, WITH REFERENCES TO FOLLOW-
ING COMMENTARY.
I-THEE

Ga-cLass: ga-mu-ra-ab-dim = lu-bu-sa-ku-um, ‘I will (let me)
make for thee,’ P., No. 142) rev. 2, 10.

Mu-cuass: nu-mu-ra-te-ma-dé(ne)-en=u-la e-te-xi-a-kum, ‘I
shall not go to thee,’ P. AO. 5403, 6. «xu-mu-ra-ab-ga(r), ‘I gave
Lice asraN presents lees ps 103s

MI-cLass: mi-ni-max-en, ‘I made thee great therein (for it),’
125, [Ds a

J-Him

Ga-CLASS : ga-an-na-dim = lu-bu-su-um, “1 will make it for him,’
IP, INO, 148, sein Ay IS.

Mu-crass: xu-mu-na-du, ‘I built for him,’ P., p. 102. mu-na-
du, ‘1 built for him,’ P., p. 102. xu-mu-m-max = lu-Sa-ti-ir, ‘I
will increase for him’ (or) ‘therein,’ P., p. 102.

MrI-cLass: mi-ni-i—=a-na-ku Su-a-ti Su-a-ti, ‘I it for him,’ P.
JRAS., XVII., 65, 4, 23. mi-m-du—al-bi-in, ‘I moulded it for
him’ (or) ‘therein, P., p. 102. su-mui-ni-in-tax =lu-um-mi-su,
BlEsipponrediite ba). 102:

NE-cLASS: ne-gi-a, “I restored it (Clay).’

Ba-cLass : ba-a = a-na-ku Su-a-ti(- -ti; probably = Suati Suati),
P. JRAS., XVILI., p. 65, 4, 19. ba-ni-i—=a-na-ku Sua-ti Su-a-ti, ‘1
it for him,’ P. JRAS., XVIL., p. 65, 4, 28 (also ba-ni-e ditto). ba-
an-na-te-en e-te-xvi-sum, “I went to him,’ P. AO., 5403, 8.

Bi-cLass : bi=a-na-ku su-a-ti, “1 it (or) him,’ P. JRAS., XVIL.,
p. 65, 4, 13. b1-4+=a-na-ku Su-a-ti, ‘1 it (or) him,’ P. JRAS.,
OW los 02 OS, Zl, Il

I(N)-cLASS: 1-m1-i==a-na-ku Su-a-ti Su-a-ti, ‘I it for him,’ P.
JRAS., XVIL., p. 65, 4, 22. im-na-ni-i=a-na-ku Su-a-ti Sua-ti u

36 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN, [April 23,

a-na-ku Su-a-sum, ‘1 it for him and I to him it,’ P. JRAS., XVIL,
p. 65, 4, 30.
I-H1m

sag-tum-ma i-ni-in-ga = ma-gi-ir-tam ak-bi-sum, “1 spoke favor-
ably to him,’ P. No. 142, rev. 3, 21. 1m-na-te-en = e-it-x1-sum, “1
have gone to him,’ P. AO. 5403, 2.

Im-cLAss: w-gul im-ma-an-ma-md, ‘I asked him,’ P. p. 102.
TuHou-ME

Ma-cLass: nam-ma-te-md-dé (ne)-en = la ta-te-xi-a-am, ‘do not
come to me, P. A©, 5403, 5.

Mu-cLAss : nam-mu-un-xa-xa-en = la tu-te-bi-da-(an-nt), ‘mayst
thou not be lost to me,’ P. No. 142, rev. 3, 8.
TuHou-H1M

POSTPOSITIVE CLASS: dim-(ma)-na-ab = e-bu-su-um, “make for
him,’ P. No. 142, rev. 2,14. gur-an-51-1b, ‘turn to him,’ P. No. 142,
rev. 2, 16. te-a-na==te-xi-sum, ‘go to him,’ P. AO. 5403, 1. na-
an-na-te-ma-dé (ne)-en = (la) te-te-(a1)-su-um, ‘do not go to him,’
12s INO), BaOR, ZA,

Mri-cLass: mi-ni-e —at-ta Su-a-ti- Su-a-ti, ‘thou it it,’ P. JRAS.
OWIDL, 0, OF, A, AG.

Ba-cLass: ba-e==at-ta-ku (sic !) Su-a-ti, ‘thou it, P. JRAS.
XVII. p. 65, 4, 20.

BI-CcLASS: b1-NE—at-ta Su-a-tt, “thou it, P. JRAS. XVI p:
65,15. bi-e—ai-ta Su-a-t, ‘thou it, P. JRAS. XVII. p. 65, 16.

I(N)-cLass: i-ni-e==at-ta Su-a-ti Su-a-ti, ‘thou it it’ or ‘it
for him,’ P. JRAS. XVII. p. 65, 4, 24. 1m-na-mi-e —at-ta Sua-ti Su-
a-ti, ‘thou it for him,’ P. JRAS. XVII. p. 65, 4, 32. im-na-te-e-en =
te-it-xi-sum, ‘thou hast gone to him,’ P. AO. 5403, 9, also ‘go to
him,’ ditto, 2. in-da-md-e-en = ta-Sa-(ka)-as-(Sw)-mu, ‘thou shalt
place it upon him,’ P. AO. 5403, 10.

He-ME
Ma-cLass: ma-an-si = i-din-nam, ‘he gave it to me,’ P. p. IIo.
igi . . . ma-ni-in-du-a, ‘when he looked upon me, P. p. 104. igi
. mu-si-in-bar-ra, ‘ when he looked upon me, P. p. 102. ma-a-
ar ma-an-du-ga, ‘when he commanded me,’ P. p. 104. ma-ra ma-
an-du-ga, ‘when (to build) she ordered me,’ P. p. 105. .ra-ma-ab-

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. oe

dim-e = li-bu-sa-am, ‘may he make for me,’ P. No. 142, rev. 2, 22.

Mu-cuiass: mu-ub-dim-e =1-bu(pi)-sa-am, ‘he made for me’;
P. p. 57, rev. 3, 19, renders ‘makes’(?). nu-mu-ub-dim-e— u-la
i-bu-Sa-am, ‘he did not make for me,’ P. No. 142, rev. 3, 20. sag-
-tum-ma mu-un-ga—= ma-gi-ir-tam tk-bi-a-am, “he spoke favorably
to me,’ P. No. 142, rev. 3, 21. sag-ki . . . mu-Si-in-bar, ‘he looked
on me, P. p. 105. mu-na-an-si, “he has given to me,’ P. p. 110.
nam mu-un-tar, “he determined fate for me,’ P. p. 105.

Mr-cLass: nam-mu mi-ni-in-tar-ra, ‘after he had determined
ALC ROI mie aye -np) OS.

He-H1M

Mv-cLass: mu-na-ni-m-gi-gi, “he replied to me,’ P. p. 93. u

. mu-na-an-si-ma-ta, ‘after he had given to him,’ P. p. 105. mu-
na-ni-in-du, ‘he had built for him therein,’ P. p. 105. mu-na-an-Ssi-
in-gar, ‘he made it for him,’ P. p. 106.

MI-CLASS: mi-ni-in = Su-u Su-a-ti Su-a-ti, ‘it for him,’ P. JRAS.
XVIT. 65, 4, 27. mi-mi-in-tar-ra, “when he had determined it for
ianrmien(it a2 En. ps lt 2:

Ba-cLass: ba-on = Su-u Su-a-tt, ‘he it,’ P. JRAS. XVII. p. 65, 4,
21. ba-an-na-te —=1-te-x1-sum, ‘he went to him,’ P. AO. 5403, 7.

Bi-cLass: bi-in=Su-u Su-a-ti, “he it, P. JRAS. XVII. p. 65,
4, 17-18. Su-ni bi-in-si-a, ‘after he had placed it in his hand,’ P. p.
105.

Ip-cLass: ib-ri-tuk, ‘he shall receive for it,’ (Clay).

I(N)-CLASS: 1-m1-1n = Su-u Su-a-ti, “he it it, P. JRAS. XVII. p.
65, 4, 26. im-na-ab-si-mu = in-na-din-su, ‘he shall give it to him,’
P. p. 94. m-na-ab-gi-gi—=1p-pa-alsu, ‘he shall answer it to him,’
P. p. 94. in-na-ab-gur-ri = u-ta-ar-su, ‘he shall return it to him,’
P. p. 94.

THEY-ME

Muv-ciass: xu-mu-si-in-bar-ri-es = lu-1p-pa-al-su-um, ‘ they have
looked upon me,’ P. p. 104. sag-e-es xu-mu-PA-TUG-DU-eS, ‘they
have given it to me as a gift,’ P. p. 104.

BI-cLASS: Su-mu-su bi-in-si-es-a, “when they gave it into my
Masa PaslO4s

38 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN., [April 23,

THeEy-THEE
PRECATIVE CLASS: KA .va-ra-ab-Sa-Sa-gi-ne = li-is-te-mi-ga-kum,
“may show reverence unto thee,’ P. p. 110.

Tuery-H1M

PRECATIVE CLASS: .ve-e-en-na-ab-dim-e-ne = li-bu-su-sum, “may
Wey mone ios loan Jey ING, ma, way, A, 07.

MU-CLASS: mu-un-ni-in-PA-TUG-DU-a, ‘when they had given to
her as a gift,’ P. p. 112. mu-na-an-si-mu-us-a = 1-ti-nu-sum, ‘ when
they had given it or gave it to him,’ P. p. 104. mu-na-an-gi-ni-es-a
= u-ki-in-nu-sum, ‘when they had made secure for him,’ P. p. 104.

I(N)-cLass: in-na-ab-ka-la-gi-ne = u-dan-ni-nu-sum, * they shall
pay him,’ P. p. 104. mna-an-na-ab-dim-e-ne = la 1-pi-su-sum, ‘may
they not make for him,’ P. No. 142, rev. 2, 18.

5)

CoM MENTARY.

1. Ba-, ‘I’ (s.v. 1-HIM) ; cf. also IV. R. 14, obv. 20 a: ki-bt-gar-ra ba-ni-
ib-dur-ru = ina takulti lisesib, ‘I will invite (them) to a feast’; probably
first person, but the text is broken.

2. Ba-, ‘thou’ (s.v. THOU-HIM) ; not an uncommon usage. Cf. AJSL. XIX,
$20 IVE Ren a7) AGeai in l\VevR 20rnirn 3, neva us, there OccuLsmamsenesmon
ba——ne forms all=2 p. It is possible that the Assyrian scribe changed
them from a 3 p. which perhaps was used for a general “you” like German
man, French on.

3. Ba-, ‘third person’ (s.v. HE-HIM) ; occurs passim.

4. Bi-, ‘1’ (s.v. I-HIM) ; an unusual prefix in this sense.

5. Bi-, ‘thou’ (s.v. THOU-HIM) ; an unusual prefix in this sense. Bi-, as
a prefix, is unusual in any case, even as the third person, as it is a common
third personal suffix.

6. Bi-,... -e5, ‘they’ (s.v. THEY-ME) ; not common, although, if bi- is
used in the singular 3 p., it is natural to find bi-, . . . eS for the plural.

7. Ga-, ‘I’ (s.v. I-THEE; I-HIM); a very common first personal prefix,
probably from the cohortative ga; in fact, ga- was really cohortative origi-
nally, although it is frequently used in the sense “I will.” Cf. Del. § 157,
and AJSL. XIX., §23. It also =1 p. in HT. 1109, obv. 22: ga-nu ga-ni-lax-en
—alkam i nilliksu, ‘come let us go.’ Note that is 1 p. plural here. On the
other hand, ga- is used for the 2 p., IV. R. 11, 45 b: en-nun ga-ne-tus (KU)
—ana maccarti tisésib, ‘thou shalt sit in the watch’; cf. AL.* 134, obv. I:
an-sud ud-ag bil-gim sar-ki-ta za-e Si-in-ga-me-en bil=nir Samé Sa kima
isatim ina matim napxat attima, ‘the light of the heaven which like fire in the
land shines art thou, fire.’ Ga- also may be used for the 3 p.; IV. R. 11,
19-20 b: mu-us-ku-pi azag-ga-na-ta a-an ga-mu-ri-a-bi=ina uznisu elliti
minam ixsusa, ‘what has he planned with his brilliant ears.’

8. Im-, ‘I’ (s.v. -HIM); cf. also IV. R. 6, 41 b: ki-ta im-mi-in-ri, “1

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 39

placed it at the bottom,’ but used with a preceding ma-e, ‘I.’ Im-, however,
can mean “thou”; II. R. 16, 16 e: er (A-SI) tm-ma-an-Se5-Se§ = tabakRt,
“thou weepest.’ Jm- is very common as a third personal prefix.

9. In-, ‘I’ (s.v. I-HIM). Very rare. Poebel’s examples are the best
instances of this use.

10. In-, ‘thou’ (s.v. THOU-HIM); IV. R. 7, 30 a: nin ma-e nin-gu-a-mu
sa-e in-ma-e-zu = Sa andku idi atta tidi, ‘what I know thou shalt know’
(= ‘for me’ = -ma-e-?); cf. AJSL. XIX., § 28. In- is commonly used with
the third person.

11. In-,... -ne, ‘they’ (sv. THEY-HIM) ; a logical third person plural.

12. Ma-, ‘me, to me’ (s.v. HE-ME) ; for this usage Poebel’s examples are
best. Note also ma-an-se = iddinsu, ‘he gave it to him’ with the third per-
son, Br. 4418.

13. Mi-, ‘I’ (s.v. I-THEE). Poebel’s example is the only one known to me.

14. Mi-, ‘me’ (s.v. HE-ME; HE-HIM). Note that the -nin- here =‘ me,’
Mi is most common with the third personal sense, Br., p. 546.

15. Mi-, ‘thou’ (s.v. THOU-HIM) ; cf. also IV. R. 24, nr. 3, 6-7: tul-tul-as
mi-ni-in-sid = tilams tamnu, ‘thou regardest it as a ruin,’ but points back to
a 2 p. -su in line 3.

16. Mu-, ‘I’ (s.v, I-THEE; I-HIM) ; very common use (see AJSL. XIX.,
§ 32).

17. Mu-, ‘thou’ (s.v. THOU-ME) ; only in Poebel, so far as I have met it.

18. Mu-, ‘he’ (s.v. HE-ME; HE-HIM) ; passim; AJSL. XIX., pp. 217-218.

19. Mu-... -es, ‘they’ (s.v. THEY-ME); a natural plural of mu-, ‘he.’
Note mu-... -us, the same plural, as mu-... es with vowel harmony;
us for es.

IMUL,
ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL.

The prefixes, infixes and suffixes shown by the above table may
be grouped alphabetically as follows:
an-si-1b, ‘(turn thou) it to him’=svb.
ba-= I, 2 and 3 p. subject.
ba-an-, ‘he it.’
ba-an-na-, ‘he it; he for him.’
bi- =I, 2 and 3 p. subject.
Oi a 5 o AS==2 Ol, Suloyeete
ga- =I p. subject.

ga-mu-=1 p. subject: ‘I will.’
gen- . . . -e-ne==3 p. pl. precative subject.

1-==1 p. subject; cf. 1-m1-in.
1(b)-==3 p. subject.
im-—=1, 2 and 3 p. subject.

40 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. [April 23,

i-mi-in-, ‘I to him.’

in-—=1, 2 and 3 p. subject.

in-na-, “I to (for) him.’

in-na-ab-, ‘he (they) to him.’

Ni-—=2 Pi suDject; 3p. subject = he tomes,

ma-ab-, “he it for me.’

ma-an-, “she (he) ... me’ (acc.).

ma-ni-in-, “he upon me.’

mi-—=1, 2 and 3 p. subject.

mi-ni, ‘I thee therein; I it for him; he it for me.’

mu-==1, 2 and 3 p. subject. Note also the following:

mu- .. . -e§ ==3 p.ssubject.

mu-na-an-, ‘he to (for) him; he it to me; they it for (to) him.’

mu-na-ni-in-, ‘he it for me.’

mu-ni-, ‘I for him.’

mu-Si-in-, “he for me.’

mu-un-, “he for (to) me.’

mu-un-ni-in-, ‘they it for (to) her (him).’

-na-, ‘for (to) him.’

-na-ab-, ‘it for (to) him.’

-ni-t-, ‘for him’; mi-ni-i-, ‘I for him; thou for him’; ba-ni-e-, call
it for him’ ; 1-mi-z, ‘1 it for him.’

-ra-, ‘to thee.’

-va-ab-, ‘it for thee.’

Analyzing the above elements stlil further, we observe that the
first personal subject may be denoted by: ba-; ga-; ga-mu-; im; 1m-;
1-; Mi-; Mu-.

The second personal subject may be denoted by: ba-; bi-; im-;
ma-; mi-; mu-; mu--es (pl). |

The third personal subject may be denoted by: ba-; bi-es (3 pl.) ;
i(b)-; in-; ma-; mu-; mu-.

In other words ba-, im-, in-, mi-, and mu-, may indicate the 1, 2
and 3 persons indiscriminately, and that ma-—2 and 3 persons,
while ga- is almost always used for the I p.

Nor is the problem made easier by the tabulation of the 1, 2 and
3 personal objective infixes; viz., 1 p. object: ma-, “he to me’; ma-
ab-, ‘he it for me’; ma-an-, ‘she (he) . . . me’ (acc.) ; ma-mi-in-,

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 4]

‘he upon me’; mi-ni-, ‘he it for me’; mu-na-an-, ‘he it for me’;
mu-si-in-, ‘he upon me’; mu-ub-, “he for me’; mu-un-, “he for
(Go) mes

The second personal object shows: mi-mni-, ‘I thee therein,’ but
consistently -ra-, ‘to thee; thee’; -ra-ab-, ‘it for thee.’

The third personal object is seen in ba-an-, ‘he it’; ba-an-na, ‘he
it; he it for him’; im-na, ‘I to him’; mu-na-an-, ‘he to (for) him;
they it for him’; mu-un-ni-in-, ‘they it for her (him).’ The ele-
ment -nva clearly—=‘to him, as na-ab=‘it for him’; -m-1-, “for
him,’ as ba-ni-1, ‘I it for him’; 7-mi-2, ‘1 it for him’; mi-m-1-, ‘I for
him; thou for him.’

We find in these forms the duplicate mi-ni-i-, ‘I thee therein’
and “I for him’ 1 and 3 object; mu-un-, ‘he for me,’ but mu-na-
an-, ‘he it for me’ and ‘he it for him.’

Poebel’s table of pronominal elements as used by the verb (p.
45) is most ingenious, but not satisfactory, as will be shown. His
classification is as follows:

Infixed, Enclitic. Absolute. Suffix,
90h : m m (de and en) en
2 p. e 2 s (and en) en
3 Pp. n n e e
Collective 0D b

This he has elaborated from his Paradigms (pp. 70 ff) ; thus:
ni-la-en, ‘I pay’; n is preformative + the z which contains the I p. ‘;
la root + en-suffix of the 1 and 2 p.; mi-la-en also=‘thou pay-
est’; only here, he thinks, that his 2 personal e is contained in the
7 of n-i. Ni-la-e also means ‘he pays,’ where the 7 = preformative
of the third person + connecting vowel 1-++ root la-+ 3 personal
suffix -e. The analysis of the forms, just given is my own, made
from what I believe to be his theory. The “vowel for the first
person again appears in the simple forms i-dim, ‘I made’; the
e-vowel of the second person in e-dim, ‘thou madest’ and the n of
the 3 p. in indim, “he made’ (p. 78). Similarly a-tum, ‘I brought’
(a=a'); a-mén, ‘1 am’ (Clay); e-tum, ‘thou didst bring’ and
an-tum, “he brought’ (p. 80) seem to indicate the correctness of his
idea. But, without entering more deeply into this ingenious and
carefully thought out theory, it may be demolished by the simple
fact that a- (—a'), e- and n- do not always mean the 1, 2 and 3

42 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. [April 23,

persons, although a- and e- usually occur in this sense. ‘Thus, a-
indicates the 3 p.: a-rim-rim-ne =1t-ti-bu-(u), ‘they have been im-
mersed’; kas-? a-ab-du(KAK) = Si-ka-ra i-ba-ba-di and a-ne-in-gi-
—=ik-?-su, both clearly third persons, although the meaning of the
stems is unknown (cf. Br., p. 548). On the other hand, a- generally
indicates theyl ps (Prince yA Sl XIDG (pi 2im)an eines pretisercomc
frequently used of the 3 p. as: e-ag, ‘he made’; e-gagz, “he killed’;
e-gen, ‘he went’ (Delitzsch, $135 and §184a). As for n(1),
Poebel himself gives examples cited above of (7) used for both
the 1 and 2 persons, while for the 3 personal use, cf. Br., p. 543: m-
gu —= both i-du-u, ‘they know’ and ti-di, ‘thou knowest’; m-gal
(1K) =1-ba-as-Si, ‘it is,’ etc. ad nauseam. In other words, a, e
and (7) appear used for all three persons indiscriminately with a
preference in favor of the 1, 2 and 3 persons respectively. On the
other hand, is Poebel correct in supposing that the suffixed forms
-en attached to verbs are characteristic of the 1 and 2 persons only?
As in the case of a, e and m they appear indiscriminately for all three
persons: mi-la-en, ‘I pay’; ‘thou payest,’ as cited above, but mu-un-
tag-en = 1n-nag-qu-u, IV. R. 19, 48 b; mu-un-si-in-gi-en = 15-pu-ra-
an-n, ‘they have sent me,’ Br., p. 560. As to Poebel’s 2 p. -e, it, of
course, occurs often with the 3 p.; cf. til(BE)-e—=vg-da-mar, Br.,
1499, etc., but also an-na-ab-us-e = tu-Sa-ax-xa-za-su, ‘thou shalt
cause him to seize it’; it is also a frequent sign of the imperative,
as ku-e=akul, ‘eat thou’; us-e=ri-da-an-m, ‘have connection
with me,’ Br., 553.

There can be no doubt that Poebel is right in giving m-g and
n-b as the respective characteristics of the endings of the postposi-
tive conjugation, as -mu-, -zu- and -m, -na- and -bi-, -ba- are the
ordinary I, 2 and 3 personal suffixes, respectively, of the postposi-
tive hal-clause ; yet even here we find a variation, as the third per-
son also appears with the ordinarily first personal -mu in relative
clauses. This is the so-called -mu of the third person which I be-
lieve I was the first to call attention to (MSL. XXIX, §32). The
best illustration of it will be seen in the following phrases from IV.
IR, Ais ING, i, Atti 3

SiIMIg-ga Sar-Sar a NU-nag-a-mu
bi-i-nu Sa ima mu-sa-ri-e me-e la is-tu-u

1915. | PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 43

the grain which hath drunk no water in its bed;
sugur edin-na pa nu-sig-ga-mu

kim-mat-su ina ci-e-ri ar-ta la ib-nu-u

whose bud in the field no shoot has borne;
GIS-A-AM Sita(RAT)-na ba-nu-su(g)-ga-mu
il-daq-qu Sa ina ra-ti-su la 1-ri-su

the sprout which in its water-ditch is not planted ;
GIS-A-AM ur-ra ba-ab-bu-ra-mu
(il-dag-qu) Sa 1s-da-nu-us in-na-as-xU

the sprout whose roots have been torn away ;

gu Sar-sar-ra a nNUu-nag-a-mu

qu-u Sa ina mu-sa-ri-e me-e la 1s-tu-u

the vegetation which in its bed has drunk no water ;

A similar construction to the above is undoubtedly that in
ASKT., p. 122, 16: eri-gu-ka dg-gig-ga ak-a-mu=ana ar-di-ki sa
ma-ru-us-tum ep-su, ‘unto thy servant (fem.) who has (lit.
“makes’==ak) sickness.’

It is perfectly evident from the above examples that we have
here a purely relative -mu used with participles. This is probably
identical in derivation with the demonstrative mu- in the regular
relative pronoun mu-lu and also with the common mu-prefix of
verbs. It is quite possible that this relative -mu was used to indi-
cate all three persons, like the mu-prefix in verbs.

What then are we to conclude as to the pronominal use with the
Sumerian verb? Is it possible to imagine a verbal system with
no fixed method of expressing the pronouns? ‘The existence of the
practically fixed second personal value of the infix -ra- and of
the very common use of ga- as a first person would lead us to
suppose that the verbal prefixes were really not indeterminate pro-
nominally, even though Delitzsch lays down the rule that there is no
second personal conjugation in Sumerian (p. 102).

The existence of third personal elements has long been recog-
nized. The difficulty lies in the apparently indiscriminate use of
many verbal prefixes for all three persons and the fixation of this
usage by Poebel’s undoubtedly valuable equations. The question
now is whether Poebel is right in supposing that there underlies in
every case of a first personal usage the ‘-vowel, 1. e., that mu-, ‘1’

44 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. [April 23,

stood for mu-‘, while mu, ‘he’ did not contain this element. This is
equally true of the e-prefix of the second person varying with 1,
cited by Poebel as characteristic. Are we to understand an e-ele-
ment hidden in every second personal equation; ba-, im-, in-, mi-,
ma-, mu-? The latter question must be answered in the negative,
because, as just shown, e was not used exclusively of the second
person. An examination of the paradigms as given by me in this
paper will show the improbability of such a proposition.

The first thought which strikes the philologist studying this maze
of apparently contradictory forms suggests the theory that in
Sumerian, as in other languages, person in the verb must have
expressed by the tone. This idea I suggested in AJSL. XIX.,
pp. 205-206, but no Sumerologist has ever gone into the matter. All
scholars in this line have preferred, either to deny the distinction
of pronouns by the verbal prefixes or else to suggest a difference in
quantity (Paul Haupt, Sfg., p. 19, n. 6; Bertin, PSBA. V (1882-3),
pp. 19ff). But a difference in quantity or “accent,” as some call
it, would have been indicated at least by a prolongation of the vowel
of the prefix. Real voice-tone would not have been so designated,
any more than it 1s Chinese Wen-Li to-day. Grammatical tones
actually exist in African Yoruba, as ile re, “thy house’ but ile ré
(another tone) yhis) house 7: in’ this) languase o— ) thouleomtano
(another tone) =‘he, she, it.’ Nothing could be more suggestive
than this parallel (cf. S. Crowther, “Grammar of the Yoruba
Language” (London, 1852), p. 12). I cite it, not of course with
the intention of connecting Sumerian with Yoruba, but simply to
demonstrate the possibility of toned grammatical elements which do
not occur in Chinese. The three persons expressed by ba-, im-, in-,
mi- and mu-, the two persons by ma- and the similar apparently in-
discriminate use of the infixes, noted above, all point only to such
a solution, which is far more reasonable than the idea that hidden
vowels exist in such prefixes and infixes. If these vowels were
present, how were they distinguished? There is nothing in the
inscriptions to betray their existence. The Chinese do not indicate
tones in their writing, because they are as readily understood by the
reader of a living language, as an English reader understands the
distinction between words of identical sound and difference of mean-

1915.] PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. 45

ing such as ‘so, sow’ and ‘sew’; ‘low’=‘below’ and the verb
‘low,’ etc. Similarly, the Babylonian priest to whom Sumerian was,
if not in later times actually a living tongue, at least a pronounced
idiom, would never have thought of indicating the tonal differentia-
tion of the grammatical verbal elements. The very poverty of
Sumerian phonetically and the apparent monotony of its consonantal
elements go to show the necessity of supposing some special unindi-
cated means of differentiation. There seems to be every reason to
suppose that such elements cited above as ba-, im-, in-, mi-, mu- in-
dicating the first, second and third persons in the verbal scheme
must have been tonally differentiated.

There are only about eleven distinguishing consonantal elements
in the language; viz., b, probably near object and near demon-
strative; d=partitive; locative; means; g=precative and inten-
tional; hence, future (—also ng =n) ; g=pure precative optative,
indicated herein by x; / (rare); m= demonstrative and relating ;
n, probably remote object and demonstrative ; ry ethical dative;
motion, direction towards, and perhaps rhotacism for 2 in the second
person -ra; §—=direction towards, similar to 7, with which it may be
connected etymologically ; t==‘in’ or ‘out of’; location in general;
— pure second person, the only fixed consonontal grammatical value.
Combine with these elements the vowels a= direction and 7 (e)—=
completed action, past and future, having a force like the Slavonic
a perfective ” forms, not forgetting that 7 may be the harmonic
equivalent of e and uw of a, and we get a reasonable explanation of
most of the prefixes and suffixes of the language, particularly of
the verbal prefixes treated above. See for a full discussion of these
points, Prince AJSL. XXIV. pp. 354-365, and also in Encyclo-
paedia Britannica, XXVI, p. 77.

Poebel’s infixes (pp. 70 ff), all which are, of course, well known,
I will amplify by the following examples for the sake of clearness:
na, ‘to him’; in-na-an-ba-e = uqassu, ‘he gives to him’—na, ‘to
him’ + n, ‘it’ remote; in-ne-la-e, ‘he will pay to them’ (-ne); cf.
mu-ne-gen, “he went to him’; note that simn—‘them,’ HT., p. 46,
253; wi-s1-im-se, ‘he gave to them’; ma-la-e, ‘he will pay me’; here
the m stands for the 1 p.-+ the directive a; mu-ra-la-e, ‘he will pay
thee’; the mu contains the demonstrative m + the tonal vowel of the

46 PRINCE—PRONOUNS AND VERBS OF SUMERIAN. [April 23,

third person + the 2 p. -ra-; in-Si-la-e, “he will pay to him’: 1, the
perfective vowel + 2 = remote object ‘it’ + Si directive ; mu-si-la-e,
“he will pay to me’; the tonal mu of the 1 p. + directive st; mu-e-
Si-la-e, ‘he will pay for thee’: demonstrative m-+ tonal wu of the
second person + perfective e; i(m)-ni-la-e, ‘he will pay upon (==
for) it’ = perfective 1+ remote object m+ perfective 1 again +
mi, really =‘ therein’; 1(7)-na-ni-la-e, “he will pay to him upon it’;
same as the above with the directive ma-insert; 1b-ta-la-e, “he will
pay from it (out of it)’; perfective 1-++ nearer object 0; 1()-na
(b)-ta-la-e, ‘he will pay to him from (out of) it’; same as above
with directive na + nearer object b; 1b-da-la-e, “ he will pay together
with it’; better ‘ by means of it’; 7b as above with the da of means;
mu-e-da-la-e, ‘he will pay together with thee’ demonstrative m
with tonal u of the second person-+ perfective e+ da as above.
Poebel’s whole set of infix-paradigms may be explained satisfactor-
ily following this system.

WBS, IGUAL ZAINID) (COMRIBUNO) IBD aXKCAnS:
By E. P. ADAMS.
(Read April 22, 1915.)

About four years ago Professor Corbinot described some effects
which are closely related to the Hall effect. These new effects
all have to do with the production of a secondary circular current
in a metallic disk when a primary radial current is sent through it,
and the disk placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to its plane.
The only metal in which Corbino was able to detect any of these
effects was bismuth, perhaps owing to lack of sensitiveness in his
methods, but more probably because he seems to have neglected to
take the precaution of preventing circular currents in a parallel disk
used to lead the radial current into the disk under investigation.
These circular currents would produce an effect which would largely
balance the effect sought.

Last year Mr. Chapman and I? measured this Corbino effect in
twelve different metals. In two other metals, tin and zinc, the
effect was too small to measure. The method of measurement con-
sisted in measuring the current induced in a coil of wire placed
parallel to the disk when the radial current was reversed about
twenty times a second by a rotating commutator.

The result of these measurements showed that the circular cur-
rent C, produced, was proportional to the magnetic field, H, and to

the radial current, /, or
C= Ele

In the magnetic metals and in bismuth a is not constant but it de-
pends on the magnetic force. In all the other metals tried a appears
to be constant.
In order to compare this effect with the Hall effect, we may
1 Physikalische Zeitschrift, X11., pp. 561, 842, 1o1t.
2 Philosophical Magazine, XXVIII., p. 692, 1914.
47

48 ADAMS—HALL AND CORBINO EFFECTS. [April 22,

assume that the effect of the magnetic field is to produce an electric
intensity at right angles to both the magnetic force and to the pri-
mary electric intensity, and proportional to their product and the
sine of the angle between them. This we may take to be:

E'=cVHE,

where V stands for the vector product. Applying this to the Cor-
bino effect in a circular disk where 7, is the external radius and 1,
the internal radius we find:

ue I
~ 2nktr’

where J is the whole radial current, k, the specific conductivity,
and ¢ the thickness. Then the transverse electric intensity is

He clH
2nktr
and the whole circular current:
G r.
C= low 2s iat,
27 Ty

Therefore the constant a is equal to (¢/27) log (72/7,)

0
Oe TE ro
8

We may now make the same hypothesis about the Hall effect.
Here it is known that if a current J flows through a rectangular
sheet metal of length J, breadth b, and thickness ¢, there is a trans-
verse difference of potential given by

HI
ere,

R being the Hall constant. The transverse electric intensity is now

1915. ] ADAMS—HALL AND CORBINO EFFECTS. 49

and thus the transverse difference of potential is
Thus

The constant c may be determined from both the Hall and Corbino
effects. Experiments that Mr. Chapman has recently been making
show that c is the same when measured by the two effects.

Now it is known that the Hall effect varies in sign from metal
to metal. This change in sign may be introduced in the hypothesis
by supposing that the constant c varies in sign for different metals.
The experiments that have been made show that the Corbino effect
changes in sign with the Hall effect. Thus there can be little doubt
that these two effects are essentially the same, and that any ex-
planation of one effect will explain the other.

Corbino also showed that when a disk carrying a radial current
was placed in a magnetic field so that the normal to the disk made
an acute angle with the direction of the field, a torque was brought
into play tending to make the disk parallel to the field. If ¢ is the
angle between the normal to the disk and the magnetic force, the
mutual energy of the circular current and the magnetic field is

YW = aN) IH?S cos? ¢,
8r

where S is the area of the disk. Thus the torque tending to in-
crease ¢ is

= au SEES sin 2¢

0d Sr aie
Mr. Smith has succeeded in measuring this torque in four or five
different metals, including bismuth, and the values of c calculated
from his results are in good agreement with those obtained from

the measurement of the circular current.

The production of a circular current in a disk by a magnetic
field acting on a radial current implies an increase in its resistance.

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC,, LIV, 216 D, PRINTED JUNE 21, IQI5.

50 ADAMS—HALL AND CORBINO EFFECTS. [April 22,

This increase may be readily calculated. The rate of heat pro-
duction by the radial current is

r
If log ~
1

- ankt
By the circular current it is

m)
CPIP log
1

fe. 2rkt

the total rate of heat production is thus

ie)
2 log oh
1

—(1+ H?).

2rkt

If k’ is the conductivity of the disk in the magnetic fleld we may
write the total rate of heat production when a radial current J is
sent through it

2 ve
I log 7
Qa
Thus
k /
ice ere Or = = @Ee

In this expression o is the specific resistance of the metal and o’ its
effective specific resistance in the transverse magnetic field. Now
according to this view the resistance of a conductor should always
be increased by a magnetic field. It is known, however, that with
some metals notably iron and nickel, the resistance is decreased in a
transverse magnetic field. Furthermore, the increase of resistance
calculated from this formula is very much less than the increase
actually observed. In the thought that the change of resistance
might be dependent on the geometrical form of the metal Mr.
Lester has measured the effect of a transverse magnetic field on the
resistance of a number of metals, using disks with a radial current.

1915.] ADAMS—HALL AND CORBINO EFFECTS. ol

His results are in good agreement with previous measurements
made with wires and strips. For example, in the case of bismuth,
using the same disk that was employed to measure the circular cur-
Henisnemounds tot iagield a ——15- O00" 0g//a— O16, » Nowse—=2105°
HOt OOOs SOn thatec:He— Ol ltasnthusmecertaimuthat some
other influence is effective in causing the main part of the change of
resistance of a metal in a magnetic field; it is very probable that the
field affects the molecular structure of the metal.

The interpretation of these results from the point of view of
the electron theory of metallic conduction is unsatisfactory. I have
worked out their theory® assuming free electrons in the metal that
collide with the metallic atoms and obtained very simple expres-
sions for the number of electrons in unit volume and their time
between collisions. The numbers so obtained are of the same order
of magnitude as have been obtained by other methods. But the
difficulty of accounting for the difference in sign of the effect for
different metals on any such simple theory indicates that if we are to
hold to the electron theory of metallic conduction other forces than
those resulting from collisions like those between hard elastic
spheres must be supposed to act upon the electrons. The surpris-
ing thing is that so much can be explained by the simple theory
of electrons when all such forces are neglected.

We have seen that the Corbino effect is, essentially, the same as
the Hall effect. In its measurement and interpretation the Cor-
bino effect has some important advantages over the Hall effect. Jn
the first place it is not necessary to use the very thin films that are
required to produce measurable Hall effects. And in the second
place the absence of the free transverse boundaries render the in-
terpretation of the Corbino effect simpler than that of the Hall
effect.

PALMER PuHysicAL LABorRATORY,
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.

3 Philosophical Magazine, XXVII., p. 244, 1914.

SOME RESULTS PROM DHE OBSERVATIONS @r
ECEUPSING WWARTABIEES:

By RAYMOND S. DUGAN, Pu.D.
(Read April 24, I0T5.)

At Princeton we have been using for over ten years a stellar
photometer devised by Pickering and similar to the one used for so
many years to such good purpose by Wendell. This photometer has
many virtues and but few vices. Its construction is such that the
observer has the very comfortable conviction that nearly all the
sources of systematic error he can think of are being rendered
innocuous by the program of observation. In accuracy it is ap-
parently excelled by the electrical photometers alone.

A large part of our researches at Princeton has for some time
been the observational and theoretical study of eclipsing variables.
From the beginning we were of the opinion that the patient dis-
tribution of observations repeatedly throughout the entire period of
light-variation might very possibly bring us several facts to repay
us for the great labor involved.

The first star subjected to this process was RT Persei.t 14,464
measures made during the years 1905-8, combined into a mean
curve, showed at once the existence of a secondary minimum, 0.13
of a magnitude in depth, and with satisfactory distinctness a slight
change in brightness between eclipses. This latter change was in-
terpreted to mean that the two stars are ellipsoidal and brighter on
the sides facing each other. An asymmetry, established with con-
siderable certainty in the curve of primary eclipse, was found to
prevail throughout the entire curve. Combining this with the
knowledge of one component of the eccentricity derived from the
observed displacement of secondary minimum toward the preceding

1 See Contributions from the Princeton Univ. Obs., No. 1.

52

1915.] OBSERVATION OF ECLIPSING VARIABLES. 53

primary minimum, Shapley has recently explained this asymmetry
as a Periastron effect—an increased brightness of the stars when
nearest each other. There is another possible explanation which I
shall consider in connection with the third star.

In 1909 the series of 18,384 measures of ¢ Draconis was com-
pleted.2 Evidence of a very shallow secondary minimum, only six
or seven hundredths of a magnitude in depth, displaced slightly
toward the following primary minimum, was clearly found. Ellip-
ticity of figure and exchange of radiation were again demonstrated.
These two effects have been abundantly verified in other cases.

The theoretical representation of the observations of both RT
Persei and ¢ Draconis just at the beginning and end of eclipse is a
little unsatisfactory—the theoretical curve starts to drop more
rapidly than the observed curve. This is possibly evidence that the
stars are darkened toward the limb—like the sun.

It was hoped that the observations of RY Ophiuchi would not
only demonstrate the existence of darkening toward the limb but
would determine approximately the degree of darkening. But
darkening seems to be very elusive sometimes. The observed
secondary minimum is barely deep enough for the uniform solution,
and a darkened solution requires a still greater depth. The well-
determined primary minimum is strongly asymmetrical. The inter-
radiation effect is about the same as in the other two stars, while
the ellipticity is much greater. This latter fact when considered
with the anticipation that the ellipticity effect would in this case be
too small to detect—on account of the large distance between the
component stars—is somewhat disconcerting. Then too there are
several well-defined hollows in the curve—a conspicuous one just
after primary and another just after secondary—and a long stretch
before secondary when the star is much brighter than before pri-
mary. The only satisfying method of solving the curve seemed,
therefore, to be a least square solution of the whole curve—a pro-
cedure hitherto avoided. The final theoretical curve, representing
our present knowledge of the causes of light variation of these stars,
is the result of the solution of forty-two equations with seven

2 See Contributions from the Princeton Univ. Obs., No. 2.

54 DUGAN—RESULTS FROM THE [April 24,

unknowns. The probable errors are of satisfactory smallness, con-
sidering the amount of asymmetry.

It seems necessary in this case to face the fact of asymmetry
unflinchingly. The secondary minimum gives no evidence of an
eccentric orbit and the consequent possibility of a magnified peri-
astron effect. The most conspicuous asymmetry is a greater bright-
ness from middle of primary eclipse through to secondary than on
the other side. A sine term of the first order with an amplitude
of three hundredths of a magnitude takes care of the greater part
of this. The existence of this sine term would probably indicate
that the advancing side of the bright star is brighter than the follow-
ing. If such were the case, then the loss of light during the early
stages of eclipse—when the brightest part of the disk is being
covered—and the gain of light right after totality would both be
more rapid than would be the case if the disk were uniformly bright,
as was assumed for the least square solution. The divergence from
the theoretical curve of the well observed branches of primary
minimum is in this anticipated direction and it is of about the right
amount. A similar asymmetry has already been remarked in the
curve of RT Persei and is probably also, at least in part, due to this
cause. This suggested explanation is of course not new, but the
evidence is apparently strong that the advancing side of the brighter
component of some Algol variables is brighter than the following
side. After this sine term is removed from the curve of RV
Ophiuchi, there seem to be other changes in brightness of an amount
small but seemingly guaranteed by the probable error.

In the system RT Persei, one star is one and one third times as
large and five times as bright as the other; in ¢ Draconis, one star is
thirteen times as bright as the other but just about equal to it in
size. The eclipse is very deep and nearly total. In RY Ophtiuchi
one star is twelve times as bright as the other but smaller. The
brighter star is entirely hidden behind the fainter for about an hour.
The two stars are farther apart than in the other two systems but
they are apparently much more elongated. |

During the seven years since completing the light-curve of RT
Persei I have observed through an occasional primary minimum
both visually and photographically. Recently I have observed two

1915.] OBSERVATION OF ECLIPSING VARIABLES. 55

secondary minima. ‘The eclipses are now coming over forty minutes
earlier than they are predicted by the elements determined from the
original series of observations. This is very surprising in view of
the accuracy with which the elements were determined. These ele-
ments were determined mainly from a large number of well ob-
served minima grouped quite closely about two epochs about 700
periods apart. If the time of eclipse is fixed by the observations
within a half-miniute in each of these two regions, then the period is
known to one-tenth of a second. In cases where both branches of
the minimum were continuously observed it seems hardly possible to
change the observed time of any individual minimum by more than
one or two minutes, and still represent the observations closely.

The photographic record of RT Persei, generously furnished me
by Professor Pickering, showed that at —7,500 P, or 17% years
before the zero epoch, the eclipses were about 100 minutes late. The
average period, then, is nearly a whole second shorter than the period
determined from my original series of observations. ‘This shorter
period should have caused my observed minima to run off ten
minutes from the predictions during the interval of 700 periods.
This is intolerable. Beside my own observations, there are a good
many observations by Wendell and several by Graff available. Of
course a single estimated photographic magnitude is not nearly as
accurate for determining the time of minimum as a series of photo-
metric observations right through the eclipse.

Making now the correction to the shorter, average period, I have
plotted the new residuals, and find that two periodic terms, one
running its course in 12,000 eclipse-periods, or 27% years, the
other in one-third this time, or 4,000 periods, with coefficients of
twelve and five minutes respectively, going through their zero values
on the up grade together, fit the observations pretty well. The
smaller period is of the order of magnitude of that to be expected
from the revolution of the line of apsides caused by the observed
prolateness of homogeneous stars. The amplitude is of the size
to be expected from the smallest value of the eccentricity in accord
with the observed shift of secondary minimum.

The important question, and one which is difficult to answer, is
whether the time of the secondary eclipse shifts in either of these

56 DUGAN—RESULTS FROM THE [April 24,

periods. The revolution of the line of apsides in the shorter period
would cause the time of secondary minimum to oscillate back and
forth to an extreme of ten minutes before and after the midway
point between successive primaries.

The evidence is both scarce and somewhat uncertain. The en-
tire secondary eclipse amounts to a drop of but little over a tenth of
a magnitude. An isolated photographic estimate of brightness is
of little value here. Even from a continuous series of photometric
observations, it is difficult to fix on the time of mid-eclipse within
several minutes. My own observations, weighted according to the
apparent certainty with which they determine the time of mid-eclipse,
indicate rather strongly the shift in the time of secondary eclipse in
the shorter of the two periods. The few observations by Wendell
do not furnish any very strong evidence for or against this result.
In no case were his observations carried through both branches of
the eclipse, and consequently they do not determine the time of the
eclipse with much accuracy. What disagreement there is, is in the
same direction as in the observations of primary eclipse—for some
reason the Wendell times of eclipse are nearly all earlier than mine.
The evidence in hand at present points to a revolution of the line of
apsides of RT Persei. I hope to observe occasional primary and
secondary minima of this star during the next few years.

As a bi-product, I have determined the photographic curve from
the Harvard observations and compared it with the visual curve of
pfimary minimum. According to the observations, the eclipses in
the two regions of the spectrum are of the same duration and the
same depth, but the curves follow different paths. This is too
strange a result to be taken very seriously, considering the paucity
of the photographic material. I have, however, one minimum which
I observed through a blue color screen made for the purpose.

_ Through this filter the minimum was observed about 0.15 magni-
tude deeper than without the filter. So I conclude that the obser-
vations at the bottom of the photographic curve, which are few in
number, are to be disregarded and the curve extended to the greater
depth given by the color-screen observations. The difference in the
character of the two curves indicates that when one star is in great
part covered up, the light of the system is more reddish than when

1915.] OBSERVATION OF ECLIPSING VARIABLES. 57

they both shine undimmed. Either one star is redder than the
other, or the eclipsed star is redder toward the limb than at the
center.

2 Draconis has been an equally interesting surprise. The aver-
age period is quite a little longer than was supposed. Some time
ago it shortened up with great rapidity. The top and bottom of
this sharp decline are well determined by observations from quite
a variety of sources. The two sine terms combined in this case
have periods of 7,200 and 2,880 eclipse-periods and nearly the same
coefficients as in RT Persei—ten and four minutes respectively.
The prolateness and eccentricity of ¢ Draconis are about the same
as those determined for RT Persei.

The secondary minimum of g Draconis is only 0.06 magnitude—
half as deep as that of RT Persei; the observations of the secondary
minimum are few and were all taken within a brief interval, and
they furnish very little evidence. This star must also be kept under
frequent observation. When observing this star with the 23-inch
it requires a determined effort to see it at all when in the middle
of its deep eclipse.

The greater depth of the photographic eclipse comes out very
nicely in the case of ¢ Draconis. As the eclipse increases, the light
from the star becomes redder and redder. At deepest phase more
than half the light is known to come from the fainter star. It is ap-
parently much redder than its far brighter companion, a fact which
is doubtless to be expected.

Lastly, in reducing the observations of RV Ophiuchi I found it
necessary to predict the minima with a sine term of about 1,600
periods, and of small amplitude. The photometric history of RV
Ophiuchi is short and incomplete compared with that of RT Persei
and g Draconis, and no conclusions can safely be drawn from this
result.

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY,
April, 1915.

SOME? PRESEN NEEDS IN SYSPPMADIC BOMmANNe

By L. H. BAILEY.
(Read April 23, 1915.)

If an editor were to survey the families and genera and species
of the vegetable kingdom, he would find himself making compari-
sons and drifting to conclusions respecting the character of the sys-
tematic work and the worth of various contributions. Many of
these conclusions he might not be able to analyze. They might be
very much in the nature of impressions, and yet they might be felt
so strongly as to be convictions. It is a vast field that his oversight
would cover, and the bases of comparisons would be of the most
various kinds, yet the convictions in very many cases would be
concrete. It may be well to consider for the moment some of these
possible convictions, of course in no spirit of captiousness, but to
bring other points of view on some of our common problems, even
though these points of view may not always be capable of direct
application.

Very likely, his first feeling would be a consciousness of the
great variety in the methods of the monographs. The systematic
work is rapidly specializing, and the specialists make their own
criteria. The result is a marked diversity in the work, which
all the efforts at standardization do not very much control. Prob-
ably, Bentham and Hooker’s “ Genera Plantarum” is the last of the
comprehensive works to be brought to a completion by a single
person or by two or three persons working as one. This is suc-
ceeded by the editorial work of Engler and Prantl in “Die Natur-
lichen Pflanzenfamilien,” and later in more detail by Engler in “ Das
Pflanzenreich.” Floras of countries and regions tend more and
more to be constructed editorially, with contributions by specialists.
All this results perhaps in closer work in the specialties and the
details, but it may lack in coordination and in the balancing of the
parts.

58

1915.] BAILEY—NEEDS IN SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 59

Probably all the larger conclusions by our hypothetical editor
would be derived from this general situation. No longer do we
have the controlling authority of one man, holding the work steady
and maintaining a homogeneous method. I well remember a re-
mark that Asa Gray made about his Composite, on which he had
worked so long and so lovingly, seeing the end of his time and fore-
seeing the change of his method. I remember also that.in those
days I was somewhat violently interested in nomenclature and I
proposed to publish on it; but Gray gently dissuaded me: it was
some years before I understood why.

A SITruATION IN NOMENCLATURE.

In proportion as we lose the influence of a single controlling per-
sonality, or of a few personalities working in an understood har-
mony, do we resort to arbitrary and conventional methods of
codification. This is well illustrated in the convulsions in nomen-
clature in recent years. In this country, for example, with the
passing of Gray, we began to give up the combination of two words
as the name of a plant, and to substitute the oldest specific name
brought down through any number of genera. Intrinsically, one
method is as good as the other, but we sought to arrive at uniformity
by rigidly adopting one of them. A train of difficulties has followed
this and other innovations, and instead of finding ourselves in full
harmony of action, with one uniform practice in nomenclature, we
have two or three or several practices, and to a considerable extent
each worker making his own. The present situation in nomen-
clature is a vivid illustration of the failure of arbitrary means of
standardization. The situation also has a social significance, as I
shall attempt to suggest.

The probability is that we should have arrived at our destination
sooner and with no greater confusion if we had allowed the situa-
tion to work itself out without formal regulation, recognizing more
fully the principle of usage which in the end controls all language.
We have probably made a mistake in endeavoring to substitute
arbitrary priority for stability; at all events, we might have saved
ourselves the very amusing exercise of upsetting a well established
name for the purpose of substituting an older name in order that

60 BAILEY—SOME PRESENT NEEDS [April 23,

we might make the name stable. It looks now as if usage were
after all to control in the end, and in some regards quite independ-
ently of arbitrary regulations. The principle of undeviating priority
has not yet controlled for any length of time in the development of
language. It is a false premise.

I am not now arguing for a return to any older or prior method,
nor in challenge of any current practice, and certainly not in criti-
cism of any group of workers, for we shall probably outgrow our
conventionalities sooner by working with them rather than against
them. But I must protest, as I have protested many times before,
against the assumption that the names of plants belong to botanists
to do with them as they will. This is only another way of saying
that these latinized names of plants are rightfully a part of language
and are not mere formule or symbols to be used only by insiders.
We desire that the public shall use this language. We publish our
manuals with this purpose. We try to make plant books simple, that
they may be popular. We take pains to spread the knowledge of
plants and thereby to promote the love of nature. There are thous-
ands of persons who sell plants, and the names become established
in trade and represent commercial values. These values cannot be
shifted readily from name to name; and if one makes a plea for
correct nomenclature in plantsmen’s catalogues and lists, one re-
ceives the reply that it is scarcely worth the while seeing that the
names change so frequently. The custom of shifting the names is
undoubtedly directly responsible for much of the disregard of new
nomenclature on the part of dealers; and we must remember that
the use of these kinds of names among the people is probably pro-
moted more by the plant dealers than by the botanists. I judge that
the botanists have not yet succeeded in securing the active and free
cooperation of this great class of people.

Of course we are to recognize that much of the change is in-
evitable, that, in fact, it is a consequence of new and closer studies
of the groups, resulting in a clearer understanding of generic and
specific limitations. This is a contribution to knowledge which
everyone must accept. But there is a class of changes which does
not have this justification. JI am conscious, in making inquiries,

1915.] IN SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 61

that the first thought of some particularists appears to be a desire
to see whether it is possible to change the names.

Nor am I yet ready to leave this subject. From a successful
and sincere public lecturer, who is trying to lead the people to a
knowledge of animals and plants, I had a request for aid containing
the statement that he could devote only a little time daily “to the
study of Latin and I want to get only a sufficient knowledge of it
to enable me to know why the gipsy moth is called (Porthetria
dispar L.) and whether Raphamus raphanistrum means a plant, an
insect or a tribe of elephants.” This person, of course, had not had
a college training in these particular subjects, but he is not ignorant
or inattentive. He writes that he has about 2,000 bulletins, many
bound volumes and a special cyclopedia, nearly all of which material
is classified, using a card-index. “It has taken a lot of work to do
this but as I can spare from farm labor only about an hour each
day for study I find the index is a great time saver by showing me
just where to find what I want.” This man will accomplish much
with his methods of contact. But consider the position of this man
if to a complicated system of nomenclature we add a continuous
tendency to change; and | think it is fairly our obligation to con-
sider his position.

When we feel within us the desire to change the names of
genera and groups, let us think well of this man and his carefully
considered hour,—what it would mean to him in cross-referencing,
in indexing, in the readjusting of his work. If it is to bring new
knowledge that we cannot so well record otherwise or indispensable
definitions, very good; but the burden of proof always rests on the
new name. The work with names is fascinating, even captivating,
and every change identifies the worker with it; but we are not to
forget that some of this work is likely to be of the kind that, in
other fields, might be called pedantry.

Bear with me further while [ call your attention to the fact that
we are not only changing our plant names with apparent disregard
of the users of them, but that we are also making them more com-
plicated. To the name of the plant——genus and species,—we add
the authority. We now omit the punctuation and thereby make the

62 BAILEY—SOME PRESENT NEEDS [April 23,

author in effect a part of the name. When the combination of two
words was held to constitute the name of a plant, the author of
the combination was sufficient for identification; but with the single-
word system we carry the author of both the original specific name
and of the new combination, and the whole becomes something like
a complicated formula. This is a convenience to the worker with
plant names, but he is not the only party concerned; his needs may
be served in the citation of the synonomy. His obligation to the
public is to present the simplest possible name and the least in-
volved. If the history is to be retained in the name-compound,
where may we not stop and how complicated may our formule
finally become? We may in time evolve a phraseology, or an alge-
braic form, as complicated as some of the pre-Linnzean customs.
We are really confusing two things,—nomenclature and_bibliog-
raphy. We should separate citation from nomenclature. We have
no right to inflict the public with our taxonomic book-keeping.

There are three pressing needs in our present systematic botany,
as I see it. One of these needs I have now tried to suggest, which
is the urgency to subordinate the nomenclature question. This is
specially important in a democracy, where we desire to give all
qualified persons equal chance, where we are supposed to remove
hindrances and arbitrary domination by central authorities and to
allow the people to express themselves freely. The public has real
rights in the names of plants. Soon we must stop playing with
names.

A SITUATION AS TO SPECIES AND GENERA.

The oversight that we assumed in the beginning would undoubt-
edly discover other interesting situations in our systematic work.
What these comparisons might be would depend, of course, on the
particular person who made them; but in respect to the American
work, with which at the moment we are mostly concerned, any per-
son could not fail to admire the quality of the monographs and
lesser contributions. Although systematic botany may occupy a
subordinate place in our teaching, it is receiving extensive and very
expert attention both from amateurs and from those attached offi-
cially to the great collections, and the published work is such as to

1915.] IN SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 63

give us much pride. Ability of a high order continues to express
itself in this field.

We have noted the tendency to specialize. Persons become ex-
pert in certain detached groups of plants. We become most skillful
in detecting the differences that may distinguish species, but it may
be doubted whether we are equally skillful in bringing together the
agreements that may formulate genera. We seem now to be dis-
covering separateness. It does not follow that one who has nice
judgment on species necessarily has equal authority on genera. The
tendency to break up our old groups into many genera, is apparently
the result of the application of the species-habit. It is a great
question whether the method of separation is the proper one to
apply equally in these two kinds of cases.

Perhaps we cannot hope for much result in the standardizing
of the species-conception by our methods of herbarium work, but it
ought not to be difficult to arrive at some kind of an agreement on
genera. We may well consider the advisability of being progressive
in searching out the ultimate specific units—so far as there are
such units—at the same time that we hold a conservative attitude on
_genera, for we can scarcely assume that there are ultimate generic
lines. Thereby we might make a truthful presentation of the vege-
table kingdom at the same time that we avoid vast changes in
nomenclature.

A SITUATION AS TO THE LivING MATERIAL.

With the needful specialization of the systematic work, we find
ourselves with very unequal treatment in the different groups. This
inequality. is perhaps the most outstanding characteristic of our
present phytographical publication. It is impossible at present to
compile a general work with any clear approach to uniformity of
handling in the different genera and families. This is due in part
to the fact that some of the groups have been recently worked over
whereas others still retain a traditional treatment. Nor is it desir-
able that there shall be rigid codification on genera, for we need the
judgment of different workers and this necessarily leads to non-
uniformity ; the specialist is entitled to his method; and yet the in-
equalities in interpretation appear to be so great in many cases as to
amount to inharmony and even to confusion.

64 BAILEY—SOME PRESENT NEEDS [April 23,

While there is more hope in the standardizing of genera than of
species, it is within the possibilities to arrive at some kind of agree-
ment on specific values, but this is not to be expected as a result
of codification or regulation: it must be a real agreement by men
who are brought together on a new kind of study of a common
line of problems. ;

As I have already indicated, | would not expect or even desire
a dead uniformity of treatment in any range of systematic work,
and least of all in species. It would be a great misfortune to lose
the expression of personality in even such formal work as this.
But there is need of a closer understanding as to the essential facts
in the treatment of the members of a genus. If one were to look
over Erythrina, for example, one would find about 50 species recog-
nized, native in warm countries in the two hemispheres ; and while
there is much uncertainty as to the characters of given species,
one would not find very wide disagreement between the different
authors. If next one were to look on Eschscholtzia, one would find
a wholly different state of things, notwithstanding the fact that this
genus is confined to western North America. Gray saw about a
dozen species in this genus; Greene, with more material to work
on, saw II2 species; and Fedde sees 123. Jepson, who has studied
them with care in the field, is not able to see a great number of
species, although he finds numberless seasonal and other forms;
and he does not see much hope in solving the Eschscholtzia puzzle
by the usual study of herbarium material but rather by “ combined
field and cultural studies.” ,

And here is the particular suggestion I desired to make in the
writing of this paper,—that a few groups be worked out very care-
fully by growing the plants under observation and as far as possible
under conditions of control and always, of course, in comparison
with living feral material. Such studies might require some years,
even in a relatively small group: very good—the results would be
all the more convincing. If a half dozen groups could be worked
over in this way, with discussion of the living material by standing
committees of some recognized association, we should very likely
arrive at a basis of judgment such as the present collecting and inci-

1915.] IN SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 65

dental field notation and indoor study of dried material can never
give us. The conclusions,—or the points of view, if conclusions
were impossible——would be invaluable in bringing us to an under-
standing and therefore to a substantial agreement on some of the
matters that are now most perplexing us. This is now the greatest
need in systematic botany.

This means that we should now study life histories with the
purpose to apply the knowledge in systematic work. We shall
come to the end in due time of the inventory process in describing
new species. After a time we shall consider it to be scarcely worth
the while to carry the separative process very much farther, and
we shall then undertake a synthetic process of building up the forms
into species-values. The current studies of variation and of plant-
breeding are bringing us to a new point of view: it is now time
that we begin the incorporation of these methods into our systematic
work.

ItHaca, N. Y.,
April 23, I915.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 216 E, PRINTED JUNE 21, I91I5.

WUala, WINRAR, SIDURS 1S IS TOC GNSS MOV BILAE, IND)
T LEONIS MINORIS.

By R. J. McDIARMID.
(Read April 24, 1915.)

The four Algol variable stars TV, TW, TX Cassiopeize and T
Leonis Minoris have been under observation by the writer for the
last three years with the polarizing photometer attached to the
23-inch equatorial of the Princeton Observatory.

The total number of measures made on the four systems is over
35,000, distributed among the four stars as follows, TV 9,920,
TW 13,728, TX 8,486 and T Leonis 3,792. The light curves of the
first three are well defined, while the observations on the last system
are not so complete. The periods of the light variation with the
exception of TV Cass. have been determined from my visual ob-
servations combined with photographic measures kindly sent me by
Professor Pickering, of Harvard.

The systems will be discussed in slightly different order than
the above, the more important left to the last.

The system TW Cass. has been observed by other astronomers,
and notes published pronounced it as irregular in its variation, later
Zinner found it regular in its variation and of the Algol type with
a period 1° to* 16.6". From the discussion of the Princeton ob-
servations I found that the period was double the published period
and instead of one eclipse there were two differing by 0.05 magni-
tude. The double period is confirmed by the three observed phe-
nomena, Ist, the difference in depth of the two minima of 0.05 mg. ;
2d, the interval from primary eclipse to secondary is 7.8 minutes
longer than from secondary to the following primary; 3d, the
primary eclipse is 36 minutes longer in duration than the secondary.
It is from the knowledge of the last two facts that we are able to
determine both components of the eccentricity—the quantities e and

(longitude of periastron). The period is 2 days, 20 hours, and

66

1915.] McDIARMID—VARIABLE STARS. 67

33.6 minutes and the two eclipses have a depth of 0.62 mg. and
0.57 mg. respectively. From a discussion of the light curve follow-
ing the theory as outlined by Professor Russell in 4. J., 36, 5; 36, I
results were obtained giving the dimensions of the system in terms
of the radius of the orbit. It was found that the two stars were of
nearly the same size and had the same surface brightness.

In the case of T Leonis Minoris as in TW Cass. we have two
minima, they are however of very different depth, the primary
having a loss of 2.46 magnitudes while the secondary has only 0.05
magnitudes. The period is 3 days, o hours, 28 min., and 38.0 sec.,
and is accurately known. Combined with the visual observations
I have used the Harvard photographic measures as far back as
1889, and have been able to establish a definitive period. The ob-
servations are not so complete as in the other systems, the length
of the period being so nearly three days; also weather conditions at
special times have entered largely into this.

From a study of the light curve along the lines of the eclipsing
theory it has been found that the stars are of nearly the same size
but are very different in surface brightness, the ratio being 1:18.

The third system TV Cass., whose period, 14 19? 30™ 11.7%, has
long been known, having been observed by Ashbury and Yendell,
was placed under observation in October, 1913, at Dr. Shapley’s
suggestion. At that time nothing was known about the secondary
eclipse. From my observations it was found that a secondary
eclipse of 0.09 magnitude did really exist, coming 21 minutes before
the time of mid period. The orbit of the system like that of TIV
Cass. is eccentric, but in this case the components of the eccentricity
can not be separated.

In the two previous stars it was found from the light curve that
the stars were of constant brightness between eclipses. The light
curve of TV Cass. is somewhat different as there seems to be a
gradual rise in the curve between primary and secondary eclipse
which corresponds to an increase in brightness of the system. The
explanation is, that the radiation of the bright star on the side of the
fainter one as they approach the time of secondary eclipse tends to
brighten its surface and thus give rise to the phenomenon observed
in the light curve. From a study of the light curve it was found

68 McDIARMID—VARIABLE STARS. [April 24,

that the fainter star was twice as bright on one side as the other.
The stars are nearly equal in size with a ratio of surface brightness
of 1:5.5. In this system the depth of the primary eclipse is 1.05
magnitudes and its duration a little over 6 hours.

The last system, TX Cass., is the most interesting of the four
stars treated here. It was announced some years ago as being an
irregular variable; later its period was given by Zinner with the
note, that the period was probably changing. It was partly on ac-
count of these published notes that a thorough study of the light
curve of the star was carried out. Owing to the nature of the
variation the star has proved to be a difficult system for photometric
study. The eclipses, primary and secondary, which undergo a
loss of light of 0.54 and 0.33 magnitudes respectively and last over
18 hours, are difficult to observe, in fact it is impossible to obtain a
complete minimum on any one night even during the long nights of
winter. The Harvard photogarphic measures have again proved
to be of extreme value and by combining them with the visual .
observations I was able to establish a definitive peroid. The period
is 2 days, 22 hours, 14 min., and 41.7 sec.

In the systems so far discussed the stellar disc was considered
of uniform surface brightness. Assuming this to be the case with
the system TX Cass. it was found that the observations could not
be represented at all satisfactorily; the deviations were in many
cases three times the probable error. On the other hand assuming
the stellar discs to be similar to the sun bright at the center and
decreasing in brightness toward the edge, a very satisfactory repre-
sentation of the observations was found. The hypothesis of dark-
ened discs seems to be the correct one as it is confirmed by the
nature of the eclipses; the secondary eclipse is total with a constant
phase of six hours while the primary eclipse has no constant phase
and the curve is distinctly round bottomed showing that the varia-
tion is continuous. ‘This condition would exist with darkened discs
in case of an annular eclipse, and since the secondary is total our
natural and legitimate conclusion is that the primary is annular.
The system TX Cass. seems to offer very strong evidence in support
of darkening toward the limb in stellar systems.

1915.] McDIARMID—VARIABLE STARS. 69

The light between eclipses does not remain constant; the light
curve is distinctly bowed up, showing the stars are elliptical in shape
and have their greatest brightness when we see them broad side on.
This is the condition midway between eclipses. From the study of
the light curve it was found that the stars are very different in size,
with the stars nearly of the same brightness having a ratio of 1: 1.5.
The ellipticity of the stars can best be shown by giving their dimen-
sions expressed in terms of the radius of the orbit.

Major Axis. Minor Axis.
BHOMRS Ealtguamiees dentcrenseiie cle: cist isinusrerer a, = 0.567 b, = 0.519
Sraneulll ee ose abo Gadaouse conor Qs = 0.295 b= 0270

The stars in this system are very close together.

AN INDE RPRE DD MiION OE SiPRTE iY ain | Gray sway
HLANIN IES

1B 1D, IML, IANS AN,
(Read April 23, 1915.)

It is obvious that it is impossible to investigate the cause of
sterility in hybrids by the pedigree culture method when such
sterility is complete. Occasionally, however, one finds hybrids
which are not wholly sterile. Such is the case in the historic cross,
Nicotiana rustica L. < Nicotiana paniculata L. This hybrid holds
an enviable position in experimental botany, since it was the first
artificial hybrid to be studied. It was made by Kolreuter in 1760
and was studied by him for several years by means of back crosses
with each parent.

This cross I repeated in 1909, using as the N. rustica parent a
small variety N. rustica humilis Comes obtained from Dr. Comes
through the kindness of Dr. D. G. Fairchild. It has now been
studied through five generations both in the field (general morphol-
ogy) and in the laboratory (histology and cytology). The essen-
tial points noted, as I see them, are as follows:

Two species giving extremely uniform progeny when selfed
have, when crossed, given an intermediate F, population as uniform
as themselves, and an inordinately variable F, population.

The germination of F, seeds varies in different samples from
20 to 60 per cent.

Practically no two F, plants are alike, and the parental forms
are recovered once in every 100 to 200 F, plants.

In F,, from 1 to 6 per cent. of the 2 gametes are functional. It
is impossible to determine the percentage of viable ¢ gametes formed
from the pollen mother cells, but from 2 to 6 per cent. of the

1[t is impossible to reproduce the photographs shown by means of lan-
tern slides, but an illustrated paper giving the details of the investigation is

to be published shortly.
70

1915.] SPERIEIDY IN CERTAIN PEANTS. 71

pollen found is morphologically perfect. The maturation difficulty
in spermatogenesis is largely at the first spermatocyte division.

F, plants are as fertile inter se as in back crosses with either
parent.

Segregation of determiners for fertility occurs in F,, so that by
recombination some perfectly fertile plants are obtained in F,.

Nearly all fertile F, plants selfed give only fertile progeny. Oc-
casionally a fertile F, plant selfed may give a slightly non-fertile
daughter.

Numerous combinations that should be possible in F, are omitted
in the population obtained. Combinations approaching N. rustica
seem to be more frequent than those approaching N. paniculata.
Many more homozygous combinations occur in F, than might be
expected.

Perfectly fertile plants giving perfectly fertile progeny, hetero-
zygous for many allelomorphs, do occur in F,.

No more than a very general formal interpretation of these facts
can be made at present, but assuming that the chromosomes carry
the hereditary character determiners, and that these react with the
cytoplasm under proper environmental conditions to build up the
soma, attention is called to the following possibilities of satisfying
the conditions imposed by the data.

1. There is selective elimination of F, zygotes.

2. There is no evidence of selective fertilization. (I infer this
from the fact that F, plants are as fertile inter se as in backcrosses. )

3. The selective elimination of non-functional gametes that must
occur in F, and the recombinations of functional gametes that give
different grades of fertility in F, cannot be interpreted by a Mende-
lian factorial notation without subsidiary assumptions, but possibly
may be the result of one of the two following hypotheses:

(A) Through multipolar spindles, mating of non-homologous
chromosome pairs at synapsis, or other mitotic aberrations at the
reduction division, the 24 chromosomes characterizing each of the
two species may be irregularly distributed at gametogenesis. If
some of these irregular gametes may function, the majority of the
experimental data are satisfied, but there are reasons which there is
not time to consider which make this scheme improbable.

72 EAST SiE REMY eING CE RaAIN Pie ANG S: [April 23,

(B) On the other hand the facts may be interpreted without
assuming irregularities of chromosome distribution if (1) there is
a group of chromosomes in each parent that cannot be replaced by
chromosomes from the other parent; if (2) there is a group of
chromosomes from each parent, a percentage of which may be re-
placed by chromosomes from the other parent, but where func-
tional perfection of the gametes varies as their constitution ap-
proaches that of the parental forms; if (3) there are other chromo-
somes that have no effect on fertility and therefore can promote
recombinations of characters in the progeny of fertile F, plants; if
(4) a naked male nucleus entering the normal cytoplasm of the egg
in the immediate cross can cause changes in the cytoplasm that will
affect future reduction divisions; 1f (5) this abnormally formed
cytoplasm is not equitably distributed in the dichotomies of gameto-
genesis in the F, generation; if (6) it follows from (4) and (5)
that F, zygotes may be formed which are less perfect in their
gamete forming mechanism than those of the F, generation; and
if (7) the heterotypic division of gametogenesis does not necessarily
form two cells alike in their viability.

Bussey INSTITUTION,
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

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CONTENTS

; Additions to the Fauna of the Lower Pliocene Snake Creek Beds (Re-
| sults of the Princeton University 1914 Expedition to Nebraska).
- Way WILLIAM J. SINCLAIR — - - - = - - -
: _ Explorations Over the Vibrating Surfaces of ee Diaphragms
Under Simple Impressed Tones. mh! a E. KENNELLY AND
o . H. O. Taytor - - - - - - -
~ Aras Ruling and Performance of a Ten Inch Diffraction Grating. By
A. A. MICHELSON - - - - - - - - -

i The Constitution of the Hereditary Macau By T. H. Morcan’ -

Spontaneous Generation of Heat in Recently Hardened Steel. By
. CHARLES F. BRUSH ~~ - - - - - - -
Relationships of the White Oaks of Eastern North America. With an

Introductory Sketch of their Phylogenetic History. (Plates
ITV—-VI.) By Marcaret V. Coss - - - - - -

as New. Form of Nephelometer. By je cee MARSHALL AND H. W.
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PD DEIN S )O HE PNUNA OF Trt LOWER PLIOCENE
SNAKE CREEK BEDS (RESULTS OF THE PRINCETON
WMV SID Yo19r4 1b XP EDITION TO NEBRASKA).

By WILLIAM J. SINCLAIR.
(Read April 24, 1915.)

One of the objects of the Princeton University 1914 Geologic.
Expedition to Nebraska was to acquire, if possible, fossil bone:
from the Lower Pliocene Snake Creek beds of Sioux County, partly
to fill out the exhibition and study collections of the Department of
Geology, which were lacking in Pliocene vertebrates, and, partly,
to obtain some additional light on the fauna of the Great Plains
region in Lower Pliocene time, with the purpose of establishing a
broader basis for the correlation of Continental Interior and Pacific
Coast Tertiary deposits. In both respects the expedition was thor-
oughly successful, which I attribute, in large part, to the enthusiastic
support of my assistants, Messrs. A. C. Whitford, of Lincoln,
Nebraska, and Mr. Charles Barner, of Agate, and to the kindness
of our temporary neighbors, the various ranchmen on whose ranges
the bonebearing deposits lie.

The Snake Creek beds were named and described by Matthew
and Cook,! and reference should be made to their paper for details
not brought out in the pages which follow. The four exposures
worked by the Princeton party lie within the limits of the Whistie

1“ A Pliocene Fauna from Western Nebraska,” Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.,
Hist., N. Y., Vol. XXVI., Art. XXVIL., pp. 361-414, 1909.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV,, 217, F, PRINTED JULY 7, 1915.

74 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,

Creek quadrangle, south of the sandhills on the divide between the
Niobrara and the North Platte rivers, in draws at or near the heads
of Dry Spotted Tail Creek, Spotted Tail Creek and Snake Creek, as
follows = Locs1o0o00A, A260) Ns Rasce Wi Secerain (Neha /e)ealoc
1000B, same township and range, but in the southeast quarter of Sec.
23); Loc, 1000 Ga 25) No, R155 Wea sec, 3 (Se. 4 tomuddlefomcec
Bon) 8 ILE, OCOD), I, AR ING INS aA WES See, 2 ONG I 3A). Of dae
four, Loc. 1000C, to which the attention of Messrs. Whitford and
Barner was called by Mr. John Weir, before my arrival in the field,
was particularly productive, yielding some of our best material.

The Snake Creek beds comprise unconsolidated, water-worn
gravels, clean, cross-bedded, round-grained sands sometimes
streaked with magnetic, and a mortar-like, gray-white material,
sometimes in angular fragments and sometimes in cobbles or boul-
der-like masses, resting with marked erosional unconformity on
the Middle Miocene Sheep Creek beds. Rolled pebbles of granite,
quartzite, etc., indicate water transportation from the crystalline
rocks of the mountains farther west, probably some of the sand is
windborne, but a large part of the Snake Creek matrix has not
been transported far and consists, sometimes, of subangular frag-
ments resembling in appearance dried mortar, and, sometimes, of
gravels, cobbles, and large masses of more or less indurated clay or
silt, evidently represented the harder portions of the Sheep beds
through which the Snake Creek channels were cut. Many large,
slightly rounded masses of Sheep Creek sediment incorporated in
the Snake Creek sands and gravels are quite incoherent and could
not have stood thorough saturation with water, not to mention trans-
portation to any considerable distance. I think they were derived
from the caving of undercut banks along channels incised in the
Sheep Creek. Water-worn fragments of silicified wood are com-
mon, but are not necessarily remains of a forest contemporary with
the Lower Pliocene fauna. Most of it, if not all, is remame
material.

The stratification is lenticular, water-worn gravels giving place
laterally to cross-bedded sands and jumbled masses of clay boulders.
Either gravels, sands or mortar-like fragments may rest with clean
sharp contact on the eroded surface of the Sheep Creek, the irregu-

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. 75

larity of which is increased by land sliding occuring along the sides
of the draws where the exposures are found, but much of it is due
to changes in the slope of the channel-beds in which the Snake
Creek deposits accumulated. Upward, the formation merges into
wind-blown sands and silts which cover the prairie top, and it is
not always possible to distinguish between them, as bones sometimes
occur in the lower layers of the sand above the level of the typical
Snake Creek gravels.

Exposures, when found, are along the sides of the draws which
have cut down through the Snake Creek beds into the under-
lying Sheep Creek, and are usually more or less obscured by wind-
blown sand overgrown with grass and weeds, so that little in the
way of fossils can be seen at the surface except an occasional weath-
ered bone fragment on the bare spots between grass clumps. Occa-
sionally, a larger ungrassed area of sand and pebbles may show a
few horse teeth, a jaw fragment or two or the ends of some broken
limb bones. All collecting was done by stripping off the surface
sod and exposing the Snake Creek-Sheep Creek contact wherever
the greater abundance of gravel and bone fragments suggested the

ce

presence of a productive “pocket” or lens of bone-bearing gravel.
If the preliminary prospecting seemed to warrant further excava-
tion, a large area was cleared and the bank cut back to a vertical
face which was worked by undercutting at the level of the contact
just mentioned. This was kept up until the productive gravel was
exhausted or the repeating caving of the heavy top burden of sand
made further work both laborious and dangerous.

The bones are remarkably well preserved, mostly black or of a
dark color, and occur in both the gravels, sands and mortar-like
conglomerate, becoming scarce as the sand gets clean or the number
of clay boulders and cobbles increases. They are all more or less
abraded, sometimes by water wear, at other times manifestly by
wind-blown sand,? and vary in character from rolled bone pebbles
to complete skulls. Hardly ever is there association of adjacent
parts. Occasionally a remanie fossil, washed out of the Sheep

2 The type skull of Protolabis princetonianus sp. nov. was found in soft
sand, lying on the left side with the front of the skull tilted downward. The

arch and back of the skull on the upper (right) side are pared down to a
common level in a manner suggesting sand-blasting.

16 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,
Creek, is found, but with this exception the bones seem to have
been introduced directly into the streams which transported the
Snake Creek gravel and, apparently, represent the fauna of the
immediate vicinity, as frail teeth and delicate skull and jaw processes
remain unbroken, suggesting that the bones have not been moved
far. As will be seen by an examination of the Whistle Creek
Quadrangle, our collecting localities are somewhat widely scattered
and may not all represent the deposits of a single stream, possibly
are not all strictly contemporaneous, but as our large collection from
locality 1000C contains practically the same forms as are found in
the remaining less fossiliferous localities, there is every reason to
regard the fauna asa unit. So far as determined, the Snake Creek
beds have yielded the following association of forms, those marked
(A) being preserved in the American Museum, New York, (P) in
the Geological Museum of Princeton University and (C) in the
private collection of Mr. H. J. Cook, of Agate, Nebraska.

Dogs.

Amphicyon amnicola (A).
Amphicyon sp. indet. (A).
?Amphicyon sp. indesc. (P).
Aelurodon haydeni validus (A).
Aelurodon saevus secundus (A).
Aelurodon cf. wheelerianus (P).
Aelurodon sp. div. indet. (A, P).
Tephrocyon hippophagus (A, P).
Tephrocyon cf. temerarius (A).
Tephrocyon cf. vafer (A, P).
Tephrocyon mortifer (C).
Tephrocyon sp. maj. (A, P).
?Cyon sp. (A).

CIVET-CAT.

Bassariscus antiquus (A).

MUSTELINES.

Brachypsalis pachycephalus (P).
Brachypsalis obliquidens sp.nov. (P).
Martes glaree sp. nov. (P).

Cats.

Pseudelurus near intrepidus (P).
Cat, non-macherodont (P).

Macherodont cat, gen. indet. (4).
?Felis cf. maxima (A).

RODENTS.

Mylagaulus cf. monodon (A).
Dipoides curtus (A, P).

Dipoides tortus (A).

Hystricops cf. venustus (A, P?).
Geomys cf. bisulcatus (A).

EDENTATES.

Megalonychid, gen. et. sp. indet. (A,
IP).
RHINOCEROSES.

Teleoceras sp. (A, P).
Aphelops sp. (A, P).
?Cenopus sp. (A).

Horses.

Archeohippus sp. (P).

Parahippus cf. cognatus (A, P).
Hypohippus ct. affinis (A).
Hypohippus sp. (P).

Merychippus cf. insignis (A, P).
Merychippus close to calimarius (P).
Fipparion cf. occidentale (A, P).

1915.]

Hipparion gratum (A, P).

Hipparion cf. affine (A, P).

Protohippus cf. placidus (P, probably
VAN)

Protohippus near perditus (P, prob-
ably A).

Pliohippus cf. mirabilis (P).

Pliohippus sp. div. (A).

PECCARIES.

Prosthennops cf. crassigenis (A).
Prosthennops sp. (A, P).

OREODONTS.

Merychyus (Metoreodon) relictus
(A).

Merychyus (Metoreodon) profectus
(Al, IP)y.

Merychyus (Metoreodon) sp. (A, P).

Pronomotherium siouense sp. nov.

UP),

CAMELS.
Protolabis princetonianus sp. nov.
Cee
Phiauchenia (Megatylopus) gigas
(CAG IP).

Alticamelus procerus (A, P).
Alticamelus sp. div. (A, P).
?Procamelus sp. div. (A).

LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. Za

ANTELOPES AND DEER.
Dromomeryx whitfordi sp. nov. (P,
A).
Drepanomeryx falciformis gen. et
sp. nov. (P).
Cervus sp. (A, P).
Blastomeryx elegans (A).
Blastomeryx cf. wellsi (A).
Merycodus necatus sabulonis (A, P).
Merycodus cf. necatus (A, P).
Merycodus sp. div. (A, P).

Bovips.

Neotragocerus improvisus (A, P).
Bovid gen. indet. (4).
Bison sp. (A).

MASTODONS.

Gomphotherium sp. (P).
?Mastodon sp. (P).

Brrbs.
Aquila danana? (P).4
Buteo near borealis (P).4

REPTILES.

Crocodile vertebra (P).
Lizard jaws (P).
Huge land tortoise (4, P).

Or UNcERTAIN PosITION.
Part of large mammal jaw (P).

The collections obtained by the Princeton expedition have greatly
increased the number of Miocene genera represented in the Snake

Creek fauna.

Archeohippus excepted, Brachypsalis, Pseudelurus,

Pronomotherium, Protolabis and Dromomeryx have species in the

Upper Miocene, distinct, but not strikingly different from, their

Snake Creek successors, rather increasing the close relationship of

the fauna with that of the Upper Miocene previously commented

on by Matthew and Cook. Additional Pliocene elements are far
3 Paleomeryx sp. of Matthew and Cook.

4Represented in the Princeton collection by a fragment of the tarso-

metatarsus. Determinations by Dr. Loye Holmes Miller.

78 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,

less abundant. Perhaps the new horned artiodactyl, Drepanomery.x,
presenting a type of horn-core not hitherto known in North Amer-
ica, and a mastodon apparently allied to Mastodon americanus, may
be regarded as belonging to this category. The conception of old
and new faunal elements should not be unduly emphasized, because,
as our exploration of the Snake Creek beds plainly shows, we do
not yet know the extreme upward range in time of a number of
Upper Miocene genera and can merely say of the new, supposedly
Pliocene, forms that this is their first appearance. A suggestion
regarding climatic conditions may be found in the presence of croco-
diles and huge land tortoises, the latter rivalling in size those of the
Galapagos Islands, indicating, perhaps, that the approaching chill
of glacial times had not yet exterminated these cold-blooded types.

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW GENERA AND SPECIES.

AELURODON sp. compare WHEELERIANUS?

The left ramus of a lower jar with pz and m; and alveoli for
the remaining teeth (No. 12068 Princeton University Geological
Museum, collecting locality 1000C) is referable to an Aelurodon of
about the size of A. wheelerianus, from the type of which it differs
in the greater length of pz-m;, the shorter jaw and the closer crowd-
ing of the premolars. It is either too small or too large to be re-
ferred definitely to any of the described species of Aelurodon, but
is hardly complete enough to be made a new specific type.

Fic. 1. Aelurodon sp., compare wheelerianus?, left ramus, side view, No.
12068, two thirds natural size.
PAMPHICYON sp. indesc.

A huge canid, possibly an undescribed species of Amphicyon,
is represented in the Princeton Snake Creek collection by the right

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. 79

ramus of the lower jaw, an ulna and some other bones, of which
the lower jaw (No. 12078 Princeton University Geological Museum,
collecting locality 1000C) is here figured to give some idea of its
size and proportions. The fragment retains alveoli for the canine,
four double-rooted premolars and the sectorial molar. The first
and second premolars are separated from each other by a short
space, and from the canine and first molar by long diastemata, whlie
the rest of the dentition is in close series.

Fic. 2. ?Amphicyon sp. indesc., No. 12078, right ramus of the lower jaw,
side and top views, one half natural size.

BRACHYPSALIS OBLIQUIDENS Sp. nov.

Type No. 12070 Princeton University Geological Museum, col-
lecting locality 1000C, the left ramus of the lower jaw with py-myz
and alveoli of the canine and first premolar (Fig. 3). This is a
decidedly larger, deeper-jawed, heavier-toothed species than
Brachypsalis pachycephalus, with the anterior premolars placed
very obliquely to the tooth-row and all the teeth closely crowded.
It is of about the same size as Paroligobunis (Brachypsalis) sim-
plicidens from the Lower Harrison, but has a larger second molar,
a slightly larger sectorial and more closely crowded, obliquely placed
anterior premolars.

80 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,

Fic. 3. Brachypsalis obliquidens, lower jaw, type specimen, external view,
and crown view of the teeth, both natural size, No. 12070.

MEASUREMENTS.

TS oyeKd ale Fat nee Hoes Ae walcouin nna Aedes aolue nebo 56

Meer elat ap re part iis cesteie ss be arlene eevee aieuemnin eR Nat ature ict meets 32
Memetlaesima satay ce fuscia d eye excescetera ty em al ae eo ee ek SI 26

DE BN EA AN A a ae te ean UR OLTON De nu US DL MPD RU os Go 934 X 6
Piste leievcuetenvete cele hsyhittin dailone ieltauans fe ceneieyshavevattels lavarvahl Viaulenalowmene neal ore TE XC7,

iO Yee ve aU Aen aa rer AN Ve ee Mt a a lye 13 X 734
SVU ACictclaLS GL CREE ae eRe ie, US HANNS a encel) Wi Tee lta 1744 X9
Tg se leseu series steve ioiatoie: suspense laizelsyebiheneslatets tetsu retetiotter siatatietsulets: avalon elewaytes 9X7%

MartTES GLARE sp. nov.

Type No. 12071 Princeton University Geological Museum, col-
lecting locality 1000C, the left ramus of the lower jaw with pz, z
and m; and alveoli of the canine, pz, y and my (Fig. 4). In size,
close to the type of M. ogygia Matthew from Horizon E of the
Upper Miocene of Colorado, but differing in the presence of p;
(represented by a small alveolus), the slightly larger, more laterally
compressed pz which lacks a posterior accessory cusp as in ogygia
and some existing species, the presence of this cusp on pz (only
slightly less developed than in specimens referred to M. americana
with which comparison was made), and the larger heel on m;. In
both M. ogygia and M. glaree the metaconid or mj; is more sharply
separated than in specimens referred to M. americana which I have

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. 81

examined. MM. minor Douglass from near the bottom of the Lower
Madison Valley Loup Fork beds and M. furlongi Merriam from
the Thousand Creek beds, Thousand Creek, Nevada, are smaller
forms, while M. parviloba Cope from the Middle Miocene of Col-
orado is a larger animal than either ogygia or glaree, and M.
(Putorius) nambianus from the New Mexican Loup Fork has a
shorter jaw than either of the species just mentioned. It is ap-
proached in size by specimens in the Princeton University osteo-
logical collection referred to M. americana, but differs, in addition
to the characters cited above, in the larger heels and heavier an-
terior basal ledges on the premolars and the greater degree of lat-
eral compression of these teeth.

Fic. 4. Martes glaree, lower jaw, type specimen, external view and crown
view of the teeth, twice natural size, No. 12071.

MEASUREMENTS.
ES tba Pig M10 go suace oe iadererevebsiesere Cette tne Cee eerie et elenene = 17
(Dee GSDOOO TG OOOO OO COG OOODcn OR OC oOeno O00 hee concen pin mo BxK2
{Dre ONC OS OAS OR OCS ROTO CRI EME Stats Caen ROK Rar Bis) SX Aull
WNP oooooooo DODO DD DOODDODOODDOSODOODOS OO OG ONO DDODGDNN 8 >< 3

PSEUDAELURUS near INTREPIDUS Leidy.

The presence in the Snake Creek fauna of a cat not far removed
from Pseudaelurus intrepidus Leidy is indicated by a jaw fragment
No. 12081 Princeton University Geological Museum, collecting
locality 1000C, which agrees with Leidy’s type fairly closely in the
dimensions of the jaw, but differs in having the teeth a little smaller
and the posterior accessory cusps and heels on the premolars less
strongly developed. A further difference, which may be of little
importance, is found in the position of the mental foramina which,

82 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,

in P. intrepidus, occur below the alveolus for pz and the anterior
root of pg respectively, while in the Snake Creek form they lie
below the posterior root of pg and a little in front of its anterior

root. The alveolus for pg is quite small and must have supported
a minute vestigial single-rooted tooth.

7. PF. PSs

2,
Us (alveolue)

Fic. 5. Pseudelurus near intrepidus, lower jaw, right side, No. 12081, natural
size.

FELID gen. et sp. indet.

A large non-machzrodont cat is represented by a fragment of
the left mandibular ramus No. 12073 Princeton University Geo-
logical Museum, collecting locality 1000A, in which are preserved
the alveoli for three incisors, the base of a very large laterally flat-
tened canine and alveoli for two premolars, a very small single-
rooted pz and a large double-rooted ps. The chin is not flanged
but the symphysial region projects a short distance below the level
of the lower border of the jaw.

Fic.6. Indeterminate felid, fragment of the lower jaw, left side, lateral view,
No. 12073, natural size.

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. 83

EDENTATE (?MEGALONYCHID).

A single imperfect claw, “ definitely recognizable as of Gravi-
grade relationship” and comparable “with some of the smaller
Megalonychide” is reported by Matthew and Cook from the Snake
Creek beds. Further confirmation of the presence of edentates is
found in a navicular bone (Fig. 7) unquestionably of a Gravigrade,
about two thirds the size of the navicular of Megalonyx jeffersom
and of much the same general type, obtained by the Princeton ex-
pedition at collecting locality 1000C.

SES)
Fic. 7. Navicular bone of gravigrade edentate, upper and lower views, two
thirds natural size, No. 12079.

MASTODONS.

Mastodons of two types are indicated in the Princeton Snake
Creek collection by several complete molars, most of which seem

Fic. 8. Gomphotherium sp., right last lower molar, one half natural size.
No. 12064 Princeton University Geological Museum, collecting locality 1000 A.

84 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,

referable to Gomphotherium, with a last lower molar carrying four
cross-crests and a heel and having the intervening valleys blocked
by large accessory tubercles (Fig. 8). A smaller form (Fig. 9),
also with four cross-crests and a heel in mz, has the summits of the
crests much more acute than in the Gomphotherium type and the
valleys as free from accessory tubercles as in the corresponding
tooth of Mastodon americanus to which the Snake Creek form is,
possibly, related. Accessory ridges occur on the front and rear of
the external half of each crest, but are no more strongly developed
than in M. americanus. The last lower molar of the latter does
not decrease in width posteriorly as rapidly as does the tooth here
considered, but in other respects they closely resemble each other.
The crown is unworn and there is no trace of cement.

Fic. 9. ?Mastodon sp., left last lower molar, two thirds natural size.
No. 12116 Princeton University Geological Museum, collecting locality 1000 A.

INCERT# SEDIS.

A fragment of the left ramus of a lower jaw, No. 12091 Prince-
ton University Geological Museum, collecting locality 1000A, has
not been determined generically (Fig. 10). The specimen shows
alveoli for two incisors and part of the root of a third. The first
alveolus is very large and shallow and the second narrow and deep.
The fragment of the root of the third incisor is strongly compressed

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. 85

laterally and almost quadrangular in cross-section. ‘These are fol-
lowed after an intervening space, throughout which the dental
margin of the ramus is broken, by a small, single-rooted, conical

Fic. 10. Genus incert. sed. No. 12091, a fragment of the left ramus of the
lower jaw, outer side, two thirds natural size.

tooth with enamel-covered crown. A second diastema, with un-
damaged margin, separates this tooth from the anterior root of a
large, evidently deciduous tooth, beneath which, in the jaw, is the
cavity for a still larger permanent tooth. The root of 1, seems to
have projected into this cavity where it has been truncated by ab-
sorption. The symphysis is firmly fused, a small portion of the
right ramus adhering to the left one and showing part of the al-
veolus for the first incisor of the right side.

MEASUREMENTS.
iz, anteroposterior diameter of alveolus (approximate) ...... 23
iz,transverse diameter of alveolus (approximate) ........... 18%
iz, anteroposterior diameter of alveolus (approximate) ...... 6%
iz, transverse diameter of alveolus (approximate) ........... 9
iz, anteroposterior diameter of roOt .............eeeeseeveees 16
IpAbhATISVeTSemalameter lO GOot, Meneame ee rane cite cc. os 9

Remanteropostemorm and transverse diametersunace saree. eels 6

86 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,
ens thwotediastennainc—-cpise ns ok seen en eet ney ney ee 15
Depthyoriawabelow middle omdpye cree eee eee 107
Thickness of jaw at level of mental foramen ................ 45

ARCHOHIPPUS sp.

A small short-crowned pz of the right side (No. 12128 Prince-
ton University Geological Museum, colecting locality 1o00B) agrees
in structure with the upper teeth of Archeohippus in the complete
union of the metaloph and ectoloph, the distinct protoconule, and
open prefossette, there being no anterior median enamel fold on
the wall of the metaloph. This horse has not been reported hith-
erto from any horizon above the Middle Miocene Mascall beds of

Oregon.
MEASUREMENTS.
Greatestuanteroposterior diameten ane eee eeeeeee 13
Greatestatransversendiametenma ser er eer en ener er eeerr 13

PRONOMOTHERIUM SIOUENSE sp. nov.

Type No. 12057 Princeton University Geological Museum, col-
lecting locality 1000C, the right ramus of the lower jaw with p;-mz
and alveoli of iz-c. Tooth crowns worn. A smaller form than

A
l

I ‘a
rt
i

fl
lA

Fic. 11. Pronomotherium siouense, lower jaw, type specimen, external view,

x

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. 87

either of the better known Miocene species (P. laticeps and P. al-

tiramis) from which it can be separated by differences both in size
and proportions.

MEASUREMENTS.
ILEUM. OLESEN? hs cerns GieaR hy era CLETUS ee 208
De ptlimbetleatliap yest cress eic cece cs avery aS eM) rate Searle 57
Den thmbemeatlaiymnaie sec yrs siya soc RR er Oa a anaes: 53
Depthehenecathmbackapantotemsee A eee ree en roe 55
Depthebenearhplastulobenotensy assert le 04
Depthecoronordmtomancleme ays a eee 147
Wengtimiowenmedentalysenesunn sss aoe aes cols 132 +
Wensthy lower premolar-molar series ..j92.s0e cose aes soso. 125
enctimlowerspremolarnsenlesme. waa icc ian eeririer irra: 50
Wencthwlowerpsmolarseriessa yeti eee eee ce 75

PROTOLABIS PRINCETONIANUS sp. nov.

Type No. 12053 Princeton University Geological Museum, col-
lecting locality 1000C, an uncrushed skull, sand-worn on the right
side which lay uppermost, associated with most of the left ramus
of the lower jaw, a fragment of the right ramus and an ulna-radius.
The limb bone belongs to a camel but may not pertain to the same
individual as the skull. In size, there is close agreement with Proto-
labis longiceps Matthew from the Colorado Loup Fork (Pawnee
Creek beds), but a comparison of the two skulls brings out certain
minor differences which appear to be of specific value. In P. prince-
tonianus, the anterior facial vacuity is far larger than in the Col-
orado form, with the premaxille extending above it and reaching
farther back than in that species. Another marked difference ap-
pears in the absence of an abrupt constriction of the face in front of
p2 which produces the sudden incurving of the tooth row seen in
longiceps in contrast with the gradual taper of this region in the
Princeton specimen. Various differences in dental structures are
also noticeable, as follows: p® thicker and heavier and p23 less re-
duced and with posteroexternal groove deeper than in P. longiceps;
p+, if anything, larger in longiceps than in princetonianus. Lower
premolars somewhat less reduced and molar crowns somewhat
higher, and posteroexternal groove in py placed nearer hinder end
of tooth than in longiceps; pz with distinct anterior cusp which is
absent in the last named form.

[April 24

SINCL
AIR—
ADDITIONS TO
FAUN
A OF

88

|}
I
)
5 pis J U . . .
1
. d

Pu

= wut

~
v.
=
-
=e

98

LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS.

I915.]

‘ESOTI “ON ‘9zIS [einjeu
Sp4ly} OMY “Y}99} JOMOT puke Joddn oy} JO MIA UMOID ‘UDUTIDAdS dA} ‘SnuvIUOJaIUIAd S1qn]OJO4G “EL “DIY

SMM, >

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV, 217, G, PRINTED JULY 6, IQ15.

90 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF LApril 24,

MEASUREMENTS.

hotalelengthyotsskulll (incisors: to condyles) ia ase see eee 310
eng tei imo: ants tascn Rae ea ee right 195, left 199
enolase py tari sea ah irae p ue UUs eae meee right 121, left 127
engthyapremolanusenicsn nee right 59%,left 64
Eenothidiastemabenindtinama. seem eeicn ne eee eiote ste eit . @
Wensthandiastemanbpehind ace seer 18

Wenotheadiastemanbelindy ps4. ss arena ee so snkeme in, Werte 20)
Kensthmlowermpremolar-molagesenesien eerie tee e eee ener 106
Renethmlowerspremolarsecs cher eae oe OL cere eer rne 33
Depthvorawanywirontolip ees ner ete Meee ee eee 32
Depthrotsiawabelowsaniddletot misses eee eee 40
enc tlimoieeracirss oy ale a le Oke os eae ee Re 195
Wadthioteradialéshartatamiddilemeneur eas lyse eet ee eee 2.

DREPANOMERYX FALCIFORMIS gen. et sp. nov.

Type No. 12072 Princeton University Geological Museum, col-
lecting locality 1000C, a horn of the left side (lacking tip) and the
basal portion of the right horn (Figs. 14, 15).

Frontal not cavernous at base of horns. Horns non-deciduous,
rising immediately above upper posterior margin of orbit, sloping
backward and upward and at the same time curving inward, at
base almost circular, but flattening upward in the transverse piane
extending backward and inward from the orbits, producing a scimi-
tar-like structure which curves inward toward its fellow on the op-
posite side. Horns without any suggestion of twist, proximal half
comparatively smooth and free from pits and irregularities, such
faint groovings as are present being longitudinal. Distally, and es-
pecially toward the outer margin, the surface is rough and pitted,
but this seems to be due to sand-blasting or water-wear which has
destroyed the outer table of bone. A broad groove is visible
throughout the central portion of the shaft on the posterior aspect
of the horn. Horns solid throughout, the surface, texture resem-
bling that of the Pronghorn Antelope.

No teeth have been found in the Snake Creek beds which can be
referred, even provisionally, to the new form, unless those which
have been correlated by Matthew and Cook with their Neotra-
gocerus improvisus, and the lower jaw described under that genus
in the present paper, should be associated with the curved type of
horn found in Drepanomeryx rather than with the straight horns of
Neotragocerus.

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. on

Fic. 14. Drepanomeryx falciformis, type specimen, lateral aspect of the
left horn, one half natural size, No. 12072. 1, m, a in cross-sections = lateral,
median and anterior margins.

[April 24.

SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF

92

“WIWeIOZ [eYqsovsdns ‘gs {surssew JOMsjue pue uerpour ‘[esoye] — suO!oaIS-sso19 UT VY “UW ‘) “zLOZI

‘ON ‘ozIS [eIN}eU F]eY 9UO “UIOY IJe] dy} JO JOodse sor19}Ue “MaUITDads 9dAq ‘sumsofiaof vtsamoungasq “Si “D1

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS.

cr een

ATLL

yy
iy
Mn

My,

?Neotragocerus improvisus, left ramus of the lower jaw, side view, and crown view of the teeth, two

Fic. 16.

thirds natural size, No. 12106.

94 SINCLAIR—ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OF [April 24,

NEOTRAGOCERUS IMPROVISUS Matthew and Cook.

The left ramus of a lower jaw (No. 12106 Princeton University
Geological Museum, collecting locality 1000C), which is doubtfully
referred to this form, supports brachyodont molars which register
almost exactly with the upper teeth selected by Matthew and Cook
as paratypes of Neotragocerus improvisus. With the discovery in
the Snake Creek beds of scimitar-shaped horns (Drepanomery«
gen. nov.), presumably of antelope-like animals, correlation of the
straight Neotragocerus type of horn with jaw fragments, both upper
and lower, supporting short-crowned teeth becomes even more pro-
visional than it has hitherto been, since either type of horn is large
enough to fit an animal of the size of those to which the jaws be-
longed.

DROMOMERYX WHITFORDI sp. Nov.

Type No. 12054 Princeton University Geological Museum, col-
lecting locality ToooC, an associated pair of horn bases (Fig. 17).
Paratype No. 12086 Princeton University Geological Museum, the
right ramus of a lower jaw, unassociated with the horns but from
the same collecting locality (Fig. 18). The species is named in
honor of my assistant in the field, Mr. A. C. Whitford. Horn
bases about one third wider than in D. borealis, with the posterior
upper corner of the wing-like expansion at the base of the horn

Fic. 17. Dromomeryx whitfordi, type specimen, base of left horn, outer side,
two thirds natural size. One of an associated pair, No. 12054.

1915.] LOWER PLIOCENE SNAKE CREEK BEDS. 95

sharply angular instead of a flowing curve as in D. borealis. Lower
jaw of practically the same size as in that species and dentition
not specifically separable therefrom.

The inclusion in the same new species of type material not
found associated is most unsafe. In this instance it seems justi-
fiable because the collections made by two parties (American Mu-
seum and Princeton) have shown the presence of but one species
of Dromomeryx in the Snake Creek beds, the so-called Paleomeryx
of Matthew and Cook being undoubtedly Dromomeryx and not
separable from the new species here described.

Fic. 18. Dromomeryx whitfordi, paratype, right ramus of the lower jaw,
side view, and crown view of the teeth, two thirds natural size, No. 12086.
The distance from p;-myis a little greater in the crown view, owing to elimi-
nation in the drawing of the fore-shortening due to curvature of dental series.

Soak Al

MEASUREMENTS.

Width of horn-base across middle of wing-like process ...... 73
Anteroposterior diameter of beam three inches above base ... 30
Transverse diameter of beam three inches above base ........ 25
Weonthep, 1m. measuneduas, Chordsois are merece ia el 109

i We srenelany ri otras Pes Pe He IRE, costs a cis to Roper ME RVO RII ae tana 67%
Dp MANTELOPOStEHIOT 2) su LHANSVELSele atin eet yey vercicletst 674
Day AMESCOOSUanKONn WW, TERANIENKSENS ‘ooadoosaceusooegnodocdo5o 10
Dee) IMIS NOG IOIe IG, WWIAKSIASS Gocoondcodonssegoc0dda0g0K0d 10%
TA ATSODOSMSGIOM 17, REOTSHSS ooccoonnsesoolbsooaocndondds 14
il, HAMtEEOPOStehiOn |1O)s. trans Verses. ein -Pit-leiaicies) aver oe 15
Mz; ZVNUSTODOSUS MOI? Bil, WRNTISHKSPIS ooocooancsc4000000000000000 15
Depin Or jenny Demeeda De sogocaccboooooccdog0 codon DOB OOO O> 31
Dentiimotasawalbetleatiertig tyeteisier ater yrs tert tere fate terror ial erers 314%

Princeton University, April, 1915.

EXPLORATIONS OVER THE VIBRATING SURFACES OF
TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS UNDER SIMPLE
IMPRESSED TONES.

IBA Joly [dy II SININPDILIONS Aap) JEL, ©), AWA WILLIE,
(Read April 22, 1915.)

The following research was carried on, at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, under an appropriation from the American
Telephone & Telegraph Co. during the year 1914-1915. The ex-
perimental work was carried out at Pierce Hall, Harvard University.

The object of the investigation was to explore the amplitude of
the small harmonic vibrations of a circular diaphragm of telephonic
type, clamped around the edge, and to compare the observed val-
ues with those which had been already deduced mathematically.
Hitherto, so far as we are aware, the amplitude of vibration of a
telephone diaphragm has been determined only at one point on
the surface, usually the center,t The observations here reported
differ from those heretofore obtained, in extending over the entire
surface of the diaphragms.

EXPLORING APPARATUS.

The exploring device, or “explorer,” devised and constructed
for this research, consists of a tiny triangular mirror fastened to a
little phosphor-bronze stirrup strip, and having its point applied,
by means of torsion in the strip, to the surface of the vibrating dia-
phragm at the point to be explored. The natural frequency of the
mirror being much greater than that impressed on the diaphragm,
the mirror is able to follow the vibrations of the latter, without
breaking out of contact. The pressure exerted by the mirror on
the diaphragm is so small as not materially to affect the diaphragm’s
vibration. A beam of light, reflected from the mirror on to a trans-
lucent scale, was thus set into vibrations synchronous with, and

1 See Appended Bibliography, Nos. 2, 4, 7, 9 and to.
96

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. Se

proportional to, the vibrations of the diaphragm at the point of
contact.

The vibration explorer is shown in side elevation at Fig. 1, in
top view at Fig. 2, and in section, through center of the diaphragm,
in Fig. 3. A fairly massive rectangular brass frame holds a plate
sliding in grooves. The crank at the bottom of Fig. 1 controls this

= Set Screw q
LH (i \
{=
——
"Tt

Crank governin
rotation of - 9

Crank governing /ineor
motion of Diaphragm.

Crank and Bearing
at End of Explorer

Piaf.

IGS. Fic, 2.
sliding motion, with the aid of the set screw at the other end. At
the center of the sliding plate is a circular frame, into which is
clamped the diaphragm to be tested. The circular frame can be
rotated in its own plane by means of the crank at the right hand
On lige Ie

98 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April <2,

A stout brass bridge is fastened to the sides of the rectangular
frame. At the center of this bridge is the mirror-holder shown in
detail at Fig. 3. The mirror-holder slides in a groove provided in
the bridge, and is clamped therein by a clamping screw S. A fine-
motion screw M is also provided, for adjusting the position of the
mirror. One turn of M advances the mirror 0.8 mm. (1/32 inch).
By means of an auxiliary mirror fastened beneath the top of the
screw M, the angle through which the screw is advanced may be

' - a
? va Diaphragm
Top View of Bridge Enlarged View
and Mirror Holder. of Stirrup anda
ftrror.
marae)
° tom

- Angle turned by Adjusting

Screw in Cal/ bration,

Bridge

C4
Seon iS

yes ae eames een

SECTION! THROUGH

DIAPHRAGM.
FUE ED APPARATUS FOR EXPLORING THE VIBRATION
GR TO ae OS Oak oF DIAPHRAGMS.

measured, for calibrating the indications of the instrument. Ad-
: ; 0.8
justment can be made to I deg. of rotation, or 2.24; 1. e. 360 mm.

assuming that backlash is guarded against.

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 99

The construction of the apparatus is such, that the mirror is held
at all times at the center of the brass rectangular frame; while by
means of the two crank adjustments, the diaphragm to be explored
can be moved so as to bring any part of its surface beneath the
mirror. With the aid of the scales of distance and angle shown in
Fig. 1, the position of the mirror with respect to the diaphragm
can be adjusted and read off to polar coordinates (7, 0). The
motion in 7 is controlled by the crank at the bottom, to 0.1 mm.;
while the angular motion in @ is controlled by the crank at the side,
to 1°, or less if desired. ‘The slide is held in position by flat springs,
attached to the rectangular frame, so as to keep the motion of the
slide confined to its own plane. A similar construction is used
with the circular frame. It is important that the plane of the dia-
phragm shall not be disturbed when either crank is operated. The
weight of the whole explorer is 4.63 kgs. (10.2 lbs).

A magnified view of the mirror, and its stirrup frame, is shown
at the top of Fig. 3. The mirror, of silvered glass, about 0.1 mm.
thick, is cut in the shape of an equilateral triangle, about I mm. in
length of side. One vertex of the mirror is applied to the surface
of the diaphragm, and the mirror is fastened with sealing wax
across a thin phosphor-bronze strip. This strip 1s approximately
3 mm. long between abutments, 0.02 mm. wide, and 0.013 mm. thick.
The weight of the mirror is about 1 milligram, without varnish or
sealing wax. Its natural frequency of vibration, as obtained pho-
tographically, is about 2,500 ~. ‘These little mirrors are apt to
break off the stirrup strip; so that they have to be renewed and re-
calibrated occasionally. The pressure exerted on the diaphragm by
the point of the mirror, as measured by an auxiliary test, is approxt-
mately 200 dynes (204 mgm. wt.). <A pressure of this order seems
to be desirable, so as to obtain a natural frequency of 2,500 ~.
If, however, explorations are confined to lower diaphragm fre-
quencies, the natural frequency of the explorer mirror, and its pres-
sure on the diaphragm, may be reduced accordingly.

The diaphragm to be explored is 5.4 cm. in diameter, and is
placed in the circular frame. It is clamped tightly into this frame,
with the ring clamp shown in Fig. 3, which had a radius of 2.62 cm.
when no auxiliary clamping rings were used. The vibration explorer

100 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

is then suspended on wires from the ceiling, or other convenient
support, in order to suppress building vibrations of high frequency ;
so as to support the explored diaphragm in a vertical plane. The
mirror-holder is then advanced towards the diaphragm, and clamped
by screw S. The mirror is now carefully brought into contact with
the surface of the diaphragm by adjusting screw M. A picture of
the explorer is presented in Fig. 4. The suspension wires wz,

Fic. 4. Vibration Explorer in Booth.

support the instrument. The condensing and focusing lens 7
throws a narrow arc-light beam upon the exploring mirror, which
reflects it on to the translucent graduated screen F. With the dia-
phragm at rest, the spot on this screen is a narrow, sharp, vertical,
luminous strip. When the diaphragm is set in vibration, the mirror
in contact with it vibrates synchronously, and the spot is spread
into a luminous band, the limits of which are easily read on the
graduated translucent scale. If the motions of diaphragm and mirror
are simple harmonic motions, the luminous band shows no discontinu-
ities of intensity. If, however, there is a complex harmonic motion
in the diaphragm, the luminous band will show bright and dark

1915. ] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 101

patches, either quiescent, or with beats. By means of the optical
magnification of amplitude that can be effected with such an ex-
ploring mirror and scale, diaphragm vibrations of amplitude 0.1 p
(1. €., 10°° cm.), or less, can be observed; although the precision of
measurement falls off considerably, for a diaphragm amplitude
below 0.5» (half a micron).

OPTICAL SYSTEM.

The optical system employed with the vibration explorer is dia-
grammatically indicated in Fig. 5. The stereopticon arc-lamp A
throws a powerful condensed beam of light on the pinhole B, in a
brass vertical screen. A set of small powerful collimating lenses C

Screen with i Screen with

Pin Hole \ ON
els H Je.
Pe y ‘D ee } ia Mirrery Diaphragm
= Be le Oe ,
eee v
oe ih
Bo Wy *
Se LD) Vbration
- & ae Explorer.

Spot of Light
ona Scale

Fic. 5. Diagram of Optical System used with Vibration Explorer.

throws the nearly paralleled beam through the screen and slit D, as
well as the focussing lens H, on the exploring mirror E, whence
it is reflected to the translucent screen F, at a convenient distance,
in this case 25 cm. An image of the slit in screen D is then sharply
focused at F. In Fig. 6, it is indicated geometrically that the ampli-
tude e of the diaphragm’s displacement is equal to the continued
product of the observed amplitude d of the luminous band, the ratio
of / (the radius arm of the mirror), to 2L the double distance of
the mirror from the screen, and the cosine of the angle @ between
the radius arm of the mirror and the plane of the diaphragm. In
order to avoid frequent changes in ¢, it is desirable to keep con-
stant the zero of the spot at the center of the graduated scale F,
and with it the contacting angle of the mirror. The numerical

102 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

expression M—2L/lcos¢ may be called the magnification-factor
of the explorer. As ordinarily employed, 2L 50 cm., 10.05
cm., 6=45° approximately, or cos ¢=0:7; so that M = 1,400
approximately, varying in different sets of measurements between

Beam of Light
from Are.

Dotted lines refer to /
deflected position of /
diaphragm.

Fic. 6. Diagram Showing Action between Mirror and Diaphragm in Explorer.

800 and 1,500. Had it been necessary, this magnification-factor
might have been considerably increased, by increasing the distance
L between mirror and scale; although the reduction in luminous-
spot intensity, at increasing ranges, prevents the precision of the
observations from increasing in the same proportion as the magni-
fication-factor. At L=—=25 cm., the amplitude of luminous band
could be read to 0.1 mm. on the graduated translucent scale F.

Source OF DIAPHRAGM VIBRATIONS.

Two sources of vibrations were used in different series of tests,
(1) acoustic, (2) electromagnetic.

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 103

(1) The acoustic vibrations were supplied from one of a series
of small organ-pipes, giving fairly simple musical tones between C,
of 128 ~, and C, of 2,048 ~. The organ-pipe selected was mounted
vertically in a block on the table, at the back of the vibration ex-
plorer, and supplied with air at constant pressure (about 18 cm. of
water) from a pneumatic tank. The whole apparatus was placed
inside a sound-damping wooden-frame booth (274 cm. & 183 cm.
214 cm. high), lined on the inside with hair-felt, 2.5 cm. thick, sur-
faced with thin cloth. The observer, after turning on the air to the
organ-pipe, observed the amplitude of the luminous band on the
translucent screen Ff, Figs. 4 to 6, as the mirror was applied to
different successive points on the diaphragm.

(2) The clamping ring of the diaphragm in the explorer was
chosen of such dimensions that a standard telephone receiver could
be substituted for it. In this case, a steel diaphragm had to be
employed. The telephone was then operated by a feeble measured
alternating current (2.0 milliamperes) obtained from a Vreeland
mercury-arc oscillator having a frequency adjustable, by successive
steps, between 430 — and 2,500 —.*

EXPLORATION WITH DIAPHRAGM No. I.

Diaphragm No. 1 was a telephone-receiver diaphragm of steel,
japanned on one side. Its dimensions are given in Table III. The
diaphragm was clamped, around the boundary, between opposing
circular knife-edges.

ADAM BIEIS, I,

VIBRATION AMPLITUDES OVER DiaPpHRAGM No. 1, AT FREQUENCY 608—~, FOR
Nine Dirrerent AZIMUTHS 0, AND SEVEN DIFFERENT RADIAL DISTANCES ©.

Radial Vibration Amplitude Observed with Explorer (Microns) at Different Azimuths 9.
Distance,

r 0° 40° 80° 120° 160° 200° 240° 280° 320°
Cm. Me I Mo Me Me | Me Me Me Me
—0.08 13.8 20 11.7 14.0 13.4 10.4 10.8 13.3 12.0
+0.31 TT 10.9 IIe? UAB 12.7 9.7 10.6 12.6 Ir.6
+0.69 9.7 8.0 8.9 10.4 10.4 8.1 8.8 I1.5 9.5
+1.06 6.6 5-9 6.4 6.8 7.0 6.2 6.4 4.1 6.8
+1.44 4.2 3.6 4.2 4-7 4.5 4.1 4.2 4.9 4.3
--1.82 BoB 2.2 2.1 De BI BoB 2.4 2.5 2.4
+2.20 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8
+2.54 (0) (0) fo) fo) fo) (6) (0) (0) (0)

2See Bibliography No. 5.

104 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER | [April 22,

An organ-pipe of D% (608 ~) was set up with its lip 5 cm. from
the back of the diaphragm. An exploration was then made over the
surface, at points differing by 40° in azimuth 6, and at successive
increases in radius of about 3.3 mm. (7 steps in r, and 9 steps in 9,
or 63 observations in all.) The preceding table gives the observed
amplitudes of vibration deduced from the scale-deflections, with a
magnification factor of 1/ =1,180.

It will be seen from the above table, that at any particular
radius r, measured from the center of the diaphragm, the amplitudes
at varying azimuths @ are substantially equal. The irregularities
are small, but nevertheless seem larger than can be accounted for
by errors in observations and are, perhaps, due to irregularities in
the diaphragm. Fig. 7 shows the contour lines of vibration-ampli-
tude in microns, the maximum amplitude being at or near the
center, and amounting to 14. Such vibration amplitudes are
larger than were usually obtained, and were specially reinforced in
this case, in order to secure large deflections. It will be seen from
the contour diagram, that the diaphragm was vibrating with its
fundamental or gravest mode of motion; 7. e., a motion to-and-fro
as a whole, without either nodal diameters or nodal circles. It is
known that a circular diaphragm, clamped at the edge, is capable of
vibrating in an indefinitely large number of ways, according to the

Fic. 7. Fic. 8.
VIBRATION AMPLITUDE VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
IN MICRONS. IN) MICRONS.
608 Z100~W-w.

DIAPHRAGM No.l. DIAPHRAGM No.|.

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 105

number of nodal circles, and also according to the number of nodal
diameters present.?

A similar exploration was made over the diaphragm, with
acoustic excitation from an organ-pipe giving C, (2,100 ~). Here
the points of observation were in steps of about 3.3 mm. in 7, and in
steps of 40° in @, as before, with magnification-factor, M — 1,265.

TABLE 1f

VIBRATION AMPLITUDES OVER DiAPHRAGM No. I, AT FREQUENCY 2,100~, FOR
Nine Dirrerent AZIMUTHS 6, AND SEVEN DIFFERENT RADIAL DISTANCES
r, Five ONLy GiviInG READABLE DEFLECTIONS.

Radial Vibration Amplitude Observed, with Explorer, at Different Azimuths 6.
Distance, Nl
r 0° AOS PRE SOe 120° 160° 200° 240° 280° 320°

cm. Me I Me Me i Me be Me Me

—0.08 0.70 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.87 1.02 0.95 0.87 0.95
+0.31 | 0.70 0.87 | 0.87 0.78 0.78 1.02 0.87 0.78 0.87
+0.69 0.62 0.78 | 0.78 0.62 0.62 0.78 0.62 0.62 0.78
+1.06 0.31 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.62

+1.44 | 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.23
1.82 = — —- — — — — — —
++2.20 mee = — — — —— — == —
+2.54 fo) fe) fo) fo) fo) O (0) fo) fo)

The vibration contour-lines for this case are given in Fig. 8.
Here again it is seen that, setting aside irregularities in the dia-
phragm, and allowing for errors of observation (which are more
noticeable with the small amplitudes of higher pitch), the mode of
vibration is essentially fundamental, since there are no perceptible
nodal circles or nodal diameters.

Having thus ascertained that both at pitch Dj (608 ~), and at
CQ), the first mode of vibration was presented, a series
of careful explorations were made at a number of intermediate
pitches. These likewise all showed the first or fundamental mode
of vibration. See Table ITA.

Observations were also made, at organ-pipe frequencies down to
128 ~. [Explorations would be very difficult to obtain on this
diaphragm at such low frequencies, owing to the small vibration
amplitudes produced ; but the indications were that the fundamental
mode of vibration was maintained throughout.

3 See Appendix I.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV, 217, H, PRINTED JULY 6, 1915.

106 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

The conclusion, therefore, seems warranted that, for this par-
ticular steel telephone diaphragm, acoustically excited to frequencies
as high as 2,100 ~, the fundamental mode of vibration is the only
one that is maintained. If any higher modes of motion were
present, they were too faint to be discerned. This does not mean
that higher modes of motion could not be produced by any kind of
excitation within the above ranges of frequency. The effects of
very powerful vibrations were not investigated.

Since the natural frequency of this diaphragm, with flat clamp-
ing, was observed to be 2,824 ~, and since, according to Bessel-
Function theory, the natural frequency of the second mode of mo-
tion should be 2.09”,, we should naturally expect to find this
second mode of motion appearing at and above 1,720 ~. Its non-
appearance may have been due to the uniformity of acoustic im-
pressed force over the surface, which would tend to favor the first
rather than the second mode of forced vibration.

The vibration-amplitude of the diaphragm was found to vary

widely with the pitch of the exciting source. At or near the natural

TABI ITA:

SHOWING FUNDAMENTAL MopbeE oF VIBRATION MAINTAINED FOR A RANGE OF
oF FREQUENCIES FROM 400 ~ TO 1,800™.
Amplitudes of Vibration in Microns (#) along Radius of Diaphragm No. 1,
Flat-Clamped. n,=704~.

Frequency of Vibration.

Radial
Distance,
r 400 ~ 500 ~ 750~ I,ooo~ | 1,250~ 1,500 ~ 1,800 ~
Cm. | be I oe be a Me
O4 8 1.6 7.8 123 12} Xe) 33
2 8 1.6 eal 1.3 Te? 9 3B
54 oF 1.5 DoF Hodl Tol 8 eS
-79 6 I.4 6.3 9 9 6 32
1.04 05 i483 5-3 8 8 5 32
1.29 4 1.0 3.8 5 .6 5B oll
Ty 2 M7 3.0 3 A 3 +
1.79 gil 4 1.9 | 2 B pit —+
2.04 ap 383 ig} I oll + =
2.30 = AT 8 — =e = =
2.05 (0) (6) (0) (o) (0) (0) fo)

fundamental frequency of the diaphragm, the amplitude of the
Either above or below this

vibratory response was a maximum.

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 107

Fic. 9
FRESONANCE CURVE
DIAPHRAGM No.2.

d
Nn ie) Ve) Ne no ~

“SUOIDIW - Udl{DAqIA $0 apnyijdwy

500

- Cycles per Second.

Frequency

108 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

resonant frequency, the amplitude of vibration, shown by the ex-
plorer, fell off very markedly. The curve of relative amplitude at
different frequencies is indicated in Fig. 9. It will be seen that
when exciting the diaphragm with vibrations remote from the
resonant frequency in either direction, the amplitude becomes so
small that the degree of precision which may be obtainable near
resonance is impossible to secure. The outline theory for this
resonance curve, Fig. 9, is given in Appendix II. It is shown that
if we multiply the successive ordinates by »==2, the resulting
velocity-values correspond to vector chords on a certain velocity
circle.

Fig. 1B of Appendix I. gives the graph of the explored vibration
amplitudes, at successive radial distances from the center of dia-
phragm No. 1, for the frequency 896 ~. It will be seen that the
amplitude falls off smoothly from a maximum at or near the center
(r=0), to zero at the flat-clamped edge (r= 2.62). The applica-
tion of Rayleigh’s theory of free vibration to these curves is given
in Appendix I. In general, the agreement between the acoustically
forced amplitudes and theoretically computed free amplitudes was
satisfactory.

At or near the resonant frequency, or natural frequency of a
diaphragm, especially when its damping coefficient is small, so that
the resonance is sharp, a small change either in impressed frequency,
or in the constants of the diaphragm due to change of temperature,
may have an appreciable influence upon the amplitude of vibration.
In other words, although the observed amplitudes are relatively
large, and the precision of measurement is seemingly high, yet the
system is in a virtually unstable condition. Consequently, although
there is no reason to suppose that the conditions at resonance differ
from those off resonance, nevertheless, when a reliable and repro-
ducible set of observations of amplitude distribution is desired, it is
advisable to select a frequency not too close to resonance, or say of
about half the resonant amplitude.

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 109

APPLICATION OF CIRCULAR VELOCITY-DIAGRAM THEORY TO
RESULTS OF EXPLORATIONS.

It is shown in the first-approximation theory of Appendix IL,
that the behavior at the center of a flat-clamped circular diaphragm,
subject to constant vibro-motive force of varying frequency, can be
completely predicated, if three constants of the diaphragm are
known ;* namely,

(1) the “equivalent mass” m (gm.),

(2) the elastic constant s (dynes per cm. of displacement at

center),

(3) the mechanical resistance r (dynes per unit velocity at

center).
All these three constants can be obtained, for an acoustically excited
diaphragm, with the aid of the vibration explorer.

DETERMINATION OF m.

In order to determine the equivalent mass of a diaphragm, it
is necessary to know the distribution of amplitude over the entire
vibrating surface. As is shown in Appendix III., when the dis-
tribution of amplitude conforms regularly with the Rayleigh
formula, it would appear that the equivalent mass 1s 0.183 times the
mass of the circular vibrating plate. If, however, the distribution
of amplitude is irregular, such as may be produced by bipolar elec-
tromagnetic excitation of a telephone-receiver diaphragm, the coeffi-
cient 0.183 cannot be depended upon, and the proper coefficient must
be determined by some process of quadrature, such as Appendix
III. describes.

rE EwAsnie, Consmana ss

The constant s is the inferred elastic resisting force, which,
acting perpendicularly upon the diaphragm’s equivalent mass (at its
center), would produce the same effect upon the vibratory motion
as the distributed elastic forces produce upon the diaphragm’s dis-
tributed mass, in the presence of the particular impressed force
distribution. The simplest way to find s is to measure the natural
fundamental frequency 1, of the diaphragm, by exciting it with an

4 See Bibliography No. 8.

110 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

organ-pipe of adjustable pitch, tuned to produce the maximum vibra-
tory amplitude at the center. As shown in Appendix II., the con-
stant s is then the product of the equivalent mass m and the square
of the resonant angular velocity ,.

A series of statical measurements were made, by applying small
tensions f;, by means of a calibrated spring, to the center of the
diaphragm, and observing, with the aid of the explorer, the central
displacements w;,, thereby produced. It was found, as might be
expected, that the ratio of f; to w, was constant, so long as the latter
did not exceed 18. Moreover, the value of s obtained from fs/ws
was approximately the same as that obtained from formula (9),
App. II. This static method of finding s, however, is inferior to
the resonance method, because precise static measurements are
difficult to obtain. The application of electro-magnetic excitation
to a steel diaphragm also imposes residual stresses, which make the
use of the static method unreliable.

Tue MECHANICAL RESISTANCE fF.

The constant r was measured, with the explorer, by photograph-
ing the decay curve of vibration amplitude on a moving photo-
graphic film, when the diaphragm was tapped at the center, and
allowed to return to the equilibrium position under its own damping
forces. It is shown in Appendix II., that the resistance r is twice
the natural frequency multiplied by the equivalent mass and the
logarithmic decrement. Fig. ro is a tracing from a photograph of

Fic. 10. Tracing from Photograph of Decay Curve. Diaphragm No. I.

the curve of decay. A small camera, represented in Fig. 11, was
set up in front of the explorer, containing a photographic film
wrapped around a metal drum. The drum was motor driven at a
peripheral speed of approximately 4 meters per second, and the
shutter was opened at the time of tapping the diaphragm. The
logarithmic decrement of this curve is 0.184, at the frequency of
824 ~; so that with an equivalent mass m of 1.09 gm. the value of

1915. ] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. IL

r becomes 328 dynes per cm. per sec. The precision in measuring
r by this method is relatively low, owing to the difficulty in measur-
ing the successive amplitudes with accuracy, on a curve of such
small dimensions.

Since, as is shown in Appendix II., a circular diaphragm, in its
fundamental mode of motion, ordinarily develops a circular graph
of velocity, at varying impressed frequency, with constant vibro-

Fig lt.
OQound -Wave Camera.

1

motive force, the plan has suggested itself, in the course of this
research, to use the circle-velocity diagram of a diaphragm for com-
paring the vibro-motive forces (vmf.’s) of different organ-pipes.
In this connection, the vmf. of a pipe at the exploring diaghragm,
may be defined as its harmonically varying pressure f—Fe*’
(dynes) produced, at the diaphragm, by the pipe, under the geo-
metrical conditions of the system, including acoustic reflections from
walls, or other objects in the room, on both surfaces of the explor-
ing diaphragm. In the simplest, or standard, geometrical condition,
the standard vmf., which is proportional to the square root of the
sound intensity® at the diaphragm, would be observed in free space,
with the orifice of the pipe facing the diaphragm at a definite dis-
tance, and with the diaphragm perpendicular to the line joining
them. It is our understanding that there is, as yet, no simple pub-
lished method of measuring the vmf. of organ pipes, of different

5 Bibliography 6, Barton, “ Text Book of Sound,” p. 211, par. 146. Mac-
millan Co., 1908.

112 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

sizes or pitches, at a definite distance from their orifices. If, in a
given geometrical environment, pipes of different pitches are set up,
in succession, at the same position with respect to the exploring
diaphragm, then the observed amplitudes, multiplied by the respec-
tive values of w, should lie on the velocity circle-diagram, if the
vinf.’s of the pipes are the same; assuming that the fundamental
mode of vibration is produced, that the constants of the diaphragm
remain unchanged, and that the overtones of the pipes are negligibly
small. The vector departures from the circle diagram would then
indicate the inequalities in vmf.’s.

Q
|
|
I
|
|
|
!
|

$24, Resonance Frequency

OO} — —- ----— -- - = - — - ---4}----- =

> G,

(792)

Fic. 12. Diagram Showing Strengths of Organ Pipes Given by the Vibration
of a Diaphragm.

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 113

Fig. 12 is an inverted velocity-circle diagram for Diaphragm No.
I, based upon its measured values of m, r and s. If we take the
diametral velocity OM as 5 cm. per sec., with r= 328 dynes per
cm./sec., then the vmf. which, in the particular environment of the
experiment, produced this velocity, would be 1,640 dynes, maximum
cyclic value. The particular pipe G,(792 ~), gave an observed am-
plitude at the diaphragm center, which, multiplied by o—=27 X 792,
gives the line OG, along the chord OP. ‘The phase-angle a must be
obtained by considering the mechanical reactance as in (4), App. II.
If the vmf. of this pipe were the same as that which produced OM,
this point G,, would lie on the circle. Consequently, the vmf. of the
pipe G, is to that of the pipe producing resonance, in the ratio
OG,/OP. Similarly, the vmf. of the pipe Gj (832 ~), is less than
that producing the resonant velocity, in the ratio OG7/OR. It is evi-
dent that the range of any one diaphragm, for the precise comparison
of vmf.’s from organ-pipes of different pitch, is somewhat limited. In

the case presented, 1t would not exceed one octave, since the chords
far from the resonant diameter become so short. By selecting a
diaphragm of relatively large damping constant A==r/2m, this
range can be increased. In fact, the range in w» between the quad-
rantal points QQ’ on the velocity circle, is numerically equal to r/m,
or twice the damping constant.

A succession of calibrated diaphragms with overlapping ranges
might be employed to cover the musical scale. The writers have
not attempted to compare organ-pipes for standard vmf. in this
manner. The measurements might have to be made out-of-doors.
In the sound-absorbing room in which this research was carried on,
the effect of sound reflections from walls and other objects pre-
vented any standard comparisons of vmf. from being made.

EXPLORATIONS WITH ELECTROMAGNETICALLY EXCITED DIAPHRAGMS.

In order to ascertain the effects of exciting a steel diaphragm
(No. 2) electromagnetically, a No. 144 Western Electric Bell tele-
phone receiver was screwed into the explorer, behind the diaphragm,
so as to obtain the ordinary air-gap between the diaphragm and its
two poles. The cap or screw-cover of the ordinary telephone re-

114 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

ceiver was here absent. Alternating current of 2 milliamperes
(root-mean-square) was supplied from a Vreeland oscillator, giv-
ing a close approximation to a pure sine wave, and in connection
with a Rayleigh bridge, for the simultaneous measurement of both
the resistance and inductance of the telephone receiver, at 32 fre-
quencies varying between 429 and 2,040 ~. Explorations were

VIBRATION CONTOURS
DIAPHRAGM No.2.

mice»

made at two frequencies; one, thé resonant frequency of 992 ~,
and the other slightly below this, or 974 ~. The contour lines for
the latter case are presented in Fig. 13, where the outlines of the

1915. ]

< sucudipy =

SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS.

LS
1.0

Radius - Cm,

116 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

two magnetic poles are indicated in dotted lines. It will be seen
that while the mode of motion is essentially fundamental, the ampli-
tude is not a maximum at the center, as in the ordinary acoustic
case. The maximum amplitude of 2.0p is reached in an elliptical
loop embracing the pole at the top. Inside this loop, and imme-
diately over the pole, the amplitude falls off to 1.8y. Over the
pole underneath, the amplitude is about 1.7, but there appears to
be a slight diminution between the poles. If the geometrical and
magnetic conditions of the bipolar system were perfectly sym-
metrical, these dissymmetries would presumably disappear.

The curves of mean amplitude against radial distance are pre-
sented in Fig. 14. The curve AAA corresponds to that found at
resonance, and shows that the amplitude is far from being a maxi-
mum at the center of the diaphragm, owing to the attractive forces
being established over polar areas on each side of the center. The
coefficient of equivalent mass for this curve is over 0.5.

The curve ABB gives the corresponding distribution of mean
azimuthal amplitude for the frequency of 974~. The swelling
of the amplitude over the poles is less marked in this case, and does
not materially exceed that at the center. The equivalent mass co-
efficient for this curve is 0.36, or about double that for the Rayleigh-
Bessel curve case, which is indicated by ADD. The curve ACC
gives the distribution of mean amplitude in radial distance, for an-
other steel diaphragm (No. 3) in a bipolar telephone receiver, at
the resonant frequency of 1,020 ~.

For both steel diaphragms Nos. 2 and 3, a series of central
amplitude measurements were made, with the explorer, at constant
alternating-current excitation, but adjustably varied frequency.
Simultaneous measurements were made by Mr. H. A. Affel, of the
resistance and inductance of the telephone-receiver coils, with the
diaphragm both free and damped. The explorer measurements in
both cases satisfactorily checked the electrically deduced velocity-
circle diagrams. It is proposed to report upon the electrical meas-
urements in another paper. Moreover, starting with the ampli-
tudes, measured at the center of the diaphragm, in curves A and C
of Fig. 14, the equivalent masses of the diaphragms, computed from
the electrical measurements, agreed, within a few per cent., with
those found by integrating curves A and C.

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. Wie

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS.

It was found that changes of temperature in the air surround-
ing a diaphragm had a marked effect, both upon its resonance fre-
quency, and upon its amplitudes at any frequency. The curves rep-
resenting zw against r, were apt to differ appreciably in outline from
day to day. The degree of tightness of clamping also had a marked
effect in these measurements. In general, such disturbances due to
temperature and clamping, are likely to introduce tensions in the
substance of the diaphragm, and to cause some of the characteris-
tics of vibrating membranes to be superposed upon those of a vi-
brating plate. It is, therefore, desirable that the clamping should
be effected tightly, and that the measurements should then be made
before the temperature has changed. Strictly speaking, the Ray-
leigh theory shows that there must be a marked difference in both
the resonance frequency and in the distribution of amplitudes, if
the diaphragm is clamped between circular knife edges, instead of
between circular flat rings at the boundary. The experiments have
shown that flat-ring clamping is more likely to give consistent re-
sults than knife-edge clamping. These clamping difficulties are
accentuated in thin glass diaphragms, for the boundary supporting
of which, a special technique had to be developed.

EXPLORATION OF THIN GLASS DIAPHRAGMS.

From a number of thin glass diaphragms, one Diaphragm No. 4,
was selected, on account of its uniformity in thickness. See Table
III. It was found very difficult to obtain uniform results with
this in the explorer, owing to the above mentioned troubles with
clamping. Finally, the glass diaphragm was cemented, with water
glass, to a boundary ring of glass, and this was lightly supported be-
tween the clamping rings of the explorer. The diaphragm was
then excited acoustically by organ-pipes. The natural pitch of the
diaphragm was found to be 492 ~, in the fundamental mode. On
raising the frequency, the mode of motion was found to change sud-
denly, at 968 ~, to that of a single nodal diameter, the two halves
of the diaphragm then vibrating harmonically in opposite phases.
This mode of motion continued until the frequency reached 1,696 ~,

[April 22,

KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER

118

‘Wd - SNIPBY

~

nN

2)

‘SuOIDIU - apnpadUy

t

Jajuad 40 papoo |
WOVAHdDVIG ANOHd43 13_L
SSAYND NOILVHRIA

Gi) Qs

eae

y
:
a

2
i
a

|
i
|

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 19

when the nodal diameter disappeared and gave place to a single
nodal circle. The ratios of the above three frequencies are 1: 1.97:
3.44; whereas, according to the Bessel-function theory, they should
be 1:2.09:3.91. The discrepancies may readily be accounted for
by imperfections in boundary support, or by temperature effects.
Small changes in clamping were found to exercise a marked in-
fluence on these ratios.

LOADING OF DIAPHRAGM.

In the determination of m, r and s, by electrical impedance
measurements,° only two quantitative relations between these
three constants naturally present themselves; whereas, for the
evaluation of these three unknowns, three independent quanti-
tative relations: must be experimeritally obtained. It had been
hoped to derive the missing third equation, by applying a small
known load-mass at the center of the diaphragm, and by repeating
the electrical measurements with this load in place. Electrical ex-
periments showed, however, that while, occasionally, consistent re-
sults were obtained in this way, more often the results were dis-
cordant. The reason for the discordance has been shown, from
explorations of the diaphragm, to be due to a distortion of the
amplitude curves; whereby the equivalent mass of the loaded
diaphragm is no longer the same as when unloaded.

These conditions are exhibited in the curves of Fig. 15. E
shows the w, r curve, for an unloaded telephonic steel diaphragm,
excited acoustically at n=904 ~, its natural frequency being 2, =
832 ~. The corresponding curve F is for the same diaphragm,
after being loaded at the center by a small brass cylinder of 0.536
gm. at n=816~, its new natural frequency being n,—696 ~.
After increasing the load to 1.08 gm., the new curve is shown at G
(n= 660 ~, m,=616 ~). The shapes of these three curves £,
F and G, being so different, it is evident that the equivalent mass
of the diaphragm by itself cannot be regarded as constant.

The authors are indebted to Dr. Geo. A. Campbell for a number
of valuable suggestions which he made after having read the MSS.
of this paper; also to Professor W. C. Sabine for very useful sug-
gestions, during the course of the research.

6 Bibliography No. 8.

120 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

SUMMARY.

1. The distribution of amplitudes over small circular telephonic
diaphragms, under simple impressed vibrations, has been measured,
it is believed for the first time, by means of a new and specially
constructed vibration-explorer.

2. The simple vibrations of the small steel circular diaphragms,
used in telephonic receivers, appear to belong to the fundamental
mode, within the ordinary telephonic range of intensity and fre-
quency up to 2,000 ~, with the distribution of impressed forces
here described.

3. The explorations have confirmed the working theory of the
velocity-circle diagram for such vibrations, and have afforded means
of determining the three constants m, r and s, in that theory, for
acoustically excited vibrations.

4. In the resonant condition, exploration is somewhat uncertain,
owing to slight instability in the vibratory behavior of the dia-
phragm.

5. The distribution of forced amplitude at varying radial dis-
tances, has been found to compare well with the Rayleigh theory
of freely vibrating plates, when good flat clamping around the edge
can be secured, and with acoustic excitation. The coefficient of
equivalent mass appears to be 0.183 for such a case. With electro-
magnetic excitation, the amplitude distribution may be very different
and the coefficient is ordinarily increased.

6. Loading a diaphragm with a small mass at the center, de-
creases its natural frequency, and tends to reduce the amplitude of
vibration at the center, with a relative increase at outlying points;
so that the equivalent mass of the diaphragm, considered by itself,
is apt to be changed.

7. A means is suggested, based on the velocity-circle diagram,
for comparing the acoustic intensities of organ-pipes of different
pitches.

8. The distribution of amplitudes over the surface of a steel re-
ceiving-telephone diaphragm, with bipolar electromagnetic excita-
tion, was found to be of fundamental mode, but with a tendency to
form two maxima, one over each pole. ;

g. In some small, thin, glass diaphragms, three modes of vibra-

1915. ] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 121

tory motion were observed, in the range of acoustic impressed fre-
quency up to I,700 ~.
ABER ie

Fiat CrrcuLar DIAPHRAGMS.

Thickness * NOT EAT
No. Material. Diameter, Cm. |} Over Japan, Mass, Gm. Fr ee
Gan equency ~.
I |Steel japanned...... 5.4 0.038 5.615 824
2 |Steel japanned...... Kase 0.0399 5.979 992
3 Steel japanned..... 5.48 0.031 4.181 1020
(Amma GLASS euraeas, uca ey aiclejcue 5.4 0.0108 0.6548 492

APPENDIX I.

Application of Bessel-Function Theory to a Diaphragm Vibrating
. im its Fundamental Mode.

Referring to Lord Rayleigh’s “ Theory of Sound,” Vol. 1, page
352, the formula for the instantaneous amplitude of free vibration
in a flat plate is,

Wy —=P{I,(kr) + AJ, (tkr) }cos(n@ + an)-cos(wt + €) cm., (1)
where subscript 7#—=the number of nodal diameters (numeric),
Wn, — instantaneous amplitude at a point on the diaphragm whose
polar coordinates are r cm., 6 radians (cm.)
P=constant of amplitude-magnitude (cm.),
k —a constant of the material defined by:

k=V o/c (Gi),
ca constant of the material defined by:

SEC aii ae :
C— _ ay (cm./sec.?),

g= Young’s modulus for the diaphragm material (dyne/cm.?),
p= density of the diaphragm material (gms./cm.*),
a—=Poisson’s ratio for the diaphragm material (numeric),
b=thickness of the diaphragm (cm.),
A—a constant satisfying boundary conditions (numeric),

Jn—=a Bessel’s Function of the mth order (numeric),
inv—1,

* Thickness of japan 0.0074 cm.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC,, LIV. 217 I, PRINTED JULY 6, IgI5.

122 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

An—=a phase-angle measured around the diaphragm (radians),
w == 27n — angular velocity of vibrating motion (radians/sec.),
n= frequency of diaphragm vibration (cycles/sec.),
t—time elapsed from a given epoch (seconds),
e=a time-phase determined by the epoch (seconds),
a=radius of the diaphragm (cm.).

For the fundamental mode of motion, 70; or there must be no
nodal diameters. Consequently (1) reduces to:

wo = P{Jo(kr) + AJo(ikr)} cos (wi + e) cm. (2)

Here the amplitude of vibration at any point w,, ceases to be a func-
tion of 6, and depends only on Bessel functions of r. Since we
shall consider only the fundamental mode of vibration in what fol-
lows, the subscript will be unnecessary, and we may substitute w
for Wo.

Continuing Lord Rayleigh’s method of demonstration, if a flat
circular diaphragm is clamped at its edge between a pair of flat
circular rings, then, referring to (2), we have w vanishing at r—a,
the clamping radius, and since there is to be no bending or slope of
the diaphragm at the clamped boundary, we have also (dw/dr) =o
at ga)

Entering (2) with wo, we have:

fe Jo(ka)
AGO)

numeric. (3)

Also differentiating (2) with respect to r, for r—=a, we obtain:

d
-—- = J\'(ka) + idJy (ika) = 0 numeric, (4)
whence
So (ka) i
Ns iol Gka) numeric. (5)

Combining (3) and (5) we obtain:

Jo(ka) a Jo (ka) ae Ji(ka)
J (tka) ® 1J 0 (tka) re 1J(ika)

numeric. (6)

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 123

124 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER [April 22,

This is a transcendental equation involving Bessel’s Functions of
the zeroth and first orders. It is capable of being satisfied, by trial,
with an indefinitely great number of roots, each corresponding to a
possible mode of vibration with nodal circles. Fig. 14 indicates
graphically the method of determining the successive roots of (6).
The points of intersection of the lower curve with the successive
descending branches, indicate the values of yr which satisfy
(6). In order to have the fundamental mode of vibration, there
must be no nodal circles, which means that the first and lowest root
for ka must be taken in (6). This root is at ka—= 3.196. . . . Plac-
ing this value for ka in (3) we have:

— Jo(3.196) — 0.3197
A= TiCway 0. Ba + 0.05571 numeric. (7)
Re-entering (2) with this value of A, we have for the fundamental
mode of vibration of the circular diaphragm:

Wimax == P{J, (kr) + Buen ute cna(S))

In Fig. 1B, the abscissas correspond both to kr, where k= 1.21 cm.",
and to r in cm., the relation being as already pointed out that at the
boundary y—=a—2.62 cm. and kr=3.196. The ordinates are the
numerical values of Bessel’s functions as taken from Tables. They
also represent vibratory amplitudes of the diaphragm, taking the
maximum amplitude at the center (r=0) in microns, correspond-
ing to the heavy curve. The upper faint curve shows the graph
of the first Bessel function Jo(kr); while the lower faint curve
shows the corresponding graph of A times the second Bessel func-
tion, or 0.05571/,(tkr). Adding these two graphs, as called for by
(2), we obtain the heavy curve, which represents the theoretical
amplitude of vibration along any radius of this particular dia-
phragm, assuming such a scale that 1.056 corresponds to the maxi-
mum or central amplitude. The small circles near this curve show
the amplitudes observed with the aid of the vibration explorer.

125

1915.]

SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS.

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126 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

APPENDIX II.

Elementary Theory of the Steady Vibration Amplitude of a Dia-
phragm Vibrating in its Fundamental Mode, as a
Function of the Impressed Frequency.

Let w= the vibration amplitude at the center of the diaphragm®
(cm. Z ),
w, =the vibration amplitude at the radius r (Gia; Z )).
w= the vibration velocity at the center of the diaphragm
(cm/sec. Z );,
w == the vibration acceleration at the center of the diaphragm
(em,/seex Z ))
r= frictional resistance to motion of the diaphragm, re-
ferred to the equivalent mass, see below (dynes/cm.
PeTmsecy/»)r
t= elapsed time from a given epoch (seconds),
s== elastic force of the diaphragm per cm. of displacement,
referred to the equivalent mass (dynes per cm. Z ),
f = Fe*‘=impressed simple harmonic moving force on the dia-
phragm tending to produce displacement w, and
measured in the direction of w, referred to the equiv-
alent mass (dynes Z ),
f= 5/1,
w == 27n =the angular velocity of a simple harmonic motion of
frequency 2 (radians/sec.),
m= equivalent mass of the diaphragm, defined by the con-
dition that the energy of motion of this mass with
the velocity w at the center, is equal to the actual
energy of the diaphragm with its distributed mass
and velocities, according to the equation:

; 2 Tne
” (w)? = ae r(w,)*dr ergs, (1)
2 2
where p’= superficial density of the diaphragm (gm./cm.?),
2 / a
mM = te (w,)2rdr Pio, (2)
Wmax e 0

8 The sign y after a unit indicates a “complex quantity.”

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 127

since the velocities w and w, being assumed simply harmonic, are
respectively proportional to their maximum displacements Wax and
Wr.

Then on the assumptions that the diaphragm vibrates like its
equivalent mass collected at the center, with its observed central
velocity, with an elastic opposing force sw on this mass, propor-
tional to the displacement, and with a resisting force rw on this
mass proportional to the velocity, then the equation of motion of
the diaphragm in terms of equivalent mass will be®

swt rw + mw = f= Fe ciymesiny/4-05((3))

The solution of this equation, in terms of velocity w, and the
steady state, is known to be

where + is the “mechanical reactance,’ and 2 is the complex
“mechanical impedance,’ by analogy to alternating electric current
theory. Both + and ¢ have the same dimensions as r.

The mechanical impedance relations are indicated in Fig. I1A
at the left-hand side. OX and OY being rectangular coordinates,
the “mechanical resistance” r in dynes per unit velocity, is meas-
ured along OX, and is assumed to remain constant at all frequencies.
As the frequency m is increased (and with it the vibratory angular
velocity ») from zero to infinity, the reactance += (mo—s/o)
varies from — © to-+ o along the line yXy’. The mechanical im-
pedance z which is the vector sum of r and iv, will be represented
by a complex quantity, or plane vector Op, the extremity of which
remains on the line yXy’. At the particular or resonant value of
o, for which mo—s/wo—=o, the reactance vanishes, and the im-
pedance 2 coincides with the resistance r. As shown in the figure,
p lies above OX, corresponding to a value of » somewhat greater
than the critical or resonant value.

9 See Bibliography No. 8.

[April 22,

KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER

128

201- €26 ‘houanbary fo abuvy
Son
WOVYHdVIGQ ANOHd313]

eli lees

(Ys

-

Mu )j= x

Z so ydo19
aui7 4460449

1915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 129

Equation (4) shows that the displacement velocity w is equal to
the impressed vibro-motive force f, divided by the impedance 2.
The locus of this velocity, as » varies from 0 to « with constant F,
becomes a circle OMP, the diameter OM of which is equal to F/r
cm. per sec., while the angle a of the chord OP, measuring the
velocity, is equal and of opposite sign to the angle a of the im-
pedance g. In the case represented by Fig. IIA, the telephone dia-
phragm No. 2 was actuated electromagnetically at constant alternat-
ing-current strength, under varying frequency. At the frequency
N= 992 ~, the vibratory velocity OM =4.8 cm. sec., was a maxi-
mum, and was in phase with the impressed vibro-motive force F.
At n= 0994 ~, the mechanical impedance had increased to op at the
angle a— 14°, and the vibratory velocity had fallen from OM to
OP or from 4.8 to 4.65 cm. per sec. lagging in phase behind the
impressed vibro-motive force by 14°. The diagram shows that
between the frequencies of 923 and 1,074 ~, the vector displace-
ment velocity z had moved over nearly the entire circumference of
the velocity circle OMP, and from a phase nearly 90° ahead of the
impressed vibro-motive force to nearly 90° behind it.

If we integrate (4) with respect to time, we obtain, for the steady
state of motion,

Fe! Feéi®* | Feit
w= | nds = f SB gy a!) BS ele 5 any gS)

Zz 10S BY

This shows that the instantaneous displacement is w times less than
the corresponding instantaneous velocity, and is 90° behind it in
phase. If we consider the maximum displacement, we have

Di. = = cme)» (6)

The locus of wmax is therefore a closed curve distorted from a circle
by the effect of varying » in the denominator. Considering it as
an approximate circle for this case, the diameter OM’ correspond-
ing to m==992 ~ represents a displacement amplitude of 7.7 n,
lagging approximately 90° behind the maximum velocity OM. At
the frequency 994 ~, the displacement would be OP’=7.48 p,

130 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

lagging 90° behind OP. As the frequency varies between 923 and
1,074 ~, the displacement amplitude almost covers the entire graph
of the approximate circle OM'P’, commencing at about Ip, nearly
in phase with the vibro-motive force, and ending at about Iy in
nearly opposite phase. These amplitudes correspond to the ordi-
nates of the resonance curve in Fig. 9.

It follows from (4) that if the vibro-motive force f is kept
constant, and the angular velocity adjusted until the central vibra-
tion velocity is a maximum, this will occur when the mechanical
reactance is zero, or when

S dynes
seo oan cm./sec. ’ (7)
that is
S radians
mm iy Sec ul (8)
So that
dynes
== 2 = Pee
S Mo cm. (9)

When the vibro-motive force f.is made to vanish in (3) with the
diaphragm in motion, the solution of the equation is

ate
w= We * sin (wt + e) Gil, (xO)

where W is the initial displacement (cm), and e a suitable phase
(radians). If we obtain two successive values of w, (w, and wz,),
corresponding to two successive elongations in the same direction,
we have

Ww
— = mn — AM numeric, (11)
Ws
whence
r= 2mn loge (w,/w.), dynes/(cm./sec.), (12)

where A is the damping constant (1/sec.).
The quantity loge (w,/w,) is well known as the logarithmic
decrement of the decay curve.

r915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 131

APPENDIX III.

Elementary Theory of Equivalent Mass.
In (2) of Appendix II., the expression for equivalent mass m is

i a
27 /P
TD oe Me op | Ohi ain, (C2)

max V0

or m is the mass which, vibrating at the center of the diaphragm
with the observed maximum ampltiude wax, would have the same
kinetic energy as the total distributed kinetic energy of the dia-
phragm.

In order, therefore, to determine the equivalent mass of a dia-
phragm, it is necessary to integrate r times the square of the ampli-
tude over its surface. Assuming that the vibration follows Ray-
leigh’s Bessel-function theory as outlined in Appendix I., it should
be sufficient to integrate w,*-r over the surface, mathematically.
We are indebted to Dr. Geo. A. Campbell for an indication of the
solution of this integral.’

Isa (it)
Une ill (©) t= Ag 10) | == eG) Gis (A)
by reference to (8) Appendix I., putting r—=o.
Also
w,—=P[J,(kr) + AJ, (kr) | cm. (3)
Q — M20) ; 2 2 27 .2(4
5%. = PG + wil P2{F2(kr) + VI? (tkr)

+ 2rxJo(kr)Jo(ikr)}rdr (4)

= | [arene ar +P eretene ar

aL li 20 o(kr)Jo(ikr)r + ar |

a ean E {Jo(ka) + Ji2(ka)}
+*© ( T3ika) + F2Gika)}
+ saa (hJo(ika) Ju(ka) — ik Jo(ba) F(ika)} I (5)

10 Bibliography (11), (12), (13).

132 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER | [April 22,

where
Jig: (kr) stands, for Wig (k/) he:
But M = 7zp’a? is the total mass of the vibrating diaphragm area.

eae I
"M (1 +)?

| {Jo2(ka) + Ji?(ka)} +24 Io2(ika) +J,2(tka) }
2d : 2 : ©)
eee { Jo(tka)Ji(ka) — PORE) OEE)) | :

Applying the ratios of (6) Appendix I., this reduces to:

m

I
Wee Gi + )2

: 2J,?(ka)

I
Ges a

__ 0.20378
kana
= 0.18285

or, to three significant digits, 0.183.

The “equivalent mass coefficient,” 0.183, for this diaphragm,
had also been obtained by quadrature methods applied to the heavy
curve in Fig. 1B, before the integration was performed as above.

In the case of steel telephone diaphragms excited by bipolar
electromagnets, the curves of w;, 7 are likely to depart from simple
Bessel-function curves, see Fig. 14. In such cases, the coefficient
of equivalent mass must be deduced from the exploration curve. In
cases examined, this coefficient varied between 0.2 and 0.5.

A quadrature method employed to find the equivalent mass
coefficient from curves of any shape is as follows:

Draw the wz, curve as in Fig. 1B. Divide the line of abscissas
into an integral number 7 of annular rings of equal area; so that
each ring will have a mass of M/n, where M is the total mass of the
circular vibrating area of the diaphragm, in grams. We then
multiply this annular mass into the square of the observed ampli-
tudes at the middle points of the successive annuli. The sum of
these terms will be equal to the product of the equivalent mass m,

1915. ] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 1338

TABLE IV.
kr w w (ave.) w? (ave.)
.0000 T.0557 (1.1145)
I -4511 1.008 1.032 1.0650
2 -6380 .962 985 .9702
3 -7814 918 -940 -8836
4 -9023 .875 .807 .8046
5 I.009 833 854 -7293
6 T.105 -792 812 -6593
7 I.194 -752 69/7] -5960
8 1.276 a7 +732 25358
9 1.353 677 695 -4830
Io 1.427 .O41 .659 +4343
II 1.496 .606 .624 -3804
I2 1.563 -572 -5890 -3469
13 1.627 -539 2555 -3080
14 1.688 .507 523 -2735
15 1.747 “477 -492 +2421
16 1.805 449 463 .2144
107/ 1.860 421 435 -1892
18 1.914 -394 -408 .1665
19 1.966 -307 -380 -1444
20 2.018 -341 +354 -1253
21 2.067 318 -330 -1089
22 2.116 -295 -307 -0942
23 2.163 273 .284 .0807
24 2.210 -251 .262 -0686
25 2.250 .232 .242 -0586
26 2.300 213 223 -0497
Daf 2.344 -195 .204 -O416
28 2.387 .178 -186 -0346
20 2.429 .162 -170 .0289
30 2.471 -146 .154 .0237
31 2.512 -131 -139 -0193
32 2.552 pibaey/ .124 .O154
33 2.592 .104 -IIO .O12I
34 2.631 .092 -098 -0096
35 2.669 -080 .086 .0074
36 2.707 .070 -075 .0056
37 2.744 .060 .005 .0042
38 2.781 .050 -055 -0030
39 2.817 O41 -O45 -0020
40 2.853 -033 -037 .0O14
AI 2.889 .026 .030 .0009
42 2.924 0.21 .023 .0005
43 2.958 .O16 .O19 -0004
44 2.992 .O12 -O14 .0602
45 3.026 .009 -OIL -OOOI
46 3.060 .006 .008 .00006
47 3.093 -004 .005 .00002
48 3.126 -002 -003 -000009
49 3.158 .OOL .OOL -OOOOOL
50 3.196 .000 ‘ .000 .000000
10.2325

m = (M/50) (10.2325/1.1145) = .183 M.

134 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,

and the square of the maximum observed amplitude at the center, or

NL enn gm. (7)

The preceding table sets forth this process for the curve of Fig.
1B, drawn theoretically, and checked observationally, with = 50,
or the diaphragm divided into 50 annuli of equal mass. ‘The result
is that the equivalent mass is 18.3 per cent. of the actual mass of the
vibrating area. This result checks that obtained from the mathe-
matical integration of the Bessel curve.

Although 50 annuli of equal area and mass were taken in the
case above worked out, so as to attain a fairly high degree of pre-
cision in the evaluated equivalent-mass coefficient; yet, for many
purposes, a sufficient degree of precision might be attained by taking
only 10 such equal annular areas.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

. Rayleigh, “ Theory of Sound,” Vol. 1, p. 352, Macmillan Co., 1894.

R. Kempf-Hartmann, Ann. de Physik, 8, pp. 481-538, June, 1902.

W. Wien, Ann. de Physik, 18. S, pp. 1049-1053, December, 1905.

Henri Abraham, Comptes Rendus, Vol. 144, 1907.

. Frederick K. Vreeland, Phys. Review, Vol. 27, p. 286, 1908.

. Barton, “ Text-Book of Sound,” p. 211, Sec. 146, Macmillan Co., 1908.

. Chas. F. Meyer and J. B. Whitehead, Trans. A. I. E. E., Vol. 31, I1., pp.

1397-1418, I912.

8. A. E. Kennelly and G. W. Pierce, “ The Impedance of Telephone Re-
ceivers as Affected by the Motion of Their Diaphragms,’ Proc. Am.
Acad. of Arts and Sci., Vol. 48, No. 6, September, 1912, p. 138; also
Electrical World, September 14, 1912.

9. L. Bouthillon and L. Drouet, La Révue Electrique, October 16, 1914 (pub.
January I5, 191s).

10. Augustin Guyau, “Le Téléphone Instrument de Mésure,” Gauthier-Villars,
Paris, 1914.

11. E. Jahnke and F. Emde, “ Funktionentafeln mit Formeln und Kurven,”
p. 166 (3) and (4).

12. Paul Schafheitlin, ‘““Die Theorie der Besselschen Funktionen,” pp. 68
and 69.

13. W. E. Byerly, “ Fourier’s Series and Spherical Harmonics,” p. 233.

SAN ARwOH A

r915.] SURFACES OF TELEPHONIC DIAPHRAGMS. 135

DABIEE ORFS avis ©1ES:

a= Radius of the diaphragm clamping-circle (cm.),
An— A phase angle measured around the diaphragm (radians),
b= Thickness of the diaphragm (cm.),
c== A constant of the material of the diaphragm (cm./second » ),
d= Sign of differentiation
A= Damping constant—n log. (w,/w,)=1r/2m (second),
e== Time-phase (radians),
e= Naperian logarithmic base (numeric),
f=Fe* Impressed simple harmonic moving force on the
diaphragm (dynes) Z
s—= Statical tension (dynes),
F = Maximum value of a vibratory force (dynes),
i= \V —I1 (numeric),
Jn=A Bessel’s Function of the mth order (numeric),
J'= The first derivative of J with respect to r (numeric),
k=A constant of the material of the diaphragm, defined by
k=(Ve)/c (cm-*),
L = Distance from mirror to scale of explorer (cm.),
J= Radius arm of small mirror in explorer (cm.),
A=A constant satisfying boundary conditions (numeric),
M = Total mass of diaphragm (in Appendix III) (gm.),
M = Magnification factor of explorer (numeric),
m= Equivalent mass of the diaphragm (gm.),
HMSO, WO Cia, (Cra),
n== Frequency of diaphragm vibration (cycles/second),
n,—= Resonant frequency of diaphragm vibration (cycles/sec),
n—= Number of annular rings in equivalent mass theory of App.
III (numeric),
n (Subscript)— Number of nodal diameters (order of Bessel’s
Function) (numeric),
P=Constant of amplitude-magnitude (cm.),
7 = 3.1416 (numeric),
@— Angle in the explorer between the plane of mirror and plane
of diaphragm (deg.),
q= Young’s modulus for diaphragm material (dynes/cm.?),
dynes

. r= Frictional resistance to motion of diaphragm —-———_,
cm./sec.

136 KENNELLY-TAYLOR—EXPLORATIONS OVER _ [April 22,
7 == Distance along a radius (cm.),
p== Density of diaphragm material (gm./cm.*),
p = Superficial density of diaphragm (gm./cm.’),
s== Elastic force of diaphragm per centimeter of displacement,
referred to equivalent mass (dynes/cm.),
o = Poisson’s ratio for material of diaphragm (numeric),
% = Sign of summation,
t= Time elapsed from a given epoch (seconds),
6 = Azimuth angle measured on surface of diaphragm (radians)
vmf.= Vibro-motive force (dynes) Z,
W = Initial displacement in a vibratory motion (cm.),
w and w,== Amplitude of a point on surface of diaphragm for fun-
damental mode of vibration (cm.) Z,
w, == Amplitude of vibration of a point at radius r from center of
diaphragm (cm.) Z,
Ww, — Instantaneous amplitude of vibration (cm.),
Wmax == Maximum cyclic amplitude at center (cm.),
zw — Vibratory velocity at center of diaphragm (cm./sec.) Z,
w— Vibratory acceleration at center of diaphragm (cm./sec.?) Z,
ws — Statical displacement of center of diaphragm (cm.),
ix =1(mw—s/w) “Mechanical reactance” of vibrating diaphragm
(by analogy to alternating-current theory) {dynes/(cm./
Sees) 6Z,
z—(r+ix) “ Mechanical impedance” of vibrating diaphragm
(by analogy to alternating-current theory) {dynes/(cm./
S66.) Z,
w = 27m = Angular velocity of vibratory motion (radians/sec.),
©) —= 2mm, = Angular velocity at resonance (radians/sec.),
co == Infinity,
Z —This sign after a unit indicates a “complex quantity,”
~ = Cycles or vibrations per second (cycles/sec.).

tit RULING AND PERFORMANCE, ©F A TEN INCH
DIFFRACTION GRATING.

By A. A. MICHELSON.
(Read April 22, 1915.)

The principal element in the efficiency of any spectroscopic appli-
ance is its resolving power—that is, the power to separate spectral
lines. The limit of resolution is the ratio of the smallest difference
of wave-length just discernible to the mean wave-length of the pair
or group. If a prism can just separate or resolve the double yellow
5896-5890

5893
mately one one thousandth, and the resolving power is called one
thousand.

Until Fraunhofer (1821) showed that light could be analyzed
into its constituent colors by diffraction gratings this analysis was
effected by prisms the resolving power of which has been gradually
increased to about thirty thousand. This limit was equalled if not
surpassed by the excellent gratings of Rutherford, of New York,
ruled by a diamond point on speculum metal, with something like
20,000 lines, with spacing of 500 to 1,000 lines to the millimeter.
These were superseded by the superb gratings of Rowland with
something over one hundred thousand lines, and with a resolving
power of 150,000.+

line of sodium its limit of resolution will be or approxi-

The theoretical resolving power of a grating is given as was first
shown by Lord Rayleigh by the formula R—wmun, in which n is the
total number of lines, and m the order of the spectrum. An equiva-
lent expression is furnished by

R=! (sin i+ sin 6),

1 The 6% in. gratings now ruled on the Rowland engine have a much
higher resolving power—probably 400,000.

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC, LIV. 217 J, PRINTED JULY 7, IQI5.

137

138 MICHELSON—RULING AND PERFORMANCE [April 22,

where / is the total length of the ruled surface, A the wave-length of
the light, 7 the angle of incidence and @ the angle of diffraction, and
the maximum resolving power which a grating can have is that
corresponding to 1 and 6 each equal to 90° which gives R= 2l/);
that is twice the number of light waves in the entire length of the
ruled surface.

This shows that neither the closeness of the rulings nor the total
number determine this theoretical limit, and emphasizes the im-
portance of a large ruled space.

This theoretical limit can be reached, however, only on the con-
dition of an extraordinary degree of accuracy in the spacing of the
lines. Several methods for securing this degree of accuracy have
been attempted but none has proved as effective as the screw. This
must be of uniform pitch throughout and the periodic errors must
be extremely small.

For a short screw, for example one sufficient for a grating two
inches in length, the problem is not very difficult, but as the length
of the screw increases the difficulty increases in much more rapid
proportion. It was solved by Rowland in something over two
years.

Since this time many problems have arisen which demand a
higher resolving power than even these gratings could furnish.
Among these is the resolution of doubles and groups of lines whose
complexity was unsuspected until revealed by the interferometer and
amply verified by subsequent observations by the echelon and other
methods.

Others that may be mentioned in this connection are the study of
the distribution of intensities within the spectral “lines”; their
broadening and displacement with temperature and pressure; the
effect of magnetic and electric fields, and the measurement of mo-
tions in the line of sight, as revealed by corresponding displacement
of the spectral lines in consequence of the Doppler effect.

All of these have been attacked with considerable success by
observations with the echelon, the interferometer and the plane-
parallel plate. These methods have a very high resolving power,
but labor under the serious disadvantage that adjacent succeeding

1915. ] OF A TEN-INCH DIFFRACTION GRATING. 139

spectra overlap, making it difficult to interpret the results with
certainty.

Some twelve years ago the construction of a ruling engine was
undertaken with the hope of ruling gratings of fourteen inches—
for which a screw of something over twenty inches is necessary.
This screw was cut in a specially corrected lathe so that the original
errors were not very large, and these were reduced by long attrition
with very fine material until it was judged that the residual errors
were sufficiently small to be automatically corrected during the
process of ruling.

The principal claim to novelty of treatment of the problem lies
in the application of interference method to the measurement and
correction of these residual errors.

For this purpose one of the interferometer mirrors is fixed to
the grating carriage, while a standard, consisting of two mirrors at a
fixed distance apart, is attached to an auxiliary carriage. When
the adjustment is correct for the front surface of the standard,
interference fringes appear. The grating carriage is now moved
through the length of the standard (one tenth of a millimeter if the
periodic error is to be investigated; ten or more millimeters if the
error of run is to be determined) when the interference fringes
appear on the rear surface. This operation is repeated, the differ-
ence from exact coincidence of the central (achromatic) fringe
with a fiducial mark being measured at each step in tenths of a
fringe (twentieths of a light-wave). Asa whole fringe corresponds
to one hundred thousandth of an inch, the measurement is correct to
within a millionth of an inch.

The corresponding correction for periodic errors is transferred
to the worm-wheel which turns the screw; and for errors of run to
the nut which moves the carriage. In this way the final errors have
been almost completely eliminated and the resulting gratings have
very nearly realized their theoretical efficiency.

A number of minor points may be mentioned which have con-
tributed to the success of the undertaking.

(a) The ways which guide the grating carriage as well as
those which control the motion of the ruling diamond must be very

140 MICHELSON—RULING AND PERFORMANCE [April 22,

true; and these were straightened by application of an auto-collimat-
ing device which made the deviation from a straight line less than
a second of arc.

(b) The friction of the grating carriage on the ways was
diminished to about one tenth of that due to the weight (which may
amount to twenty to forty pounds) by floating on mercury.

(c) The longitudinal motion of the screw was prevented by
allowing its spherically rounded end to rest against an optically
plane surface of diamond which could be adjusted normal to the
axis of the screw.

(d) The screw was turned by a worm wheel (instead of pawl
and ratchet) which permits a simple and effective correction of the
periodic errors of the screw throughout its whole length.

(e) A correcting device which eliminates periodic errors of
higher orders.

(f) It may be added that the nut which actuates the carriage
had bearing surfaces of soft metal (tin) instead of wood, as in
preceding machines. It was not found necessary to unclamp the
nut in bringing it back to the starting point.

Finally it may be noted that instead of attempting to eliminate
the errors of the screw by long continued grinding—which inevitably
leads to a rounding of the threads—it has been the main object to
make these errors conveniently small; but especially to make them
constant—for on this constancy depends the possibility of auto-
matic correction.

The accompanying photograph made with a ten-inch grating,
6th order (actual ruled surface 9.4 inches by 2.8 inches), used in
the Littrow form with an excellent 8-inch lens by Brashear, is given
in evidence of its performance. ‘The resolving power as shown by
the accompanying scale of Angstrom units is about 450,000. The
original negative shows a resolving power of about 600,000. The
theoretical value is 660,000.

Doubtless the possibility of ruling a perfect grating by means of
the light waves of a homogeneous source has occurred to many—
and indeed this was one of the methods first attempted.

It may still prove entirely feasible—and is still held in reserve if

1915.] OF A TEN-INCH DIFFRACTION GRATING. 141

serious difficulty is encountered in an attempt now in progress to
produce gratings of twenty inches or more. Such a method may be
made partly or perhaps completely automatic, and would be inde-
pendent of screws or other instrumental appliances.

ENLARGEMENT OF PHOTOGRAPH OF THE GREEN MERCURY LINE ) 5461, taken
by H. L. Lemon with to-inch diffraction grating in sixth order. Scale: 1
division =o0.01 A.U.; ruled surface 93 in. X 2% in., 11,700 lines per inch.
Mounted in Littrow form with 8-inch lens by Brashear. Focal length 20 feet.

It may be pointed out that an even simpler and more direct
application of light-waves from a homogeneous source is theoretic-
ally possible and perhaps experimentally realizable.

If a point source of such radiations send its light-waves to a
collimating lens and the resulting plane waves are reflected at normal
incidence from a plane surface, stationary waves will be set up as
in the Lippman plates; these will impress an inclined photographic
plate with parallel lines as in the experiment of Wiener; and the
only limit to the resolving power of the resulting grating is that
which depends on the degree of homogeneity of the light used. As
some of the constituents of the radiations of mercury have been
shown to be capable of interfering with difference of path of over

142 TEN-INCH DIFFRACTION GRATING.

a million waves, such as grating would have a resolving power
exceeding a million.

This investigation has had assistance from the Bache Fund of
the National Academy of Science, from the Carnegie Institution,
and from the University of Chicago.

In addition to the grateful acknowledgment to these institutions
I would add my high appreciation of the faithful services rendered
by Messrs. Julius Pearson and Fred Pearson.

iP aCONSMMUDION OR Mark ibis Dia Ry
MATERIAL.

By T. H. MORGAN.
(Read April 23, 1915.)

There are two ways in which the relation of the egg to the
characters of the individual that develops from the egg has been
interpreted.

I. The egg has been thought of as a whole and the characters
of the individual as the product of its activity as a unit.

2. The egg has been thought of as made up of representative
particles of some sort that stand in a definite relation to the parts
of the individual that comes from the egg.

Weismann, whose speculations occupied the forefront of interest
at the close of the last century, adopted the latter view; namely,
that the germ is made up of particles, which he called determiners.
For Weismann embryonic development became merely the sorting
out of the particles of the germ to their respective parts of the
embryo. Each region of the body owed its peculiarities to the
particles that came to it by this sorting-out process. In fact, one
may go so far, I think, as to say that Weismann borrowed from
Roux this particular form of the preformation in order to give a
formal explanation of embryonic differentiation. But Weismann’s
theory soon encountered three serious reverses.

In the first place, the study of the minute structure and behavior
of the segmenting egg shows no evidence that any such sorting-out
process takes place, as Weismann postulated. It has been shown
that the chromosomes divide equally at every division, and that
every cell of the body contains the entire complex that was present
in the fertilized egg-cell itself.

In the second place, it was shown that the sequence of the
cleavage planes of the egg could be artificially altered, yet a normal
embryo develop.

143

144 MORGAN—THE CONSTITUTION OF [April 23,

In the third place, it was shown that in some eggs each of the
first two, or first four cells derived from the egg is capable of form-
ing a whole embryo. This result creates a strong presumption
against the adequacy of Weismann’s interpretation of development.

Meanwhile one of the greatest biological discoveries of the last
century—one that had a very direct bearing on the traditional in-
terpretations of predetermination—was forgotten. I refer to
Mendel’s work. Mendel showed that when two related organisms,
differing from each other in a single character, are crossed, and
their offspring are again bred together, that in the second genera-
tion individuals appear that are like their grandparents. He showed
that the numerical proportions, in which they appear, could be
explained on the assumption of one factor difference between the
original forms. This result might be interpreted to mean either
that the two original germ cells, taken as a whole, represent such
a factor difference; or it might be interpreted to mean that the
original germ cells had one particulate difference. But Mendel went
further, and showed that when two related organisms that differ in
two, or three, or more different characters are bred to each other,
all possible combinations of the original characters appear later. It
might seem then that we must abandon the view that each germ cell
is to be thought of as a whole, for we see that the parts of each
can be separated to become parts of others. In this sense Mendel’s
results seem to furnish a brilliant confirmation of Weismann’s
theory, in so far as it relates to preformation in the germ, and in
the last edition of his “ Vortrage ueber Descendenz Theorie,” Weis-
mann put in his claim to this verification.

In fact, Mendel’s discovery does furnish a strong argument in
favor of that part of Weismann’s view that deals with the con-
stitution of the germ-plasm, but it by no means confirms that part of
Weismann’s theory which postulates that embryonic development
is a sorting-out process of representative particles.

Let us turn our attention, then, to Mendel’s law and examine in
how far it justifies an assumption that there are specific substances
in the germ cells.

Mendel’s law postulates that the early germ cells (and it may
4e added all of the body cells too) contain two of each kind of the

1915.] THE HEREDITARY MATERIAL. 145

hereditary factors,—one derived from each of its parents. Men-
del’s law postulates further, that, in the ripening of the germ cells,
the members of each pair separate (Fig. 1). Each mature germ
cell comes to contain but a single element (or factor) of each kind.

&
vy? °

D
C [

Fic. 1. Diagram to illustrate segregation of factors. The four pairs of
factors represented in the upper circle by AA, BB, CC, DD, undergo segrega-
tion so that each germ cell comes to contain one member of each pair.

Now students of cytology had quite independently come to this
same conclusion in regard to the germ cells. They had found that
each cell contains a definite number of chromosomes, and that there
are two of each kind of chromosomes in every cell,—one from each
parent (Fig. 2,a). It had been found that at the ripening of the
germ cells the members of each pair of chromosomes conjugate
(Fig. 2, b), and then separate from each other (Fig. 2, c), so that
each mature germ cell comes to contain but a single set of chromo-
somes (Fig. 2, d). Furthermore, students of experimental em-
bryology had obtained independent evidence pointing to the chromo-
somes as the bearers of the hereditary materials.

We find, then, that cytologists had discovered a mechanism
in the cell that they had reason to think was the bearer of the
hereditary materials, and that the mechanism fulfills the essential

146 MORGAN—THE CONSTITUTION OF [April 23,

requirements of Mendel’s postulates. There were two further steps
necessary to bring the two lines of inquiry into complete accord;
namely, (1) correspondence between the number of the chromo-
somes and the groups of inherited characters, and (2) the inter-
change between the members of the same pair of chromosome.

Fic. 2. Diagram to illustrate segregation of chromosomes. The four
pairs of chromosomes in the upper circle (a), conjugate in (b) (synopsis
stage), prepare for separation in (c) and undergo segregation so that each
germ cell (d, d’) comes to contain one member of each pair.

The number of chromosomes is small in comparison with the
large number of different characters that an animal or a plant pos-
sesses. We should expect therefore if in any animal or plant
a sufficient number of character-differences were known that the
characters would be found to be inherited in groups, and that the
number of such groups should be the number of chromosome pairs
that such an animal or plant possesses. In very few cases have
enough characters been found to make such a comparison of any
value.

1915. | THE HEREDITARY MATERIAL. 147

But in the fruit fly, Drosophila, that has been intensively studied
for five years, over a hundred new, and inherited characters have
appeared. They fall into four great groups. A partial list of the

four groups is as follows:

Group I. Group II.

Name. Region Affected. Name. Region Affected.
Abnormal Abdomen Antlered Wing
Bar Eye Apterous Wing
Bifid Venation Arc Wing
Bow Wing Balloon Venation
Cherry Eye color Black Body color
Chrome Body color Blistered Wing
Cleft Venation Comma Thorax mark
Club ing Confluent Venation
Depressed Wing Cream II Eye color
Dotted Thorax Curved Wing
Eosin ‘Eye color Dachs Legs
Facet Ommatidia Extra vein. Venation
Forked Spines Fringed Wing
Furrowed Eye Jaunty Wing
Fused Venation Limited Abdominal band
Green Body color Little crossover II chromosome
Jaunty Wing Morula Ommatidia
Lemon Body color Olive Body color
Lethals, 13 Die Plexus Venation
Miniature Wing Purple Eye color
Notch Venation Speck Thorax mark
Reduplicated Eye color Strap Wing
Ruby Legs Streak Pattern
Rudimentary Wings Trefoil Pattern
Sable Body color Truncate Wing
Shifted Venation Vestigial Wing
Short Wing
Skee Wing
Spoon Wing
Spot Body color
Tan Antenna
Truncate Wing °
Vermilion Eye color
White Eye color
Yellow Body color

Group ITI. Group IV.

Name. Region Affected. Name. Region Affected.
Band Pattern Bent Wing
Beaded Wing Eyeless Eye
Cream III Eye color
Deformed Eye
Dwarf Size of body
Ebony Body color
Giant Size of body
Kidney Eye

Low crossingover
Maroon
Peach

III chromosome

Eye color
Eye color

148 MORGAN—THE CONSTITUTION OF [April 23,

Group III.—Continued.

Name. Region Affected,
Pink Eye color
Rough Eye
Safranin Eye color
Sepia Eye color
Sooty Body color
- Spineless Spines
Spread Wing
Trident Pattern
Truncate intensf. Wing
Whitehead Pattern
White ocelli Simple eye

The four pairs of chromosomes of Drosophila are shown in the
next diagram, Fig. 3.

ee

Fic. 3. Diagram of the four pairs of chromosomes of Drosophila ampel-
ophila; to the left the chromosomes of the female; to the right those of
the male.

The correspondence between the four character groups and the
four pairs of chromosomes is obvious even to the size relations.
This relation, or correspondence, does not however tell us any-
thing in respect to the way in which the chromosomes stand for the
characters of the group. So far, the result only shows that the char-
acters of a given group are in some way represented in a particular
chromosome. Our work has, however, carried us beyond this point.
I may illustrate this by an example from the first group, containing
sex linked characters. We mean by sex linked characters that they
follow the known distribution of the X chromosomes. For in-

1915.] THE HEREDITARY MATERIAL. 149

stance, the factor that determines the character for white eyes is
sex linked, as is also the factor that determines the character for
miniature wings. If we cross a female with white eyes and minia-
ture wings to a male with red eyes and long wings, the sons will
have white eyes and miniature wings. The explanation of this
result is found in the distribution of the chromosomes. The sons
get their single X chromosomes from their mother. Hence they
show the characters that this chromosome carried in the mother,
who had white eyes and miniature wings. The daughters, how-
ever, get one of their X chromosomes: from their father through
his female producing sperm. This chromosome carried a factor
for red eyes and another for long wings, which factors dominate
those carried by the other X chromosome that the daughters get
from their mother, namely, the factors for white eyes and for
miniature wings. These relations are shown in Fig. 4. .

If these daughters and sons are bred to each other they produce
four kinds of individuals, viz., red long, white miniature, red minia-
ture, and white long. These are the four classes that Mendel’s law
calls for, but they do not occur in the Mendelian proportion
(9:3::3:1) when two pairs of factors, as here, are involved.
The reason for this is two-fold. In the first place the female alone
carries two X chromosomes. The male carries but one. Hence
there is an unequal distribution of the X chromosomes in the
spermatozoa, for, only half of them can get an X chromosome.
These are the female-producing spermatozoa. ‘The result is, as has
been shown, that in the first generation the sons inherit their single
X chromosome from their mother and none of the dominant char-
acters of the father. Since in this case the sons carry no dominant
factor either in their X bearing (female producing), or in their
Y bearing (male producing sperm), the second generation here
reveals completely the composition of the egg cells that the F,
female carries.

On Mendel’s law of random assortment of two pairs of factors
we should expect the four classes that here appear in the second
generation to be equal in number. On the contrary we find that
two of them are twice as numerous as the other two. On inspec-
tion we see that the two larger classes are white miniature and red

150 MORGAN—THE CONSTITUTION OF [April 23,

WHITE MINIATURE 9 REDALONGI

J
EGGS (y SPERM
M

Ww
Bees M SPERM oF A
wv Ww) T WY
FEMALES
M M M| |M
ee) NS e
= ee i Ss eee

“WHITE MINIATURE

RED MINIATURE

ee LONG = WHITE LONG _
Fic. 4. Diagram to show the inheritance of two pairs of recessive sex
linked characters, viz. white eyes (W) and miniature wings (M). The nos

mal, dominant allelomorphs of these factors are omitted.

1915.] THE HEREDITARY MATERIAL. 151

long. These correspond to the two grandparents. The two smaller
classes are white long and red miniature.

We can account for this result if we assume first that the two
factors that went in together in the same chromosome tend to hold
together. This would account for the two larger classes. Second
that the two smaller classes are due to interchanges between the
two X chromosomes. Such interchange would here take place only
once in three times.

We can test this conclusion by planning the experiment in such
a way that white and miniature now go in from opposite sides,—
white from one parent, and miniature from the other. When we do
this we find that the large classes in the second (back cross)
generation will be red miniature and white long and that the small
classes will now be red long and white miniature. The ratio of the
large to the small classes will be exactly the same as in the first
case. In other words the interchange between the X chromosomes
is the same regardless of what factors each contains.

If one admits that the chromosomes are the bearers of the
hereditary factors he is forced to admit that experiments like these
prove that somehow interchange of factors in homologous chromo-
somes must occur.

If one thinks of the factors as lying in a linear series in the
chromosome (and there is certain evidence that I can not consider
here that makes this view imperative) then the chance of a crossing
over taking place somewhere in the region between two pairs of
factors would be greater the farther apart the factors lie. The
percentage of times that crossing over takes place becomes then a
measure of the distance apart of the factors in question. If we
make this assumption we find that we can give a consistent explana-
tion of everything that we have found in the inheritance of linked
factors in Drosophila. Not only this, but a far more important
fact comes to light. If we determine, on the aforesaid basis, the
relation to each other of all the known factors in each of the four
groups, then, when a new factor appears, we need only determine
its group and its relation to two factors in that group. With this
information we can predict its relation to all other members of that
group. In other words we can predict what the numerical relation

152 MORGAN—THE CONSTITUTION OF [April 23,

will be in the second generation. There is no other way as yet
discovered by means of which this relation can be predicted.

If we compare our conception of the structure of the germ plasm
with that of Weismann we find in all of his writings except the last
one, that he supposed the chromosomes to be alike and that each
consisted of a series of ids that contained the totality of the de-
terminers that influence development.

It is true that in his last writing he partially abandons his earlier
idea of whole ids for a conception nearer to ours of partial ids,—at
least for some of the determiners. In this respect his view more
nearly approaches the one here maintained. But even then his view
not being based on numerical data would leave us entirely helpless
in explaining the phenomena of inheritance in any particular case.
Without wishing in the least to detract from the value of Weis-
mann’s brilliant speculation, nevertheless the difference in the way
in which the conclusions were reached in the two cases is one of
fundamental significance in all scientific work. Our view is based
on accurate numerical data that enables us to predict what any given
result in this field will be. It is this power to predict that gives
significance to a scientific theory. In this regard we believe that
our interpretation is a long step in advance of the purely imaginative
conception of the germ plasm that Weismann advanced.

If now we bring our conception of the germ plasm to bear on
the problem of development we have a very different view point
of that process from the one Weismann pictured.

We think of every cell in the body containing one set of chromo-
somes received from the mother plus one set from the father. The
materials carried by these chromosomes influence development in
their entirety. Although we are able to localize certain materials
in the chromosomes that when present cause the eyes to be white,
and others that cause the eyes to be red, we do not mean that these
materials in the chromosomes go directly only to the parts that show
their influence more markedly. We mean that given one kind of
material and the rest of the cell there is elaborated a white eye;
given a different material in the same locus it produces, in con-
junction with the rest of the cell, a red eye.

1915.] THE HEREDITARY MATERIAL. 153

To say that the germinal material that makes a white eye is dif-
ferent from the germinal material that makes a red eye is a plati-
tude. But to be able to locate a particular material in the one case
in relation to other materials is a very different matter, because by
means of this information we are able to explain the results on a
mechanistic basis, and are able to predict the results of untried
combinations. Without this information the prediction would be
impossible.

We are led then to a third conception of predetermination. It is
this! That while the hereditary material is made up of different
discrete and separable particles (chemical substances) that have a
definite position in the chromosomes, the effects of each of these
particles must be supposed to be produced in combination with
many, or even with all other parts of the cells in which they are
contained.

CoLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,
New York.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 217 K, PRINTED JULY 7, IQIS.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF HEAT IN RECENTLY
EAR DENEDE Si EE:

Byi GH ANI E Ssh BING Sir:

(Read April 22, 1915.)

Two or three years ago, when studying the behavior, under cer-
tain conditions, of several specimens of hardened tool steel, I ob-
served that they all spontaneously generated a small quantity of
heat, the amount of which diminished from day to day, but which
was observable for several weeks. In each case the steel had been
hardened only a few days prior to its use. It seemed highly prob-
able that the generation of heat was associated with some sort of
“seasoning” or incipient annealing process, perhaps accompanied
by slight change of volume, and that it would be most rapid imme-
diately after hardening. I resolved to investigate this curious phe-
nomenon more fully, but failed to spare the time until a few months
ago. This investigation forms the subject of the present paper.

Fig. 1 is a diagram of the apparatus employed. A, B represent
two large silvered Dewar vacuum jars selected to have very nearly
equal thermal insulating efficiency. They are supported in a wooden
rack inside a thick copper cylinder C packed in granulated cork in
a wooden box E. D is a paper extension of C, packed with layers
of felt by removal of which and the loose copper cover of C easy
access is had to the Dewar jars. The copper cylinder weighs 52
pounds and its functions are, by reason of its large thermal capacity
and high conductivity, to protect the Dewar jars from any rapid
change of temperature, and from temperature stratification.

The box E is surrounded by a much larger wooden box F lagged
with a half-inch layer of felt. A long resistance wire is strung
back and forth in the air space between the boxes at the bottom and
four sides of E. Electric current controlled by a thermostat warms
the wire, whereby the temperature of the air space may be main-
tained very nearly constant as many days or weeks as desired. A

154

1915.] RECENTLY HARDENED STEEL. 155

thermometer 7, easily read to hundredths of a degree, indicates the
temperature of the air space.

Air Space

Granulated Cork

Granulated Cork

Air Space

Ue I

Returning now the core of the apparatus: A’ is an air-tight cylin-
der of thin copper, six inches high and two and a half inches in
diameter, provided with an open half-inch axial tube also of copper.
A small round opening at the top of A’ permits the introduction of
a weighed quantity of water, after which the opening is tightly
corked to prevent any change of temperature by evaporation of the
water. J’ is another copper cylinder just like A’ except that it has
a removable top to permit the introduction of the substance whose
thermal behavior is to be investigated. The high thermal con-
ductivity of these copper cylinders prevents temperature stratifica-
tion within them. The Dewar jars are filled above the copper cylin-
ders with layers of felt, and granulated cork, and covered with
waxed cardboard carefully sealed on to prevent temperature dif-

156 BRUSH—SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF HEAT. [April 22,

ference inside the jars which would follow unequal loss or gain of
moisture by the felt and granulated cork. A small thin glass tube,
flanged at top and closed at bottom, is located in the axis of each
Dewar jar and extends from the waxed cover nearly to the bottom
of the inclosed copper cylinder. The glass tubes contain the ends
of thermo-electric couples of fine constantan, copper and iron wires,
one iron-constantan and one copper-constantan junction at the
bottom of each tube. The leading-out wires are copper, and connect
the thermo-couples with a reflecting galvanometer having the cus-
tomary reading telescope and scale. Careful callibration has shown
that 55 scale divisions of the galvanometer indicate one degree C.
temperature-difference between A’ and B’, and that temperature-
difference and galvanometer deflection are very closely proportional
throughout the range used.

In the following experiment A’ and B’ were removed from the
Dewar jars and allowed to attain equal room temperature. Twelve
half-inch round bars of tool steel, five inches long and with machined
surfaces, were hardened by heating to high “cherry-red” in a re-
ducing atmosphere of a gas furnace and quenching in cold water.
The bars then had a thin and strongly adhering coating of black
oxide. They were next stirred in a large quantity of water at room
temperature, to acquire that temperature, wiped dry, and oiled with
heavy, neutral mineral oil to prevent generation of heat by further
surface oxidation, wiped free of excess of oil and placed in the
copper cylinder B’. A weighed quantity of water, also at room
temperature, just sufficient to equal the steel bars in thermal capacity
had already been placed in A’. The whole apparatus was then as-
sembled as quickly as possible, and galvanometer readings com-
menced within forty-five minutes of the time of hardening the
steel.

The upper curve in Fig. 2 shows the progress of heat genera-
tion in the steel bars during the first 150 hours after hardening.
A very slow generation of heat was still easily observable at the
end of a month.

It is seen that the temperature of the steel bars was rising rap-
idly when the galvanometer readings commenced, and reached a
point (nearly 3° C. at the summit of the curve) where gain and loss
of heat balanced each other in about 8 hours.

1915.] IN DRECENDIY HARDENED) ST BEI: 157

The “ Normal Cooling” curve was obtained five or six weeks
after the other, and when the generation of heat had very nearly

Analysis of Steel

Phosphorus 0.012
Sulphur 0.016 _|
Silicon 0.21
Manganese 0.31

Carbon

Galvanometer Deflection in Scale Divisions

Hours After Hardening

Fic. 2.

ceased. For this purpose the steel bars were removed, warmed a
few degrees, and replaced; then galvanometer readings were made
from time to time as before. This curve is plotted in a location
convenient for visual comparison with the heating curve, but other-
wise might just as well be plotted further to the right.

From the two observed curves I have computed a third curve
(not shown) which represents the progressive rise in temperature
which would have occurred if the thermal insulation of the steel had
been perfect, so as to prevent any loss of heat. The curve is
strikingly similar in character to the shrinkage curve shown in Fig.
5, and indicates a close association of heat generation and shrinking,
to which I shall refer again. ‘The total rise in temperature indi-
cated (about five degrees C.) is of little quantitative importance
because it is highly probable that it would have been different if the
steel had been hardened at a different temperature, or more uni-
formly hardened throughout each bar, or had a different carbon con-
tent. Yet it is interesting to note that the observed quantity of
heat spontaneously generated in the steel, measured by its rise in
temperature multiplied by its thermal capacity, indicates internal

158 BRUSH—SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF HEAT [April 22,

work of some sort sufficient to lift the steel bodily about 800 feet
high against the force of gravity.

I next prepared a batch of “high-speed” tungsten steel consist-
ing of the same number of bars of the same dimensions as in the
first experiment. The bars were water-hardened at white heat,
not far below the fusing point, brought to room temperature, oiled
and introduced just as in the former case, and galvanometer read-
ings were commenced an hour after hardening.

Senne | Analysis of Steel

ii
se oi

Chromium 5.45
Tungsten 16.77

Galvanometer Deflection in Scale Divisions

TOMZOMNZONN ON SOMMOOMIL7ONNSO 100 120 140
Hours After Hardening
Fic. 3.

Fig. 3 shows the curve of heat generation in the “high-speed”
steel, and the curve of normal cooling located with respect thereto
as in Fig. 2. The cooling curve here shown is the lower part of
that used in Fig. 2. It is permissible to use the same cooling curve
for both kinds of steel because the thermal capacity of the two lots
was very nearly the same.

It is seen that heat generation in the tungsten steel was the same
in character as in the carbon steel of Fig. 2, though much less in
amount and somewhat more persistent.

Many workers in steel are aware that the metal expands a little
when hardened, and shrinks when annealed; but I have not met
with any quantitative data on the subject. With the hope of throw-
ing some light on the spontaneous generation of heat already de-
scribed, I investigated this phenomenon of swelling and shrinking
as follows:

1915. ] IN RECENTLY HARDENED! STEEL. 159

Having no more of the carbon steel used in the first experiment,
I procured another half-inch round bar of the same brand, though
slightly different in composition as the analyses show. With a piece
of this bar two and a half inches long I made a careful determina-
tion of its specific gravity under the conditions, and with the results,
shown in the following table.

TABLE | <1:

Specific Gravity Analysis of Steel
Commercial Condition 7.8507 Phosphorus 0.015
After Hardening 7.8127 Sulphur 0.021
After Tempering to Light Blue 7.8350 Silicon 0.16
After Annealing 7.8529 Manganese 0.33

Carbon 1.07

The difference in density and volume between the hardened and
annealed conditions is fully a half per cent., which is much more
than I expected to find; and nearly half of the total shrinkage was
brought about by the very moderate heating necessary for “ temper-
ing to light blue.” The annealing was very thorough, and, as the
figures show, was more complete than in the annealed “commercial
condition.”

The shrinkage incident to tempering was large enought to en-
courage the hope that if any spontaneous shrinking, at room tem-
perature, occurs during the generation of heat which follows harden-
ing, it might be detected and measured. For this purpose the ap-
paratus shown in Fig. 4 was designed and constructed.

In Fig. 4 G and H are two vertical steel rods three feet long
and one millimeter in diameter. They are hung from a common
rigid metal support J, and at their lower ends carry parallel brass
bars G', H’ which move with perfect freedom, yet in close contact,
between guides K, K. The brass bars are accurately machined,
and their front edges are polished. The rod G, whose function is
purely comparative, is kept under moderate and constant tension by
the long spiral spring L; while the rod H carries a four pound
weight M. An enlarged sectional diagram at the right shows the
method employed in mounting each steel rod. Each end of the rod
passes through, and is soldered into, a brass head having a hemi-

160 BRUSH—SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF HEAT [April 22,

spherical end which accurately seats itself in a hollow metal cone.
The rods are quickly removable through vertical slots in the cones.

After some preliminary experiments, to get acquainted with the
apparatus, a fresh rod H was hardened by placing it horizontally in
a wooden rack just above a trough of water at room temperature,’
quickly heating it to bright redness by passing suitable electric

i
J

current through it and plunging it in the water beneath, the act of

Fic. 4.

lowering the rod serving to break the electric circuit. The rod
was kept straight while hot by means of a weak spiral spring which
took up the expansion. Preliminary experiments had shown that a
rod could be hardened in this way without warping.

The hardened rod, already at room temperature, was quickly
wiped dry and put in place beside G. Then, without delay, a fine

1915.] IN RECENTLY HARDENED STEEL. 161

horizontal scratch was drawn across the polished fronts of the
bars G’, H’ by means of a straight-edge and sharp needle point
lightly applied. A microscope, magnifying about 200 diameters
and very solidly mounted, was brought into position and focused
on the horizontal scratch, which of course consisted of an inde-
pendent scratch on each bar, the two halves being initially in perfect
register. The microscope was provided with a filar micrometer
eyepiece carefully calibrated and adapted to measure accurately
any departure from register of the two half lines or scratches.

Shrinkage of the hardened rod H was detected within two
minutes after scratching the brass bars, and was easily observable at
the end of two weeks.

rene ee Steel
Phosphorus 0.011
Sulphur 0.014
Silicon 0.23
Manganese 0.39

Spontaneous Linear Shrinkage in Millionths
A
8

100 Carbon
LOM ZONES ON AOS ON OO) IE ONCO 100 120 1 40
Hours After Hardening
Fic. 5.

Fig. 5 shows the progress of shrinking during the first 150
hours. The curve reached the 500 line a day or two later. The
hardened length of the rod was assumed to be 35 inches, so that its
actual shrinkage at the 500 line of the curve was 0.0175 inch.

The rod was next scoured clean and tempered to light straw
color by electric warming, then to light blue color, and its total
shrinkage measured after each operation. Finally, it was thor-
oughly annealed by bedding in mineral wool, heating to very low
redness half an hour, and then gradually reducing the heating cur-
rent to nothing in the course of two or three hours, after which

162 BRUSH—SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF HEAT [April 22,

the shrinkage was again measured. The rod shrank very consid-
erably in each operation, as indicated quantitatively in Table 2, in
which the annealed length is taken as unity or 100 per cent.

TABLE 2.
Wengthwor tod sabternhanrdenincumecnerat ee meee 100.383
Aten aspontaneous shininkines: merase nescence 100.332
After tempering to light straw ................00. 100.182
NMC Were mbe oy Ibkedate IIE socccusecnccouecou0d 100.131
IAtiterumann ecalingy | uaa ia 2 dees age teeenee e 100.000

Of course the shrinkage in volume must have been very nearly
three times the linear shrinkage, or considerably more than one per
cent. from the hardened to the annealed condition, which is more
than double that observed in the bar steel used in the first experi-
ment. Doubtless this was due to the higher carbon content of the
small rod, and more uniform hardening owing to its small size. It
is highly probable also that more heat was generated per unit of
mass.

Linear Shrinkage x 100

Length of Rod After Hardening
After Spontaneous Shrinking
After Tempering to Light Straw
After Tempering to Light Blue
After Annealing

Fic. 6.

In Fig. 6 I have visualized the stages of shrinking of the small
rod by magnifying a hundred-fold the observed quantities in
ihabley2:

I have already pointed out the close similarity in character of
the spontaneous-shrinkage curve (Fig. 5) and the computed curve
of total heat generation; and there seems little room for doubt that
the two phenomena are quantitatively related. But it is equally
clear that spontaneous shrinking is only incident to, and is not the
prime cause of the generation of heat, because the internal work
represented by the heat generated is hundreds of times more than
necessary to bring about the accompanying change in volume. This

1915.] IN RECENTLY HARDENED STEEL. 163

is found as follows: The small steel rod spontaneously shrank
0.0175 inch. To spring it back to its original length required a
weight of 15 pounds hung below M, Fig. 4 (= 12.400 pounds strain
per square inch of cross-section). Hence, in longitudinally shrink-
ing 0.0175 inch, the rod had done work equal to lifting 15 pounds
half this distance or 0.00875 inch. The rod weighed about 1230
times less than the weight, so that the work done was sufficient
to lift the rod itself 1230 X .00875= 10.76 inches. But this rep-
resents one-dimensional shrinking only, and we must take three
times this amount of lift, or, say 224 feet, to represent the work
done in the three-dimensional shrinking which certainly occurred.
We have already seen that the internal work spontaneously done
in the steel bars of the first experiment, in generating the observed
amount of heat, was sufficient to lift the bars about 800 feet, which
is 300 times greater than the work done in spontaneously shrinking
the small rod. If spontaneous shrinkage was less in the large bars
than in the small rod, which is highly probable, then this ratio was
accordingly greater than three hundred to one. The disparity in
weight between the twelve large bars and the one small rod does
not count, because the work done in each case is computed for the
weight of steel which did it.

It has been suggested that loss of the generated heat may per-
haps be regarded as a cooling process without change of tempera-
ture (which implies reduction in specific heat), and that this may
be sufficient to account for the spontaneous shrinkage. But this
hypothesis accounts for only a modest fraction of the shrinkage;
while the implied change in specific heat is much too large to be ad-
missible.

An attempt was made to measure Young’s modulus of elasticity
in the small rod both in the hardened condition (after spontaneous
shrinking) and after annealing, by hanging various weights below
M, Fig. 4, and measuring with the microscope the distortions pro-
duced,—always far within the elastic limit. But I was unable to
obtain reliable results because of an interesting fact which was
brought to light, as follows: In the annealed condition the steel ex-
hibited a small amount of viscosity or internal friction which some-
what delayed full distortion and subsequent restitution ; but in the

164 BRUSH—SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF HEAT, [April 22,

hardened condition the viscosity was many times greater. ‘This is
a further illustration of the instability of the hardened steel.

In conclusion, I am led to regard the hardened steel as being in
a condition of very great molecular strain somewhat unstable, espe-
cially at first. Spontaneous relief of a small portion of the strain
causes generation of heat until stability at room temperature is
reached. Any considerable rise of temperature, as in tempering,
permits further spontaneous relief of strain, or molecular rear-
rangement, doubtless accompanied by more generation of heat, and
so on until annealing temperature is reached. It is obvious that
the process of tempering or annealing steel is an exothermic one,
and conversely that hardening is an endothermic process.

CLEVELAND,
April, 1915.

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE WHITE OAKS OF EASTERN
NORTH AMERICA,

WITH AN INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF THEIR PHYLOGENETIC HIsTory.?

By MARGARET V. COBB.
(RrEATES TVS Vil)
(Read April 23, 1915.)
I. History OF THE FaGacE&@: A RECONSTRUCTION.

Prantl’s Classification of the Fagacee.

Quercus.
Castanez- Pasania.
Castanea.
Fagus.
Fagez 2
Nothofagus.

The five or six genera of the family Fagaceze to which the oaks
belong were well differentiated at least as far back as the Cretaceous
age. The beeches are sharply separated from the remainder of the
family (the pasanias, chestnuts and oaks), and are undoubtedly the
more primitive of the two groups. Nothofagus, the genus of primi-
tive beeches, is a characteristically sub-Antarctic genus, still surviv-
ing in Tasmania, New Zealand, and the southern part of South
America (a South Pacific distribution). Fagus itself, once more
widely spread, is now found only in Japan, North America and
Europe. |

The pasanias, chestnuts and oaks are at present in possession of
the temperate and tropical regions of Asia, North America, Europe
and Mediterranean Africa. Species are most numerous in south-
east Asia and in Mexico (regions separated by the Pacific). Pasa-
nia is limited to southeast Asia, except for one species in California

1 This paper owes a great deal to the extensive knowledge and the never-

failing interest and aid of Dr. William Trelease, under whom the work was
done at the University of Illinois in the year 1913-14.

165

166 COBB—RELATIONSHIPS OF WHITE OAKS [April 23,

and one in New Zealand (ranges separated by the Pacific). Cas-
tanopsis (the less specialized chestnuts) is limited to southeast Asia,
except for two Californian species (ranges separated by the Pacific).
Castanea is present in southeast Asia, North America and Europe.
Quercus has most numerous species in southeast Asia and (espe-
cially) Mexico and Central America (regions separated, again, by
the Pacific), while the subgenus Cyclobalanopsis is limited to south-
east Asia (monsoon province). In consideration of the facts that
the most primitive genus still lingers on the two sides of the south-
ern Pacific, and that so many other groups are found only in regions
bordering on the northern Pacific, it is more than plausible that the
family Fagacez originated in the Antarctic-Pacific region, and
moved northward towards its present northern-hemisphere distribu-
tion in the region of the Pacific Ocean. This of course involves
the hypothesis of an ancient Cretaceous or pre-Cretaceous Pacific
continent—for which there is much other distributional evidence
and which Scharff,? among others, holds to be highly probable. The
broad similarity of the ranges of Pasamnia, Castanopsis and Cyclo-
balanopsis was undoubtedly determined at this early time. The
problem of the extension of certain species of Fagus and Castanea
to Europe seems entirely separate, and probably belongs to a more
recent period. Quercus is involved with both the older and the
more modern distribution ; they have been mapped out here for con-
venient reference in the coming discussion of Quercus.

II. History oF Quercus, HypoTHETICALLY RECONSTRUCTED.

Oaks, living or fossil, have been reported from every continent.
Living species, however, are unknown in the southern hemisphere,
except that they are found south of the equator in the East Indies,
and among the mountains of Ecuador (localities separated by the
Pacific). Species, as was said, are most numerous in Mexico and
Central America and in southeast Asia; the subgroup Cyclobalanop-
sis is limited to southeast Asia. Remembering that Pasania and
Castanopsis are almost limited to the same region, and that the
pasania-chestnut-oak group of the Fagacez shows here a concen-
tration, and a profusion of species, seen nowhere else in the world,

2 Scharff, “ Distribution and Origin of Life in North America.”

1915.] OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. 167

it is natural to suppose that this part of Asia (or more probably,
to allow for the outlying species in California, and the oaks in
Mexico, a region east from southeast Asia) has been the center of
distribution, and hence the point of origin of the pasania-chestnut-
oak group. And Quercus itself, with its black oaks limited to
America, its Cyclobalanopsis limited to southeast Asia, and its nu-
merous white oak species in both places, undoubtedly differentiated
from the pasanias (or their ancestors) in one or other of these re-
gions, or more probably between the two. At any rate, the primi-
tive, little-differentiated Quercus must have had a distribution that
included both regions, as well as the space between them. We are
thus brought again to an hypothetical Pacific continent; for since
neither black oak nor Cyclobalanopsis exists or gives evidence of
having existed in western Asia or Europe, any cretaceous or earlier
connection of the two regions in that direction is well-nigh incon-
ceivable. (It is unnecessary to suppose that this Pacific land ex-
tended much farther north than the equator).

According to our hypothesis, the disappearance of this Pacific
land isolated the two extremes of the range of Quercus. The genus
had already become differentiated ; the Asiatic part of the range re-
ceived the stock of Cyclobalanopsis (found nowhere else) as well
as the more typical Quercus stock. Certain species of Quercus,
even today, form a part of the oldest Asiatic flora, which holds its
own in isolated regions,—in parts of the Himalayas, for instance.
Some of these ancient endemic species are the white oaks Q. lanata,
semecarpifolia, and dilatata, of which the last is said by Schottky
to stand nearest of all oaks to the Cyclobalanopsis group. (Ameri-
can black oaks, however, show certain features in common with
Cyclobalanopsis—apical ovules, type of style).

The American end of the range received a group of oaks of
which (according to evidence from distribution and palaeontology )
Quercus chrysolepis is probably our nearest representative; these
may have been the basis of both the black and the white oaks of
America. It is suggestive to find that Q. semecarpifolia (represen-
tative of the ancient oaks of Asia) bears some resemblance to this
early American oak. Some of the European oaks are also of this
ancient type; but since one, Q. JJex, occurs in both Asia and Europe,

168 COBB—RELATIONSHIPS OF WHITE OAKS [April 23,

the inference is that they all reached Europe westward from Asia.
Though the older fossil evidences in this continent have all been re-
ferred to Q. chrysolepis (these date back: to the Cretaceous), it
seems not improbable that types such as Q. emoryi and Q. hypo-
leuca were soon present, and that differentiation early took the
lines towards our American black oaks and white oaks. Since in
Cyclobalanopsis, and in the pasanias, the abortive ovules are carried
upward in growth till in the mature acorn they are typically apical,
this may be considered the primitive condition in Quercus. Chryso-
lepis, which has them only lateral, is on the way towards having
them in the basal, white-oak, position. The black oaks, on the con-
trary, have preserved the primitive character in this as in other par-
ticulars.

(Since the black oaks resemble Cyclobalanopsis in some ways,
it may be that they differentiated from Cyclobalanopsis, in the
Pacific region, before reaching America. Or all three may have
diverged together from the primitive Quercus. Distribution may
have been such that Cyclobalanopsis went to Asia, Erythrobalanus
to America, Lepidobalanus to both.)

Having thus some conception of a possible Cretaceous history
for American oaks, black and white, and of their relationship to
the ancient types of Old World oaks, we may now limit ourselves
to the white oak group in North America (Leucobalanus). For
the black oaks, being limited to the western hemisphere and becom-
ing only more sharply differentiated, can give us no further light on
white oak relationships. To begin with, we may mark off Leuco-
balanus as follows:

QUERCUS.

Cyclobalanopsis: Abortive ovules apical, styles short, subcapitate, often re-
curved, cup scales grown into a solid ring, fruit ripening in one year,
leaves evergreen, tertiary nerves very fine.

Erythrobalanus: Abortive ovules apical, styles elongated, subcapitate, often
recurved, acorn tomentose within, cup scales thin, appressed, fruit rip-
ening in two years, leaves deciduous or evergreen, lobes when present
with bristle points.

Styles slender or very short and flattened, not cephalated at apex. Lepi-
dobalanus.

Cerris: Abortive ovules basal, styles long, tapering, cup scales often long,
bractlike, fruit ripening in two years, leaves more or less dentate.

1915.] OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. 169

Leucobalanus: Abortive ovules basal, styles very short, spatulate, acorn not
tomentose within, cup scales often thickened at base, fruit ripening in
one year, leaves deciduous or evergreen, lobes when present rounded.

The most stable characters in this classification seem to be the
position of the abortive ovules, the lining of the acorn shell and the
form of the style. Appression of scales, time for ripening fruit,
and time of keeping leaves are all more or less variable among the
white oaks.

The earliest home of Leucobalanus on this continent, using the
term to include the white oaks as they separated themselves from
the black oaks in America, seems to have been northern Mexico
and the southwestern states. The older type (A. below) still pre-
dominates in this region, which has probably long been stable, with
a climate similar to the present. It is a region which seems to have
been for many species a center of distribution to other parts of the
continent. Since the Cretaceous, much differentiation has taken
place, the main lines of which may be represented by the following
division of North American white oaks:

A. Leaves persistent, usually evergreen, entire, sinuate or dentate, or, if
deeper lobed, with pungent tips.
1. Many species, southwestern U. S. and Mexico.
2. Virginiana and varieties—an early offshoot.
B. Leaves deciduous, lobed or divided, or serrate; lobes rounded, obtuse or
acute but not pungent.

The evergreen series, represented, say, by Q. undulata, is the
more direct continuation of the Cretaceous type, the deciduous the
more modern form.

It is barely possible that not all of this differentiation took place
on this continent. Leucobalanus reached Europe at some time;
and the possibility that this took place early (by means of Scharff’s
Mediterranean land bridge), and that the deciduous oaks originated
there, rather than on this continent, must be taken into account.
Species of this type occur also in Asia, but there seems to be little
doubt that they are sharply separated from the ancient Asiatic
species like semecarpifolia, and reached Asia in the Tertiary from
the eastward. The fact that the range of these species, in the Ter-

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV, 217 L, PRINTED JULY 21, 1915.

170 COBB—RELATIONSHIPS OF WHITE OAKS [April 23,

tiary, was, at the boreal end, continuous from Asia across America
to Europe, gives the possibility of the center of distribution being
either in Europe or in America. My data on European oaks are
insufficient to decide this point; it seems, however, highly prob-
able that the white oaks with thin, deciduous, lobed leaves originated
in or near northern Mexico.

The early members of the group Leucobalanus, then, marked by
entire, evergreen leaves, gave rise, probably in North America, to
a form with thin, deciduous, lobed leaves. This type is now domi-
nant over the greater part of the United States, while the older form
holds its own in the southwest and in Mexico, where the climate has
probably known no great fluctuations since the Cretaceous, and
where it still finds suitable dry and arid habitats. This evergreen
type occupies the Mexican highlands, Arizona and New Mexico,
extending east into Arkansas, and west into California. Quercus
virginiana seems also to have been a very early offshoot; with its
varieties it forms a well-marked coastal group, ranging from North
Carolina south along the shores of the Gulf into Mexico (where
it stretches inland up the mountain sides), and appearing also on
the California coast.

III. Decipuous WuitEe Oaks or NortH AMERICA.

The oaks with which we are familiar in this part of the country
are of the lobed-leaf type. Geographically, at least, there are three
parts to this group,—the eastern, the Rocky Mountain, and the Cali-
fornian lobed-leaf oaks. It is not clear, however, whether or not
these geographical groups can be separated taxonomically. They
may be parallel groups, cut off from one another comparatively
recently ; or, possibly, the Californian group may be more closely re-
lated to the deciduous oaks of Europe (type Q. robur) than it is to
the oaks of the Rocky Mountains and the east. The habit, leaf
form and texture, and bud form of the Californian oaks have sug-
gestive resemblances to those of the English oak; and it is perhaps
not venturing too much to speculate as to whether these oaks, like
certain other forms on our Pacific slope, may not have their closest
relatives, not in America at all, but in Europe. There is besides at
least one oak in California, Q. sadleriana, which appears to find its

1915.] OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. igi

nearest relatives in the modern Asiatic oaks, which were mentioned
as having probably reached Asia in Tertiary times from the east-
ward. The gambelu group in the Rockies and the Atlantic group
are apparently the separated branches of the latest developed white
oaks (and the Californian oaks are perhaps a third corresponding
group), which before glaciation may have succeeded in covering the
greater part of the continent. Glaciation left survivors of this
forest, it would seem, in two parts of the land—mountainous re-
gions which projected above the ice—the southern Rockies, and thie
southern Alleghanies. From the one Q. gambelii has spread north-
ward, keeping rather closely to the mountains and differentiating
numerous but similar species ; while from the other the early species
(possibly lyratiformis and minor) have recovered an enormous
stretch of territory, and have produced a correspondingly large
number of varied species.

IV. WHITE OAKS oF EASTERN NortTH AMERICA.

The white oaks found east of the Rocky Mountains comprise
the following species (see key) :

1. breviloba 2. lyrata
durandiu bicolor
macrocar pa

3. chapmans 4. michauxi

minor prinus
margaretta muhlenbergit group.
alba

These species are all of the deciduous, thin-leaved type of Leu-
cobalanus, except that durandii and breviloba, in ranging from Ala-
bama west and south into northern Mexico, show a series of transi-
tions towards the smaller, more entire, evergreen type of leaf. It
might be that a careful study of these forms would show them to
be transitional in other features also. Their range seems to indi-
cate an ancient center of distribution in the southwest ; this again is
in sharp contrast to all the other species, which may be referred to a
more recent center in the southeast. In short, there seem to be

172 COBB—RELATIONSHIPS OF WHITE OAKS [April 23,

several reasons for marking off rather sharply durandii and brevi-
loba from the remainder of the species present in this area, and
for suggesting the possibility that they may be a relic from the time
of the differentiation of this deciduous section of Leucobalanus.

The remainder of the group has a very wide range. It touches
the Rockies in Canada, and reaches Texas, Florida, and Maine.
Nevertheless, it is almost true to say that every one of the species
includes in its range the region of the southern Alleghanies. This
region certainly seems to have been a center of distribution after
the retreat of the ice fields, for this as well as for certain other
groups of plants and animals (Cambarus, and the Unionide, for in-
stance). The present distribution must have been largely achieved
by the Pleistocene, for late Pleistocene fossils indicate a range
broadly similar to that of the present.

The species, aside from (1) durandiu and breviloba, fall into
three main groups—(2) macrocarpa group, (3) minor group, (4)
prinus group. Their relation to one another is not entirely clear.
The macrocarpa group in some ways holds a central position, which
suggests that it may be the oldest. So do the persistent stipules of
all members of the group; this is without any doubt a primitive
character. Its species moreover have the widest range, macrocarpa
extending in the north to Saskatchewan and Maine, and in a great
southward curve with its lowest point well down the Mississippi
Valley ; south of this it is replaced by lyrata. Again, Tertiary leaf-
prints which have been referred to deciduous Quercus are limited
thus far to types resembling lyrata and minor. (Cockerell’s species
lyratiformis from the Florissant beds is now reported from the
John Day Basin, Oregon, where Knowlton also recognizes leaves of
the type of minor.) There are so many suggestions of this sort
that at present we must assume the macrocarpa group to be nearest
to the ancestral type; and, though the fruit is aberrant, lyrata may
well stand near the base of the group.

The minor group, or at least minor itself, has some affinities with
bicolor and macrocarpa. Its wide range and the Tertiary occurrence
of this or a similar species show that it has valid claims to antiquity.
Whether alba belongs in this group is uncertain; it is difficult to
see reasons for connecting it closely with any other species. Mar-

1915.] OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. 173

garetta, regarded by some as a good species, but which has often
been regarded as an alba-minor hybrid, suggests such a relationship,
but this is more or less doubtful.

The clearest and most highly differentiated group is that of the
chestnut oaks. It may be connected with the more typical forms
through forms such as bicolor (shape of leaf) and /yrata (bud-scales).
That the serrate leaf is secondarily derived, through a lobed form,
and not a persistence of the serration found in older portions of
the genus is perhaps not proven; the tendency to lobation rather
than serration on young shoots, as well as the general relation of
the chestnut oaks to the other oaks of this region make it, however,
highly probable.

MUHLENBERGII GROUP

CHAPMANI
MARGARETTA

PRINUS

MICHAUXII
ALBA

MACROCARPA BICOLOR

The above diagram may make more concrete these suggestions
concerning relationships.

174 COBB—RELATIONSHIPS @F WHITE OAKS [April 23,

I,

SE,

Key to Drecipuous WHITE Oaks or EASTERN NortH AMERICA.

Leaves deciduous, lobed or dentate, not spinulose.
Leaves lobed.
A. Stipules persistent; buds more or less acute.
1. Twigs slender, smooth. Lyrata.
2. Twigs stout, pubescent.
a. Fruit sessile, larger; cup usually deeper and fringed.

Macrocarpa.
b. Fruit pedunculate, smaller; cup more shallow, seldom fringed.
Bicolor.
B. Stipules deciduous; buds rounded.
1. Twigs smooth. Alba.
2. Twigs pubescent.
a. Leaves deeply five-lobed, pubescent below. Minor.
b. Leaves undulate, glabrous below Chapmani.

Leaves dentate.
A. Buds less elongate, leaves narrower, widest near middle. Muhlenbergu.
B. Buds more elongate, leaves broader, widest above middle.
1. Cup scales free at tips only; upper scales very small. Prinus.
2. Cup scales free; upper scales often forming a fringe to cup.
Michauxit.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Piate IV. Buds of the rounded type, without stipules. X 3.

Fic. 1. Q. alba (Urbana, Illinois).
Fic. 2. Q. minor (collected by H. H. Bartlett, Maryland).

Pirate V. Buds of the more acute type, stipules persistent. X 3.

Fic. 1. QO. macrocarpa (Urbana, Illinois).
Fic. 2. Q. bicolor (Urbana, Illinois).

Piate VI. Buds of the elongated, chestnut oak type. > 3.
Fic. 1. Q. prinus (collected by H. H. Bartlett, Maryland).

1915.] OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. 175

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Berry, E. W.
1906. A Note on Midcretaceous Geography. Science, N. S., Vol. XXIII,
Pp. 509-510.

Brenner, Wilhelm.

1902. Klima und Blatt bei der Gattung Quercus. Flora, Bd. go, p. 114.

1902. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Gattung Quercus. Flora, Bd. 90, p.
446.

Candolle, Alphonse de.
1868. Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, Vol. XVI, pp.
I-109. Paris, Victoris Masson et Filii.
Engler, A., und Prantl, K.
1894. Die Nattirlichen Pflanzenfamilien. III. Teil, 1 Halfte, p. 47. Leip-
~zig, Engelmann.
Gray, Asa.
1872. Address to the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, Proceedings A. A. A. S., Vol 21, p. I.
Knowlton, Frank Hall.
Fossil Flora of the John Day Basin, Oregon. Bull. U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey, No. 204.
Liebmann, F. M., and Oersted, A. S.
1869. Chénes de l’Amérique tropicale. Leipzig, L. Voss.
Saporita, le Marquis G. de.

1888. Origine paléontologique des arbres cultivés ou utilisés par l’homme.
Paris.

Sargent, Charles Sprague.

1895. The Silva of North America. Vol. VIII. Cupulifere. Boston and
New York, Houghton, Mifflin and Company.

Scharff, R. F.
1912. Distribution and Origin of Life in America. New York, Macmillan
Company.
Schottky, E.
1911-12. Die Eichen des extratropischen Ostasiens und ihre pflanzengeo-
graphische Bedeutung. Bot. Jahrb. f. Systemik, Pflanzenge-
‘schichte, und Pflanzengeographie, Vol. 47, pp. 617-707.
von Ettingshausen, C., und Krasan, Franz.

1889. Beitrage zur Erforschung der Atavistischen Formen an Lebenden
Pflanzen und ihrer Beziehungen zu den Arten ihrer Gattung.
Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften
(Wien). Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe, Bd. 56,
Dp. 47.

A NEW FORM OF NEPHELOMETER.

By J. T. W. MARSHALL ann H. W. BANKS, 3p,
(Read April 23, 1915.)

The nephelometer (Gr. vePedy, a cloud), an instrument for the
quantitative determination of small amounts of material in sus-
pension, has attracted considerable attention of late, although the
principles involved are by no means new. Since the time of Gay-
Lussac attempts have been made to estimate small quantities of
material by the turbidity or opalescence of their suspensions. This
was generally done by comparing the suspension with a graded
series of known suspensions prepared in the same way, and the
comparison was made by looking through a column of the liquid
and noting the turbidity, or by observing the opalescence, that is,
the light reflected from the minute particles when the liquid is
illuminated by a powerful beam of light. It is evident that matter
in smaller quantities or in a finer state of subdivision may be recog-
nized more easily by the opalescence than by the turbidity of its
suspension. That even excessively minute particles possess the
ability to diffract light has been shown by the ultramicroscope,
while by the Faraday-Tyndall convergent beam of light, the optical
in-homogeneity of solutions of crystalloids has been detected.

T. W. Richards in the course of atomic weight determinations
in 1894! devised a simple instrument to enable the opalescence of
very dilute suspensions of silver bromide to be more readily ob-
served, and in a measure, quantitatively determined. Ten years
later, Richards and Wells? improved the instrument optically and
suggested its applicability to suspensions of substances other than
the silver halides. Their actual determinations, however, seem to
have been arrived at by a process of approximation; that is, the
unknown was compared in the instrument to a suspension of
known concentration, and from these readings a first approxima-
tion of its strength was calculated. A new standard of more
nearly the same concentration as the unknown was then prepared

1 Proc. Am. Acad., XXX., 360, 1894.

2 Richards and Wells, Am. Chem. Jour., XXXI., 235, 1904.

176

1915.] MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. IGA

and comparison again made. This process was repeated until a
standard was obtained which when precipitated under the same con-
ditions and compared in the instrument with the unknown gave the
same amount of opalescence. The postulate involved, that the
same quantities of material precipitated under identical conditions
give equal opalescences, is undoubtedly correct, but the method is
somewhat tedious in application, although good accuracy was ob-
tained in about three approximations.

Wells in 1906° published the results of numerous experiments
in which silver chloride was precipitated under different condi-
tions, showing the influence of electrolytes both on the maximum
opalescence developed and on the time required for this maximum
to be reached. He came to the natural conclusion that the amount
of light reflected varies not only with the quantity of material in
suspension but also with its state of subdivision. In this investiga-
tion he used the Richards instrument of 1904 except that for the
usual standard suspension he substituted fixed standards of ground
glass as reflecting surfaces.

P. A. Kober* in 1913 took up the problem of determining quan-
titatively by the use of the nephelometric method, proteins and
other substances occurring in biochemical investigations for which
the ordinary gravimetric methods are either very tedious or in-
adequate. He used an instrument on the principle of the Richards
nephelometer but adapted to the framework and optical parts of
the Duboscq colorimeter. In comparing the opalescences of sus-
pensions differing considerably in concentration, he observed that
the readings were not quite inversely proportional to the concen-
tration of matter in suspension, and from a large number of ex-
periments with suspensions of different substances he developed an
empirical formula expressing the relation between scale readings
and concentration. This formula holds very well for ratios up to
1:3. He has successfully applied his instrument and method to the
determination of a number of organic substances such as casein
in milk, uric acid, and other purines. The nephelometer in various
modifications has been used by W. R. Bloor to determine the fat

3 Wells, Am. Chem. Jour., XXXV., 99, 1906.
4P. A. Kober, Jour. Biol. Chem., XIIIL., 485, 1013.

178 MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. _ [April 23,

in blood, by McKim Marriot for acetone, and by S. S. Graves in
ammonia determinations.

A number of instruments’ and methods have been devised for
determining the amount of substance in suspension by the turbidity
of its solution and these find considerable use in industrial chem-
istry. While the theory underlying this method is undoubtedly
simpler than the nephelometric theory, it may easily be seen from
the following considerations that the turbidimeter cannot equal the
nephelometer in delicacy or sensitivity. Let us suppose that a
standard as used in the turbidimeter absorbs about 10 per cent. of
the light, then an unknown of twice the concentration will absorb
about twice that quantity. However, it is not the amount of light
absorbed, but the amount transmitted that is observed in this instru-
ment; consequently the quantities measured would be in the ratio
of about 9:8. The reflected lights measured in the nephelometer
on the other hand would be nearly in the ratio of 1:2. Clouds
which may be measured with considerable accuracy in the nephel-
ometer show very slight absorption when observed by transmitted
light in the turbidimeter.

Our reason for devising a new nephelometer may be made more
apparent by a brief review of some of the considerations involved
in the use of such instruments. The following are the chief fac-
tors involved in the amount of light reflected by an opalescent
solution. First, the amount of substance in suspension. Second,
its physical state, 7. e., the number and size of the particles, and
their albedo which depends upon their own refractive index and
that of the medium in which they are suspended. The amount of
light observed is again modified by the fact that the light from any
particle is reduced by an amount dependent upon the absorbing
power of that part of the liquid above the particle. Thus we re-
ceive less light from the bottom layers of the suspension than from
those nearer the top. This complex relation between reflection
and absorption demands less consideration when the lengths of the
illuminated columns are kept equal than when they are varied. As
far as we are aware, in the nephelometers hitherto described the
light from the two tubes has been equalized by changing the lengths
of the illuminated columns of suspension. Although in purely

1915.] MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. Ae)

empirical work the elimination of this factor is not of very great
importance, the theoretical consideration of the problem is greatly
simplified thereby.

As Wells states, the opalescence of a liquid containing a definite
amount of substance in suspension will, owing to the greater total
reflecting surface, increase with the continued subdivision of the
particles until these reach a limiting size. Rayleigh has pointed out
this fact in a mathematical dissertation on the blue color of the sky,
stating that as the particles approach the size of a wave length
of light their reflecting power decreases. He shows that for very
minute particles the amount of light reflected should vary as the
sixth power of their radius. The maximum opalescence of the
solutions as used in a nephelometer seems, however, to be devel-
oped when the particles are much smaller than a wave length of
light—in fact of ultramicroscopic size.

The amount of reflected light lost through absorption is also a
function of the number and size of the particles.

It is evident that as the refractive index of the medium ap-
proaches that of the particles, the amount of light reflected will
decrease until, when the two refractive indices become equal, there
will be no reflection. This phenomenon may be observed if pow-
dered glass be suspended in a mixture of carbon disulphide and
benzol.

With a view to determining some of the underlying laws of
opalescent solutions, we undertook to design a nephelometer better
adapted both to theoretical and to practical work than those in use
at present. By using equal columns of suspension and actually
measuring the reflected lights with a suitable photometer, not only
is one of the variables eliminated, but also we are enabled to de-
termine the absolute ratio of the lights reflected by various sus-
pensions. The photometric part of the apparatus consists of a
wedge of neutral tinted glass by which the light from one of the
suspensions may be controlled; and a suitable optical arrangement
for observing the two beams of light. A Lummer-Brodhun prism
would serve this purpose admirably, but by a simple arrangement
of mirrors, a field far more sensitive than that of the Duboscq
colorimeter may be obtained.

180 MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. [April 23,

Briefly the design of the instrument is as follows: The suspen-
sions to be compared are contained in the two cells A and B shown in
the accompanying diagram (Figs. 1 and 2). These consist of cylin-
drical glass tubes about 4 cm. high and I cm. in diameter. A glass
plate is sealed into one end, while the other end is covered by a cir-
cular plate of glass slightly countersunk and held in place by caps
of black fiber. These prevent stray light reflected from the edges

DIAGRAMMATIC “REPRESENTATION
OF FIELD

LIGHT FROM TUBE A = HORIZONTAL SHADING

ill

LIGHT FROM TUBE B = VERTICAL SHADING

-

of the glass from entering the instrument. Difficulties arising

Fic. I.

from the agitation of the liquid by plungers are also thus avoided
by having the cells completely enclosed. The cells rest on a shelf
and are illuminated normal to their axes by a parallel beam of light
from a 100 Watt lamp. The rays reflected from the suspended
particles pass upward to the two mirrors EF and F whence they are
reflected into the magnifying eyepiece G. This is focused on mir-
ror E. A circle cut through the silvering of mirror E permits the
juxtaposition of the light from tubes A and B thus giving the eye-
piece a field which is represented diagrammatically in the accom-
panying illustration. Photometric balance is effected by changing the
intensity of the light from tube B by means of the sliding wedge of

1915.] MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. 181

neutral tinted glass H. This adjustment is made by the thumb-
screw J and the position of the wedge is read on a scale mounted
alongside (not shown in the diagram). A compensating wedge
wedge may be placed at J, but unless the sliding wedge H is of fairly
steep pitch, this is unnecessary, as the illumination of the field is
sufficiently uniform without it. All parts of the instrument from
which extraneous light may be reflected are painted a dead black.

Ne

Fic. 2.

The construction of this instrument was delayed owing to diffi-
culties encountered in securing neutral tinted glass. While await-
ing its completion we decided to improvise a nephelometer in which
several minor changes have been made. Among these may be men-
tioned the substitution for the glass wedge of a metal plate in which
was cut a tapered slot. With this instrument we undertook some

182 MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. _ [April 23,

work of rather an empirical nature along biochemical lines. Kober
in one of his papers suggested the possibility of a nephelometric
determination of albumin in urine, and a turbidimetric method for
the same has been developed by Folin and Denis.® We therefore
decided to apply our instrument to this problem. The standard was
prepared from fresh normal human serum as recommended by Folin
and Denis, and was standardized by nitrogen determinations and
also by gravimetric determination of the heat coagulable proteins.

Difficulty was encountered at the start in comparing in the
nephelometer albumin precipitated in the urine with that precipitated
in the solution of standardized blood serum, on account of the dif-
ference in color due to the urinary pigments. In order to eliminate
this interference of color, and also to obtain identical conditions of
precipitation for both urine and standard, two equal portions of
the urine of from 0.3 c.c. to 10 c.c. depending upon the quantity of
albumen present, were taken. To one of these a known amount of
standard was added (about 0.5 c.c. of 0.4 per cent. solution of serum
protein). Both were then diluted to 75 c.c. with water and finally
made up to 100 c.c. by the addition of a 7.5 per cent. solution of
sulpho-salicylic acid. This gave a final concentration of 1.87 per
cent. sulpho-salicylic acid, while the amount of protein varied from
2to5mg.in 100 cc. The resulting opalescent solutions were then
compared in the nephelometer, the tube containing the urine plus
standard being placed under the tapered slot. The light from this
tube was then progressively diminished by adjustment of the slotted
plate until photometric balance was obtained. From a scale with
suitable vernier the position of the plate was read. As the theory
has not advanced far enough as yet to permit of a purely formula-
tive interpretation of the readings, the ratio of the concentrations of
the two suspensions was determined from a curve. This curve had .
been obtained by plotting against the concentrations the scale read-
ings obtained when known ratios of serum, made up with albumin
free urine and precipitated with sulpho-salicylic acid under identical
conditions, were compared. From the ratio R determined by means
of the curve, the amount X of albumin originally present in the urine

x

X +n
5 Folin and Denis, Jour. Biol. Chem., XVIII., 273, 1914.

where m is the amount of

was found by the formula R=

1915.] MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. 133

serum albumin added. Quantities of urine and of standard were
so taken that R would be in the neighborhood of one half. Urines
containing large amounts of albumin (1 per cent. or over) were,
after suitable dilution, compared directly with standard serum solu-
tion. In the case of such urines the high dilution necessary to
obtain suitable nephelometric clouds eliminated the differences of
color mentioned above. The results were compared with gravi-
metric determinations made according to Scherer’s method. The
clear filtrates from the coagulated protein were tested with sulpho-
salicylic acid to make sure that none of the protein remained in
solution. Duplicate gravimetric determinations gave good agree-
ment. It was immediately evident that the nephelometric de-
terminations were considerably higher than the gravimetric. More-
over, in the case of determinations on daily specimens of urine from
one patient, the nephelometric results were consistently about 25
per cent. higher than the gravimetric, while in a similar series from
another individual the ratio between nephelometric and gravimetric
determinations was very variable, ranging from 1 to about 1.5.
This at once suggested that the different proteins of the serum, while
closely related chemically and equally precipitable by sulpho-salicylic
acid, might give, in the nephelometer, clouds of different intensities.
It is a significant fact that in the case of patient ke where the ratio
of nephelometric to gravimetric was variable, half saturation of the
urine with ammonium sulphate gave a considerable precipitate of
globulin.

In order to determine what differences might exist between the
opalescences produced by equal amounts of the various serum pro-
teins on precipitation with sulpho-salicylic acid under identical con-
ditions, albumin, euglobulin, and pseudoglobulin were prepared from
horse serum. Solutions of these when compared in the nephelom-
eter gave surprisingly different results. The albumin gave about
two and one half times as great an opalesence as the euglobulin and
about three times as great as the pseudoglobulin. Compared with
casein® suspensions, the following ratios, expressing the light reflect-

6 As standard solutions of casein are easily prepared and also give very
satisfactory clouds on precipitation with sulpho-salicylic acid, this substance

forms a very convenient standard of reference in nephelometric work with
various proteins.

184 MARSHALL-BANKS—NEW NEPHELOMETER. [April 23,

ing power of equal amounts of these proteins, were found: Casein
=0.67 albumin; euglobulin—0.63 casein; pseudoglobulin 0.51
casein.

From the results experimentally obtained with various urines
and from the differences in the clouds produced by equal amounts
of the serum proteins, it may be seen that the nephelometric com-
parison of urine, in which these proteins may occur in varying
amounts, with any definite standard such as serum cannot give a
determination of the total protein. We hope by the use of specific
precipitants to apply the nephelometric method to the separate de-
termination of albumin and globulin in urine. This may be of value
in diagnosis.

As the object of this paper has been to consider mainly the
design of the instrument and the reasons for this design, the dis-
cussion of its application to the determination of albumin in urine
has of necessity been hardly more than a suggestion of the work
along that line. The results of the investigation of this particular
problem with the experimental details, will be published shortly.

SUMMARY.

1. The previous work in nephelometry has been briefly reviewed
and the underlying principles of the nephelometric and turbidometric
methods have been compared.

2. A new form of nephelometer has been described in which
columns of suspension of equal lengths are used. The lights re-
flected are equalized and compared by means of a movable wedge
of neutral tinted glass. Juxtaposition of the two emergent beams
is secured by mirrors.

3. The variations found in preliminary experiments on the
nephelometric determination of albumin in urine indicated that
equal amounts of the various serum proteins might give different
opalescences. Investigation showed that upon precipitation with
1.87 per cent. of sulphosalicylic acid, the same concentrations of
serum albumin and serum globulins gave widely different clouds.

HarrRIMAN RESEARCH LABORATORY,
THE Rooseve_t HospitAat,
New York City.

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THE ROLE OF THE GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE IN THE
IMU, CURCUMIN MON, Ole Aisles, (GLOIBIS;,

By WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS.

(Read April 24, 1915.)

CONTENTS.

The fixed anticyclones above the existing continental glaciers.......... 187
dinevanticyclones as agents of glacier alimentationy.s)....2.-.-..... 187
The northern and southern glacial anticyclones compared.......... 187

Their strophic action believed to be dependent upon an automatically

recurring disturbance of balance between opposing forces........ 188
Pe emeRe bil Senate ali CmMOiTle less 4 seh .carlen clei ebaiaisieisielalercacesececl eve ois 188

shiemlnessotvevidence tor axed) glacial anticyclonessas.4..-4. 462055... 189
Si emecier mena den Cetyee mercy sce cee anise a NN ea veniae uu. ca/ileae 189
Contimmationwinelatervexplorationias js e Oe ee elise eels 190

Evidence for more than one anticyclonic center above each of the greater

ALGAS MO mil am dale. yy Rha tere Gales Seiten eehueta marae aig Daavate ech esac: 190
(Greeveinl ketinl Ai ay doe een ose Pearse ae ea area UMRUTA ROT Uns nr i NEUE 190
ANSI SSRI CRY ig ASE DR A ya SSC UR I9I

The centrifugal flow of surface air currents above the inland-ice masses. 193
Daglymevadencer trom) Greenland) ciel slarse ooecueie asirniatelcic levee oe chee 193
Letter COMMGmMEIIOM, Gocogrboonscboacg90d00bG000qG0 0000000 bb GUEKObOL 193
arly Guialemees iron WANMEIRCEICD, ooocncdodssccobobocsooounbododsun 195
ILS?! “COMM NITNTENAUOFTNS aia ea crea bo HLA nera metre a ciole'o SOT ROIS ERIE am era Gee 197

Outward sweeping of the surface snow which falls over the central areas

of the ice domes and its accumulation about their margins........ 198
Wine. Cantimirnyeall GaiOny INCOM cocoscoubocudgucobooddoccucuboGUDOFGOS 198
Wine Suyresnmies NSOuy OUI csoduobbduodsoodeocdconsoue ORB oo ooo oF 198
Martaina)| AESTATONS OF GION soddeocodoucegoocdsobcadcdgncuUdo bn oobs 199

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC,, LIV. 218 M, PRINTED AUG. 4, 1915.

185

186 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

Sudden warming of the air at the end of the glacial blizzard—foehn

Sucece sha, Gleseanchiner ChiMrSMS cosocoooccbocnoadoGooUOUoDOMODGOO000 201
Iintensivem~rochnmenect withing outlets esecerereoecin- ocean ene 201
MheiGreenlandstoehit ?.\nuacs,. nies oe eee enios coc EL ORE eeeEe 201
Foehn level and foehn clouds on Greenland coast ................+- 202

Areas of relative calm and of air highly charged with moisture corre-

sponding to the central plains upon the ice domes ................ 203
ie wim aiichyiclaitany 15) eed icia ais eee enara alt aca tateiiane sais ioe oreuarets ata oe ae eee 203
Recently acquired evidence from Antarctica ...........00cceec cece 203
Recem: Gaia, aeora) GrecmlleinGl sogcossacdongcosoocddonoooddonosaoobc 205

The cirri above and about the existing continental glaciers.............. 206
dihvewearlier data, ints com acieeeue cevecion ele pee ee ae Re eee 206
[eater miMVviestt eartl OMS! ys Meyers ven iio a eroes ve naeaeieee rake Seats ere 207

The evolution of the glacial blizzard and its abrupt termination in foehn.. 207
MMe sSe queen Ce OL: EVEMtsciivsvsers sweetie sree tae o relent eee UE arene 207
Source onithemprecipitaredusnowieenee eee eee ener 208
Amundsenis meteorological reconds at) Miramlieiny ss maniac 209
Alternationsvoficalmmandiealle Pie. ache eee oer eeee 209

The theory of circumpolar whirls vs. the glacial anticyclones............ 210
Viewssot Merrell and rahnie es ewas sacsee sce ee eee eee 210
View or, Mieinardusi)scisv oat cron ein cries orcas eitroe-coe cei ee 211
Objectiverstudiess by, Barkowmnl-Amtanctica sanneeen eee eee 212
De Ouervainss) studies in) Southwest) Greenland’ =-4.-. +.-ascsee eee 213
Distribution of air circulation in successive levels at the inland-ice

ATIAG QUT cytes tote okt aus stasis ohe to Sheth tos Savehel alo levee ousberereparehonere; stews ieee. aa aaa 214

Winds about the margin of the inland-ice as a measure of the vigor of

the sAntancticvanticy clone ice isican atone omiercate cis cle nee ain eee 215
Mane Borne Oe Coriell ose © Walks Ibewnal soccoccooocpcg0ccKoceKo0e 215

Effect of the Greenland anticyclone upon migrating cyclonic depressions. 218
Supposed passage of cyclones across the continental glacier of Green-

earn cl iisaesueie es orate veas Cite lee nee ue de arceetetae ot cyrus ea 2 ae a cen 218
INansenis sObSenvatiOns, aemaereset mete came Gene naan renee 218
The high pressure storms and the “tauben” depressions registered

at, Manmarks-Elaven joc. sen ores tee messepaetar ssi ne tycete acca: occ eee ea 219

The fixed low pressure areas marginal to the inland-ice masses.......... 220
NEAR CEL Cat ae Siescl cl Selaeae Stacuattessoyaieas Sucve aoe eer Ae yeti eh Sele oh Saha eta 220
Greenlanders RETA EH POET RN In eR GA Eo 8 0 220

The role of the glacial anticyclones of high latitudes in the general air

Circulationte aan eee meee: HOD ae i earn sa RLY CURT IER E aA Tl Ao G-o% 221
Circulation through cyclones and anticyclones, not merely within

LOLS og ee Aes Mer ee MGM Ie err MME RMEMn cain uniatals a GRD IGG O-c.6 Oo.010 221
Belts of progressing cyclones and anticyclones about the Antarctic

slacialmanticyclonesin ie errs tisce scree Coe COE Oe ee TEE ee

The role of the glacial anticyclones in the general air circulation to
draw down the air of the upper stratum in the troposphere and to
direct aithequatonwand|" sc sisa eee an soar eee eee 223,

1915.] IN ATR: CIRCULATION (OF THE GLOBE: 187

THE FIXED ANTICYCLONES ABOVE EXISTING CONTINENTAL
GLACIERS.

The Anticyclones as Agents of Glacier Alimentation—In two
monographs published in toto! and later in my “ Characteristics of
Existing Glaciers,”* a theory of fixed glacial anticyclones centered
over the snow-ice masses of Greenland and Antarctica was put for-
ward upon the basis of a comprehensive review of the results of
polar exploration. This theory furnished an explanation for the
nourishment of these inland-ice masses through adiabatic melting
and vaporization of the ice particles of the cirri, as they are drawn
down within the vortex of the anticyclone, and the precipitation of
this moisture, generally as fine ice needles, when it comes into con-
tact with the glacier surface and the cooled air layer immediately
above it. The obvious application of this theory of alimentation
to the even greater continental glaciers of the Pleistocene and earlier
glacial cycles, was made in a separate contribution.* For these
fixed anticyclones themselves, which are deserving of a special
name, so much evidence has now accumulated that their existence
can hardly be disputed, though differences of opinion will no doubt
arise concerning their dominance over or dependence upon the
usual migrating cyclonic and anticyclonic movements in the at-
mosphere.

The Northern and Southern Glacial Anticyclones Compared —
That a great fixed anticyclone exists within the south polar region

1“ The Ice Masses on and About the Antarctic Continent,’ Zeitsch. f.
Gletscherk., Vol. 5, 1910, pp. 107-120; “ Characteristics of the Inland-ice of

the Arctic Regions,’ Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. 49, 1910, pp. 96-100.

2 Macmillan & Co., New York and London, 1911, Chaps. IX. and XVI.
and afterword.

3W. H. Hobbs, “ The Pleistocene Glaciation of North America Viewed
in the Light of Our Knowledge of Existing Continental Glaciers,’ Bull. Am.
Geogr. Soc., Vol. 43, 1911, pp. 641-659. When this theory of alimentation
was announced, I supposed it to be new to science. Professor Hans Cram-
mer has since called my attention to a little-known paper by Fricker pub-
lished as early as 1893, in which a similar idea was made as a suggestion and
at a time when there was little known which could have been cited in its
support. (Dr. Karl Fricker, “ Die Entstehung und Verbreitung des antark-
tischen Treibeises,” Ein Beitrag zur Geographie der Siidpolargebiete. Leip-
zig, 1893, p. 96; also “ Antarktis,’ Scholl und Grund, Berlin, 1808, pp. 187--
188. )

188 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE [April 24,

seems to have been early recognized by a number of scientific men,
due especially to the writings of the late Sir John Murray, Bernacchi
and Buchan. By them it was, however, assumed that this condition
was determined in some manner by the earth’s southern geographic
pole, and was not connected with the inland-ice. A like natural
tendency to regard movements within the lower atmosphere as de-
termined primarily by their positions relative to parallels of latitude,
is more or less general. As an illustration, it is generally assumed
upon the basis of few and scattered observations within all save the
central European areas, that the ceiling of the troposphore in its
descent from the equatorial regions reaches its minimum altitude
above the geographic poles, though it is far more probable that in the
northern hemisphere at least its minimum of altitude is to be found
to the southward above the continental glacier of Greenland. In
the southern hemisphere the Antarctic continental glacier is prob-
ably centered near the pole, and in consequence conclusions drawn
from geographic positions are there relatively indecisive. During
the winter season the great deserts of moderate latitudes become
likewise the loci of anticyclones. ‘Their influence upon the general
circulation within the earth’s atmosphere should be, however, rel-
ative to that of the inland-ice small by comparison. It is because
the inland-ice masses have a domed surface that they permit the
air which is cooled by contact to flow outward centrifugally and so
develop at an ever accelerating rate a vortex of exceptional strength.
As already pointed out in my earlier papers, this is one of the
essential conditions for the formation of strong glacial anticyclones.

THEIR StTROPHIC ACTION BELIEVED TO BE DEPENDENT UPON AN
AUTOMATICALLY RECURRING DISTURBANCE OF BALANCE
BETWEEN OPPosING FORCES.

The Refrigerating Air Engine—tThe strophic action of glacial
anticyclones is one of their most marked characteristics, and would
appear to be dependent upon the shield-like form of the glacier
surface. Opposed to each other are here the abstraction of heat
from the air above the glacier surface tending to make it slide off
radially, and the increase of temperature due to resulting conden-

1915.] INT ATR CLRCULATION OER SiH? GLOBE: 189

sation. Unlike the latter, which is determined by the measure of
the vertical component of its fall, the contact cooling is in direct
ratio to the time the layer of air rests upon the snow-ice surface.
Conditions of calm therefore favor cooling and descent of air cur-
rents, as high wind velocity, does the warming and consequent re-
tardation or even reversal of the descending current. It is not sur-
prising, therefore, that the strophic glacial storms are initiated in
calm conditions, “ work themselves up” or become accelerated to
accord with the acceleration of velocity of bodies sliding upon in-
clined surfaces (here further accelerated by increasing slope toward
the margins), and bring about their own extinction when the air
passes over the surface too rapidly for surface cooling to exceed
or equal adiabatic warming. The sudden check in the outward
flow of air, which is one of the most striking features of these
strophic movements, in turn promotes new surface cooling and
causes the precipitation of fresh snow within the zone of near con-
tact to ice, thus often taking place with the sun but little obscured.
In the automatic recurrence of similar movements the glacial anti-
cyclone thus bears considerable resemblance to the hydraulic ram.

THE LINES OF EVIDENCE FOR FIXED GLACIAL ANTICYCLONES.

The Earlier Evidence—The observational evidence which in
earlier papers was adduced in support of the existence of the glacial
anticyclone above continental glaciers, was drawn chiefly from the
then available reports upon exploration of the inland-ice masses of
Greenland, Antarctica, and Northeast Land (Spitzbergen). This
evidence may be profitably summarized under the following heads:

1°. Centrifugal flow of surface air currents above inland-ice
masses.

2°. Outward (centrifugal) sweeping of surface snow largely
derived from the central areas, and its deposition and accumulation
as a marginal fringe about the inland-ice.

3°. Snow in large part wind-driven above the sloping portions
of the ice mass.

4°. Sudden warming of the air at the end of the blizzard—
foehn effect in descending currents.

5°. Behavior of upper air currents and movements of the cirri.

190 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

6°. The evolution of the Antarctic blizzard and its termination.

7°, Areas of relative calm corresponding to the flat central
bosses of the ice domes.

8°. Air highly charged with moisture within the flat central area
of calms, and precipitation of snow or ice near the glacier surface.

Confirmation in Later Exploration—tIn the three years which
have elapsed since the appearance of my “ Characteristics of Ex-
isting Glaciers,” important new explorations have been carried out;
the inland-ice of Antarctica has been twice penetrated to the south-
ern geographic pole and new areas have been explored; several
crossings of Greenland have been made along new routes; and full
reports upon some earlier explorations have become available. It
is proposed, therefore, to review the evidence and show how this
has been enlarged by the recent observations; as well as to add
evidence along hitherto undeveloped directions. Such a discussion
of the evidence seems to be called for at the present time, since in
a paper recently read before the Royal Meteorological Society,
Brooks has presented this theory as his own, merely citing my book

for references to glacial conditions.*

EVIDENCE FOR MorRE THAN ONE ANTICYCLONIC CENTER ABOVE
EACH OF THE GREATER AREAS OF INLAND-ICE.

Greenland—The three transections of the Greenland continent
which have now been made within the central and southern por-
tions, have revealed the fact that there are at least two higher plains
upon the snow-ice surface which are separated by a depression.
This depression clearly lies to the northward of de Quervain’s route,
since his summit level is considerably lower than that of either
Nansen or Koch and Wegener, though like Nansen’s, his highest
point is found near the east coast. The southern of the two nour-
ishing centers of the Greenland ice-sheet is thus located toward the
east coast and south of the Arctic circle, whereas the other center
lies toward the west coast from the medial line of the continent,

4Charles B. Brooks, “ The Meteorological Conditions of an Ice Sheet

and their Bearing on the Desiccation of the Globe,” Quart. Jour. Roy.
Meteorol. Soc., Vol. 40, 1914, pp. 53-70.

1915.] IN” AIR) (CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 191

and in an as yet undetermined latitude, though certainly well to
the northward of Disco Island (Fig. 1).

ax No¥denskisla

rar ~*
pea V870
S

=

Storute Miles.

50 ° 50 100 150 200

Fic. 1. Sketch map of Greenland to show roughly the position of the ice
domes within the central and southern portions.

Antarctica.—This discovery that Greenland is provided with more
than one nourishing center for its inland-ice, is wholly in accord with
what has now been learned concerning the Pleistocene continental

192 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

glaciers of North America, which had the Keewatin, Labradorean
and Patrician nourishing centers that repeatedly waxed and waned
so as to reach their several maxima at different times (Fig. 2).

Ay >

0
!
)

-—
(

I~

.

4 ORIFTLESS AREA

‘agsty TERMINAL MORAINE.

Map showing the known anticyclonic centers of the Pleistocene

Fic. 2.
continental glacier of North America.

From the Antarctic region the experiences of Mawson strongly
indicate a near-by anticyclonic area probably located near the mag-

1915. ] IN AIR CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 1938

netic pole.» Within a vortex of this nature the wind velocity is
determined by angular velocity multiplied into the radius, and hence
one of relatively small dimensions should exceed in vigor one that is
spread over a vast field and in which the steeper marginal area
bears a smaller ratio to the whole. Mawson has expressed the
belief that his base was near the center of a permanent anticyclone.®

?
THE CENTRIFUGAL FLow oF SuRFACE AIR CURRENTS ABOVE THE

INLAND-IcE MASssEs.

Early Evidence from Greenland—TIn 1911 when my work on
glaciers was published, evidence was available upon this from both
the eastern and western coasts of southern Greenland in latitude
64° (Nansen), from west Greenland in latitude 69° (Peary and
later de Quervain and Stolberg’), from northwest Greenland in
latitude 78-83° (Peary), and from northeast Greenland in latitude
77° to 82° (Trolle). With the exception of the first and last men-
tioned, these data applied exclusively to the western coast where
the prevailing surface winds come from the easterly quadrants.

Later Confirmation.—The later evidence for the centrifugal flow
of surface air is ample and throughout confirmatory. De Quervain,
who crossed the inland-ice in 1912 between the latitudes of 66° and
68°, found head winds while ascending the west slope, but winds
from behind during his descent to the east coast. Referring to
the low temperatures and the wide diurnal temperature range within
the central area, de Quervain says:

“Tt is the cold air of this middle part which even in summer streams
like water from off the high surface toward all margins, deviated to the
right in consequence of earth rotation” (p. 137).

Measurements of snow temperature made at different depths show

,

5 Sir Douglas Mawson, “ Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914,’
Geogr. Jour., Vol. 44, 1914, pp. 257-286.

@ ILS Cy, Ds COs

* The first Swiss expedition, which penetrated some seventy miles from
the coast (A. de Quervain und A. Stolberg, “ Durch Grénlands Eiswiiste,”
Strassburg, 1909).

8 A. de Quervain, “ Quer durchs Gronlandeis, Schweizerische Gronland-
Expedition 1912-13.” Reinhardt, Miinchen, 1914, 106 pp., 15 pls., 37 figs. and
map. Also personal communications.

194 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE [April 24,

how exactly the air temperature follows that of the snow (p. 94).
The diary of the journey (pp. 85-104) shows that for the first
three weeks on the inland-ice the wind blew almost uninterruptedly
down slope from in front, became more variable and shifting on the
plain with slope a few seconds of arc, and reversed direction and
blew from the northwest soon after passing the divide, where slopes
became 8’ of arc to the eastward.

Koch and Wegener in their transection of the Greenland conti-
nent at its widest section (between latitudes 72° and 73°) en-
countered essentially the same conditions, the outward blowing cur-
rents constituting a veritable succession of storms whose vigor in-
creased toward both margins of the section.°

NW

S ALANS

d SW a
2

Fic. 3. Frequency wind-rose at Danmarks-Haven in northeast Green-
land and (at the left) a sketch map showing location of the station with
reference to inland-ice (after Wegener).

From northeast Greenland there was available at the time of my
earlier discussions of the glacial anticyclones, only a preliminary
9J. P. Koch, “Unsere Durchquerung Gronlands 1912-1913,” Zeitsch. d.

Geselisch., f. Erdk. z. Berlin, 1914; Alfred Wegener, “ Vorlaufiger Bericht
uber die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Expedition,” ibid.

1915.] IN AIR CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 195

statement concerning the prevailing direction of surface winds at
the Danish base near Cape Bismarck. More recently (1911) the
full meteorological report by Wegener has been issued; and, con-
firming the earlier statement, shows that all strong winds come from
the westerly (inland-ice) quadrants. The frequency wind-rose to
cover the entire period of two years over which the observations
extended, is reproduced in Fig. 3.°° If the wind force had been
taken account of, the easterly sections of the rose would have almost
disappeared, since easterly winds are always light sea breezes,
which at an elevation of only 1,000 meters have been completely
overwhelmed by the northwest winds.1t In this rose the dextro-
rotatory deviation of the down-slope winds is apparent.

Early Evidence from Antarctica.—Over the Antarctic inland-ice
the law of surface air circulation had been clearly indicated by the
results of exploration at the time of my early discussion of the
subject. The more important data had been derived from the
sledge journeys of Captain Scott, Sir Ernest Shackleton, Profes-
sor David and Dr. von Drygalski. As early as 1902 Captain Scott
had ascended the Ferrar glacier outlet to the inland-ice above the
mountain rampart and pushed west southwestward over it for a dis-
tance of two hundred miles, ascending on ever decreasing grades to
the farthest point attained, and encountering winds of nearly con-
stant direction coming from the south-southwest. The prevalence
of such winds was demonstrated by a single set of sastrugi which
pointed in the same direction (see Fig. 4).77 Shackleton on his
polar journey ascended the Beardmore outlet and for a like distance
of two hundred miles over the inland-ice found strong winds blow-
ing from the southerly quarter and sastrugi pointed in the same
direction. David pushed northwestward from Ross Sea over the
inland-ice to the south magnetic pole, crossing over a crest in the ice
and descending on low grades during the last stage before reaching
the pole. Here the same rule of distribution of currents applies,

10 A. Wegener, “ Med. om Gronland,” Vol. 42, 1911, pp. 324-320.

11 Wegener, “ Med. om Gronland,” Vol. 42, 1909, pp. 73-75.

12 For this and other references to work published before 1910, see
“ Characteristics of Existing Glaciers,” Chapters XIV.—XVI.

196 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

Fic. 4. Map of South Victoria land showing the sledge routes of Scott,
Shackleton and David over the inland-ice.

for during the ascent he encountered northwest winds with sastrugi
pointing toward the same quarter, but after passing the divide and
on the down grade winds blew from behind—southeast. These
observations were fully confirmed by the return journey

1915.] PNP ATR CLR CULARION VO MDE GLOBE: OT

In Kaiser Wilhelm land also the report of von Drygalski shows
that the prevailing winds blow downward off the inland-ice onto the
sea and the shelf-ice in front, being deviated to the left—the prevail-
ing strong winds are from the easterly quarter.

Later Confirmation.—Later data which bear upon the problem
are derived from the Amundsen and the second Scott south polar ex-
peditions, from the second German expedition to the Antarctic com-
manded by Filchner, and from the Australasian Antarctic expedi-
tion of 1911-14 under command of Dr., now Sir Douglas, Mawson.
The route of Captain Amundsen passes through the mountain ram-
part which hems in the inland-ice, keeping a direction diagonal to
it and for some distance after leaving the outlet behind taking a
course near a high mountain range. The few data upon wind
directions which he has jotted down in his narrative, appear to indi-
cate local currents controlled by these mountains until he had
reached the 88th parallel, where he entered an area of calms and
light variable winds.'® The second Scott expedition inasmuch as it
followed the route of the earlier Shackleton expedition, has for the
greater part of the distance, or until it entered the area of calms,
served only to confirm the prevalence of outwardly flowing wind
currents described by Shackleton."

The recent Australasian expedition supplies evidence from a
new quarter—the long coastal area near the Antarctic circle and to
the westward of the Ross Sea, on which coast the inland-ice is not
held in restraint by any barrier of mountains, as is the case in South
Victoria Land. Along this coast, summer and winter alike, almost
incessant storms blow off the ice onto the sea. These outwardly
directed storm winds tend to keep the near sea area clear of pack-ice
but offer great difficulties in the way of effecting a landing at all
save those rare occasions when the force of the wind falls away.®

In Prince Regent Luitpold Land, where the later German ex-
pedition effected a landing upon the inland-ice—here likewise un-
confined by a mountain wall and with partially detached shelf-ice in

13 Roald Amundsen, “The South Pole,” Vol. 2, 1913.

14“ Scott’s Last Expedition,” Vol. 1, Chapters X VII-XIX.

15 Sir Douglas Mawson, “ Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-14,”
Geogr. Jour., Vol. 44, 1914, pp. 257-286, maps and plates.

198 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE [April 24,

front—much the same conditions obtain, the wind blowing out to
sea with velocities sometimes as high as 40 m.p.s."°

OUTWARD SWEEPING OF THE SURFACE SNOW WHICH FALLS OVER
THE CENTRAL AREAS OF THE IcE DOMES, AND ITS ACCUMULA-
TION AspouT THEIR MARGINS.

The Centrifugal Snow Broom.—What may be characterized as
the centrifugal snow broom which sweeps out snow deposits from
the central areas and collects them upon and about the margins of
continental glaciers, is a necessary consequence of strong anti-
cyclonic conditions; and its work is in evidence within all areas
where inland-ice has been extensively explored.

From observations by Wegener, a wind velocity of 6-7 m.p.s.
raises the snow lying upon the ground and sets it in motion along
the surface at heights up to several decimeters (a foot or there-
abouts). With wind velocities of 10-15 m.p.s (22.4—33.6 miles per
hour) the migrating drift snow rises in a layer several meters in
height and interferes seriously with seeing conditions. With veloci-
ties of 20 m.p.s. (44.7 miles per hour), the snow is carried to a
height of 20 meters, or over sixty feet, and much higher in the lee
of obstructions in its path.1*

The Sweepings Below Outlets.—It is obvious that the results of
snow drifting by centrifugal surface currents above inland-ice will
be different according as the ice mass has been built up within a
rampart of mountains (South Victoria Land and the greater part
of Greenland), or as it has been allowed to shape itself independent
of such retaining walls. In the former case the drift snow pours
out along the courses of the outlet glaciers to form characteristic
aprons at their bases,'* or perhaps to produce definite fringing gla-

16“ Deutsche Antarktische Expedition, Bericht tiber die Tatigkeit nach

Verlassen von Stidgeorgien,’ Zeitsch. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde sz. Berlin,
IQ13, p. 15; see also, Kon. preusg. Meteorol. Institute, Abh., Bd. 4, Heft II.,
p. 9.

17 Med. om Gronland, Vol. 42, p. 345.

18 Tn the light of observations by Scott, Shackleton and David in South
Victoria Land, it seems probable that these apron-like snow deposits in the
form of dry deltas are due largely if not wholly to this cause. Not only
have explorers observed the rapid collection of the drift snow at the base of
the Beardmore outlet, but this origin is probable for the reason that accord-

1915.] DN SiR ChREULAMION GT Oa Een Gl@ BE: 199

ciers such as have been described by Chamberlin’? and Salisbury”®
from northwest Greenland, and by the Danes in northeast Green-
land.**

Shackleton, who advanced over the inland-ice in his southern
journey on a layer of granular surface snow, returned over a
marble-like floor from which the snow had all been swept by the
fierce blizzard encountered near his farthest south. On arriving at
the Beardmore outlet, he found the lower forty miles of the stream
buried deep under great drift accumulations. Scott on his last
expedition was much less fortunate while on the plateau, and the
burden of his diary is a prayer for strong wind to clear the surface.
As is well known, he encountered heavy sweepings of powdery
drift snow at the base of the Beardmore, both during his advance
and on the return, and his floundering progress through this soft
snow was a main contributing cause of the final disaster which over-
took the expedition.

From what is known of the characters of freshly precipitated
snow at different air temperatures, it is possible to rather definitely
ascribe the enormous snow drifts which piled up for four consecu-
tive days upon the Beardmore glacier apron as the chasse neige in
process of melting as a result of adiabatic rise in temperature in de-
scending currents. This snow, Captain Scott tells us, was the fine
powdery type, though the temperature was phenomenally high
(+ 27° — 31° F.), stuck to hair and beard, and produced pools of
water everywhere.?? On the return the snow here was soft, loose
and sandy, and sledge work was like “ pulling over desert sand.’’**

Marginal Accretions of Snow.—Valuable new observations
which bear strongly upon this point, have been supplied in the pre-
liminary report upon the crossing of Greenland by Koch and
ance of surface level is generally observed to characterize the junctions of
tributary with main glacier streams wherever snow drifting plays only a
secondary role.

19 Jour. Geol., Vol. 3, 1805, p. 579.

20L. c., p. 886.

21 Koch und Wegener, “ Die glaciologischen Beobachtungen der Dan-
mark-expedition,’ Med. om Gronland, Vol. 46, 1912, Chaps. VI—-VII., pls.
and figs.

22 6 Scott’s Last Expedition,” Vol. I, pp. 335-339.
“BIL, Coy We SOs

200 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE [April za,

Wegener. They report almost continual storms in all save the
highest section of their journey, the wind descending the slopes and
filling the air with drift snow. Within the marginal portions of
their section, it was established that the finely granular surface layer
of snow is joined abruptly to a more coarsely crystalline subjacent
layer and corresponds to the annual deposit. This layer was by a
series of measurements shown to vary in thickness from 20 cm., or
about eight inches, in the central portion, to one half meter (or
about two and a half times that thickness) near the east coast, and a
meter (or five times this thickness) near the west coast. Schemat-
ically represented with grossly exaggerated scales, this distribution
is expressed in Fig. 5. It was further determined that the snow

va ne

Fic. 5. Diagram to illustrate the marginal thickening of annual snow
deposit upon the Greenland continental glacier due to drifting on radial lines.

deposit at Borg, the winter station upon the inland-ice though rel-
atively near its margin, was less than on the coast to the eastward.**

Still more recently has appeared the preliminary report of
Mawson upon the Australasian Antarctic expedition, in which he
tells us that at the winter station on the margin of the inland-ice,
the winds which blew down slope and off shore raised “a sea of
drifting snow which poured fluid-thick over the landscape.”

“For months the drifting snow never ceased, and intervals of many days
together passed when it was impossible to see one’s hand held at arm’s
length. The drift snow became charged with electricity and in the darkness
of the winter night all pointed objects and often one’s clothes, nose, and
finger tips glowed with the pale blue light of St. Elmo’s fire... . Such
weather lasted almost nine months of the year. Even in the height of sum-
mer, blizzard followed blizzard in rapid succession.”25

Where tongues of ice extended out to sea from the shore, snow
collected upon them though the marginal slopes were swept free of
it by the force of the blizzard.”°

24 A| Wegener, “ Vorlaufiger Bericht ttber die wissenschaftlichen Ergeb-
nisse der Expedition,” Zeitsch. d. Gesell. f. Erdkunde 2. Berlin, 1914.

25 Sir Douglas Mawson, “Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14,”

Geogr. Jour., Vol. 44, 1914, pp. 269.
26 Mawson, “ The Home of the Blizzard,” 1915, Vol. 2, p. 33.

1915.] ENDATER CIRCULATION OR DHE GLOBE: 201

SUDDEN WARMING OF THE AIR AT THE END OF THE GLACIAL
BLiIzZARD—FOEHN EFFECT IN DESCENDING CURRENTS.

Intensive Foehn Effective in Outlets—This familiar foehn
effect is so general a phenomenon about the margins of both the
great continental glaciers that it has long been recognized.?* The
general rule holds that the temperature of the air rises as the
blizzard is evolved.** Wherever a mountain rampart exists, the
elevation of temperature becomes accentuated within the glacier
outlets, and melting in Antarctica is almost unknown except under
these conditions. An interesting example of this which has not
before been emphasized, is supplied by Armitage, who on the first
ascent of the Farrar outlet found a stream of water seven feet in
width and nine inches deep flowing beside the ice.?® The effect of
similar currents of water was noted by David on his ascent to the
plateau from McMurdo Sound. A remarkable instance, also, with
long continuance of high temperature, is that above cited from
Captain Scott’s journal, while camped on the apron below the Beard-
more outlet.

The Greenland Foehn.—The characteristic Greenland foehn has
been subjected to a special study by Stade, the meteorologist of the
Berlin Geographical Society’s expedition to Greenland.*® He finds
that the temperature changes are much more pronounced during
the winter season, the rise on March 5, 1893, having been 12° C.
and probably much more within the space of a few minutes.
Stade’s conclusion is that these foehn winds are connected with low
areas moving northward in the Davis Straits, the maximum of air
temperature and the minimum of relative humidity corresponding
either exactly or approximately with the minimum of pressure at
the station. De Quervain’s later studies would indicate that Stade’s
moving depressions may better be regarded as pulsations within a
stationary low pressure area lying over Davis Straits and Baffin’s

27 See “Characteristics of Existing Glaciers,” pp. 149-150, 268-271.

28 Cf. Mawson, “ The Home of the Blizzard.”

29 A. A. Armitage, “ Two Years in the Antarctic,’ London, 1905, p.

39 Dr. H. Stade, “Uber Foehnerscheinungen an der Westkiiste Nord-
gronlands und die Veranderung der Lufttemperatur und Feuchtigkeit mit
der Hohe, Nach den Beobachtungen auf der Station Karajak, Gronland Ex-

pedition 1891-93,” Vol. 2, 1897, pp. 501-533.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV, 218 N, PRINTED AUG. 4, IQI5.

202 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

Bay. It would then seem more in harmony with the facts to
reverse this conception and assume that the low pressure area is
stimulated to greater vigor by the arrival of the strong winds of
the glacial blizzard over the inland-ice.

Foehn Level and Foehn Clouds on Greenland Coast.—In north-
east Greenland the monumental investigations by Wegener furnish
us with clearly defined results. In addition to full station weather
observations collected for a period of two years at two neighboring
stations—Pustervig, relatively near the inland-ice margin but within
a canyon, and Danmarks-Haven, fifty miles further outward and
upon the coast ;31 we have systematic observations with kites and
captive balloons in ascents to heights generally of 1,500 meters and
occasionally of 3,000 meters.*? The results indicate that the larger
weather disturbances are in the main controlled by the great high
pressure area lying over the continent, that two strongly marked
lower inversions in the atmosphere occur almost uniformly; the
first within the lower 200 meters and explainable by surface radia-
tion and latent heat of freezing and thawing, while the second lies
between a thousand and fifteen hundred meters of altitude, at which
level the great outward streaming from the inland-ice pours over
the rock plateau to the westward of the station (average height of
the plateau 800 meters). The most prevalent cloud form at the
stations consists of a series of flat mushroom shapes in a succession
of steps or stages located near the upper inversion level—on an
average, 1,200 meters. These being clearly due to foehn conditions,
they have by Wegener been given the name, “ foehn clouds.”

The twenty-three ascents of kites and balloons which were car-
ried out at the time of more pronounced foehn, indicate that owing
to the partial disappearance at such times of the lower cold moist
layer, the temperature inversion of this lower layer is less pro-
nounced and the temperature fall in the layers above it more pro-
nounced, than at other times—in the most marked instances this fall

81 A. Wegener, ‘“ Meteorologische Terminbeobachtungen am Danmarks-
Haven, Med. om Groénland, Vol. 42, 1911, pp. 124-355. W. Brand und A.
Wegener, “Meteorologische Beobachtungen der Station Pustervig,” ibid.,
IQ12, pp. 446-562.

32 A, Wegener, “ Drachen- und Fesselballonaufstiege aus gefuhrt auf der
Danmark-Expedition 1906-08,” ibid., 1900, pp. 1-75.

1915.] ENWALR CIRCULATION VOM GEE GLOBE: 203

is super-adiabatic. The typical foehn cloud layer at 1,200 meters
is also at such times much more marked, and up to this level the
wind velocity falls off with altitude. Of the greatest significance
were the results of ascents made at the time of easterly winds—
always light; since these show that the easterly winds fade away
below the altitude of 1,000 meters, at which level they become
replaced by the westerly winds which are controlled by the anti-
cyclones.**

AREAS OF RELATIVE CALM AND OF AiR HIGHLY CHARGED WITH
MoIsTURE CORRESPONDING TO THE CENTRAL PLAINS
Upon THE IcE DoMEs.

Few Early Data.
lished, no observational evidence bearing upon this point was avail-

At the time “Existing Glaciers” was pub-

able from either of the large continental glaciers, since neither had
been penetrated to the central area. Nansen’s crossing of Green-
land within its narrowed southern portion, had revealed an area of
calm near the divide on his section, but it could not then be predi-
cated that this represented more than the margin of the central ice
plain. The most valuable evidence then available was derived from
Northeast Land (Spitzbergen), which is covered by a dome of
inland-ice about a hundred and eightly miles in diameter and be-
tween two thousand three thousand feet in altitude in the central
area. This area of inland-ice had in 1873 been penetrated by A. E.
Nordenskiold and Palander, who several times observed the simul-
taneous fall of irregular ice-grains enveloped in water and of small
snow-flakes either rounded or star-like, the ice-grains freezing im-
mediately on falling and becoming attached to the hair or clothes,
since the air temperature was —4° to —5°.*4

Recently Acquired Evidence from Antarctica.—During his pene-
tration of the inland-ice area of Antarctica, Captain Amundsen en-
tered near the 88th parallel, what he believed to be a region of per-
manent calm or of light winds and of generally clear weather.
As evidence of this, the snow surface was smooth and with no in-

83 A. Wegener, “ Drachen- und Fesselballonaufstiege,’ Med. om Grénl.,

Vol. 42, 1909, pp. 60-75.
84 Cf. “ Existing Glaciers,” p. 277.

204 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

dication of drifting. To a depth of 2 meters no hard snow layers
were encountered, so that the cutting of blocks (for guide cairns)
was all but impossible. During the fortnight spent within this region
the sky was clear with light winds, except on two days when there
were snow flurries at intervals. The brightening after the snow was
accompanied by such a high sun heat that even with most clothing
removed the perspiration poured from the bodies of the men.*°

Captain Scott, who entered the same general region about a
month later, found conditions of atmosphere and snow which during
the three weeks of his stay within it, agreed strikingly with those de-
scribed by Amundsen. After passing the latitude 8712°, hardly a
day passed that he did not jot down in his diary the fact of variable
light winds and the noteworthy softness of the snow surface, sev-
eral times expressing his opinion that the area is one of light winds.
He was evidently puzzled by the appearance of the clouds, “ which
don’t seem to come from anywhere, form and disperse without
reason.” Again he describes them as “coming and going overhead
all day, drifting from the S. E., but constantly altering shape. Snow
crystals falling all the time” (Vol. 1, p. 370). On January 19 on
the return from the pole, he notes, “ Snow clouds, looking very dense
and spoiling the light, pass overhead from S., dropping very minute
crystals ; between showers the sun shows and the wind goes to the
SaWee

Again and again he calls attention to the dampness and the chill
in the air, so that when the temperature is observed, all are surprised
that it is not lower. The sun was often shining through the snow
mist, and bright sunlight and overcast sky interchanged with kalei-
doscopic suddenness. Near the margins of this area snow blizzards
were experienced, but in comparison with the Barrier blizzards Scott
notes that the wind was surprisingly light. Temperatures rise
after the blows. Within this central area the sastrugi are found
in isolated areas, show cross directions and general lack of con-
stancy. The snow got softer the farther they went to the south-

66

ward, and it was soft below the surface also “as deep as you like
to dig down.” Yet with all the wind variations, there was evidently

a preponderance of southerly and southeasterly winds. Like

35 Roald Amundsen, “ The South Pole,” Vol. 2, Chapters XI.-XIII.

1915. ] TIN VAT Ci CULATION TOR Et GEORE: 205

Amundsen, Scott noticed a slight descent toward the pole from
latitude 89%°, which, taken in connection with Shackleton’s obser-
vations, would indicate that a crest of the inland-ice lies to the west-
ward of the routes.*°

Recent Data from Greenland.—The account of de Quervain’s
transection of Greenland in 1912 in latitudes 66° to 70° N., affords
strikingly similar pictures. Whereas for the first three weeks of
the journey upon the inland-ice, or until the ascent had been made
to the interior plain, the outward blowing winds had been so con-
stant as to be depended upon in laying the course; shifting winds
of light force were encountered upon the plateau, and when the
grade had been reduced to 3” of arc even west or northwest winds
blew for short intervals. The air appeared to be strongly sat-
urated with moisture, and at times only the heads of the party would
be visible at moderate distances because of the bank of mist, and
beards, chins, caps, etc., became frozen into solid masses of ice.
Once over the divide, where the slope took on a descent of 8’ of arc,
the wind blew strongly from the northwest.*7

The expedition of Koch and Wegener which crossed Green-
land in its widest section (in latitudes 71° to 79°), perhaps fur-
nishes us with the most satisfactory evidence that has yet become
available upon meteorological conditions above the central boss of a
continental glacier; for the reason that no other expedition has
penetrated so close to the heart of the area. From the preliminary
report we learn that above the flat dome of the ice shield, an area
of atmospheric calm was encountered and much mist, which in the
morning was generally so dense as to hide the sun. The air was so
supersaturated with moisture that the clothing was constantly wet
and could be dried only occasionally and with much difficulty.
Everywhere above the altitude of 2,000 meters the snow surface
was granular and underlain by coarser grained material, though
without hard separating crusts.*®

Despite the supersaturation of the air and the frequent deposi-
tion of minute ice crystals from the clouds, it is pretty clear that if

36 “ Scott’s Last Expedition,” Vol. I, pp. 363-383.

87 A. de Quervain, “ Quer durchs Gronlandeis,” 1914, pp. 85-137.

88 Alfred Wegener, ‘‘ Vorlaufiger Bericht ttber die wissenschaftlichen
Ergebnisse der Expedition,” Zeitsch. d. Gesell. f. Erdk. 2. Berlin, 1914.

206 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

referred to the plateau surface, the peculiar shifting clouds so often
observed by Scott and Amundsen are at a low level. The diurnal
temperature chart published by de Quervain for his transection of
Greenland, shows that radiation from the surface is apparently but
little interfered with by clouds after the central plain has been
reached. The abrupt change from this condition to one of small
daily range of temperature, is found on both margins of the summit
plain.

THe Crirrt ABOVE AND ABOUT THE EXISTING CONTINENTAL
GLACIERS.

The Earlier Data—The relative abundance of cirrus and cirro-
stratus clouds, not only above but about the margins of the con-
tinental glaciers, will be patent to any one who will read the lists
of cloud observations which are published in the reports of the ex-
ploring expeditions.*® In 1911 it was possible to cite the observa-
tion of Nansen, that during his crossing of the inland-ice though
the sky was in the main clear, those clouds which were present
were generally the cirri or some combination of these with cumuli
or strati. From the Shackleton expedition in the Antarctic it was
learned that the upper air currents near the winter station generally
appeared to move in from the northwest quadrant and veer south-
erly as they advanced toward the pole. The “polar bands” or
“Noah’s Arc” clouds (cirro-strati) in general moved southerly,
but to the west of the Ross Sea, the “polar bands” moved in from
the north northeast or northeast veering round from the north.
Thus, as a general rule, it would appear that in this region the
upper currents carrying the cirri move roughly parallel to but in
opposite direction from the stronger surface currents. In the same
region additional evidence was derived from the behavior of the

39 See, for example: “ Wilkes Exploring Expedition (when off the Ant-
arctic Continent),’ Vol. XI., Meteorology, pp. 276-291; Mohn und Nansen,
“ Durchquerung von Gronland,” Pet. Mit., Erganzungsh. 105, pp. 22-29; Duc
d’Orleans, “ Croisiéres océanographiques dans la mer du Gronland en 10905,
Résultats Scientifiques,” Bruxelles, 1907, pp. 52-07; Stade, “ Gronland Expe-
dition der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde,” Vol. 2, pp. 417-441; Wegener, “ Me-

teorologische Terminbeobachtungen,” etc., Med. om Gronland, Vol. 42, 1911,
pp. 202-311.

1915.] IN’ AIR’ CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 207

vapor cloud above Mt. Erebus, which starts from an elevation of
nearly 14,000 feet.

Later Investigations —In endeavoring to investigate further the
movement of the cirri upon the borders of the inland-ice, the data
supplied by the Greenland Expedition of the Berlin Geographical
Society have been taken into consideration. Stade in his tabulated
meteorological data at Station Karajak on the west coast, in some
thirty-nine instances has supplied the direction of movement of
the cirri observed. These I have plotted to form a wind-rose (Fig.
6),*° which shows clearly the dominance of movements from the

N

|

Fic. 6. Wind-rose for the cirri whose direction of motion was ob-
served at station Karajac, West Greenland (several identified doubtfully as
cirri are included).

southwest towards the northeast, or in other words in the general
direction toward the interior region of the Greenland glacier.**

Tue EvoLuTION OF THE GLACIAL BLIZZARD AND ITS ABRUPT
TERMINATION IN FOEHN.

The Sequence of Events——While there is apparently much in
common between the Greenland and the Antarctic glacial blizzards,

40H. Stade, 1. c., pp. 417-441.

41Tn central Europe Hesselberg has discovered a general correspondence
between the drift of the cirri and that of the low pressure areas, but in
view of the observations of de Quervain upon the stationary character of the
depression over Baffin’s Bay, it is unlikely that this conclusion can be applied
to the borders of the inland-ice (Th. Hesselberg, “Ueber die Luftbewegung
im Zirrusniveau und die Fortpflanzung der barometrischen Minima,” Beitr.
s. Physik. d. fr. Atmosphare, Vol. 5, 1913, pp. 198-205.

208 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

we are indebted especially to Professor David, the meteorologist of
the Shackleton expedition, for a careful study of the Antarctic
type of blizzard as observed by him at the winter station of the ex-
pedition. I shall here cite my earlier summary of the sequence of
events with some personal interpretations.*?

“The sequence of events during a blizzard begins with gentle northerly
winds which continue for a day or two during which temperatures are low.
David has suggested that during this time air is flowing south to take the
place of air whose volume has been reduced as a result of the heat ab-
stracted from it on the ice surface. Then there follow two or three days of
absolute calm, during which the temperature continues to fall. Still further
cooled upon the ice surface, the air, a week or more after the calm begins,
starts to move outward in all directions and so develops (on the edge of the
barrier) a southeasterly blizzard. Simultaneously with this movement the
steam cap over the volcano of Erebus, which normally indicates an upper
current from the northwest, swings round to the north and takes on an
accelerated movement, as though it were being drawn from that direction
to supply air to the void resulting from the violent surface current toward
that direction.. Corresponding to the increased velocity, the normal foehn
effect near the pole must be much increased as it is also on the descent of the
surface current from the plateau. As soon as the warming of the polar air
from this cause has become general, the high air pressure of the central area
is automatically reduced, and thus the blizzard gradually brings about its own
extinction. To the warming effect of the descending air current there is
rather suddenly added the latent heat of condensation of the moisture when
it is precipitated in the form of fine ice crystals within the air layers just
above the snow-ice surface. The rather sudden termination of the blizzard
may be thus in part explained. David has suggested that a ‘hydraulic ram
effect’ may be induced in the air of the upper currents, since the steam
clouds over Erebus, normally the antitrades, are temporarily reversed in
direction at the termination of a blizzard, and for a short interval blow
northward.”

Source of the Precipitated Snow.—The actual initiation of the
strong wind may begin very suddenly, as has been especially empha-
sized by Simpson** and even more strikingly brought out by Maw-
son.** Referring to the source of the moisture of the blizzard as
the cirri, I stated in 1911:

“There is, however, the probability that in general this snow or ice is
adiabatically melted and vaporized during its descent to the plateau, and
subsequently congealed as it mixes with the cold air above the plateau

42 “ Characteristics of Existing Glaciers,” pp. 260-270.
43 “ Scott’s Last Expedition,” Vol. 2, p. 325.
44 Mawson, “ The Home of the Blizzard,” Vol. 1, Chap. VII.

1915.] IN ATR (CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 209

surface. This would explain the clear skies which are so general over both
Greenland and Antarctica during snows in the higher levels. It is of course
true that the latent heat of fusion and vaporization of ice, abstracted as it is
from the air during its descent within the eye of the anticyclone, will
counteract to some extent the warming adiabatic effect; and it is not improb-
able that the long duration of Antarctic blizzards and their somewhat sudden
terminations accompanied by snowfall are explained in part by the trans-
formations of latent and sensible heat.

“ Additional evidence for the continental and glacial rather than the
polar nature of the Antarctic anticyclone is derived from the strong blizzards
observed at the British winter quarters on McMurdo Sound. Whereas the
lighter gales came from the southeast and indicated a control by local condi-
tions, a blizzard of the first magnitude was not thus influenced, and always
swept down from the southwest—that 1s, from the high plateau, and not from
the pole, since otherwise the earth’s rotation would have given it an easterly
direction. When its powers begin to wane, it is once more controlled by local
conditions and the wind again comes from the southeasterly quarter.”

Amundsen’s Meteorological Records at Framheim—Hardly less
significant were the directions of prevailing winds observed at Fram-
heim, the winter quarters of the Norwegian Antarctic expedition
of 1910-12, when the position of the station is considered in refer-
ence to areas of inland-ice and shelf-ice. The great dome of inland-
ice of King Edward Land lies to the eastward and southeastward
distant only about 115 miles, whereas that of South Victoria Land
and its extension to the southeastward, lies a number of times that
distance away to the southwestward and westward. Now it was
found that easterly winds predominated (31.9 per cent. of the time),
with southwesterly and southerly winds next in order (14.3 per
cent. and 12.3 per cent. respectively). Southeasterly winds were
especially rare, and as calms reigned for a fifth of the time (21.3
per cent.), the winds for four fifths of the period are those ac-
counted for. Earth rotation should deviate original southwesterly
winds into a southerly direction, and southeasterly to easterly.**

Alternations of Calm and Gale.——tThe strophic characteristic of
the glacial blizzard thus involves frequent alternation of calms with
strong gales, and all systematic observations about the inland-ice
reveal this characteristic. As already pointed out, the strophic
quality is to be expected from the recurring disturbance of balance
and later recovery in opposing forces (ante, p. 188). Below in tabu-

44a R, Amundsen, “The South Pole,’ Vol. 2, pp. 381-382.

210 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE [April 24,

lar form are set forth the percentage of calm days to all others as
determined at several stations near the margin of inland-ice:

PERCENTAGE OF CALM Days To ALL OTHERS.

Per Cent,
Danmarksohlaven, NortheastuGreenlandaoien as seer ener 26
Cane Adair, Sonn Witetomie, ILemGES: 5. occccccsocovccceoco0cc00c 45
Scottisimbinstesasey South Vvactonianleandé Gates etter 23
Cape Evans, South Victoria Land48 (up to 4 miles per hr. 29.8

DSi? (Coles) eee cee ator GAA Greate a cosine OA Gans B56 b 010 6
Framheim, Whale’s Bay*® (up to 4 miles per hr. 42.2 per cent.) 48.. 21.3

THE THEORY OF CIRCUM-POLAR WHIRLS VS. THE GLACIAL
ANTICYCLONES.

Views of Ferrel and Hann.—From a theoretical view-point, the
theory of circumpolar whirls first enunciated by the American
meteorologist Ferrel, has been a most serious obstacle in the way of
securing a clear conception concerning the air circulation above
continental glaciers. Ferrel’s theory assumed that strong westerly
winds sweep about the geographic poles with increasing accelera-
tion of velocity and corresponding centrifugal effect, producing
polar areas of calm and of low barometer. Of the southern polar
region, Hann stated as late as 1897 :°°

“The whole Antarctic circum-polar area presents us, as already stated,
with a vast cyclone, of which the center is at the pole, while the westerly
winds circulate round it.”

This view was of course largely speculative, and when Bernacchi
of the “Southern Cross” expedition had brought out on the basis
of observations at Cape Adare the evidence for anticyclonic condi-
tions over the south polar regions, Hann cautiously qualified his
earlier statements in the following manner:

45 Wegener, “ Med. om Gronl.,’ Vol. 42, pp. 325-326.

46 Bernacchi, in Borchgrevinck, “First on the Antarctic Continent,” p.
306.

47 Shaw, “ National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1904, Meteorol.,” Pt. L.,
1908.

48 Simpson, “ Scott’s Last Expedition,” Vol. 2, p. 320.

49 Amundsen, “ The South Pole,” Vol. 2, pp. 381-382.

50“ Handbuch der Klimatologie,”’ 2te aufl., Vol. 3, 1807, p. 543.

1915.] IN AIR CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 211

“As regards the Antarctic Anticyclone, I have certainly not expressed
myself quite clearly in my ‘ Klimatologie, as you very fairly point out.

“Tt is certain that an area of pressure, which is higher than that of the
surrounding area, lying over a chilled continent, or over any considerable land
area, can coexist with a great polar cyclone, for instance, round the South
Pole. The very low temperature can produce in the lower strata of the
atmosphere a pressure higher than its environments. The anticyclone, how-
ever, must be very shallow, and at a moderate elevation the ordinary circula-
tion of the atmosphere must reéstablish itself... . It is just possible that
further inland a slight increase of pressure might be observable. There is
certainly no chance of the existence of a real continental anticyclone, inas-
much as at Cape Adare the barometer falls from summer to winter.”51

The above and later qualified statements by Hann®? fail to
take proper recognition of the facts as known at the time, and in
treatises on meteorology published within the last five years, the
circum-polar whirls are still treated with slight qualifications of
statement, and as though in harmony with observed facts.*?

View of Meinardus.——Probably the fullest discussion of this
subject is that of Meinardus in 1909, who is so firmly convinced
that the anticyclonic conditions that were encoutered in Kaiser
Wilhelm Land at the margin of the inland-ice, cannot have an
upward extension beyond 2,000-3,000 meters, that he even proph-
esied for the interior portions of Antarctica a bare land area desti-
tute of snow.®* He says:

“The elevated parts of Antarctica above 2,000-3,000 meters extend into
the great cyclone of the polar whirl and encounter westerly air currents
during the entire year. With this verification, which also further can be
supported by certain observations from the marginal region, there follows
the conclusion that the Antarctic anticyclone can in general be present as
active element in the air circulation only in the lower parts of the South
Polar region. .. . At the sea level and on the borders of the inland-ice, that

51 Letter written to Captain R. F. Scott in 1900, The Antarctic Manual,
1901, p. 34.

52“*Lehrbuch der Meteorologie,’ 2te aufl., 1906, p. 345; Klimatologie,
Vol. I, 1908, p. 334.

53 Moore, “ Descriptive Meteorology,” 1910, p. 141. Milham, “ Meteor-
ology,” I912, p. 162.

54W. Meinardus, “ Meteorologische Ergebnisse der Winterstation der
“Gauss, 1902-03, Deutsche Siidpolar Expedition 1901-03,” Vol. 3 (Meteorol.,
I., Vol. 1), p. 332. (The italics are in the original, W. H. H.)

212 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

is, within the known coast areas, the anticyclonic conditions do not yet
prevail.’’55

Referring to the observations by Captain Scott and by others
upon the plateau back of the Admiralty Range in South Victoria
Land, Meinardus is quick to seize upon the westerly winds which
there prevail as evidence that the anticyclone has at these levels
given place to the supposed overlying cyclones; failing utterly to
note that the winds are here blowing directly down slope from the
ice plateau—that is, radially.°* Other statements in the report are
likewise strikingly at variance with facts either known at the time
or revealed by later exploration.

Objective Studies by Barkow in Antarctica—The first oppor-
tunity to measure the upward extension of anticyclonic conditions
over Antarctica, has been taken advantage of by Barkow, the
meteorologist of the Second German Antarctic Expedition ; who at
the margin of the inland-ice of Prince Regent Luitpold Land (lat.
77° 45’ S., long. 34° 40’ W.) sent up pilot balloons, one on February
2, 1912, to the extreme elevation of 17,200 meters, or over 8 km.
above the base of the stratosphere.®* These observations disclose
the fact that easterly and northeasterly winds prevailed at the time
of observation in all levels up to the ceiling of the troposphere,”*
whereas with the beginning of the stratosphere, where at an eleva-
tion of 9,000 meters the wind turns suddenly through an angle of
180° and blows steadily from the southwest. If, as is probable, the
margin of the continent corresponds to the margin of the inland-ice
dome, these observations considered with due regard to the known
deviation indicate an anticyclone fed by currents above the tropo-
sphere. Barkow calls attention to the speculations of Meinardus
above referred to, and shows that they are controverted by the re-
sults of his observations.

557. c, p. 333. Hardly in harmony with the facts known at the time,
since easterly winds, and not westerly, are here the rule (cf. “ Existing

Glaciers,” pp. 264-265, and ante, p. 107).

BS I, Coy Os. BAG

57E, Barkow, “ Vorlaufiger Bericht ttber die meteorologischen Beob-
achtungen der deutschen antarktischen Expedition, 1911-12,’ Ver. d. k.
preusz. meteor. Inst., No. 265 (Abh., Vol. 4, No. 11), Berlin, 1913, pp. 7-11.

58 The italics are mine—W. H. H.

1915.] IN ATR] CIREULATION, OF) DHE (GLOBE: 213

Barkow also carried out kite and balloon ascents, of which a
proportionately slight per cent. only failed to show strong inversions
of the lower atmosphere, these inversions being proportionately
both strong and frequent during the winter season. The entire
lower layer of 2,000 meters height was shown to have an average
higher temperature than the lowermost layer, the temperature rise
from the bottom being often as much as 10° C., and in one instance
19.5° C. In the spring season an alternation of inversions (Blatter-
struktur) was observed.

De Quervain’s Studies in Southwest Greenland.—No less de-
cisive in showing the absence of polar whirls are conclusions to be
drawn from observations on the borders of the inland-ice of Green-
land. At a number of stations on the west and southwest coasts
ranging between latitudes 64° and 69°, de Quervain and Stolberg in
1g09 conducted ascents of pilot balloons during the spring and early
summer, carrying their observations to extreme heights often in
excess of 10,000 meters (624 miles) ,°° and in one instance of 16,000
meters. In 1912 Drs. Jost and Stolberg supplemented these ob-
servations by a second series carried out through the winter season,
with results concerning which only a preliminary statement is as
yet available.®°

As has already been explained, the prevailing surface currents at
these stations are controlled by the Greenland anticyclones and blow
from the southeasterly quadrant, though with considerable modi-
fication by local conditions below the level of 1,000 meters. On
the basis of his balloon observations, de Quervain has declared that
“at least in greater elevations a polar whirl which is in any degree
unified and connects the different low pressure regions of the cir-
cumpolar latitudes, can, for the time of our observations in Green-
land and Iceland, not be thought of.” This conclusion was later
extended to the remaining portion of the year, as clearly stated in
the preliminary announcement of the results of the later series of
observations.

59 A. de Quervain, “ Gleichzeitige Pilotaufstiege in Westgronland und
Island, Veranstaltet durch die schweizerisch-deutschen Grodnland-expedition
und das danische meteorologische Institut,” Beitr. 2. Physik d. fr. Atmos-
phare, Vol. 5, 1913, pp. 132-158. ;

60 A. de Quervain, “ Quer durchs Gronlandeis, Die schweizerische Gron-
land-Expedition 1912-13,” Munich, 1914, pp. 196, pls. 15, figs. 37 and map.

214 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE [April 24,

Distribution of Air Circulation in Successive Levels at the
Inland-Ice Margin——De Quervain’s data upon wind direction are
so vitally important as to merit some further consideration, particu-
larly as regards the distribution of circulation within the different
levels; and I have therefore used them to plot the wind-roses for
each of the following ranges of altitude: O-1,000 meters, 1,000-
3,000 m., 3,000-5,000 m. (also separately 3,000-4,000 m. and 4,000-

p>

aN

ll
N
4
0-1000 meters

N

~~

3000- 4000 meters MUDDY een

N

4000-5000meters

5000- eer

ol
AS ESE

VI 7000-9000meters
Directions of Axes.

Fic. 7. Wind-roses to illustrate the prevailing winds between the levels
indicated at stations on the west and southwest coast of Greenland (from
data by de Quervain).

5,000 m,), 5,000-7,000 m., 7,000-9,000 m., and 9,000-II,000 m.
For the lower levels between 40 and 58 ascents were available,
whereas above 9,000 meters there were 13 and less. The wind-
roses have been plotted with weighting for wind force (5 m.p.s.
counting as one unit and the nearest unit being taken). Wind

1915.] IN AIR CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 215

velocities less than 5 m.p.s. were disregarded. The results, which
are set forth in Fig. 7, show that below an altitude of 1,000
meters the wind, usually of low velocity, is notably variable and
controlled by local conditions. At the level of 1,000 meters the
outward flowing currents make their appearance in force and con-
trol the circulation up to an altitude of between four and five kilo-
meters, above which level inward blowing currents from the south-
westerly quadrant are of equal frequency and of about the same
force as the outward blowing currents from the southeast. The
clockwise deviation of currents in the anticyclone lead us to suppose
that the outward blowing currents start from the interior in a more
easterly direction, and that the inward blowing currents from the
southwest are almost directly opposed, when they arrive in the
interior.

The observations of Wegener made with kites and captive
balloons in northeast Greenland, were not generally carried above
an altitude of 2,000 meters, though in a few instances considerably
higher. They agree among themselves and with those from west
Greenland, in showing the presence of relatively variable winds up
to about a thousand meters altitude, where these currents are re-
placed by the strong winds coming down the slope of the inland-ice
and increasing in force and in clockwise deviation as one ascends
to the limits of the observations. While they are therefore of great
interest in revealing the strength and the upward extension of the
glacial anticyclone, they have less direct bearing upon the question
of circumpolar whirls.“

With the above data of Barkow and de Quervain before us, it
seems that the time has arrived for laying the specter of the circum-
polar whirl, and of returning to an objective basis of reasoning.

Winps AsouTt THE MARGIN OF THE INLAND-ICE AS A MEASURE OF
THE VIGOR OF THE ANTARCTIC ANTICYCLONE.

The Zone of Control off “ Wilkes Land’’—The vigor of a glacial
anticyclone may be measured, upon the one hand, by its extension
upward from the glacier surface, as has been considered in the last
section. Upon the other hand, it may be possible to use the exten-

61 Wegener, “ Drachen- und Fesselballonaufstiege,’ etc., pp. 55-59.

216 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE — [April 24,

sion of its circulation outward beyond the glacier margin as an inde-
pendent measure of its energy. This latter line of inquiry is a
particularly fruitful one, for hitherto there has been a general
tendency to delimit the zones of wind within the Southern ocean in
terms of parallels of latitude.°° Some years ago under the strong
impression that the vigor of the Antarctic anticyclone should domi-
nate within an extra-marginal zone upon the sea, I plotted the wind
observations regularly made by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition ;°

es ras

Fic. 8. Map of a portion of Antarctica on which the wind directions
recorded by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition have been plotted, but with the
margins of the continent corrected so as to accord with Mawson’s map. The
arrows point to the wind quarter.

but was puzzled to find that, whereas there was evident control by
the anticyclone within a zone several degrees in width for all points
to the westward of long. 150° E., this did not hold for the eastern
portion of the route. Now that Mawson has definitely shown*
Wilkes to have been in error in locating the margin of the con-
tinent for that portion of his route to the eastward of longitude
150° E., the apparent lack of harmony which I encountered is suffi-
62 Cf., for example, Meinardus, I. c.

63 “ Wilkes’s Exploring Expedition,’ Vol. 11 (Meteorology), pp. 272-206.
64 Geogr. Jour.. Vol. 44 (September, 1914), pp. 257-286.

1915.] IN AIR CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 217

ciently explained. As will be readily seen by reference to Fig. 8,
wherever Wilkes was within about three degrees, or some 200 miles,
of the inland-ice, the prevailing westerly winds were replaced by
southerly and southeasterly ones blowing off the ice. Mawson’s
own observations leave us in no doubt whatever that this rule of
control holds for those margins of the continent which he explored
to the eastward of longitude 150° E.

So apparent is the zone of control limited to a belt of 200 miles
breadth, at the time of year when Wilkes made his observations,
that the winds within and those without this zone for several de-
grees further, have been plotted in separate roses with results shown
in Fig. 0.

)

— x7

Fic. 9. At the left; wind-rose based upon Wilkes’s observations at
points distant less than 200 miles from the inland-ice; and, at the right; wind-
rose for a zone several degrees in width lying immediately outside the zone
of control.

Capt. Davis of the Australian Antarctic Expedition cites an in-
teresting incident in the voyage of the Aurora off “ Wilkes Land”
which indicates he was at the margin of the zone of control.®*#

The wind observations made by the “ Challenger Expedition” at
points which we now know to have been near the inland-ice,® are
confirmation of this conclusion that the effect of the anticyclone
extends outward from the margins. Had the observations been

642 Home of the Blizzard, vol. 2, p. 4o.
65 Challenger Reports, Summary of Results, First part, chart 23.

those of the first German expedition in 1901-03, offer valuable
66 W. Meinardus, “ Deutsche Siidpol-Expedition 1901-03,” Vol. 4 (Meteor.,
Wolke): pps 312-310:
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 218 0, PRINTED AUG. 9, IQI5.

218 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

taken in the winter season, it is well nigh certain that the zone of
control would have been found much wider.

EFFECT OF THE GREENLAND ANTICYCLONE UPon MIGRATING
CyCLONIC DEPRESSIONS.

Supposed Passage of Cyclones Across the Continental Glacier of
Greenland.—A question which has been raised in connection with
the Greenland continental glacier concerns the interaction of the
glacial anticyclone and the migrating cyclones which have been sup-
posed to move in toward the continent. Upon this assumption it
might be held, upon the one hand, that the cyclone temporarily
overwhelms the anticyclone, and “ springing over it’ continues upon
its course; or, upon the other, that the cyclone is extinguished by
the greater vigor of the anticyclone. Evidence which is now fast
accumulating shows that, if the cyclones really advance toward the
anticyclone, they are at least halted at its margin, and that both
become parts of a system of exchanges planetary in its scope.
There is, however, upon the assumption stated the possibility that
an especially vigorous cyclone in approaching the Greenland coast
during one of the weaker stages in the anticyclonic strophe, may
make its influence felt not only upon the near side of the anticyclone
but beyond it as well.

Nansen’s Observations.——Nansen’s conclusion after his crossing
of Greenland was, that “the plateau seems to be too high and the
air too cold to allow depressions or storm centers to pass across,
though, nevertheless, our observations show that in several in-
stances the depressions of Baffin’s Bay, Davis Strait and Denmark
Strait can make themselves felt in the very interior. We experi-
enced, also, one instance of the crossing of a depression in the
storm center which passed over us on September 8. This must have
been, according to Professor Mohn, a secondary depression which
lay over Baffin’s Bay some days before.”®? This was, however, in
latitude 64° where the inland-ice is extended southward in a rela-
tively narrow tongue. According to de Quervain on but one occa-
sion during the period of his observations on the Greenland west

&7“ First Crossing of Greenland,’ Vol. 2, p. 406.

1915.] DN ATRS CIRCUEATION: OF DHE GLOBE: 219

‘

coast, was there “an approximation to establishing” a relationship
between an extremely rare northwest wind in the upper levels and
a deep low area which lay over the Greenland Sea.*

The High Pressure Storms and the “Tauben” Depressions
Registered at Danmarks-Haven.—In connection with the series of
continuous meteorological observations made at Danmarks-Haven
in northeast Greenland, Wegener found that while low pressure
areas of normal character arrived at the station, they appeared to
proceed from the area of the Greenland Sea; and in the absence of
parallel observations, he assumed from the southward. The great
storms came with an expansion of the high pressure area lying
above the continent—so-called “high pressure storms.” During the
two years over which the observations extended, there passed over
the station on two occasions (October and January), what Wegener
has called “tauben’’®® depressions. On these occasions the barom-
eter took a deep plunge with reverse movement, as it does during
the passage of a tropical cyclone; yet there resulted neither pre-
cipitation of any kind nor any wind worthy of mention. This
rather remarkable phenomenon Wegener has sought to explain as
due to a cyclonic movement which has “sprung over” the anti-
cyclone above the inland-ice, and in so doing has been robbed of its
moisture,”? and also, it would seem, of its circulation.

In view of all the facts, there is reason to doubt that “low”
areas ever get across the larger domes of inland-ice; and the storm
paths which Vincent has drawn across the continent of Greenland
as though it were an expanse of ocean, should be accorded little
weight, though it would seem that Wegener has been somewhat
influenced by them."

68 De Quervain, “ Gleichzeitige Pilotballonaufstiege, etc.,” p. 146.

69 Perhaps best translated, “barren,” or “ sterile.”

70 A. Wegener, “ Meteorol. Terminbeob. am Danmarks-Haven,” pp. 328,
332-334.

71E. Vincent, “Sur la marche des minima barométriques dans la région

polaire arctique, du mois de septembre 1882 au mois d’aotit 1883,” Mem. de
Vacad. Roy. de Belgique, 1910.

220 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 24,

THE FIXED Low PRESSURE AREAS MARGINAL TO THE INLAND-ICE
MASSES.

Antarctica——The Filchner expedition seems to have established
the fact that a fixed cyclonic depression lies off the border of the
Antarctic continent covering the indentation of the Weddeli Sea.”
In the light of this discovery it now seems highly probably that a
similar fixed depression lies above the indentation of the Ross Sea
on the other side of the Antarctic regions and in nearly similar re-
lationship to the inland-ice on either side.”*

Greenland.—It is well known that a fixed low which is espe-
cially marked in the winter season lies off the southeast coast of
Greenland, usually assumed to wrap itself about Cape Farewell in
the form of a crescent, and extends northward into Davis Straits.**
Recent studies of the free atmosphere by de Quervain at various
points on the west and southwest coasts of Greenland indicate that
a stationary area of low barometer (probably continuous with this)
extends northward in Baffin’s Bay as far at least as Disco Island.”®
The simultaneous studies carried out with pilot balloons at Akureyri
in Iceland, indicate clearly that a stationary depression lies over the
Greenland Sea to the northward of Iceland and between the Green-
land and Norwegian coasts.** The Danes from the journeys of
bottles set adrift during the expedition of 1906-08, determined that
the currents within this sea are such as would indicate a stationary
cyclone, since movements were southward along but off the Green-
land coast until near the latitude of Iceland, where they are de-
flected eastward and later northward so as to follow the trend of
the Norwegian coast.** Thus about both the glacial anticyclone

C2 IL,

73 See R. F. Scott, “ Voyage of the Discovery,’ Vol. 2, p. 412; L. Ber-
nacchi, “To the South Polar Regions, 1901,” p. 208; W. S. Bruce, “ Polar
Explorations,’ New York, 1911, p. 187; Simpson, “ Scott’s Last Expedition,”
Vol. 2, p. 324.

74 Cf., for example, Berghaus, “Atlas der Meteorologie,” Pls. 33-34.

7 A. de Quervain, “Gleichzeitige Pilotballonaufstiege in Westgronland
und Island,’ Beitrage z. Physik. de Freien Atmosphare, Vol. 5, 1913, p. 145.

76 de Quervain, |. c., p. 146.

77 Alf. Trolle, “ Danmark-Ekspeditionen til Gronlands Nordostkyst, 1906-
08, under ledelse af L. Mylius-Erichsen,’ Med. om Gronl., Vol. 41, 1913.

See also, Sir John Murray and Dr. J. Hjort, “ The Depths of the Ocean,”
London, 1912, p. 284.

1915. ] IN AIR CIRCULATION OF DHE GLOBE: 221

groups it would now appear that the stationary “lows” are located
where land barriers oppose a progressive movement.

THE ROLE OF THE GLACIAL ANTICYCLONES OF H1iGH LATITUDES IN
THE GENERAL AIR CIRCULATION.

Circulation is Through Cyclones and Anticyclones, Not Merely
Within Them —lIn an earlier section it has been shown how the
preconceived notion of a polar cyclone, the circumpolar whirl, has
held back the advance of knowledge where the polar regions are
concerned ; and how this theory has now been effectually disposed
of by the observations of de Quervain, Stolberg, Barkow and others.

The progressing cyclones within the atmosphere were by Ferrel
assumed to be symmetrical in their distribution, with warm upward-
moving central portions and cold marginal rims; to circulate the
same body of air which repeatedly passes through certain paths;
and to have their origin in areas of excessive local insolation.
Instead of being symmetrical, as has now so generally been as-
sumed, the study of isotherms in connection with cyclones has
shown that these lines usually trend in the United States from
southwest to northeast, crossing the cyclone by quite regular paths
instead of being circular about its center. The evidence derived
from international cloud observations would seem to show that the
cyclone is a form of circulation through which fresh portions of
the atmosphere continue to stream; and both cyclones and anti-
cyclones are to be regarded as eddies which at the surface of the
earth have each a hot and a cold side. The same air streams
through both, its progress when projected upon the earth’s surface
being a sinuous line.

Belts of Progressing Cyclones and Anticyclones about the Ant-
arctic Glacial Anticyclones—TVhe southern hemisphere, being less
invaded by the continents, offers for the purposes of study some
advantages on the side of relative simplicity, and it has in its
meteorological aspects been recently comprehensively treated by
Lockyer,’® who has taken full account of the results of Antarctic

78 W. J. S. Lockyer, “Southern Hemisphere Surface Air Circulation,”
etc., Solar Physics Committee under direction of Sir Norman Lockyer,
London, 1910, pp. 109, pls. 15.

222 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE [April 24,

explorations and has endeavored to show the conjugate relationship
of the Antarctic anticyclone area with successive zones of cyclones
and anticyclones which migrate in an easterly direction around it.
Thus it is found that between the low pressure zones lying within
the tropics, and the fixed high pressure area above Antarctica, there
are centered near the latitude of 40° S., a series of broad anti-
cyclones which progress eastwardly and produce the effect of a
zone of mean high pressure.*® ‘To the southward of this series of
anticyclones and centered near the latitude of 60° S., there are a
series of more vigorous cyclones of smaller diameter but progress-
ing eastwardly at about the same angular rate. As we now know
from later observations, the stationary cyclones lying over the
Weddell and Ross Seas, establish further connection with the anti-
cyclones above the Antarctic continent.

The cold outward flowing currents from the Antarctic conti-
nent upon reaching the zones of progressing cyclones are believed
by Lockyer to ascend in them upon the west side, thus accounting
for the cold western half of these cyclones near the ocean level.

The Australian Antarctic Expedition appears now to have sup-
plied the evidence for such a rise of the air at the southern margin
of the progressing cyclones near the borders of Adelie Land. As
Mawson puts it:

“Tt appeared as if we were situated on the battlefield, so to speak, of

opposing forces. The pacific influence of the ‘north’ would hold sway for
a few hours, a whole day, or even for a few days. Then the vast energies
of the ‘south’ would rise to the bursting point and a ‘through blizzard’
would be the result.”
At this junction zone of the glacial anticyclone with progressing
cyclones, the air rises to produce rotating cumulus clouds, and it
seems not unlikely that the interesting “
with this uprise.*°

whirlies’ are connected

The air having ascended in a cyclone on its journey northward
toward the equator is believed next to pass downward through the
progressing anticyclones to the northward, and to reach the ocean’s
surface as the warm current on the west side of these eddies.

79 W. J. Humphreys, “On the Physics of the Atmosphere,” Jour. Frank-

lin Inst., 1913, pp. 222-223.
80 Mawson, “ The Home of the Blizzard,” Vol. 2, pp. 157-8 (fig.).

1915.] IN AIR CIRCULATION OF THE GLOBE. 223

Mawson’s demonstration through wireless communications that the
hurricanes of Adelie Land preceded by some 48 hours the arrival
of storms at the Australian south coast, would seem to support
strongly this view (Fig. 10).**

it fs
v Aye 2
h iA pis,
Sch ah
ex SSE
5

MD

Meh
\V ng
Cay,
=
JEN
ap

[A aie
te ae

ae Gee | :
—/ ee igen
= es :
VARS Gera
Rez ey

= . — :

Fic. 10. Map to illustrate the prevailing atmospheric conditions to the
southward of Australia (compiled from maps by Lockyer and Mawson).

The Réle of the Glacial Anticyclones in the General Air Circu-
lation to Draw Down the Air of the Upper Stratum in the Tropo-
sphere and to Direct it Equatorward—From these geographical
relationships it appears highly probable that the glacial anticyclones
above the inland-ice masses stand in a definite conjugate relation-
ship to stationary cyclones above embayments of the continent.

81 Cf., also, “The Home of the Blizzard,’ Vol. 2, fig. opp. p. 141.

224 HOBBS—ROLE OF GLACIAL ANTICYCLONE _ [April 2a,

The glacial anticyclones of Greenland and Antarctica through draw-
ing down of air from the upper levels and as a consequence of a
throughout centrifugal surface circulation, are a very important
factor in reversing the high poleward currents within high latitudes
and directing them equatorward. The source of energy which

Fic. 11. (a) World map to show the present position of the earth’s
wind poles where the air of the upper stratum within the troposphere is in
large part returned to the surface in glacial anticyclones. (b) World map
to show the corresponding wind poles of the Pleistocene period.

maintains the whole system in motion, is of course the sun’s heat
concentrated within the tropics and in large measure absorbed over
the continental glaciers (Fig. 11a). It is to be assumed that the

1915.] INGATRS CIRCULATION OL Dik GLOBE. 225

uplands of northeastern Siberia, the smaller masses of inland-ice
within the Arctic region, and in fact any area where heat radiation
is large, contribute in lesser measure to draw down the upper air
currents and reverse their direction. It is the unhindered radiation
of desert areas which is responsible for the anticyclonic conditions
over them in the winter season. Abnormally high insolation in
the summer season may, however, overbalance this effect and pro-
duce cyclonic effects. The moisture locked up in the ice needles
of the cirri and related cloud forms above those areas of ocean
where evaporation is large, is thus returned to the earth and espe-
cially within the glacial anticyclones. Of this moisture a portion
is added to the glacier mass, but at the present time a much larger
portion is blown off the glacier surface into the sea and so returned
to its source in the waters of the ocean.

University oF MICHIGAN,
ANN ARBOR,
March 12, 1915.

DAE ES MOR TA PURE SPE GLE StOn GNOME Rae

By BRADLEY MOORE DAVIS.
(Read April 23, 1915.)

There is probably no group of plants the genetic behavior of
which has received so much study as the species of GEnothera. No
group of plants is more prominently before the attention of experi-
mental plant morphologists, and yet to many botanists it may appear
that no group has yielded less of satisfaction. Among the workers
with these forms there is the widest divergence of opinion, and of
general conclusions there is little to show for the time that has
passed since the appearance of “Die Mutationstheorie” in Igor
and the many years of study that De Vries devoted to the group
previous to this date.

Can we find the point around which the difficulties cluster most
thickly or from which the varied interpretations diverge most
sharply? And, finding such a point can we formulate lines of
experimentation that may clear the confusion of assumptions from
which the various workers have proceeded to follow the lines of
study that seemed to them to lead towards the light? To the
writer the center of the difficulties lies in the fact that we have no
accepted tests for the genetic purity of an Ginothera species.

By the genetic purity of a species we mean such a constitution of
the germ plasm that a form is able to produce gametes of one type
only for each sex. That is to say all male gametes of the form
should have the same germinal constitution and thus be physio-
logically and morphologically equivalent, and all female gametes
likewise should be of the same type. The male and female gametes
may, however, differ in their respective effects upon the characters
of a succeeding generation as shown by the marked differences
exhibited by certain reciprocal crosses, for example, the reciprocals
between biennis and muricata, or between biennis and franciscana

1 Genetical Studies on CEnothera—VI.
226

1915.] PURE ‘SPECIES OF GANOTHERA. 227

(De Vries ’13, Davis ’14). The zygotes of a pure species must
be uniform since the gametes of each sex are respectively similar,
and a pure species, to employ that convenient expression of
Bateson’s, is therefore homozygous.

It has generally been held that no further proof of the genetic
purity of a species is necessary than the established fact that it will
“breed true,’ and I venture to believe that at present most workers
among the cenotheras regard this test as entirely sufficient to establish
the character of any material with which they work. If any line of
(:nothera breeds true in large cultures it is confidently regarded as
homozygous. Should a line fail to breed true to any considerable
degree it is stamped as a hybrid if the investigator inclines towards
the methods of analysis characteristic of the Mendelian school.
Those who believe in mutations are so fully content with this test
that to them a form need breed only reasonably true to pass as a
pure species and the departures from the type, called mutations, are
interpreted as due to modifications of the germ plasm not, however,
the result of hybridism.

If a line of Gnothera fails to breed true to a very considerable
degree and thus becomes suspected of a hybrid constitution, few
workers would think of using it as favorable material for experi-
mental studies to test the mutation theory. It is the lines which
breed reasonably true that chiefly form the subjects of CEnothera
discussions with reference to the theory of mutation. Such a line
is the Lamarckiana of De Vries’s cultures which when grown in
large numbers in selfed families appears uniform except for certain
small proportions of individuals, “ mutants,” which stand out clearly
from the mass with distinctive characters that are readily recog-
nized and may be clearly described. It is important to note that
these new types are not connected by intergrading forms with the
parent Lamarckiana and that they appear in successive generations
of Lamarckiana with certain degrees of regularity.

More impressive than this history of Lamarckiana which has
flowers open-pollinated, and consequently likely in Nature to have
been crossed by insects, is the behavior reported for certain lines
of Cnothera with flowers close-pollinated in the bud, a condition
that obviously gives their own pollen the first chance to function and

228 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

thus greatly reduces the probabilities of cross-pollination. Such a
plant is the biennis of Holland and other parts of Europe, a type of
especial interest not only for its clear morphological characters but
also because there is good reason for believing the line to be very
old. This plant forms a large population in Holland with no near
relatives and must have lived there for many years to have so thor-
oughly established itself. Indeed it seems probable that this
(Enothera, the Dutch biennis, has come down to us essentially un-
changed from the times of Linnzus who gave us its name. We
know of no plant better representative of a species of CEnothera
and we know of no nothera which better satisfies the generally ac-
cepted requirement that a species should “breed true.”

(Enothera biennis L. in large cultures comes so true that hun-
dreds of plants may be grown without finding a single departure
from the type. Yet Stomps (714) in large cultures of selfed lines
from a single wild plant collected in 1905 discovered that this Dutch
biennis throws occasional marked variants (‘“‘ mutants”) and he de-
scribed a biennis semi-gigas with the triploid number of chromo-
somes (21), a dwarf type biennis nanella, and a color variety
biennis sulfurea with pale yellow petals. De Vries (15) at once
took up the study of certain of the lines established by Stomps and
grew cultures which totaled 8,500 plants. Among these were 4
plants of biennis semi-gigas about 0.05 per cent., 8 plants of biennis
nanella about 0.1 per cent., and 27 plants of biennis sulfurea about
0.3 per cent. Since the percentages from. Lamarckiana are for
semi-gigas 0.3 per cent. and for nanella 1 to 2 per cent. it should be
noted that with respect to these “mutants” bienmis appears to be
the more stable of the two species, although the color variety biennis
sulfurea constitutes a new type of variant in experimental studies
on cenotheras. A culture of over 1,000 plants from selfed seed of
biennis sulfurea, all with pale yellow flowers, produced 2 dwarfs
thus establishing a “ double mutant” O. biennis mut. sulfurea mut.
nanella.

As evidence for the mutation theory of De Vries this behavior
of the Dutch biennis is to the writer much more trustworthy evi-
dence than the behavior of Lamarckiana for the reason that the
latter plant in his opinion does not have a clear record of long

1915.] PURE SPECIES OF CHNOTHERA. 229

existence, and probably is a form of comparatively recent origin.
De Vries (715, p. 173) has asserted again most vigorously his belief
that Lamarckiana may be identified with a specimen from the United
States collected by Michaux and now in the collections of the
Museum d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris (De Vries, ’14). With this
view I cannot accord for reasons recently published (Davis, ’15a).
The showing of “mutants” from CZnothera biennis can hardly be
considered very encouraging for the mutation theory of organic
evolution when it is remembered that biennis semi-gigas is self
sterile, that biennis nanella is frequently weakly or diseased, and
that biennis sulfurea is clearly a retrogressive type having lost the
power of producing normal yellow flowers.

Although O. biennis of all the cenotheras brought into the ex-
perimental garden still seems to me the form most free from sus-
picion of gametic impurity, nevertheless the line of Stomps has not,
so far as we know, been subjected to the tests of a pure species sum-
marized at the conclusion of this paper. De Vries (715, p. 173) is
mistaken in quoting me as conceding for this species a pure origin.
I regard it simply as the safest material yet known on which to
conduct studies in mutation, and with which other forms may be
crossed to determine by the constitution of the F, hybrid genera-
tion whether or not their gametes are uniform. If in such a breed-
ing test the F, progeny fall into two or more classes the assump-
tion is justified that the form crossed with biennis must produce
different classes of gametes. If the F, hybrid generation is uniform
then it is clear that the functioning gametes male and female are
respectively uniform. The fact that Lamarckiana crossed with
bienms produces the “twin hybrids” Jaeta and velutina is, as has
frequently been pointed out, one of the most important facts favor-
ing the hybrid nature of Lamarckiana. It seems to me not improb-
able that other species of CEnothera will eventually be isolated more
stable than the Dutch biennis.

Some exceedingly interesting observations have recently been
reported by Bartlett (715 a, b, c) on the behavior of certain small-
flowered, self-pollinated American cenotheras. When grown in
selfed lines these forms exhibit a behavior similar to that of
Lamarckiana and biennis in throwing off in successive generations

230 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A {April 23,

certain new types. Thus from one of the species, Gnothera
stenomeres, a mutant gigas appeared with the diploid number of
chromosomes, and from another species, O. Reynoldsti, certain in-
dividuals throw from 60 per cent. to 80 per cent. of dwarfs. It is
too early to discuss the remarkable peculiarities of these forms since
the material of Bartlett has not yet been tested for its purity along
the lines presently to be discussed. Bartlett regards the new types
as “mutants” in the sense of De Vries. The important point for
our consideration at present is the fact that these wild plants ap-
parently continue to reproduce themselves from generation to gen-
eration even while giving rise to the new forms.

With respect to the taxonomic status of the plants which we
have just considered the writer sees no alternative but their recogni-
tion as clear species. The Lamarckiana of De Vries, the biennis of
Linnzeus, and most of the types which Bartlett has segregated from
the American wild cenotheras breed true as to the mass of their
progeny. What further qualifications can taxonomy in reason de-
mand? Species they are by virtue of their morphology and by the
test of the experimental garden which shows their characters to be
stable to an extent that renders it certain that each line self-pol-
linated will maintain itself unchanged, indefinitely as far as we can
see, through successive generations.

The argument that will follow as to the genetic constitution of
these species of Cnothera does not in the least affect the matter of
their recognition in taxonomy as species. It may be prefaced by
two questions stated as follows: Are the types pure species, homo-
zygous because the plants develop male gametes of one type only
and because their female gametes have a uniform germinal constitu-
tion? Or, are the types heterozygous developing different types of
male gametes and different types of female; briefly expressed have
they in some degree a hybrid constitution ?

But it will at once be asked, how can a species be hybrid even
to a small degree and yet breed as true as do these forms under
consideration? Where in their behavior is evidence of a hybrid
constitution such as might appear in the splitting off of numerous
different forms varying from the parent type, some in small degrees
and some in larger degrees? Where is evidence of an orderly segre-

1915.] PURE, SPE CIES# OR GNOTHERA: 231

gation of characters such as has been demonstrated by the Men-
delian research of recent years? To these questions it must frankly
be answered that only here and there are glimpses of situations
which may possibly be interpreted in terms of Mendelian analysis.
For example the characters of the “mutants” are frequently clearly
retrogressive which indicates that gametes are formed lacking cer-
tain factors and suggests phenomena characteristic of segregation
from heterozygous stock and very common in Mendelian behavior.
Again, the repetition of the same “mutants” in a series of genera-
tions suggests a mechanism of precision such as we have come to
associate with Mendelian inheritance. It is not, however, my pur-
pose to argue at present this phase of the discussion for the experi-
mental data before us is not 1n such shape that it can be handled to
the best advantage. We admit that the “mutants” themselves do
not establish their parents as in their nature hybrids. If they did
there would of course be no discussion.

Under two conditions and apparently two only can a hetero-
zygous species be conceived as breeding true.

First, if of the varied possible types of gametes only such unite
and produce fertile zygotes as will perpetuate the same germinal
constitution as the parent, then from such zygotes a heterozygous
line might continue indefinitely as an impure or hybrid species.
Under such conditions gametes which might in varied combinations
give a series of different forms (segregates) are either not matured
or if matured fail to function. Some degree of pollen and ovule
sterility must be expected as the result of such conditions.

Second, if of a varied assortment of zygotes formed by the
union of different types of gametes, only those develop which have
the germinal constitution of the parent then again a heterozygous
line might continue indefinitely and constitute a species, although
impure or hybrid in its nature. Since all of the zygotes which re-
sult from other combinations of gametes either die or fail to develop
beyond some early stage in the life history this condition would
result in some degree of seed sterility or in the production of weak
plants that must soon perish.

Now the cenotheras as a group exhibit a very remarkable amount
of pollen sterility and also a high degree of ovule abortion, and

232 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

these plants frequently give extraordinarily low yields of fertile
seeds although seed-like structures may be formed in abundance.
These facts we are just beginning to appreciate as offering prob-
lems for study. They seem to the writer of vital importance to
the discussion of Ginothera genetics, facts which the Mutationists
cannot ignore and behind which the Mendelians can maintain at
present a very strong defence for their interpretations of the pecult-
arities of Cénothera behavior.

With respect to pollen sterility it has for many years been
known that Lamarckiana and other species of Cénothera present
large proportions of abortive pollen grains. Bateson (1902) early
seized on the point and suggested that the high degree of pollen
abortion in Lamarckiana indicated a hybrid plant exhibiting partial
sterility. Geerts (09) in an excellent account of the cytology of
Lamarckina showed that approximately one half of the pollen grains
fail to mature and that one half of the ovules fail to develop em-
bryo sacs. Geerts (’09, p. 89) also made an examination of more
than one hundred species of the Onagracee, giving us the condi-
tions of pollen and ovulue fertility represented in some fifteen
genera. He found generally in species of Cinothera and allied
genera a degree of sterility similar to that in Cenothera Lamarcki-
ana, about 50 per cent. for both pollen and ovules. On. the other
hand certain species of Jussieua, Zauschneria, Epilobium, Boisdu-
valia and Lopezia are wholly or almost wholly fertile.

My own examination of conditions in the material of Cénothera
with which in recent years I have worked has shown some remark-
able differences in the amount of pollen and seed sterility. Such
close pollinated types as the Dutch biennis, the Dutch muricata,
American muricata (from Woods Hole), Tracyi, and a number of
American small-flowered species (for example biennis A and biennis
D of my cultures (Davis, ’11, p. 197 and 712, p. 385)), have very
large amounts of sterile pollen. In the case of the Dutch muricata
much more than 50 per cent. of the pollen has been sterile. Yet
these are types which by virtue of their long history of close polli-
nation might be expected to be among the purest of the species.
On the other hand the race grandiflora B (Davis, ’11, p. 203), and
the western species franciscana and venusta, all open pollinated

1915.] PURE SPECIES OF CGiNOTHERA. 233

species show hardly more than a trace of pollen abortion, and
Jamesu from Texas only a small amount of sterile pollen. I have
this winter tested the seed fertility of some of these species by ger-
minating the seeds in Petri dishes after the method recently de-
scribed (Davis, 150). The Dutch biennis gave a germination of
about 96 per cent., the Dutch muricata about 72 per cent., grandi-
flora B about 95 per cent., franciscana about 61 per cent., venusta
about 87 per cent., and Jamesi about 91 per cent.

It is interesting to note in the above list that the Dutch biennis
with its very high percentage of fertile seeds (96 per cent.) has
extensive pollen abortion and the Dutch muricata with seed ger-
mination of about 72 per cent. has an even lower degree of pollen
sterility. On the other hand there are species of Gnothera with
both high seed and pollen fertility as illustrated by some races of
grandiflora, venusta and Jamesii. I was especially interested in
the conditions shown by my race grandiflora B with its almost per-
fect fertility both as to pollen and seeds. This race isolated from a
collection of mixed seeds gathered by Tracy in 1907 at Dixie Land-
ing, Alabama, has always seemed to me to present a type of unusual
purity. The line was started in 1908 by a cross of two similar
plants (Davis, ’11, p. 203) representing the broader-leaved forms
of grandiflora that were present at Dixie Landing and I have grown
in small cultures several generations of the plant without noting
departures from the type. I cannot accept the criticism of De
Vries (714, p. 348) that my race grandiflora B is impure because
from the same collection of mixed seeds of Tracy’s he obtained a
diversified culture as I also reported (Davis, ’11, p. 203) when the
line was first isolated, and because De Vries and Bartlett found
the Dixie Landing station “desolate”’ five years after the visit of
Tracy. This type may prove to be nearer to the desired pure spe-
cies than the Dutch biennis.

Jeffrey in recent papers (14a, ’14b, *15) has taken the position
“that in good species the spores or pollen is invariably perfect

’

morphologically’ and from this standpoint refuses to consider La-
marckiana and other cenotheras as suitable material on which to base

experimental studies on mutations. ‘To him the mere presence of

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 218 P, PRINTED AUG. 9, IQI5.

234 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

abortive pollen suffices to stamp a form as hybrid in character. This
represents an extreme view which in consideration of our ignorance
of possible physiological reasons for pollen sterility can at present
scarcely be claimed as more than an hypothesis. For the cenotheras
we are greatly in need of cytological and physiological studies on
pollen sterility more detailed than the incidental observations that
have so far been published.

With respect to the abortion of ovules among the cenotheras our
information is practically confined to the observations of Geerts
(709), mentioned above. It appears that in O. Lamarckiana and a
number of other species only about 50 per cent. of the ovules de-
velop embryo sacs. Other species also show varying degrees of
ovule abortion. The ovules that fail to mature are represented in
the capsules by a fine light brown powder known to all who work
with cenotheras. Such powder is very common in the capsules of
various species and their hybrids, and it seems probable that ovule
sterility is as widespread in this group of plants as is the degen-
eration of the pollen. As in the case of pollen sterility we do not
know to what extent physiological conditions may also be respon-
sible for the abortion of ovules.

Pollen and ovule sterility involve of course the elimination from
the life history of immense numbers of gametes and raise the fol-
lowing questions. Can it be that this elimination throws out of
the life cycle types of gametes with germinal constitutions differ-
ent from the gametes that matured and that function? It is pos-
sible that some of the CEnotheras species, in hybrid condition, reg-
ularly mature for the most part particular classes of gametes
which in conjugation will perpetuate the genetic line of the parent
plant? Gametes even when normally developed may still not func-
tion as when pollen grains fail to germinate upon the stigma be-
cause its secretions are not suitable. It must also be borne in mind
that there are yet other phases of the life history when gametes
may become ineffective as through failure to conjugate or because
of a high mortality among zygotes, embryos, or young plants; such
forms of infertility are expressed in sterile seeds or in weak off-
spring which never mature. Possibly the so-called “mutants ” arise
when unusual gametes from hybrids, occasionally surviving the ex-

1915.] PURE SPECIES OF (ENOTHERA. 235

tensive process of degeneration, form zygotes also able to survive
and to develop plants diverging from the parents.

The subject of seed sterility among the cenotheras has scarcely
been touched by the students of the group and yet it seems likely to
become a factor of prime importance in its bearings on the problems
of CEnothera genetics. Any worker among these plants shortly
becomes aware of the fact that very many of the seed-like struc-
tures which he sows fail to germinate even though seed pans are
kept for many weeks. De Vries makes frequent reference to the
facts of seed sterility and the writer has in recent years recorded
the number of seeds sown in cultures and the number of seedlings
that develop. The results are most surprising and must have sig-
nificance although what that may be remains for the future to dis-
close. A line of research has opened before us that will demand
a special technique, for it is not enough to know merely that certain
proportions of the seeds germinate within the time practicable for
keeping seed pans under observation.

Seed-like structures sown on the earth are obviously lost for
further enquiry as to the facts of their viability; a proportion of
seedlings appear but as for the residue, that cannot be examined.
The residue may contain viable seeds the germination of which is
delayed, or it may consist wholly of sterile structures. We must
develop methods that will ensure the rapid and complete germina-
tion of seeds in convenient receptacles such that the residue of
sterile structures may be left for study after the seedlings have
been removed and set in the earth. By such methods cultures of
(Enothera may be grown in which one may feel confident that all of
the viable seeds have germinated since by an examination of the
residue it may be determined whether or not the seed-like structures
have embryos. It is probably safe to say that no culture of Gno-
thera has as yet been described in which we may feel certain that
the progeny of the sowing is complete. During the past winter I
have tested the percentage of seed fertility in some fifty species and
hybrids of Gnothera germinating the seeds on pads of wet filter
paper in Petri dishes. With this method may advantageously be
combined the clever practical suggestion of De Vries (’15, p. 190)
of forcing water into wet seeds by air pressure thereby greatly

236 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

hastening their germination. A description of a method of seed
germination which will, I think, prove to be satisfactory in gen-
etical work on Ginothera may be found in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., p. 360, 1915.

The first investigator to make use of the facts of seed sterility
in suggesting Mendelian interpretations of the behavior of La-
marckiana and certain Ginothera crosses has been Renner (14)
and his line of investigation has opened a field of research and spec-
ulation that must be reckoned with in the future. Renner has
studied the seed structure in Lamarckiana, biennis and muricata,
and in certain crosses among these forms. His conclusion on the
genotype of Lamarckiana will illustrate the principles underlying
the method of attack. Since Lamarckiana when crossed with bien-
mis and certain other species gives in the F, hybrid generation the
twin hybrids /@ta and velutina it may be assumed to develop two
classes of gametes which function. These may be spoken of as the
leta and velutina gametes and are produced in about equal numbers.
When Lamarckiana is self-pollinated the /eta and velutina gametes
may combine in proportions to give I pure /eta: 2 leta-velutina: 1
pure velutina. It is a fact that more than one half of the seeds
of Lamarckiana fail to develop normal embryos and Renner con-
cludes that these sterile seeds represent zygotes homozygous re-
spectively for the /eta and velutina factors. The fertile seeds de-
velop from the heterozygotes with both /eta and velutina factors
combined and this combination gives the characters of Lamarcki-
ana. CEnothera Lamarckiana may thus be an impure or heterozygous
species breeding true because of the death of such zygotes as carry
the factors for /eta and velutina in homozygous conditions. This
simple Mendelian explanation of the behavior of Lamarckiana
points a line of interpretation and study certain to be fruitful in
(Enothera research.

Among hybrids of G:nothera the seed sterility sometimes runs
extraordinarily high. The most remarkable illustrations of this fact
so far known appear in the second generations of crosses involving
the Dutch biennis and the Dutch muricata which exhibit certain
remarkable morphological peculiarities discovered and described by
De Vries (713). First generation hybrids of reciprocal crosses

1915.] PURE SPECIES OF GNOTHERA.

237

between these species grown by the writer in 1913 gave data on

seed germination in the earth as presented in Table I.

TABCE TT:

F, Hysrips oF REcIPROCAL CROSSES BETWEEN O. biennis AND O. muricata.

Culture. Cross. | Seeds | Sown in Seedlings. Germina- | Duration of
| Sown., tion, Experiment.
13.33 F! biennis X muricata | 673 Earth | 139 20% 6 weeks
13.34 Fl muricata X biennis 153 Earth 07 63% 7 weeks

It is probable from my experience with other species crosses
that the viability of the seeds of these F, hybrids is really high and
that the relatively low percentages recorded above are due to de-

WIN BILIT, JU

F, Hyprips oF RECIPROCAL CROSSES BETWEEN O. biennis AND O. muricata, IN-
CLUDING CERTAIN DouBLE RECIPROCALS, SESQUIRECIPROCALS, AND

ITERATIVE Hyprtips.

Gulture Cross! Seeds | Sown | Seed- | Germina- | Duration of
5 Sown. in lings. tion. Experiment.
I4.4I (13.33a) | Fe, biennis X muricata| 466 | Earth 8 1.7% 9 weeks.
14.42 (13.34c) | Fe, muricata X biennis| 205 |Earth| 35 12% 9 weeks.
14.43 double reciprocal 73. | Earth 8 11% 9 weeks.
@3%33a1 113-34) GX m) X Gn X 5d)
Ege iE sesquireciprocal 267 |Earth! 25 90% | 9 weeks.
(14.33 X 14.16) (bo xXm) Xb
*15.31 sesquireciprocal 282 Petri | 132 46% | 6 weeks.
(14.33 X 14.16) (b Xm) Xb dish
15.32 iterative 22 | Earth I 4% _ | 9 weeks.
(14.16 X 14.33) bX (b X m)
15.33 iterative 212 | Earth 2 0.9% 9 weeks.
(14.33 X 14.20) (6 Xm) Xm
*T5.33 iterative 2902 Petri | 42 14% 7 weeks.
(14.33 X 14.20) (6 Xm) Xm dish
15.34 iterative 217 |Earth| 47 21% | 9 weeks.
(14.34 X 14.16) (mXb)xXb -
*15.34 iterative 3730 lebetrine7.3 19% | 4 weeks.
(14.34 X 14.16) (m Xb) Xb dish
15.35 sesquireciprocal 246 |Earth|) 43 17% | 9 weeks.
(14.34 X 14.20) (m Xb) Xm
*T5.35 sesquireciprocal 498 Petri | 198 30% 7 weeks.
(14.34 X 14.20) (m Xb) Xm dish
15.36 iterative 198 |Earth) 51 25% 9 weeks.
(14.20 X 14.34) m X (m X b)

layed germinations. But the figures for germination in the earth
of F, hybrids and of double reciprocals, sesquireciprocals, and iter-

238 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

ative hybrids are most surprising in the degree of sterility or de-
layed germination shown. They are given in Table I1l., where are
also presented the records of four cultures sown in Petri dishes in
which the germination was complete as proved by an examination
of the residue.

A comparison in Table II. of the record for culture 15.31 with
S15 3s lseseuwith *15.33, and 15-25 wath) =15-35 will allustraremie
gain in germination that may come through sowing seeds in Petri
dishes. The percentages of germination presented above for the
hybrids of biennis and muricata must not be regarded as expressing
exactly the degree of seed fertility under the conditions of the
experiments since with the harvests of seed are frequently found
very many structures too large to be abortive ovules and too small
to be counted as “seeds” in the sense of falling within the limits of
seed size. These structures are probably undeveloped seeds but
only a microscopical examination can determine this point; if so,
their presence of course always lowers the percentage of zygotes
capable of giving progeny.

Bearing in mind the fact that pollen sterility in biennis and
muricata is 50 per cent. or more and that pollen abortion in the F,
hybrids is very much higher (in fact very little good pollen is pro-
duced) the total amount of sterility both gametic and zygotic is
simply amazing. Under such conditions how can the behavior of
these hybrids be looked upon as indicative of anything but a most
unusual situation, in itself very interesting, but far beyond the ex-
pectations of normal hybrid behavior. This remarkable degree of
sterility among the hybrids of biennis and muricata is perhaps ex-
treme for the cenotheras, but it serves to illustrate conditions ex-
tensively present in the writer’s experience and doubtless also in
the experience of others.

De Vries has described the hybrids between biennis and muri-
cata as breeding approximately true which in the main has also been
my observation. Apparently largely upon this behavior and that of
certain other crosses he has reached the conclusion that hybrids
between species of Cinothera are stable. In this opinion of De
Vries I cannot agree for my crosses between grandiflora and certain
small-flowered American species (Davis, ’12 and ’13), and between

1915.] PURE, SPECIES, OF (\GNODHERA. 239

biennis and franciscana have in the F, generations given abundant
evidence of that extensive variation interpreted as segregation. I
believe that the apparent stability of the very small progenies pro-
duced by hybrids of biennis and muricata simply means that the
remarkably high mortality among gametes and zygotes of these
hybrids, or the delayed germination of their seeds, has prevented
the appearance in our cultures of the diverse types which theo-
retically would be expected. Any general conclusions on genetic
behavior in the cenotheras which fails to take into account the
phenomena of sterility rests upon insecure foundations.

It is true that we do not know to what extent physiological fac-
tors may affect seed sterility as well as pollen and ovule abortion.
Nevertheless a main fact is clear, namely that seed sterility elimi-
nates in certain Cinothera species and hybrids immense numbers
of zygotes which fail to develop seeds. And, furthermore, we
know for cenotheras that large classes of weak offspring are some-
times produced that are unable to reach maturity. Seedlings with
white or yellow cotyledons, which quickly die, are not uncommon
in my experience with Cénothera cultures; in certain cases they
have appeared in very large numbers (Davis, ’11, p. 222) and prob-
ably have important genetical significance. This situation in Gino-
thera finds a close parallel in the behavior recorded for a number of

‘

animals and plants. Thus Baur’s “ golden” variety of Antirrhinum is
an impure or heterozygous form which besides reproducing itself
throws a class of normal green plants and a class represented by
weak yellow seedlings that shortly die. The yellow mice studied
by Castle and Little although interbred always remain impure giv-
ing progeny heterozygous for yellow because of the death of zygotes
with a double dose of the factor for yellow. A dwarf wheat iso-
lated by Vilmorin cannot be fixed since it always remains hetero-
zygous throwing talls but never producing homozygous dwarfs.
The white female form of the clover butterfly, Colias, was found
by Gerould always to give yellow offspring either because of the
failure of the gametes carrying white to conjugate or because zy-
gotes homozygous for white fail to develop. A form of Drosophila
characterized by confluent wings has been found by Metz only in the
heterozygous condition, always throwing normals and never breed-

240 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

ing true; flies homozygous for confluent wings are apparently not
viable. Is it not possible that parallel or related phenomena are
extensively present among the cenotheras? The mortality as shown
by sterile seeds may indicate the elimination of large groups of
forms divergent from the parent types, and some of the curious
dwarfs and aberrant plants which again and again have been re-
ported in Ginothera lines may be from zygotes barely able to sur-
vive the death-producing conditions that eliminate so many of their
companions.

So far we have considered evidence chiefly of a negative charac-
ter for the contention that many of the species of Cénothera are
impure or hybrid species. We have tried to show that pollen,
ovule, and seed sterility must all be reckoned with as conditions
which may eliminate Mendelian classes of gametes and hold a line
to a history of relatively true breeding even though the stream of
germ plasm remain heterozygous or impure in character. The nat-
ural corollary of such behavior, if proven, might be the interpreta-
” as segregates from a hybrid stock that
were able to survive the destruction meted out by conditions that
produce sterility. To what extent the causes of sterility may lie
in the history of gametogenesis or may be due to unfortunate com-
binations of gametes, or to what extent sterility is the result of
physiological factors, these are problems that lie before us.

tion of so-called ‘‘ mutants

Let us now examine some positive evidence that certain species
of Gnothera do form distinct classes of gametes and in consequence
seem likely to be heterozygous in their constitution. That which
first demands attention is the situation discovered by De Vries in
certain first generation hybrids and by him named “twin hybrids.”
We have already referred to this phenomenon first described by De
Vries (07) for the behavior of Lamarckiana which as a pollen
parent in crosses with other species of Génothera gives not uniform
F, generations but the two types /eta and velutina (twin hybrids),
produced in about equal numbers. Certain “mutants” of La-
marckiana also give twin hybrids under the same conditions as
those produced by Lamarckiana. ‘The behavior is so exact that the
simplest hypothesis must suppose that Lamarckiana and these “ mu-
tants”? form two classes of gametes which are fertile in these par-

1915.] PURE SPECIES OF CENOTHERA. 241

ticular crosses. De Vries (’09) has also described “triple hybrids ”
when the “ mutants” scintillans and lata are pollinated by such
species as produce the twin hybrids from Lamarckiana. In such
cases two of the forms have the characters of leta and velutina
combined with those of the other parent, and the third form re-
sembles the mother, either scintillans or lata. The phenomena of
twin and triple hybrids is treated in detail by De Vries (713) in
“ Gruppenweise Artbildung.”

From a Mendelian standpoint the production of twin and triple
hybrids is strong evidence that Lamarckiana and such of its
“mutants ” as behave in this manner are impure or hybrid since the
male or female gametes are not uniform, a point which has been
emphasized by several critics of the mutation theory. De Vries
assumes that Lamarckiana forms its different classes of gametes as
a result of its mutating instability but the precision of the process
falls completley in line with what we know of Mendelian behavior.
The remarkable studies of Shull show that crosses between La-
marckiana and cruciata give in the first generation polymorphic
progenies of much greater complexity than the twin hybrids of De
Vries. Shull’s results have not been published in full but, as I
understand them, they indicate the interaction of several classes of
gametes, a condition very far from what would be expected if
genetically pure species had been crossed.

Very interesting are the observations of Atkinson (’14) on first
generation crosses between Cinothera nutans and O. pycnocarpa.
These two forms are American species recently segregated by Atkin-
son and Bartlett from the biennis alliance. They have bred true in
garden cultures. When pycnocarpa is pollinated by nutans twin
hybrids appear in the first generation. In the reciprocal cross
nutans X pycnocarpa the same twin forms are produced and in addi-
tion a third type, making this generation a compound of three dis-
tinct forms, triple hybrids. Atkinson, apparently confident of the
genetic purity of nutans and pycnocarpa assumes that the determina-
tion of the twin and triple hybrids takes place through a differential
division in the zygote by which factors representing certain char-
acters are side tracked in the suspensor cell and only those respon-
sible for the twins and triplets pass on to the embryo. There is no

242 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

cytological evidence that the first mitosis in the zygote of a higher
plant is ever a differential division. To the writer the situation
indicates that one or both of the two species is heterozygous and that
for this reason classes of gametes are formed, appropriate combina-
tions of which give the twins and triplets. No data has been pub-
lished respecting the sterility of these two species, either of pollen
or ovules, and nothing of seed abortion. An understanding of the
genetic constitution of the species is likely to be a difficult matter,
but it does not seem probable that both are pure.

What shall be said of the probable purity of the plants of
Cnothera and Raimannia with which MacDougal worked in his ex-
periments designed to create new species by the injection of certain
fluids into the ovaries. The parent material was reported to breed
true, but the cultures were small and not long continued and there is
no reason to suppose that a complete germination of the seeds was
obtained. No information is given on the fertility of the species
either with respect to the abortion of gametes or the proportion of
good seeds. The material was not tested by cross breeding with
other forms (the purest known) to determine whether the F, hybrids
were uniform, a most necessary test in the establishment of a stock
as homozygous. Thus from our present viewpoint we cannot
accept MacDougal’s conclusion since the probabilities are very great
that the new types which appeared in his cultures were produced not
as the result of the injections but because of the genetic impurity
of the plants themselves.

In the above discussion the writer has taken definitely a Men-
delian attitude in sympathy with the criticisms of Bateson and the
studies of Heribert-Nilsson (’12) and of Renner (’14). There are
constant suggestions of order in the phenomena of inheritance
among the cenotheras which while they may not fall into simple
schemes of Mendelian notation nevertheless do indicate system even
though masked by complexities. That the complications at least in
great part are due to the genetic impurity of the Ginothera material
which has been so far the subject of study is the writer’s belief.
The difficulties that surround the analysis of Gnothera inheritance
are probably in very large measure due to the extraordinary amount
of sterility, gametic or zygotic, or both, that is present in the group.

1915.] PURE SPECIES OF C/NOTHERA. 243

Upon students of this genus rests the responsibility of obtaining
data on this sterility and, if possible, of discovering its causes. The
assumption that a line represents a pure species because it breeds
true is not a safe foundation upon which to conduct experimenta-
tion in the cenotheras. This is the assumption upon which have
been based many of the conclusions of the Mutationists, and from it
we must dissent. We cannot depart from the principles underlying
Mendelian methods of research which have so brilliantly opened the
present century of biological investigation.

Finally what are the tests that must be applied to an Gnothera
species to determine whether or not it is pure.

First—There is the breeding test and that must be applied with
such experimental methods of seed germination (Davis, ’15) as will
insure a complete progeny from the sowing, a progeny wholly repre-
sentative of all types of viable seeds. Even then the breeding test
is negative rather than affirmative in its conclusions. Should the
form throw off numerous variants it naturally becomes a subject of
suspicion, but should it breed true or relatively true that does not in
this group of plants prove it to be homozygous in its germinal
constitution.

Second.—Information must be obtained on the character and
degree of sterility present, both gametic and zygotic. Sterility,”
unless shown to be strictly physiological in its character, suggests
genetic impurity.

Third.—Cross-breeding tests must be planned and followed in
which the form under observation is mated with material of known
genetic purity. If the hybrid plants of the first generation are
essentially uniform and the result of a normal germination of the
seeds the indications are strong that the form is truly pure provided
that the gametes are likewise normally fertile. If the hybrids of
the first generation fall sharply into classes the material must develop
gametes of different germinal constitutions and is consequently
heterozygous. One favorable cross with a pure species may not be
sufficient to establish the purity of a form; a number of favorable
tests with pure types will carry increasing conviction.

It is thus not an easy matter to determine the fact whether or
not a species of Gnothera is pure, and yet this is fundamental to

244 DAVIS—THE TEST OF A [April 23,

experimental studies in the group. On the assumption of specific
purity the Mutationists rest their conclusions. This condition with
respect to the characters studied is also basic to Mendelian experi-
mentation. It need scarcely be emphasized that no species of
(Enothera has as yet passed the tests for genetic purity outlined
above and that consequently we have at present no standard material
with which forms may confidently be mated in the test of cross-
breeding. It should become the concern of C£nothera geneticists
to find and isolate pure material as the starting point of further
studies in experimental morphology. Whether such pure forms
will be found among the wild species or as products of the garden
time will determine.

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,
May, I015.

LITERATURE CITED.

Atkinson, G. F.
1914. Segregation of Unit Characters in the Zygote of Cénothera with
Twin and Triplet Hybrids in the First Generation. Science, XXXIX.,
834, 1914.
Bartlett, H. H.
t915a. Additional Evidence of Mutation in Ginothera. Bot. Gaz., LIX.,
81, IQI5.
1915b. The Mutations of Cinothera stenomeres. Amer. Jour. Bot., I1.,
100, IQ15.
t915c. Mutation en masse. Amer. Nat., XLIX., 129, 1915.
Davis, B. M.
1911. Some Hybrids of Cnothera biennis and O. grandiflora that Resem-
ble O. Lamarckiana. Amer. Nat., XLV., 193, I9QII.
1912. Further Hybrids of Ginothera biennis and O. grandiflora that Re-
semble O. Lamarckiana. Amer. Nat., XLVI., 377, 1912.
1913. The Behavior of Hybrids between Ginothera biennis and O. grandi-
flora in the Second and Third Generations. Amer, Nat., XLVIL,
447, 1913.
1914. Some Reciprocal Crosses of Cénothera. Zeits. ind. Abstam. u.
Vererb., XI1., 169, 1914.
1915a. Professor De Vries on the Probable Origin of Ginothera Lamarck-
iana. Amer. Nat., XLIX., 59, 1915.
t915b. A Method of Obtaining Complete Germination of Seeds in
CEnothera and of Recording the Residue of Sterile Seed-like Struc-
tures. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., I., 360, 1915.
De Vries, Hugo.
1907 On Twin Hybrids. Bot. Gaz., XLIV., 401, 1907.
tg09. On Triple Hybrids. Bot. Gaz., XLVII., 1, 1909.

r915.] PURE SPECIES OF CGENOTHERA. 245

1913. Gruppenweise Artbildung. Berlin, 1913.
1914. The Probable Origin of Génothera Lamarckiana. Bot. Gaz., LVIL,
345, 1914.
1915. The Coefficient of Mutation in Cnothera biennis L. Bot. Gaz.,
LIX., 169, 1915.
Geerts, F. M.
1909. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Cytologie und der partiellen Sterilitat
von CEnothera Lamarckiana. Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerland., V., 93, 1909.
Heribert-Nilsson, N.
1912. Die Variabilitat der Ginothera Lamarckiana und das Problem der
Mutation. Zeits. ind. Abstam. u. Vererb., VIIL., 80, 1912.
Jeffrey, E. C.
1914a. The Mutation Myth. Science, XXXIX., 488, 1914.
1914b. Spore Conditions in Hybrids and the Mutation Hypothesis of De
Vries. Bot. Gag., LVIII., 322, 1914.
1915. Some Fundamental Morphological Objections to the Mutation
Theory of De Vries. Amer. Nat., XLIX., 5, 1915.
Renner, O.
1914. Befruchtung und Embryobildung bei Ginothera Lamarckiana und
einigen verwandten Arten. Flora, CVII., 115, 1914.
Stomps, T. J.
1914. Parallele Mutationen bei Ginothera biennis L. Ber. deut. bot. Gesell.,
XXXII, 179, 1914.

CONCREMONS IN SHREAMS HORE D Bie auins
AGENCY OF BLUE GREEN ALGA AND
RUBE IN EID)) JeILAUN A'S,

Bye Jel INOSINON IROIDID, WIS, JER ID).
(Read May 7, 1915.)

In 1898, I discovered that concretionary formations occurred
in Little Conestoga Creek, Lancaster County, Pa. At that time,
however, I was engaged in other studies and gave the concretions
only a passing notice. But in the late summer of 1914, my atten-
tion was directed to the subject again by the reading of Dr. Wal-
cott’s paper on ““Pre-Cambrian Algonkian Algal Formations” which
appeared July 22, 1914. This paper made me realize the impor-
tance of a careful investigation of these particular stream forma-
tions as to characteristics, distribution, origin, etc. I began at once
a careful and extended search in the Little Conestoga as well as in
other streams for concretionary structures of recent formation.
My search was amply rewarded by finding them in great quantities,
and distributed throughout nearly the entire length of the Little
Conestoga. I found also that they not only occur in the creek
itself, but that quite large deposits of the concretions underlie the
flood plain meadows along the creek banks. One of these in Ken-
dig’s Woods, two miles southwest of Millersville, Pa., is made up
wholly of concretionary materials on the top of which forest trees
of large size and considerable age are growing. This deposit
covers nearly an acre to the depth of about 8 feet in the middle
thinning out lenslike toward its edges. Another deposit along the
same stream near Fruitville in Evan’s Meadow, more extensive in
area but of slighter depth, forms a substratum under a thick soil
cover and has an average depth of about two feet. Deposited con-
cretions occur under similar conditions in many other of the
meadows along the stream as is shown by weathered concretions
occurring in the soil and wash wherever wet-weather stream gullies
have been torn through the soil cover.

246

1915-] RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. 247

Though these structures, as I shall show later on, are without
doubt due to Algoid agency in the stream waters, it may be well
to premise the full discussion of their origin by somewhat com-
plete descriptions of their characteristics as to form, size, struc-
ture, etc. In this way the attention of botanists and geologists
will be directed to their study and distribution, so that their signifi-
cance as agents of rock formation and the flora, responsible for
their growth, may be fully worked out.

Size and Shape.—The concretions both in the stream and in
the deposits vary in size from peas to masses nearly a foot in di-
ameter (see Fig. 1). The latter size is not very common in the

Fic. 1. A group of the concretions showing their size, shape, surface
appearance and color. No. I is 7%x10 inches; No. 2 is about 5 inches in face
diameter and 3 inches thick; No. 3 is 8x7x5 inches. The two smaller con-
cretions above are typical, both in color and surface appearance, of growing
specimens.

stream but many large concretions occur in the deposits probably
because the smaller ones after deposition in land forms have been
carried away in solution by percolating waters leaving only the
larger forms. In the flood deposits in Kendig’s Woods thousands
of the concretions when I found the deposit last summer measured
nearly a foot in length and six inches or more in transverse
diameter.

248 RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. [May 7,

The smaller concretions are invariably ellipsoidal in shape (see
Fig. 1), and quite symmetrical unless broken by flood action. The
larger sized concretions, though of the same general shape, are less
symmetrical. Those in the stream are nearly always more regu-
larly ellipsoidal than those of the deposits in flood plains and
stream bars. This is, no doubt, due to their weathering through
solution or to their having been broken by flood waters during their
transportation to their present positions.

The concretions in the stream are quite firm in texture; those
in the deposits are less compact. Both are porous and roughly
coralline in general appearance and internal structure.

In color they vary from bluish green to whitish. The growing
specimens in the stream are generally bluish green. All specimens
after exposure for some time to sun, air, and rain or to the action
of soil waters become grayish white.

Composition and Hardness—Though the composition varies
slightly from place to place yet all are limy deposits concentric
around a nucleus. The main constituents in the concentric layers
are calcium carbonate, silica and organic matter of vegetable origin.
Upon dissolving out the limy constituents with dilute hydrochloric
acid, a mat is often left of vegetable materials composed of the
matted stems or tissues and cells of low type plants such as mosses
and alge. 5

Few of the specimens tested had a hardness as great as that
of common calcite, most of them being about two in the scale of
hardness. The weathered concretions are generally less coherent
than those now forming in the stream.

The following table shows the main constituents of the con-
cretions :

Constituents. A, B.
Oreanice matter: eee ee eee 10% to 15% 1 to 12%
[sO AAs es CEA Ry rR IHR marae 1% 1%
SO ee a eee tie acsua yey er ne AUR a ant pe en 12% 12%
CACO suet Sein cnconie yoke slalcrmtce aes elators 60% to 75% 70 to 80%
Bie ese Smee Mm ek So a 1% 27%
Pe Warne hrs NMED, . MADR euricle 3 irre naa Trace Trace
IA orl CLO PAE es AM MI. aR ess eter Trace to 1% Trace to 1%

A of growing specimens.
B of specimens from flood plain deposit.

1915.] RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. 249

Structure-——Most specimens have as the nucleus a quartz or
limestone pebble of the country rock. Near Millersville, where the
stream flows for a mile or two parallel to an igneous dyke, the
nuclei are diabase pebbles. But some specimens lack the stony
nucleus having instead the limy layers concentric around a dark
spot which proves upon close examination to be carbonaceous mat-
ter resembling nearly structureless peat. Probably this was origi-
nally a piece of wood or other vegetable tissue that carbonized after
the concretionary lamine had accumulated around it. This sup-
position has been verified in a number of cases by finding con-
cretions with organic matter as nuclei (see Fig. 2).

Fic. 2, Sections of a group of the concretions showing the laminae,
concentric arrangement of the lamine, the nucleus or nuclear point, and
eccentric manner of growth. One-third natural size. The nucleus in the
small upper specimen is a small water worn quartz pebble. The larger upper
specimen shows where the nucleus was broken out when the section was
made.

The concretions with stony nuclei may always be detected by
their higher specific gravity.

Around the nucleus of a specimen is layer on layer of the limy
matter each lamina from one eighth to one fourth of an inch in

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 218 Q, PRINTED AUG. I0, 1915.

250 RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. [May 7,

thickness. The laminze are not equally compact throughout their
thickness, but are open and porous within and quite solid without.
A polished section of any concretion exhibits many concentric
ellipsoidal layers with the nucleus nearly always eccentric and the
successive layers with a greater thickness on the one side and two
ends than on the other side. The thickness of the successive
lamine in any one direction out from the nucleus is nearly unit-
form. In other words, along any radius the inner layers are just
as thick as the outer ones. When found in place in the stream
where the concretions have not been disturbed for a long time, the
down side laminz are invariably a little thicker than those on the
upper side. This indicates that the greater growth is downward.

In appearance and structure, the concretions of the Little Con-
estoga are very similar to the “Lake Balls” from Lake Canan-
daigua, New York, so vividly described by Dr. Clarke, under the
name of “ Water Biscuits.” They are also somewhat similar
though much larger in size to the oolitic sands found forming in
great numbers in the waters of Great Salt Lake by A. Rothpletz
and traced by him to the agency of blue green alge.

Where Found—UvUpon recognizing the importance of a thorough
study of the Algoid concretions, I began a systematic search in all
parts of the Little Conestoga as well as in other streams of both
Lancaster and York Counties, Pennsylvania. My search showed
that these objects abound in all parts of the Little Conestoga nearly
from source to mouth. But no other streams in this part of the
state have so far yielded any specimens. Those found in the sand
bar in Lake Canandaigua near the mouth of Sucker Brook are
probably also of stream origin, and I feel confident that a careful
search in the brook would reveal at least some, if not many, of the
concretions. Substances somewhat similar in composition occur in
other lakes than Canandaigua though they do not have the con-
cretionary form. Thus laminated reef-like accumulations of Algoid
origin occur in Round Lake, New York, while marly or tufa-
ceous deposits have accumulated for ages and are still forming in
many lakes in Michigan, Wisconsin and Indiana. The tufa and
thinolite described by Russell as forming in Pyramid Lake, Nevada,

1915.] RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. 251

are now regarded as of similar origin though differing much from
the Little Conestoga concretions in both form and structure.

That concretions similar to those found in the Little Conestoga
occur in other streams is evident from observations made in Center
County, Pennsylvania, by Dr. Wieland, who, however, had not
recognized them as of Algoid origin until I called his attention to the
well known activity of some algz in precipitating calcium carbonate.
In a recent personal letter to me Dr. Wieland describes concretions
that he found in 1888 in a stream near Lemont, Center County, Pa.
He, however, says, “I just thought of them as very interesting
objects from the viewpoint that they showed once more how abun-
dant is CO, whether derived from plants or other sources. In
short I knew too much and too little to make the least use of what
I found.”

Origin.—In 1854, W. Ketchell in the First Annual Report of the
Geological Survey of New Jersey refers to Chara as active agents
in the formation of fresh water marl. In 1864 Frederick Cohn
found that a number of aquatic plants, especially Chara Mosses and
Alge, caused the deposition of travertine at the waterfalls of Tivol1.
The deposition he attributed to the activity of the plants in absorb-
ing carbon dioxide and so setting the lime carbonate free. That
is, these low type plants consume carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen.
When this is done in water containing calcium bicarbonate they
deprive that salt of its second molecule of carbonic acid and the
insoluble neutral carbonate of lime is precipitated.

W. S. Blatchley and G. H. Ashley in their report on the lakes
of Indiana in 1900 also refer to the activity of plants in the pre-
cipitation of insoluble lime carbonate. But they also thought that
the dissolved lime brought into the lakes by streams and deposited
mechanically by evaporation was a more important agency than the
plants.

In 1900 C. A. Davis discussed the origin of the marls of the
lakes of Michigan and came essentially to the same conclusion as
Cohn. He says:

“But in water containing amounts of salts, especially of the calcium

bicarbonate, so small that they would not be precipitated if there were no free
carbon dioxide present in the water at all, the precipitation may be consid-

252 RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. [May 7,

ered a purely chemical problem, a solution of which may be looked for in
the action upon the bicarbonates of the oxygen set free by the plants. Of
these calcium bicarbonate is the most abundant, and the reaction upon it may
be taken as typical and expressed by the folllowing chemical equation,
CaH:(COs)2 + O—> HeO + CaCOzs -+ COz+ 0, in which the calcium bi-
carbonate is converted into the normal carbonate by the oxygen liberated by
the plants and both carbon dioxide and oxygen set free, the free oxygen
possibly acting still further to precipitate more calcium monocarbonate,

CaCOs.”
Dr. F. W. Clarke in “ Data of Geochemistry ’”’ says:

“That Dr. Davis’ theoretical equation (given above) rests on no ex-
perimental basis.”

In an article in Science dated December 14, 1914, J. Claude
Jones, of the University of Nevada, says that the tufas of Salton
Sea and of Pyramid Lake owe their origin to blue green alge. He
shows that wherever these plants are present in Pyramid Lake the
gravels are cemented together and wherever the alge are absent
no trace of the tufas can be found.

Dr. Clarke ascribes the origin of the “ Water Biscuits” of Lake
Canandaigua to the same agency.

Miss Josephine Tilden in Minnesota Alge (1910) says that
Gleocapsa calcarea forms a calcareous crust (with other lime secret-
ing forms) on boards where spring water from a trough drips down
constantly.

Weed in his classic report (1889, U. S. G. S.) on the rock for-
mations of the hot springs of the Yellowstone National Park shows
that travertine as well as siliceous sinter are deposited through the
aid of alge.

Dr. B. M. Davis, of the University of Pennsylvania in a very
interesting paper (Science, Vol. VI., July 30, 1897) describes the
alge and bacteria active in the formation of the travertine and
siliceous sinter deposits in Yellowstone Park.

Dr. MacFarlane, of the University of Pennsylvania, in speaking
of the activities of thermophilic alge of hot spring and geyser
regions, ascribes many rock formations throughout the earth’s his-
tory as due to the work of fresh water alge especially of the group
Cyanophycez.

1915.] RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. 253

EvIDENCES THAT THE ACTIVE AGENTS OF THE CONCRETIONARY
FORMATIONS IN THE LITTLE CONESTOGA ARE BLUE GREEN ALGZ.

That the concretions described in the first part of this paper are
the result of life processes of plants may be proved in a number of
different ways. (1) The color of all growing specimens in the
stream is the characteristic bluish green color of the Cyanophycee,
while those exposed to rain and sunshine are grayish white. Care-
ful microscopic examination also of such growing specimens re-
veals a varied thallophytic flora mainly of the Cyanophycez.
Species of the genera Gleocapsa, Gleotheca, Aphanocapsa, Nostoc,
Oscillatoria and Rivularia have been identified. Associated with
these are several of the green algze (Chlorophyceze). Many species
of the Diatomaceze and Desmidacez which generally live in close
association with blue green alge have also been identified and have,
no doubt, contributed the siliceous matter which is disseminated
through the calcareous matrix. Among the diatoms, species of the
genus Navicula both in free forms as well as stalked forms on algz
are quite prominent. The Charas are also occasionally present,
contributing a small percentage of so-called marly material. Some
bacteria have also been found in association with the other plants
but the bacteria have probably had little to do with the calcareous
deposition, but may contribute the iron which I find present in every
concretion that I have analyzed.

(2) The arrangement and structure of the laminz also favors
the view that these concretionary accumulation are due to life
processes. That periodic accretion alternates with a period of
quiescence is shown plainly by the concentric laminations of nearly
uniform thickness. The open porous nature of each lamina within
and the more solid character without, like the concentric arrange-
ment, is due without doubt to the seasonal conditions of the region.
Since alge are essentially thermophilic plants, each winter destroys
many of them and stops the growth of most of the rest and thus
at the beginning of the plant year (spring) few and widely scat-
tered algz at first produce slow and scattered accretion of the limy
matter ; later the plants become more abundant and by summer they
are crowded over the surface of each mass. This distribution of
the algz seasonally would naturally have its effects upon the struc-

254 RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. [May 7,

ture and arrangement of the limy matter giving a decided though
rough coralline appearance to the inside portion and a more com-
pact texture to the outer part. The theory just given has been con-
firmed by a study of the distribution of the algz on the concretion-
ary bodies through the seasons. The fact also that when the limy
matter is dissolved out with acids, a mat of vegetable chains and
cells remains nearly as large as the original concretion is also con-
firmatory. Even in the concretions which are centuries old as
those in the forest covered deposit in Kendig’s Woods the dead cells
and chains of blue green alge may be found.

(3) Lime secreting algz are found in the Little Conestoga dur-
ing the entire year but abound from May till December. They
occur not only in the water but encrust many objects, in a few
places forming small reef-like accumulations similar to those in
Round Lake, New York.

(4) Quite an array of investigators, among whom we may men-
tion Agassiz, Bigelow, Gardiner, Murray, Finckle, Vaughan, Wal-
ther, Drew, Matson, Dall, and Sanford, have studied at first hand
the activities of alge of the genera Lithothamnion and Halimeda
and also some of the bacteria in various parts of the ocean and in
many seas. All have come to the conclusion that many of the so-
called coral reefs owe their existence partly and often largely to the
activities of these lowly plants. The Bermudas, the Bahamas, the
Laccadive and Maldive Archipelagoes, Funafuti, and extensive
rock beds in the Floridian Peninsula have all originated through
plant agency as much as through coral polyps. If this be true, it
is not only possible but probable that fresh water blue green algze
throughout all the ages have caused and are still causing the precipi-
tation of rock materials from minerals in solution in streams and
fresh water lakes.

(5) Weed has proved that the concretions formed in geyser
basins and known as Geyserites are formed by algz which through
life processes cause the precipitation of the siliceous matter held in
solution in the hot water.

(6) The observation that the laminar accretion seems to pro-
ceed more rapidly on the under side of a concretion proves that the
formations are not due to mechanical precipitation of lime carbonate

1915.] RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. 255

through evaporation or change of temperature. It does, however,
suggest that the secretion or precipitation is chemical and dependent
on a life process that produces conditions for chemical reaction
where the plants or animals are most abundant.

(7) Conway MacMillan in Minnesota Plant Life says:

“Some slime moulds have the power of incrusting their tiny fruit bodies
with lime which they extract from their soil or from rain water which falls
upon them. Such forms are often observed in Minnesota upon dead wood
or fallen leaves, generally, in moist shady places in the deep forest. Some
of the blue green alge have the power of encrusting themselves with lime
and in watering troughs and tanks there sometimes occurs a calcareous
formation reminding one of the deposit in old tea-kettles. Such a crust is
true limestone extracted from the water by the chemical activities of the alge.”
Upon a larger scale the blue green alge have been conclusively
shown by Weed to be important factors in travertine formation in
the hot springs and geysers of Yellowstone National Park.

Dr. MacFarlane without knowing of my discovery in the Little
Conestoga Creek has expressed the opinion that these apparently
insignificant plants have throughout all the ages played and are still
playing in all waters an important part in the formation of lime-
stones and dolomites.

(8) The fact that many more or less ancient rocks have been
demonstrated to be of algoid origin by various scientists and are
similar to the Little Conestoga concretions in their concretionary or
laminated structures or both is favorable to the view that algz are
just as important agencies in rock formations in the present geo-
logical epoch as in the past. The similarity of Cryptozoon pro-
liferum, Ozarkian odlitic formations, Newlandia frondosa, Camasia
spongiosa, Collenia compacta, Collenia undosa and other structural
forms in rock formations to the work of recent alge in hot spring
and geyser regions has been vividly shown by Walcott, Wieland,
B. M. Davis and others. Some, at least, of the above-named for-
mations can be strikingly duplicated in their structural peculiarities
by the Little Conestoga concretions and reef-like masses of Round
Lake,—the Potsdam-Hoyt formation of New York state being
especially like what would result were infiltrating waters, cementa-
tion, and other solidifying agents or processes to act for a long time
upon the great mass of flood deposited concretions of the Little
Conestoga in Kendig’s Woods.

256 RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. [May 7;

MINERAL CONTENT OF THE LITTLE CONESTOGA WATERS.

One would infer from the number of concretions growing in the
Little Conestoga and also from the thickness of each lamina in a
concretion that the mineral content of this stream’s waters is high.
I have verified this by determining the salinity of the stream under
varying conditions. The salinity in a wet month was 330 parts in a
million, while in a dry month this rose to 365 parts in a million.
Streams in which I have found no trace of concretionary structures
have a much lower salinity, the Big Conestoga Creek for example
having a salinity of 190, the Pequea Creek 195, and the Susque-
hanna, in March, above the mouth of the Pequea and below the
mouth of the Big Conestoga, about 200 parts in a million. The
various springs flowing into the Little Conestoga have an average
salinity nearly as high as that of the Little Conestoga itself.

The basin of the Little Conestoga is underlain with much more
soluble limestone than any of the other streams so far investigated.
This accounts for the high salinity of its waters and also for the
distribution of the concretions so far as we know that distribution.
Further search and study will certainly reveal that many streams
of the world contain concretionary structures and determine the
conditions of their distribution and formation. I trust the be-
ginning | have made in the investigation of stream concretions will
lead to a wide and thorough study of this interesting and important
biological as well as geological problem.

The various facts tabulated on page 257 and correlated with the
fact that the blue green algz are about equally abundant in the various
streams mentioned in the table would seem to indicate that deposi-
tion of CaH,(CO,), is always going on in all the streams during
the growing season, but that when the salinity is low solution by the
stream waters balances deposition and no concretions are formed.
When, however, the salinity is high, solution can not take place and
laminated structures due to seasonal or other changes are formed
either in concretionary form or more rarely as reefs. This is put
forward as a working hypothesis, many more observations and
analyses are needed however before the various problems connected
with these formations can be fully solved.

1915s. ]

RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS.

257

TABLE SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN THE SALINITY OF STREAMS AND THE
PRESENCE OF CALCIUM CARBONATE CONCRETIONS.

Salinity, ayaa Concretions
Stream or Spring. Month. |Partsin One| Nature of Salinity Present in
Million. (Chiefly ). Stream.
I. Little Conestoga......... Feb. 5 330 CaH2(COs3)2 {Abundant
2eelbittles COnestogala. esse March 300 is
BalvittleiConestogay o5..4.. - April 3605 a ve
4. Branch Run, tributary to}
Little Conestoga....... April QI a None
5. Big Conestoga........... Feb. I52 Wi None
Own Big, Conestogae acim sec: March Too tk None
Ta BigiConestOgan wis a oe cla wel: April I50 ic None but
many gas-
teropods
8. Duing’s Run, tributary to
BigsConestoganee aes: | April 195 sf None
OnmPequeay Greek aie s a sas April 195 i None
LO, Donegal Run. ......5:.... April 404 ss Abundant
11. Nissley’s Dam‘in Donegal|
Run, further upstream)
Cha TapTON cletatencievers dievece a | April 400 ne Many but
small
12. Donegal Run near source...| April 230 = None
13. Bellaire Branch of Donegal None except
RUTTER ag ney eat IAN | April 208 ss near mouth
TA tetlerGhickiess .s). as) 4.6 April 170 uy None
5pm icy Chickiesheericinen er: April 171 re None
16. Big Chickies farther up-
SEE amare cue yeti einen | April T74 or None

FurTHER NoTES ON CONCRETIONARY FoRMATIONS IN STREAMS.

Since writing the above I have been fortunate enough to find
a new locality for concretions. Knowing that Donegal Township,
Lancaster County, comprised a notably large area of Cambro-
Ordovician limestones, I judged that its streams would be favorable
to the growth of calcareous concretions through the agency of blue
green alge. Search on April 25, in Donegal Creek, revealed these
objects in greater abundance than in the Little Conestoga. One
meadow of fully 12 acres bordering the stream about one mile
underlain with a bed of con-

cretions not less than a foot in average thickness throughout its

northeast of Marietta was found to be

And this was under a soil cover of more than a foot
in depth that had, apparently, resulted from the weathering and
disintegration of the same objects.

entire extent.

The great flood deposits of con-
cretions in this and neighboring meadows were paralleled by large
quantities in the stream itself, fully one fifth of the stones in some

258 RODDY—CONCRETIONS IN STREAMS. [May 7,

places in the stream channel being of concretionary origin as shown
by their shape, laminated structure, and composition.

The finding of the new locality is of great interest. It shows
that a careful, intelligent, and systematic search will reveal these
formations in many other regions of the world wherever the proper
conditions exist for calcareous and siliceous precipitation through
the life processes of plants.

But the geological significance of the great meadow deposits
also needs emphasis. The large accumulation in the Donegal Town-
ship Meadow represents a comparatively long period and this indi-
cates a considerable antiquity of the plants which form the concre-
tions. Then too, such a bed of closely packed concretions is highly
suggestive of the manner in which some ancient rock beds orig-
inated. For were such accumulations of concretions as those in
the Donegal Meadows to be consolidated by the action of infiltrat-
ing waters, pressure, heat and chemical change solid rock beds
would result nodular in appearance and concretionary in structure
hardly distinguishable from the Hoyt Potsdam beds of New York.

Species of the following genera of the Cyanophycee are found as-
sociated with the calcareous concretions occurring in Donegal Creek,
Lancaster County, Pa..: Glwocapsa, Microcystis, Calospherium,
Aphanocapsa, Oscillatoria, Rivularia, Nostoc, Chroococcus. There
are also species of Protococcus, many species of Diatoms, several
species of Desmids, various species of the Chlorophycez, several
species of Phzeophycez, and species of Rhodophycee.

MEE CONDIMIONS OF BEACE SHALE DEPOSMION AS
Len OSMRVAT EH Da BY. ME eU Pithes Grill hE RevAWN D)
LIAS OF GERMANY.

Bya CHARTES "SCHUCHERAS
(Read May 7, 1915.)

Stratigraphers do not agree as to the conditions under which the
black bituminous shales so often met with in American Paleozoic
marine deposits were laid down. Among the more striking of such
formations may be mentioned the Quebec, Martinsburg, Colling-
wood, Utica, Maquoketa, Genesee-Portage, Ohio, Chattanooga, and
Caney, formations ranging from the Ordovician to the Pennsyl-
vanian. To aid in the interpretation of such black shales, the writer
presents herewith the main results set forth by Professor J. F.
Pompeckj, of the University of Tubingen, in a publication that will
not be of wide distribution in America.t The following is a decided
condensation and in part a free translation of his exhaustive paper,
which is replete with bibliographic references.

The Kupferschiefer of Germany are of Middle Permian age,
and occur near the base of the Zechstein, the time of marine in-
vasion over the previous continental series known as the Rotliegende.
In general, the bituminous dark shales occur above the basal Zech-
stein conglomerate and below the Zechstein dolomite, and occupy an
area of at least 60,000 square kilometers in middle and western
North Germany. The average thickness of the copper shales over
wide areas is about 30 inches, but varies from nothing to a maximum
and exceptional local thickness of 35 feet. However, in many places
there are no black shales and then the equivalent deposits, or the
basal strata of the invading Zechstein, may be conglomerates, sands,
shaly limestones, or dolomites. In other words, the black bitumi-
nous shales do not prevail everywhere, and the same is true of the
metal sulphides.

1“ Das Meer des Kupferschiefers,” Branca-Festschrift, 1914, pp. 444-494.
259

260 SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. [May 7,

The copper-bearing shales usually succeed the basal conglomer-
ates or sands and finally become gradually more and more cal-
careous, passing upward into the normal Zechstein dolomite of wider
distribution. The latter has an abundant though monotonous fauna
indicative of peculiar marine conditions and not much like that of
the Tethyian mediterranean to the south, which is of normal sea
environment. The paleogeography indicates an inland sea, bounded
by continuous land, in the north by Fennoskandia across to England,
thence south to France and Belgium, and east over South Germany
to Bohemia. In the east only were there limited connections with
the Russian and Arctic Zechstein sea. The previous orogenic move-
ments resulting in the Paleozoic Alps of central Europe had been
greatly reduced, so that the streams flowing into this Permian sea
were sluggish and delivered only the finest of muds and solution
materials, while those flowing out of regions of igneous rocks were
charged in addition with copper, zinc, and silver.

The Kupferschiefer are fissile, tough, dark to black, highly
bituminous (6 to 20 per cent.), clay shales with considerable cal-
careous material that increases in amount upward (locally to 45
per cent.). Copper sulphides variable in quantity and nature are
present, and because of this ore the strata have been mined in
Germany for seven hundred years. Under the microscope the shale
is seen to be made up of finest clay substance colored yellow-brown
to black by bitumen. Throughout the clay there are scattered,
layered, or aggregated in the form of thinnest lenses varying
amounts of tiny crystals of calcite and needle-like splinters of quartz.
Black coaly dust is also more or less abundant and especially among
the clay particles.

The flora and fauna of the Kupferschiefer are small and at best
do not include more than 1 land stegocephalian, 2 land reptiles, 17
fishes (5 selachians, I crossopterygian, the rest ganoids) with
structures indicating forms that lived on or near the bottom of the
waters, I nautilid, 1 gastropod, 1 scaphopod, 10 bivalves, 3 bryozoa
(Fenestellide), 5 brachiopods, 1 problematic starfish, and 11 species
of land plants. This assemblage is brought together from many
localities and the species of fishes are usually based on single speci-
mens, indicating that the biota is not a natural assemblage, but is

1915.] SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. 261

made up of land and marine forms plus fishes, most of which appear
to be of fresh water habitat. The only common fossils are the
ganoid Paleoniscus freieslebem, Lingula credneri, “ Asterias”
bituminosa (problematic), and the small bivalves Nucula beyrichi
and Bakevwellia antiqua (sometimes in colonies). In other words,
the life consists of land-derived forms (3 vertebrates and 11 plants),
fishes (5 probably marine and certainly bottom-feeding, and 12
apparently of river origin), and 22 marine invertebrates all but one
of which are forms living on the bottom of the sea, attached to it or
to floating objects. While the invertebrates indicate plainly that
the copper shales were laid down in the sea, the great scarcity of
fossils shows that the forms recovered are in the main not in their
normal habitat. It appears that only 3 species (the invertebrates
cited) were able to adapt themselves to the peculiar conditions of
the copper-depositing seas. Not a single scavenging animal is
found, and the fact that so many fishes (17 species) were present
as food (Paleoniscus freieslebeni is often more or less decomposed
by sulphur bacteria) indicates that the bottom had no scavengers
and that it was not a favorable place for any kind of life.

Pompeckj has carefully studied the fishes, and as all or most of
them are carnivorous (some are shell-feeders) the question is raised:
On what could they have fed, since there was so little bottom life?
He admits that there may have been present an abundance of soft-
bodied and shell-less invertebrates on which they preyed, but finally
concludes that it is much more correct to assume that most of the
fishes (at least 12 species) were drifted into the sea from the rivers.
If they also lived in the sea, it must have been in the oxygenated
surface waters or the shallow shore regions. On the other hand, the
invertebrates present indicate that nearly all of them fed on micro-
scopic plants and animals (no ostracods are present, however) and
it is perfectly natural to assume that the surface and sun-lit waters
abounded in a varied plankton, as do the seas and oceans of today.
It was this world of minute forms, the plankton, that rained into
the depths, feeding the sparse brachiopod and molluscan life and
the common sulphur bacteria.

Moreover, it is the abundant surface plankton that in all prob-
ability has furnished most of the bituminous matter, assisted further

262 SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. [May 7,

by the land-derived fishes, while the coaly substance has resulted
from the land plants. Along the shores, in the oxygenated waters,
there probably also was an abundance of sea-weeds and among them
doubtless lived most of the invertebrates preserved in the Kupfer-
schiefer. The marine plants are broken up by the storms, and the
water currents plus the undertow generated by the waves and tides
drag this material into deeper waters, where it is slowly rotted and
further altered by the sulphur bacteria. There results a foul bot-
tom, free of oxygen, and reeking with carbonic acid and sulphuretted
hydrogen gas. The chemical reactions set up here (diagenesis)
result in the deposition of the metal sulphides (copper, zinc, silver)
and the bituminous alteration products.

The paleogeography, as stated above, indicates an inland and
almost land-locked sea. Into such a basin the currents generated
in the oceanic areas can at best enter but little, and that such did
not enter in any marked degree is seen in the almost complete ab-
sence of floating and swimming invertebrates. As for the general
physical conditions, Walther thinks of stagnant waters, with marine
swamps; Kayser of quiet bays of inland seas with foul bottoms; and
Dosz of stagnant places like the present bays around the island of
Oesel, where the bottoms are rich in iron sulphide deposits, the
healing or medicinal muds. Pompeckj, however, finds more or less
valid objections to all of these suggestions, and thinks the best
present analogue to be the Black Sea, whose physical and organic
conditions are now well understood through the work of Andrus-
sow and Lebedintzew. In other words, the Kupferschiefer sea is
“a fossil Black Sea” in nearly all its characteristics except depth.

With regard to the conditions of the Black Sea, it is an inland,
relic sea, which was once a part of the Tethyian mediterranean.
Its greatest length is about 715 miles and its maximum width 380
miles (making its area 170,000 square miles), and it attains 7,360
feet in depth. Flowing into it are many rivers, among the largest
of which are the Danube, the Dnieper, and the Don. Its only outlet
of surface water is through the strait and over the barrier of the
Bosporus into the Sea of Marmora and thence through the strait
of Dardanelles into the A®gean Sea and the Mediterranean. A
compensating but smaller inflow of salt water (salinity 3 per cent.)

1915-] SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. 233

occurs at greater depths. The shores are high and bold on the
northeast, east, and southwest, and flat on the north and northwest.

Andrussow? has described the physical and bionomic conditions
of the Black Sea as follows: Beyond the shallow marginal waters
of 600 feet depth there is no bottom-living life (benthos), while in
the surficial fresher waters down to about 750 feet there is a more
or less great abundance of floating, usually microscopic, open-sea
forms (plankton) and the larger, free-swimming life (nekton), col-
lectively also spoken of as the pelagic biota. This upper layer of
freshened water and its peculiar life conditions are brought about
by the enclosed nature of the deep basin, the inflowing of immense
quantities of less dense fresh water that remains at the surface or
is there evaporated, and a deep-seated, partially compensating cur-
rent of salt water from the Sea of Marmora through the strait of
Bosporus. It is estimated that it takes about 1,700 years to renew
the entire salt-water content of the Black Sea.

Because of these differences between the lighter surface and
the heavier bottom salt waters, there is no vertical streaming nor
convection currents beyond 750 feet of depth, and therefore no re-
plenishing of the deeper marine waters with the oxygen that is so
necessary for the maintenance of benthonic life. At the depth of
600 feet, hydrogen sulphide begins to form (33 c.c. in Ioo liters of
water) and increases rapidly with the depth to 3,000 feet (570 c.c.)
and then more slowly to the bottom of the sea. The formation of
the H,S is in the main due to the sulphur bacteria. Hand in hand
with the increase of the H,S goes the decrease of the sulphates in
the sea water and the precipitation of the carbonates and iron sul-
phides.

That the aeration of marine waters, and also the generation of
sulphuretted hydrogen may be better understood, a digression into
the studies of oceanographers becomes necessary. The atmospheric
gases, oxygen and nitrogen, are absorbed at the sea surface more
abundantly in cold than in warm latitudes, and the quantity absorbed
is again variable under varying pressures and chemical conditions
of the water. This complex subject, too long to state here, may be

2“Ta Mer Noire,” Guides des Excursions, VII° Cong. Géol. Internat.,
St. Pétersbourg, 1897, Art. XXIX.

264 SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE: DEPOSITION. [May 7,

studied in Kritmmel’s “ Handbuch der Ozeanographie,” I., 1907,
pages 292-317. Furthermore, the amount of oxygen is increased
when there is an abundance of assimilating plants, as in the areas
of the sea-weeds and diatoms. The gases are then distributed by
the general water circulation to most parts of the oceans and even
into the greatest depths. In general, there is an abundance of
oxygen down to 350 feet, but in the tropics it is wanting in the
greater depths of the shelf seas. The oxygen is consumed by the
animals and by various hydro-chemical processes and consequently
diminishes in quantity as it is carried down from the surface and
over the bottom, but the quantity of nitrogen remains constant. Sir
John Murray states further that in the streaming open ocean of
today there is usually an abundance of oxygen even at the greatest
depth, due to the sinking heavier and colder polar waters, but this
is not the case in partially enclosed seas which are more or less cut
off by barriers and where the water is said to be “ stale,’ and in the
deeper layers of which vertical circulation is restricted.

Similar stagnant conditions “prevail in several Norwegian
‘threshold fjords,’ or on a smaller scale in the oyster-‘ polls. In
such places the bottom is thickly covered with organic matter; a
slimy black mud is formed, swarming with bacteria that produce
sulphuretted hydrogen, which spreads through the water, combin-
ing with the oxygen to form various sulphates. This causes the oxy-
gen to decrease and finally to disappear altogether, when the sulphur-
etted hydrogen begins to appear free in solution. It gradually spreads
upwards, until the water is devoid of oxygen and contains free sul-
phuretted hydrogen, at a depth of only 100 fathoms in the Black
Sea, and in the oyster-basins in autumn often at merely a couple of
meters below the surface. In summer the ‘bottom-water’ of the
oyster-‘ polls’ lies stagnant, but in the course of the autumn and
winter it is generally renewed by the supply of comparatively heavy
water from without; then the sulphuretted hydrogen disappears
and the oxygen returns, producing thus an annual change in the
gaseous conditions of the deeper parts of the oyster-‘polls.’ In
autumn the state of things may become critical for the oysters,
which are suspended in baskets at a depth of 112-2 meters; it hap-

1915-] SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. 265

pens occasionally that the animals all die at this time by suffocation
through want of oxygen or by sulphur poisoning.’’*

Johnstone? states that ‘In some parts of the sea, as for instance
in the ‘dead grounds’ of the | very shallow] Bay of Kiel, in some
parts of the Black Sea, and perhaps in parts of some of the Nor-
wegian fjords, where the water circulation is defective, and where
there may be a deficiency of oxygen, very remarkable bacteria are
to be found. These are the sulphur bacteria, the occurrence of
which is not, however, confined to these habitats. In the places I
have mentioned sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved from the decom-
position of dead organic matter, and this sulphuretted hydrogen,
to us a vilely smelling and poisonous gas, is utilized as food sub-
stance by the bacteria. Such a microbe as Beggiatoa takes in the
SH, and oxidizes it so that the sulphur is deposited in the cells of
the bacterial colony, and the hydrogen appears as water. This is
the form of assimilation of the organisms. ‘Then some of the sul-
phur thus resulting from the decomposition of the SH, is oxidized
to sulphuric acid. ‘This is the form of respiration of the organism.
It requires some source of nitrogen for the formation of its living
proteid and this it obtains from the minute quantities of nitrates
and nitrites which exist in solution in the water in which it lives.
But it requires very little nitrogen compound, for whereas a higher
animal may require to oxidize some of the living nitrogenous tissue
of its own body in order to obtain its energy, the sulphur bacterium
oxidizes the sulphur stored in its cells as the result of the assimi-
lation of the SH,. Thus the proteid part of the cell is protected
from waste, and the minimal quantity of nitrogenous food-stuff
suffices.”

Kriimmel states that the troughs of the Baltic Sea renew their
deeper water irregularly and periodically. In the Rugen and Born-
holm troughs (about 325 feet deep) the renewal takes place at
least once and more rarely twice each year, in the Danzig trough
(about 325 feet deep) nearly every year, and in the deeps off Got-
land and in the Gulf of Bothnia usually only after many years.
All these troughs get the new deeper water from the western Belt
Sea and more rarely also from the Oresund east of Denmark.

3 Sir John Murray, “The Depths of the Ocean,” 1912, pp. 257-258.

4“ Conditions of Life in the Sea,” 1900, p. 264.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 218 R, PRINTED AUG. 24, 1915.

266 SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. [May 7,

To return to the Black Sea and its sediments, these are of
three categories: (1) from the shore to about 120 feet occur the
accumulations of sandy detritals; (2) from 120 to 600 feet is
found a gray-blue sticky ooze, often replete with small fragile shells,
mainly of Modiola; and (3) in the greater depths the bottom is cov-
ered with (a) a tough, sticky, black ooze, with much precipitation
of iron sulphide, an abundance of diatoms and fragments of the
youngest stages of bivalves, all of which organisms are from the
plankton, and (b) the dark blue ooze poor in iron sulphide and
richer in the finest-grained CaCO,;, which in places forms thin
banks, and an abundance of pelagic diatoms. Zones I and 2 alone
have benthonic organisms, with the greatest abundance between
210 and 600 feet; the latter is the zone of Modiola phaseolina and a
great variety of bivalves and gastropods (68 species occur in the
shallower waters).

The Kupferschiefer sea, like the Black Sea, had bottom waters
with about the average normal salt content, as proved by the typical
Zechstein invertebrates. However, because of the lack of oxygen
and the high content of sulphuretted hydrogen and CO, an abun-
dant bottom life was impossible. That the top water of the Kupfer-
schiefer sea was also fresh is proved by the wide distribution of the
freshwater fishes in the sediments, the widely uniform spreading of
the thin zone of shale, and the presence of land plants and land
vertebrates. If all the water had been salty, the fine muds should
have been laid down in a narrow zone bordering the margin of the
sea, and this is not the case in the Kupferschiefer sea. The slow
decomposition of the organic remains (mainly the plankton) and
the lack of oxygen in the depths led further to the formation of the
bituminous content (from 6 to 20 per cent.).

As the Black Sea goes down to 7,360 feet, the question must be
asked: What was the depth of the Kupferschiefer sea? <A positive
and exact answer can not be given, but the small thickness of the
shale over wide areas, combined with its intimate and variously
modified connection below with the Zechstein conglomerate and
above with the Zechstein dolomite, and its shallow-water life, show
that “it is a deposit of the shallowest and shallower seas.” To
the reviewer, the depth seems to be well within that assigned the

1915.] SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. 267

continental shelf seas, 7. e., less than 600 feet. The freshwater
covering Pompeckj thinks was thin.

Just as in the Black Sea the marginal fresh waters are deposit-
ing sands and other littoral sediments that are free of bitumen, so
in the Kupferschiefer sea there is some evidence of marginal sands,
sandy and clayey limestones, and regions free of metal sulphides.

Later, the black sea of Permian time gradually changed, first
locally and finally everywhere, into the limestone-dolomite or Zech-
stein sea, still, however, an inland sea but devoid of muds and
bituminous materials. In the shallow regions nearer the shores
arose reefs of bryozoa, but at best the Zechstein sea, even when in
widest connection with the ocean, had a small and monotonous
fauna.

In an earlier paper Pompeckj® discusses a similar deposit, the
zone of Posidonomya bronm of the Upper Lias of Germany. It
seems desirable to cite also some of the details given in this paper,
because they are somewhat different from those concerning the
Permian. The deposits are fissile, calcareous, bituminous, dark
shales rich in iron pyrite. Locally there are also horizons of sand-
stone, barren of life, and layers of stinking limestone. These de-
posits are found in northwestern Germany (about 4o feet thick)
and France.

In Germany (Swabia and Franconia) the fossils consist of
diatoms and coccoliths, horn sponges, very rarely a sea-urchin,
crinids (sometimes with stalks over 50 feet long), a few forms of
brachiopods, about 18 species of bivalves (of which the only com-
mon one is Posidonomya bronm, but this very thin-shelled form
is at times exceedingly abundant ; also Pseudomonotis substriata, Ino-
ceramus dubius, Pecten contrarius), and rarely a gastropod or crus-
tacean (Eryon). Besides the common bivalves mentioned, there
are many ammonids, belemnids, sepias, fishes (selachians, many
ganoids, teleosts), ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and crocodiles. With
the marine forms are associated drifted land plants (cycads, and
often a great abundance of conifer logs, now carbonized), beetles,
and dragons of the air (pterosaurs).

5 “Die Jura-Ablagerungen zwischen Regensburg u. Regenstauf,” Geog.
nos. Jahresheften 1901, XIV. Jahrg., pp. 178-186.

268 SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. [May 7,

It is apparent from the above that the common fossils are here
again those of the nekton (saurians, fishes with most of the ganoids
probably of freshwater habitat, belemnids, sepias) and drifted
land plants. Of the benthos, only a few species of bivalves are
common, and, while the ammonids are also bottom-dwellers and
occur commonly as fossils, their empty shells were probably drifted
into this black sea. The crinids were also drifted in, for the only
specimens found attached are on conifer wood, hanging head down-
ward; otherwise roots of these pentacrinids do not occur.

In general it may be said that the Liassic deposits and the habitat
of the fossils of the time of Posidonomya bronni agree best with those
of the present Black Sea. Since this is true, it follows that the physical
conditions of the bronmi sea must have been very much like those
of the Black Sea, 7. e., it was a Liassic Black Sea into which drained
rivers, causing the surface waters to be more or less freshened, and
bringing land plants, logs, and ganoid fishes. However, there are
also marked differences, chief among which is the far less amount
of decomposition of the soft parts of ichthyosaurians and sepias,
of which fleshy parts are often preserved, a condition that never
occurs in the Kupferschiefer. Finally, the abundance of the Liassic
bivalves points to the shallow waters of the Modiola ooze of the
Black Sea, and therefore to depths of less than 600 feet.

It seems to the reviewer that the present Black Sea, with its
great depth and widespread foul conditions, is an exceptional
example, and that in all of its features it may have no fossil ana-
logue. The Kupferschiefer and P. bronni seas along with the
American Ohio sea of Upper Devonian time and the Chattanooga
sea of the Mississippian period appear to agree with the essential
conditions of the Black Sea, except as to depth. All of the fossil
Black Seas appear not to have been deeper than 600 feet.

Foul bottoms are clearly due to a lack of water circulation, either
because there is no wide connection with the oceanic areas or be-
cause there are inadequate vertical or convection currents. The
latter conditions may have been more abundantly attained in warm.
climates than in cool ones, due to the fact that the heavier colder
waters sink to the bottoms and so oxygenate them. In this the
present is the exceptional condition when compared with most of

1915.] SCHUCHERT—BLACK SHALE DEPOSITION. 269

geologic time. In such stagnant areas, be they small or large in
area, or shallow or deep, the oxygen is soon consumed by the or-
ganisms of the benthos and the depths become stale and lifeless.
As the sulphur bacteria are ever present, but thrive best in the
stale bottoms, they soon take the ascendancy there and fill the
waters with an ever greater quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen, pro-
vided they are furnished with the dead organisms on which to feed
and thus to increase in number. On the other hand, the sun-lit,
aerated surface waters are the realm of the green and assimilating
micro-plants, the free alge, which convert the inorganic carbon
dioxide into their organic bodies, and these upon their death rain
into the deeps to form the essential food of the bacteria of the foul
bottoms.

That depth of water is not the first essential for the production
of foul bottoms has been shown by the examples cited (almost from
the surface down), but it does seem that large areas must have
depths greater than 300 feet, for otherwise the high waves gen-
erated by the storms would set up a vertical circulation and so at
least periodically replenish the oxygen and take away the foul gases
of these depths. Therefore it would seem that Black Seas of large
size should be deep (300 feet or more) and land-locked basins
whose oceanic connections are more or less cut off by submerged
barriers. Smaller areas are the elongated troughs and rounded
holes below the general level of the sea floors, while the smallest
and shallowest areas are the bays that are more or less separated
from the seas by closely approaching headlands, banks, and bars,
or the marine swamps that are filled with eel-grass, mangroves, and
other modified land plants.

ON THEPRADD OF EVAPORAMMON OF ERHER ROW
OLS AND 1S AP PEVEATION TEN: OME Ei iEiike
COLONIC VANE Sits.

By CHAS. BASKERVILLE, Pu:D:, F-C:S:
(Read April 23, 1915.)

It is conceded that the anesthetic agent must get into the blood
for distribution and for eventual elimination, whatever theory of
general or central anesthesia one may support. The anesthetic
agent has normally been introduced into the blood by inhalation or
intravenously. It is normally eliminated mainly via the lungs.

The intestinal mucous membrane of vertebrates is well known as
an efficient transmitter of gases to and from the blood. Pirogoff*
appears to have been the first to mention the administration of ether
by this route. Liquid ether was used until Magendie gave warning
as to the danger of its use and ether vapor was substituted. During
the same year Roux,? y’Yhedo*® and Duprey* employed liquid ether
or aqueous mixtures to induce complete anesthesia. Although
Pirogoft’s enthusiasm prompted him to predict the supplanting of
the inhalation procedure by the rectal method, references to it dis-
appeared from the literature until 1884. Then Molli¢re® revived in-
terest in the method by using a hand bellows for forcing the ether
vapor into the intestine. Variations in the technique were intro-
duced during the same year, but the experiences of Yversen, Harter,
Bull,° Weir,’ Wancher® and Post® showed more or less diarrhoea

1“ Recherches pratique et physiologiques sur l’etherization,” St. Peters-
burg, 1847.

2J. d. Vacademie d. Sciences, 1847, 18.

3 Gazette med. d. Paris, 1847.

4 Academie royale de medicine, March 16, 1847.

5 Lyon Medical, 45, 1884.

6N. Y. Med. J., March 3, 1884.

7 Med. Rec., 1884.

8 Cong. internat. d. Sciences med., 1884.

9 Boston Med. and Surg. J., 1884.

270

1915.] EVAPORATION OF ETHER FROM OILS. 271

and melena as after-effects. These after-effects, which one case of
death directly attributable to the procedure, caused the method to
again fail in securing serious recognition until 1903 when Cunning-
ham’ employed air as a vehicle for sweeping the ether vapor into
the colon. In 1909 Leuguen, Money and Verliac’! used oxygen as
the vehicle for the ether vapor. Buxton’ in his splendid book on
“Anesthesia” says that he found the procedure most satisfactory for
certain operations, for example, those having to do with the mouth,
nose, etc., but he remarks ‘‘ Deaths have occurred.” Sutton’s! in-
troduction of a return flow tube for these gases introduced and un-
absorbed constituted a distinct advance in anesthesia by colonic ab-
sorption.

In an effort to avoid certain well-known difficulties in intravenous
anesthesia, Gwathmey experimented with mixtures of normal saline
solution and ether per rectum. ‘The concentration of ether in the
aqueous solution was so small that excessive volumes of liquid were
needed, and furthermore the ether parted from the solution so very
rapidly that experimentation along those lines was abandoned.
Gwathmey then applied a solution of ether in olive oil. As oil and
ether make perfect solutions in all mixtures, it was his hope to re-
duce the total bulk of the fluid introduced into the colon by using
a stronger solution of ether in oil than is possible with any known
aqueous mixture. As oils are lubricants, it was also hoped to
avoid the irritation of the mucous membrane previously noted. The
ether may always be separated from the oil by warming, but unless
the temperature of the mixture is suddenly raised to an excessively
high point, the ether passes off deliberately. It was thought that
the evaporation of the ether would induce some cooling of the mix-
ture with a consequent checking of the evaporation and its absorp-
tion. These premises coupled with slow absorption by the colon in
comparison with the rapid elimination by the lungs would auto-

10 Cunningham and Leahy, Boston Med. and Surg. J., April 30, 1905;
Vide also Dumont, Correspond. Bl. f. Schweitzer Aerzte, 1903; 1904; 1908;
Krugeline, Wiener klin. Woch., Dec., 1904.

11 Compt. rend. Soc. Biol., June, 19009.

12“ Anesthesia,” London, 1907.

13 For full account of technique and literature, see “ Anesthesia,” by
Gwathmey and Baskerville, Appleton, New York, pp. 431-457, 1914.

272 BASKERVILLE—RATE OF EVAPORATION. [April 23,

matically regulate any anesthesia that might be induced in this
manner. Asa result, Gwathmey presented a paper before the seven-
teenth International Medical Congress in London in 1913 on the
work with animals done by himself and Wallace.

At the request of my co-laborer, Gwathmey, I undertook an in-
vestigation on the rate of evaporation of ether from oils to secure
the following information that’ might be of service to him in his
further application of his ideas with human subjects:

1. A comparison of the rate of evaporation of ether from dif-
ferent mixtures of ether and the same oil.

2. A comparison of the rate of evaporation of ether from the
same per cent. mixtures of different oils and ether.

3. The influence of surface on the rate of evaporation was de-
termined.

As the result of much preliminary experimentation, the follow-
ing mode of procedure was settled upon. Large glass tubes were
calibrated to 1 c.c. from 20 c.c. to 105 c.c. The mixtures of 25, 50
and 75 per cent. of oil and ether were carefully placed in the tubes.
The tubes were weighted with lead and placed in a thermostat,
whose temperature was so regulated as not to vary more than
+ 0.03° C. from 37° C., the same being controlled by a toluene +
mercury temperature regulator. All connections (gas, water, etc.)
were made with lead pipe for safe use over night, as occasion arose.
The water in the bath was stirred by a system of paddles and shaft
operated through belt and pulleys by a small hot air engine. The
tubes were immersed in the bath to within 2 cm. of the tops. Dur-
ing the first five minutes two readings were made in each case to
get the highest point to which the volumes expanded upon heating
up to 37° C. After that readings were made every five minutes
for two or three hours.

Since the evaporation of any liquid depends upon the partial pres-
sure of that liquid at its surface, the higher the glass wall above the
surface of the oil-ether mixture, the heavier the column of ether
vapor resting on the surface of the mixture, the slower will be the
evaporation, consequently the different oil mixtures with the dif-
ferent percentages of ether were experimented with in the same tube
filled to the same height in each experiment.

1915.] OF ETHER FROM OILS. 273

In the experiments to determine the influence extent of surface
played upon the rate of evaporation, the same precautions were
taken as to height of walls of the containing vessels. In the largest
areas worked with, this involved using as much as 600 c.c. of the
mixture. As the 75 per cent. mixture had been found most satis-
factory clinically, this was determined with that mixture only.

The ether used was that prepared under my supervision and was
97 per cent. absolute with 3 per cent. absolute alcohol, being free
from acids, aldehydes, and water.

The oils used were of three types, vegetable, animal and mineral,
being respectively, olive, cotton seed, corn, peanut and soya-bean ;
cod-liver and lanolin (anhydrous) ; and Russian mineral oil. All
the vegetable oils, except olive, were refined by a process devised by

°
¥
' +H a HH HH
VE
He :
H imal Ff
N :
HH
\y
HH
q
J ae
aH
R hice :
~ .
€ oe
ot ag
— |
4 ae fe
4 feed 4oueeaee: H +h HH
Ga set eueeas Ete
Sreeeeitay aay Ab ataceeeettea Heit
mee gee zge5 ce EHEC EHH t ;
E a es i maea! a
f eae eeae eae Gasage: HH +H
iit Pee
“ seers - at
of ss oe Ht
HH oe rare HH
SsEeansnarent aes ae Hy
0) + Et
ayfraeitseil fit
Ho auuauaene - eEEGe CH oer tet
0) \ al d ’ \ 4

Cuart I.

274 BASKERVILLE—RATE OF EVAPORATION. [April 23,

the author’* and were neutral. The other oils were purchased in the
open market.

The experimental work was carried out by Mr. Hyman Storch,
under my direction.

hee
\ HH
NU Heeeeeeeitti?
Ly
Ny ssssittes
\ yaa
E
sii!
| q
G
a g
=
S 4
J
E +H
He : it
os ie a
i ee saint
\ ; ") 4
Cuart II.

The data obtained for the 25, 50 and 75 per cent. mixtures vege-
table and animal oils are shown graphically in Charts I., II. and
III. In the curves the abscissze show the percentage of ether
evaporated (based on volume measurements) and the ordinates time
of the evaporation.

Chart IV. (selected at random from charts made for each oil)
shows the difference in rate of evaporation 25, 50 and 75 per cent.
mixtures with one oil.

14“ Refining Oils,” Oi, Paint and Drug Reporter, May, 1915.

1915] OF ETHER FROM OILS. 275

Chart V. shows the effect of increased surface on the rate of
evaporation. One oil only was selected to show the principle, which
is: the rate of evaporation bears a direct ratio to the surface exposed.

These experiments were made in glass, hence they do not dis-
close all the factors in the conduct of such mixtures in contact with
the walls of the colon, for there the principles of osmosis and dif-
fusion are involved. But these observations demonstrated several
striking facts:

¢

HP
it
14 Ht
A\
\
4 * Ft
i ae
x HH
Ny of
SI 4 t +
re) Te
ae
4 z
rH
pot
\ Sete
rsadieeeagtcasti
FAS ectears HH
H PEE To
diiroatisttosteateasi aia
; isaeapESaGEREG Gas saceasaeerTaeery
gene FH cH mae arruaseres
a + aE aan
H Ht sees erates
HEE a Lt oH t Ht
0 \ » = 4 q Jo nN 1

Cuart III.

I. While ether boils at 34.6° C., it does not escape violently
from an oil-ether mixture, as from an aqueous mixture when the
mixture is heated higher, namely, to the body temperature of 37° C.

2. The rate of-separation of ether from the oil quickly acquires
a definite and fairly fixed speed.

276 BASKERVILLE—RATE OF EVAPORATION. [April 23,

The significance of this conduct cannot fail to be of great im-
portance, for by this means the proper content of ether may be main-

Hi
fH

\!
\

he VA pene 2s
i

Cuart LV.

tained in the blood to produce any desired physiological effect that
has a quantitative relation thereto, for example, the third or surgical
stage of anesthesia.?®

The last mentioned has been demonstrated clinically by Wallace,
who found respiration and blood pressure fully maintained, and
Gwathmey and others with records to date of about 1,000 human
cases. So far, not a case of post-ether pneumonia has been encoun-

15In this connection it may be stated that about 30 mils of a 75 per
cent. mixture to 20 lbs. of body weight is administered as an enema.

OF ETHER FROM OILS. 277

1915]

aal Sth ON "ste pe N EA Sano < aly ss ss

"A avo)

op

S\

ie} &

a eae)

\\

r Hy F
ij HHH 3 5 AEH
: H Sra ee Ss caaee o|
PH +E H ct ;
H 4} ATH 4 f :
i ; atte

E ag H H

FH Hf
ss 5 H : H} H HEH

Ct a H ip:
ty ae H a8
1 . gene i
HHH He ELH HE
4 4 H }
oH t] Ht Bi
saaoae
i |
HH 4
cH 4 EEE Hg
i HH HEE aiiah its HE
H HT HHH

278 BASKERVILLE—RATE OF EVAPORATION. [April 23,

tered. The after-effects usually associated with inhalation anes-
thesia, unless induced by the most improved modern technique, are
virtually absent, including post-anesthetic nausea. Its use for
special cases involving the head, breathing passages, etc., is superior.
Although having had the privilege of attending clinics, I am not
qualified to pass judgment upon its value, but from what I have
learned, if necessary, “ Give it to me that way.”

COLLEGE OF THE City oF NEw York.

MAGELLANIC PREMIUM

FOUNDED IN 1786 BY JOHN HYACINTH DE MAGELLAN, oF LoNDON
IQI5

THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

4 -HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

DECEMBER, 1915
MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL

TO THE AUTHOR OF THE BEST DISCOVERY, OR MOST USEFUL INVENTION, RE-
LATING TO NAVIGATION, ASTRONOMY, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY (MERE
NATURAL HISTORY ONLY EXCEPTED ) UNDER THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS :

1. The candidate shall, on or before November I, 1915, deliver free of postage
or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement, addressed to the
President of the American Philosophical Society, No. 104 South Fifth Street,
Philadelphia, U.S. A., and shall distinguish his performance by some motto,
device, or other signature. With his discovery, invention, or improvement, he
shall also send a sealed ietter containing the same motto, device, or other sig-
nature, and pupeceined with the real name and place of residence of the author.

2. Persons of any’ nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be ad-

mitted as candidates for this premium.

. 3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be Satire to this premium
“which hath been already published, or for pics the author hath been publicly
rewarded elsewhere. :

e ~ 4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or r improvement,
either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. A-full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the Sodiely,
as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate publication, or in
_ the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or in both.
6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold of the
value of ten guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society annexed te
the medal by a ribbon.

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CONTENTS
Symposium onthe Earth: Its Figure, Dimensions and the Constitu-
tion of its Interior:

I. The Interior of the Earth from the Viewpoint of Geology.
By T.-C) CHAMBERLIN {= 30-0 SS 3 Ea 3 270

II. Constitution of the Interior of the Barth as Indicated by Seis-
* mological Investigations. By Harry FIELDING REID - - 290

Ill. The Earth from the Geophysical Standpoint. By Joun Ey:
HAYFORD a i a ery.)

: Biitarphology and Development of Agaricus rodmani. By Geo. F.
PRRIGENSON Gos s/ a a) 2S te ae i ee 00

‘The Euler-Laplace Theorem on the Decrease of ‘the Eccentricity of

AI e Op Tae ON ee SI ne he

the Orbits of the Heavenly Bodies under the Secular Action of a
Resisting Medium. By T. J. J. SEE - - - - = - = - - 344

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WO JEN SEPTEMBER, I9QI5 No. 219

SMMPROSIUM ON THE EARTH: 11S BIGURE, DIMEN-
SIONS AND aE CONSTR UMION OF nis
EN GE RTOR: :

I.

iP NE eRIOR OF Tak EARTH PROM THE VIEWPOINT
OF GEOLOGY.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN.
(Read April 24, 1975.)

For some time past there has been a marked drift of geologic
opinion from the older tenet of a molten earth toward the convic-
tion that the earth is essentially solid. This has been quite as much
due to the contributions of kindred sciences as to the growth of
geologic evidence, but this has made its important and concurrent
contributions.

The great granitic embossments that constitute the most dis-
tinctive feature of the oldest known terranes were formerly re-
garded as solidified portions of a primitive molten earth and seemed
to serve as witnesses of the verity of the former liquid state. A
few years ago, however, it was determined—almost simultaneously
in several countries where critical studies on these formations were

1 The discussion of this topic at the session of the Society was without
manuscript or notes and this paper, prepared some weeks later, is less a

teproduction of the original discussion than a substitute for it.
PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC,, LIV. 219 S, PRINTED SEPT. 4, 1915.

280 CHAMBERLIN—THE INTERIOR OF THE [April 24,

in progress—that these granitic masses are not only intrusive but
that they were thrust into formations that had previously been
formed at the surface of the earth. These surface formations have
thus come to stand as the most ancient terranes now known. These
earliest accessible depositions imply the preéxistence of a substan-
tial foundation formed at a still earlier date. Neither of these
gives any clear intimation that lower formations are different from
themselves. So far then as the record runs back, it testifies to sub-
stantial solidity in the outer part of the globe at least. The record
implies, indeed, that molten matter was then present within the earth,
but it gives no certain measure of the ratio of the molten to the
solid part. There is no determinate evidence that a molten condi-
tion was a preponderant state, even in the interior, at any stage cov-
ered by the lithographic record. The interior conditions of the
earliest stages that antedate the lithographic record are to be reached
only by indirect and remote rather than direct and immediate in-
ference. Under the influence of inherited presumptions, it may
seem to many still probable that the interior of the mature earth was
once dominated by a molten condition at some remote stage, but
the phenomena of powerful inthrusting, so often shown in the in-
trusions of the igneous element into the early terranes, seems to
imply that at the Archean stages the molten element was in the
strong grasp of such stresses as are natural to a rigid globe and
was therefore then but a minor and passive factor, not a controlling
one.

When it is considered that, if the earth were once wholly molten,
the material for all the stratified rocks of later ages must have been
derived from the primitive crust after it was formed and forced
into positions of erosion—or from matter extruded through it—the
absence, according to present knowledge, of any great area of rocks
bearing the distinctive characteristics of the congealed surface
greatly weakens the assumption that the postulated molten state
ever obtained in the mature earth.

A study of the stress-conditions of the interior of the earth
seems to call for a similar reversal of the inferences once drawn
from the igneous rocks. From the earliest well-recorded ages, the
exerior of the earth has given evidence of broad topographic reliefs

°

1915.] EARTH FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF GEOLOGY. 281

in the form of great embossments and basins. These surface con-
figurations must have conditioned the localization of extrusions and
the deployment of the effusive material. If the lavas arose from a
general and abundant source of supply which was responsive to
general and powerful stresses, vestiges of this vital relation should
be found in the volume and deployment of the lava floods. If, on
the other hand, the molten material was but a fraction of the en-
vironing mass, variously distributed through it, the result should
be a multitude of driblets squeezed out here and there in such special
situations as the controlling stresses required, or else forced into
weak portions of the earth-body where the stresses were less im-
perative. Now there is abundant geological evidence that the earth-
body has been subjected at repeated intervals to strong compressive
stresses by which its outer portion has been folded into mountainous
ranges, or pushed up into great plateaus, while masses of continental
dimensions have been raised, relatively, to notable heights, and the
bottoms of basins and deeps have sunk reciprocally to even greater
relative depths. The internal stresses which these deformations
imply should have made themselves felt proportionately on any
great mass of liquid in the interior—if it were in existence—and
extrusions proportionate to the great deformations of the rigid ma-
terial should have accompanied such diastrophism. But, while
liquid extrusions took place somewhat freely at the times of great
diastrophism, it was not, at least in my judgment, at all commen-
surate with the deformative stresses implied by the diastrophic re-
sults in the solid material.

Nor was the concentration of the extrusions indicative of origin
from a molten interior or from great residual reservoirs of liquid
rock. If such ample sources of liquid had existed they might natur-
ally have been expected to have given forth, under the great stresses
then seeking easement, correspondingly great floods of lava. Yet
no single lava flood seems to have attained more than an extremely
small fraction of the mass of the earth or of the known solid matter
of its region. Even when the sum total of the most massive series
of successive floods in a given region are taken together—though the
successive issues stretched over a considerable period—they rarely
rise above a most insignificant fraction of earth-mass or even of the

282 CHAMBERLIN—THE INTERIOR OF THE [April 24,

regional segment of it with which they are associated. Instead of
really massive flows, implying ample sources of supply and great
forces of extrusion, the record shows rather a multitude of little
ejections or injections of more or less sporadic distribution. The
logical implication of these is the preéxistence of a multitude of small
liquid spots, or liquifiable spots, scattered widely through the stressed
earth-masses and yielding to stress as local conditions required.

This inference is supported by the great variations in altitude at
which lavas are given forth. The most impressive illustrations of
this are found in current volcanic action whose relations in altitude
are precisely known. So far as ancient conditions can be restored,
they appear to fall into the same general class as existing conditions.
Current outpourings of lava range from the sea bottom to altitudes
of many thousands of feet above sea level, a vertical range of several
miles. Extrusions occur at these significantly diverse altitudes
simultaneously or alternately or in almost any time-relations, and
sometimes in the most marked independence of one another in spite
of the natural sympathy of such events in a common stressed body.
A multitude of facts of detail, some of which are singularly cogent,
imply that the lava sources of present volcanoes are disconnected
from one another in the interior, and hence independent in action, as
a rule, though sometimes they show sympathy without showing
liquid connection. The sources of lava seem to be meager in gen-
eral, and the eruptive agencies seem to be controlled by narrowly
local conditions. There is an absence of evidence that the lavas in
the craters and necks of volcanoes are parts of great liquid masses
below, responsive to the common stresses of a large region.

Thus geological evidence, when critically scrutinized, seems to be
distinctly adverse to the existence of even large reservoirs of molten
matter within the earth; it points rather to the presence of scattered
spots, very small relatively, on the verge of liquefaction, which pass
by stages into the liquid form and are then forced out by the dif-
ferential stresses that abound in the earth body, each such local liqui-
fying center commonly giving forth driblets of lava and gas, at in-
tervals, none of which often rise to more than an extremely minute
fraction of the earth mass or even of the subterranean mass con-
tiguous to the volcano.

1915.] EARTH FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF GEOLOGY. 283

A revised view of the nature and location of earth-stresses seems
also to be required by what is now known of earth-conditions.
Under the former dominance of the tenet of a molten globe, it was
natural to assign to the stress-differences of the earth a distinctly
superficial localization and limitation; they were thought to be af-
fections of “the crust” almost solely. Hydrostatic pressures were
of course recognized as affecting the deep interior, but these were
obviously balanced stresses, they were ineffective in deformation.
The stresses supposed to give rise to the great reliefs of the earth’s
surface were thought to be very superficial. But the stresses im-
posed by known deformative agencies are not all superficial, nor
are their intensities always greatest at the surface. According to
Sir George Darwin, the stress-differences generated in the earth by
the tidal forces of the moon are eight times as great at the center
of the earth as at the surface. So also, according to the same
authority, the stresses engendered by changes in the rotation of the
earth are eight times as great at the center as at the surface and are
graded between center and surface. The tidal stress-differences are
relatively feeble but are perpetually renewed in pulsatory fashion.
Those that arise from rotation belong to the highest order of com-
petency. The stress-difference that would arise at the center of the
earth from a stoppage of the earth’s rotation, would, according to
Darwin, reach 32 tons per square inch. Changes of the rate of rota-
tion are almost inevitable when great diastrophic readjustments
take place. Such periods are to be regarded as critical times at
which great floods of lava should be poured forth from the in-
terior if liquid material were there in great volume ready to respond
to the changes of capacity which the deformation of the earth’s sec-
tors and the change in the spheroidal form would inevitably impose.

Not to detain you with other considerations, the foregoing seem
best to comport with an essentially solid state of the earth’s interior,
if they do not point rather definitely to such a state. Even if they
stood alone, they would seem to make a prevailing solid state the
most tenable working hypothesis.

But they are far from standing alone; the geological evidences
are strongly supported by considerations that spring from several
kindred lines of inquiry. The testimony of astronomic evidence

284 CHAMBERLIN—THE INTERIOR OF THE [April 24,

has been given by Dr. Schlesinger. The import of seismic studies,
the subject of Dr. Reid’s contribution, lends very special support to
the view that the interior of the earth is elastico-rigid at least to the
extent that distortional waves have been shown to pass through its
interior. It seems certain already that this condition prevails
throughout much more than half the volume of the earth; concern-
ing the rest, the deep interior, the seismic evidence is perhaps still
to be regarded as indeterminate. But on the seismic evidence it
does not fall to me to dwell.

The tidal studies of Hecker, Orloff and others lend support to
the tenet of a rigid earth but they fall somewhat short of con-
clusiveness. The brilliant experimental determinations of Michel-
son and Gale, correlated with the computations of Moulton, have
carried the evidence to the point of preliminary demonstration.
They need only to be adequately repeated and verified to become
final, so far at least as elastic rigidity can be indicated by the re-
sponse of the earth-body to solar and lunar attractions. The special
feature of most critical value in the demonstrations of Michelson
and his colleagues is the high degree of elasticity shown by the
almost instantaneous response of the earth to the distorting pull of
the tide-producing bodies. This cuts at the very base of concepts
founded on the supposed properties of a viscous earth. These tidal
determinations of elasticity are in close accord with the seismic
evidences of elasticity. The two are happily complementary to one
another. The one deals with the earth as a whole under rhythmical
series of increasing and diminishing stress-differences springing
from external attraction; the other deals in an intensive partitive
way with earth substance by sharp short stresses that call into action
its most intimate structural qualities. While it is wise, no doubt,
to refrain from resting too much on these early results of relatively
new and radical lines of inquiry, until their results shall be more ma-
ture, their prospective import is radical and decisive in favor of a
solid earth not only, but of an elastico-rigid earth. Assuming that
the present import of these inquiries will be amply justified by more
mature research, it is pertinent to bring into consideration the corol-
lary they so distinctly imply, viz.: that the molten and viscous ma-
terial in the earth, or at least in its outer half, if not throughout

1915.] EARTH FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF GEOLOGY. 285

its deep interior, is negligible in general studies, and enters into
general terrestrial mechanics only as a subsidiary feature. It seems
necessary to limit liquid and viscous lacunee—if there are lacune in
any proper sense at all—to such moderate dimensions that they do
not seriously kill out distortional waves passing through the outer
half of the globe in various directions ; for seismic instruments show
that these waves retain their integrity with surprising tenacity
through long traverses. It seems equally necessary to limit the
liquid and viscous factor rather severely if the interior structure is
to be consistent with so prompt a response of the earth to twelve-
hour stress-pulses as to imply almost complete elastic fidelity.

In the light of these determinations, strengthened not a little by
their concurrence with the later geological determinations, the work-
ing hypotheses of the earth-student can scarcely fail to give pre-
cedence to dynamic tenets founded on a rigid earth.

The limitation of liquid and viscous matter, thus imposed, quite
radically conditions all tenable views of magmas and of vulcanism,
and thus bears upon the igneous nature of the interior. No small
part of petrologic effort in past decades has been spent on the dif-
ferentiation of magmas. ‘To a notable degree these efforts have pro-
ceeded on the assumption, conscious or unconscious, that differen-
tiation took its departure from an original homogeneous magma
such as might arise from residual portions of a molten earth. In-
definite lapses of time, and such conditions of quiet as are naturally
assignable to residual reservoirs of lava, have been freely assumed
as working conditions without much question as to their reality.
Under the hypothesis of a molten earth passing slowly into a par-
tially solid earth, and retaining residual lacune of molten matter
as an incident of the change, these assumptions are quite natural.
On the other hand, under the hypothesis of a pervasively rigid
earth, affected by stress-conditions that are constantly varying in
intensity and in distribution—and subject to more radical changes
at times of periodic readjustment—the existence of such residual
magmas becomes at least questionable, perhaps improbable. Still
more questionable is the assumption that the multitude of little
liquid spots supposed to arise within the elastico-rigid mass, always
have conformed to one type or set of types. The inherent proba-

286 CHAMBERLIN—THE INTERIOR OF THE [April 24,

bilities of the case seem to point strongly to wide variation in nature
due to selective solution or differential fusion. The liquefying
action that brings magmas into being, under this view, is presum-
ably controlled by the same chemical and physical principles as the
solidifying phases of the same cycle. The logical presumption is
that at all stages of a magma’s career from its inception through
its growth, climax and decline to its final solidification, selective
action will be in progress more or less and that no stage will be en-
titled to be regarded as original or parental in a special sense, such
a sense for example as might be appropriate if the lava were the
residue of an inherited original state and were merely differentiated
by fractional crystallization as it-passed toward solidification.

While these contrasted views of the history of magmas are
naturally connected with views of the genesis of the earth, they are
not limited to this relation. They are inherent in the very rela-
tions of solid and liquid matter and have a more or less important
place irrespective of the earth’s genesis.

An element of no small importance to a revised concept of the
interior of the earth has arisen from geodetic studies on the distribu-
tion of densities within the earth. As the geodetic point of view
is to be presented by its foremost exponent, Dr. Hayford, it is per-
missible for me merely to refer to certain geologic bearings.

On the assumption that the earth was once in a molten state, the
inference is unavoidable that a perfect state of isostatic equilibrium
was originally assumed by the surface, and that its configuration
was at first strictly spheroidal. The material must have been ar-
ranged in concentric layers according to specific gravity and each
layer should have had the same density at every point. All such
reliefs of the earth’s surface, and all such differences of specific
gravity in the same horizon as have since arisen, must have been
superinduced upon this originally perfect isostatic surface. With
good reason therefore these inequalities have heretofore been sup-
posed to be relatively shallow. On the hypothesis that the earth
grew up by heterogeneous accretions, it is an equally natural in-
ference that differences of specific gravity extend to great depths.
In an endeavor to find out the bearings of geodetic data on the dis-
tribution of densities, Dr. Hayford tested four assumptions, all of

1915.] EARTH FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF GEOLOGY. 287

which he found measurably compatible with his geodetic data.
From these he derived the respective depths of 37, 76, 109 and 179
miles as the horizons to which differences of density extended and
below which they vanished or became negligible. Now all these
depths are greater than had been assigned for probable differentia-
tion in the traditional molten earth. On the other hand, the highest
figure, 179 miles, was derived from a curve drawn specifically to
represent the probable distribution of densities in an earth of plan-
etesimal growth. The distribution represented by this highest
figure fits the geodetic data quite as well as either of the other as-
sumptions of distribution, though drawn ona strictly naturalistic basis
If it could be said that geodetic data demonstrate that the actual dif-
ferentiation of specific gravities has its sensible limits somewhere
between 37 and 179 miles below the surface, such considerable depth
would distinctly favor an accretionary origin as against a molten
origin. But a conclusive determination is yet to be reached by geo-
detic inquiries.

While it is possible, within the broad terms of the planetesimal
hypothesis, to suppose that the rate of accretion was so fast as to
give rise to a molten planet, such a result seems to me extremely
improbable under the actual conditions of the case. The growing
planet should have become capable of holding a considerable atmos-
phere by the time it attained one tenth of its present mass, 7. e.,
about the mass of Mars. After this the protective cushion of the
atmosphere should have greatly checked the plunge of the planetesi-
mals and largely dissipated them into dust in the upper atmosphere
where the inevitable heat of impact would be promptly radiated
away. ‘The dust presumably floated long and came gently to earth,
so that, while the total heat generated by impact was large, the tem-
perature of the earth body was probable never very high during the
later stages of growth, and perhaps not at any stage of growth.
Following out as well as may be the probable rates and conditions
of growth, the most tenable concept of the state of the earth’s in-
terior under the planetesimal hypothesis is as follows:

The condition of the nuclear portion supposed to be formed from
one of the knots of the parent spiral nebula and constituting a minor
fraction of the mass of the earth, say thirty or forty per cent., 1s

288 CHAMBERLIN—THE INTERIOR OF THE [April 24,

left indeterminate by present lack of knowledge of the physical state
of the knots of spiral nebule. If these are gaseous—which is ren-
dered doubtful by their lack of strict sphericity—the nucleus was
doubtless originally molten. If the constituents of the knot were
held in orbital relations, their aggregation might have been slow
enough to permit a solid state of even this portion. The matter
added to the nucleus as planetesimal dust, or as planetesimals re-
duced in mass and speed by the atmosphere, probably retained its
solid condition, with negligible exceptions, throughout the process
of accretion except as selected portions passed into the liquid state
and became subject to extrusive action. An intimate heterogeneity
naturally prevailed throughout the whole mass so aggregated. A
selective process, however, probably brought in the heavier matter
faster and earlier than the lighter matter, for the magnetism of the
earth should have aided gravity in gathering in the magnetic metals
while the inelastic planetesimals, predominantly the heavy basic
ones, when in collision destroyed the opposing components of their
motions and hence -yielded to the earth’s gravity sooner than the
more elastic ones. Relatively high specific gravity in the material
of the deep interior is thought to have arisen at the outset and to
have been increased by the selective vulcanism that came into action
as growth proceeded. Special emphasis is laid on the selective
nature of vulcanism under this hypothesis. The intimate mixture
of planetesimals and planesesimal dust gave rise to a multitude of
minute contacts between particles of different chemical and physical
properties and hence there arose wide differences in the solution
points. As the temperature in the growing planet rose, the more
soluble portions passed into the liquid state by stages long before
the remaining larger portion reached the temperature of solution.
In a stressed globe certain of whose stresses are more intense to-
ward the center than toward the surface, the solutions worked in
the direction of least resistance, for them generally outwards, car-
rying heat of liquefaction and leaving the less soluble larger portion
behind with temperatures inadequate for further liquefaction until
there was a renewed accession of heat. The mechanism thus auto-
matically tended to remove the most soluble constituents by progres-
sive stages, while it tended to preserve the solid condition of the

1915-] EARTH FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF GEOLOGY. 289

main mass. The hypothesis thus supplies a working mechanism
whose results fall into full accord with the states of the interior
implied by tidal investigations and by seismic data, while the pos-
tulated distribution of specific gravities accords fairly well with
geodetic determinations, as they now stand.

The adaptation of such an earth to isostatic adjustment can
scarcely be more than hinted at here. The growth of the earth
should have given it a concentric structure, while its highly distribu-
tive vulcanism, together with some of its deformative processes,
should have given a vertical or radial structure, the two conjoining
to give a natural tendency to prismatic or pyramidal divisions con-
verging toward the center. The most powerful of all the deforma-
tive agencies, rotation, required for the adaptation of the earth to
its changes of rate, such divisions of the earth-body as would re-
spond most readily to depression in the polar and bulging in the
equatorial tracts reciprocally. As urged elsewhere, this accommo-
dation seems best met by three pyramidal sectors in each hemisphere
with apices at the center and bases at the surface, the sectors in
opposite hemispheres arranged alternately with one another. Very
simple motions of these sectors on their apices at the earth’s center
would satisfy the larger demands of rotational distortion, while the
sub-sectors into which these major sectors would naturally divide,
as stresses required, would easily accommodate the nicer phases of
adjustment. This primitive segmentation to meet rotational de-
mands—which were most urgent during the stages of infall—fur-
nished a mechanism suitable for the easement also of a portion of the
deformational stresses that arose from other sources, among them
gravitative stresses arising from loading and unloading by erosion
and sedimentation. A gravitational adjustment by the wedging up
and down and laterally of such sectors is thus offered tentatively as
a working competitor to theories of adjustment by fluidal or quasi-
fluidal undertow. The necessary brevity of this statement leaves
this new hypothesis little more than a crude suggestion that gravi-
tative adjustment (= isostasy) may perhaps take place as fully as
the case requires in a highly rigid elastic earth without resort to
flowage or even quasi-flowage.

THe UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.

Ue:

CONSTITUTION OF THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
ANS) MUNIDICANNAD), 13 SIE S MOOG CANE,
ENWieS PIG AION S:

By HARRY FIELDING REID.
(Read April 24, 1915.)

In 1883 Milne predicted that earthquake disturbances would be
registered by seismographs at great distances from their origin, a
prediction first verified when the earthquake of April 18, 1880,
whose origin lay off the coast of Japan, affected the horizontal
pendulum which von Rebeur-Paschwitz had set up at Potsdam to
study the attraction of the moon. Milne was so convinced of the
correctness of his idea and of the importance of the results to be
obtained that in 1893 he established an observatory on the Isle of
Wight to record earthquakes from distant regions; and he also suc-
ceeded in having instruments of similar model set up at observatories
very widely scattered in various parts of the world.

Wertheim in 1851 showed that a disturbance in the interior of
an elastic solid would break up into two groups of waves, longi-
tudinal and transversal, which would be propagated at different
rates, and as their velocities are so great that they cannot be sepa-
rated from each other in the laboratory he suggested with rare
insight that their separation might first be noticed in connection
with the propagation of earthquake disturbances.1 A few years
later Lord Rayleigh showed that a third kind of wave could be
propagated along the surface of the earth. Seismologists naturally
looked for indications of these three groups of waves in their

1“ Sur la propagation du movement dans les corps solides et liquides,”
Ann. de Chimie et Phys., 1851, Vol. XX1., p. Io.
2“ On Waves Propagated along the Plane Surface of an Elastic Solid,”
Proc. London Math. Soc., 1855, Vols. XLVIL., L.
290

1915-] REID—INTERIOR OF THE EARTH. 291

seismograms, but it was not until 1900 that Oldham succeeded in
showing definitely that the seismograms of a number of Milne
instruments gave clear evidence of the existence of three groups of
waves. Oldham also published a diagram, which was an extension
of Seebach’s so-called “ hodograph,” showing the relation between
the time of transmission of each group and the distance from the
earthquake origin, measured along the surface of the earth. Milne
soon improved these curves by adding observations of a large num-
ber of recorded shocks.* The general forms of the transmission
curves are shown in the diagram. It will be seen that the curves

. 50

Minutes of Time

0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100°

of the first and second “preliminary tremors,” as Milne called the
first two groups of waves, are curved, indicating that the velocity of
transmission increases with the distance from the origin; a con-
clusion which had already been drawn from earlier, but less ac-
curate, observations. Milne attempted to explain this by assuming
that the path of the seismic disturbance lay along the chord and not
along the earth’s surface; this practically shortens the distance to
the observing stations, and if the curves are plotted, with distances

3 Rep. of the Com. on Seismol. Investig., B. A. A. S., 1902, p. 7.

292 REID—CONSTITUTION OF THE [April 24,

measured along the chord, the curvature is considerably diminished ;
but later and more accurate observations show that even under this
assumption the velocity still increases with the distance. The con-
clusion is unavoidable that as the path of the disturbance sinks
deeper into the earth the velocity increases. The interior of the
earth then is not a homogeneous but a refractive medium, and the
path of the disturbance cannot be straight but must be curved with
the concavity turned upward. This condition had been described
by A. Schmidt as early as 1888.4 Seismologists now believe that
the three groups discovered by Oldham are respectively the longi-
tudinal, the transverse and the surface waves. ‘The transmission
curve of the latter is a straight line indicating that the waves are
transmitted with uniform velocity along the surface of the earth.
They have affected seismographs after having passed completely
around the earth. It cannot be said that the evidence, that the
first two groups are respectively longitudinal and transverse, is com-
plete ; but it is sufficient, in connection with theory, to make seismolo-
gists fairly confident that the conclusion is correct; and the passage
of transverse waves through the earth to great depths is proof that,
to those depths, the earth is solid; for transverse waves cannot exist
in a liquid. Further, since the velocity of transmission depends on
the ratio of the elasticity to the density of the medium, and since
both the longitudinal and transverse waves increase in velocity with
the depth below the surface, both the elasticity of volume and the
elasticity of figure of the earth, not only increase, but increase more
rapidly than the density as we penetrate below the surface. The
earth therefore is not only rigid, but its rigidity increases towards
its center; though seismological evidence does not yet prove that
this characteristic extends to the very center itself.

The next step was to determine the path of the waves in the
earth and their velocity at different depths; the data for these
determinations were the times of arrival of the earthquake waves at
various distances from the origin; these times are collected in the
transmission curves. At first sight this seems an insoluble problem;

4“ Wellenbewegung und Erdbeben,” Jahreshefte fiir Vaterlands Natur-
kunde in Wirttemberg, 1888, p. 248.

1915.] INTERIOR OF THE EARTH. 293

but, thanks to a remarkable mathematical theorem of Abel, it is not.
It is clear that the time of arrival of an earthquake disturbance at a
distant station will depend on the path followed and the velocity in
different parts of the path, and if we make the reasonable assump-
tion, which is borne out by observation, that the velocity is every-
where the same at the same depth, then it is evident, if the velocity
increases continuously with the depth, that the transmission curves
will be continuous without breaks, and their curvatures will no-
where make a sudden change. The mathematical solution of the
problem has been obtained by Wiechert, Bateman and others, and
concrete results have been obtained by Wiechert and his assistants,
so that we now know the paths of the waves and their velocities with
a fair degree of accuracy, at least to a considerable distance below
the surface. But the questions arise: do the velocities increase
continuously with the depth; and if so, how? questions which
could be answered by the study of perfect transmission curves; but
even imperfect curves yield some information ; which, however, may
be so faulty that it must be received with great caution. Milne, who
has done such excellent pioneer work in seismology, was the first
to propose and attempt to answer these questions.® He thought the
transmission curve could be satisfied by supposing the earth to con-
sist of a solid core having a radius of nineteen twentieths of the
earth’s radius, and surrounded by a thin shell. The core was of
uniform density and elasticity, so that the velocity of propagation in
it was uniform, and the paths of the rays would be straight lines.
The velocity in the shell was much less than in the core. These
conditions satisfied fairly well the very imperfect transmission curve
of 1902, but they may be dismissed without further consideration,
for such an earth could not satisfy the astronomic requirements,
which exact, at the same time, the proper mean density and mo-
ment of inertia.

Benndorff in 1906 thought he found evidence of a central core
of about four fifths the earth’s radius, surrounded by two shells,
the outer one having the same thickness as Milne’s.6 In the same

5 Rep. of the Com. on Seismol. Investigation, B. A. A. S., 1903, p. 7.

6“ Ueber die Art der Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigheit der Erdbebenwellen
in Erdinnern,”’ Mitt. d. Erdbeben Com. k. Akad. Wiss. in Wien, 1905, Nos.
XXIX. and XXXI.

294 REID—CONSTITUTION OF THE [April 24,

year Oldham deduced from the transmission curves a central core
of not more than four tenths the earth’s radius in which the velocity
was distinctly less than in the surrounding shell.’ Neither of these
arrangements have been shown to conform to the astronomic re-
quirements. Oldham’s conclusions are based on what he considers
a distinct break in the transmission curve of the transverse waves
at distances between 120° and 150° from the origin; but when we
remember that fully 95 per cent. of the energy of an earthquake
shock comes to the surface within the hemisphere having the origin
as its pole, we see that the data for great distances must be too im-
perfect to yield very reliable deductions.

Many years ago Roche showed that it was quite possible to
determine a distribution of density in the earth which would be
discontinuous at several levels, but which would still be astronom-
ically satisfactory. Wiechert, in 1897,° showed that such a system
might consist of a central core of radius about 4,900 km. or three
fourths of the earth’s radius, consisting of iron with a density of
about 8.3, surrounded by a stony shell about 1,500 km. thick and
with density varying from 3 to 3.4. It was natural that he should
examine the transmission curves to see if they supported his ideas;
and at the Hague meeting of the International Seismological Asso-
ciation in 1907 he announced that they did. At the Manchester
meeting of the same association in 1911 he announced the existence
of two shells around the central core. In 1914 Gutenberg (one of
Wiechert’s assistants) announced the existence of three shells.? In
addition to ordinary times of transmission, Gutenberg also used the
times of waves reflected at the earth’s surface and the variations in
the amplitude ; it is evident that a wave which crosses the boundary
of the core will experience reflection and refraction; and whichever
part is later observed at the surface of the earth will have a dis-

7 Constitution of the Interior of the Earth, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1906,
Vol. LXIL., p. 456.

8“ Ueber die Massenvertheilung im Innern der Erde,” Nachr. k. Gesells.
Wiss. Gottingen, 1897; Math.-phys. K1., p. 221.

9“ Ueber Erdbebenwellen,’ VIIA. Nach. k. Gesells. Wiss. Géttingen;
Math.-phys. Kl., 1914, p. 1; references to the earlier numbers of the series are
given in this paper.

1915.] INTERIOR OF iE) PARTE: 295

tinctly smaller amplitude than the wave which just missed penetrat-
ing into the core. The following table shows the positions of the
boundaries of the shells and of the core, and the velocities of the
longitudinal waves P and of the transverse waves S; it will be
noticed that it is only at the boundary of the central core that any
marked sudden change in velocity occurs.

Veloc. km./sec.

Depth, kms, IE Se

O That) 4.01
1200 11.80 6.59
1700 12.22 6.86
13.29 7.32

2450 { 13.15 { 7.20
13.15 7.20

ak 8.50 4.72
6370 II.10 6.15

The remark regarding Oldham’s results applies also here, namely
that it is questionable whether the observations at distances greater
than 100° or 120° are sufficiently accurate to justify such definite
conclusions. Gutenberg had the advantage, however, of more ac-
curate observations than Oldham, and also of measures of ampli-
tudes. There is no a priori reason why the earth might not be made
up of a number of shells, but there should be satisfactory evidence
for any proposed system; and it must be shown to satisfy the
astronomic requirements; or, at least, not to contradict them.
Gutenberg’s system does not correspond with Wiechert’s system of
1897. In the latter a marked change in physical properties occurs
at a depth of 1,500 km.; in the former, at a depth of 2,900 km.; and
in crossing into the core, the ratio of the elasticity to the density,
according to Gutenberg, rapidly loses six tenths of its value. This
change might be the result of a great increase in density or a great
decrease in elasticity ; it may be questioned whether the former is —
compatible with the astronomic requirements, and whether the latter
is compatible with the high rigidity which we know the earth, as a
whole, has. So far no answer has been given to these questions.

In 1879 George and Horace Darwin attempted to determine the
rigidity of the earth by measuring the deviation of the vertical under

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 219 T, PRINTED SEPT, 4, I9I5.

296 REID—CONSTITUTION OF THE [April 24,

the attraction of the moon. If the earth yielded like a fluid, its
surface would always remain at right angles to the vertical, and a
pendulum would remain relatively stationary for all positions of the
moon; if the earth were absolutely rigid, the moon’s attraction would
deflect the pendulum an extremely small amount, but an amount
capable of being measured. The Darwins did not obtain definite
results because the disturbances of their pendulum were greater
than the deflections they attempted to determine.

A little later von Rebeur-Paschwitz attacked the same problem
with better success, using a horizontal pendulum.

Hecker, in Potsdam, and Orloff, in Dorpat, have repeated von
Rebeur-Paschwitz’s experiment; and both found values for the
average rigidity of the earth comparable with that of steel. But,
what was most remarkable and what is still unexplained, the rigidity
was apparently greater in an east-west than in a north-south direc-
tion. Orloff, experimenting at a greater distance from the ocean,
feund a smaller difference than Hecker did, and it has been sug-
gested that the tides of the ocean are the cause of the difference.
The International Seismological Association, at its Manchester
meeting in 1911, made plans to repeat the experiments in Paris, in
central Canada, in the middle of Southern Africa and in the middle
of Russia; but no reports have yet come from these stations.

In the autumn of 1913, Michelson attacked the same problem by
a new method, which seems capable of yielding more accurate
results than the horizontal pendulum. He measured the deflection
of the vertical under the influence of the moon by what was prac-
tically a water level 500 feet long, sunk six feet in the earth.*°
Michelson’s results for the E-W rigidity do not differ greatly from
those of Orloff; but his N-S rigidity is somewhat less than Orloff’s.
Michelson’s experiments also show that the viscosity of the earth
must be as great as that of steel. These experiments are of great
interest; they should be repeated at various places, and especially
at places symmetrically situated with respect to the great oceans,
and on mid-oceanic islands, in order to determine how far they are
affected by the oceanic tides.

10“ Preliminary Results of Measurements of the Rigidity of the Earth,”
The Astrophysical Journal, 1914, Vol. XXXIX., p. 97.

1915.] INGERIOR OF THE EARTH. 297

We can say in conclusion, that the transmission of transverse
earthquake waves shows that the earth is solid, at least to a great
depth below the surface; and that experiments on the deflection of
the vertical show that it is quite as rigid and as viscous as steel.
There are still difficulties in the interpretation of the observations,
but their elucidation cannot alter the general character of the

conclusions.

TEI

THE EARTH FROM THE GEOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT.

By JOHN F. HAYFORD.
(Read April 24, 1915.)

This is a broad topic on which much intensive thinking has been
done by many men. It is impossible to treat it adequately or com-
prehensively in the short time available.

In this address an attempt will be made to so concentrate atten-
tion on a certain few points as to tend to clarify existing ideas and
to correlate them. An attempt will also be made to help in locating
the lines of least resistance to future progress in the study of the
earth.

The size of the earth, as well as its shape, is now known with
such a high degree of accuracy that the errors are negligible in
comparison with the errors in other parts of our knowledge of the
earth. The probable error of the equatorial radius is less than
1 /300000 part, and of the polar semi-diameter is about the same.

The three physical constants of the earth, and of its different
parts, on which you are now asked to concentrate your attention
are the density, the modulus of elasticity, and the strength.

It is important to know as much as possible about the density.
The more one knows about the density in all parts of the earth the
more surely and safely one may proceed in learning other things
about the earth. ,

The modulus of elasticity at each point in the earth controls the
behavior of the earth under relatively small applied forces.

The strength of the earth, at each point, as measured by the
stress-difference at that point necessary to produce either slow con-
tinuous change of shape or rupture, decides the behavior of the
earth under the greater forces applied to it.

As to density we know that the earth’s surface density is about

298

1915. ] HAYFORD—THE GEOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT. 299

2.7, that the density probably increases continuously with increase of
depth, that the density at the center is probably about: 11, that the
mean density is about 5.6, and that within a film at the surface of a
thickness of about one fiftieth of the radius of the earth there is
isostatic compensation which is nearly complete and perfect as be-
tween areas of large extent.

The manner of distribution of the isostatic compensation with
respect to depth, and the limiting depth to which it extends are but
imperfectly known. Nevertheless it appears that above the depth,
122 kilometers, the compensation is nearly complete even though
there may be some compensation extending beyond that depth.

Two general lines of evidence are available in determining the
modulus of elasticity of the earth, that from earthquake waves, and
that from earth tides.

There are many inherent and extreme difficulties in the way of
securing reliable evidence as to the modulus of elasticity from
earthquake waves.

To 1913 the accuracy of available observations of tides in the
solid earth was insufficient to furnish a basis for reliable conclu-
sions. Nevertheless the estimates of the modulus derived from
these early observations were a fair approximation to that given by
the very recent and much more accurate observations.

Dr. Michelson and those associated with him in the observation
of earth tides at the Yerkes Observatory since 1913 have developed
a method of observing which is of a new order of accuracy such
that the minute changes of inclination at a given point due to earth
tides may be determined with an error of less than one per cent.

These observations make the modulus of elasticity of the earth
as a whole about like that of solid steel, namely (8.6) (10% C.GS.).

It is the modulus of elasticity of the earth as a whole which is
measured in this case.

It is eminently desirable to determine if possible whether the
modulus of elasticity varies with increase of depth. The Michelson
apparatus possibly opens the way to such a determination. Sup-
pose that the apparatus is used on the shore of the Bay of Fundy.
Twice a day a large excess load of water is placed in the bay by the
tidal oscillation and as frequently the water load is reduced below

300 HAYFORD—THE EARTH FROM [April 24,

normal. ‘The stresses produced in the body of the earth by these
changes of load applied over an area only about 30 miles wide are
probably confined almost entirely to the first 100 miles of depth.
The magnitude of changes of inclination produced at an observing
station on the shore by the changing water load would, therefore,
be dependent primarily on the modulus of elasticity of the material
below and around the bay to a depth of less than 100 miles. The
observations might serve, therefore, to determine a modulus of elas-
ticity of the surface portion of the earth rather than of the whole
earth.

Turn now to the third of the physical constants which it was
proposed to examine, namely the strength.

Among the forces which we may consider as furnishing tests of
strength are: (1) the forces involved in earthquakes, (2) the weight
of continents, and (3) the weight of mountains.

The forces which produce the more intense earthquakes evi-
dently cause stress-differences locally which are beyond the break-
ing strength of the material. However from earthquakes we may
obtain but little information as to the strength of the earth material
because the intensity of the stress-differences cannot be reliably de-
termined. We know simply that the intensity exceeds the breaking
strength of the material, at the points of rupture.

It is uncertain how great are the maximum stress-differences
produced by the weight of continents. One great difficulty in com-
puting these stress-differences arises from the fact that the iso-
static compensation of continents, now known to exist, reduces the
stress-differences much below what they would otherwise be. Love
computed the maximum stress-differences thus reduced as .07 ton
per square inch. Darwin computed the greatest stress-difference
due to the weight of the continents, without isostatic compensation,
as 4 tons per square inch. If each of these computations were based
upon assumptions which correspond closely with the facts one should
be warranted in drawing the conclusion that the maximum stress-dif-
ference caused by the actual continents supported in part by the actual
isostastic compensation is between .o7 and 4 tons per square inch, and
that it is much nearer to the smaller than to the larger value. Buta
close examination of either of these computations shows that it isbased

1915.] THE GEOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT. 301

upon assumptions made to simplify and shorten the computations,
which assumptions depart widely from the facts and tend strongly to
make the computed stress-differences much smaller than the actual.
For example, both Darwin and Love used in their computations
hypothetical continents represented by regular mathematical forms
in the place of the actual continents with their many irregularities.
The maximum stress-difference caused by the actual continents is
necessarily much greater than would be produced by the assumed
smoothed out, regular, symmetrical continents.

Similarly, no adequate computations have been made to deter-
mine the maximum stress-difference due to the mountains. Darwin
computed the maximum stress-difference produced by two parallel
mountain ranges, of density 2.8, rising 13,000 feet above the inter-
mediate valley bottom, to be 2.6 tons per square inch. Love, for
the same mountain ranges, but with isostatic compensation taken
into account, computed the maximum stress-difference to be 1.6 tons
per square inch. In, this case the computation indicates that the
isostatic compensation reduced the maximum stress-difference to
but little more than one half what it would otherwise be. Here
again both the computed maximum stress-differences have been
greatly reduced by substituting hypothetical smoothed-out moun-
tains in the place of the actual irregular unsymmetrical mountains.

To the person who is trying to get a true picture of the present
state of stress in the earth, two very important facts are made evi-
dent by a comparison of the Love and the Darwin computations.
First, the existence of isostatic computation greatly reduces the
stress-differences which would otherwise be produced by the weight
of the continents and mountains. Second, the depth at which the
maximum stress-difference tends to occur is evidently very much
less with isostatic compensation than without it. These two con-
clusions, based on the differences between the two computations,
are apparently reasonably safe even in spite of the same wild as-
sumptions on which both the computations were based.

Note that even a little information as to the distribution of
densities—a little information about isostatic compensation—pro-
foundly modifies the conclusions as to the state of stress in the earth.
It should, therefore, be clear why it was so emphatically stated in

302 HAYFORD—THE EARTH FROM [April 24,

an earlier part of this address that information as to the distribu-
tion of density in the earth is necessary in order to make safe
progress in learning other things about the earth.

Is the earth competent to withstand without slow yielding the
stress-differences due to the weight of continents and mountains,
the isostatic compensations being considered? From the computa-
tions by Darwin and Love, considered in the light of the assump-
tions made by them to simplify the computations, I estimate that
it is probable that the actual mountains and continents with all
their irregularities of shape and elevation possibly produce stress-
differences in some few places as great as four tons per square inch,
and certainly produce stress-differences at many places as great as
two tenths of a ton per square inch. The material would certainly
yield slowly under such stress-differences especially when they per-
sist continuously over long periods of time and throughout large
regions. Four tons per inch is the breaking or rupture load for
good granite, one of the strongest materials existing in the earth in
large quantities. Two tenths of a ton per square inch is the safe
working load used by engineers for good granite. There is abun-
dant evidence from laboratory tests that the so-called yield point on
which the engineer bases his estimate of safe working load for a
given material is a function of the length of time the load is applied
and the delicacy of the test. The longer the time of application and
the more refined the test to determine the permanent yield the lower
the observed yield point. In the case of the test in progress in the
earth the time of application is indefinitely long and the test is ex-
tremely refined inasmuch as the minimum rate of yielding which
may be detected is exceedingly small.

If an engineer wishes to know whether a bridge, or foundation,
or building, or railroad rail is yielding under stress-differences
which have been brought to bear upon it he looks for evidence of
distress, for rivet heads popped off, scaling from the surface,
settling, cracks, or even changes in microscopic structure. The
geologists have made very extensive corresponding examinations of
the earth. Everywhere they find evidence that the earth has yielded.
On the one fourth of the earth’s surface exposed to examination,
the land, there is no part for which the evidence does not indicate

1915.] THE GEOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT. 303

past uplift, or subsistence, or horizontal thrust, or cracking under
tension, or cracking produced by shear, or microscopic yielding in
detail such as produces schistosity for example, or some other form
of past yielding to stress-differences. The physicist studying the
earth must take this overwhelming mass of evidence into account
and must conclude that the earth habitually yields slowly to the
stress-differences brought to bear upon it. Please note that I do
not assert that the stress-differences are all due to gravity.

I propose now to state what are in my opinion probably the lines
of least resistance to future progress in studying the earth from the
physical standpoint. I propose to outline what I believe to be the
most effective methods of attack, and to indicate some of the conclu-
sions which will probably be reached. I am led to this procedure
by two considerations. First, I find it possible to state certain of
my opinions as to the net outcome of past investigations most clearly
in that form—and time presses. Second, I indulge the hope that
such an outline which is frankly an expression of judgment based on
evidence much too weak and conflicting to be proof, may possibly
kindle the imagination of some man or men, and so lead to vig-
orous attacks upon the problem and to future progress.

In attacking the problems of the earth one should assume at the
outset that the phenomena exhibited are very complicated, that they
are probably due to various simultaneous actions, and that the
various actions are probably closely interlocked, modifying each
other, though some are probably primary in importance and others
secondary. Hence the most effective method of attack is probably
one which includes a general correlation of apparently widely sep-
arated ideas and facts gathered from physicists, engineers, geol-
ogists, chemists, etc., and at the same time includes intensive attacks
in detail on one after the other of single features of the problems
which arise and an intensive working out of the possible conse-
quences of said features.

It should be recognized at the outset that no observed behavior
of the earth clearly warrants the assumption that the material of
which it is composed differs radically in any way from that acces-
ible at the surface. It should be assumed, therefore, that through-
out the earth the materials are a mixture differing from the mixture

304 HAYFORD—THE EARTH FROM [April 24,

found at the surface only as the extreme pressure and temperature
conditions at great depths directly and indirectly produce differences.

It should be kept clearly in mind that the geodetic evidence from
observations of the direction and intensity of gravity indicates
simply the present location of attracting masses, the present distri-
bution of density. It furnishes no direct evidence whatever as to
past distributions of density, or as to changes in density now in
progress. But an understanding of the present distribution of
density within the earth, especially near the surface, is so necessary
to a true understanding of the present state of stress and of viscous
flow in the earth that an understanding of the geodetic evidence is
fundamental to progress.

Computations should be made in extension of those which have
been made by Darwin and Love. The new computations should,
however, deal with the actual irregular continents and mountains,
not with regular substitutes. The computations should also take
into account the bulk modulus of the materials composing the earth,
that is these materials should be assumed to be compressible. Such
computations will no doubt be both difficult and long. I believe
that even a moderately vigorous attack along this line will show con-
clusively that the earth does not behave as an elastic body under
the large loads superimposed upon it by the continents and moun-
tains. I believe that the computed stress-differences will be found
to be so large that the computation will be essentially a proof of
viscous yielding.

Next make the contrasting assumption that the material compos-
ing the earth is competent to withstand but little shearing stress,
and that the pressure at any point is that due to gravitation acting
on the mass in the column extending from the point vertically to the
surface. Let it be assumed that isostatic compensation exists, is
uniformly distributed with respect to depth, and is complete at
depth 122 kilometers. Consider the actual topography and form a
mental picture as accurately as possible of the viscous flows which
would take place on the assumption that at each level the material
would flow horizontally from regions of greater pressure to regions
of less pressure along lines of maximum rate of change of pressure,
and that the time rate of such viscous flows would tend to be pro-

1915.] THE GEOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT. 305

portional to the space rate of change of pressure. The flows would
all be found to be away from beneath high regions toward low
regions, from continents toward oceans, from mountains toward
valleys.

After such a picture has been clearly formed assume that the
isostatic condition is disturbed by long-continued erosion and depo-
sition producing changes in the surface elevations and surface loads.
On the same assumptions as to the nature of the viscous flows as
before, form a new picture of the viscous flows which would now be
in progress. It will be found that under the new conditions the
viscous flows near the surface would still be away from high areas
and toward low areas, but in general they would be slower than
before. At greater depths, however, it will be found that the vis-
cous flows would be undertows from regions of recent deposition
toward regions of recent erosion. ‘These undertow flows would in
general tend to be in the direction opposite to recent surface trans-
portation of material. This picture would serve as a first approxi-
mation to an understanding of the mechanism of isostatic readjust-
ment. The undertows would be found on these assumptions to
extend to a considerable depth, certainly more than 122 kilometers.

Next one should picture the changes in density which would be
produced by the viscous flows. The density should be pictured as
decreasing in regions from which material is being carried away by
the flow and increasing in regions to which the material is being
carried. It will be noticed as soon as such a picture is formed that
every undertow flow at any level tends to equalize pressures at lower
levels. This will have a strong tendency to make the prevailing
undertows occur at much higher levels than they otherwise would.

Let it be assumed that the viscous material offers some small re-
sistance to shear and still has elastic properties toa slight degree. The
condition assumed originally that the pressure at a point depends
simply upon the weight of the material above that point will be dis-
turbed thereby. Form as clear a conception as possible of these dis-
turbances and the modifications of the flows produced by them. 1 be-
lieve the modifications will be found to be important, and that they
will be found to be such as tend to confine the effects of surface
changes of load to a depth which is a small fraction of the radius.

306 HAYFORD—THE EARTH FROM [April 24,

So much for the direct effects of gravity which it seems im-
portant to picture clearly. Next study other effects, some of which
are indirectly produced by gravity.

First study the modifying effects of changes of temperature.
Wherever viscous flow takes place in the quasi-solid portions of the
earth there heat is necessarily developed in amount equivalent to the
mechanical energy expended in overcoming the resistance to flow.
This will tend to increase the volume of the material, to increase
the pressure, and to raise the surface above the region of viscous
flow. It is probable also that the increase of temperature will tend
to weaken the material, thus emphasizing the weakening produced
by the damaging mechanical effects of the flow.

This temperature effect is probably locally important.

Beneath areas of recent deposition the temperature of a given
part of the buried material will slowly increase for long periods of
time, on account of heat conducted up from below and prevented by
the new blanket of deposited material from rising to the surface so
freely as before. Conversely, beneath the areas of recent erosion
the temperature of a given portion of material will decrease. The
ultimate limit of change will tend to be in each case not greater than
about one degree Centigrade for each thirty-two meters of depth of
erosion or deposition. These temperature changes tend ultimately
to lower areas of recent erosion and to raise areas of recent deposi-
tion, possibly as much as one thirtieth of the thickness of the erosion
or deposition,—the temperature effect taking place much later than
the erosion or deposition which initiated it.

Study next the effects which may be computed from the bulk
modulus of elasticity. Beneath areas of erosion a given particle of
matter tends to rise by an amount which may be computed from the
bulk modulus of material, and similarly a particle tends to fall be-
neath an area of deposition. If the depth to which the elastic phe-
nomena extend is as great as 122 kilometers and the bulk modulus
is 500,000 kilograms per square centimeter (corresponding to
granite) the rise or fall of a particle near the surface will tend to
be at least 1/50th part as great as the thickness of the material
eroded or deposited. This is a change so large as to have consid-
erable effects in modifying or magnifying the actions which would

1915. ] HE GEOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT ; 307

otherwise occur. Possibly this elastic change is much larger than
the estimate here given. Of course if the erosion or deposition takes
place in a small area only, such elastic response will be largely in-
hibited by surrounding material on which the load has not been di-
rectly changed. But under large areas of erosion or deposition such
action must take place and extend to depths possibly as great as 122
kilometers.

Study next the modifying effects, on the phenomena already pic-
tured, of chemical changes which are probably produced in the earth
by changes of pressure. The expression “chemical changes” is
here used in the broadest possible sense. A relief of pressure at
any given point in the earth necessarily favors such chemical
changes as are accompanied by increase in volume and reduction
of density. Increase of pressure tends to have the reverse effect.
Such changes tend to reinforce and extend in time the effects just
referred to which may be computed from the bulk modulus of elas-
ticity. It is important to estimate such changes as well as possible
from all available evidence, such for example as that furnished by
chemists, by geologists, and by such investigations of rock forma-
tion as have been conducted at the geophysical laboratory in Wash-
ington. I believe the possible effects of this kind will be found to
be so large as to be of primary importance.

Evidence has accumulated during the past few years which
makes it reasonably certain that with increased pressure, as at the
great depths in the earth, the rigidity and the viscosity of the
material also necessarily increase. This tends to cause the viscous
flows to take place at higher levels than they otherwise would.
This should be taken into account.

Next a reexamination of the conceptions so far formed should
be made to ascertain to what extent and how they would be modified
if one started with some other reasonable assumption as to the limit-
ing depth of present isostatic compensation or some other reason-
able assumption as to the law of distribution of the compensation
with regard to depth.

Next full and extensive comparisons should be made between
the hypothetical phenomena on the one hand pictured as made
up primarily of viscous flows, modified by some elastic effects, ini-

308 HAYFORD—THE EARTH. [April 24,

tiated in part by surface transfers of load, modified by changes of
temperature, modified by chemical changes and in the other ways,
and on the other hand the facts of the past as to the behavior of the
earth recorded in the rocks and read by geologists and others. This
comparison should be used to the fullest possible extent to evaluate
the relative importance of the various elements in the actions.

In making this comparison of various hypothetical phenomena
with the great accumulated mass of geological facts it should be
recognized at once that it is false logic to reason that if a given
hypothesis does not account for all the observed facts the hypothesis
is necessarily erroneous. On the contrary it is true logic in dealing
with such a problem as the earth seen from a physical standpoint
to reason that the more facts are accounted for by a given hypothesis
the more certain it is that said hypothesis is a statement of a con-
trolling element in the complex phenomena and then to study the
facts which appear neutral, or conflicting, with reference to the
hypothesis, considering them as indicators of other elements of the
phenomena which one should attempt to embody in other supple-
mentary hypotheses.

I submit that in studying the earth it is a mistake to think that
there is any necessary conflict between the idea that the earth be-
haves as an elastic body and the idea that it is yielding in a viscous
manner. A body may behave in both ways at once. The earth
is probably acting largely as an elastic body under small forces
which change rapidly and at the same time is yielding in a viscous
manner to forces of larger intensity which are applied in one sense
continuously for long periods.

The object of this address will have been accomplished if it
serves in time to arouse the imagination and interest of some one
and to guide him to greater effectiveness in attacking the problems
presented by the earth as seen from the geophysical standpoint.

CoLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY.
Evanston, IL.

MORPHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS
RODMANI

(PLates VII.—XIII.)
By GEO. F. ATKINSON.
(Read April 23, 1915.)

INTRODUCTION.

Agaricus rodmani: was described by Peck in 1885, from speci-
mens growing in “grassy ground and paved gutters” at Astoria,
Long Island. As to its habitat and occurrence a more specific state-
ment is made in 1807, in that it “ grows in grassy ground and even in
crevices of unused pavements and paved gutters in cities,’? from
May to July, and is said to be rare. It has been observed in the city
of Ithaca, N. Y., for a number of years, where it is usually found
growing in the parking between the sidewalks and street curbing, or
even in the crevices of stone paved streets and gutters, and also in
grassy ground along the street railway or along walks on the border
of groves. The material for this study was collected in August,
1914, along the Ithaca street railway and by the side of paths along
the border of groves on the campus. In these places the mycelium
in spots was often very abundant so that lumps of soil resembling a
fine quality of spawn were exposed in digging for the young stages.
The young fruit bodies collected were scattered on these cords of
mycelium, the material and conditions offering very clear evidence
of the normal development of the basidiocarps. The material was
fixed in chrom-acetic fluid and sectioned in paraffin,

The features of interest in the morphology and development of
Agaricus rodmami which I have considered in the present study are
as follows: (1) the duplex character of the annulus, or ring, on the
stem, and its significance ; (2) the origin of the hymenophore funda-

1N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. Rept., 36, 45, 1885.

2N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. Rept., 48, 139, 1897.

309

310 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

ment; (3) the differentiation of parts in the primordial ground
tissue; and (4) the origin and development of the lamelle. The
peculiar form and position of the annulus on the stem has sug-
gested a resemblance to a volva, a structure not admitted in the genus
Agaricus as now limited; while the subject of the origin and de-
velopment of the lamelle has acquired new interest in all of the
Agaricacez since the accuracy of observations and the correctness of
the statements covering a period of more than a half a century, in
regard to this topic, have recently been called in question. Without
further preliminary remarks we may proceed to an account of the
present investigation, and to a consideration of the various matters
involved.

I. THe DupLeExX ANNULUS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE.

The Annulus—The annulus is situated near the middle of the
short stem, or even near its base. It is usually very thick next the
stem and is divided into an upper and lower limb by a deep marginal
groove as is clearly seen in the photographs reproduced in Plate I.
In those cases where the annulus is near the base of the stem, Peck
was impressed by its suggestion of “the idea of a volva” (J. c., 45).
Before the expansion of the pileus, while the veil is still attached to
the stem and pileus margin, a longitudinal section of the plant shows
very clearly that the lower limb of the annulus lies on the outer
(upper) side of the pileus margin (see Plate VII., upper right hand
and lower left hand figures). The marginal veil is very thick and
the epinastic growth of the pileus margin crowds the latter into the
veil tissue and against the stem. The position of the lower limb of
the annulus therefore corresponds to that of the volva limb of the
Amanitas.

The plates represented in the upper group of Plate VII., were col-
lected on the Cornell University campus, those in the upper group
during August, 1911, along a path in the edge of a small wood not
far from the street; those in the lower group, July, 1913, along the
street railway and parking by East Avenue. In the expanded speci-
mens, the pileus ranged from 6 cm. to 8 cm. in diameter. The
plants were smaller than those represented in Plate VIII., but since
they were abundant and in all stages of development they present in

1915-] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. dll

an excellent way the different details of the veil and annulus during
expansion of the plant. Those represented in Plate VIII., were col-
lected by Mr. Wood, June 28, 1915, in the parking between the
sidewalk and street, on Stewart Avenue, in front of the Town and
Gown Club, Ithaca, N. Y. They were very robust specimens, and
show the great distance between the upper and lower. limb of the
annulus. They are reproduced here real size.

A thin outer layer of the lower limb of the annulus is continuous
below with the outer layer of the stem, and also with a very thin
surface layer of the pileus. As the stem elongates at the time of
the expansion of the plant, this outer layer of the stem lags behind
and is thus torn into irregular patches shown very clearly in the two
upper left-hand figures of Plate VII. The edges of these patches are
frequently warped away from the stem, thus showing a tendency to
exfoliation. This is especially marked in the case of the surface
layer of the stem next the lower limb of the annulus. The warping
upward of this layer, after it has been severed from its connection
below, often gives the appearance of a double edge to the lower limb
of the annulus, as shown in the lower right-hand figure of Plate VIL.,
where the upper limb of the annulus has not yet broken away from
the pileus margin.

The very thin layer on the pileus which is also continuous with
a thin outer layer of the lower limb of the annulus often shows a
tendency to exfoliation. This partial exfoliation of the stem and
pileus surface is clearly marked where the basidiocarps are some-
what soiled by contact with particles of earth, as they are likely to be
during the period of subterranean growth.

The outer portion of the lower limb of the annulus, as well as
the corresponding thin, and partially exfoliating surface layer of the
pileus and stem are derived from the outer layer of the blematogen.
The blematogen layer, as I have interpreted it, is present in the genus
Agaricus as well as in Amanita. In the species of Amamita thus far
studied,® the blematogen at length is clearly separated from the pileus
by a cleavage layer, arising from the gelatinization, or other kind of
disintegration, of the external layer of the pileus primordium, thus

3 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Amanitopsis vaginata,’ Ann.
Myc., 12, 360-302, pls. 17-19, 1914.
PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 219 U, PRINTED SEPT. 7, IQI5.

312 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

giving rise to the teleoblem, or finished volva. But in the genus
Agaricus* no such cleavage layer is formed, and the surface of the
pileus primordium becomes consolidated with the blematogen layer
which here does not form a true volva, or teleoblem.

The lower limb of the annulus of Agaricus rodmami is not, there-
fore, strictly, homologous with the volva of the Amamnitas, not even
including the thin layer of the stem and pileus which sometimes tends
to peel off, since it does not comprise all of the blematogen layer,
nor is it separated from the pileus by a distinct cleavage layer. If it
were homologous with the volva of the Amanitas, then this species
would represent a generic type distinct from Agaricus (Psalliota).
In fact other species of Agaricus frequently show a similar condi-
tion of the annulus, 7. e., where the margin is “grooved,” due to the
inset of the pileus margin into the veil where the conditions for the
robust development of the veil are favorable. In Agaricus cumpes-
tris the annulus frequenlty presents a grooved margin, not only in
the case of cultivated forms, but more rarely in the feral state.
This condition is well shown in Plates 11 and 12 of my article on
Agaricus campestris.» In Fig. 20 of that article the lower limb of
the annulus has broken away from the outer surface of the incurved
pileus margin, while the upper limb is still attached to the edge of
the pileus. In Figs. 18 and 19 the upper limb has also become freed
from the pileus margin and the grooved character of the edge of the
annulus is very distinctly shown. In Fig. 15 of the same article,
sections of the young basidiocarps show very clearly the position of
the lower limb of the annulus extending over the outer (upper)
side of the pileus margin. Fig. 20 also shows very clearly that the
annulus as a whole is ripped off from the lower part of the stem,
being an exaggerated case of the slight peeling up of the thin surface
layer of the stem mentioned above in Agaricus rodmam. That the

# Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Agaricus arvensis and A.
comtulus,’ Am. Jour. Bot., 1, 3-22, pls. I, 2, 1914.

Atkinson, Geo. F., “ Homology of the Universal Veil in Agaricus,’ Myc.
Centralb., 5, 13-19, pls. 1-3, 1914.

Atkinson, Geo. F., ““ The Development of Lepiota clypeolaria, Ann. Myc.,
12, 346-356, pls. 13-16, 1914.

5 Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Agaricus campestris,’ Bot.
Gaz., 42: 241-264, pls. 7-12, 1900.

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 3138

lower limb of the annulus in A. rodmani is merely a part of the
marginal veil is clearly seen in the sectioned plants shown in the
lower groups of Plate VII., where the connecting portion between
the two limbs is clearly differentiated from the surface of the stem
with which it is in contact, a situation very different from that in
Amanita where the volva has no such relation to the annulus.
Comparison of Agaricus rodmani with other Species of Agaricus.
—This extensive peeling, or ripping upward of the annulus from the
lower part of the stem in Agaricus campestris is the cause of the
more extensive, 7. e., broader, veil and annulus than is characteristic
for Agaricus rodmani. Peck regards this species as intermediate
between Agaricus campestris and A. arvensis,® resembling the former
in size, shape and general appearance; the latter in the “ whitish
primary color of the lamelle,” in the occasional yellowish tints of
the pileus, and the occasional rimose under surface of the annulus.
The robust character of the annulus of Agaricus rodmani and the
thick flesh of the pileus margin crowded by epinastic growth against
the stem deepens and widens the groove on the edge of the annulus.
This, together with the very short stem, in comparison with the
longer stem of Agaricus campestris and A. arvensis, is, I think,
largely responsible for certain differences in the character of the
under surface of the annulus in the different species. In the species
with the longer stem more stretching of the stem occurs and the
annulus (or veil) is ripped upward from a greater extent of the
stem surface. The radiately grooved character of the under surface
of the annulus, in certain species (4. arvensis Schultz, A. abrupti-
bulbus Pk., A. placomyces Pk., A. hemorrhoidarius Schultz), or the
coarsely floccose or scaly character in certain others (Agaricus
subrufescens Pk., A. augustus Fr., or both features contained in
some) is largely due to the fact that this part of the annulus is
stripped from the stem and then brought under greater tension than
the upper surface as the expansion of the pileus stretches the veil
outward. All things considered Agaricus rodmani is much more
closely related to Agaricus campestris than to any other of the
species. It is very probably identical with Agaricus campestris var.

6N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. Rept., 36, 45, 1885.

314 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

edulis Vitt.,* as I have elsewhere suggested ® (1900, 1901, 1903, p.
20). Excellent figures of this variety are given by Vittadini (J. c.,
pl. 6) and by Bresadola® (pl. 54).

II. ORIGIN OF THE HYMENOPHORE PRIMORIDUM

Primordium of the Basidiocarp—The primordia of the basi-
diocarps are elliptical or oval in outline, and reach a diameter of
3 mm, or 4 mm. before there is any internal evidence of a differentia-
tion of parts. The length is usually somewhat greater than the
transverse diameter. In specimens not so well nourished differentia-
tion may begin before the primordia have reached this size. The
primordium, from the size of 2 mm. to 4 mm. in diameter, consists
of a homogeneous interlacing of stout mycelial threads with rather
thick walls. In primordia 3 mm. to 4 mm. in diameter the hyphae
average about 5, to 7p in thickness, occasionally stouter ones are
seen which measure up to 10. More slender threads are also inter-
mingled, but all sizes are so indiscriminately interwoven that no
structural differentiation is perceptible. In smaller primordia the
hyphz average less in diameter. In most of the primordia examined,
the sections are evenly stained throughout, but in a few a narrow
zone a short distance from the surface stains more deeply than the
external and internal tissue (Fig. 2). This suggested the possi-
bility of a differentiation of an outer zone distinct from the bulk of
the fruit body, which is sometimes present in Agaricus campestris
and which I have called the protoblem.*° A similar zone is found in
some of the basidiocarps after the origin of the hymenophore funda-
ment, but in the material which I have examined it 1s the exception
rather than the rule, and I am inclined to the belief that it is due to
some condition which affects the rate of growth or increase of cer-

7 Vittadini, C., “ Funghi Mangerecci,” 44, 1835.

8 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ Studies of American Fungi; Mushrooms, Edible,
Poisonous, etc.,” Ist edition, I-VI., 1-275, 76 plates (223 figs.), Ithaca, N Y.,
1900. Idem, 2d edition, I-VI., 1-322, 86 plates (250 figs.), Ithaca, N. Y.
1901. Idem, New York City, 1903.

9 Bresadola, G., “ Funghi Mangerecci e Velenosi,’ 1899.

10 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Agaricus arvensis and A.

comtulus,’? Am. Jour. Bot., 1, 3-22, pls. 1, 2, 1914. “Homology of the Uni-
versal Veil in Agaricus,’ Myc. Centralb., 5, 13-19, pls. 1-3, 1914.

1915. ] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 315

tain individuals. A protoblem* is very likely present, but it is diffi-
cult to distinguish in primordia havng a subterranean origin because
of the ease with which the delicate protoblem is removed while re-
moving the soil, and especially in the forms and species of Agaricus
with a white pileus. In those with a brown pileus, like Agaricus
campestris var. bohemia of the commercial spawn growers, the
delicate, white protoblem is very distinct.

Differentiation of an Internal Annular Hymenophore Primor-
dium.—tThe first evidence of internal differentiation is the appear-
ance of an internal annular zone of new growth in the region of the
smaller end of the oval fruit body. This can be studied with ad-
vantage by means of serial, longitudinal sections. A median longi-
tudinal section is shown in Fig. 3, while a “tangential” section, 7. e.,
parallel with the axis of the basidiocarp, but through one side of the
annular zone of new growth is shown in Fig. 4. Diagrams 1
and 2 (in the text) show how the sections were made. Fig. 3 is
from the region marked by the line 2, while Fig. 4 is from that
marked by the lines 1 and 3. The darker staining areas in Figs. 3 and
4 mark the position of the zone of new growth. In the median

11 The delicate, floccose, primary universal veil, or protoblem was ob-
served by Fries on Agaricus campestris and a few other species, and
called by him a subuniversal veil. Vittadini (in Fung. Mang., 147, pl. 18,
fig. 2, 1835) describes and figures it in connection with his study of the
development of his Agaricus exquisitus. But in this species he seems to con-
fuse this delicate universal veil (protoblem) with what he terms the volva
in several species of Agaricus. He also applies the term volva to the
lower limb of the annulus in Agaricus exquisitus and in Agaricus edulis.
He says (/. c., 148) this delicate universal veil in A. exquisitus is per-
fectly similar to that which constitutes the veil of the “ Tignose,” 7. ¢., the
scaly Amanitas like A. muscaria, etc. Vittadini also states (lJ. c. 147)
that Trattinnick observed this delicate universal veil (protoblem) on
Agaricus edulis (the species which Trattinnick describes as A. edulis is
different from A. campestris edulis Vitt. or A. rodmani Pk.), but it appears
that Vittadini misinterpreted Trattinnick’s statment. The latter says, in order
to prevent confusion one should avoid (J. c., p. 73) taking for the edible one
a mushroom (74), which may have also only the slightest trace of a mem-
brane which in youth envelopes the entire mushroom, including pileus and
stem, down to the roots. “Um Verwechslungen zu vermeiden, htite man
sich statt der Gugemuke einen Schwamm zu nehmen” (73), “(d) der auch
nur die geringste Spur von einer Wulsthaut haben sollte, die in der Jugend
den ganzen Schwamm mit sammt den Strunk und Hut bis auf die Wurzel
verhillet” (74 Die essbare Schwamme, 1830).

316 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

longitudinal section two such areas are seen, symmetrically situated
on either side of the long axis and some distance from the surface of
the fruit body. The annular zone is of quite limited extent as the

fe ee Mey

Ui. <5)

DIAGRAM I Lateral view through young basidiocarp representing early
stage of differentiation into the primordia of the four principal parts; pileus
area, stem area, hymenophore fundament (Hy) and veil primordium (V. P.).

DIAGRAM 2. Zenith view in young basidiocarp at same stage of
fundaments, and annular hymenophore primordium. See text for details.

small area presented by its transection in Fig. 3 shows. ‘The outline
of this area in transection is somewhat elongated and rises at an
oblique angle from the stem area, well shown in Fig. 3 and indi-
cated in diagram 1. The area of the primordial hymenophore seen
in the tangential section is much more extensive as shown in Fig. 4.
The difference in the extent of these areas shown in median (Fig. 3)
and tangential (Fig. 4) sections is clearly appreciated by reference
to diagram 2.

Structure of the Young Hymenophore Primordium.—tThis inter-
nal annular zone of new growth arises by the origin of numerous,
slender hyphal branches, rich in protoplasm, which are directed
downward, or obliquely downward and outward. They have a
more direct course than the hyphae of the basidiocarp primordium,
the latter irregularly sinuous and interwoven, while the hyphae of
the young hymenophore primordium are nearly or quite straight.
Because of their small diameter and their slender, gradually taper-
ing ends, they easily crowd their way through the rather open weft
of hyphe forming the ground tissue or fundamental plectenchyma.
Fig. 9 is a highly magnified view of the hymenophore primordium

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 317

shown in the section represented in Fig. 3, from the right-hand area.
The dark area in Fig. 9 represents the mass of deeply stained hyphz
of the new growth zone. Because of the compactness of the tissue,
very little detail is shown. But along the middle portion of the
figure between the lighter, open mesh of the ground tissue below
and to the right, and the dark area of the hymenophore primordium
above and to the left, a number of hyphz in advance of the others
are shown extending into the loose mesh of the ground tissue.
These are nearly parallel and their extremities are more or less dis-
tant, because they are in advance of the greater number of new
branches present in the more deeply staining area. No annular gill
cavity is present at this time.

Growth and Increase of the Hymenophore Primordium—tThe
growth and further organization of the hymenophore primordium
is readily studied by the aid of similar serial sections of successively
older stages of the basidiocarps. Sections of such stages are repre-

i a

LEON:

DIAGRAM 3. Lateral view through young basidiocarp at a slightly later
stage of development than in diagram 1. Hy = hymenophore; A. C. =
annular cavity; V. P. = veil primordium.

DiacramM 4. Zenith view in young basidiocarp at same stage of
development. See text for details.

sented in Figs. 5-8 and 10-16. Diagrams 3 and 4 indicate how the
sections were made. From the condition show in Figs. 3, 4 and 9,
there is a rapid increase in the number of hyphz in the zone of new
growth, extending in the same direction, 7. e., downward and ob-
liquely outward. During the increase in number the hyphe become
more crowded, are straighter and lie more nearly parallel. The

318 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

upper outer portion of this new zone of growth, 7. e., the hymeno-
phore primordium, represents the early stage of the organization of
the pileus margin: in other words, the annular internal zone of new
growth is to be interpreted as the young primordium of hymeno-
phore and pileus margin, the latter including the area from which
the new hyphal branches arise as well as the basal area of these
branches. Not only is there interstitial growth in the increase of
these hyphal branches, the new ones crowding in between the older
ones forming a more compact zone, but there is also a centrifugal
increase in the periphery of the annular zone. The centrifugal
growth of the pileus margin and hymenophore primordium is very
characteristic.

The position and direction of the hyphe of the young hymeno-
phore primordium, as well as the increasing density of this area, is
well shown in Figs. 10-16. The stem axis of all the figures is
parallel with the long axis of the Plate. Several of these figures
are highly magnified views of the hymenophore primordium shown
in Figs. 5-7; Figs. to and 15 being highly magnified views of the
hymenophore of Figs. 5 and 6, while Figs. 12 and 16 are highly mag-
nified views of that in Figs. 7 and 8. Figs. 10 to 14 are from
median longitudinal sections of the basidiocarps. Fig. 10 is from
the right-hand side of the stem axis, 7. e., the stem axis is at the left.
Figs. 11-14 are from the left-hand side of the stem axis, the stem
axis therefore being on the right-hand of the figures. The increas-
ing density of the elements of the young hymenophore is progres-
sively shown in Figs. 10 to 13. With the increasing density the
ends of the hyphe reach more and more to the same level and
thus tend to form an even surface which forms the transition to
the palisade layer.

Origin of the General Annular Gill Cavity—A striking feature
in all these radial transections of the hymenophore zone and pileus
margin is the curved outline of the zone as seen in transection.
This is remarkably strong in Figs. 11 and 12 because the young
hymenophore primordium extends for a considerable distance down
around the apex of the stem fundament. This arched form of the
young annular hymenophore zone is the result of epinastic growth
of the pileus margin, which is very marked even in this very early
stage in the organization. The rapid increase in the number of

1915] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 319

the hyphe in the young hymenophore, crowding in between the
older ones, as well as their increase in diameter, produces a great
pressure in this region. As a result of this increasing pressure
within the arch a strong tension is exerted on the ground tissue
below and adjacent to the arch. The ground tissue at this point
is thus torn apart, forming a distinct opening, or cavity, beneath
the young hymenophore, which is known as the annular gill cavity.
The continuity as a general, annular, internal cavity can easily be
determined by serial longitudinal sections through the young fruit
body, the sections being made as indicated in diagrams 3 and 4, the
knife travelling through the basidiocarp in the direction indicated
by the lines 1, 2, 3. As the knife passes the region marked by the
line 1, the sections will show a single cavity elongated transversely
as shown in Figs. 6 and 8, 15 and 16. As the knife passes into the
stem area the sections will show two cavities situated symmetrically
as in Figs. 5 and 7 (or as in diagrams 3 and 4). ‘Then as the knife
passes out of the stem area, into the region indicated by the line 3,
the sections will again show a single cavity elongated transversely.

The annular gill cavity’? varies in strength in different indi-
viduals and at different stages of development. Sometimes it is
very weak, at other times it is quite strong. The tearing apart of
the ground tissue often leaves it with quite an open mesh, and the
surface next the gill cavity is more or less frazzled. The gill cavity
is stronger next the stem where the hymenophore is older, and is
weaker toward the margin. Where the cavity is weak, isolated
threads or irregular strands of the ground tissue are not completely
torn away from the hymenophore, and the cavity is thus often tra-
versed by lagging elements of the ground tissue. At a later stage,
after the origin of the lamelle, the annular cavity in some indi-

12Tn a recent paper, after describing the gills in Coprinus micaceus,
Levine (“ The Origin and Development of the Lamelle in Coprinus micaceus,”
Am. Jour. Bot., 1, 343-356, pls. 39, 40, 1914), makes the statement (p. 352)
that “There is no general gill cavity as described by Hoffmann, deBary,
Atkinson, and others.” Since deBary (“Morphologie und Physiologie der
Pilze, Flechten und Myxomyceten,”’ 69, 1866) is the only person hitherto who
has announced the presence of a general annular gill cavity in Coprinus
micaceus, this statement by Levine can only be interpreted as a general
denial of the presence of a general annular gill cavity in the species in which

it has thus far been described, a rather rash statement which will be re-
ferred to again in the discussion of the origin of the lamelle.

320 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

viduals may become nearly or quite closed by the increase in the
elements of this ground tissue, which forms a portion of the mar-
ginal veil, but chiefly by the epinastic growth of the pileus margin
which crowds this ground tissue up against the margin of the lam-
ella, as shown in Figs. 32-38.

Organization of the Palisade Layer—The level palisade layer of
the hymenophore follows the primordial stage, immediately after
the latter stage has become dense and compact by the increase in
number and thickness of the parallel hyphal elements. The grow-
ing compactness of the primordial hymenophore zone is accom-
panied by the evening up of the hyphal ends into a plane surface.
As the ends of the hyphz broaden the free surface of the hymeno-
phore becomes compact and smooth, or even. This is the level
palisade stage of the hymenophore. It is a gradual, not abrupt,
transition from the primordial stage. It begins next the stem, or
in many cases on the outer surface of the upper part of the stem
fundament as shown in Fig. 12. Here the palisade area, in radial
section, rises upward at a strong oblique angle from the axis of the
stem, and then grades into the primordial area toward the left.
The palisade area progresses, like the primordial area and the pileus
margin, in a centrifugal direction, the older portion lying next to, or
on the upper part of the stem fundament.

The level palisade layer of the hymenophore, preceding the ori-
gin of the lamellz, was first described by Hoffmann™ in 1856, 1860,
and 1861, in about a dozen species (see the later paragraph on the
origin of the lamellz for a list of species). DeBary** (1859, p. 386,
394) described the palisade layer of the young hymenophore in
Nyctalis asterophora and parasitica, as having radial folds from its

18 Hoffmann, H., “Die Pollinarien und Spermatien von Agaricus,” Bot.
Zeit., 14: 137-148; 153-163, pl. 5, 1856. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsge-
schichte und Anatomie der Agaricinen,” Bot. Zeit., 18: 389-305; 397-404,
pls. 13, 14, 1860. Icones Analyticae Fungorum; Abbildungen und
Beschreibungen von Pilzen mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Anatomie und Ent-
wickelungsgeschichte,’ 1-105, pls. 1-24, 1861.

14 DeBary, A., “Zur Kenntnis einer Agaricinen,” Bot. Zeit., 17: 385-388;
303-308 ; 401-404, pl. 13, 1859.

15 DeBary; A., “ Morphologie und Physiologie der Pilze, Flechten und
Myxomyceten,”’ Leipzig, 1866. “ Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie

der Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bacterien,’ 1884. “Comparative Morphology
and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa and Bacteria,’ Oxford, 1887.

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 321

earliest appearance. But as this interpretation was shown by Hoff-
man (1860, p. 402) to be wrong, deBary?’ (1866, p. 63; 1884, p. 58,
312; 1887, p. 55, 289) studied a number of other forms and agreed
with Hoffman that the earliest stage of the young palisade hymeno-
phore was level, or smooth.

Ill. Tue DIFFERENTIATION OF PARTS IN THE PRIMORDIAL GROUND
TISSUE.

There are four principal parts of the fruit body which are dif-
ferentiated in the ground tissue of the basidiocarp primordium, the
hymenophore, pileus, stem and veil. The primary differentiation in
the ground tissue of Agaricus rodmani is the origin of the hymeno-
phore primordium. As described above this arises as an internal
annular zone of new growth, a little above the middle of the small
oval primordial basidiocarp. It consists of numerous hyphal
branches which extend downward and obliquely outward. These
new hyphe are nearly or quite parallel, are at first slender and taper
very gradually to the free end. This form assists them in making
their way through the mesh of the ground tissue. They are rich in
protoplasm, become compacted by increase in number and diameter,
and thus in sections, take on a deep color when stains are applied
(see Figs. 3-16). The origin of this internal hymenophore zone
differentiates at once the stem and pileus areas, or fundaments, but
the organization of the stem and pileus occurs later.

In the early origin of the primordial hymenophore zone, Agaricus
rodman agrees with Agaricus campestris'® as presented in a study
of the commercial varieties, alaska and bohemia. In that paper I
pointed out that we should not necessarily expect the first evidence
of differentiation to be the appearance of the hymenophore primor-
dium in plants not yet studied though it is probable that at least
some of the other species of Agaricus (Psalliota) may show the
same peculiarity. This suggestion is justified by the situation in
Agaricus rodmam. The same situation exists in Armillaria mellea.*

16 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Agaricus compestris,’ Bot.

Universal Veil’ in Agaricus,’ Myc. Centralb., 2, 13-19 pls. 1-3, 1914.
Gaz., 42: 241-264, pls. 7-12, 1906.

17 Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Armillaria mellea;’ Myc.

Centralb., 4: 113-121, pls. I, 2, 1914.

322 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

In the specimens of Agaricus arvensis'® studied, the lagging behind
of the ground tissue below the zone where the hymenophore primor-
dium arises occurs before any differentiation of this zone is dis-
tinguishable, for a light area with a looser mesh occurs in an an-
nular zone which marks the distinction between the stem and pileus
areas. Or the lagging behind of the ground tissue may occur simul-
taneously with the appearance of the primordial hymenophore zone
and the outline of the pileus area. In a number of forms studied
by Fayod’® the primordium of the pileus is organized, in the apex
of the young homogeneous basidiocarp, as a new zone of growth, in
the form of an inverted bowl, shown by the darker staining of the
hyphe rich in protoplasm, forming a pileus producing layer
(“couche piléogene’’). This method of differentiation he accepts
as a general law for the Agaricez, the only exception admitted by
him being the coriaceous forms of Lentinus. Agaricus rodmam,
the commercial varieties of Agaricus campestris (columbia and
alaska) and Stropharia ambigua (Peck) Zeller,?° also form excep-
tions to this rule. The primordium of the pileus in these forms
may be regarded as diffuse within the upper part of the young
basidiocarp, the differentiation and organization of the pileus mar-
gin beginning in conjunction with the organization of the primordial
hymenophore zone, though in Stropharia ambigua the inverted bowl-
shaped zone of new growth in the upper part of the pileus area is
soon organized.*° Other forms recently investigated which conform
to the general law laid down by Fayod, are certain species of
Hypholoma (Allen) ,°* Hypholoma fascicularis and Clitocybe laccata
by Beer,?* Lepiota?* clypeolaria and Amanitopsis vaginata.**

18 Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Agaricus arvensis and A.
comtulus,’ Am. Jour. Bot, 1, 3-22, pls. I, 2, 1914. ‘Homology of the
‘Universal Veil’ in Agaricus,’ Myc. Centralbl., 2, 13-19 pls. 1-3, 1914.

19 Fayod, V., “ Prodrome d’une histoire naturelle des Agaricinées,” Ann.
S@i, ING, BOR, Nile; G, mdieais iols, G, 7 wets,

20 Zeller, S. M., “ The Development of Stropharia ambigua,’ Mycologia,
6, 139-145: pls. 124, 125, 1914.

21 Allen, Caroline L., ‘““The Development of some Species of Hypho-
loma,’ Ann. Myc., 4, 387-394, pls. 5-7, 1906.

22 Beer, R., “ Notes on the Development of the Carpophore in Some
Agarincacee,’ Ann. Bot., 252: 683-6080, pl. 52, 1911.

23 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Lepiota clypeolaria,’ Ann.
Myc., 12, 346-356, pls. 13-16, 1914.

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 323

Organization of the Pileus——The organization of the pileus be-
gins in connection with the primordial hymenophore zone. The
upper part of this zone is very probably to be regarded as the primor-
dium of the pileus margin which then increases by centrifugal
growth. It is marked from an early period by strong epinastic
growth, so the margin becomes strikingly involute, a feature also
characteristic of Agaricus campestris,” A. arvensis,® A. comtulus,
etc., as I have earlier described. The general relation of the hyphe
in the primordium of the pileus margin is a parallel one, and they
become more and more strongly incurved as a result of epinasty.
As the pileus primordium increases in width by marginal growth, it
also increases in thickness, more perceptibly so farther back from
the margin where the new growth is older. In this way the organi-
zation of the pileus advances more and more into the outer zone of
the ground tissue, the blematogen, and becomes consolidated with it.?"

Organization of the Stem—The stem area is delimited at the
same time as the pileus area by the origin of the young hymenophore
zone, but its organization and differentiation from the ground tissue
seems to lag behind the early stages of the organization of the pileus
margin. While a general and more or less diffuse growth and ex-
pansion occurs for some time in the stem area, the first evidence of a
differentiation from the ground tissue is seen in the organization
of the stem surface. The outline of the stem may be compared to
that of a broad, flat cone, since the stem at first is very short and

24 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Amanitopsis vaginata,’ Ann.
Myc., 12, 369-392, pls. 17-10, I914.

25 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Agaricus campestris,’ Bot.
Gazg., 42: 241-264, pls. 7-12, 1906 (see figures II and 12).

26 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Agaricus arvensis and A.
comtulus.’” Am. Jour. Bot., 1: 3-22, pls. I, 2, I9I4.

27In Agaricus campestris var. edulis, Vittadini (“ Fun. Mang.,” 44, pl.
6, fig. I, 1835) in a young oval fruit body, figures and describes the outline
of the pileus within a stout volva, and states that, during the course of
development, the volva is ruptured circularly, and the margin of the pileus
as it emerges is held for a time against the stem by the lower limb of the
annulus. His account of the release of the volva (blematogen) from
the pileus does not seem clear, and his figures do not show the transition
stage from a to b in figure I of his Plate VI In Agaricus rodmami nor in
any other species of Agaricus (Psalliota) have I ever seen any indication of
the clear cut outline of the pileus surface as distinct from the blematogen,
such as Vittadini shows at a, fig. 1.

324 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

broad, and the surface slopes outward at a strong angle. ‘The sur-
face outline of the stem is quite clearly differentiated from the
loose ground tissue forming the marginal veil, because of the deeper
staining property of the stem shown in longitudinal sections (Fig.
32). Its differentiation and organization agrees entirely with that
described for Agaricus campestris, Agaricus arvensis and A.
comtulus.*°

Organization of the Marginal V eil—The organization and limits
of the marginal veil, or partial veil, as it is sometimes called, in
Agaricus arvensis, A. comtulus and A. campestris, has been very
fully discussed in previous papers”? (13-15, 1914), briefly in an-
other®® (17, 1914). Its organization and composition in Agaricus
rodmam is in the main similar, its different features being due to
its more robust character, the stouter pileus and shorter stem.
The fundament of the marginal veil is ground tissue in the angle
between the primordial hymenophore zone and the stem fundament,
including on its outer surface a narrow section of the blematogen
layer. The ground tissue in this angle is indicated in VP (veil
primordium) in diagram 3, and the corresponding areas in Figs. 3,
5, 7, 9-14 can readily be understood. There is considerable increase
in this ground tissue by growth of the portion clothing the stem
fundament. It is also added to by growth of the hyphee at the
margin of the pileus. The mass of the loose inner surface is often
crowded up against the edges of the gills by the involute margin of
the pileus pushing it upward, due to epinastic growth.

In such robust specimens usually presented by Agaricus rodmani
the blematogen layer is comparatively thick but still forms a com-
paratively small portion of the marginal veil, and lies on the outer
under surface of the lower limb of the annulus. By the incurving
of the thick margin of the pileus its edge is crowded into the thick
veil, and presses against the stem, thus separating the veil, which
later becomes the annulus, inta an supper and lower limb. As stated
above, the fact that the short stem elongates but little in comparison

28 Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Agaricus campestris,’ Bot.
Gaz., 42: 241-264, pls. 7-12, 1900.

29 Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Agaricus arvensis and A.
comtulus,’ Am. Jour. Bot., 1. 3-22 pls. 1, 2, 1914.

30 Atkinson, Geo. F., “Homology of the Universal Veil in Agaricus,
Myc. Cantralb., 5, 13-19, pls. I-13, 1914.

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANTI. 325

with that of Agaricus campestris, arvensis, and a number of other
species, the veil is usually not ripped up from the lower part of the
stem as it is in the other species. A thin layer on the stem below
the annulus is often cracked into distinct areas or patches, the mar-
gins of the areas sometimes being partially exfoliated. The partial
exfoliation of the under part of the lower limb of the annulus fre-
quently occurs, and then the lower limb itself has a double edge as
described above, and as shown in several of the figures of Plate I.
In Agaricus campestris, arvensis, augustus, subrufescens, placo-
myces, and others, the freeing of the lower part of the annulus
from the stem is very extensive, since as the stem elongates the
veil is ripped off for a considerable distance. In Agaricus rodmam,
as the pileus expands, the lower limb of the veil clings to the stem,
splitting off from the outer surface of the pileus margin as the latter
is withdrawn. The inner or upper limb of the veil remains at-
tached to the edge of the pileus margin for a longer time, but is
eventually separated.

IV. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAMELLZ.

Origin of the Gill Salients—The development of the hymeno-
phore is progressive and centrifugal. As described in the previous
section, the primordial hymenophore zone originates in conjunction
with the primordium of the pileus margin and hes in the angle sep-
arating the stem and pileus areas. The organization of the level
palisade zone of the hymenophore from the primordial stage, begins
in the older region, 7. e., next the stem. The margin of the pileus,
primordial hymenophore and palisade zone all progress by growth
in a centrifugal direction, the younger, later stages succeeding the
earlier. The lamellz succeed the level palisade zone and arise as
downward growing salients of the same. These salients begin
next the stem (or in some cases on it). They are regularly spaced
and progress in a radial, centrifugal direction. The origin of the
salients from the level palisade stage is well shown in Figs. 17-21.

In Figs. 18 and 20, different stages in the origin of the salients
are shown. Three gill salients are seen in Fig. 20. At the left
side of Fig. 20 is the level palisade. Next it to the right is a very
low salient. Continuing to read toward the right, the second and
third salients are successively stronger. While the hyphal struc-

326 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

ture is not very distinctly shown in in this figure, due to the difficulty
of illumination which will produce on the photographic plate the
same degree of resolution which can be detected by the eye, still
the palisade character is evident. A similar situation is seen in
Fig. 18, but the progression in the origin and growth of the salients
is to be read from right to left. A somewhat later stage is shown
in Fig. 19. Here the hyphal structure is well shown. The palisade
character of the exposed surface of the hymenophore is very clearly
shown. This figure gives us some suggestion of the factors operat-
ing in the formation of the gill salients. The elements of the pali-
sade layer increase by interstitial growth, 7. e., by new branches
which crowd in between the older ones. At the same time the elon-
gate cells composing the palisade layer increase in diameter. In
the primordial stage they passed from the terete tapering condition
to the cylindrical form. Now they pass from the cylindrical to
the clavate form, as well as increasing somewhat in diameter
throughout. This produces a great pressure on the level palisade
zone, which if continued, must result in throwing the level palisade
layer into folds.

Another factor now comes into play which prevents the palisade
layer from being thrown into a series of irregular folds. This is the
downward growth, by elongation, of the subadjacent tramal hyphe,
along regularly spaced radial areas, beginning next the stem and
proceeding in a centrifugal direction toward the margin o1 tne
pileus. These radial areas of subadjacent tramal hyphe, elongating
downwards, push the palisade area downward into corresponding
radial salients. These salients are the first evidence of folds or
ridges which appear in the young hymenophore. They are the
gill salients, and by continued growth form the lamellz themselves.

Fig. 19 presents another very interesting situation. ‘This is the
flaring, or fantailing, of the gill salients very soon after their emer-
gence below the level of the general palisade surface. This is very
clearly one of the first results of the release from the pressure to
which the elongate cells were subject in the level palisade condition.
Another still more interesting feature at this stage is the pressure
to which the neutral portion of the level palisade is subjected as a
result of this fantailing of the gill origins. The flanks of the young

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 327

gill salients thus crowd against the intervening neutral palisade cells,
more strongly against their free ends. This presses these intervening,
neutral, radiating areas of the original level palisade into the form of
ridges which thus alternate with the radiating gill salients. These in-
tervening ridges between the young gill salients are very conspicuous
in a corresponding stage of gill development in Coprinus micaceus as
I have shown in another paper. This situation is a comparatively
old stage in the development of the lamellze and is one of the peculiar
features presented by a number of the Agaricacez, which led Levine*+
to mistake these intervening ridges between comparatively old gill
salients for the first ridges to appear in the hymenophore primordium
of Coprinus micaceus. These ridges he thought were the first evi-
dence of the gills. The gills were described as arising from the split-
ting of these first ridges and the union of approximate halves of ad-
jacent ridges to form the gills between them. This matter will be
referred to below when another peculiar situation is described which
also assisted in leading this author astray.

Relation of the Different Phases of Hymenophore Development
in the Young Basidiocarp.—Figs. 17-23 represent different phases
of the organization and development of the hymenophore in a single
basidiocarp, during an intermediate stage of its development. The
relation of these different phases is determined by a study of longi-
tudinal serial sections passing from near the stem to the margin of
the pileus. With the exception of Fig. 20, Figs. 17-23 are all from
the same plant, selected to represent the relation of different phases
of the young hymenophore. The sections from which the photo-
graphs were taken were parallel with the axis of the stem, and thus
were nearly or quite perpendicular to the hymenophore, or under
surface of the pileus. The general plane of the hymenophore, or
under surface of the pileus, is slightly arched, but for all practical
purposes of this study, the plane is perpendicular to the stem axis,
so that the sections are perpendicular to the general hymenophore
surface, or plane. Fig. 17 is from a section near the stem, cor-
responding to line 4 in diagram 6 (diagram 6 is intended to illustrate
the situation presented by the figures in Plate 5, but serves to illus-

31 Levine, M., “The Origin and Development of the Lamelle in Cop-
rinus micaceus,’ Am. Jour. Bot., 1, 343-356, pls. 30, 40, 1914.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV, 219, V, PRINTED SEPT. 7, IQI5.

328 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

trate also the relations now under consideration). An examination
of the relation of line 4, in diagram 6, to the gill salients, the palisade
and primordial areas, will assist in making the relation of the phases
of the hymenophore presented in Fig. 17 very clear.

In the middle of the figure, or section, the gill salients are cut
transversely. On either side of the middle they are cut obliquely,
the more so the nearer the palisade area the salients are cut. But
when the gill is so young, the structure of an oblique section at this
angle is practically the same as in a transection. Since the hymeno-
phore is older next the stem, and progressively younger toward the
margin of the pileus, the gill salients are older next the stem, and
younger next the palisade area, where they are very low and grade
off insensibly into the level palisade zone. Toward the left and right
from the middle of such a section as is represented by Fig. 17, the
salients become less and less prominent until they grade insensibly
into the level palisade zone on either side. In like manner the
palisade zone grades to the left and right into the primordial zone,
and this into the margin of the pileus, showing practically the same
relation, so far as the palisade and primordial zones are concerned, as
in a radial section.

Fig. 21 is from a section made near the outer ends of the middle
salients, about in the region represented by line 7 in diagram 6.
Only a few salients are shown, these are very low, and on either side
soon grade insensibly into the palisade zone. Fig. 22 is from a
section made in the region indicated by line 8 in diagram 6. Here
there are no gill salients (nor any evidence of ridges in the hymeno-
phore), a broad area in the middle is the palisade area, and this
grades on either side insensibly into the primoridal area. Fig. 23 is
from a section made in the region indicated by line 9 in diagram 6.
It is entirely within the primordial zone, near the margin of the
pileus. Knowing this relation of the different phases of the hymeno-
phore, one can observe the transition of the primordial phase into the
level palisade phase, and this into the phase of the salients. In
other words, one can study the method of origin of the lamelle by a
study of the different phases of the gill salients in the area of transi-
tion from the palisade zone into the zone of the young gills.

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 329

Relation of the Hymenophore to the Stem—One of the taxo-
nomic characters employed for the genus Agaricus (Psalliota) is the
free condition of the gills from the stem. In Agaricus campestris,
while the gills are usually free, they are close to the stem, and in
some cases are even adnexed to the stem. The same is true of

Agaricus rodmant. Peck*? says of the lamelle,—* free, reaching
nearly or quite to the stem. It is possible that in some examples
the gills may be broadly attached to the stem fundament at the time
of their origin, but become free at maturity by changes in the relation
and tensions of the parts during expansion of the plant. That the
young lamellz are sometimes broadly attached around the upper end
of the stem fundament has been observed in a number of examples
during this study of development. In some examples the attach-
ment of the stem is very broad, in others slight, and in still others
the lamelle are free from the time of their origin.

Deceptive Appearance of Sections near the Stem when the Young
Lamelle are Attached—In studying the origin of the lamelle in
plants where the hymenophore, from its earliest appearance, is en-
tirely free from the stem, little difficulty is experienced in the in-
terpretation of the situation presented, in case there is a fairly well
formed annular cavity prior to the origin of the gill salients.
Longitudinal sections next the stem then present the simple situation
shown in Fig. 17. But in those cases where the hymenophore
primordium extends downward on the outer surface of the stem
apex, as shown in Figs. 11 and 12, sections passing from the stem
through this portion of the hymenophore, after the origin of the gill
salients, present a complicated structure, which may be very con-
fusing unless all the features of the situation are taken into con-
sideration. As stated above the stem axis of the sections from which
Figs. 11 and 12 were made is parallel with the longitudinal direction
of the plate. In very young basidiocarps; as already described, the
stem surface slopes outward at a very strong angle as shown in
igae2

Now, when the gill salients begin to form by downward, or out-
ward, extension of the level palisade, in those cases where the
hymenophore primordium extends down on the surface of the stem,

32 Peck, C. H., N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist Rept., 36, 45, 1885.

330 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

the salients first appear over this portion of the hymenophore, be-
cause it is the older. The older portion of the salients, therefore,
extend outward perpendicular to the stem surface. Since their pro-
gression is centrifugal, the salients gradually extend over the angle
between stem and pileus where their growth is downward. Since
the growth in width of the salients is perpendicular to the surface of
the level hymenophore at any point, there are formed, in the cases

(NZS SO Ou ewe)

5

Dracram 5. Lateral view through one half of a basidiocarp in an in-
termediate stage of development, showing (1) the strongly sloping surface
of the stem; (2) the partly organized pileus margin which is becoming in
volute because of eipnastic growth; (3) the hymenophore presenting three
stages of development, (a) the oldest portion, the gill area extending on the
under side of the pileus and far down on the surface of the stem (adnate at
this stage), (b) the palisade area (PAL) distal to the gill area on under side
of pileus, and (c) the primordial area (PR) near margin of pileus; (4) an-
nular cavity; (5) the loose ground tissue of the marginal veil; and (6) the
blematogen layer. See text.

under consideration, a series of little stalls, or pigeon holes, around
the stem apex, between the young gills in the angle between the stem

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 331

and pileus. This situation is illustrated in Figs. 24-31, from selected
serial sections of the same basidiocarp. The sections were parallel
with the long axis of the stem. Diagrams 5 and 6 illustrate the
situation in this basidiocarp and show exactly how the scetions were
made.

Fig. 24 is from a nearly median longitudinal section, made in
the region indicated by line 1 of diagrams 5 and 6, which presents a
situation practically the same as a median section. The outline of
the narrow young gill salient is well shown in: Fig. 24, with the
distinct annular cavity. The gill salients are strongly curved and in
the form of crescents, the lower limb of the crescent extending far
down on the outwardly sloping stem surface; the upper limb reach-
ing out on the under surface of the pileus, where it grades into the
level palisade zone, and the latter into the primordial zone. The
relation of parts is clearly represented by diagram 5. It is quite easy
to form a mental picture of the series of little stalls, or pigeon holes,
around the upper part of the stem between these crescentic salients.

Fig. 25 is from a section in the region indicated by line 2 of
diagrams 5 and 6. The line 2 in diagram 6 shows how the section
passes through the side of the stem and obliquely across a few of the
young gills, then on either side passing through the level palisade
and primordial zones. ‘These features are clearly seen in Fig. 25.
Fig. 26 is from the region indicated by line 3: Fig. 27 that of line 4;
Fig. 28 that of line 5; Fig. 29 that of line 6; and Fig. 30 that of
line 7, of diagrams 5 and 6 (figures of sections in the region indi-
cated by lines 8 and 9 are not shown from this basidiocarp, but there
is nothing essentially different in them from figures 22 and 23 from
another plant). Fig. 31 is a more highly magnified view of the
middle portion of Fig. 27.

Figs. 26-29 and 31 present a very interesting situation. They
show transections of the stalls, or pigeon holes, mentioned above.
Unless caution is observed this situation would be very misleading.
The gill salients are attached above to the under side of the pileus
and below to the surface of the stem, and this attachment above and
below existed from the time of the origin of the salients. However,
the attachment below is not that of the margin of the gills, but of
their origin from the stem, since the salients grew outward from the

332 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

level palisade organized in this region over the upper surface of the
stem.

Similar sections of Coprinus micaceus** through the region of
the attached gills was one of the features contributing to the in-
correct interpretation, by Levine, of the origin of the lamellz in this
plant, as shown by his Figs. 13 and 14. The palisade cells on the
sides and in the upper angle of these pigeon holes could easily give
the impression that the gills had their origin from isolated radial

9

areas of new growth of palisade cells, these areas, or “ridges” of

(SENS AS OS Gus ©
SSS

DracraM 6. Zenith view in a basidiocarp of the same age as that repre-
sented in diagram 5. See text for details not marked in the diagram.

palisade cells parting as they increase, forming a lining over the
ground tissue or partitions of these little stalls, and thus enclosing
“the notch between the gills.”

Relation of the Gills to the Involute Margin of the Pileus—
There are other peculiar situations presented in the development of

33 Levine, M., “The Origin and Development of Coprinus micaceus,”
Am, Jour. Bot., 1, 343-356, pls. 124, 125, 1914.

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 333

Agaricus rodmami (and other species), which may lead to serious
misinterpretation unless great caution is observed. This is the rela-
tion of the gills to the involute margin of the pileus and to the
marginal veil, shown in a series of longitudinal, “tangential” sec-
tions of basidiocarps at an age when the gill salients, by centrifugal
progression, have nearly or quite reached the margin of the pileus.
The various features of this situation are presented in Figs. 32-42.
The figures are photographs of selected serial sections from a single
basidiocarp. Diagrams 7 and 8 illustrate the situation in this basi-
diocarp and the lines show the regions in which the sections were
made.

In Fig. 32, from a nearly median longitudinal section (in the
region of line 1), the involute margin of the pileus is shown. An in-
definite portion of the outer, lighter stained area is the blematogen.
The margin of the pileus is so strongly involute that the edge is
curved upward toward the gills and has crowded the mass of the
ground tissue constituting the inner portion of the veil up against
the middle zone of the lamellae. The attachment of this ground
tissue to the margin of the gills is not very firm, though there is some
adherence of the hyphze. The attachment has occurred after the
ground tissue was crowded against the margins of the gills by the
strongly upturned, involute pileus margin. The strongly involute
margin of the pileus is well shown also in several of the figures in
Plate VII. The position of the upturned edge of the involute pileus
margin is such that the loose ground tissue of the inner portion of
the veil is lifted up against the middle area of the lamellz, while
the edges of the gills near the stem and also near the margin of the
pileus are free. This is very clearly shown in Fig. 33, from a
section in the region of line 2 in diagrams 7 and 8.

Figs. 34 and 35 are from sections in the region of lines 3 and 4
just passing through the surface of the stem in the angle at the junc-
tion of the pileus and stem. The hymenophore extends a short dis-
tance down on the upper surface of the stem, but the gills are only
“adnexed,” not extending so far down on the stem fundament as
in the basidiocarp represented on Plate XII. and in diagrams 5 and 6.
In the middle area of Fig. 35, the nearly solid block of tissue in the
same level with the gills on either side, is hymenophore tissue from

304 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

the surface of the stem, and a portion of the same area in Fig. 34
also belongs to the hymenophore. The hymenophore, as interpreted
here, and in all of my recent papers, includes not only all parts of the
lamellz and the palisade cells between adjacent lamelle, but also a
thin, often indefinite zone of the subadjacent tissue corresponding to
the subhymenial tissue of the palisade between the gill origins. As
figure 35 shows, the “stalls,” or “pigeon holes,” in the angle of
pileus and stem are quite small because the gill origins extend but

(234586789 /O/l
LZ

ies
ieee

T

DraGraM 7. Lateral view through one half of a basidiocarp in an older
stage than that represented in diagrams 5 and 6. The hymenophore has all
passed over into the gill stage. The gill area does not extend so far down
on the stem as in diagram 5. The margin of the pileus is more strongly in-
volute and the veil tissue has been crowded up against the middle portion of
the gills. = the portion of the annular cavity not filled. See text for
other details not marked here.

a short distance down on the upper surface of the stem. The abrupt
ending of this hymenophore tissue below is even with the margins
of the gills on either side, and the lower edge is free from the ground

”

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 335

tissue clothing the stem fundament, as shown by the clear line
between the two. This indicates that the portion of the hymeno-
phore on the upper surface of the stem projected by growth slightly
above the level of the stem surface, or above that of the ground
tissue. In Fig. 34 the distinct boundary line of the more compact
tissue shows, but it is in contact with the ground issue below since
this section did not pass outside of the junction of stem and pileus
fundaments. In Fig. 35 a few of the gills on either side of the
middle are free from the ground tissue below. Outside of this on
either side (the middle zone between stem and pileus margin) a
number of the gills are attached to the ground tissue pressed up
against them by the involute pileus margin. On either side of these
areas, 1. e., near the margin of the pileus, the gills are free.

Fig. 36 is from a section in the region indicated by line 5 in
diagram 7. The middle of the section, according to line 5, would
pass through the space of the annular cavity near the stem which
has not been filled by the upward crowding of the ground tissue.
The margin of the gills here should therefore be free from the
ground tissue below. ‘This is shown to be the case in Fig. 36, for
the gills over the middle portion of the figure (which are near the
stem). On either side of this area, however, the section passes
through the zone where the ground tissue is crowded up against the
gills, while toward the margin of the pileus the gills are again free
from the ground tissue.

Figs. 37 and 38 are from sections in the region of lines 6 and 7
respectively, of diagram 7. Both sections are thus “tangents”
through the region where the ground tissue in contact with the
middle zone of the gills would be continuous and of considerable
extent, but the area in the region of line 6 would be of greater extent
than that in the region of line 7. This corresponds with the situa-
tion shown in Figs. 37 and 38, while toward the margin of the pileus
on either side the gills are free. Figs. 39 and 40 are from the region
of lines 8 and g. These pass through the portion of the annular
cavity between the margin of the pileus and the ground tissue
crowded up against the middle region of the hymenophore. The
gills therefore would not be in contact with the ground tissue below.
In Figs. 39 and 40, however, it is clear that on either side the gills

336 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

are attached below as well as above. The attachment below is not
the margin of these gills, but their point of origin from the inner
surface of the involute pileus margin. This will be clearly under-
stood from a study of Figs. 41 and 42.

DracraAm 8. Zenith view into a basidiocarp of the same age. See text
for details not marked.

Figs. 41 and 42 are from sections in the region of lines 10 and
II in diagrams 7 and 8. The gills are attached above and below.
But it is very clear here that the attachment below, as well as above,
is to the pileus. Since the gills are downward growths of the level
palisade, formed on the under surface of the pileus (7. e., perpen-
dicular to the level palisade), the attachment below in these figures,
as well as that above, is at the point of origin of the gills, and must
not be interpeted as an attachment of the gill margin to the stem.

The First Ridges, or Salients, of the Hymenophore are the Fun-
daments of the Lamelle Themselves—The question of the origin

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 337

of the lamellze is of renewed interest since it has recently been
stated that one of the problems yet to be worked out in the Agarica-
ceze is the origin of the lamelle.** The evidence presented in sup-
port of this sweeping, and rather surprising statement, is made, so
far as we can judge, on the basis of an investigation of Coprinus
micaceus. It carries with it the implied charge that all of the ob-
servations and statements in regard to the origin of the gills, cov-
ering a period of more than half a century, are incorrect. In the
case of my own work on Agaricus campestris,*° Armillaria mellea,**
Lepiota clypeolaria,** Agaricus arvensis*® and A. comtulus it can be
most positively reaffirmed that the lamellz originate as described, as
downward, radial growths of the level palisade portion of the hymen-
ophore. The evidence was so clear in these examples that at the
time of the study it did not seem desirable to present full series of
“tangential” sections of the different stages in the origin of the gills,
particularly as the method of origin agreed in all respects with that
described in more than a dozen different species in earlier works.
The present study of Agaricus rodmam was undertaken, not only
for the purpose of examining into the significance of the double an-
nulus, but also for the purpose of examining the different stages in
the organization of the hymenophore primordium, the level palisade
stage, and the origin of the gills, in a species closely related to
Agaricus campestris. It is very clear that the present study has
fully confirmed the earlier statements with reference to the origin
of the lamelle. Material has also been grown, and the young stages
obtained for sectioning in the following commercial forms of
Agaricus: A. campestris varieties bohemia and alaska, and A. “ vil-
laticus.”

34TLevine, M., “The Origin and Development of the Lamelle in Cop-
rinus micaceus,;’ Am. Jour. Bot., 1, 343-356, pls. 30, 40, I9r4.

35 Atkinson, Geo. F., The Development of Agaricus compestris,;’ Bot.
Gaz., 42, 241-264, pls. 7-12, 10900.

36 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Armillaria mellea,’ Myc.
Centralb., 4, 113-121, pls. I, 2, 1914.

37 Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Lepiota clypeolaria,’ Ann.
Myc., 12, 346-356, pls. 13-16, 1914.

88 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Agaricus arvensis and A.
comtulus;’ Am. Jour. Bot., 1, 3-22, pls. 1, 2, 1914. “Homology of the
Universal Veil in Agaricus,’ Myc. Centralb., 5, 13-10, pls. 1-3, 1914.

338 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

The situation in certain species of Coprinus, where the margins
of the gills are attached to the stem before maturity, and break
away during the expansion of the plants, has for a long time inter-
ested me, and I have intended to investigate certain of the species
for the purpose of comparing the situation in this genus with that
described in Amanita rubescens*®® by deBary, A. muscaria*® by Bre-
feld and in Amanitopsis vaginata“ by myself, where there is no
general prelamellar cavity, and the first evidence of the lamellze is
the differentiation of a series of radial trabecule in the hymeno-
phore primordium, continuous with the stem and trama of the pileus.
This investigation was delayed, however, until the autumn of 1914.
Material of three species, Coprinus comatus, atramentarius and
micaceus, was studied, and the results will be published in another
paper. This much may he said here, that these three species do not
belong to the Amanita type but to the Agaricus type. There is a
strong, annular, prelamellar cavity in Coprinus comatus, a weak one
in C. atramentarius and micaceus, but in all three the lamellz orig-
inate as downward-growing salients of a level palisade zone, exactly
as described here for Agaricus rodmamni, the only difference being
in those specific features relating to the structure of the lamelle.
Levine based his interpretation of the origin of the lamelle in
Coprinus micaceus on complicated and rather well advanced stages
of their development. Had the origin of these complicated struc-
tures been sought it is probable that the origin of the lamelle would
have been found.

Of the plants thus far studied the following species may be
mentioned as examples of the Agaricus type in which the origin of
the lamellze has been clearly and correctly described, those by Hoff-
mann more than half a century ago. Agaricus carneotomentosus
(Panus torulosus) ky Hoffmann* (1856, p. 145); Cantharellus

39 De Bary, A., “ Morphologie und Physiologie der Pilze, Flechten und
Myxomyceten,” Leipzig, 1866. “ Vergleichende Morphologie and Biologie
der Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bacterien,” 1884. ‘Comparative Morphology and
Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa and Bacteria,” Oxford, 1887.

40 Brefeld, O., “Botanische Untersuchungen tiber Schimmelpilze,” 3,
Basidiomyceten, I., J-IV., 1-226; pls. 6-11, 1887.

41 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Amanitopsis vaginata,’ Ann.
Myc., 12, 369-3092, pls. 17-19, 1914.

42 Hoffmann, H., “Die Pollinarien und Spermatien von Agaricus,” Bot.
UGhin, 1° Teas weed, jols, , uSs6,

..

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 339

tubaeformis, C. aurantiacus, Panus stipticus, Pleurotus tremulus,
Omphalia umbellifera, O. pyxidata, Marasmius epiphyllus by Hott-
mann? (1860) ; Collybia velutipes, C. fusipes, Hygrophorus chloro-
phanus, Galera mycenopsis, Hebeloma mesophaeus, Coprinus fimi-
tarius, Paxillus involutus, Entoloma sericeum, and others by Hoff-
mann‘! (1861) ; Mycena vulgaris, Collybia dryophila, Nyctalis para-
sitica, Clitocybe cyathiformis, and Cantharellus infundibuliformis
by deBary*® (1866, 1884, 1887) the latter two in conjunction with
Woronin; Coprinus lagopus by Brefeld*® (1877, p. 127) ; Agaricus
campestris by Atkinson*’ (1906); Hypholoma by Miss Allen**
(1906) and by Beer?? (1911); Stropharia ambigua® by Zeller
(1914) ; Agaricus arvensis and comtulus,* and Armillaria mellea*?
by Atkinson (1914).
SUMMARY.

1. The lower limb of the double annulus of Agaricus rodmam
is not a true volva like that of the Amanitas thus far studied. It is
composed of a short segment of the blematogen plus some of the
inner tissue of the marginal veil. The greater portion of the blema-
togen remains ‘

3)

‘concrete’ with or consolidated with the surface of

43“ Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte und Anatomie der Agaricinen,”
Bot. Zeit., 18: 380-305; 397-404, pls. 13, 14, 1860.

44 Hoffmann, H., “Icones Analytice Fungorum; Abbildungen und Be-
screibungen von Pilzen mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Anatomie und Ent-
wickelungsgeschichte, I-105, pls. 1-24, 1861.

45 DeBary, A., “ Morphologie und Physiologie der Pilze, Flechten und
Mycetozoen,” Leipzig, 1866. ‘“ Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie der
Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bacterien,’ 1884. “Comparative Morphology and
Biology of the Fungi, Mycetezoa and Bacteria,’ Oxford, 1887.

46 Brefeld, O., Botanische Untersuchungen tber Schimmelpilze,” 3,
Basidiomyceten, I., I-IV., 1-226; pls. 6-11, 1887.

47 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Agaricus campestris,’ Bot.
Gaz., 42: 241-264, pls. 7-12, 1906.

48 Allen, Caroline L., “ The Development of Some Species of Hypho-
loma,’ Ann. Myc., 4: 387-394, pls. 5-7, 1906.

49 Beer, R., “Notes on the Development of the Carpophore in Some
Agaricacee,”’ Ann. Bot., 252: 683-680, pl. 52, I911.

50 Zeller, S. M., “The Development of Stropharia ambigua,’ Mycologia,
6: 130-145, pls. 124, 125, 1914.

51 Atkinson, Geo. F., “ The Development of Agaricus arvensis and A.
comtulus,’ Am. Jour. Bot., 1: 3-22, pls. 1, 2, 1914.

52 Atkinson, Geo. F., “The Development of Armillaria mellea,’ Myc.
Centralb., 4: 113-121, pls. I, 2, 1914.

340 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

the pileus, while in Amanita the blematogen is finally delimited from
the surface of the pileus by a cleavage layer. A double annulus
homologous with that of Agaricus rodmani is often present in cer-
tain other species of Agaricus.

2. The primordium of the basidiocarp is oval in form, and homo-
geneous in structure, consisting of intricately interwoven hyphe.

3. The four primary parts of the basidiocarp, pileus, stem, mar-
ginal veil and hymenophore, are first differentiated by the origin of
the hymenophore fundament.

4. The hymenophore primordium arises as an internal, annular
zone of new growth toward the upper part of the young basidiocarp.
It consists of slender hyphz rich in protoplasm, parallel, and di-
rected obliquely downward. The lower outer surface is at first
more or less open and uneven, presenting a frayed or fimbriate ap-
pearance. By continued growth and multiplication of these hyphz
the hymenophore primordium becomes more compact and the under
surface becomes even, forming a level palisade zone. Growth of
the hymenophore proceeds in a centrifugal direction, the older por-
tions being next the stem fundament. By the epinastic growth of
the pileus margin the hymenophore takes on the form of an annular
arch.

5. The increase in number and diameter of the elements of the
hymenophore fundament produce a tension upon the ground tissue
beneath, which lags behind in growth and is torn away from the
under surface of the hymenophore, thus forming an annular, pre-
lamellar cavity. This cavity may later be nearly filled by the ground
tissue of the inner portion of the veil which increases in bulk, and
is often crowded up against the young gills by the involute margin
of the pileus.

6. The lamellze originate as downward growing radial salients
of the level palisade zone, beginning next, or on the stem, according
as the hymenophore primordium is free from or extends down on
the upper portion of the stem fundament. They progress in a cen-
trifugal direction. In an intermediate stage of development or the
basidiocarp, all three stages of the hymenophore may be present,
the zone of gill salients next the stem, then the level palisade zone,
and beyond this the primordial zone.

t915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANTI. 341

7. The first ridges, or salients, which appear in connection with
the hymenophore are the fundaments of the lamelle themselves,
and the palisade layer is continuous over their edges as well as in
the notch between adjacent salients.

DESERIPMION TOR PEATE S Ville xenit:
IPL yew ANID, WIE,

Mature and nearly mature plants of Agaricus rodmani showing the
double nature of the annulus with its edge grooved; forming an upper and
lower limb; the short stem, involute margin of the pileus, etc. > 2/3 diam-
eter. For details see text.

PEATE Vaile

Mature and very robust plants from parking between sidewalk and street.
Real size. See text.

LAIN S) IDK IUL,

The magnifications of the photomicrographs are as follows: Figs. 3-8;
<9 diameters. Fig. 33; 10 diameters. Figs. 1, 2; 12 diameters. Fig.
B2E aay diameters. Higs, 34-30) <-20) diameters’, His, 175))< 23) diameters:
Figs. 15, 16; < 28 diameters. Figs. 21-30, 37-42; X 30 diameters. Fig. 31;
xX 100 diameters. Fig. 12; 110 diameters. Fig. 13; > 155 diameters.
Figs. 10, 11; X 160 diameters Fig. 18; 170 diameters. Figs. 9-14; X 225
diameters. Figs. 19, 20; 250 diameters.

TPL eA IRIS, IDS

Fic. 1. (No. 18.) Young stage of basidiocarp primordium.

Fic. 2. (No. 20.) Somewhat older stage of basidiocarp primordium,
but still in the undifferentiated stage.

Fic. 3. (No.2%.) Earliest stage of differentiation in the young
basidiocarp, median longitunial section showing a transection of the internal
annular hymenophore fundament, the general prelamellar cavity not yet
formed. Pileus fundament is above, stem fundament below, and veil fun-
dament underneath the hymenophore primordium (see Fig. 9).

Fie. 4. (No. 2%.) Longitudinal section of the same basidiocarp,
“tangential” to the hymenophore primordium, which is shown as a trans-
verse deeply staining area.

Fic. 5. (No. 234.) Median longitudinal section through a_ basidio-
carp just after the formation of the general, annular, prelamellar cavity.
The hymenophore is still in the primordial condition (see Fig. 10) but does
not extend down on the surface of the upper part of the stem fundament.

Fic. 6. (No. 234.) Longitudinal section of the same _ basidiocarp,
“tangential” to the hymenophore and annular cavity (see Fig. 13).

Fic. 7. (No. 1%.) Median longitudinal section of a_ basidiocarp
just after the formation of the general, annular, prelamellar cavity. The

342 ATKINSON—MORPHOLOGY AND [April 23,

hymenophore is still entirely in the primordial stage (see Fig. 11) and ex-
tends for a considerable distance down on the surface of the upper part of the
stem fundament.

Fic. 8. (No. 1%.) Longitudinal section of the same _ basidiocarp,
“tangential” to the hymenophore and annular cavity (see Fig. 16).

IPIL JANIS, DAG,

Fic. 9. (No. 2%.) More highly magnified view of the transection of
the hymenophore primordium shown in Fig. 3; stem axis at the left. In
the darker area (hymenophore primordium) the hyphae extend downward
and obliquely outward toward, and some projecting into, the veil fundament
below, which consists of a loose mesh of interwoven hyphae.

Fic. 10. (No. 284.) More highly magnified view of the transection
of the hymenophore primordium and annular cavity shown in Fig. 5 (axis of
stem at the left).

Fic. 11. (No. 144.) More highly magnified view of the transection of
the hymenophore primordium and annular cavity shown in Fig. 7 (stem axis
at right). The hymenophore primordium extends down over the upper part
of the stem outer surface. Veil fundament in the angle below, the ground
tissue tearing apart and separting from the fimbriate under surface of the
hymenophore

Fic. 12. (No. %.) Transection of hymenophore and annular cavity,
showing same view as Fig. 11 (stem axis at right) but in another basidio-
carp and slightly older stage; the portion of the hymenophore primordium
on the upper part of the stem fundament has become transformed into the
level palisade stage.

Fics. 133 and 14. (No. %.) Section of another basidiocarp showing
the hymenophore and annular cavity in same stage as in Fig. 10, at different
magnifications (stem axis at right). Hymenophore primordium with fim-
briate edge. Ground tissue below (veil fundament) breaking away from the
fimbriate surface of the hymenophore as a result of the tension produced by
the rapid increase in number and size of the elements of the hymenophore and
the lagging behind of the ground tissue below, thus forming the annular
cavity. These sections are radial and parallel with the direction of the later
lamelle. The elements of the hymenophore here are somewhat clustered, the
slender ends of the hyphz clinging in groups as the lower surface of the
hymenophore is loosened by the tension of the increase above.

Fie. 15. (No. 23%.) “Tangential” section of the hymenophore
primordium, more highly magnified view of the hymenophore and general,
annular, prelamellar cavity shown in Fig. 6. Note the fimbriate lower sur-
face of the hymenophore primordium, and the loose ground tissue (primor-
dium of veil) below separating from it and forming the annular cavity.
The structure of the hymenophore primordium is homogeneous, there is not
the slightest evidence of gill salients, or of ridges of any sort, which pre-
cede or have any relation to the lamelle which are to arise later.

Fie. 16. (No. 124.) “Tangential” section of .hymenophore primor-
dium, annular cavity and veil fundament, a more highly magnified view of
this part of the basidiocarp shown in Fig. 8. Details as in Fig. 15.

1915.] DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICUS RODMANI. 045

IPL AN IES, 210.

Fics. 17-19 and 21-23, all from a single basidiocarp (No. 54), from selected
serial sections parallel with the axis of the stem and “tangential” in the pileus.
Fig. 17 is from near the stem, and shows the three stages of the developing
hymenophore, primordial zone, level palisade zone, and the zone of gill sa-
lients (transected) with different stages in the origin of the latter from the
level palisade condition (see text for details). The general annular cavity
is well shown.

Fic. 18. More highly magnified view of portion of the same section
in the region of the origin of the gill salients from the level palisade stage.

Fic. 19. More highly magnified view of the young gill salients, showing
how they flare, or fantail, when released from the pressure to which the
elements are subjected in the level palisade zone, also showing how this
flaring of the young gill salients crowds the intervening palisade cells of
the original level into “ridges,” these ridges of palisade in the notch between
two lamelle being formed later than the gill salients, and as a result of the
lateral pressure of the flaring salients. For details see the text.

Fic. 20. (No. %.) Section from another basidiocarp showing transi-
tion from the level palisade stage to the gill salients.

Fic. 21. Section nearer the margin of the pileus than that shown in Fig.
17. In the middle area the gill salients are cut near their distal end where
they are very low (see text for details). Transition to level palisade and
primordial zone on either side.

Fic. 22. Section still nearer the margin of the pileus showing the level
palisade zone in the center, and the primordial zone on either side.

Fic. 23. Section still nearer the margin of the pileus, entirely through
the primordial zone.

IRIAN INS; QUI

Fics. 24-31. Selected serial sections from a single basidiocarp (No. ¥%),
parallel with the stem axis and from nearly median in the stem to mid-
way from stem surface to the margin of the pileus. Here the hymenophore
extends for some distance down on the outward sloping surface of the stem
fundament, and there are little “stalls” or pigeon holes between them in
the angle at junction of pileus and stem. See text for details.

IPL VEN ADIs, DIU

Fics. 32-42. Selected serial sections from a single basidiocarp (No. 11),
parallel with the axis of the stem and from median in the stem to “ tangen-
tial” in the margin of the pileus. See text for details.

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 219 W, PRINTED SEPT. 8, 1915.

PEE BULLER LAPLACE THEOREM ON THE DEGRA SI:
Ole Wess, IACCIIN MIRC Ole Aialls, QUISIMES Ola WIAs,
BUSA IBINIE NS IOIDIUG;S) UINIDIGIN, Welle, SleC ULAR
NGIION, OR ARES TSING evi DrwiMe

Bye Wy Io) Io Saas,
(Read April 24, 1915.)

Inthe) ye Mecanique Celeste, Liv. VIL, Chap. VI., $8 29-30,
and Liv. X., Chap. VII., §18, Laplace has developed the mathe=
matical theory of the secular action of a resisting medium, and ap-
plied it to the motions of the moon and planets. The first dis-
cussion herein cited was published in Volume III. of the “ Mecanique
Céleste,’” 1802. It is on this discussion by Laplace that modern
investigators chiefly base their treatment of the problems of a
resisting medium. Laplace’s development of the theory therefore
has been of great service to science for more than a century.

Recently, while occupied with a careful review of the theories of
magnetism and of gravitation since the time of Newton, I had occa-
sion to examine Euler's @ Dissertatio de) Magnete, 1744.mm Opus-
cula,” 1746-51; and while looking into this work was surprised
to find that Euler had preceded Laplace in his development of the
chief effects of a resisting medium by more than half a century.
Euler’s work on the resisting medium will be found in the volume
of “Opuscula,” Berlin, 1746, in the paper “De Relaxatione Motus
Planetarum,” pp. 245-276.

Having shown that the aphelia are undisturbed by resistance,
Eyler considers in section XVII. the equations for the mean mo-
tion, and the return to perihelion, after changes in the mean motion
by the increments representing a whole revolution:

mt t+2nr, nt+ 4x, nt+ 67, nt+ 8x, etc.

Euler puts for the planetary orbit about the sun,
344

1915.] SEE—THE EULER-LAPLACE THEOREM. 345

h=a(1—e)=perihelion distance,

g =a (I—e?) = p=latus rectum of the orbit,

4) == = radius vector of the planet,
J ¢@—=ithieleccentiicity On tae OLD,

t= true anomaly =z, in the notation now commonly used,

c=~sun’s mean distance,

=: pa, where a is the earth’s equatorial semi-diameter, and

pa number which expresses the sue mean distance in this unit.
Euler uses a solar parallax of 13”, and takes c—=15866a. With
the values now adopted in astronomy we have about c= 234452.
In some of his numerical work Euler uses c—=g—=a(1—e?),
which is admissible when we neglect the square of the eccentricity.

Euler also uses a small angle of deviation due to the angular
effects of resistance, 2==0, such that tan ¢==29/3c; and then takes
the equation for the Keplerian ellipse

a(i — e?)
I +ecosv’

to have the form of an ellipse modified by resistance

ee LAS) ine OS! sap
= GSO) ==42>——
p p p

where P is function of the time, but modified by a very small
quantity depending on the effects of the secular action of the resist-
ing medium.

ee

From the equations of the disturbed ellipse, in his notation,

I : orp 2a asc
ape ea tI 2 a6 sin t + 56 cost+46Ft—36¢ sin t—31 £6 sin 21),

346 SER—THE BULER=LAPLACE DHE OREM: [April 24,

Euler develops the following table:

If | there will be

i =O, I? = ©,

MALI tL baal SiS

j= =, Pais > ili ie),

t= on, P =~ (en + $n);

oe ein Bias Me, as
an — 0, Je *( 3 Snare ee J)

I

b= Mie. P= (4m + 25m),

mee Cele pies ie 2 GS

US Sie = W, IP (se oO ae)

Se be,
y g
and for aphelion
t_1=S 4p,
¥ g
I
if i, = ©; eae Sane
Ay g
ro LC. -
t=7 — 8, = +—(1 — 40),
Acre
La iyo @ yen
ib = Qa, — ++ I 46),
T y g me + 36)
iy e The en Gs. Baie er
t= 37 0, y g AF Z (a Oe
tap 6 T
oa = S47 +40,
ay ig C
i Oe Bae
t= 57 — 8, acne te ge a)

1915.] SEE—THE EULER-LAPLACE THEOREM. 347

it being understood that the final angle 4g/3c is neglected as very
small.
Euler next considers the effect of 7 whole revolutions:

bi 20
Tet +
: 1S 4 2 +40:
an
and finds for the radius vector:
2 Aas (lar ORs

ee Ne CaED?

Putting for the following aphelion, ¢= (2:-+1)r—4, there will
result
ete ub) 7, i

Fame Heermoagn arin 20)

whence the radius vector becomes

Oe Ghee BOs
7 7ai=t Ait = OP

The successive distances of the planet from the sun are dimin-

ished in the following manner:

ies g
I. Perihelion Sap Os
tae ©
g ml = 56) ge
Aphelion =
: to OES ee
g an(1 + 3h)ge

II. Periheli =
rihelion idee Aa ep

gS Hoos

Aphelion : j
: T= aque
: x g _ 4n(1 =F 50) ge
III. Perihel
ecg nee eae
Aphelion 2 oat T2088 etc.

I-f c(i —-§)?

348 SEE—THE EULER-LAPLACE THEOREM. [April 24,

In any revolution about the sun the perihelion advances by the
interval
am(i + 30)ge -
G (aie) gate

and the aphelion regresses by the interval

am(r — 3) gg.
CQ) a

the mean distance therefore decreases in the interval about 27gg/c;

and after 7 revolutions this decrease in the mean distance will be
2imgg/c.
Accordingly, after 7 planetary revolutions, the perihelion distance
from the sun becomes:
Gehl ae AO
tq OCS NO

and the following aphelion distance:

Go Giar Wa =
vk ca — 5}

The addition of these values, after 7 revolutions, effects the

transverse axis of the orbit:

29 Aime an 2 a C2
I—(¢€ c(i — Cf)? ai — (OP

Here indeed, since the time is to be defined, the time from perihelion

to aphelion may be omitted; and thus after 7 revolutions the trans-
verse axis of the orbit is found to be:

2g 4imgg
ge Oe
wherefore also the initial transverse axis is assumed equal to
2g/(1— £e).

If, therefore, the distance from the perihelion to the sun after 7

revolutions, which is equal to

1915. | SEE—THE EULER-LAPLACE THEOREM. 349

be subtracted from the distance from the aphelion to the sun, which
would develop in the same time, and found to be equal to

g 2im(1 — 36) gg
Las Gl =

it will give for the distance of the foci after 7 revolutions

b)

ANS BUNS = 8)

Tamas An a 66)
The initial transverse axis was 2g/(1 — ¢€), and if we divide this into
the last expression, we get for the eccentricity of the orbit at this

time : — 3inég/c, terms in €° being neglected as insensible.

In Euler’s paper the factor 3 in the last term is inadvertently ©
omitted. He remarks that the original eccentricity was ¢, whereas
after 7 revolutions it is decreased by the negative term shown above,
and thus is subject to a secular diminution, owing to the secular
action of the resisting medium.

After this discussion Euler reaches the conclusion: “A _ re-
sistentia ergo excentricitas continuo minuitur, orbitaeque planetarum
propius ad figuram circularem reducuntur” (p. 271).

He therefore recognized clearly that the effect of a resisting
medium is to decrease the eccentricity incessantly, and to render
the orbit more and more circular; and had reached this important
conclusion some fifty-six years (1746) before the corresponding
theorem was established by Laplace in 1802.

Accordingly as Euler’s reasoning is essentially rigorous, though
not the same as that of Laplace, it is evident that he was the first
discoverer of the theorem which is of such fundamental importance
in the theories of cosmogony.

It is remarkable that although Laplace had this theorem clearly
before his mind for a quarter of a century at the close of his life
(1802-1827) he did not once suspect that the planets and satellites
had originated in the distance and through the action of a resisting
medium had neared the centers about which they now revolve, and
thus acquired the wonderful circularity of their orbits.

Tt is well known that Laplace continually refers to these bodies
as detached by rotation, in the form of zones of vapor, as first

300 SEE—THE EULER-LAPLACE THEOREM. [April 24.

outlined in his nebular hypothesis of 1796. He thus misled the
scientific world for more than a century, till the capture theory,
involving formation in the distance with subsequent approach to
their central masses, under the secular action of a resisting medium,
was developed by the present writer in 1908-10.

It is equally well known that Laplace always held the comets
to be foreign to our system—another misleading doctrine in cos-
mogony, finally overthrown in 1910 by the independent researches
of Stromgren of Copenhagen, and the present writer, who showed
that the comets are surviving residues of the ancient nebula which
formed our solar system.

In my “ Researches,” Vol. II., pp. 138-139, I have drawn atten-
tion to two letters from Euler to the Royal Society, pointing out, as
early as 1749, that the earth was once beyond the present orbit of
Saturn. He does not there discuss the secular decrease of the
eccentricity of the planetary orbits; yet as he had grounds for hold-
ing to a secular approach to the central masses, he was the first
writer to outline sound views in cosmogony.

Under the circumstances it appears appropriate that the theorem
on the secular decrease of the eccentricities of the orbits of bodies
moving in resisting media, should be known by the name of the
Euler-Laplace theorem. This recognizes the correct historical de-
velopment, as now made out; and probably will always hold a
fundamental place in the science of celestial evolution.

Mare Is_tanp, CALIFORNIA,
April 6, 19015.

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Symposium on the Earth ; Its Figure, Ditecusions and the Constitu- —
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s if

IV. Variations of Latitude: Their Bearing upon our Knowledge
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Sar weOsSiON ON EHP BEART lS sIGURE. DINVEN=
SONS AN Die CON Shit ONsOrKe Ts
INTERIOR.

(Concluded from page 308.)
We

Vee SONS On WAM LUDE] LEbik BEARING» URON
QUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE INTERIOR OF THE
NEw Tle

By FRANK SCHLESINGER.

To review even hastily the contributions that astronomy has made
to our knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the earth and the
constitution of its interior, would consume more time than I can
fairly claim as my share this afternoon. Let me therefore pass over
those points that are on accepted ground and are matters of general
agreement from the different points of view represented in this sym-
posium ; and let me dwell instead upon certain recent developments
especially in need of consideration, concerning which the astronomer
desires the criticism and help of the geologist, the seismologist, the
physicist, and the meteorologist. These developments have come to
us directly or indirectly through a study of latitude variations, so
that most of what I shall have to say will deal with this subject.

Although variations of latitude are in a sense a very recent addi-

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 220 X, PRINTED FEBRUARY 25, 1916.

352 SCHLESINGER—VARIATIONS OF LATITUDE. _ [April 24,

tion to our knowledge, yet on the theoretical side, at least, we find
the beginning more than a century and a half ago. In 1755 Euler
considered “ the rotation of solid and rigid bodies” in a memoir that
is now recognized as the foundation stone for our edifice. He
showed that if such a body is projected into space it will exhibit two
kinds of rotation; the first of these is the familiar one that corre-
sponds to the day in the case of the earth; the other is more subtle
and corresponds to the variation of latitude. By reason of this the
axis of the diurnal rotation is continually changing within the body,
progressing in a regular way and coming back after a time to its
earlier positions. An ordinary top gives us a simple example of this
kind of rotation. ‘The spinner imparts to the top a motion of trans-
lation as well as a rotation, and if we wish to study the rotation we
must arrest the translation in some way. This we can do by letting
the top fall upon a hard surface in which the iron peg soon wears a
minute hole for itself, and the effect is to stop the translation of the
top without modifying seriously the rotation. Then we can see that
while the top is turning very rapidly around an axis, this axis is
itself rotating in a comparatively leisurely way. Just the same thing
is occurring with the earth: the point (or pole) at which the axis of
the daily rotation pierces the surface of the earth is continually in
motion. If we could take to the neighborhood of the pole a modern
instrument, and if we could observe there at leisure and in comfort,
we should have no particular difficulty in finding the position of the
pole within a meter. But if we should repeat these observations a
few months later we should find that the pole had wandered away
to some distance. To be sure, this distance would not be great and
all the wanderings of the pole that have thus far been observed could
be plotted to true scale on the floor of a room not much larger than
the one we are in. Of course if the pole is moving, so too is the
earth’s equator ; and thus the latitudes of all points on the earth are
varying. Such wanderings as these need not disturb the peace of
mind of those gentlemen who like to discover the arctic or the ant-
arctic pole. Under the circumstances that the polar explorer must
work and with the meager instruments he can transport, he is glad to
determine his latitude within half a mile of the truth.

1915.] SCHLESINGER—VARIATIONS OF LATITUDE. 353

We must understand that it is only in our time and only after the
lapse of many years since Euler published his memoir, that latitude
variations have actually been observed. There was nothing in
Euler’s theory to indicate how large a variation to look for, since
this is a matter that depends upon the whole complex of “ initial
conditions,” of which our knowledge is the very vaguest. But this
theory does tell us what the period of the variation should be, since
this depends upon the shape of the earth and the distribution of
the material within it, and precisely the information that is here
needed is afforded by a study of precession. Applying this infor-
mation Euler was able to say that the period of the latitude varia-
tion should be ten months. Bessel at Konigsberg in 1842, later
Peters at Pulkova, Nyren also at Pulkova, Downing at Greenwich,
and Newcomb at Washington, all searched their observations for
evidence of a latitude variation having a period of ten months, but
all in vain. Astronomers concluded that if latitude variations
existed at all, their extent was too small to be detected by instru-
ments of the precision that had then been attained.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century vague whisperings
that this conclusion might be incorrect seem to have been in the air.
But the first clear word to this effect came in 1888 from the lips of
Kustner at Berlin. He had invented and applied a method for de-
termining the amount of the aberration of light; but he found that
his observations gave well-nigh impossible results, agreeing neither
among themselves nor with earlier reliable observations. By a nice
chain of logic he was able to exclude one possible explanation after
another until there was left only the supposition that the latitude of
his station had changed while his observations were in progress.
Next he examined nearly contemporaneous observations made at
other places, and when he found that he could account for certain
puzzling discrepancies, he no longer hesitated to announce that lati-
tudes were variable after all.

This announcement awoke the liveliest interest and encountered
no little scepticism. Special observations were at once set on foot
at various observatories in Europe and America, as well as at a sta-
tion near Honolulu in the Sandwich Islands. These islands are

304 SCHLESINGER—VARIATIONS OF LATITUDE. [April 24,

about opposite in longitude to the European stations, and this was
the reason for establishing a station there. For obviously if the
pole is really changing its place then the changes in latitude for two
opposite stations will be the reverse of each other. When in 1893
this was found actually to be the case, other possible explanations
for the observed phenomena at once fell down, and latitude varia-
tions became for the first time a universally accepted fact.

Much time and effort have since been expended in attempting to
formulate the “laws” of latitude variations and to give them a
mechanical interpretation. But observation has shown that the
variations are of unexpected complicity, and as a consequence we
are still very far from having satisfactory knowledge of this subject.
By the same token it is probable that an intensive study of these
variations, particularly from points of view other than the astro-
nomical, will teach us much concerning the interior of the earth as
well as some of its surface phenomena.

It was the late Dr. Chandler, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, who
took the lead in investigating the nature of latitude variations. By
overhauling ancient observations (made of course without any ret-
erence to the present subject) he was able to trace the presence of
the variations back to the time of Bradley in the middle of the
eighteenth century. Thus it happens that at the very time that
Euler was writing the first theoretical paper on the subject, Bradley
had already begun making the observations from which the actual
existence of latitude variations might have been proven at once.
Chandler was able to gather similar evidence from other miscel-
laneous series of observations and thus to set down a tolerably con-
tinuous record of the variations during a century anda half. How-
ever interesting a fact this may be from an historical point of view,
it does not help very much in a practical study of the subject.
There are two reasons for this: first, it is only for European sta-
tions (and for the most part only for Greenwich) that we have any
knowledge of these earlier variations; the other component of the
wanderings of the pole, namely that in the meridian at right angles
to the meridian of Greenwich, did not begin to be known until very
recently. Again, these ancient observations were undertaken for

1915.] SCHLESINGER—VARIATIONS OF LATITUDE. 3990

certain definite purposes that they served as well as could be ex-
pected for their time; but they were not intended and are not well
suited for precise determinations of the latitude. Close acquaint-
ance with the subject has taught us that exceedingly delicate ob-
servations are necessary to define the variations with adequate ac-
curacy. If I held in my hands two plumb lines half a meter apart,
they would not be quite parallel to each other, though both are
exactly vertical; if they were prolonged, they would meet some-
where near the center of the earth, 4,000 miles below. The angle
between them is a little less than 0”.02 and represents approximately
the accuracy that is demanded and that has recently been attained
in latitude observations. This success is due chiefly to the Inter-
national Geodetic Association which has organized an “ international
latitude service” of high efficiency, and to whose efforts and ex-
perience are due the improvements in instruments and methods that
have made possible this extraordinary degree of precision. Since
1899, the Association has maintained six observing stations for this
sole purpose, two of these being in our own country. One of the
minor effects of the war that is now raging in Europe will be the
discontinuance of some of these stations. One of the American
stations has already been abandoned and the same fate will over-
take the other in June, 1916, unless some independent means of
maintaining it, at least temporarily, presents itself soon. An in-
terruption of these observations would be a great pity, for this is
one of the cases where a continuous record is highly desirable.
To return to Chandler and his work on these variations, per-
haps the most important of his achievements was to show that the
principal term in the variations, instead of having a period of ten
months in accordance with Euler’s theory, has in reality a period
of fourteen months. This difference explains the failure of Bessel
and all the others who preceded Kistner to find a latitude variation
in their observations; for, relying upon Euler’s results, they had
all tested their observations for the ten-month variation and had
sought for no other variation. For the same reason, Chandler’s
announcement of the longer period was received with incredulity
in some quarters, and -this feeling did not vanish until Newcomb

356 SCHLESINGER—VARIATIONS OF LATITUDE. [April 24,

pointed out that Euler had made a certain assumption regarding the
interior of the earth that had in the meantime been universally dis-
carded; his period of ten months applies in fact only to a perfectly
rigid and unyielding earth. Newcomb showed that if the earth
yields to deformation to the same extent as though it were composed
throughout of steel, then Euler’s period would be lengthened to
about fourteen months. Here we have the first dependable deter-
mination of the rigidity of the earth, a result that has since been
confirmed in several ways, particularly by a measurement of “ bodily
tides” in the earth.

The fourteen-month term (or the modified Eulerian term as it
is now called) has been under accurate observation for a quarter of
a century. The period can probably (though not certainly) be re-
garded as constant. This is what we should expect, for a change
in this period would call for a sensible alteration in the distribu-
tion of the material within the earth, or a change in the rigidity of
the earth. The amplitude of this term presents a very puzzling
problem. Its usual value is about 0”.27, but twice in recent years it
has jumped to about 0”.40. Such a change could be accounted for
by supposing that the earth had received a severe blow or a succes-
sion of milder blows tending in the same direction. We are re-
minded that both Milne and Helmert have suggested that there
might be a direct connection between latitude variations and earth-
quakes. This suggestion was originally made by Milne very early
in this century when the astronomical data necessary to test it were
still very meager. It is to be hoped that the question will be taken
up again in the light of the information that has been added dur-
ing the past ten or twelve years.

Though the Eulerian term is the largest part of the latitude
variation, it is by no means the only important one. We have next
an annual term with a maximum amplitude of about 0”.20. We
may say with some confidence that this term is seasonal and meteoro-
logical in its origin, but at present no more definite statement would
be warranted. It was early suggested that ocean currents might
cause this variation. These currents would have to vary greatly
with the season, either in the volume or the speed of the flow, or in

1915.] SCHLESINGER—VARIATIONS OF LATITUDE. 307

its direction; for an unvarying current would merely modify the
Eulerian term once for all and would leave the latitude variations
otherwise unchanged. A similar suggestion has been made with
regard to air currents, and appeal has also been made to unequal
deposits of snow and ice on two opposite hemispheres of the earth,
to account for the annual term. It seems to me that these explana-
tions have not been subjected to the critical numerical tests that are
possible and desirable. The meteorological data are doubtless com-
petent to enable us to compute at least the order of the effects in
the latitude variations that we should expect from these various
causes. Furthermore the annual term is probably variable in its
amplitude, and it is important to ascertain how (if at all) these
changes are related to the corresponding meteorological observa-
tions.

One other term must be mentioned in this brief summary. A
few years ago Kimura of Japan made the important discovery (the
most striking contribution to astronomy that has ever come out of
Asia) that the latitudes of all stations are affected by a variation
that does not depend upon the longitude but which is the same for
all points in the same latitude. In other words there is present a
variation that is not due to the wanderings of the pole. To ascer-
tain more closely the nature of this term, the International Geodetic
Association extended its latitude service temporarily to the southern
hemisphere, with the result that the term was found to be of pre-
cisely the kind that would be caused by an annual wandering of
the center of gravity of the earth to and fro along the axis of rota-
tion. This must be regarded merely as an illustration and not as
an explanation, for so great a change (about three meters) in the
position of the center of gravity is excluded on other and very con-
clusive grounds. No plausible explanation for the Kimura term
has as yet made its appearance, and as a consequence the reality of
the term has been questioned from every possible point of view.
Many explanations have been advanced, each of which sought to
account for the term as merely an instrumental effect or the like,
just as was the case twenty years earlier with the whole of the lati-
tude variation itself. Against such attempts the Kimura term has

358 SCHLESINGER—VARIATIONS OF LATITUDE, _ [April 24,

held up very well. It is not too much to say that at the present
time all but one of the numerous explanations of this class have
been disposed of; this exception deserves a brief mention, particu-
larly as it calls loudly for the attention of the meteorologist. Let us
suppose that the layers of equal density in the atmosphere above a
station are not horizontal, but that they are sensibly inclined. If
this occurs without our knowledge, as it would under ordinary cir-
cumstances, then we should apply refraction to our observations in
a slightly erroneous way and we should derive a value for the lati-
tude that is not quite correct. Let us suppose further that this
effect were a world-wide one and that in any given month there
would be a pronounced tendency for the inclination to be in the
same sense in all latitudes, north and south, as well as in all longi-
tudes. Then we should have a set of circumstances that would ac-
count for the Kimura term as an atmospheric effect, and therefore
it would be excluded as a real variation of latitude: So far as the
astronomer is able to testify, the evidence is against the occurrence
of such tilts in the atmosphere. ‘The inclination required to account
quantitatively for the amplitude of the Kimura term is over two
minutes of arc, or a slope of about one part in fifteen hundred.
Presumably in a few years we shall be able to say something more
definite as to the possibility of the existence of such conditions.
My own opinion is that this explanation, like so many others of
similar character that have been suggested for the Kimura term,
will be found untenable. Further I venture to think that latitude
variations as a whole will find their explanations less on the surface
of the earth and more in its interior than seems now to be the
generally accepted opinion.

ALLEGHENY OBSERVATORY,
UNIVERSITY oF PITTSBURGH.

i, JPIRUNCANICANIE, IRVAUINIOUNUAIL, JAIL JP le laNisiie, IC

By BENJAMIN SMITH LYMAN.

(Read October I, 1915.)

How to reform English orthography, and reduce it to simple
regularity is an interesting problem. Repeated efforts have been
persistently made in that direction. Among others, overhasty
enthusiasts, in their disgust at the irregularities and phonetic in-
adequacies of the established English spelling, have insisted that a
comparatively few of the most glaring irregularities should be
“simplified” at once, hoping that later on another larger batch of
“corrections”? may be adopted. Of course, such alterations from
the established usage can only come gradually into general, or estab-
lished, use; not in less than fifty or seventy years, as may be seen
in the few small changes urged by Noah Webster. Meanwhile, if
the alterations meet with somewhat wide acceptance, there must be,
on the whole, very greatly increased irregularity in English spelling,
approaching, indeed, chaotic lawlessness. The repetition, and there-
by prolongation of this painful unruly condition of our orthography
in such an ill-considered effort at reform must remind one of the
pretended humanity of cutting off a dog’s tail by stages of an inch
at a time. Would it not be far better to devise a practical and
thoroughgoing system of orthography to be used alongside of the
present established usage; and to become more and more used,
until at last, it may become altogether adopted and universally used?

There are serious difficulties, however, in setting up a practical
and thoroughgoing system of orthography. Any plan of reformed
orthography should never fail to keep in mind the necessity of being
thoroughly practical, if the least hope be entertained of its coming
into universal, or even common, use. The great, widespread vogue
of the Roman alphabet is doubtless due to its even rude simplicity ;
and in many hundred years it has been impossible to introduce into
general use more than a very few extremely simple modifications of

359

360 LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. [Oct. 1,

the original forms of the letters: as for instance the carvilium to
distinguish G from C and the distinction between J and I and
between U and V, which appear to be still struggling for complete
prevalence. It may, however, be borne in mind that notable addi-
tions to the Arabic alphabet have been made and accepted in order
to express additional sounds in Persian or other languages: but it
is noticeable that such added forms are strictly in keeping with the
original character of the alphabet. The Russians have also strongly
modified the Roman alphabet, and not always quite in keeping with
the rude simplicity of its general character ; yet have established its
use throughout a great empire. In proposing new forms of letters
for newly distinguished sounds, it is certainly advisable to maintain
some restraint upon one’s fancy, to adhere to the utmost simplicity,
and to depart as little as possible from the general character of bare
simplicity of the Roman alphabet, making use, so far as possible,
of old devices, and putting forward as few novelties as possible,
to be learned and made familiar. It seems highly desirable to avoid
the use of altogether outlandish forms like the fully obsolete old
Anglo-Saxon letters, wholly out of keeping with our modern
alphabet; or to offend the eye by intermixing italic letters with
Roman and by other tasteless similar devices, or by interspersing
inverted letters, though to be sure of good Roman shape. Above
all, however, let us avoid separate diacritical marks to distinguish
sounds, marks that are a nuisance to write, an obscurity to read, and
by their occasional forgetful omission a fruitful source of mislead-
ing. Especially the use of diacritical marks in a way opposed to
their time-honored significance, is to be reprehended ; as for example,
the use of an accent to indicate merely the length of a vowel. Such
practice has misled commonly into various errors of pronunciation
of some oriental words. We shall see if there be any serious
difficulty in getting handsomely along without any of those hastily,
inconsiderately adopted, tempting, shallow, easy, but terrible, make-
shifts. There are some restraints, or guides, which must cogently
influence our choice of letters or symbols to be used in indicating the
different sounds of the language. It is highly desirable, or ab-
solutely necessary, that each sound should be indicated by only one
letter, and that each letter should have but one sound; and it would

1915. ] LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. 361

be absurd to acknowledge that principle, and then as in Volapuek
and Esperanto, at the very outset give to g the sound of two letters,
ts, merely because it happens to have those sounds in German.
Another important principle is to give to letters or devices the force ©
that they already have, and long have had, in the languages where
they have been in use. In general, the customary practice of the
majority should have sway, requiring the minimum of new learning.
As English is far and away the most numerously spoken language
throughout the world, the sounds to be attributed to the consonant
letters should be as in English; though, owing to the extreme irregu-
larity and variety of the English vowel letters, they must give place
to letters that are more prevalent in the other European languages.
The English consonant y, for example, should be used; not, as in
Esperanto, the letter 7, which has that sound among the compara-
tively small number who use German and Italian. In Volapuek, /
is made to serve for the English sh, a most unheard-of use.

In English, the combinations ch, sh, th and wh each is used for
a single sound, and it is desirable to substitute for it a single letter.
Would it not be highly practical to write those sounds by means, in
each case, of merely the first of the two letters with a subscript
small appendage somewhat similar to the old device of the French
cedilla, though a little different in form, to represent the letter h,
and having a more or less distant resemblance to it in shape? In
cursive writing, the resemblance to an h need not by any means be
close, and may be really abbreviated, as there would be no danger
of misunderstanding. We have, thereby, four new characters with
but a single device to remember, and that not a new one, and the
new forms are entirely in keeping with our old alphabet and with
already customary methods. As to the sound of ch in church, it is
sometimes maintained that it is in reality a sound compounded of ¢
followed by sh: But that is clearly an error; for even the ear can
distinguish a difference in the sounds, and the sound of ch is as dis-
tinctly different as is the sound of the opening or closing of a some-
what tightly swollen door, compared to the mild clapping to of a
well-fitting closure. The peculiarity of the contact of the tongue
and roof of the mouth, with the consequent vibrations of the roof
of the mouth, occasions a peculiar sound different from ¢ and from

362 LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. [Oct. 1,

sh. A corresponding difference occurs between the sound of a
smack with the lips and p or b. The sound of gh, as in pleasure,
would, of course, be indicated by g with a subscript h. If it be de-
sired (unlike ordinary English) to distinguish the sound of th in
this from that in thin, the logically analogous and simple mode of
writing it would be with a d with a subscript h. The whispered, or
surd, y, heard in the word hue, might also be indicated by a y with
a subscript h. The guttural sounds indicated in oriental trans-
literation by kh and gh, would likewise be represented by k or g
with a subscript h. Until types of these new forms are to be had,
we may provisionally, instead of the subscript h, use a small h at
the side: cn, Sn, tn, dn, Rn, Gn, Wn, Yr. The simple sound written in
English with ng should be indicated (as proposed so long ago as
Benjamin Franklin) by a character similar to a g but with the upper
part in the form of an u, for which there is already type.

Other consonant sounds, the so-called cerebral sounds, occurring,
for example, in the Sanscrit and in the dialect of Peking, could be
simply indicated in a similar manner, by giving to the upper part of
the corresponding letter the shape of an r; since those sounds are
made with the tongue rolled up, as for an r. In Sanscrit, such a
modification of sh occurs and in the Peking dialect y is so pro-
nounced, with the tongue rolled up, and may be indicated by a y
with the upper right hand fork in the shape of an r (provisionally sy,
and y").

With these four or five simple characters, we have then a full
supply of consonants without going outside of the ordinary English
usage ; b, c, ch, d, dh, f, g (always as in give, get), j, k, |, m, n, p, 7,
5, sh, t, th, v, w, y, 2, zh; omitting g, and x, as superfluous ; and using
c, only with the subscript h. Indeed as the c is only so used, even
if the subscript 4 should be omitted there would be no danger of con-
fusion, and c would have before all vowels the same sound that it
has in Italian before e, and 7. H is sometimes reckoned as a con-
sonant, but, of course, erroneously, as it is the whispered form of
the vowel that follows it.

As already intimated, order out of the chaos of English vowels
is only to be attained by adopting the more uniform practice of the
European continental countries, with a, as in arm, o as in note, u as

1915.] LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. 363

in rule, i as in pique, e as in they; and, for the vowels, we must
abandon the hope of indicating by a separate character every one of
the infinite number of shades of sound, a few of which occur in
such series of vowels as in: hate, hale, hare, hairy, Harry, hal, hat.
The progress of enlightenment in thousands of years has led to far
greater nicety of distinction in vowel sounds than was common
formerly. But instead of five or six vowels that it was then found
worth. while to indicate by separate characters, it would now be
hardly practical to have distinct letters for more than eighteen or
twenty vowels and that number may be very practically arranged.

A difficulty in bringing into general use any such somewhat
nicely adjusted system of indicating the sounds, especially the vowel
sounds, of any language is that the pronunciation of words 1s dif-
ferent in different regions and even among different families and
individuals of the same region; nay, even with the same individual
according to varying emphasis in different connections, as to in
“soing to Boston,” and “to and fro” and the pronunciation some-
times varies through slackness or slovenliness of articulation or
enunciation, as in substituting a slight vowel sound for the con-
sonants y and w in such words as they and snow, or in dropping r
altogether after a vowel and before a consonant, as in arm. Hence
strict regard to phonetics would give the same word several dif-
ferent forms according to the taste or habits of different writers,
and stand seriously in the way of the uniformity of spelling that
would be extremely desirable for at least a literary language to be
used in common by a numerous people.

’

As regards the vowels Professor Samuel Porter over forty-eight
years ago, in the American Journal of Science, September, 1866,
excellently classified the readily distinguishable vowel sounds of
English and other principal European languages, and arranged them
according to their physiological mode of formation, with a simple
illustration indicating nine different parts of the mouth where the
tongue is placed to give the form of cavity, which with the issuing
breath, will produce each vowel sound. So simple are the plan
and the illustration that they have been perfectly successful in in-
ducing very ignorant Orientals (in India and China) to indicate
thoroughly and simply the mode of formation of some of their most

364 LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. [Oct. 1,

peculiar sounds, which to ordinary foreigners without Porter’s help,
and with merely the ear as a guide, are mysterious and even con-
sidered quite unattainable. He distinguishes nine points at which
the tongue is placed, and at each of those points, four degrees of
openness ; making thereby thirty-six readily distinguishable vowels.
But a number of them are not in ordinary use, and are therefore not
to be considered in any orthographic scheme. A few additions are
to be made on account of the effect of stiffening the lips, changing
the sound. In order to accommodate ourselves to this classification
of the vowels it is desirable to add to our letters 2 (not a new
combination) as ae in German Maedchen, for the sound of a in
care; and oe (again not new), nearly like the oe in German schoen
for certain closely allied. sounds; and a new character, like the
Swedish a, with an o over it; but contracted into a single form, for
the sounds, like a in war, or o in Jord, or oa in broad. Yet another
new form may be added, e with a stroke like an accent just to
its left, to correspond with the French acute-accented é¢. We have,
then, nine characters for Porter’s nine groups of four vowels each.
He calls attention to the fact that in each group of four vowels,
differing only in the degree of closeness of the tongue at the same
place in the mouth, two of the four are long and two short. Let us
therefore represent the long vowels by the ancient device of simply
doubling (with slight contraction) the letter used for the short
vowels, as the Greeks already set us the example with their omega.
All the vowels can in like manner be doubled, and somewhat con-
tracted, making at once eighteen easily written and easily read
vowels conforming well to the already established character of our
alphabet. Until appropriate type for the purpose are to be had,
we might provisionally merely double the present letters; as: aa,
ee, etc. In one or two cases the number can be increased by
indicating a labial modification of the vowel by means of a small
upright stroke, an abbreviated / (provisionally a small /), close to
the right hand of the letter. In this way, we are easily provided
with about twenty vowels, apparently an ample supply for the
English language.

Let us now consider the vowels one by one, more particularly.
In group I, the a of last, ask, chant, is short; while that of father

1915.] LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. 3690

and calm is long; and that of baa, ah, arm, charge is still broader.
The two last would therefore be written with a double letter
(provisionally aa); and there would be no need to distinguish in
writing between these two, because there is distinction enough in the
following r or h.

In group II, the two closer vowels, as (long) in war, lord, awe,
pause, or (shorter) all, water, long, daughter, are both labially
modified, by stiffening the lips; and can be so indicated by means
of a small upright stroke (an abbreviated /, provisionally a small /)
just to the right of the letter. The longer vowel can be indicated by
doubling, as already described. The shorter and not labially modi-
fied vowel of the second degree of openness is heard in the words
salt, although, cross, horror; and the third degree of openness, also
not labially modified, occurs in sod, nor, off, what, knowledge; and
may be written with an a combined with an 0, like the corresponding
Swedish letter, but more contracted. These two closely similar
vowel sounds, scarcely distinguishable by ordinary ears, it seems
hardly worth while to provide with separate letters (though the
distinction of the third degree might be marked by a small 3 just to
the right of the letter). The fourth degree of openness does not
occur in ordinary speech.

In group III, in like manner, the least open vowel, as in note,
toe, low, loaf, door, mourn, being longer, may be written with a
double letter (like the Greek omega), or, provisionally, by a repeti-
tion of the single letter, 00 ; and might be marked as labially modified,
in the way already indicated. But this is hardly necessary, because,
in English, it always has that modification, making it unnecessary to
mark it. The next degree of openness is likewise always labially
modified, and being short would be written with a single letter. It
is also distinguished by being an unaccented vowel. The third
degree of openness, as in not, dot, folly, knock, proper, bite, eye
(oy, a short o followed by the consonant y) occurs only in accented
syllables, and is thereby sufficiently distinguished.

In group IV, the long sound of the vowel in rule, sure, fool, pool,
moon, shoe, soup, would be written with a double vowel (provi-
sionally by ww), while the vowel of the second degree of openness,
as in full, pull, bosom, woman, should, good, foot, book, would be

366 LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. [Oct. 1,

DIAGRAM OF THE PALATO-LINGUAL POSITIONS.

a
a S70 a Git —_ — Ss Resi
wl ae ae — any, eS,
he? a ate Bea
fff / -_ Tue DIAGRAMIs
ee! { Bs Cop1ep FROM Pror.S. PoRTER,

Am. JouUR.OF SCIENCE, SEFT., 1966.

Ye, V/. (CONSONAN TS: Forch, useg ,forsh,$;for th mthis,d

In Le forth inthin,t{; for zh,z ;for ng, y;for Spamishfi,and
Ay Portuguese nh,n; for Spanish ll, 1; for sounds with
% rolled up tongue,usa an y combined. as,in Sanscrit, 9:
Ue Kgnee, Krishna ;and,inPeking,y:yu qf.)
VOWELS:

I AA&,a,4%,a,a,A,éM
1.asinlast,ask, chant: last,ask, cant.
2.as in father, calm: feather, kam.
3. a8 in baa,ah, arm, charge: ba, a,arm, gar)
4. (Not in good English)

0.8, 8,a,a, 4,3,0,@. :
asin awe, war, lord,pause: #,w@T,le7d, peyz , (labially modified_ lips stiff)
asin all, water, long, daughter: 91, weter, long. deter, (labial)
2.aS in salt, althou h, cross, horror: salt,aldo, kras, har cer.
3.aSin sod, nor, off, what, knowledge: sad, nar,af, what, nale}.
4.(Not in good English.)

M.0,®, 0,0,0,@,0°,o.
1 as in note, toe, low, loaf, door, mourn, beau. not, to, lw, lof, dwr, mem,ber,
2:aSin opinion,agony, propose, mellow: opinycen, egon'e, propaz ,melo {unaccented).
3. i in not, dot, folly, knock,proper, eye, bite: not,dotfole, nok, proper, oy, boyt
4. (Not in good English.)

WV.U,U, usw u,W, uw
f#a8in rule, sure, fool, pool, moon,move,shoe; rw, swry, fwl, pwl, mun, murv, su.
2 as in full, pull, bosom,woman,should, good: ful pel buzcem,wumensud, syd .
3.as in fulfil, willful: fulfil, wilful —(unaecented).
4. (Not in good English)

V. €, GE,0ce,a,C ee, a.m.
a (Not in English — the Germance, French su.)
2.aS in girl, virtus, mercy, myrtle,earl: 9 cerl, vertyu, merse,mesrtl, cexl—(heforey).
3.a$ in up, but,cousin,rough,dove, done: ep, bat, kezin,ref,d@v,deen.
4.4sin burr, church, work: baer, ¢aer¢ , waerk~(before r , accented).

VLA AL, @2,@,4,H,a,a.
tasin their, fair, parent: daer, far, pzrent.
2.asin care,there, prayer, hair, pair: k er, der, prer, her, per-— (before r).
3-aS in cat,man,sad,hap: ket, men, sed.hep— (acce mio 7).
4,(Not in good English.)

VI. £E,£,e,@, &,6,2,@.
1.as in they, grey, vein, sreat,name,fate: dey, grey, veyn, sreyt ,neym, feyt.
2. asin nitrate,climate: noytret, kloymet—(unaccented).
3. asin get, eg .Ted, mend: get,eg, red ,mend— (accented).
4, (Not inEnghsh)

VIL'E,e, 2,4. }
1. (Not in English—the French é)) y ;
2.aS in guinea valley, carried,city: gine,vele, kered, cite—(unaccent’d)
3.a8 In goodness, college: gudnes, kalej—(Cunaccented),
4, (Not in English)

Di a Whe Toit, SURE of ; Lb Nye ok Ca ads
14.aS8 inpique, machine ,field, eat ,eve,deep: puk,masun_fald ,ut,uv,dup.
z,asin divine, vehicle, mandarin; divoyn,vihikl,mendarin—(unaccented).
3.as in pin, hit, sin,will: pin, hit,sin,will- (accented).

* 4. (Not in good English.)—( The French u would be ww.)

(Until propertype canbe had, use double letters for long vowels.) B.S. L.

1915.] LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. 367

written with a single letter. Both these vowels are labially modified,
and might be so marked, in the way already indicated, but it is
unnecessary so to mark them, because there is no vowel in English
with which they could be confounded. In the third degree of open-
ness, the unaccented vowels in fulfill, and willful, occur; but
(written with a single letter) are sufficiently distinguished by the
absence of accent. The fourth degree of openness does not occur in
good English.

In group V, the first and second degrees of openness, occur in
the German oe, and the French eu (nearly, though not quite, the
same) ; but not in English. The second degree of openness without
labial modification occurs in English only before r as in mercy,
virtue, girl, myrtle, earl, pearl, earth; and may be written with a
single letter (ce). In the third degree of openness, likewise short,
and to be written with a single letter, occurs the so-called natural
vowel, accented, and without 7, as in up, but. In the fourth degree
(written with a double vowel), long, occurs before r the vowel
sound of burr, occur.

In group VI, the long sound, with a double letter (provisionally,
the single letter repeated, 2 x), is heard as the a in parent, et in
their, avin fur. It is the German ae in Maedchen, and the French
é€ in aprés, scene, péere. The second degree of openness, with a
single letter, is heard in care, there, prayer, heir, pair; in each case
followed by the sound r._ Without that sound of 7, the third degree
of openness gives us, with the same letter, the a in at, cat, man, sad,
hap. The absence of the r makes it unnecessary for them to dis-
tinguish the two slightly different vowels.

In group VII, the first degree of openness with a double letter,
or, provisionally, the single letter repeated, ee, gives us the e in
they, grey, and the like sounds in fate, name, great, vein, hail, pay;
the German mehr, jeder, ledig, See. The second degree of open-
ness, with a single letter, gives us the a of unaccented syllables, as in
nitrate, climate. The third degree of openness, with the same
single letter, occurs in accented syllables, as in get, egg, red, mend.
The fourth degree does not occur in English.

In group VIII, the first and fourth degree of openness do not
occur in English. The first one, to be written with a double letter,

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 220 Y, PRINTED FEBRUARY 25, 1916.

368 LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. [Oct. 3,

occurs in the French acute-accented é and a. The second degree
of openness (written with a single letter, provisionally, *e, an e with
a small upright mark, or figure 1, above at its left) occurs in Eng-
lish in unaccented syllables only, as in guinea, valley, carried, city.
The third degree of openness (likewise a single letter) differs so
slightly from the second as hardly to need a separate character,
though it might be marked with a small abbreviated 3 put to the
right and upper part of the letter e. It occurs in the unaccented
syllables goodness, college.

In group IX, the first degree of openness, to be marked with a
double letter (provisionally, 7), is found in the zt of pique, machine.
When this is labially modified by stiffening the lips, it becomes the
French wu, as in ruse, and the German we, as in ueber, to be marked
with a small stroke, an abbreviated J, at the right of the letter. The
second degree of openness, to be marked by a single letter, occurs
in unaccented syllables as in divine, vehicle, mitigate. The fourth
degree of openness does not occur in English.

We have, then, for the vowels nineteen letters ; distinguishing all
éhe readily distinguishable vowels used in English. In two or three
cases the distinction is indicated by the accent as in certain unac-
cented syllables, as in fulfill, goodness; and in other cases by the
subsequence of the sound 1, as in girl. Even these slight differ-
ences could be indicated by a scrupulous writer with an abbreviated
figure 3 alongside, to the right, and at the upper corner, of the
letter

Having thus made possible the writing of English with unmis-
takable-letters, each letter for a single sound, and each readily dis-
tinguished sound by a single letter, a strong.reason is advanced in
favor of the general adoption of English as a universal language.
Indeed, it is ardently to be hoped that eventually some one language
may become universal, and known to the whole human race. Latin
was formerly so widely known and extensively used among the
more civilized nations as to give some color to its claim to become
the universal language. But the gradually increased refinement of
ideas in modern times has apparently made it impossible to be
satisfied with so bald and rude a method of communication. The
numerous artificial languages proposed for this purpose, even if not

1915. | LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. 369

liable to the same objection, or to greater crudity, are yet additional
languages to be learned. English already known to a much larger
number of men than any other language, seems to be, by ail odds,
the best adapted to become, perhaps with slight modifications, a uni-
versal language. The simplicity of its grammar, aside from orthog-
raphy, makes it remarkably easy for foreigners to learn; and, for
use in universal form, the comparatively few irregularities of gram-
mar might considerately be eliminated, so that (in universal form)
it might be allowed to say mouses, instead of mice, and digged in-
stead of dug: English has already shown its capacity to express
perfectly the finest distinctions of ideas and must in that respect far
excel any artificial language, like Esperanto, or Volapuek, with their
rude, bald, lack, for example, of the definite or indefinite articles.
A rational, phonetic, practical spelling would, then, make English
ideally perfect for a universal language. Clearly, for that purpose,
the usage of speakers of some region, or of some degree of cultiva-
tion, with some degree of emphasis, must be selected as the norm to
which the written language should conform, in order to make the.
writing and spelling in the main, though not always in every minute
detail, phonetic. Well taught children should, then, everywhere learn
to pronounce the words as they are spelled, and not be allowed to
drop the sound of 7 in arm, or pervert the sound of the English long
u (like yu, except after the sound of ch, 7, r, sh, zh, or y). Normal
schools should train teachers in these details so that the children
may be properly drilled. In that way the language would be rightly
conserved, and would tend to become fit for universal use.

One serious difficulty in the adoption of any such improvements
of our alphabet is that there are so many men who excel more in
persuasive eloquence, in “the gift of the gab,” than in a thorough
knowledge of phonetics and inclination to careful reflection. Cad-
mus could not have been a ready tongued, shallow utterer of rapidly
up-bubbling superficial thoughts. A group, or committee, or society
of such quick-witted individuals (perhaps some of them so densely
ignorant as to suppose h to be a consonant, instead of the whispered,
or surd, form of its following vowel, or to insist that the English
ch, and j are compounded of sounds distinguishable even by the
ear, and as much unlike the real ones as the bursting open, or bang-
ing shut of a tightly swollen door, is to the mild clapping to or open-

370 LYMAN—A PRACTICAL RATIONAL ALPHABET. [Oct. 1,

ing of a well-fitting closure), may make bold to put forward by
their majority vote some alphabetic, or orthographic, system (as the
Japanese Roman Letter Society did), and may really delay for a
long time the adoption of an altogether rational and practical method.
It would be much better for individuals to propose their own plans,
and put them into use by themselves and by a portion of the public.
Gradually, the best of such plans would take the lead, and come into
more and more general use, without having to overcome at the outset
the prestige of the dominant approval of a high-sounding society or
committee. In any case, it would clearly take many years for such
a rational new system fully to supplant the present established usage.

Meantime, it might be advisable to do something towards
simplifying the learning of the present established spelling. To be
sure, the difficulty of learning it has been much exaggerated, owing
to the general extreme neglect of the study. It seems, however,
possible that the six weeks or so that appears to be ample for a half-
grown boy or girl to learn to spell well might be reduced to a couple
of weeks, at most, with a properly arranged booklet; so that the
present multitudinous army of typists might readily fit themselves
to avoid tormenting their employers by ignorance of so simple an
art as spelling.

But however advantageous a simple, purely phonetic spelling
might be to a defectively educated typist, or to an adult foreigner,
let it not by any means be imagined that the time spent by children
in acquiring our more complicated established orthography is use-
lessly thrown away. On the contrary, it is a highly useful discipline,
not only training the memory in a simple way, well adapted to
young children, but giving most valuable habits of close and accurate
minute observation (the precision that is the most efficient aid to the
conservation of language), and enabling the easy understanding and
remembering of the proper mode of writing a new word or name.
Such habits may also be acquired by certain games of children, but
in a way not a whit more interesting or “useful” than the old-
fashioned spelling match. The comparatively recent way of teach-
ing to read by the general appearance of the word, and with total
neglect of syllabical spelling, is detestable, and produces results that
are full of torture and disgust to those who have to listen to such
reading. (

THE CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF CONCEP-
MON VAND TRINIDRY (BAYS SNEWEOUNDEAND:

By NELSON €. DALE:

(Read April 25, T9T4)

CONTENTS.

Pace
Il; JE MACIOKCON Anas eee Ae Gntnae demo Dou GUO Ueno om ocmendo soc 371

Il. GeNERAL GEOGRAPHIC AND GEoLocic RELATIONS OF THE MANGANESE
DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEWFOUNDLAND ............--20002 373
bE GENPRAPESTRATIGRAPEY: OF) DEPOSITS = anche oeacineie en eee 375
IW, IDismAimim) IDISCRiRAKONTS Oly IDOONEEEIIS booaccooccacdso0cbos0goooKT BIT
IMLANTOIIES, “(COMGDIERION IBGE eb bakadooceooouobpobapouoGodKo 377
SRORSIATIENE CON GEE DONG Aas eine cearaes oly aie uae inte See aren nero 409
Once LOND e CONCERTIONN DANG ene eee eee 418
Cmaranr, Cove, Comenemion, IBMT cooooucsoccocdccce0no0DS0000C 419
IS RIGS 4H © ONCE RTEONE I AVin sicne sce histhaus ceeotn ay aiearllavaici si siae a teens ey verges 424
Siynarisr JPomyn Iain BANE peat aaacticanoouoddod boson cuL bods 426
V. OrHEer MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF SOMEWHAT SIMILAR CHARACTER... 432
IPLACEIAILA IBASS INI ANOWINDIEAINID Soaoccaccaccbcdc000dGD000 G6 432
IMPRTONE GINGER e NVVAIGES 2/1. 2cccs rant ravecc cneronareuerepeuentearcvsieraiareyenrrers ot ieee 433
IBVAS SGN VADEIEI Oy oA GH erie een BEN lelure yh ob ema e 6 Ores ore Bier 434
TERN GERO DEN SAS OIN Visual Ain sc ata ca aa ere iaelen tere CRO oer eeoetere ls 435
VI. CHEMISTRY OF THE MANGANESE DEPOSITS ............0.-+00e+000: 437
VII. Genesis or THE MANGANESE Deposits AND ASSOCIATED MINERALS.. 441
AY AIGIST BIST TET GRAATEE To Vanity eitce pe tea tiny nsticgape tok Sy oe) ates tat-au le oGVOEN RS are ESI eco chs nee 454

EP INDRO DUCTION:

This paper is based upon data collected during the summers of
1912 and 1913. The former season, Mr. A. O. Hayes and Prof. van
Ingen of Princeton University, while making a study of the general
geology, stratigraphy, and paleontology of the shores of Conception
Bay, Newfoundland, in connection with the investigation of the iron
ores of Great Bell Island, came upon the manganiferous rocks of
the Lower Cambrian exposed at Manuels, Topsail, Brigus, and other
places. They were immediately struck by the unusual lithological
and mineralogical characteristics and by the excellent state of preser-
vation, particularly at Manuels, of what are undoubtedly primary

371

372 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

bedded deposits. Some collections and notes then taken of these
interesting rocks were later placed at the disposal of the writer for
further investigation. The following summer of 1913, the writer as
a member of the Princeton Newfoundland Expedition undertook a
more detailed study of these deposits at the various localities where
the manganese had been found the preceding summer, and also of a
deposit of the same age on the northern shore of Trinity Bay.

There are so few syngenetic manganese deposits which still retain
their primary unaltered characters and are found to occur at the same
horizon over such a wide area that a somewhat detailed investigation
gave promise of yielding results of value. In this paper therefore
there has been an attempt to present as comprehensive a study of the
manganese of southeastern Newfoundland as our knowledge of
this hitherto but little investigated region will allow.

The subject matter is primarily chemical in its nature and the
analyses herewith presented are from samples taken from the prin-
cipal manganese-bearing beds. Many more analyses however could
have been made and in fact many more should be made if the deposits
are to be seriously investigated for commercial purposes. The
analyses of the manganese beds at Manuels, Topsail, and Smith
Point, Newfoundland and those of the imported specimens from
Elbingerode, Saxony were made by the writer in the chemical
laboratory of the geological department of Princeton University.

Because of the impalpable fineness of grain of many of the
manganese-bearing beds, the petrographical descriptions of certain of
the thin sections can deal only with the larger features such as struc-
ture, mineral aggregations, and a few of the larger and observable
minerals.

The writer feels particularly indebted to Prof. C. H. Smyth, Jr.,
for many helpful suggestions bearing upon the chemical side of the
investigation, and to Prof. G. van Ingen for unpublished information
regarding the stratigraphy and palzontology of this region, as well as
for the loan of the locality maps and data for the columnar sections
which are the results of careful surveys made during the summers
of 1912 and 1913. All photographs and microphotographs were
generously contributed by Prof. van Ingen to further the presentation
of the results of this investigation.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 373

Il. GENERAL GEOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC RELATIONS OF THE
MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN
NEWFOUNDLAND.

GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS.

The manganese deposits here considered are located in the south-
eastern part of Newfoundland in the vicinity of Topsail, Manuels,
Long Pond, Chapel Cove, and Brigus on Conception Bay, and at
Smith Point on Trinity Bay. Manganese is also said to occur near
Ships Cove, Placentia Bay. The accompanying map, Fig. 1, shows
the approximate location of these deposits.

GENERAL GEOLOGY.

The sedimentary rocks of this area are included in the Cambrian
and Ordovician systems and may be seen on the map (Fig. 1) to
occur as irregular patches, the Ordovician composing the larger
islands of the bays and the Cambrian occurring as irregular and
widely separated fringes resting on the pre-Cambrian of the main-
land. The whole series consists almost wholly of shales and thin-
bedded sandstones with some limestones, and in the base of the
lower Cambrian an occasional conglomeratic bed.

The iron ores of Great Bell Island are Arenig while the manga-
nese and their associated green and red shales are of iate lower
Cambrian.

Wherever the Cambrian strata have been found in contact with
the pre-Cambrian an unconformable relationship exists. The pre-
Cambrian rocks of this area as classified by Dr. Walcott (2:219)
and by Messrs. Murray and Howley (18: 141-154) respectively are
as follows:

Walcott Murray and Howley
Random
[ Signal Hill Avalonian
; ' Momable
Avalonian < Tavelbay
Conception Huronian
Laurentian Archaean

The Avalonian and Huronian of Mr. Howley represent a thick-
ness of 12,370 feet. A later unpublished estimate of 18,250 feet has

374 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

been made by Mr. A. F. Buddington, who is studying the pre-Cam-
brian rocks of this region. A brief description of these formations
at this time will be necessary for a comprehensive view of the New-
foundland manganese deposits.

Laurentian: The rocks of this formation are in great part gneissic
and granitoid, and are probably the oldest rocks of the area.

Huroman: This formation, which is equivalent to the “ Concep-
tion” of Dr. Walcott, consists principally of the Conception slates
which are of tufaceous marine origin. They are intruded by bosses
and dikes of granite, diorite, monzonite, and gabbro, and contain
basaltic and rhyolite flows. The Conception formation was esti-
mated by Murray and Howley to have a thickness of 2,950 feet.

Torbay: This formation consists of about 3,300 feet of green and
purple slates and argillites.

Momable: An estimated thickness of 2,000 feet of brown and
black sandy shales overlies the previous formation.

Signal Hill: Red and green sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and
arkoses largely of continental origin comprise this formation, the
thickness of which is about 9,000 feet according to an unpublished
estimate by Mr. A. F. Buddington.

Random: About 1,000 feet of green and red sandstones and
white quartzites with occasional basalt flows comprise this series.

Murray and Howley in their report of 1868 for the Geological
Survey of Newfoundland describe the general structural features of
the Avalon Peninsula as follows:

“The region in question, in particular, and probably the whole island in
general, seems to be arranged-in an alternation of anticlinal and synclinal
lines, independent of innumerable minor folds, which preserve throughout a
remarkable degree of parallelism, pointing generally about N-NE and S-SW
from the true meridian, corresponding with the strongly marked indentations
of the coast as well as the topographical features of the interior. One such
great anticlinal form occurs within the region examined this year, with a cor-
responding synclinal; the axis of the former was found to be more or less
overlaid unconformably by rocks containing fossils of Lower Silurian age,
none of which were of less remote antiquity than such as are attributed to
the horizon of the upper Potsdam group.”

“The axis of this anticlinal runs in a moderately straight line from Cape
Pine on the south coast to that part of the Peninsula and coming up from

below the Intermediate Series, occupies more or less of the surface from
the vicinity of the Renew’s Butterpots to the shores of Conception Bay be-

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 375

tween Holyrood and Manuels Brook. The newer or Great Intermediate
Series which flanks this Laurentian Nucleus, was found on the Peninsula
of St. Johns and Ferryland to show a general dip to the eastward although
making many minor undulations; while on the Peninsula between Conception
and Trinity bays the inclination is reversed, being nearly uniformly westerly,
making many repetitions of the same strata however, as on the opposite side
of the fold. Corresponding with this great anticlinal, the measure of the
Intermediate rocks, as seen at parts of the eastern coast of Placentia Bay,
appear, by the generally eastern dip which they present, to indicate the axis
of a synclinal trough to run from Trinity Bay in the direction of St. Mary’s
Banyan

As structural work of a reconnaissance nature only has thus far
been published in reference to Newfoundland it is hoped that this
most interesting phase of geology of the island may be investigated
in the near future. The following locality descriptions will take up
briefly these smaller structural features which may serve as a clue

to the more general structures of the entire manganese area.

Pir GENERAL SD RATIGRA PIE:

There is very little published information regarding the general
stratigraphy of the region under consideration but a few observations
made while studying the individual manganese deposits and other
information verbally communicated by Prof. van Ingen may be of
interest at this point.

One of the most striking features of the manganese deposits is
their occurrence at the same horizon in shales of late lower Cam-
brian age at widely separated points on Conception and Trinity Bays.
At each deposit, the manganese zone was found to occur below the
Paradoxides zone. At Manuels in the shales directly below the man-
ganese nodular beds, heads of Protolenus harveyi (oral communica-
tion by G. van Ingen) were found so that in all probability the man-
ganese beds may be included in the Protolenus zone of Matthews
(16: 101-153).

By referring to the columnar sections (Figs. 2, 36, 42, and 44) it
is readily seen that the sediments consist largely of shales and lime-
stones and that there is a very decided increase in the total thickness
of the beds from Manuels where there are 215 feet between the
bottom of the Paradoxides zone and the top of the pre-Cambrian to
Smith Point, Trinity Bay, where over 1,000 feet intervene between

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 220 Z, PRINTED FEBRUARY 23, IQI6.

376 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April zs,

the Paradoxides zone and the pre-Cambrian. From the bottom of
the Paradoxides zone at Smith Point to the top of the Smith Point
limestone according to a calculation based upon a careful stadia
transit survey of the shore line (Fig. 43) there is a thickness of 546
feet. The total thickness in the number of limestone beds varies from
a few feet at Manuels to 100+ feet at Smith Point. The thickness
of the shales at Manuels below the Paradoxides zone is about 200
feet while the thickness of the shales at Smith Point within the corre-
sponding limits is over 400 feet, on the assumption that the Smith
Point limestone of Trinity Bay corresponds to that limestone of the
Manuels section which is just above the basal conglomerate.

The increase in total thickness of the number of beds from the
east shore of Conception Bay to the west shore within the corre-
sponding limits would indicate a deeper portion of the Cambrian sea
when the sediments were being deposited. The fact that sediments
found below the Smith Point limestone on Trinity Bay are not repre-
sented at Manuels would indicate that sedimentation had been going
on for a longer time in the western portion of the basin than in the
eastern. Whether there actually was a greater amount of sedimenta-
tion in that portion of the basin remains to be investigated.

As very little information is at hand with regard to the area of
the Cambrian rocks, it is quite out of the question for the writer to
attempt to outline the area once occupied by the Cambrian Sea in
southeastern Newfoundland. Moreover, it is likewise impossible for
the writer to outline the original manganese area as it looked in early
Cambrian times. If manganese occurs on the eastern shore of Pla-
centia Bay, as all descriptions of that occurrence seem to indicate, it
would seem that the original area of the manganese was approxi-
mately 200 or 300 square miles, assuming a more or less oblong shape
for the deposit.

Although the basal conglomerate at Manuels is evidence of a defi-
nite shore line for the Cambrian sea at that part of the basin, there
is also evidence at the other localities examined, where, however, the
basal conglomerate is not found in any such large development.
There are littoral pre-Cambrian contacts at Topsail, Chapel Cove,
and Brigus; all with typical shore deposits.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 3877

IV. DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF LOCALITIES

MANUELS.—Manganese is found as thin jasper-like bands of
green and brown color, as nodular beds, and as argillaceous and cal-
careous beds interbedded with green and red shales of late lower
Cambrian age. This mode of occurrence is very well shown in
Manuels brook close by the village of Manuels. The geographic,
geologic, and stratigraphic relations are shown in Figs. 1-3. The
Cambrian at Manuels consists in the main of shales with thin bedded
sandstones with conglomerate and thin limestones at its base and the
sediments show practically no metamorphism throughout the series.
The strike of the beds is N 82 E (true meridian) and the dip is 10
N. One of the best unconformable contacts in the manganese area
is that in Manuels brook at Manuels where the basal Cambrian con-
glomerate lies upon the Huronian. For a more intimate acquaint-
ance with the manganese occurrence a somewhat detailed description
of the stratigraphy, lithology, mineralogy and petrography of the
manganese beds and their associated strata will be necessary and
therefore the individual beds of the section (Fig. 2) will be de-
scribed in stratigraphical order.

210 A 1, Basal Conglomerate. The base of the Cambrian at
Manuels is made up of coarse conglomerate, eighteen feet in thick-
ness, consisting in the main of boulders and pebbles of igneous char-
acter. These boulders at the bottom of the bed, where the base of
the Cambrian lies unconformably upon the Huronian, measure in
some instances twelve feet in diameter, but they diminish in size
toward the top to an inch or less. The matrix, of an arenaceous
nature toward the bottom, grades into a more calcareous one at the
top where the overlying stratum is a limestone.

219 D1, limestone. This bed is a bluish fine-grained to pebbly
argillaceous limestone of about 3 feet in thickness. The pebbles
averaging a fraction of an inch in diameter are angular to subangular
in shape and appear to be of igneous rocks. Pteropod shells chiefly
of the genus Coleoloides abound. Microscopic examination proves
this rock to be a semi-crystalline, fine to locally coarse grained lime-
stone. The texture is very suggestive of organic forms, being an
aggregate of elliptical bodies, possibly algal concretions [or “ copro-

378 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

Manuels River

green shale

shl.phos.pebs.
bIK. nod.green shi.

eee red mang. shl.
We jaspery mang.lent. shl.
/0= red%qy green jasp.mang. shl.
= ved slate.
q: ved %qy green mang. shl.
ae yed shale

yed mang. shl.
mang.nodulay shale

green shale
: Crypfozoan shale

green shale

pinkish limestone

LOWER CAMBRIAN

yed shale

green Shale

219 DI bluish limestone

2/0Al (0...0..0°.5) eonglomevate
S K

unconformity

2/0A0 = | volcanics int. granite

Fic. 2. Columnar section showing the details of the manganese zone in
the Lower Cambrian of Manuels brook, 219 A and B.

379

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND.

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380 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

lite ooze”’ similar to that described by Philippi from off the Congo
mouths—G, van Ingen]. These bodies contain aggregations of car-
bonate material, probably calcite, which have no definite orientation.
The section abounds with pteropod shell fragments, partially re-
placed with calcite. Calcite and carbonate material comprise the
greater portion of the section but quartz occurs as infrequent local
segregations and as irregular grains. Pyrite and hematite, as well as
a few pink and brown stained areas which are possibly secondary
products of manganese and iron, are sparingly present. No analysis
was made of this rock but with the sodium carbonate and potassium
nitrate bead test a manganese reaction was obtained. This bed is a
bluish argillaceous manganiferous limestone.

219 B 3, overlying the limestone, is a brownish weathering olive
green shale.

219 Bg is a bed of red shale, the upper surface of which seems to
be limey. The upper 2 inches of this bed has a wavy structure and is
somewhat greenish in color. Microscopically the bed is found to be
a hematitic shale with occasional grains of quartz and thin rect-
angular laths of feldspar. Magnetite and pyrite are found as irregu-
lar grains in sparing amounts.

219 B5. With a sharp contact, the red shale is Pvertean by a 1.5
foot thick bed of nodular and pebbly reddish blue limestone. Be-
cause of marked lithological differences this bed has been divided
into four smaller subdivisions which are lettered a, b, c, and d.
Subdivision a consists of about 2 inches of green shale which is
slightly calcareous. Subdivision b is a compact pinkish limestone
containing pinkish or reddish mineral disseminations and occasional
fragments of hyolithid and brachiopod shells. Microscopically this
limestone is somewhat granular and crystalline, with calcite as the
dominant anisotropic mineral. Quartz occurs occasionally. Hema-
tite as an impalpable dust or pigment is abundant, bordering hyo-
lithid fragments or as irregular accumulations. A fragment of
probably organic substance with a cellular structure is a conspicuous
feature of the slide. Sponge spicules replaced by calcite are
noticeable.

Subdivision ¢ differs not very much from the two members de-
scribed but is nodular or pebbly and much more fossiliferous. Micro-

1914.] CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 381

scopically this rock is a very fine grained semi-crystalline limestone.
Calcite, frequently twinned, is the dominant mineral with quartz and
chlorite in secondary importance. Barite occurs as occasional small
and large irregular grains. Hematite is found bordering calcite
grains and fossil fragments or replacing them, and as irregular accu-
mulations. Pyrite is found occasionally. Certain nodular or pebbly
forms, isotropic under crossed nicols, are, because of their fineness
of grain, of an indeterminable nature.

A very noticeable feature of this section is the diversity of Hyo-
lithes forms, some elliptical and concentric and others circular, either
entirely or partially replaced by calcite or hematite. The circular
forms measure .287 mm. in diameter (Fig. 4, Slide 250).

Fic. 4. Microphotograph of limestone, 219 B5c; slide 250; enlarged 22
diam. a, hyolithes with calcite and chlorite; b, calcite; c, quartz.

219 B5d. The upper subdivision of this bed is of interest mainly
on account of the mineral associations in the large nodules on its
surface. Differential erosional effects between the limestone and
nodule have resulted in a greater conspicuousness of the more resis-

382 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

tant nodule. The nodules, measuring as much as 6 inches in diam-
eter, consist largely of argillaceous material, jaspery concentric
bands, blades of barite, pyrite and some disseminated manganiferous
and ferruginous carbonate minerals which are surrounded by dark
areas. These latter are probably manganese oxide zones due to the
alteration of a manganiferous carbonate.

Under magnification these nodular portions are ronptily con-
centric and laminated in structure, with laminations red and green
in color, and of fine and coarse grain. An oolitic structure, but with
the spherules poorly formed, is found in combination with the
banded structure. Calcite occurs as somewhat elongated crystals
and is the dominant mineral. Wherever the calcite presents the
peculiar elliptical and circular shapes mentioned on page —, an
organic origin is immediately suggested (Fig. 5 and 6, Slide 254).

Fic. 5. Microphotograph of limestone, 219 Bsd; slide 254; enlarged 22
diam. a, elliptical calcite aggregations; b, chlorite; c, hyolithes.

Quartz is found as irregular grains and aggregations. Barite occurs
only sparingly. Among the opaque minerals, pyrite sometimes alter-

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 383

ing to limonite, is most conspicuous and occurs as large irregular
grains and areas surrounding fossil fragments and associated with

Fic. 6. Microphotograph of limestone, 219 B5d; slide 254; enlarged 22
diam. a, calcite; b, quartz; c, phosphatic? nodules.

more calcareous portions. Hematite (Fig. 7, Slide 257) is found
in the more jaspery or laminated areas as irregular grains, aggrega-
tions, and spherules associated particularly with the green area which
for the most part is of an indeterminable character. Veins of cal-
cite are found cutting the nodule. As in the layer above, there are
found in this one (Fig. 8, Slide 253), certain semi-isotropic nodular
areas or pebbles which are partially chloritized. It is very pos-
sible that these nodular or pebbly areas are similar to the phosphatic
nodules of 219 A 13 to be described later. These alter to carbonate
locally. Among the organic remains are fragments of shells, hyo-
lithes, trilobites, and sponge spicules, which in part show carbonate
and chloritic replacement (Fig. 5, Slide 254, and Fig. 7, Slide 257).

219 Az. Disconformably upon the above described nodular lime-
stone there rests about 34 feet of a hard, fissile, green shale. About

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV, 220 AA, PRINTED FEBRUARY 23, IQ16.

384 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

Fic. 7. Microphotograph of sponge spicules, 219 B6a; slide 257; en-
larged 22 diam. a, sponge spicule; b, hematite; c, calcite.

Fic. 8. Microphotograph of limestone, 219 B5d; slide 253; enlarged 22
diam. a, calcite; b, phosphatic? material.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 385

5 feet above the limestone there are thin seams full of comminuted
fragments of small Lingulella, and Hyolithes shells. The upper part
of this shale is conspicuous because of the conchoidal fracture with
which it breaks and the presence of local aggregations of small sub-
spherical black nodules some of which show pinkish centers of some
fine-grained minerals such as rhodochrosite or manganiferous cal-
cite. MnO, occurs as small dots or as dendritic areas on the frac-
ture planes. Microscopically, this is a chloritic micaceous shale con-
taining sparingly, among the visible minerals, irregular grains of
plagioclase, quartz, pyrite, magnetite and limonite in descending
order of abundance.

219 A2 is a nodular shale bed of .5 of a foot in thickness and
forming the sloping surface over which the stream runs. This bed
is noteworthy because of the Cryptozoon colonies showing on the
surface (see Fig. 10).

219 A 2a, the lower portion of this bed, is a green shale contain-
ing frequent small subspherical nodules and disseminations of a pink
carbonate which effervesces freely and is in all probability a man-
ganiferous calcite similar to the pink nodules analyzed (see page 395).

219 A 2b is the Cryptozoon shale bed and contains roughly con-
centric or zonal structures measuring 114 inches in diameter, irreg-
ular and sub-spherical nodules measuring 1 inch in diameter, and
intercalated lenses of manganiferous calcite. These nodular and
Cryptozoon structures weather brown. Scattered through the bed,
particularly the shaly portions, are blades of barite.

Microscopic examination of this Cryptozoon bed brings out noth-
ing which can be said to be of an organic structure. What struc-
ture there is may be characterized as broken veinous, concentric and
laminated. The texture in great part is crystalline. The greater
portion of one of the nodules consists of calcite and carbonate. Bar-
ite occurring as long blades is determined principally by the two
cleavages, c and m, its birefringence greater than quartz and its
biaxial + character. Chlorite either alone or in combination with
carbonate is found replacing barite. Calcite or carbonate occur as
irregular masses or as rudely formed or incipient spherules. Hema-
tite occurs in the banded portions as more or less massive bands
interlaminated with chlorite or as rudely formed spherules in the

386 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April zs,

Fic. 9. Details of lower portion of manganese zone in Manuels brook.

387

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND.

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388 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

Fic. 11. Microphotograph of section of Cryptozoon nodule, 219 A2;
slide 292; enlarged 22 diam. a, ferruginous band; b, calcite.

Fic. 12. Microphotograph of Cryptozoon nodules from 219 A2, showing
barite being replaced by chlorite; slide 292; enlarged 22 diam. a, barite; b,
chlorite; c, ferruginous and calcareous shale.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 389

ground mass. These spherules measure as small as 9 microns in
diameter but have an average diameter of between 30 and 40 mi-
crons (Fig. 11 and 12, Slide 292).

¥ En ERE
et “

Fic. 13. Middle portion of manganese zone in Manuels brook. The num-
bers are those of the section.

390 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

The paragenesis of minerals within the nodules is as follows:
Calcareous or carbonate material with probably synchronously
formed hematite, barite veining, chloritization replacement, and
finally calcite as vein or replacement material.

219 A3 is a green shale bed, 3 feet in thickness, lying conform-
ably above the Cryptozoon nodular bed. For the most part this bed
consists of a hard fissile green shale which breaks with a conspicuous

Fic. 14. Photograph of manganese carbonate nodules extracted from
shale 219 Aa, natural size. Top, side and sectional views.

conchoidal fracture. 3 inches above the Cryptozoon bed is a layer
containing fragments of trilobites which according to Prof. G. van
Ingen are probably to be identified as Protolenus harveyi. Barren

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 391

green shale overlies this fossiliferous layer and this in turn is fol-
lowed by nodular green shale containing manganiferous calcite
nodules, a description of which is given in connection with the
following bed.

Fic. 15. Photograph, natural size of ground and polished horizontal sec-
tion of shale containing manganese carbonate nodules from 219 A4.

219 A4 is a conspicuous rhodochrosite and manganiferous cal-
cite nodular bed and may be considered the base of the manganese
zone at Manuels (Fig. 13). Structurally this is a nodular and oolitic
bed, the former structure conspicuously observable macroscopically,
and the latter, though not so well defined a structure, observable
microscopically. The entire bed measures 5.1 feet in thickness and
is divisible into two members, a and b. The lower member, 219 A 4a
is a predominantly nodular reddish green shale while the upper divi-
sion or b member is not so nodular.

392 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

The nodules of 219 A 4a are discoidal in shape and vary in diam-
eter from % inch to 1% inch, with an average of about I inch and a
thickness ranging from % inch to % inch. The longer diameters
of the nodules lie in the plane of the bed. Where the nodules are
very numerous or crowded they are found intergrown with or over-
lapping each other. Specimens ground and polished often show a
lemniscate formed by two nodules (Figs. 14 and 15). In color they
are for the most part green, but may have greenish, white, or pink
central cores. Cross sections of the nodules reveal a distinct zonal
arrangement with spherical central cores surrounded by concentric

Fic. 16. Microphotograph of manganese carbonate nodule from 219 A4a;
slide 288; enlarged 6 diam. a, carbonate of manganese, lime and magnesia;
b, barite; c, barite replaced by chlorite; d, shale.

shells conforming to the shape of the nodule. The grain of the
nodules is usually exceedingly fine, impalpable or crystalline. The
pinkish cores are usually crystalline and respond to the HCl test
quite readily, indicating some carbonate mineral. By analysis thé
green nodules are found to consist essentially of rhodochrosite (seé
Anal. B, page 395), while the pinkish crystalline mineral occupying

1914.1] CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 393

the centers of the nodules or occurring as intercalated lenses or
nodules in the nodular bed is found to be essentially a maganiferous
calcite (see Analysis C, page 395).

Fic. 17. Microphotograph of coalescing nodules from 219 A6c; slide
243; enlarged 4 diam. a, carbonate of manganese, etc.; b, odlitic shale.

Further macroscopical examination of the nodules shows the
presence of barite blades within the central portions of the nodules or
disseminated throughout the nodule or its shaly matrix. The char-
acteristics which determined the barite are;its c and m cleavage, its
hardness of 2 and its diaphaneity. Its optical. properties. confirm it
microscopically. Pyrite is found sometimes completely surrounding
central cores as irregular and continuous grains. The surfaces of
the nodules usually are covered with minute pink or reddish dis-
seminated grains which upon microscopic examination are found to
be hematitic spherules.

Thin sections of these nodules, on the whole, are not satisfactory
for microscopical work because of the almost impalpable fineness of
the grain. However some of the larger features may be of interest
and importance. The structure is nodular and concentric and some
of the concentric shells are oolitic. In all the thin sections of
nodules the most conspicuous feature is the zonal arrangement of
crystalline and indeterminable portions. The crystalline parts
usually occupy the centers of the nodules while the impalpable or
indeterminable areas are arranged around the centers (see Fig. 16,
Slide 288). However some of the cores consist of indeterminable
material. The zones are sometimes marked off from each other by
more or less sharp contracts as brought out by a difference in shade
of color or by an apparent difference in grain (Figs. 17, and 18).

394 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

The exterior zones merge imperceptibly into the shale, a fact which
has some genetic significance.

Fic. 18. Microphotograph of two manganese carbonate nodules from 219
A6oc; slide 237; enlarged 8 diam.

An incipient oolitic structure with spherules of hematite is com-
mon to the outer zones of the nodule and shaly matrix. The spher-
ules do not as a rule show any well-developed zonal structure nor are
they of very regular form. They vary in diameter from 6 microns
to 77 microns and have an average diameter of about 24 microns.
Not infrequently the spherules consist of both carbonate and hema-
tite, the former preserving a radiating structure and abounding in
the more calcareous portions of the specimen, while the hematitic
spherules are more common in the shaly parts.

Among the determinable minerals are calcite, which occurs as
anhedral grains of variable dimensions in small crystaliine areas, in
veins, or as replacement material after organic remains such as sponge
spicules, etc. Carbonate material for the most part specifically inde-
terminable makes up the greater part of the slide. Barite is found
occupying the more central portions of the nodule in some sections.
Quartz as irregular grains occurs only in sparing amounts. Pyrite
is present as large and small irregular grains and masses.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 395

The analyses of the green and pink nodules are as follows:

ANALYsis B. ANALYsiIs B TI.

Green Nodules. Recalculation.
SiO) sy 2 Es Se ae oe TOT NEC © Mae eran goes Veena nnneec 39.56
TRO: Oas CAMeen oleae Reena a eens ay eae PAC IHn mer aL CG) s sara te ahaca mien dees oo ere O 7.30
INTO’ cece oo eS eR SET BiG Gren CaS © Meese eae ayy eterat anaes 18.61
IN Mir Bees ia homius «teu gusrasree ne BINT OW Na Wlig© OW mrseenve cis teeters ears ah ccees 3.79
CaQ: cae Riise te ae pecans TOVAGR As Sil Osptrac eerste peer ane 5.94
Nic Oper iain. Sashes sca se Te SOwey JB a'S Osmmeenswe menace mean eten esac 6.29
NBS © eric ieee oncie dens eealoneees (Gite Naam ial OY ean Rae AE nD oka 1.51
TEL O) 5 Siig i Sl RE Pre RE Di Soil 5 Jes @)naiey tucaepae sua oem each neeponrs 7.35
(COR 25 33les, ZA ORAL OF 2Si Ops nee see 9.17
99.96 99.52

ANALYSIS C. ANALYSIS C I

Pink Nodules. Recalculation.
SiO: Gisee eee o eee nee BST Ante Gia GO) Byteee ey Ue le enue een ae 58.05
ROMO: 8g clerais eens: ope area er IeReees ALO AMS COL og Alena uacion Huson acon One
INI OS SAS, ol cre iss an iat es ee es IY GY. cal Hal @) 1) Rn a ahh eS A ati een era 2.34
IN Airy © een eee crete inn DOPAO M1 SSI Oy perntnn ies malas any Maccoll 3.78
(CAO re ee io link eaiaie 3 BIO2 1 Es Oath eee utnecey oobooe 1.40
INU) 5 ele a re aa an BO) Ciel BY CD) it ase ar ei el ra one 1.06
JEL O) yeaah aise aipen oe ee DERI ee ide 18° - AIRLOoINOpeASiIOs ooscecooooe 4.07
CO edie hale tarsiessonsiss 30.77 100.02

100.02

The pinkish crystalline mineral which exhibits a rhombohedral
cleavage, has a hardness of about 3, effervesces freely with HCl acid,
and, with the above composition, is essentially a manganiferous cal-
cite. The excess MnO probably exists as a peroxide of manganese
as indicated by the considerable amount of chlorine which was given
off while the sample was being digested with HCl acid. As no thin
sections were made of this specimen no petrographic confirmations
can be made.

The upper subdivision of 219 A 4 (219A 4b) is a greenish and
reddish nodular shale bed measuring 2.9 feet in thickness and divis-
able into three roughly distinct portions. The lower part, 219 A 4b 1
is a greenish red shale overlaid by a reddish shale with occasional
small nodules measuring about 1% inch in diameter (Fig. 13, and 19).

BG DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April zs,

Fic. 19. Middle and upper portions of manganese zone in Manuels brook. ©

397

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND.

‘Ly O12 ‘910 9prxo

‘pueq pel q ‘pueq uoois fe ‘(SiIoJOWeIP QI) pasieyus ATIY.SITS
-oyeuoqied asouesuel papueq JO woT}VS [ed4I9A paysijod jo ydersojoyg

02 “OI

398 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April2s,

Under the microscope a thin section of this bed reveals hematite in
the form of a pigment and as grains and ill-formed spherules,
while local areas of carbonate are found. The upper member of
this bed, 219 A4b3 is a red shale containing small subspherical and
‘discoidal nodules quite similar to those described in detail above.
219 A5 is a nodular ferruginous shale which is calcareous and
manganiferous. The shaly structure and the manganese are brought
out in a conspicuous way through weathering; the manganese by the
black discoloration in evidence as one of the derived oxides. This
bed has a thickness of .2 of a foot but thins and thickens, presenting
a lenticular appearance. The nodules, or possibly pebbles, are sub-
spherical in form, dark green in color, and of impalpable fineness of
grain. They resemble those already described in connection with the

Fic. 21. Photograph of polished vertical section of banded manganese
carbonate-oxide ore from 219 A7, natural size. a, green band; b, red band;
c, barite.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 399

219 B 5 limestone and those about to be described in beds 219 A 11
and 219 A 13, and are probably phosphatic pebbles in compostion.
The minerals in evidence in this bed are hematite, calcite, and barite.
This bed is undoubtedly a manganiferous bed as shown by the oxi-

Fic. 22. Photograph of vertical polished section of banded manganese
carbonate-oxide ore from 219 A7, natural size. a, red band; b, brown band.

dized weathering products. The bed as a whole resembles 219 A 11
which to all appearances is suggestive of mineralized reworked
material.

219 A 6 is somewhat fine-grained and gritty red shale, measuring
0.4 to 0.5 of a foot in thickness.

219 A7 is the main manganese-bearing bed, measuring .7 of a
foot in thickness. This bed is of more than usual interest in that the
manganese occurs as primary carbonates and oxides in the form of
thin jasper-like bands of green and light chocolate brown color,
and as lenticles,and nodules. Interlaminated with the jaspery bands
are reddish bands with manganese essentially in the form of an oxide
and a carbonate (Fig. 20, 21, and 22). This bed has been divided
into three layers, a, b, andc. The lowermost or a subdivision is the
reddish band which is essentially a manganiferous shale. It is nodu-

PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV, 220 BB, PRINTED FEBRUARY. 25, 1916.

400 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

lar with nodules, lenticles, and bands of the green jaspery carbon-
ate and oxide of manganese. Wherever the jaspery minerals occur
in the red band, whether as nodules, lenticles, continuous or non-

continuous bands, they present or suggest concretionary character-

istics.

The red bands are locally pyritiferous and _ barytic.

shale occupies the greater portion of the bed.

Red

Microscopic examination of this red band brings out very little,

other than that it is distinctly hematitic with the hematite occurring

as a pigment or as irregular accumulations (Fig. 23, Slide 276).

Fic. 23.
219 A7; slide 276; enlarged 9.5

diam.

The chemical analysis of this band 1s as follows:

Anatysis &.

ANALYSIS £ I.

Microphotograph of banded manganese ore with barite, from
a, red band; b, green band; c, barite.

Red Bands. Recalculation.

SLO ampe dec Meaiingce tina omic inant. Ks ZOTs Mi) aie eee, Ge ee 19.71
I BUCERS Se BE SI coat ac a 4.2 IW bial GO) i sreronme Renee ee a oc 10.23
Hie One wee aad tnt nae eaae ona g. 1602, MeCOinne ie acne nde sheen ee 7.2

TANIA @ tenance aun See ype areas rea ie 6:00;--~ Ca COs ep eign os eee 7.50
Tir ©) ear Oren san eee Sat 26:05 0 1 Car GP OD crit aka ener ee 10.31
Cal Bee ye eee eee eyes sat era OOAE os SiO ras Ne Te on eae 19.44
ito: Yai Siti aaa aene eee hae ea cere BAO TO e Sigs, Huis beh an De alea ee oe 1.87
IPA) ACACIA ARUN aat als, lam aap yp Asl{OoINGO ASiOsee IO) 5a65 TOU
IFAS Gy eae ys TR a a MM ane BET) 3h FORO) 2 Wisk Ulnar tame ica Te ere een 4.25
(COB nee a a Rein Iaiacla. Maven a 10.57 90.57

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 401

is

Of most interest in connection with this red shaly band are the
jaspery bands of green and brown carbonate and oxide of manga-
nese. Where in bands, they vary from % inch to 1 inch + in thick-
ness and may be continuous. The contact with the red band may
be very even or very undulatory. This wavy character may be
present whether the band thickens or thins or is of the same thick-
ness throughout. The brown and green jaspery bands may contain
thin laminz or nodules of other colors.

The green material is characterized by its chalcedonic and some-
what waxy luster, its translucency on thin edges, its hardness of 5 to
6, its specific gravity of about 3.13 (that of the green nodule) and
its slight response to HCl.

The chemical analysis of this material is as follows:

ANALYSIS A. ANALYSIS AI.
Green Band. Recalculation.
SiO Ge See UNE ARN eee Moai keh Lial GO): a ie et AGES ctw Sia e ars 44.30
TCO 16.6 HB MO re Re tee enins Aveo MEMO 2s simak a pawane Seon uae 8.08
Ee © ere ene hv acramaeens BOW i CAC Oye an arse oe en COLT
ENIL| OSs Grek erate es Ike ae een ee Getto Wig SO meyers cee caren nie aeons 4.21
Wikia O)'s esa Seno Se oe aR eae SATOPIIG Wheel Bie) © Yaseen Acs SAlhten RUM URN en 3.36
(GAO) oo na Bo BER ee aera Tsle3 Obs i AAO aes ae eaeaeen eneCe hes ia OO)
IWiledO) is carole is meted ace ra oe 2.30 2H.O-A1,0,-2Si0, + FeO 18.24
TEE ON. cep ie lies cal pce re RAR ras AES ce 2.98 99.25
(COM er re eee eae cae 26:00
100.09

The green band so very similar chemically to the green nodule
already described in connection with the nodular bed lower down in
the series, is in great part a rhodochrosite in composition but has
in combination, in descending order of abundance, considerable
amounts of calcareous, argillaceous and ferruginous material. Man-
ganese not combined with CO, probably exists as some oxide, prob-
ably a peroxide, as considerable chlorine was given off by the sample
when first treated with concentrated HCl. Other features hardly
need any explanation.

Thin sections of this band are very unsatisfactory in that, be-
cause of the impalpable fineness of the grain, little can be seen out-
side of structural features and certain opaque minerals, chiefly
hematite.

402 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

The brown band differs in chemical composition, in color, and in
specific gravity. The color is a light or dark chocolate brown. The
specific gravity is 3.32. The chemical composition differs mainly
in the higher percentage of manganese, as shown in the following

analysis:

ANALysis D. ANALysiIs D 1.

Brown Band. Recalculation.
Si Ons ica i oie Genel Maa nancy 10.2 iGO peter Ohne ere Ti. 3 ZOOR
EERO Seow Seren le ny De erm Sake 132. MMC ORG Rey sole eee ae 32.89
IEN(e\ @) Mra aea eG renin Peto een rel ar Neen se ge NU SOs. NGACOR acini eee Sah ab 14.01
TE lO tater aet ie es en acer Ree a ASA ie SNS COs ig Ges eee 5.90
TNE ©) rei sists tr Ase tua yale oe Lats aD 4Q.2 Alal {Osi NGO ASiIO)s goochoccaccs 11.08
CaO errata seni ase sae San USI Oa) 8s ae ae eee 5.40
INV Aico (GDF yaa secre alt ee sae BOOZ! ESO aii as ru sncn Gen eto ee 27
ETE OEY errs arn ph crete a Me Bit 99.48
COR ree oe EEN ies OTE OS

100.80

Members b and c of bed 219 A 7 differ from the subdivision just
described in the greater abundance of jaspery bands in comparison
with the red shaly band and they show greater continuity on the
whole. :

Member d consists of green and brown jaspery bands all more or
less nodular and interlaminated with the red manganiferous shale.
Barite as segregations, disseminated blades, and veins occur infre-
quently. In the weathered portions of the section this bed is found
altering on its more exposed structural planes to the secondary
oxides of manganese such as psilomelane, etc.

219 A8 is a purplish manganiferous nodular shale measuring 0.3
of a foot in thickness. It contains lenticles and discoidal nodules
of the green jaspery manganese carbonate (Fig. 24, Slide 284).
The noticeable microscopic features of a thin section of this rock are
its nodular, odlitic and shaly structures. The spherules, though
rudely formed, are of either hematite or a carbonate, the former
more closely associated with the green jaspery structures, and the
latter with the red shale.

219 Ag is a manganiferous bed structurally, mineralogically, and,
presumably, chemically, analogous to 219 A 7, and measuring .5 of a

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 403

foot in thickness. Green discoidal nodules of manganese carbonate
and the green, brown and red manganiferous bands similar to those
Om 210 NVA, are a Conspicuous) feature on the beds) VAY thinl section
from one of the nodules of this bed collected during the summer of
1912 shows, aside from the nodular form, conspicuous zonal and

Fic. 24. Microphotograph of red shale from 219 A8; slide 284; enlarged
38 diam. a, hematite aggregation; b, spherules of hematite.

oolitic structures. For the most part the grain is impalpable, but
that of the core is more or less crystalline. There are five pro-
nounced parts consisting of a crystalline innermost core, No. 1,
which in a great part is composed of carbonate, presumably that of
calcium and manganese though nothing of a definite confirmatory
nature could be observed, and 4 successive enveloping shells differ-
entiated from each other by either the presence or absence of hema-
tite, the shade or intensity of color or by fineness of grain. The
oolitic character of zones 3 and 5 with spherules consisting in great
part of hematite and measuring as small as 12 microns and as large
as 90 is very noticeable. Layers 2 and 4 in a great degree consist of

404 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

indeterminate material (Fig. 25, Slide 244). Anisotropic minerals
in this section are not common but those most noticeable are calcite,

Fic. 25. Microphotograph of nodule, from 210 A7; slide 244; enlarged
4.0 diam. a, outer zone of manganese carbonate; b, core of crystalline man-
ganese carbonate.

barite, and chlorite, the latter being usually associated with the
barite.

219 Ato consists of 3.5 feet of alternate layers of purple and
green shale which contain thin nodules and lenticles of jaspery man-
ganese carbonate, some of which measure 1.3 feet in length and 0.1
feet in thickness. The lowermost subdivision of this bed, 210 A 10a,
is a dark reddish-green heavy nodular and oolitic shale with nodules
very similar to those described above. Disseminated minute reddish
mineral particles suggesting hematite spherules are found rimming
the nodules in some cases. Barite occurs occasionally. Subdivision
b of this bed is composed of 0.2 of a foot of green and red lenticular
manganiferous seams with green jaspery nodules, similar to those in
the lower beds, interlaminated with a hematic odlitic shale. Subdi-
vision ¢, measuring 0.5 of a foot in thickness, is a dark gray oOlitic and
slightly nodular shale with green jaspery seams. Barite blades occur
with nodular accumulations of manganiferous calcite. Microscopic-
ally this layer is essentially a hematitic oodlitic shale with the indi-
vidual spherules measuring from 15 to 23 microns in diameter while
larger aggregations of spherules measure from 0.253 mm. to 0.387

mm. in diameter. The spherules consisting of hematite and car-
-

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 405

bonate are found in a groundmass the character and composition of
which is for the most part indeterminable. Occasional pyrite grains
are found (Fig. 26, Slide 280).

219 A tod, the upper subdivision, consists of 0.3 of a foot of
nodular and oodlitic dark gray shale with thin jaspery manganese
carbonate laminations.

Subdivision e is a dark green nodular and oolitic shale, 0.8 of a
foot in thickness and not very different from the layer d just de-

Fic. 26. Microphotograph of odlitic manganiferous shale from 219 Atoc;
slide 280; enlarged 22 diam. a, hematite spherules; b, shale with dissemi-
nated hematite.

scribed, and f—is a coarse nodular seam, 0.8 of a foot in thickness,
in a dark green shale, comprising the uppermost portion of this bed.

219 Ait is a heavy tough reddish band, 0.5 of a foot in thick-
ness and lithologically very different from the immediately over-
lying and underlying beds. For the most part, the structure is both
somewhat nodular and oolitic. The general fragmentary nature of
the fossils and of certain nodular or pebbly forms leads one to think

406 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

that this layer consists in some degree of reworked material. The
surface of this bed shows ripple marks. The predominant constitu-
ents which a macroscopic examination affords are calcite, barite,
argillaceous material, limonite, manganese oxide, and pyrite. Out-
side of the nodular, oolitic, and fragmentary character of the layer,

Fic. 27. Microphotograph of manganiferous red shale from 219 AII;
slide 277; enlarged 22 diam. a, calcite vein; b, hematite spherule.

very little additional information concerning this peculiar rock could
be gained microscopically (Fig. 27, Slide 277). The spherules are
of two kinds, hematite and carbonate, and they average about 48
microns in diameter. Non-ferruginous portions of the slide show a
groundmass of such fine-grained green material that very little could
be made of it. Hyolithes, sponge spicules, and shell fragments
partially or entirely replaced by calcite are a noticeable feature.
Barite as scattered blades partially replaced by chlorite and pyrite,
hematite as the chief constituent of the spherules, and carbonate are
the most abundant of the determinable constituents of the slide
(Hise 285 Slide 278)

1914-1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 407

The chemical analysis of this rock is as follows:

ANALYsIS F.

BNO) Al akite

CC

18.42
6.33
7:95

21.44

14.46
5.01
3.46
2.58

21.20

100.85

ANALYSIS F I.

Recalculation.
SiO.
2H.0- A1.O,-2Si0,

This bed is essentially a manganiferous argillaceous dolomite

with considerable percentages of barite, hematite, and phosphate.

would seem quite

reasonable

It

to suppose that the phosphate

Ca,(PO,). exists in the nodular portion as we have found to be the
case in the nodules of 219 A 13 to be described later.

Fic. 28. Microphotograph of red manganiferous shale from 219 AIT;
slide 278; enlarged 22 diam.; showing hematite spherules in a groundmass of
manganese carbonate.

408 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

219 Ai2 is a fissile green shale measuring 1.4 feet in thickness
with conspicuous black nodules which on weathering become white.
Because of the similarity in form and color with those of 219 B 5,
A 5, A 11, and those to be described from the bed immediately above
this one, the suggestion is made here that these nodules also may be
phosphatic. .

219 A 13 is a phosphatic nodular manganiferous calcareous shale

bed, 1 foot thick, with the nodules common in both bottom and top
portions of the bed (Fig. 29). The nodules because of their white

Fic. 29. Photograph of a polished vertical section of a phosphatic nodu-
lar shale seam, 219 A13; natural size. a, phosphatic nodule; b, shale with
trilobite fragments.

weathering and subspherical to elongated form resemble those of 219
A 12, A 11, A 5,and B 5. In chemical composition the nodules of
this bed resemble those from the Cambrian of southern New Bruns-

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 409

wick described by W. D. Matthew (15). The chemical analyses of
the Manuels brook and the New Brunswick phosphate nodules are

as follows:
Anatysis H.
Manuels Brook, N. F. Hanford Brook, N. B.

SMO); os eee eee see ete eer tee 2 DOV SI Oka aa ee eta caine eee ZA
NUE Gy aii eann cdi Vac isoeasi ts ersten POT Tals Opera taracnee eae saline meu eare 11.85
Hires © ager siiens-y econ sa cee stesso TOsT’3 p24 EO pecesay teas tran onsen suas atene 11.44
(CAOMA ex seisnncia dic hoses BRC Oia (CAOl, oes see ooo ee e235
INAS O): be Beare eRe ae a eee Teeth lO Ny saree Seton sar aetna aa Aital eg ag 0.59
TPO esis ear si Re te OR ee oe LR HAS SONU bed Oonamn sis Bosminld acieaitictuid dc Gent 2.2
TEL). :3 cise ete Aare renee eae eerie Dies Nil Ogi ticec ay Gone ne usasy Annee, areas 1.41
CO Mee re hes on ois cae 2.2 1 @ Pare ae ate re CR ty Mins Conn nate 14.99
93.90 H.O Miele aan Maa oMealeMstctaeelichelteter ens 3.43
Sle OE Ht Neel as aya Mea PRTC 3.44
COL aie ote nee Aer UC emai cts 3.53
100.06

The similarity between the percentages of SiO,, Fe,O,, CaO and
P.O, of the two analyses is at once very noticeable and at the same
time very suggestive. It is hoped that at some future time, work of
a correlative nature may be taken up in connection with these inter-
esting and genetically problematical nodules.. Among the macro-
scopically observable minerals in the fresh and altered rock are
pyrite, hematite, limonite, wad or psilomelane, and vivianite in an
argillaceous dolomitic groundmass. Hyolithes fragments are in
abundance.

As no apparent manganese was observable in the considerable
thickness of overlying green shales, 219 A 13 was considered to be
the top of the manganese zone at Manuels Brook. According to
Prof. van Ingen the Parado.vides fauna begins in these shales which
immediately overlie the manganese zone.

TopsaiL.—The manganese at Topsail some 4 miles east of
Manuels (see Figs. 1 and 30) occurs interbedded in steep northerly
dipping (50° to 78°) lower Cambrian strata consisting of shales,
limestones and sandstones. The manganese is found in several beds
of which only one measuring 1.4 feet in thickness seems to be of
sufficient importance to have warranted prospecting, as shown by

410 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

some open cutting. This is a carbonate-oxide ore of manganese of
brown color and vitreous luster.

Not only does the character and structure of the manganese at
Topsail differ from that of Manuels but the section shows some

Fic. 30. Photograph of the open cut with the manganese prospect tunnel
at Topsail; Loc. 219 E.

lithological variations. Moreover the rocks of the section are very
much disturbed with the rapid changes in the dip of the beds. The
structural changes in these beds are no doubt due to the great fault,
the plane of which passes about 300 feet east from the manganese
zone with a strike of N. 13 E. and a vertical dip. The fault plane
lies between the Huronian and the lower Cambrian, and the beds
immediately adjacent are considerably disturbed and so to a lesser
extent are those farther away.

That a better idea may be obtained as to the relationship of the
manganese, the following general and local stratigraphic sections with
descriptions are given. The generalized section as worked out by
Prof. van Ingen and Mr. A. O. Hayes during the summer of 1912 is
as follows:

1914.1] CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 411

Loc, Number.

210 EF 10 Brown shales with manganese at base.................- Open cut
9 Brown shales with limestone at base.
8 Heavy limestone.

Ft.
G Sinalhy Imm siome scoscouoccsesceosccds Meabat ace ana i 6.0
6 Brown sandstone with limestone nodules ............... 3.0
5 Fine and coarse sandstone with small limestone nodules.. 6.
4 Much sheared brown shale with limestone nodules and
MMANGANEIS BE WAS sccdoedncadodooucvd scab be deooouoeoN 4.0
Be Vliouthtot tunneltand tottenezone sree aa eee 15.0
PRA CO ARSE SSATIG SCONE satis eee ais eo RRR ee eet 6.0
i, “SINCE ACN OSA aint ORG a rans EO aT mam Ate eres Ba ae gale 0.3 to 0.5
Om nes Sarma rian evant ers nee elena ah aie eee een ee RR ye 25.0

It is quite apparent from a study of the above section that the
lower Cambrian at Topsail is in many respects similar to that of
Manuels. The absence of a basal conglomerate and the presence of
sandstone are the most striking features of the associated beds.
During the summer of 1913 a more detailed study of the manganese
zone of 210 E to of the generalized section was made and the
following subdivisions were made:

Loc, Number. Ft.

219 E 7 Green shale, badly broken.

omBandedsconcenthicrand) nodiularssialegnenaner naar eee rherae 1.0
PaGreenuslialessbadihyasineane dian ancy ction acl actors einer 0.5
Ag\ianieaneses oxide carbonate One eta are ecieista eeriei 1.4
3 Broken nodular green shale with manganese stain .............. 0.7
PaCalcareoussmancanikenotlsesiial Caer enreerce ere cco 0.3

1 Hard nodular olive green shale, badly weathered and sheared,
with manganese stain.

Of this series two beds, 219 E 4 and 6, are worthy of more de-
tailed description.

219 E4 is an oxide-carbonate ore of manganese of 1.4 ft. in
thickness. It is irregularly banded and nodular, of chocolate-brown
color, somewhat vitreous in appearance and argillaceous, with a
hardness of 5 to 6 and specific gravity of 3.26. Disseminated

412 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April zs,

through the ore are irregular small areas of a pink carbonate re-
sembling rhodochrosite in physical characteristics, and barite. The
ore is incrusted with psilomelane as an oxidation product. Micro-
scopic examination brings out a coarsely banded and nodular struc-
ture with a groundmass of indeterminate material which is for the
most part homogeneous to all appearances and of brown color.

Fic. 31. Microphotograph of barite sheaf in manganese oxide-carbonate
ore from 219 E4; slide 269; enlarged 22 diam. a, barite sheaf; b, manganese
oxide-carbonate ore.

The color of this ore is due to the brown and black oxides of
manganese and iron. Conspicuous among the anisotropic minerals
are barite which occurs as blades or bundles of blades generally
replaced by chlorite, and calcite, all very much discolored by the
manganiferous and ferruginous oxides. Minute veins of discolored
calcite are present (see Fig. 31, Slide 269).

The chemical analysis of the ore and its recalculation are as
follows:

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 413

€

AnaAtysis J, ANaAtysis I 1.
219 E 4 Recalculation.
Si), ig GRR eee eis oer Orananta TSO 4 Wir © eine crea ates pone Danie, Bost rae 34.2

TENG O)a a aah ae SARIS BEE gE ra Alera scdNi bal ClO our y EM eRN Hine aaa maiend 11.27
INIA OVS SEE tg nae en eer Se ORS Oro Gal © ined Norah neers mec rn esp 4.00
INV icra @) Papeete ton emia od mnie as Ale 26 gn Mig COx pacer ete oan errant 4.07
(Cea) 3 cries Bier tier har sme ei eal nea tae 2.2 Si © ee Sen aber pea TEN Eola d aN A A 10.32
IMU): inl ie cepa eet eas Sena DIZ OW aS G)RINer TE areas aes anener a 5.40
Bia S © eens sean ee oaa i omrok IS: Ke Pasi ate OPN NN te caten REN ease Rare e Mery aa 4.82
COR: saci tate ta paren s eenere tn 834k ZEEE ORALO 2 SiOx ee eee 16.30
TERE O) gos ce snare Te OS(s, Wid g Om PEMD eee Searcy mn aey Aenea 5.41
97.05 96.74

This is essentially a hydrous oxide of manganese with consider-
able amounts of argillaceous material, rhodochrosite, silicious
matter, dolomite, barite and hematite in descending order of
abundance.

219 E 6, not a manganese ore bed, though manganiferous, is
of interest mineralogically and petrographically. In structure it is
concretionary and banded, nodular and microscopically oodlitic. It
is essentially a calcareous, ferruginous and manganiferous nodular
and banded shale (see Fig. 32). Under the microscope the greater
part of the groundmass, isotropic under crossed nicols, is of inde-
terminable composition simulating phosphatic material. Of the
anisotropic minerals, calcite is most frequent and occurs with other
carbonate material in bands which show an oolitic structure. The
individual spherules, subspherical to elliptical in form show either
concentric or radiated structure, the latter showing an interference
cross with crossed nicols (Fig. 33, Slide 272). Calcite frequently
has the curved twinning planes indicative of strain. Barite occurs
in narrow veins or bands, as disseminated blades, or as sheath-like
blades or aggregations, usually being replaced to a greater or less
extent by chlorite and in a few instances by pyrite (Fig. 34, Slide
272). The spherules consist of hematitic pigment, carbonate and
chlorite. Because of the frequent association of chlorite with barite
one is led to suspect that possibly the chlorite spherules were
originally of barite which has since been replaced by the chlorite.
Other spherules made up in great part of hematite, sometimes show-

DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

414

‘g]npou oyeydsoyd “p

c

‘yorjaIOUOD IsaUeSULUIOIIOZ ‘9 { puLg IeUWOY UI spHpoU opyeUIoY “q SopeYys UooIs “eB ‘ezIS [eInyeU
‘oy Ole Woy oJeys se[Npou pue popueq FO UOlJDaS [voI0A poystod Fo ydeisojoyq “ce “O1y

1914-1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 415

Fic. 33. Microphotograph of banded and nodular shale from 219 E6;
slide 272; enlarged 38 diam. a, oolitic hematite shale; b, carbonate calcite
band; c, barite; d, pyrite.

Fic. 34. Microphotograph of barite with chlorite replacement from 219
E6; slide 272; enlarged 22 diam. a, barite; b, chlorite replacing barite; c,
phosphatic? material.

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 220 CC, PRINTED FEBRUARY 25, IQ16.

416 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

ing carbonate centers, are found most frequently in the jaspery
bands. The spherules vary in size from 12 to 120 microns but
have average diameter of about 94 microns.

The chemical analysis of this bed, with its recalculation, is as

follows:
210 E 6. Recalculation.
S11 Brcpaainne arg dee intae enapene teen me TO2A O-ENin CO Saas eee eo eee 16.79
TECH GS re Salis a ee tabs chistes Ra LOVOTHn-3 Cal GO yer weer ee 20.91
LN OSS S Sa eivern Ge Epo moe Hee aI TASS 2 eM GO, Sis .bar oa nega eee nee 10.57
JW Ba © a Hate re an HIE Ate oe yee ae nea ne TOW? ie COR has is Ben eee 4.52
CaO tease nee pera E37 Ay CECA O ea eiceh gaa ea a ee ae 5.49
I lho OME Rate tnee ilar, anaane a Mele ee atari laas AOA CanCP O)e.cdawenecion cones 3.75
1D @ ees etowes en ed een eee Tene 1 TA aS N | © Pam ameter itiormneramer tis Tf Uo 1.20
COR ey Seen DAE ox cau DU Oia a allele @)EvAtl a @) aera Sal ©) aan ene ananeee e 36.38
I BEAG) ahaa rience Pan Acar umeers Gg Sirueen 2.07 99.61
99.66

From the above analysis, this rock is essentially a dolomitic
manganiferous ferruginous shale with considerable amounts of
Ca,(PO,),. Among the microscopically observable minerals in the
above recalculation are calcite, hematite, quartz. The nodular por-
tions, usually isotropic and of exceedingly fine grain, are probably

Fic. 35. Photograph of manganese prospect along the Kelligrews high-
way just south of Long Pond; Loc. 219 F.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 417

Long Pond

ZIG FG green shale,
8=-/0 ey ) “a7ang. shale with Phos. pebs.
3 Gao mang. nod’ lent red sh.
6 = 2.6’ : mang. nodd lent. shl.
on = 0.8" eu ---green shale
8 Se, --mang. Shale.
= Anis green Shale.
ps Zz -60' mang nodular shale.
=>
= aw Pat
/ -=30 green shale.

ag
eu)
3
=)
4

|
|
]

'
' |
\ |
' |
J

Fic. 36. Columnar section of the manganese zone at Long Pond; Loc. 219 F.

418 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

in great part shaly in composition. The nodules of this band
suggest a very possible analogy to those of 219 A 5, 11, 12, 13, and
B 5. Inas much as this bed is somewhat phosphatic, the phosphate
in all likelihood is associated with the nodules, as is the case with
the nodules of 219 A 13 of Manuels. This bed is structurally and
mineralogically quite similar to the phosphatic beds of Manuels.
Lone Ponp Section.—About 2% miles southwest of Manuels
and west of the railroad and wagon road (see Fig. 35), manganese
occurs, in a low cliff, as nodular and banded layers interbedded with
shales. Though the manganiferous beds at this locality are con-
siderably more oxidized than those at Manuels, the occurrence as a
whole is similar and it is necessary to present the section with only
brief macroscopical descriptions of the important beds (Fig. 36).
Loc. Number. Ft

219 F 10 Glacial mantle.
9 Manganiferous green shale.

SePhosphatic nodularimangcanesexshale e425 she ae ee eee 1.0
7 Manganiferous nodular and lenticular green shale ............ 5.0
6sBanded nodular 2orekid cae vie one ei cic cee eee 2.6
Kakissilemoneen shailletdcesce cies Genser eee 0.8
A Manganiterous banded ore = ace nee aa ee ae ee eee 0.1
2 eMassives nodular ereenrslialeim istics tia eee 0.6
2eiNoduilareeshialesge cesses esas seam ke ese Oli neat cee TS ae yee 6.0
Ttlleavywenecn volver Shalimar ah ater eae eEtree 3.0

219 F 2 of the above section corresponds quite closely to the
lower nodular bed, 219 A 4a, of Manuels (see page 392), chiefly be-
cause of the presence of abundant discoidal-shaped nodules identical
with those at Manuels. The nodules have altered for the most
part to a wad and clay, some having secondary manganese or white
clay centers and clay border zones and others with limonitic green
clay centers with secondary manganiferous clay border zones. The
weathered nodules are very abundant.

219 F 6 is a heavy manganiferous bed composed of several 14”
to 3” red, brown and green manganiferous seams separated by thin
nodular shale laminations that are now red. It is quite evident that
this bed is a continuation of either 219 A 7 or 10 of Manuels. The
interior of some of the weathered nodules is a red and green
residual clay. The manganiferous seams weather reddish and
greenish.

t914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 419

219 F 7 is probably a continuation of 219 A 8 and 9 of Manuels
inasmuch as this bed is nodular and has many lenticular and con-
tinuous jaspery seams of 0.1 inch to 1 inch in thickness alternating
with ™% inch to I inch seams of reddish manganiferous shale.

219 F 8 from its similarity to 219 A 13 of Manuels may be de-
scribed as a phosphatic nodular manganiferous shale with the man-
ganese in evidence as some hydrous oxide.

CHAPEL Cove Section.—The manganese at Chapel Cove, of
inconsiderable amount, occurs in a very much faulted series of
lower Cambrian limestones and shales as alteration products on
many of the structural planes. If it were not for certain lithological
analogies with the deposits just described it would hardly seem
necessary to give any detailed description of this deposit because of
the small quantity of manganese present (see Figs. 1 and 37).

Fic. 37. Photograph of the section along the shore at Chapel Cove near
Holyrood, Loc. 213 C; showing the managenese zone at (m).

The generalized section as worked out by Prof. G, van Ingen
and Mr. A. O. Hayes during the summer of 1912 is as follows:

Loc. Number. Ft.
213 C4c Olive green shale.
b Alternate pink layers with small black pebbles, manganese layer 3.6
a Olive green shale, sheared near fault.

Cree Nodularshimestome:ancdushalewr errr een eee 24.0
7 Argillaceous red limestone and alternating shales ............ 25.0
GaeRed wslhraihyslimestom ey, Axe ccciaciek tac eed ve arena romero ici: 18.0
repre ie slide aep rain arcsec otan. lets clorcl ane rn rate ioe epenl arate staratare car Roem aera cela 8.0

IDG laleannay sre! Iitinestone sobb.soopoeoucooscopacodsdonoacobndobsoc 10.0
6 Red shales with limestone.

5 Red and green limestone.
4 Green limestone.

420 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

E2 Gray limestone.
I Conglomerate with pebbles of syenite, black chert and limestone.
0 Syenite.

C2 Agglomerate.
I Ribbon slates. Conception slates (Huronian).

The section represents the stratigraphic sequence and the locality
numbers indicate the position of the layers. Quoting Prof. van
Ingen in regard to this most interesting locality :

“It appears to me that we have here the remnant of a squeezed syn-
cline, the northern margin of which has been shoved far northwardly onto
the underlying agglomerate and ribbon slates.”

213 C 4b was studied more in detail by the writer during the
summer of 1913 in the hope that some more definite knowledge
might be gained on the occurrence of the manganese at this point,
but without very much satisfaction. The subdivided manganese
bed is as follows:

Loc. Number.
213 L4c Finely banded nodular bed.
b Fractured and slickensided green shale.
213 L4a Black nodular calcareous green shale with manganese staining.
L3 Nodular ferruginous calcareous green shale with manganese stains.
2 Fractured and fissile shale.
1 Manganiferous calcareous green shale with hematite and pyrite.

In as much as the manganese was not visible to any great extent
in its primary form throughout this small series of 3 to 4 feet no
analysis was thought necessary. Two of the above beds, A Ib;
and 213 L 4 are worthy of macroscopical and microscopical descrip-
tions because of marked lithological resemblance to certain of the
rocks at Manuels.

213 L3 is a nodular shale with conspicuous calcareous ferru-
ginous and manganiferous aggregations and jet black pebbles or
nodular forms. All structural and divisional planes of this bed are
conspicuously stained with some secondary oxide of manganese,
probably a hydrated oxide such as psilomelane. Microscopical ex-
amination of this shale brings out the fact that the structure is
nodular and odlitic and that the rock is a ferruginous chloritic shale.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 421

The groundmass consists of chlorite and, for the most part, of an
indeterminable material. Calcite occurs as an alteration product
or as a constituent of the hematitic spherules. Quartz is found
composing infrequent aggregates and as vein-filling material. The
opaque minerals other than hematite are manganese as psilomelane
or some other secondary derivative, pyrite as disseminations, and

Fic. 38. Photograph of manganese prospect on Brigus South Head; Loc.
212 Ai2a. a, oxidized manganese beds; b, green shale.

limonite as a yellow staining. ‘The spherules are for the most part
hematite in composition but carbonate is a very common constituent.
The diameters of the spherules range from 21 to 159 microns but
average around 44 and 77 microns. The ferruginous centers of
some of the spherules measure 0.8 of a micron.

Certain discoidal nodules in 213 L 4c resemble those of 219 A 4
at Manuels though they are very much less abundant.

213 Lga is nodular and the texture exceedingly fine-grained and
locally crystalline. The greater portion of the thin section is prob-
ably composed of shale material and the remainder is taken up in
great part by calcite and carbonate disseminations, as replacement
material of hyolithes shells, or as mineral aggregates. Barite occurs

[April 25,

DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF

422

"(@-¥8) 9U0Z dsouRSUeU ay} JO UOT}ISOd 9y} SuIMoyYs
pue uoHaIp ATIoyJIOU B Ul IOGIeY oY} FO YINOW dy} SsO1Ne SUIYOO] PedF{ YINOG snSi1g Jo Mar/\

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 423

as infrequent disseminations and individual platy crystals and prob-
ably once formed the Hyolithes-like rods now replaced by chlorite
and a carbonate. Pyrite and hematite are found. The nodules of
this bed, subspherical in shape, show under the microscope a compact

Fic. 40. View of the manganese beds (a) dipping into the sea on the
east side of Brigus South Head.

structure and an almost impalpable fineness of grain. Under crossed
nicols an occasional angular fragment of quartz is found but the
groundmass as a whole appears to be isotropic. It is possible that
these pebbles are analogous to the phosphate pebbles of Manuels,
Topsail, and Long Pond.

424 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

Bricus Section.—At Brigus South Head on the west shore of
Conception Bay (see Figs. 1, 38, 39, 40, and 41) manganese is found
to a great extent in the oxidized state in several beds at the water’s
edge in the shales of lower Cambrian age which make up the sharp

’

hog back ridge overlooking the “Needles.” Because of the inac-

ae RS

Fic. 41. View of the “ Needles” at the extremity of Brigus South Head,
showing the manganese zone (a-a).

cessibility of that portion of the ridge where the manganese was
best preserved, detailed measurement of the section was not pos-
sible. Prof. van Ingen and Mr. A. O. Hayes in 1912 found that
the best manganese measured about 4.5 feet thick in a zone of
15 feet. Specimens collected from more accessible portions were
all practically altered to psilomelane but there is one which shows
the original jaspery carbonate quite similar to the types described in
connection with the Manuels occurrence. Several old prospect pits
on the more accessible parts of this ridge were examined by the
writer, but the manganese was found to be in its secondary state and
the interbedded shales in a very much disturbed condition. The
strike of the strata of this locality is N. 10 E. and the dip 47 FE.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 4925

B rigus
| PT Aa St |e | green shale
| [a eral bee 2
Al3= 1.0 “green shale. Taradoxides:
LS eee
Al2b= 750 __ _]| green shale
i= [ee
ES ES Ue ee al
ire
ee Soe nega
Be [eee ee
Pa
O
ze ——
tee —— ==
S Sa
)
1) ————
All a=/5.0 mang. Shale.4.5'good.
— ae
Mile be |= SS) re) shale.
Alo Eames green shale.

Fic. 42. Columnar section of a portion of the lower Cambrian at Brigus
South Head, from measurements made by Gilbert van Ingen and A. O. Hayes,
1912.

426 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

a

The following section as prepared by Prof. van Ingen and Mr. A.
O. Hayes from their study of the region in 1912 shows the strati-
graphic relations of the manganese deposits at this point (Figs.

39 and 42).

Loc. Number. Ft.
DI2tAeAs ge Gneengshalesmendson meedlesmage ac: saat ata e ee ere 50.0
13 ee Ranadonides) zonewereenmsiales renee eee aerate 1.0
212 Na benGreem ishales) pec pena cine incre ere neo tee ee ae Er ee 75.0
a, IMBKAINeTS ome (CLR i WES)! sogocccaccvvedoougascvocucv0ce 15.0
Dierevedushalessithin\ aban’ sie ance sence cieee eee tee rele ee een 3.0
TOM ESM msi al Cee Heyes oats ay iauectwokous cierto ai ence Gro ee ee 60.0
Ontoaedy Saale cg ue ein. cave epee aloiny dec Ree AEE remeee eee ee 210.0
% IReGl Slaalby ImnSstOINS Sodsedocuduc0ccoucodoogono0a0000000000 11.6
Fst REG AISMAL Ete jiant aesnavoiiisacserentie ests aysueenace lav praca get se vette etamene fe) Sete eet 28.0

6 Limestone, heavy white at base, nodular and red above.
Holmia broggeri and other trilobites ............-+--«++ 30.0
ee CaS hi all rye sear itete altars ta womens gcua rab satura) S areiey acer metas oe pn 5.0
Ay mlbimestones very: shallyn i ceceda ean te prea oem ace ober eee 12.0
Bt evisiie eas laaileoy ees eee i aan Sat ene Sn Ee oe eT ye 32.0
A ILirmesnome wanda (CimyUOAOOM soococdccoccagguccdu0o cob dcK0NS 30.0
1. Red shale with local sandstone and conglomerate ........... 50.0

Unconformity.

o Pre-Cambrian shale and ash beds.

The striking feature of this section is the position of the man-
ganese zone in relation to the Paradoxides bed which is exactly the
relation established at Manuels and undoubtedly at the other locali-
ties described.

SMITH SouND SeEcTIon, Trrniry Bay.—The manganese zone on
Trinity bay occurs at Smith Point (Fig. 1) as two massive beds
associated with red and green nodular shales and limestones of
lower Cambrian age. The accompanying map (Fig. 43), prepared
from a transit survey of the shore line by Prof. van. Ingen during
the summer of 1913, shows the structural and stratigraphic relations
of the two manganese beds, 230 D 20 and D 27. The general strike
of these beds is north and the dip, 20 west.

230 D 27, the important manganese bed of this section (Figs. 44,
45), measures some 38 inches in thickness, and is faulted with a
downthrow of 15 feet on the west side. It is the thicker of the two
manganese beds, and has been found by analysis to be essentially a

Manganese and Associated RocKs of Broad Cove, Smith Sound.

Map of the outcrops of the protolenus and manganese zones exposed on the shore of Broad Cove, near Smith Point,

Fic. 43.
Smith Sound, traced from field map based on stadia transit surveys by Gilbert van Ingen, 1913.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 427

428 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

Smith Point
7] [ree
basilar tes ps i
230 128-9770 |---| red shale
| sae
| be ee
=
zl ERE a rea Se
Q =
=
bad SS —
oO
5 Esa ace ee
hal eee S|
s WES Saeed
fe)
iS eee Scag ee
7
22742 === Mang.nod. shale
D26: re) 6c} shale

=

Fic. 44. Columnar section of a portion of the lower Cambrian at Broad
Cove, near Smith Point, Smith Sound, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, showing
the manganese zone, 230 D26 to 28.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 429

manganiferous dolomitic ferruginous shale. The bed is somewhat
massive and nodular though the nodules are very irregular as com-
pared with those at Manuels and other localities ; irregular crystal-
line areas form the nodular portions while the matrix is made up
of more argillaceous matter. Thin sections taken from the bottom
and central portions of the bed were examined microscopically.

Fic. 45. Exposure of manganese ore, 230 D27, on the Broad Cove shore,
near Smith Point, Smith Sound. This is a nodular ferro-manganese carbo-
nate-oxide bed.

230 D 27aa is a reddish nodular and oolitic shale, with hematitic
carbonate making up the greater portion of the determinable
minerals ; aggregations of a fine-grained dark material suggest phos-
phatic nodules so common in the Manuels occurrence. Irregular
grains of quartz and aggregations of chlorite are found. Sections
of trilobites and other organic forms containing carbonate material
abound. Some hydrous manganic dioxide occurs (Fig. 47, Slide
299). Sections from the middle portions of the bed, 230 D 27e,
show a somewhat massive, nodular or oolitic reddish rock. Hema-
tite is found as a pigment and to a lesser extent as lustrous opaque
grains to which the color of the rock 1s due. A manganic oxide
occurs as irregular and infrequent grains. Carbonate occurs as
vein filling, as irregular areas, or as replacements of sponge spicules

[April 25,

DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF

430

‘Q10YS dAOD peo1g ay} uo Zzeq ofz

‘Poq 910 aSoULSURIU-O1JOF OY} JO MOIA JoIvAaN ‘Or ‘DI

1914.1] CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 43

and other organic bodies.
with chlorite fringing it.

bite fragments.

Barite is found infrequently, sometimes
Chlorite may be found replacing trilo-

Fic. 47. Microphotograph of fossiliferous manganese ore, 230 D27; slide

299; from Broad Cove; enlarged 22 diam.

ore; b, fragment of trilobite test.

a, manganese carbonate-oxide

The following analysis and recalculation represent the chemical

composition of an average sample of the bed and will corroborate

some of the petrographic observations:

ANALYSIS K,

230 D 27.

Sit Oy eos ante alo cared ent oie 15.14
IBC Oa Baise iaee laa mie predaa MiGIO eee 9.22
JANI LL OAs i Seen elie era hat es Bolo ae 12.04
INI a O) > pe eae een cic eA setae 25.63
(CAO)= sos eee yn cre emcee na 10.04
IW Ife)", ne re ee oa nonce 3.72
JEL Ore EC eR i aaa ite 1.26
EEO) Soccer ee eine Hones 2.73
CO Cot voor eee avec leh 2S OS

100.83

ANALYSIS K I.

Recalculation.

Mir © saa eea aren eee rae) 2O LOI
AM Aira ©) ie eee Were estas tht cee ae 9.00
Gal @e oy sa tarts: asi rra carla Nees cae 15.21
IW Bea CLO) hie Rain yen easel ste tara ba Bee 7.75
1 RACED ©) a nea eel ae Nh TNS dle ea etd 9.22
Car BO Mee eee oie: 2.50
RSI KO pena hile che ar ot LIA 84
Alal{OcINLOnZzSiIOp =s555 60600006 30.06

101.49

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 220 DD, PRINTED FEBRUARY 23, 1916,

432 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

The manganese according to the recalculation of the analysis is
essentially in the form of a rhodochrosite and whatever manganese
there is in excess probably exists as a peroxide. It is quite possible
that Ca,(PO,), exists in the irregular black fine-grained areas,
though nothing definite can be said in confirmation of it at this time.

SECTION OF THE LOWER CAMBRIAN FROM THE BASE OF THE LOWER
PARADOXIDES ZONE DOWN TO THE ToP OF THE SMITH
Point Limestone, Trinity Bay (Fig. 47).

Loc. Number. Ft.
230 D 32 Thin seams of nodular limestone in red shale ............... 4.0
31 Bright red=shale ccm ico Was Siewleecas e ce rene ee eee 46.0
30 Gray), oreen= shale ween. hare ont id Be eos Rate Sieetee eC 14.0
BQOV HID e: eae Mtoe Ie cel red anna oes ccc aticre at geno SO 3.0
28 Bright red fissile shale with thin green seams and patches .... 97.0
27 Manganese limestone (manganiferous dolomitic shale) ...... B15
26) Bright reduiissilesshale: 25st 554-5n cee Ge eee 78.0
25. Grayashtereen sfssilershale 4) sacs cee eee ete eee eee 28.0
24 Bright purplish shale alternating with bright’red shale ....... 97.0
23 aGreenoeritty,-Shales x. ocu nae ian hoon oo Rn eee 33.0
22 Gray band of fine grain silicious limestone full of pyrites and
samesbrachropods andmtrilobites!: seen. ec oe eee 0.5
21 Gritty green shale, brachiopods and trilobites ................ 62.0
20 Heavy green silicious conglomeratic manganiferous limestone 2.5
TO "Purplessshaleie i.e guee ois eh ai ie eer eerie cc ee aie ee 10.0
162. Greentushal sy secs ees tes este eeecuel see Ghia Co Cee 10.0
17 2 Red! Ss all ek. Aas cce vats soos cio Ie Oe roe ne eee 47.0
b= Contains Obitesstalinaee nee eaten lee ae 13.0 ft
a—Rieditgstaall ees. satose ssc ata ye SI OE I ee 19.0
Interval veoveredie ana.) Soe ok eee ee 15.0
16 Smith Point Limestone.
MO tal eee ak eee SA OE eC aCe panne

V. OTHER MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF SOMEWHAT SIMILAR
CHARACTER.

Sedimentary deposits of manganese are not of uncommon occur-
rence but it is rare that we find such deposits still in their unaltered
condition as they were originally formed. There are however a few
deposits elsewhere which in many respects resemble the Conception
Bay and Smith Sound occurrences.

NEWFOUNDLAND, PLACENTIA Bay. In Placentia Bay, New-

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 433

foundland, manganese has been described by Murray and Howley
as a massive carbonate bed interbedded with slates of “Silurian”
age, Dir, i> Siciigy leslie (ize Zon excl 2ox)) “lesen Was
mineral as

“compact and impalpable in texture, brittle, with a conchoidal fracture and
a feeble waxy luster; slightly translucent on the thin edges; color fawn
to pale chestnut-brown; streak white, hardness 4.0; density 3.25. The speci-
men shows faint lines which seem to be those of deposition and give to the
mass the aspect of a sinter. It is encrusted and penetrated in parts with
black crystalline oxide of manganese. The presence of oxide of manganese
in this mineral is probably due to its partial decomposition.” Analysis of this
mineral by Dr. Hunt is as follows:

IN ITan COLO etic aye eee eee Rem On aN a aN NEU AUREL 84.6
NS © rae esr terse fence vou bose aac aie ata ra ee raps tae er ate 14.40
hem@Ea @Fand Mig @) cas Ache a isteae a clay weneiaieval seraeins traces

“This deposit is of interest on account of the existence of the metal in the
form of a bedded carbonate. It probably represents the former condition of
many of the oxide ores of manganese elsewhere in the stratified rocks, but
they have since been converted to their more stable form.”

It is quite evident from the above description of the Placentia
Bay manganese that we have in all probability a deposit similar in
mineralogic character and stratigraphic position to those in Concep-
tion Bay. No published stratigraphical or paleontological work has
appeared on the Placentia Bay occurrences. In that portion of this
paper relating to the stratigraphy of the manganese deposits it will
be readily seen that the basin into which the manganiferous muds
were deposited to form the present manganese beds of the lower
Cambrian probably extended to or covered Placentia Bay or that por-
tion of Placentia Bay where we now find ‘Cambrian rocks. There is
no doubt that the “Silurian rocks” referred to above by Howley
and Murray are the lower Cambrian.

Wates.—Sedimentary manganese deposits have been described
as occurring in the Cambrian rocks of Merionethshire, North Wales
by Mr. Edward Halse (9: 156) in an article entitled, “ The Occur-
rence of Manganese Ore in the Cambrian Rocks of Merionethshire.”’
He says:

“in the Harlech mine, the bed of ore is a little over a foot thick, consisting
of grit of medium grain, overlaid by a thin band of quartzite, probably meta-

434 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April2s,

morphosed grit. The roof proper consist of about 2 feet of very hard,
schistose rocks, termed ‘blue stone’ by the miners. Specimens of ore taken
from the mine are seen to be formed of uniform layers, having gray yellow-
ish, white, greenish and chocolate-brown layers.”

A reference by J. A. Phillips and Henry Louis (21: 296) to the same
occurrence is as follows:

“Beds of carbonate of manganese with some silicate, the outcrops of
which have been to some extent changed into black oxide, occur intercalated
between sandstones, grits and conglomerates of the Cambrian formation, and
have been mined to some extent; the beds vary from one to two feet in
thickness, and yield ore, averaging about twenty-seven per cent. of metal,
which is used in spiegel making. These deposits are evidently symphytic and
belong to group b of that class.”

Phillips and Louis believe that these deposits were formed syn-
genetically but from precipitates in aqueous solutions. This deposit
suggests very striking similarities to the Manuels occurrence not only
mineralogically and genetically but also from the standpoint of
stratigraphy.

ARKANSAS.—The Cason tract of the Batesville region, Arkansas,
presents certain petrological analogies to the Newfoundland occur-
rences. Dr. Penrose (20: 219) describes the ore as occurring

“in lenticular layers, varying from an eighth of an inch to three inches in
thickness, and interstratified with an indurated red clay of a slaty structure.
Generally, however, the ore occurs in the shape of flat, lenticular concretions,
from a quarter of an inch to one inch in diameter, locally known as ‘button
ore.” They have a concentric structure, are dull black on the outside and
bright on the inside and are imbedded in a red or brown, fine-grained and
more or less calcareous sandstone.”

Analyses of the ore run as follows:

IN Terai ya syepnieeetohcth citen mane ate ALO Ahi ed celeb latane BOC RESTS 50.41
eset es ae a oS Nea leanne AL OOo eae vi teleaonstarae aula 7.50
Si@ Hees wee arnt oar ae papahale ie PAS OS HAMAS SSO SISO BOC OHO 12.67
121 O UNG Sinise ernie Os ORGS Ree es se eae oe 0.06
PANNE Oi) oat re a eae a rece a ac BH Otic tad ibiaster a emeten Ne 1.37
f ENO ie pate aetna ane RAEN AE, IS Big Fa anne wel ere ecriag a he 2.09

Similar conditions to those postulated by Penrose for the ac-
cumulation of the manganese in the Arkansas region seem to me
to be applicable to the Newfoundland deposits.

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 435

In writing of the circulation of the manganiferous solutions and the
conditions under which they might be precipitated in the coastal
shoals or lagoons, Penrose says (20: 590, 591):

“This gradual local accumulation of land and marine sediments would
eventually cause shoals and possibly coastal lagoons and swamps, into which
the waters from Archean rocks of the Missouri Archipelago would drain.”

“Here the solutions exposed in a stationary condition to the oxidizing
and evaporating action of the atmosphere, would deposit their metalliferous
contents as carbonate or possibly oxide of manganese. In some places con-
siderable bodies of ore might be formed in one spot, in others the manga-
nese would be dessiminated through the mechanical sediments being laid
down at the same time. A secondary chemical action might cause the segre-
gation of the disseminated manganese and the formation of concretions of
carbonate of manganese, which would be later oxidized in forms such as are
characteristically shown at the Cason mine, near Batesville, and elsewhere in
the region. In other places the manganese might remain in a finely dissemi-
nated state, causing the common occurrence now seen throughout the region
of an earthy manganiferous limestone containing from 3 to I5 per cent. of
manganese.”

Saxony.—The writer was led to analyze certain of the man-
ganese minerals from Schebenholz near Elbingerode in the Harz,
which were purchased from Krantz, because of certain physical re-
semblances to the Newfoundland specimens. One specimen labelled
“ Allagite with Dialogite, etc.” consists of three different materials ;
the first is greenish and gave the following analysis:

SOS Giols pone ee aa Soe Ine EOC) Pea hI SNOR eGo Gdoduseeoo neue ope. 33.98
JBGHO)A eae ec URee Seer ener ence TO 7 it) UN CO Fa epinat ae ce oer SE Owes 15.05
TENEKO) so Bee ares ager See ea TOO) ie Mig € @ i anreeae Aree ieee les rene as 12.64
IN ital Meee nearer ned es BOON «| (al OO) a gan ea tani Step esa cie anbererstenal ae 1.70
(CANO ees See peetorere teaser Ce Rae TOOMIES ION cae sutersteres wires meaittee meee 10.97
IW UieA OV ea ieee oration eRe GOS te Bes @ yer eer eu se teyal are esa crear ae 1.75
TELA) so eee ey ae ear Seb Ine ee ile 1.13) 2A OsAL Os 2SiOw eae eee e370
(BO) Shapes ey tees ent MOP eet esos 13.13 99.85
100.79

Unfortunately the early descriptions of this substance were not
quoted very fully by later writers, but one of the imported speci-
mens which was similar to the one analyzed had the following
original label pasted on the back of it:

436 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

Griiner Allagite in Tomosite
eingewachsen.
73.71 Manganoxydulat.
16.00 Kieselerite.
7.50 Kohlensaure.
97.21
Schebenholz bei Elbingerode.

This analysis was published in 1817 and 1819 (Jashe 13: 1-12)
and to all appearances is the same mineral analyzed by the writer,
which is also labelled allagite.

Another part of the same specimen is a greenish jaspery mineral
similar physically to the green band of the Newfoundland specimen
and has the following composition :

Recalculation.

Si@naeeuna mas cie one Aepneeee 76.40 SiQs shigesnet eee eee eee 69.84
1 RICEH Os bareeans Nia, ange aaa cata mca ye ten L007) Mii COs aie Serie eo eens eee ages 10.00
VARIES reer Sees res henchmen a ea ceuR a 2.46 MinSi@en soos is Bee Aer 8.00
ANT OSes a i yeaen ec crea etoeacaeene 10.53 Me CO. Siociee eee 3.79
(CaO ee ae reer 8 alias ees nls 1.62 ECaCOs ies saeco es ee 2.80
Mig @ Beha ety cose aeh SERN’ Banc 1.81 ZA aK Oa WOREASIIOR © g5c06000000 6.11
ELH Oe Neale ts 6 ae ora mee .80 100.54
CO sa eae Secoummale mete ten eave VRB2

100.947

According to the recalculation this material is a manganiferous
argillaceous chert, and is in all probability the silicious schist or
shale of the Culm referred to later on.

The third portion of the specimen analyzed is a pinkish sparry
mineral occurring as small veins with the following composition:

Recalculation.
Sis oe ra ietetscue. Geaey eae Bates FTO} WINE Ooh ee nea ee eee 76.13
TNS © Ya es a eee I tere UA 6250 UM SiO sass hee eee ae 8.92
TNE Oe rotie Meee nck eng On a eye ies Os Cal CO way cca ieee raat eee ene eee 4.00
ANITA Oona atari te etic ee aR S210 Mig CO ar cance seek oe 2.44
Ca vie ein oie een aude abate BBO SiGe yet Mites 1 aan ros an eo 2.16
Mig Oba Atria rcnsr nce ceneee oraisteisonvs TA RCO paccnearra er ee eee 37
TSO oe ees Ses Ben eee ash ON OK Leas HO. Ala fOo/ANLO)eASiOs .oceabeso0ce 5.98
COS ae ee ile waa at tah 32.20 100.00

This mineral, because of its similarity to another specimen with

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 437

a label which reads “Spathiger Diallogit”’ pasted on it, is probably
diallogit. It is however a very impure rhodochrosite.

According to W. Holzberger (11: 383) and C. Zerrenner (25:
?—) the ores from the Kaiser Franz mine near Elbingerode, in the
Harz, occur as pocket-shaped intercalations a meter or so thick in
the silicious shales of the Culm. The ore consists of psilomelane
in dense and botryoidal masses, some pyrolusite and coatings of
wad, with rhodonite, rhodochrosite and quartz present as acces-
sories. The ore formerly worked contained on an average 60 to
63 per cent. of manganese peroxide, sometimes rising to 67 per cent.
(23: 250). Zerrenner considers these manganese ores as later
material separated out of the silicious shales, a theory which needs
further investigation. Though the above described deposit is not
the same as that from which the specimens analyzed above came
from, it is no doubt similar.

The Elbingerode occurrence is similar to the deposits of SE.
Newfoundland in that they are both primary manganiferous sedi-
ments. They differ in that the manganiferous zone of the former
occurrence is considerably regionally metamorphosed while the New-
foundland sediments show very little change in this way. Accord-
ing to the above analyses, assuming that the imported specimens are
representative of the region concerned, the deposits are very dif-
ferent in as much as they consist mostly of rhodonite and manganif-
erous cherts while those of Newfoundland are carbonate-oxides and
oxide-carbonates of manganese.

VI. CHEMISTRY OF THE MANGANESE DEPOSITS.

The most striking feature of the accompanying analyses is the
high content of MnO which ranges from 19.42 per cent. in Analysis
J, to 49.25 per cent. in Analysis D, with an average content of
30.02 per cent and an average metallic manganese content of 24.64
Pemcent:

The manganese is present for the most part as the carbonate,
MnCO, or rhodochrosite, which varies from 10.23 per cent. in the
red band (Anal. E) to 44.39 per cent. in the green band (Anal. A)
of the Manuels deposit. Rhodochrosite is not recognizable as such
because of the impalpable fineness of grain of the deposit.

438 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

Solubility tests made of the red band (Anal. E) which has
27.61 per cent. of SiO,, in which HCl was used as the solvent, show
that the manganese must be present in some other combination than
in that of the silicate, as the residue was about sufficient to cover
the total silica, SiO,, Al,O, and P,O,. In Anal. D, it is evident
that the two most important constituents are MnCO, and MnO,
with percentages of 32.89 and 28.93 respectively and that the excess
manganese calculated as the oxide is more than sufficient to form
an important manganese silicate as the mineral percentage of SiO,
is only 5.40, which fact lends support to the result of the solubility
test made with the red band, Anal. E. A similar interpretation
might be made with the Topsail ore (Anal. 1) which is primarily an
oxide ore with MnO,— 34.25 and MnCO,— 11.27. S10,, of which
there is 10.32 per cent., probably is present in an uncombined state.
The comparative instability of MnCO, would, however, lead one to
suspect that the excess MnO,, where not of primary origin, was a
derivative of the carbonate and not combined with SiO, to form the
silicate, MnSi0O,.

ANALYSES OF MANGANESE Deposits 0F NEWFOUNDLAND AND ELBINGERODE.

8 | | 8 : a || 2 I & 2 g : =
s Sf Ouse 2 Oo | O12 1S fe) x g
A) Ojala fe is | Siete pe | So | é
Manuels: | |
A, Green band | 7.24) 3.36 3.21) 6.11/35.53 iLO) AoSOl|oo colin 6 aac 2.98 | 28.06 | 100.09
B, Pink nod...| 5.14| 1.40 |....| 1.64/20.49|32.92; .O1|....|..... 1.65 | 36.77 | 100 02
C, Green nod. .|/10.31| 7.35 |....| 3-68131.76|10.47|1.80|6.43|..... 2.85 | 25.31 | 99.96
D, Brown band|10.23} 1.32 | .89) 4.14)49.25| 8.11 3.02)....|..... I.31 | 21.83 | 100.10
E, Red band. ./27.61| 4.25 (1.69) 6.96|26.05 9.94|3.49|.... 4.71| 4.73 | 10.57 | 100.00
F, 219 AIL... ./18.42| 6.33 |....| 7-95|21-44|14.46'5.01|....| 3.46] 2.58 | 21.20 | 100.85
G,* 219 A3 .. .|58.62| 3.12 |3.66/22.42| .43] 1.25 Ase saiiaseaol|) os4h || BO) | OA26)
18, Quo) ANB 5 5 oAS5o20||HOb2) love | WeOzloo oo 23.50 4.78 . .../17.68| 2.71 2.23 | 93.90
Topsail: |
I, Biu® I] Me sooo |18.04| 4.82-|....| 6.58/41.26| 2.24 2.39/5.40].....| 7-98 8.34 | 97.05
Ip PRO IGOs66 4s 18.24 10.01 |..../I4.52/19.42 13.74'4.94!. ...| 1.71} 2.07 | 24.01 | 99.66
K, Smith Pt.. .|15.14| 9.22 lool. ALOA 25.63|10.04'3.72|....| 1.26] 2.73 | 21.05 | 100.83
Elbingerode:) | | |
L, Elbin. (—) .|39.10| 1.87 |....|10.79|27.69| I.006.08)....|..... I.13 | 13.13 | 100.79
M, Elbin. (+) |76.40| .007)....) 2.46|/10.53} I.62|/1.81|....].....] 80 7.32 | 100.94
Ni Eibins (=) e720) 625 nos al 227 6ls2 0m 2-2 Onn mylene sae 1.70 | 32.20 | 97.82

* Analyst, Mr. A. F. Buddington.

The evolution of Cl during the digestion of the samples with
HCl is evidence that the excess Mn occurs as some peroxide. As

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 489

there is considerable water in the Topsail ore (Anal. I), the excess
manganese probably is present as a hydrated peroxide such as
psilomelane but probably in a very fine state of dissemination. The
remarkable feature of the samples studied is the conspicuous ab-
sence of the dark oxides of manganese so far as macroscopic and
microscopic observations are concerned but the reason for this may
be, in the case of the lighter samples, anyway, that where there are
abundant hematitic spherules there may be some masking. With
the darker specimens studied, such as the red and brown bands at
Manuels and the baritic manganese ore of Topsails (Figs. 22 and
32), the conspicuous manganiferous and ferruginous staining might
easily mask finely disseminated particles of the peroxide of man-

ganese.
RECALCULATED ANALYSES.

72 3S eo | Ss 4 2 2 |

S| BS es Ode Oo eo) So) eg

I a & re do — n 2 S q S)

Soot | Spire & oe a
RUA ya ic AAR Ollie ROS, oun || wae | de allio wae 3.36]....| .86|18.24] 99.2
RB esha BOLD || do's 6 6 2.34 |58.05 |29.32]..... 3.78 | I.40|....| 1.06] 4.07 | 100.02
RIC aes 30-50) cra HegXO) IRSA IE || V7O)||o'6 o's 0 5-94| 7.35 | 6.29) 1.51] 9.17] 99.52
TRATES is. ty. BAKO) Il c.0'0.016 ASO} |EAGONE || RSCG oo a6 5-40] 1.27|....] -72|I1.08 | 100.20
RUD alae OAR s biG. 0 19.71 | 7.50| 7.25 |10.3I |19.44| 4.25].... 1.87 |19.01| 99.57
1B hore heaeete TOBA 3 bo c OWEAS) |[HOTE MOREY) GEO) || ois) I! GA Wb 6 Ss Giloo 5 oo 19.61 | 100.24
RG ays
TRIED iat re Sle tetae al PR eR et A870} OR LO) 8717) |LO:20) MOL) en sere I9.II; 98.03
1B REE eae ae Tp Tes 27 Neate ean 34.25 | 4.00] 4.97 |...... 10.32 | 4.82] 5.40] 5.41 |16.30| 96.74
Ra] tes IFA) los aco olliovale cia PX DOIG ||16O)5337/ || SoS |) 1D) ||MOKOUL Ne so alla ceo c 36.38 | 909.41
1PULG ao eatene ASO |}'5 G6 0.0 9.00 |15.21| 7.75] 2.50 seb | CBF \a'6 collo ooo 30.06 | TOI.49

ELBINGERODE
|
RE os ROS [BEC lleo'a a c 7,0) (25040 aes NOLO | Ms Ils do clleccoc 23.76 | 90.85
123M Cee ROrO OM SEOOlle es = | 2.80 | S:70)||o.o0 2 OBA casos Bria nad fo 6.11 | 100.54
TRIN os o.6 6 oll FHOoUZ || BOL oo 6 6 6 Zle(OX0) || ALVIN 5) 3. Beit |) eBlove o dloo's aX 5.98 | 100.

The two most conspicuous mineral associations of the manganese
deposits of southeastern Newfoundland are the tricalcium phos-
phate, Ca,(P©,),>, and barite; Bas@O; Only a few of the beds
were analyzed for the former of these constituents where percent-
ages of Ca,(PO,), ranged from 2.50 at Smith Point (Anal. K) to
10.31 (Anal. E) at Manuels. Anal. H shows 38.77 per cent. of
Ca,(PO,)., references to which are made on pages 409 and 453. It

PROC. AMER, PHIL. SOC., LIV. 220 EE, PRINTED FEBRUARY 26, 1916.

440 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

is quite probable that others of the manganiferous beds analysed are
phosphatic.

Barite (BaSO,) is probably more common than the analyses
indicate and is probably included with the SiO, and CaO. It is a
conspicuous associate of these deposits, as has been found to be
the case with manganese deposits in other parts of the world. The
chemical reason for this association of two very different chemic-
ally-acting elements, as well as the genesis of barite are discussed
on pages 451-453.

Al,O,, though not as abundant in the important manganiferous
beds as in a typical shale, which that of Anal. G approximates, is of
sufficient abundance to connect these deposits with the argillaceous
sediments. CaO and MgO are in greater amounts than in ordi-
nary shales, giving the deposits a calcareous or dolomitic character.

From a study of the mineral percentage composition of the
samples analysed, the manganese rocks are found to be essentially
calcareous or dolomitic argillaceous carbonates and oxides or car-
bonate-oxides of manganese, with hematite, barite, and tri-calcium
phosphate as the chief accessories.

The following iron determinations of the green and red shales
of the manganese zone at Manuels, Conception Bay, show some
interesting results.

FeO. Fe203.
Riedsshailes 2rowAwA oar en ses ae enna 4.58 3.86
(Grea Seve, AO ANS odossoonscoovacadoocc 3.66 3.12
Redwbartde2 nop An7e ee cs aioe ayer iereanie ane 1.69 4.25
Greenabanda21O WAR are nacre 3.21 3.36

It is quite evident from the above analyses that the color in the
green shale A 3 and in the green band A 7 is not due entirely to the
ferrous iron as we find considerable Fe,O, in both. In the green
shale, A 3, there is an excess of .54 per cent. of FeO over the Fe,O,,
while in the green band, which is manganiferous, there is an excess
of .15 per cent. of the ferric oxide (hematite) over the ferrous
oxide. In the green band we should expect a masking of the green
by hematite inasmuch as there is such an excess of the ferric over
the ferrous. Thin sections of this band and the green shale reveal
some hematite but in very inconsiderable amounts; not enough, at

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 441

all events, to explain the percentages as brought out in the analyses.
It would seem then that the ferric iron does not exist essentially as
hematite but as a silicate or some other allied mineral, and that
the green color so predominant in the manganese bands and shales
may be due to the ferrous and ferric silicate.

The presence of hernatite in the red band has undoubtedly caused
the red coloration and the same may be said in reference to the red
shale, 210 A 4, where there is an excess of .72 of FeO over the
Fe,O;, but in these there undoubtedly has been sufficient masking
of the ferrous and ferric silicates of iron by the hematite.

The production of the hematite was probably brought about by
the conversion of the silicate into Fe,O, through oxidation.

VII. GENESIS OF THE MANGANESE DEPOSITS AND ASSO-
CIATED MINERALS.

So many of the sedimentary manganese deposits described in
the literature are in such a highly altered condition because of
oxidation and deeper seated metamorphic influences whereby the
original or primary manganese minerals have been so altered as to
be of little genetic significance, that the carbonate-oxide manganese
ores of southeast Newfoundland, which are surely primary ores,
give promise of yielding evidence of considerable value on the
question of genesis. In considering the genesis of any marine sedi-
mentary manganese deposits, we are, however, confronted with
many grave difficulties because we are dealing with submarine
chemical conditions of which little is known and with diagenetic
processes of which still less is known. It is also very difficult to
advance any suitable chemical hypothesis founded upon some re-
action that successfully works out in the laboratory which will not
be of doubtful application in nature. With these difficulties in mind
the following subjects relating to the genesis of the manganese
deposits of southeast Newfoundland will be considered: Early
Cambrian physiography; Nature of deposited sediments; Condi-
tions under which the manganese deposits were formed; Summary
of genesis of manganese; Diagenetic structures, as banded, nodular
and odlitic; Genesis of barite; Genesis of tricalcium phosphate; As-
sociation and separation of iron.

442 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

od

Earty CAMBRIAN PHysioGRaPpHy.—In all probability the area
occupied by Trinity, Conception, Placentia, and St. Marys Bays, the
included land and the western and eastern margins including the
present known Cambrian outcrops, was a continuous body of water
shortly after the beginning of the Cambrian transgression. West
and east of this Cambrian sea were high and extensive pre-Cam-
brian land areas. The great crustal movements which threw the
pre-Cambrian into mountain ranges probably converted the portion
now occupied by the four bays and adjacent land into a narrow
basin. The main topographic features of the southeastern part of
Newfoundland during the beginning of the Cambrian were two land
areas of great relief separated by a comparatively narrow trough
which had a general north-south direction.

Whether this trough was a closed one or not, it would be difficult
to prove, but from the requirements of the problem it is necessary
to postulate a more or less closed basin or coastal shoals or lagoons,
Concentration of manganiferous soluble salts could go on satis-
factorily only in a more or less restricted shallow sea where the
water was comparatively quiet. The facts that ripple marks occur
occasionally in the deposits such as at Manuels and that a shallow
water fauna abounds such as trilobites are sufficient indication that
there was a shallow sea at this time.

NaTurE OF DEPOSITED SEDIMENTS.—Into this trough during
early Cambrian times great quantities of mud were brought by rivers
draining the pre-Cambrian land masses and to a lesser extent by
the action of the waves on the shore line. As has already been
stated the greater thickness of shales in the western portion of the
basin is due to the fact that sedimentation had been going on for
a longer time in that part of the basin which was in all probability
the deeper part. It is also quite possible that the western parts of
this trough were receiving more sediments than the eastern. The
shales are characterized by their predominant red color in the
western parts of the basin interbedded with shales of green color
and throughout the entire area by a highly manganiferous zone.

GENESIS OF THE MANGANESE OrE.—The distinctly bedded char-
acter of the manganese deposits and their occurrence in definite
horizons of limited thickness and considerable horizontal range seem

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 443

to point clearly to the conclusion that the deposits are essentially of
sedimentary origin, rather than products of a later ground water or
weathering concentration. But beyond this conclusion, there is
room for great diversity of opinion.

Two questions present themselves at the outset of the inquiry:
Was the manganese deposited contemporaneously with the clastic
sediments in its present degree of concentration? Or, was it some-
what disseminated through the muds and subsequently concentrated
by diagenetic agents? While the first of these alternatives is held
by the writer to be highly probable, no positive and final answer can
be given to these and to many other questions raised by a study of
the problem of genesis, although various suggestions are presented
in the following pages.

Manganese exists in sea-water and has been noted by For-
chhammer and by Dieulafait (6: 718) but not in sufficiently con-
centrated form to produce deposits similar to those under considera-
tion. Murray and Irvine (19: 735) found that the red muds of
the mid-Pacific and Indian Oceans, which were made up in large
parts of basic vitreous volcanic minerals, were responsible for the
large amounts of pulverulent and nodular ferromanganese. These
nodules consist on the average of 29 per cent. of MnO, and 21 per
cent. of Fe,O, with the remainder largely clayey material. The
basic glasses contain the only important primary manganese-bearing
minerals in the ocean and the manganese is reported by Murray and
Irvine to have undergone conversion into the soluble bicarbonate
which upon reaching oxygenated surface waters, is decomposed with
precipitation of the dioxide. The particles of MnO, falling to the
bottom gather upon various objects which serve as nuclei for con-
cretions, or the nuclei themselves may have been the cause for the
precipitation. Murray and Hjort (17: 192) in this connection
say:

“Tt should be noted that these oxides need by no means necessarily assume
a concretionary form. They are very commonly found as thin incrustations
on granular and fragmentary objects. Furthermore many, if not most, of
the pelagic clays contain intimate admixtures of finely divided brown man-
ganese and occasionally of limonitic iron. Here the supersaturation would
seem to have been so high as to transgress the metastable limit, whereupon

the oxides have precipitated themselves without the intervention of nuclei;
they certainly must have been precipitated from solution.”

444 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

According to Leigh Fermor (8: 403) the origin of the deep-sea
nodules is summed up as follows:

“1. The manganese, although probably partly derived from cosmic dust
and volcanic débris, has been mostly precipitated from solution in the sea
water, the manganese salts having been originally brought into the sea by
rivers.

“2. The manganese oxide, although possibly partly precipitated as a re-
sult of the action of the vital processes of organisms, both vegetable and
animal, has been mainly precipitated by calcium carbonate aided by the obscure
process of segregation from solution round a nucleus.

“3. Where the sea-bottom consists largely of calcareous sediments, the
precipitation may have been mainly brought about by the solution of some
of this calcium carbonate with the deposition of an equivalent amount of
manganese oxide owing to the presence of free oxygen.

“4. Where the sea-bottom consists of red clay, it does so because the
depths are there so great that the tests of thin-shelled organisms are com-
pletely dissolved by the sea-water before they reach the bottom. The cal-
careous matter in being dissolved deposits an equivalent amount of manga-
nese oxide, which descends to the bottom, and there acts as a nucleus for
the segregative extraction of manganese from the waters at the sea-bottom.
The deposition of manganese oxide by means of calcium carbonate associated
with the red clays probably also occurs to a subordinate extent, for the
shells of thick-shelled organisms may reach the bottom before being entirely
dissolved.”

This summary of Fermor’s is quoted in full here because of the
marked divergence of his views from those of Murray and Irvine,
and because of the greater stress laid upon Penrose’s idea of the
precipitation of manganese oxide by calcium carbonate.

It is the belief of the writer that the early Cambrian Sea of south-
eastern Newfoundland must have had so restricted and shallow a
character as to allow of a concentration of the manganese salts
sufficient to form deposits of such dimensions and character as we
now find. Whether the manganese was brought down entirely in
solution or only partially so, or entirely or partly in mineral com-
bination as fine muds from which the manganese was subsequently
dissolved, one cannot say at present. Both muds and solutions
probably have contributed the manganese which forms in great
part the deposits as we now find them.

The conditions which brought about the formation of the car-
bonate and oxide of manganese are problematical. It is generally

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 445

supposed that manganese exists in solution as a bicarbonate or a
sulphate. In their work on the Blue Muds of the Clyde Sea area,
Murray and Irvine (19: 728) found that the bicarbonate of man-
ganese was derived “‘first from the direct decomposition of the
rock fragments in the mud by the alkaline carbonates in the sea
water or, second, from the reduction of the higher oxides of man-
ganese by the organic matter in the muds.” In many respects the
Clyde Sea area of England is similar to what the lower Cambrian
sea of Newfoundland must have been. It receives detritus and
waters draining lands which are in large part of an igneous and
sedimentary character (19: 780).

“What is known as the Clyde Sea Area consists of a series of sub-
marine basins, separated from each other by submarine barriers. The depth
of the basins ranges from 30 to 106 fathoms, and the depth of water over
the intervening ridges varies from 3 to 15 fathoms. In all the deeper parts
of the basins there is a bluish mud, in which, as a rule, no manganese nodules
are found, but on the immediate surface of the deposit of Blue Mud there
is a surface layer with a reddish or light gray color, in which deposits of
manganese dioxide occur. When stones are dredged from these muds many
of them are surrounded by a dark ring of manganese dioxide, marking the
depth to which they have been embedded in the mud. The whole upper sur-
face of the stones has likewise a slight coating of manganese, while a portion
imbedded in the mud is free from these manganese deposits.”

He goes on to say that

“The formation of manganese nodules on the immediate surface of the
deposit, on the tops of the barriers, and in the pit-like depressions, is most
probably to be accounted for by the more abundant supply of oxygen, or the
diminished amount of decomposing organic matter in these positions.”

A somewhat similar set of conditions probably was present in the
muds and superjacent sea water of the Cambrian basin of New-
foundland with the exception that instead of all the bicarbonate
being converted into the dioxide the greater proportion of it was
precipitated as the carbonate of manganese (MnCO,). The libera-
tion of CO, from the bicarbonate of calcium in solution has been
experimentally effected by evaporation, increasing the temperature,
or through agitation of the solution. It would seem to the writer
that the liberation of the CO, from the manganese, calcium and
magnesium bicarbonates might have taken place through evapora-

446 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

tion resulting in a contemporaneous formation of manganese, cal-
cium and magnesium carbonate. As the analyses show from 1.25
£0) 32.92 per cent.) of (Ca@@, and. from) or \to) 5-0 (pemicentanon
MgCoO, this would seem to support such an action.

There is a possibility that the decomposing organic matter
present in the muds might have caused a deoxidation of the sul-
phates of the sea-water and of MnO, with the subsequent formation
of FeS, and MnS,. The latter, being very unstable, would pass
immediately into the bicarbonate to be subsequently freed of its
CO, to form the carbonate and if oxidized would pass into the
dioxide. Such a process might account for the carbonates and
oxides of manganese and the little pyrite that occurs. Though
there is evidence of life in the manganese deposits of Newfound-
land as furnished by the fossil trilobites, pteropods and phosphatic
accumulations, we have no evidence that there was any great abun-
dance. However these deposits resemble the Blue Muds studied
by Dittmar (6: 43) which are a variety of terriginous deposit which

“covers about 15,000,000 square miles of the sea bed, and is chiefly found in
estuaries, harbours, enclosed seas, and along continental coasts where rivers
pour their detrital matter into the ocean.”

According to the “Challenger researches” there is an abundant
fauna on these muds, which feeds chiefly on the organic remains
that fall from surface waters. If any analogy can be made between
the ancient terriginous deposits and the more modern ones such a
chemical action as described above might very well have taken
place.

If the muds on the bottom of the basin contained considerable
quantities of decomposing organic matter, conditions would favor
a reduction of the higher oxides of manganese, the evolution of
much CO, and the consequent formation of the bicarbonate of
manganese. The subsequent liberation of the excess CO, from the
bicarbonate to form the carbonate and, where oxidizing influences
are active, the oxidation of this carbonate would complete a series
of reactions capable of forming the manganese deposits with which
we are dealing. It is very probable that these muds contained con-
siderable quantities of decomposing organic matter and were evolv-

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 447

ing considerable CO,. According to the “Challenger researches,”
when a large quantity of carbonic acid was found in oceanic waters
it was “at the bottom over Blue Muds.” The great difficulty in
this series of reactions is to find in nature the conditions which will
bring about the liberation of the excess CO, from the bicarbonate
to form the carbonate, such as evaporation, increase of tempera-
ture, or agitation. If quiet waters are postulated for the formation
of manganese carbonate it is quite conceivable that either of the
conditions such as evaporation or an increase of temperature might
easily be obtained particularly in shoal waters. It is very doubtful,
however, in the case of agitated waters whether laboratory condi-
tions can be simulated in nature, because of oxidizing influences
whereby some oxide of manganese would form more readily than a
carbonate. After the carbonate had formed there would be no
particular difficulty in conditions being present which would bring
about the oxidation of the carbonate because of the presence of
oxygen. The excess oxide of manganese found in the Newfound-
land deposit may in part have originated in this way.

Penrose (20: 563) suggested that
sea floor may have acted as a precipitating agent” or as it passes

66

carbonate of lime on the

through the sea-waters in the form of organic remains or mineral
particles a substitution takes place whereby a solution of the calcium
carbonate with a corresponding precipitation of manganese occurs.
Fermor develops this suggestion in his explanation of the origin
of the deep sea nodules as quoted on page 444. Such an explanation
might apply to the origin of the primary oxides of the Newfound-
land deposits.

It is possible that manganese may have been present in the sea-
water as a chloride. L. De Launay (5: 533) says that “ manganese
chloride with sodium bicarbonate produces manganese carbonate.”

When we stop to consider that manganese only averages .07 per
cent. of the lithosphere (Clark, 2: 32) and is 70 times less abundant
than iron which averages 4.43 per cent. and compare with these
figures the percentage of manganese in the deposits under con-
sideration which is 24.64 we can obtain some idea of the enormous
concentration there has been in the production of these deposits.

448 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

We have discussed the nature of the sediments and learned that
these terriginous deposits must have been derived from the pre-
Cambrian land masses which existed in far greater extent on the
east and west of the Cambrian sea than the present areas outlined
on page 373. The interbedded character of the manganiferous and
argillaceous layers signify alternating conditions of chemical pre-
cipitation and mechanical deposition, there being, during the forma-
tion of the deposits, times when the Cambrian sea was more man-
ganiferous with conditions such that precipitation of manganese
carbonate and the oxide was the relatively important feature while,
at other times, mechanical deposition of fine muds was the rule. It
is more than likely that the greatest portion of the manganese was
contributed to the sea in the form of the dissolved bicarbonate by
the streams which transported the clastic sediments and that these
sediments were not themselves responsible for the major contribu-
tion, though undoubtedly the manganese minerals in the muds
underwent some solution both during their transit to the sea bottom
and during diagenesis. The streams which were responsible for
the transportation of the sediments of the manganese deposits and
also held, as chief contributors of the manganese, drained the pre-
Cambrian land areas above referred to. A modern river like the
Ottawa which drains a pre-Cambrian area consisting in great part
of Laurentian and Huronian rocks and in all probability not very
different from the pre-Cambrian rivers of ancient Newfoundland,
has .86 parts per million of manganese in its waters according to
an analysis made in 1907 (Shutt, 22: 175).

Manganese in river water results from the solution of manganif-
erous silicates such as pyroxene, olivine, micas, amphiboles, epidotes
and chlorites, some of which are the common and essential basic
rock-forming minerals of any igneous and metamorphic pre-Cam-
brian area. On the decomposition of these elements the manganese
is converted into carbonate or oxide and enters into solution, when
conditions are favorable, as the bicarbonate, in which form it is
carried to the sea, unless oxidized in transit, there to await the
further changes into the oxides, MnO, and Mn,O.,, or the carbonate,
MnCO,, depending upon the conditions suggested in the preceding
pages. Analyses of some of the pre-Cambrian rocks in the vicinity

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 449

of Conception and Trinity Bays may be of interest at this point as
illustrating the manganese content of some of the rocks which are
most like those existing during the formation of the deposits:

MnO.
IMonzonites VViOOGbOn dives aco al aah eee an staan ar .19
Ousctze porphyry. Mantielsme we pune ene ath
ConceptionyslemRand omnis oy tets ial ae terete eee ne een 12
Granite NTaniwels Mec Mee teen cacllnirale eenteeee seems ets NaN rsa Mea 13
EXPOmy Olite pV larriu el Siri) semen seyret ran ene enn eee EA eae A
Basalt lien tla soe iti 8 Sui lc a tcc Wie a em led .48

Analyst, A. F. Buddington.

Similar analyses have been made from the rocks of the Clyde pre-
Cambrian drainage area and show from .1 to .7 of a per cent. of
MnO (Murray and Irvine, 19: 722). In all probability then the
pre-Cambrian rocks on the east and west of the Cambrian basin
were the ultimate source of the manganese.

SUMMARY OF GENESIS OF MANGANESE.

Ultimate Source of the manganese was the manganese-bearing
silicates of pre-Cambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks east and
west of the Cambrian Sea.

Solution of manganese-bearing silicates and conversion of the
manganese into the soluble bicarbonate; under favorable conditions
oxides of manganese resulted from the oxidation of the bicarbonate
of manganese.

Transportation of the manganese chiefly as the bicarbonate and
to a less extent as suspended particles of oxides by pre-Cambrian
drainage systems to Cambrian basins.

Concentration of the salts of manganese chiefly as the bicar-
bonate in the sea-water immediately overlying the deposited muds.

Precipitation of manganese carbonate from solution through
liberation of CO, from the bicarbonate, or of the oxide.

Clastic Origin of Some Manganese —While the main contribu-
tion of the manganese came from the pre-Cambrian drainage area
in solution undoubtedly the deposited muds supplied a minor
portion.

450 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

DIAGENETIC STRUCTURES

BANDED STRUCTURES.—By referring to the description of layer
219 A 7 we see that it is a red manganiferous shale with green and
brown jaspery bands which may be rather uniform in thickness
and may alternate with each other. The green band predominates
over the brown so that the greater alternations occur with the green
and red bands. Throughout the red shale are numerous nodules
of the green and brown jaspery carbonate-oxides of manganese and
within the bands themselves are nodular and concretionary forms.
The alternating banded and concretionary forms within this bed
would indicate alternating conditions of precipitation followed by
diagenetic segregational processes which resulted in the formation
of nodules and lenticles. Very thin and interrupted laminz of the
red band are found with the green bands. The green and brown
bands often occur intergrown with each other. From these ob-
servations it would seem that these banded structures were evidence
of alternate periods of precipitation and that they have assumed
their present indurated and concretionary nature by segregational
processes which were active throughout the diagenesis of the bed.

Noputes.—One of the most characteristic features of the shales
of the Lower Cambrian is the great prevalence of the nodules (Figs.
14 and 15). The following suggestion is offered as to the origin
of the form of these nodules with the hope that this line of in-
vestigation may be taken up in greater detail at some future time.
Though various theories have been suggested for the origin of
odlitic spherules and nodules, in general, along organic and inor-
ganic lines, nothing of a very definite nature has been brought out
as to the origin of their form. The suggestion that surface tension
may be the cause of this form is here made. This peculiar and
prevalent nodular character of certain beds was brought about in all
probability by the tendency of surface tension to decrease the sur-
face during the diagenetic stage. Solutions carrying manganese
filtering through muds or nearly consolidated muds or shales would
quite naturally under certain chemical and physical conditions have
the tendency to decrease the surface tension at the contact of the
three physical phases; liquid, colloid, and solid. Starting with a

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 451

mineral particle such as rhodochrosite or calcite as a nucleus, with
the formation of the nodule, there will be a decrease in the concen-
tration of the solution at the contact with the nodule which will be
accompanied by a reduction of surface tension. If we are dealing
with a liquid-liquid phase we would have a spherical nodule in which
case both liquids would be easily deformable and the surface would
tend to become a minimum. Our twofold phase, liquid-solid, or
threefold phase including the colloidal phase which probably plays a
part, only allows of deformability on the part of the liquid and
partial deformability on the part of the nodule. Under the bedded
conditions of this two or three fold solution, colloid and solid
phase the tendency of the surface tension to reduce the surface to
a minimum is well exemplified in the discoidal nodule.

SPHERULES.—One of the characteristic features of this deposit
is the occurrence of hematite in spherule-like forms and larger,
roughly spherical aggregates. Fig. 26 illustrates the occurrence.
They differ decidedly from the spherules of the Wabana, Clinton,
and other typical oolitic iron ores in that they are less symmetrical
and are without any visible nuclei. These spherules are here de-
scribed as incipient in as much as they seem to lack full develop-
ment or to have been impeded in their growth. Such a retardation
of development might have arisen from their growth in clayey sedi-
ments which were still unconsolidated.

MINERAL AsSOCIATIONS.—The three important mineral associa-
ciations of the manganese deposits of S. E. Newfoundland are
barite, tri-calcium phosphate and hematite which will now be con-
sidered with reference to their occurrence, association and genesis.

Barite.—Barite is one of the most characteristic mineral asso-
ciations of the deposits under consideration as is often the case with
manganese deposits elsewhere in the world. It is particularly char-
acteristic of the Manuels, Topsail and Smith Point localities and
occurs in various ways.

Barite is found in small veins crossing a cryptozoan nodule
showing quite clearly its epigenetic character so far as that par-
ticular portion of the bed is concerned. Fig. 23 (Slide 276) shows
a solitary crystal fragment of barite in a carbonate-oxide of man-

452 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

ganese groundmass showing possibly a diagenetic replacement.
Barite also occurs as disseminated anhedral crystal grains or blades
in the cores and outer zones of nodules at Manuels, which is very
suggestive of diagenetic processes (Fig. 16, Slide 288). At Topsail
(Fig. 31, Slide 269) barite occurs as bundles of blades or sheath-
like aggregates in a manganese oxide groundmass strongly suggest-
ing replacement.

In other parts of the world barium is often found replacing man-
ganese in psilomelane and sometimes enters largely into the com-
position of wad, specimens from Romanéche containing as much as
16.2 per cent. of BaO (Dana, 3: 258). A very striking phenomenon
shown by the barite is its replacement by chlorite (Fig. 12, Slide
296, and Fig. 34, Slide 272).

Just why there is this common association of two very unlike
elements we have no definite information. De Launay (4: 52)
gives the following explanation for epigenetic deposits :

“The association between barite and manganese though very frequently
exhibited in surface formations, in many cases these two substances are being
concentrated by circulating waters in pockets or fissures of terranes.”

Various conditions may produce barite with barium salts in
solution but only one seems to apply to the occurrences under con-
sideration. As there are evidences of diagenetically and epigenetic-
“lly formed barite in the deposits, it is quite possible that there has
been an intermingling of solutions carrying barium carbonate and
some sulphate resulting in the formation of barite. According to
De Launay (4: 52)

“Barite being remarkably insoluble is one of those barium compounds
which not only has the propensity to segregate and all at once to be trans-
formed into the carbonate but also the tendency under the influence of H.SO,
produced by the superficial oxidation of the metallic sulphides to pass into
the state of barite.”

The replacement of the colorless barite by the pale green chlorite
begins about the edges and along cleavage cracks of the former.
The chlorite gradually spreads while the intervening portions of
barite decrease until wholly eliminated, resulting in a pseudomorph
of chlorite after barite. In general appearance of its various stages,

1914.1 CONCEPTION AND TRINITY BAYS, NEWFOUNDLAND. 453

the process is quite like the serpentinization of olivine but differs
essentially from the latter alteration in the fact that the secondary
mineral, chlorite, derives none of its material from the original
mineral, barite, its change involving a complete replacement by
wholly new material. It is a marked example of the comparative
ease with which substances which, like barium sulphate are regarded
in the laboratory as very stable, yield to the attack of natural
reagents.

This replacement seems to have accompanied a more or less
general chloritization of the whole formation, at a period long sub-
sequent to the concentration of the manganese ore and under totally
different conditions.

PHOSPHATE.—Tri-calcium phosphate, Ca,(PO,), also is a very
conspicuous accessory of the manganese deposits of Newfoundland,
averaging, for those beds of which analyses were made, about 6.0
per cent. and for the phosphatic nodules of the nodular bed over-
lying the manganese zone at Manuels, 38.77 per cent. When we
stop to consider the amount of phosphorus in the lithosphere as .11
per cent. (Clark, 2: 32) the amount of concentration in these
deposits, particularly in the nodules, becomes very noticeable and
something of great interest. The similarity in chemical composi-
tion of the phosphatic nodules of Manuels brook and those of Han-
ford brook, N. B., has been referred to on page 409. As the writer
has been unable to make as thorough a study of these nodules as he
would have liked, it is hoped that at some future time the investiga-
tion may be continued. At this time then a very brief resumé of
the modes of concentration of phosphorus may be of interest be-
cause of apparent application to the deposit under consideration.

According to De Launay (5: 646) there are three stages in the
concentration of phosphatic deposits, namely solution of calcium
phosphate, in which he considers that in surface conditions

“the constant presence of carbonic acid and sodium chloride or chlorhydrate
of ammonia in the waters determines the solution of phosphate.”

The second stage is that in which organisms play an important role.

454 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF [April 2s,

“The faculty which live organisms have of throwing into very dilute solu-
tions those substances which to them are necessary and of making them
undergo a primary stage of concentration has played a great role for the
phosphates.” De Launay (5: 646).

The third stage called by De Launay, “ Remises en mouvement ”
consists in a dissolution of the phosphate contained in preceding
deposits which is followed by a reprecipitation of the same upon
anything which has served as a center of attraction. The tendency
in this mode of concentration is for the phosphate to become more
and more like the original apatite in composition, the ultimate source
of the phosphorus. It involves both a chemical and a mechanical
action, the former in dissolution and reprecipitation and the latter
in the formation of nodules which, according to the suggestion of
the writer in connection with the manganese nodules of Manuels,
may be of physical nature, namely the result of surface tension.

Iron.—An interesting, and yet problematical, point arises here
in connection with the association and separation of iron and man-
ganese as related to the manganese deposit under consideration.
We should expect, in as much as both elements are taken into solu-
tion, that they both might be precipitated together as is sometimes
the case with bog ores or, if separated, at no great stratigraphic
distance. Because of their different rates of oxidation and dif-
ferent degrees of solubility, however, a separation is effected. As-
suming both elements entering into solution contemporaneously, the
iron would oxidize first, precipitating as Fe,O., while the manganese,
remaining in solution longer, is precipitated either as MnO,, Mn,O,
or MnCO,. Though the Newfoundland manganese deposits con-
tain iron, it is much less in proportion to what it would be if both
were precipitated together (see Analyses, p. 438) considering the
relative abundance of the two elements in the lithosphere referred
to on page 447.

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10. Harder, E. C. 10910. Manganese Deposits of the U. S. with Sections on
Foreign Deposits, Chemistry and Uses. Bull. 427 U.S. G. S., pp. 1-298;
2 plates and 33 figures. Complete bibliography.

11. Holzberger. 1859. Neues vorkommen von Manganerzen bei Elbingerode
am Harze; Berg- und Hiitten. Ztg. XVIII.

12. Hunt, T. Sterry. 1857-58. Geol. Survey of Canada.

13. Jashe. 1817. Kleine minéeralogische Schriften, Sondershauen, pp. I-12.

14. Lindgren, Waldemar. 1913. Mineral Deposits. 883 pages. McGraw-Hill
Book Co.

15. Matthew, W. D. 1893. On Phosphate Nodules from the Cambrian of
Southern New Brunswick. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XII. Reprint.
Contribution from the Geological Department of Columbia College,
No. 9.

16. Matthew, G. F. 1895. The Protolenus Fauna. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,
Vol. XIV., pp. 101-153.

17. Murray, Sir John, and Hjort, Dr. John. 1913. Depths of the Ocean, pp.
821, 4 maps, 9 plates.

18. Murray, Alex., and Howley, Jas. P. 1881. Geol. Survey of Newfound-
land, pages 1-536. London.

19. Murray, John, and Irvine, Robert. 1893. On the Chemical Changes which
Take Place in the Composition of the Sea Water Associated with Blue
Muds on the Floor of the Ocean. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Vol.
37, Pp. 481-508.

tga. Murray, John, and Irvine, Robert. 1804. On Manganese Oxides and
Manganese Nodules in Marine Deposits. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh,
Vol. 37, pp. 721-742.

20. Penrose, R. A. F., Jr. 1891. Manganese: Its Uses, Ores, and Deposits.
Am. Rept. Geol. Survey of Ark. for 1890, Vol. 1, pages 1-642.

21. Phillips, J. Arthur. 1896. A Treatise on Ore Deposits. 2d edition re-

PROC, AMER. PHIL. SOC., LIV. 220 FF, PRINTED FEBRUARY 25, 1916.

456 DALE—CAMBRIAN MANGANESE DEPOSITS. [April 25,

written and greatly enlarged by Henry Louis. Pages 1-943. With
numerous illustrations. Macmillan and Co., London.

22. Shutt, Frank T.,and Spencer, Gordan A. 1908. The Mineral Constituents
of the Ottawa Water. 1908. Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 3d
series, Vol. II. Meeting of May, 1908.

23. Stelzner, A. W., und Bergeat, A. 1904-1906. Die Erzlagerstatten, 1
Halfte. mit 100 Abbildungen und einer Karte. Verlag von Arthur
Felix, Leipzig.

24. Walcott, C.D. 1899. Pre-Cambrian Fossiliferous Formations. Bull. Geol.
Soc. of America, Vol. 10, pp. 199-244. Pls. 22-28.

25. Zerrenner, C. 1861. Die Manganerz-Bergbaue in Deutschland, Frank-
reich und Spanien: Frieberg. (Cited by Stelzner und Bergeat.)

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June, 1914.

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PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 216 PLATE A

AUGUST WEISMANN.

Born JANUARY 17, 1834. Died Novemeer 6, 1914.

AUGUST WEISMANN.

PLATE A.
(Read January I, 1915.)

August Weismann, a foreign member of this Society, was born
at Frankfort on the Main, January 17, 1834, and died at Freiburg
in Breisgau, November 6, 1914. He early showed the traits of a
naturalist and in one of his books speaks of the excitement he felt.
as a boy in catching butterflies. He attended the University of
Gottingen, where he studied chemistry and medicine, coming espe-
cially under the instruction of the distinguished anatomist Henle,
and receiving the degree of M.D. in 1856. After spending three
years at Rostock as an assistant he began the practice of medicine
at Frankfort and during this time he visited Vienna in 1858, Italy
in 1859 and Paris in 1860. From 1861 to 1862 he was private
physician to Archduke Stephan of Austria at Schamburg Palace.
He then studied zoology at Giessen under the renowned zoologist
Leuckart and became privat-docent in zoology at the University of
Freiburg in 1863, where he spent the remainder of his life. In 1866
he was appointed professor extraordinarius and a few years later
became professor ordinarius, which position he continued to hold
until a few years before his death, when he was made professor
emeritus.

In person he was a man of striking appearance, being about six
feet tall and well proportioned and having a fine head and face
and an earnest but kind expression of the eyes. From 1864 to 1874
and again from 1884 on he suffered from an eye trouble which in-
terfered greatly with his microscopical work and turned his atten-
tion to theoretical questions. One of his former students and as-
sistants, Professor Alexander Petrunkewitch,’ to whom I am in-
debted for much valuable information concerning his personality, ©

17 am also indebted to Prof. H. H. Wilder, of Smith College, and to
Prof. J. S. Kingsley, of the University of Illinois, for information regarding
the family life and personality of Weismann.

wt

w OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.

says that although he was usually quiet in manner he invariably
became nervous and unhappy in the presence of moving objects,
which painfully affected his eyes,

A short autobiography published in Lamp in 1903 gives a glimpse
of his family life:

“During the ten years (1864-1874) of enforced inactivity and rest
occurred my marriage to Fraulein Marie Gruber, who became the mother of
my children and was my true companion for twenty years until her death.
Of her now I think only with love and gratitude. She was the one who more
than any one else helped me through the gloom of this period. She read
much to me at this time, for she read aloud excellently, and she not only
took an interest in my theoretical and experimental work but she also gave
practical assistance in it.’’2

His great work on the “ Natural History of the Daphnoidea ”
(1876-79) is dedicated to “ My father-in-law, Adolph Gruber, in
thankful memory of the beautiful hours of leisure spent on the
shores of Bodensee.” His colleague, the anatomist Wiedersheim,
married another daughter of Gruber who was a Genoese banker.
After the death of his first wife Weismann married again when
about sixty years old, but not happily. One of his daughters mar-
ried the zoologist W. N. Parker, who translated into English his
best known work “The Germ Plasm.” <A son was trained as a
professional violinist.

Weismann, like so many other naturalists, was of an artistic dis-
position. He loved nature, art and music and he was an accom-
plished pianist. During the periods when he suffered much from
his eye trouble he says that he “ found solace in playing a good deal
of music.” He was an enthusiastic admirer of Beethoven but
could not appreciate Wagner. His artistic temperament is further
shown in many of his essays which for beauty of expression are
rarely surpassed in scientific literature.

He was an excellent speaker, being simple and earnest in manner
and never indulging in jokes. His lectures on evolution, which were
delivered regularly for almost forty years, were famous and always
attracted great audiences. As a teacher of advanced students he
was stimulating and helpful, a kind critic and an attentive listener.

He took no active part in politics, but like many German pro-

2 Quoted from Locy’s “ Biology and its Makers,” p. 4o1.

AUGUST WEISMANN. v

fessors was a member of the “ National Liberal” party. In phi-
losophy he held tenaciously to a mechanistic conception of nature,
but he believed that extreme mechanism was consistent with extreme
teleology, indeed he held that “The most complete mechanism con-
ceivable is likewise the most complete teleology conceivable. With
this conception vanish all apprehensions that the new views of evo-
lution would cause man to lose the best that he possesses—morality
and purely human culture.” In his philosophy as in his scientific
controversies he was extremely tolerant. He was interested in the
promotion of knowledge but was not aggressive nor offensive in
manner,

Inasmuch as his life was so largely given to the extension and
support of the Darwinian theory it is interesting to hear from him-
self how that theory first came to his attention. After remarking,
“T never heard evolution referred to in my student days,” he de-
scribes the influence on himself of Darwin’s book in these words:

“TI myself was at the time in the stage of metamorphosis from a physician

to a zoologist, and as far as philosophical views of nature were concerned I
was a blank sheet of paper, a tabula rasa. I read the book [“ Origin of
Species] first in 1861 at a single sitting (sic) and with ever growing en-
thusiasm. When I had finished I stood firm on the basis of the evolution
theory, and I have never seen reason to forsake it.”
With just pride he mentions the fact that he was one of the first
scientific men in Germany to defend publicly Darwin’s theory ; Fritz
Muller was the first to publish a work in favor of that theory (“* Fur
Darwin,’ 1864), Haeckel was the second (“Generelle Morpho-
logie,’ 1866) and Weismann was the third, his Inaugural Address
at Freiburg on the “ Justification of the Darwinian Theory ” (“ Uber
die Berechtigung der Darwin’schen Theorie’’) being published in
1868.

Thereafter his contributions to the Darwinian theory were
numerous and important. They appeared from 1872 to 1902 as a
series of books and contributions. Five of these earlier contribu-
tions were translated into English by R. Meldola and were published
as two large volumes in 1882 with an introduction by Charles Dar-
win. Subsequent studies on evolution were so intimately associated
with his theories of heredity that they can best be considered under
that topic.

vt OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.

Weismann’s contributions to biological theory were so extensive
and important that they overshadow to a great extent his observa-
tional and experimental work, and yet the latter was by no means
small or unimportant. Among these observational and experimental
studies must be mentioned especially his extensive works on “The
Development of Diptera (1865),” “ Natural History of the Daph-
noidea ” (1876-79), ‘‘ Origin of the Sex Cells of the Hydromedusz
(1883),” “Seasonal Dimorphism of Butterflies” (1875), “Origin
of Markings of Caterpillars” (1876) and “Transformation of the
Mexican Axolotl into Amblystoma.”

Some of his earlier work was done without assistance, but in all
of his later observational and experimental studies he had the as-
sistance of his wife or other helpers. Much of his work was done
in collaboration with some of his students or assistants. His method
of work was to a large extent forced upon him by his eye affliction.
After 1864 all reading had to be done for him, at first by his wife
and after her death by a secretary. Experimental work was done
under his supervision by his assistant and janitor. All microscopic
work was done by his pupils, to whom he suggested topics and
whose work he supervised daily. These theses were always in
direct relation to his theories and to that phase of them which in-
terested him most at the moment.

But valuable as much of his observational and experimental
work was, there is no doubt that he will be remembered chiefly for
his theories of heredity. His earliest writings on this subject date
from the year 1883 and his latest were published but a few years
before his death. His ‘Essays upon Heredity and Kindred Bio-
logical Topics” were translated into English and published in two
volumes in 1889 and 1892. Probably his most important work on
this subject is his book entitled “The Germ-Plasm, A Theory of
Hereditw” which was published in English in 1893. Subsequent
workt J.. scredity are “On Germinal Selection” (1896) and “ Vor-
trage tiber Descendenztheorie” (1902). This last-named work,
which was published in English under the title “The Evolution
Theory ” (1904), consists of a summary and an expansion of many
of his previous writings on the subjects of evolution and heredity ;

AUGUST WEISMANN. vil

indeed as he says in the preface of this book, it is “a mirror of the
course of my own intellectual evolution.”

Without attempting to analyze these different books, which
would require more time and space than is here available, we may
proceed at once to a summary of his more important contributions
to the theories of evolution and heredity.

All his theories, both of heredity and evolution, center in what
he called the “germ-plasm,” that particular part of the germ cells
which serves to carry over from generation to generation the in-
heritance factors. This germ-plasm was held by Weismann to be
absolutely continuous from the present generation back to the
earliest generations of living things; it was absolutely distinct from
the somatoplasm of the body and the latter could never become
germ-plasm; it was almost perfectly stable undergoing practically
no changes except such as came from the mixing of different kinds
of germ-plasm (amphimixis) in sexual reproduction.

-lhese views as to the nature of the germ-plasm underwent
some modification as the result of criticism. Weismann was forced
to admit that the distinctness and stability of the germ-plasm were
not absolute, but in spite of all criticism he was able to maintain
that the germ-plasm was relatively very distinct from other plasms
and very stable in organization and this is now admitted by all
persons acquainted with the subject.

His views as to the separateness of somatoplasm and germ-
plasm, of body cells and germ cells, and the mortality of the former
and potential immortality of the latter, led him to regard organisms
in which this distinction does not exist (many protozoa and proto-
phyta) as potentially immortal. With a keenness of insight
which was not appreciated at the time but which has been con-
firmed by recent work he reasoned that “conjugation like food and
oxygen may be conditions of life but immortality does not rest on the
magic of conjugation any more than on food or oxygen.” Again
he anticipated the most recent opinions when he held that death is
not a necessary correlative of life, but rather the result of higher
differentiation. In short, as Minot said, “Death is the price we
pay for our differentiation.” On the other hand, his attempt to

vit OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.

explain the origin of death as an adaptation due to selection was
probably a mistaken one.

As to the location of the germ-plasm in the sex cells Weismann
maintained that it was to be found in the chromatic substance of
the nucleus. He held that the chromosomes (“idants”) were
composed of smaller units, the chromomeres (“ids”), and that the
latter were composed of “determinants” or inheritance units, while
the most elementary units of life he called “biophores.” Both
chromosomes and chromomeres are visible structures of the cell.
Determinants and biophores are ultra-microscopic in size but re-
cent work on heredity and development has shown that there is
good evidence of the existence of such units. All recent work in
genetics is based upon the hypothesis that there are units or factors
or determiners in germ cells which condition the development of
adult characters, and though there may be minor differences be-
tween these determiners of modern genetics and the determinants
of Weismann no one can fail to note the genetic connection and the
family resemblance between the two.

His prediction on purely a priori grounds that one of the
maturation divisions in the formation of the egg and sperm should
be a “reduction division” whereby the chromosomes of the sex
cells should be reduced to half the number present in the somatic
cells, whereas all other cell divisions should be “ equation divisions ”
in which the chromosomes should divide equally, was almost as
brilliant an example of scientific prophecy as was the prediction of
the existence of the planet Neptune.

Similarly Weismann’s assumption that the determinants are ar-
ranged in a linear series in the chromosomes finds strong support in
the newest and most striking discoveries in this field, in which
Morgan is able to locate at different points along the length of a
chromosome the determiners of many developed characters.

Finally there is at present universal agreement to the declara-
tion of Weismann that no purely epigenetic theory of heredity
is possible, though for many years even this was hotly contested,
When one recalls the storm of opposition which was called forth
by his book on “The Germ-Plasm” the present acceptance, at least

AUGUST WEISMANN. 1x

in principle, of his major propositions cannot be viewed in any other
light than as a triumph for his theory and a tribute to the insight,
foresight and constructive ability of Weismann.

As a result of his theory of heredity Weismann was led to in-
vestigate the generally accepted doctrine of the inheritance of ac-
quired characters. He carried on extensive experiments in order
to learn whether mutilations of parents through many generations
were ever inherited by offspring; he investigated many supposed
cases of the inheritance of such characters, and as a result of this
work he was led to deny altogether the possibility of the inheri-
tance of acquired characters, and he challenged the world to fur-
nish any satisfactory proof of such inheritance. This work of
Weismann’s called forth a tremendous amount of discussion and a
relatively small amount of direct observation and experiment, and
for several years it appeared as 1f no progress whatever was being
made toward the solution of this great question, so full of im-
portance, not merely for the biologist but also for the practical
breeder and indeed for the human race. But gradually there has
grown up a clearer understanding of the problem and of what is
meant by “inherited” and “acquired” characters, and gradually
this dead-lock of opinions is breaking up. Now we recognize that
inherited characters are those whose distinctive or differential causes
are in the germ cells, while acquired characters are those whose
differential causes are environmental. No one today believes that
the developed or somatic characters of an organism are transmitted
to the next generation. Today the problem of the inheritance of
acquired characters is merely this: Can changes in the environment
change the constitution of the germ-plasm so as to produce changes
in subsequent generations? No one now asks whether changes
in developed characters may be transmitted to descendants, as was
generally done before Weismann’s work, for it is generally recog-
nized that somatic characters whether inherited or acquired are
not transmitted from generation to generation, the only thing which
is transmitted being the germ-plasm. Weismann admitted in his
later writings that the germ-plasm might be modified to a limited
extent by certain environmental conditions, but he held that such

x OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED.

changes of the germ-plasm led to general and unpredictable changes
in future generations which might be wholly different from those
somatic changes in the parents which were directly produced by such
environment. This view 1s now widely accepted.

Thus while Weismann’s views on this subject underwent cer-
tain changes in the course of his long life, the opinions of his
opponents have undergone so much greater and more important
changes that it may be truly said that in the matter of the inheri-
tance or non-inheritance of acquired characters the greater portion
of the scientific world has come to Weismann’s position.

Finally mention must be made of Weismann’s theory of evolu-
tion which was a direct outgrowth of his theory of heredity. He
maintained that evolution must depend upon an evolution of the
germ-plasm and that this was brought about chiefly, if not entirely,
by the mixture of different kinds of germ-plasms (amphimixis) in
the union of the sex cells. There is no doubt that many variations
are produced by amphimixis but in general these combinations of
germ-plasms are not actual fusions; new combinations of inheri-
trance units are produced but not new units, and usually these new
combinations split up in subsequent generations according to Men-
delian rules, so that such temporary combinations of different germ-
plasms do not usually lead to permanent modification, or to evolu-
tion, of the germ-plasm. On the other hand it is_ probable
that Weismann underestimated the possible influence of environ-
ment in producing changes in the germ-plasm and hence its in-
fluence on evolution; at least it does not seem possible at present
to explain the origin of many inherited mutations except by the
influence of changed environment upon the developing germ cells.

In his belief in Natural Selection Weismann out-Darwined
Darwin or any of the Darwinians. Darwin dealt only with the
survival of individuals or races in the struggle for existence and
was always inclined to assign a good deal of weight to the influence
of environment in producing new races. Weismann would not
admit the existence of any other factor of evolution than selection
and he extended this principle from individuals or persons (“ per-
sonal selection”) to organs and tissues (“‘histonal selection”) and

AUGUST WEISMANN. oh

even to germinal units such as determinants and biophores (“ ger-
minal selection’). By means of an assumed struggle for nutri-
ment between different determinants he believed that the weaker
ones would tend to grow still weaker and to disappear while the
stronger ones would increase in strength until they reached such
importance that they were checked, or increased, by personal selec-
tion, And by a similar struggle between different biophores he
showed that the quality of a determinant would be changed. By
means of this highly ingenious but purely formal and hypothetical
system he was able to explain the degeneration and disappearance
of useless parts of an organism and the concordant modification
of many different parts in the course of evolution.

Of all his theories those which grew out of his belief in the
““Omnipotence of Selection” have found least confirmation in sub-
sequent work. The Mutation Theory of deVries has come in to
modify in certain important respects the theory of Darwin, and the
work of Johannsen, Jennings, Pearl and others has shown that even
“personal selection”’ has little or no influence in creating new types.
And yet we have not seen the end of the selection doctrine. The
elimination of the unfit is still the only natural means of account-
ing for fitness in organisms and we may well ponder these words of
Weismann in the preface of his last book:

“ Although I may have erred in many single questions which the future
will have to determine, in the foundation of my ideas I have certainly not
erred. The selection principle controls in fact all categories of life units.
It does not create the primary variations but it does determine the paths
of development which these follow from beginning to end, and therewith all
differentiations, all advances of organization and finally the general course
of development of organisms on our earth, for everything in the living world
rests on adaptation.”

Clear thinking is necessary in the advance of science as well as
fine technique and Weismann has demonstrated to a more or less
scornful world the importance of brains as well as of hands and >
eyes in the discovery of truth. It does not fall to the lot of any
man to make no mistakes, and in this respect Weismann was only
human. But it has fallen to the lot of few men to do so much
work of lasting value and to have so profound an influence on his

xu OBITUARY NOTICES-OF MEMBERS DECEASED.

day and generation as was true of August Weismann. The spirit
of his life and work may be summed up in the beautiful words
with which he closes his essay on “ Life and Death”: “ After all it
is the quest after perfected truth, not its possession, that falls to our

lot, that gladdens us, fills up the measure of our life, nay!
hallows it.”

EDWIN G. CONKLIN.
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY,

January, I915.

MINUTES

1915. ] MINUTES. We

MINUTES.

Stated Meeting January I, 1915.
WiLtitiaM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

The decease was announced of Charles Martin Hall, A.M.,
LL.D., of Niagara Falls, at Daytona, Florida, on December 27,
HOUALS Bete Sil,

Prof. Edwin G. Conklin read an obituary notice of Prof. August
Weismann.

Prof. William B. Scott read a paper on “ The Isthmus of Panama
in its Relation to the Animals of North and South America.”

The Judges of the Annual Election of Officers and Councillors,
held on this day between the hours of two and five in the afternoon,
reported that the following named members were elected to be the
Officers for the ensuring year, according to the Laws, Regulations
and Ordinances of the Society.

President.

William W. Keen.

Vice-Presidents.

William B. Scott,
Albert A. Michelson,
Edward C. Pickering.

Secretaries.
I. Minis Hays,
Arthur W. Goodspeed,

Amos P. Brown,
inlarnys Heeler:

aw MINUTES. [February 5,

Curators.

Charles L. Doolittle,
William P. Wilson,
Leslie W. Miller.

Treasurer.

Henry La Barre Jayne.

Councillors.

(To serve for three years.)
Henry H. Donaldson,
Theodore W. Richards,
IRopect JA, lalaiinee,
Edwin G. Conklin.

Special Meeting January 14, 1015.
Wititiam W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

Dr. J. G Bose, ot Calcutta, ead) a paper on)» ihe Controlkon
Nervous Impulse in Plant and Animal.”

Stated Meeting February 5, 1915.
WiILnrAnt )\WeIKEEN Vine ele Presidents tative @laanns

An invitation was received from the University of North Caro-
lina to be represented at the Inauguration of Edward Kidder
Graham, as President, at Chapel Hill, on the twenty-first of April.

A letter was received from Prof. Allen C. Thomas presenting
his resignation of membership.

The decease was announced of the following members:

Benjamin Sharp, M.D., at Moorehead, N. C., on January 23,
1915; xt. 57.

Cyrus Fogg Brackett, A.B., LL.D., at Princeton on January
2G), WOUES Edt, CA,

The following papers were read:

“The Surgery of the Civil War as Contrasted with the Surgery
of the Present European War,” by W. W. Keen, M.D.

1915.] MINUTES. Vv

“The Antediluvian Patriarchs on a Tablet from Nippur,” by
George A. Barton, Ph.D., which was discussed by Professor
Learned and Mrs. Stevenson.

Stated Meeting March 5, 1015.
WiLtiaM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

Dr. David Jayne Hill, elected to membership in 1910, subscribed
the Laws and was admitted into the Society.
Letters were received:

From the President appointing Prof. W. LeConte Stevens to
represent the Society at the inauguration of Edward Kidder
Graham, as President of the University of North Carolina.

From Prof. W. LeConte Stevens, accepting the appointment.

The decease of the following members was announced:

Arthur vonAuwers, at Berlin on January 24, 1915.

James Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L., at Edinburgh, on March 2, 1915;
et. 75.

The following papers were read:

“The Swedes, Governor Printz, and the Beginning of Pennsyl-
vania,” by Thomas Willing Balch.

“A Missing Chapter in International History,’ by Hon. David
Jayne Hill, which was discussed by Mr. Carson, Prof.
Learned, and Mr. Rosengarten.

Stated Meeting April 0, 1915.
Wititiam W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

An invitation was received from the Trustees and Faculty of
Allegheny College, to be represented at the celebration of the One
Hundredth Anniversary of the founding of the College, to be held
at Meadville, Pa., in the week beginning the twentieth of June, 1915.

The decease of the following members was announced:

Charles Francis Adams, LL.D., at Washington on March 20,
1915; zt. 80.
Frederick Winslow Taylor, M.E., at Philadelphia on March

Zp LO Sysco bn 5O:

VL MINUTES. [April 23-25,

David K. Tuttle, Ph.D., at Philadelphia on April 7, 1915; et.
79:

Prof. Charles C. Bass read a paper on “ Some Important Factors
which Influence Asexual Reproduction of Malaria Plasmodia in
Man,” which was discussed by Dr. Tyson, Dr. Henry Skinner, Dr.
McFarland, and Dr. Keen.

Stated General Meeting April 22, 23, and 24, IQTS5.

Thursday, April 22, I9T5.

ATBERT AS MICHELSON, 2h Dy ScD. Iie Dy akeRess
Vice-President, in the Chair.

Prof. Eliakim H. Moore, elected to membership in 1905, and
Prof. Robert Andrews Millikan, elected to membership in 1914,
having subscribed the Laws, were admitted into the Society.

_ The following papers were read:

“Devices for Facilitating the Analysis of Observations—More
Particularly those of the Tides,” by Ernest W. Brown, Sc.D.,
Professor of Mathematics, Yale University.

“On Linear Integral Equations in General Analysis,” by
Eliakim El. Moore, Ph.D: Sc.D. LID Head of Depart
ment of Mathematics, University of Chicago.

“A Direct Solution of Fredholm’s Equation with Analytic
Kernel,” by Preston A. Lambert, Professor of Mathematics,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.

“The Existence of a Sub-Electron?” by Robert A. Millikan,
Ph.D., Professor of Physics, University of Chicago, which
was discussed by Prof. Michelson.

“Local Disturbances in a Magnetic Field,” by Francis EB.
Nipher, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Physics, Washington
University, St. Louis.

“Explorations over the Surface of Telephonic Diaphragms
Vibrating under Simple Impressed Sounds,’ by A. E.
Kennelly, S.D., A.M., Professor of Electrical Engineering,
Harvard University and H. O. Taylor, of Cambridge.

1915.] MINUTES. vu

“The Hall and Corbino Effects,” by Edwin Plimpton Adams,
Professor of Physics, Princeton University. (Introduced by
Prof. Magie.)

“Spontaneous Generation of Heat in Recently Hardened Steel,”
by Charles Francis Brush, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., of Cleveland.

“Ruling and Performance of a Ten Inch Diffraction Grating,”
bye wee WMiichelson: PhD ScDe elapse Headtorm Depart—
ment of Physics, University of Chicago.

Friday, April 23.
Morning Session—o.35 o’clock.
Wititiam W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read:

pelcleredity in rotozoa,,. by, Mi. He Jacobs, PheDe Assistant
Professor of Zoology, University of Pennsylvania. (Intro-
duced by Prof. McClung.)

peiiien Constitutionmon) the) bHereditarny a Materialein byn dae
Morgan, Ph.D., Professor of Experimental Zoology, Colum-
bia University, New York. (Introduced by Prof. E. G.
Conklin.) Discussed by Prof. Conklin.

“The Problem of Adaptation as Illustrated by the Fur Seals of
the Pribilof Islands ” (illustrated by lantern slides), by George
H. Parker, Sc.D., Professor of Zoology, Harvard University.
Discussed by Professors Conklin and Cattell.

“An Interpretation of Sterility in Hybrids,” by Edward M.
East, Ph.D., Professor of Experimental Plant Morphology,
Harvard University. (Introduced by Prof. Bradley Moore
Davis.)

“Heterosis and the Effects of Inbreeding,” by George H.
Shull, Ph.D., Botanical Investigator, Station for Experi-
mental Evolution, Carnegie Institution. (Introduced by
Prof. Bradley M. Davis.)

“The Significance of Sterility in G*nothera,”’ by Bradley M.
Davis, Ph.D., Professor of Botany, University of Penn-
sylvania.

vi MINUTES. [April 23-25,

The preceding three papers were discussed by Prof. Parker.

“Morphology and Development of Agaricus rodmani,” by
George F. Atkinson, Ph.D., Head of Department of Botany,
Cornell University.

“The Large-fruited American Oaks,’ by William Trelease,
Se.D., LL.D., Professor of Botany, University of Illinois,
Urbana.

“Relationships of the White Oaks of Eastern North America,”
by M. V. Cobb. (Introduced by Prof. Trelease.)

“The Present Need in Systematic Botany,” by L. H. Bailey,
LL.D., late Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell
University.

Afternoon Session—2 o'clock.
WiLLiAM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read:

“A Convenient Form of Receiver for Fractional Distillations
under Diminished Pressure,’ by Marston T. Bogert, LL.D.,
Professor of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York.

“The Cymene Carboxylic Acids,” by J. R. Tuttle and Marston
T. Bogert, of Columbia University, New York.

““Syringic Acid and its Derivatives,’ by E. Plaut and Marston
T. Bogert, of Columbia University, New York.

The three preceding papers were discussed by Profs. Keller
and Scott.

“The Relation of Ductless Glands to Dentition and Ossifica-
tion,” by William J. Gies, Ph.D., Professor of Biological
Chemistry, Columbia University. (Introduced by Prof.
larry, He Keller)

“ Gastro-Intestinal Studies,” by Philip B. Hawk, Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Physiological Chemistry and Toxicology, Jefferson
Medical College, Philadelphia. (Introduced by Dr. W. W.
Keen.) Discussed by Prof. Scott.

“On the Rate of Evaporation of Ether from Oils and its Ap-
plication in Oil-Ether Colonic Anesthesia,’ by Charles
Baskerville, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry, College of the

1915.] MINUTES. ta

City of New York. (Introduced by Prof. J. P. Remington.)
Discussed by Profs. Scott and Remington.

7 On Oral yEndamebiosis;;, by yAllen say Smith MEDS ScD),
LL.D., Professor of Pathology, University of Pennsylvania.
Discussed by Prof. Bogert.

“Certain Factors Conditioning Nervous Responses,” by Stewart
Paton, M.D., Lecturer in Biology, Princeton University.
Discussed by Profs. Donaldson and Scott.

“The Rights and Obligations as to Neutralized Territory,” by
Charlemagne Tower, LL.D., of Philadelphia.

“Physiographic Features as a Factor in the European War,”
by Douglas W. Johnson, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Phys-
iography, Columbia University. (Introduced by Mr. Henry
G. Bryant.)

“The Pronouns and Verbs in Sumerian,” by J. Dyneley Prince,
Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University,
New York. (Read by title.)

“A New Form of Nephelometer,” by J. T. W. Marshall, Harri-
man Research Laboratory, Roosevelt Hospital, New York.

Dr. Stewart Paton a newly-elected member and the Hon. Simeon
E. Baldwin, elected to membership in 1910, subscribed the Laws
and were admitted into the Society.

Friday Evening—s.15 o'clock.

William Morris Davis, Sc.D., Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of
Geology, Harvard University, gave an illustrated lecture, ‘“ On
New Evidence for Darwin’s Theory of Coral Reefs.” A statement
of the chief results of a Shaler Memorial Voyage across the Pacific
in 1914, with Studies of the Fiji Group, New Caledonia, the Loyalty
Islands, the New Hebrides, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and
the Society Islands.

Saturday, April 24.
Executive Session—o.30 A.M.
WiLtLtiamM W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

Pending nominations for membership were read and spoken to.
Dr. L. A. Bauer and Secretary Brown were appointed tellers of
election and the Society proceeded to ballot for members.

xv MINUTES. [April 23-25,

The tellers reported that the following nominees had been elected
to membership:

Residents of the Umted States.

John J. Abel, M.D., Baltimore, Md.

Edwin Plimpton Adams, Ph.D., Princeton, N. J.
Walter Sydney Adams, Pasadena, Cal.

John Merle Coulter, Ph.D., Chicago, Ill.
Whitman Cross, Ph.D., Washington, D. C.
William J. Gies, M.D., New York City.

Philip Bovier Hawk, Ph.D., Philadelphia.

John Fillmore Hayford, Evanston, Ill.

Emory Richard Johnson, Sc.D., Philadelphia.
John Anthony Miller, Ph.D., Swarthmore, Pa.
Thomas Hunt Morgan, Ph.D., New York.
William Fogg Osgood, Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass.
Raymond Pearl, Ph.D., Orono, Me.

Theobald Smith, M.D., Boston, Mass.

John Zeleny, Ph.D., Minneapolis, Minn.

Morning Session—to o'clock.
Witu1aM B. Scott, Sc.D., LL.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read:

“Opium in the Bible,” by Paul Haupt, Ph.D., Professor of
Semitic Languages, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
“Divisions of the Pleistocene of Europe and the Periods of the
Entrance of Human Races,” by Henry Fairfield Osborn,
Se.D., LL.D., Research Professor of Zoology, Columbia Uni-

versity, N. Y. :

“The Occurrence of Alge in Carbonaceous Deposits,” by
Gharles Al Davis) PhDs of UL Ss BureauyoreMinessam Glas
troduced by Prof. Marston T. Bogert.) Discussed by Profs.
Scott and B. M. Davis.

“ Additions to the Fauna of the Lower Pliocene Snake Creek
Beds, Nebraska,” by W. J. Sinclair, Ph.D., Curator of Verte-
brate Paleontology, Princeton University. (Introduced by
Prot. Wes. Scotts) ae Discussedmbya nome Scott

I915.] MINUTES. xr

“Tertiary Vertebrate Faunas of the North Coalinga Region of
Californias z@ by waohni Ca Merriamn sy ha seeeLokesson of
Paleontology and Historical Geology, University of Cali-
fornia.

“The Role of the Glacial Anticyclone in the Air Circulation of
the Globe,” by William H. Hobbs, Ph.D., Professor of
Geology, University of Michigan.

“Note on the Sun’s Temperature,” by Henry Norris Russell,
Ph.D., Professor of Astronomy, Princeton University.

“Radial Velocities in the Orion Nebula,” by Edwin B. Frost,
D.Sc., Director of Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis.
Discussed by Prof. Russell.

“Some Results from the Observation of Eclipsing Variables,”
by Raymond S. Dugan, Assistant Professor of Astronomy,
Princeton University. (Introduced by Prof. H. N. Russell.)

Eee Variables starsel Vis IDWi and Wx Cassiopeiced: byadxeule
McDiarmid, Fellow, Princeton University. (Introduced by
JPyg@xi, Jel, INs Jeabissellll))

“The Euler-Laplace Theorem on the Rounding Up of the Or-
bits of the Heavenly Bodies under the Secular Action of a
Inesispiny Miscbtara = oy 10 I, so See; ela, WW, Ss iNenvell
Observatory, Mare Island, Cal.

“The Work in Atmospheric Electricity aboard the ‘ Carnegie,’ ’
by L. A. Bauer, Ph.D., D.Sc., Director of the Department
of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, and W. F. G. Swann, D.Sc.

“Yammuz and Osiris,’ by George A. Barton, Ph.D., Prof. of

’

Biblical Literature and Semitic Languages, Bryn Mawr Col-
lege, which was discussed by Dr. Jastrow.

Afternoon Session— 2 o'clock.
Witttam W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

Dr. John Fillmore Hayford, a newly elected member, subscribed
the Laws and was admitted into the Society.

A portrait of Dr. Edgar IF. Smith, of Philadelphia, was pre-
sented to the Society by Dr. J. H. Penniman on behalf of the donor.

Lt MINUTES. [May 7,

The following papers were read:

“One Dimensional Gases and the Reflection of Molecules from
Solid Walls.”

“Recent Progress in the Study of the Iodine Resonance Spec-
tra, with a description of a Long Focus Spectroscope of High
Power,” by Robert Williams Wood, A.B., LL.D., Profes-
sor of Experimental Physics, Johns Hopkins University.
Discussed by Dr. Brush, Prof. Noyes and Dr. Webster.

Symposium on the Earth: Its Figure, Dimensions and the
Constitution of Its Interior

“From the Astronomical Standpoint,’ by Frank Schlesinger,
Ph.D., Director of Allegheny Observatory, Pittsburgh.

“From the Geological Standpoint,” by T. C. Chamberlin,
Ph.D., LL.D., Head of Department of Geology, University
of Chicago.

“From the Seismological Standpoint,”’ by Harry Fielding Reid,
Ph.D., Professor of Dynamical Geology and Geography,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

“From the Geophysical Standpoint,’ by John F. Hayford, Di-
rector of College of Engineering, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Ill. (Introduced by Prof. Schlesinger.)

These papers were discussed by Professors H. F. Reid, Arthur
G. Webster, E. W. Brown, C. L. Doolittle, Frank Schlesinger and
W. H. Hobbs.

- Stated Meeting May 7, 1915.
Witranm VW. Keen (VED) LEDs President, in thes @haitre

Letters accepting membership were received from:
John J. Abel, M.D., Baltimore, Md.

Edwin Plimpton Adams, Ph.D., Princeton, N. J.
John Merle Coulter, Ph.D., Chicago, Ill.
Whitman Cross, Ph.D., Washington, D. C.
William J. Gies, M.D., New York City.

Philip Bovier Hawk, Ph.D., Philadelphia.

Emory Richard Johnson, Se.D., Philadelphia.
John Anthony Miller, Ph.D., Swarthmore, Pa.

1915. ] MINUTES. ri

Thomas Hunt Morgan, Ph.D., New York.

Raymond Pearl, Ph.D., Orono, Me.

Theobald Smith, M.D., Boston, Mass.

An invitation was received from the Johns Hopkins University
to be represented at the Inauguration of Frank Johnson Goodnow,
as President, on May 20, IQI5.

The following papers were read:

“Oil Concentration of Ores,” by Howard W. DuBois, M.E.
(Introduced by Dr. Harry F. Keller.) Discussed by Mr.
Lehman.

“ Concretions in Streams Formed by the Agency of the Blue-
Green Alge and Related Plants,’ by H. Justin Roddy, M.S.
(Introduced by the Secertaries.) Discussed by Dr. Harsh-
berger, Mr. Sanders, and Prof. Keller. :

“The Conditions of Black Shale Deposition as illustrated
by the Kupferschiefer and Lias of Germany,” by Charles
Schuchert.

Stated Meeting October 1, 1915.

WitiiamM W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

Professors Philip B. Hawk, Emory R. Johnson, and John
Anthony Miller, newly-elected members, subscribed the Laws and
were admitted into the Society.

Letters accepting election to membership were received from

Prof. Walter S. Adams.

Prof. John F. Hayford.

Prof. William F. Osgood.

Prof. John Zeleny.

Invitations were received:

From the Secretary of State to participate in the Second Pan-
American Scientific Congress to be held under the auspices
of the Government of the United States, at the city of Wash-
ington from December 27, 1915, to January 8, 1916.

From the Trustees and Faculty of Vassar College, to be repre-
sented at the celebration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the
opening of Vassar College during the week beginning Oc-
tober 10, IQI5.

x MINUTES. [ Dec. 3,

The decease of the following members was announced:

Mr. Samuel Dickson, at Philadelphia, on May 28, 1915, zt. 78.

Hon. James T. Mitchell, at Philadelphia, on July 4, 1915, et. 81.

Mr. Frederick Prime, at Atlantic City, on July 14, 1915, zt. 69.

Sir James A. H. Murray, at Oxford, England, on July 26,
LOWS cers 7o:

Prof. Frederick W. Putnam, at Cambridge, Mass., on August
14, 1915, ext. 76.

Mr. John T. Morris, at Bretton Woods, N. H., on August 15,
WOME, Bains Of

Dr. Austin Flint, at New York, on September 22, 1915, et. 79.

The following papers were read:

“Timber Studies in the Mississippi Bottom Lands,” by Henry
C. Cowles, Ph.D., of Chicago, which was discussed by Pro-
fessors Harshberger and Kraemer.

“A Practical Rational Alphabet,” by Benjamin Smith Lyman,
A.B.

Stated Meeting November 5, I915.
WitiiamM W. Keen, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

Prof. Ulric Dahlgren read a paper on “ The Production of Heat
by Animals.”

Stated Meeting December 3, 1015.

Witt1amM W. KEEN, M.D., LL.D., President, in the Chair.

An. invitation was received from the American Association for
the Advancement of Science to send one or more delegates to its
meeting to be held at Columbus, Ohio, December 27, 1915, to Jan-
UatyaLOLO:

Mr. H. H. Harjes, in accordance with the expressed direction of
his father, the late John H. Harjes, of Paris, transmitted to the
Society Dr. Franklin’s bamboo cane with a horn handle, in the
upper hollow chamber of which he was accustomed to carry oil
and from it in his walks he dropped oil upon the water to watch
its effect upon wind-beaten pools.

The decease was announced of William Brooke Rawle, A.B.,
at Philadelphia, on November 30, 1915, et. 72.

1915. ] MINUTES. XV

The following papers were read:
“Some of the Neuro-retinal Interpretations of Increased Vas-

cular and Increased Intracranial Pressure, being a Clinical
Communication,” by Dr. George E. deSchweinitz.

“The Geology of Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil,”
by Ralph H. Soper, communicated by Prof. John C. Branner.,

“The Geology of Ceara and Piauhy, Brazil,” by H. L. Small,
communicated by Prof. John C. Branner.

Dr. W. W. Keen presented the Annual Address of the President.

INDEX.

A

Acids, cymene carboxylic, viit
Adams, Hall and Corbino effects, vi,

47

Adaptation as illustrated by the fur
seals of the Pribilof Islands, prob-
lem of vu, I

Agaricus rodmani, morphology and
development of, viii, 3009

Air circulation of the globe, role of
the glacial anticyclone in the, 1,
185

Alge and related plants, concretions
in streams formed by the agency
of blue green, +, 246

Allegheny College, one hundredth
anniversary of founding of, uv

Alphabet, a practical rational, riv, 359

American oaks, large fruited, wii, 7

Analysis, linear integral equations
in general, wi

of observations—more particu-
larly those of the tides, devices for
facilitating, wi

Animals of North and South Amer-
ica, Isthmus of Panama in its rela-
tion to, 77

Antediluvian patriarchs on a tablet
from Nippur, v

Atkinson, morphology and develop-
ment of Agaricus rodmani, witi,

309
Atmospheric electricity aboard the
Carnegie, 1909-1914, vi, 14

B

Bailey, present needs in systematic
botany, viii, 58

Balch, T. W., Swedes, Governor
Printz and the beginning of Penn-
sylvania, v, 12

Banks and Marshall, new form of
nephelometer, 71, 176

Barton, antediluvian patriarchs on a
tablet from Nippur, v

Barton, Tammuz and Osiris, +7

Baskerville, rate of evaporation of
ether from oils and its application
in oil-ether colonic anesthesia, 270,
vit

Bass, factors which influence asexual
reproduction of Malaria plasmodia
in man, vi

Bauer, atmospheric electricity aboard
the Carnegie I90Q-I914, +i, 14

Bible, opium in the, x

Bogert, convenient form of receiver
for fractional distillations under
diminished pressure, viii

Bogert and Tuttle, cymene carboxylic
acids, viii

Bose, control of nervous impulse in
plant and animal, iv

Botany, present needs in systematic,
Vil, 58

Brazil, geology of, xv

Brown, E. W., devices for facilitat-
ing analysis of observations—more
especially those of the tides, vw

Brush, spontaneous generation of
heat in recently hardened steel, wit,

154
Cc

Carbonaceous deposits, occurrence of
alge in, x

Ceara and Piuhy, Brazil, geology of
XU

Chamberlin, interior of the earth
from the viewpoint of geology, vit,
279

Civil War, surgery of, contrasted

with that of present war, iv

Cobb, relationships of the white oaks
of eastern North America, viii, 165

Colonic anesthesia, rate of evapora-
tion of ether from oils and its ap-
plication in oil-ether, viii, 270

Concretions in streams formed by
the agency of blue green alge and
related plants, xiit, 246

Conditions of black shale deposition
as illustrated by the Kupferschiefer
and Lias of Germany, xiii, 259

Conklin, obituary notice of Prof.
August Weismann, iii

Constitution of hereditary material,
VU, 143

Control of nervous impulse in plant
and animal, iv

xvit

LVI

Coral reefs, new evidence for Dar-
win’s theory of, i+

Corbino effects, Hall and, vi, 47

Cowles, timber studies in the Missis-
sippi bottom lands, xiv

Cymene carboxylic acids, wiit

D

Dahlgren, production of heat by ani-
mals, xiv

Darwin’s theory of coral reefs, new
evidence for, 17

Davis, B. M., test of a pure species
of cenothera, vii, 226

Davis, C. A., occurrence of alge in
carbonaceous deposits, +

Davis, W. M., new evidence for Dar-
win’s theory of coral reefs, 1+

Dentition and ossification, relation of
ductless glands to, wit

Diffraction grating, ruling and per-
formance of a ten-inch, vii, 137

Distillations, fractional, under di-
minished pressure, convenient form
of receiver for, viii

Dugan, some results from the obser-
vation of eclipsing variables, +7, 52

E

Earth, symposium on the. Its figure,
dimensions and the constitution of
its interior, +t, 270, 2900, 208, 351

— constitution of the interior of
the, as indicated by seismological
investigations, ri7, 290

from the geophysical

point, riz, 298

from the viewpoint of geology,

interior of the, rit, 279

variations of latitude; their bear-
ing upon our knowledge of the in-
terior of the earth, 351

East, interpretation of sterility in
certain plants, vit, 70

Eclipsing variables, observation of,
4%, 52

Election of officers and councillors,
ut

Electricity, results of the work in at-
mospheric, aboard the Carnegie,
IQ0Q-I914, 14, x7

Endamebiosis, oral, ix

Equations in general analysis, linear
integral, vi

Ether from oils and its application
in oil-ether colonic anesthesia,
rate of evaporation of, viii, 270

stand-

INDEX.

Euler-Laplace theorem on the round-
ing up of the orbits of the heavenly
bodies under the secular action of
a resisting medium, #1, 344

Europe and the periods of the en-
trance of human races, division of
the Pleistocene of, x

European war, physiographic fea-
tures as a factor in the, ix

, surgery of the Civil War

contrasted with that of present, iv

F

Fauna of the lower Pliocene Snake
Creek Beds, Nebraska, x, 73

Faunas of North Coalinga region of
California, Tertiary vertebrate, +i

Franklin’s bamboo cane, xiv

Fredholm’s equation with analytic
kernel, direct solution of, wi

Frost, radial velocities in the Orion
nebula, +71

Fur seals of the Pribilof Islands,
problem of adaptation as_ illus-
trated by vit, I

G

Gases and reflection of molecules
from solid walls, one dimensional, ri

Gastro-intestinal studies, vii

Generation of heat in recently har-
dened steel, spontaneous, vii, 154

Gies, relation of ductless glands to
dentition and ossification, wiit

Glacial anticyclone in the air circula-
tion of the globe, xi, 185

Glands, relation of ductless to denti-
tion and ossification, viii

Grating, ruling and performance of a
ten-inch diffraction, vii, 137

H

Hall and Corbino effects, wii, 47

Harjes, receipt of bequest of Dr.
Franklin’s bamboo cane from, xiv

Haupt, opium in the Bible, x

Hawk, gastro-intestinal studies, viii

Hayford, the earth from the geo-
physical standpoint, ri, 208

Heat in recently hardened steel, spon-
taneous generation of, wii, 154

, production of, by animals, xiv

Hereditary material, constitution of,
Vu, 143

Heredity in protozoa, vii

Heterosis and the effects of inbreed-
ing, vit

INDEX. wx

Hill, missing chapter in international
history, v

Hobbs, réle of the glacial anticyclone
in the air circulation of the globe,
xi, 185

i

Inbreeding, heterosis and the effects
of, vit

International history, missing chapter
in, Vv :

Interpretation of sterility in certain
plants, vii, 70

Todine resonance spectra, with a de-
scription of a long focus spectro-
scope of high power, recent prog-
ress in the study of, xi

J

Jacobs, heredity in protozoa, vib
Johnson, physiographic features as a
factor in the European war, 1x

K

Keen, annual address of the presi-
dent, xv

— surgery of the Civil War as
contrasted with the surgery of the
present European war, iv

Kennelly and Taylor, explorations
over the surface of telephonic dia-
phragms vibrating under simple
impressed sounds, v1, 96

L

Lambert, direct solution of Fred-
holm’s equation with analytic ker-
nel, vi

Latitude, bearing of variations of,
upon our knowledge of the inte-
rior of the earth, 351

Linear integral equations in general
analysis, vi

Lyman, practical rational alphabet,
XIV, 359

M

McDiarmid, variable stars TV, TW,
TX, Cassiopeiz and T Leonis mi-
noris, +i, 66

Magnetic field, local disturbances in,
vt

Malaria plasmodia in man, factors
which influence asexual reproduc-
tion of, wi

Marshall and Banks, a new form of
nephelometer, 7+, 176

Members deceased:
Adams, Charles Francis, v
von Auwers, Arthur, v
Brackett, Cyrus F., iv
Dickson, Samuel, xiv
Flint, Austin, xiv
Geikie, James, v
Hall, Charles M., ii
Mitchell, James T., xiv
Morris, John T. riv
Murray, Sir James A. H., xiv
Prince, Frederick, xiv
Putnam, Frederick W., xiv
Rawle, William Brooke, xiv
Taylor, Frederick W., v
Tuttle, David K., vi
— elected, +
— admitted:
Baldwin, Simeon E., ix
Hawk, Philip B., xii
Hayford, John F., x7
Hill, David Jayne, v
Johnson, Emory R., xiii
Millikan, Robert A., vi
Miller, John Anthony, xiii
Moore, Eliakim H., wi
Paton, Stewart, ir
resigned:
Thomas, Allen C., iv
Membership accepted, xii, xiti
Merriam, tertiary vertebrate faunas
of the North Coalinga region of
California, +7
Michelson, ruling and performance
of a ten-inch diffraction grating,
Vit, 137
Millikan, existence of a sub-electron,
vt
Minutes, 7
Moore, E. H., linear integral equa-
tions in general analysis, vi
Morgan, constitution of hereditary
material, vit, 143
Morphology and development of
Agaricus rodmani, viii, 309

N

Nephelometer, new form of, ix, 176

Nervous impulse in plant and animal,
control of, iv

responses, certain factors con-
ditioning, ix

Neuro-retinal interpretation of vas-
cular pressure, rv

Neutralized territory, rights and du-
ties of, ix, 18

Nipher, local disturbances in a mag-
netic field, vi

UU INDEX.

Nippur, antediluvian patriarchs on a
tablet from, v

North Coalinga region of California,
tertiary vertebrate faunas of the,

at
O

Oaks, large fruited American, viii, 7

of eastern North America, rela-
tionships of, viii, 165

Obituary notices:

Weismann, August, 77

(Enothera, test of a pure species of,
vil, 226

Officers and Councillors, election of,
Mt

One dimensional gases and the reflec-
tion of molecules from solid walls,
xt

Opium in the Bible, +

Oral endamebiosis, 1+

Orion nebula, radial velocities in the,
4x1

Osborn, divisions of the Pleistocene
of Europe and the periods of the
entrance of human races, +

Osiris, Tammuz and, «i

Ossification, relation of ductless
glands to dentition and, viii

P

Panama, Isthmus, in its relation to
the animals of North and South
America, ti

Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte,
Brazil, geology of, xv

Parker, problem of adaptation as il-
lustrated by the fur seals of the
Pribilof Islands, vii, 1

Paton. certain factors conditioning
nervous responses, i+

Patriarchs on a tablet from Nippur,
antediluvian, v

Pennsylvania, the Swedes, Governor
Printz and the beginning of, v, 12

Physiographic features as a factor
in the European war, ix

Plants, _ interpretation of sterility in
certain, 70, vit

Pleistocene of Europe and the pe-
riods of the entrance of human
races, division of the, r

Pliocene Snake Creek beds, Ne-
braska, additions to the fauna of
the lower, x, 73

Pressure, diminished, convenient
form of receiver for fractional
distillations under, wiii

Prince, pronouns and verbs in Su-
merian, 1%, 27

Printz, Governor, and the beginning
of Pennsylvania, v, 12

Pronouns and verbs in Sumerian, 74,
27

Protozoa: heredity in, vz

R

Radial velocities in the Orion neb-
tila, 47

Receiver for fractional distillations
under diminished pressure, wut

Reid, constitution of the interior of
the earth as indicated by seismo-
logical investigations, +17, 200

Roddy, concretions in streams formed
by the agency of blue green alge
and related plants, xi, 246

Russell, note on the sun’s tempera-
ture, +7

Ss

Schlesinger, variations of latitude:
their bearing upon our knowledge
of the interior of the earth, xi, 351

Schuchert, conditions of black shale
deposition as illustrated by the
Kupferschiefer and Lias of Ger-
many, li, 259

de Schweinitz, neuro-retinal interpre-
tations of vascular pressure, xv

Scott, Isthmus of Panama in its re-
lation to the animals of North and
South America, i

See, the Euler- Laplace theorem on
the rounding up of the orbits of
the heavenly bodies under the secu-
lar action of a resisting medium,
Xt, 344

Shale deposition as illustrated by the
Kupferschiefer and Lias of Ger-
many, conditions of black, 259

Shull, heterosis and the effects of
inbreeding, vit

Sinclair, additions to the fauna of
the lower Pliocene Snake Creek
beds, Nebraska, x, 73

Small, geology of Ceara and Piauhy,
Brazil, sv

Smith, A. J., oral endamebiosis, ix

Smith, Edgar F., portrait of, xi

Soper, geology of Parahyba and Rio
Grande do Norte, Brazil, rv

Spectroscope, long focus, xi

Stars TV, TW, TX, Cassiopeiz and
T Leonis minoris, variable, 66, +7

Steel, spontaneous g generation of heat
in recently hardened, vil, 154

Sterility in certain plants, interpre-
tation of, wi, 70

INDEX. vue

Sub-electron, existence of, wi

Sumerian, pronouns and verbs in,
1%, 27

Sun’s temperature, note on the, +i

Swedes, Governor Printz and the be-
ginning of Pennsylvania, 12, v

Symposium on the earth, xii, 270,

290, 208, 351
T

Tammuz and Osiris, xi

Taylor, Kennelly and; explorations
over the surface of telephonic dia-
phragms vibrating under simple
impressed sounds, wi, 96

Telephonic diaphragms vibrating un-
der simple impressed sounds, ex-
plorations over the surface of, wt,
96

Tertiary vertebrate faunas of the
North Coalinga region of Califor-
nia, «7

Tides, devices for facilitating the
analysis of observations—more es-
pecially those of the, vi

Timber studies in the Mississippi
bottom lands, xiv

Tower, rights and duties of neutral-
ized. territory, ix, 18

Trelease, large fruited American oaks,
Vit, 7

Tuttle and Bogert, cymene carbo-
xylic acids, witt

V

Variable stars TV, TW, TX, Cas-
siopeiz and T. Leonis minoris, v1,

Variables, some results from the ob-
servation of eclipsing, xi, 52
Verbs in Sumerian, ix, 27

W

Weismann, August, obituary notice
of, wt

White oaks of eastern North Amer-
ica, relationships of, viit, 165

Wood, one dimensional gases and
the reflection of molecules from
solid walls, xi

, recent progress in the study of

iodine resonance spectra, with a

description of a long focus spec-

troscope of high power, xii

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 216 PLATE |

QUERCUS MACROCARPA.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILosS. Soc. VoL LIV. No. 216 PLATE II

QUERCUS CHIAPASENSIS.

PASANIA CORNEA.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 216 PLATE III

QUERCUS CYCLOBALANOIDES.

QUERCUS INSIGNIS.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 217 PLATE IV

IRE, Bs

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILos. Soc. WoL. LIV. No. 217 PLATE V

FIG. I.

FIG. 2.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Sac. VoL. LIV. No. 217 PLATE VI

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 219 PLATE VII

AGARICUS RODMANI

SETS aeas Gr omens) men at wren nay Ne aeee wea

PLATE VIII

LIV. No. 219

VoL

Soc

PHILOS.

PROCEEDINGS Am

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INVINGOd SNOldvoy

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PLATE IX

PROCEEDINGS Am. PHiLoS. Soc. VOL. LIV. No.7219

WZ)

SiR

De
aX

Ve

Wis

AGARICUS RODMANI

PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 219 PLATE X

AGARICUS RODMANI

oe ee

PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOs. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 219 PLATE Xl

AGARICUS RODMANI

PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc. VOL. LIV. No 219 PLATE XIl

AGARICUS RODMANI

PLATE XIll

No. 219

PROCEEDINGS Am. PHILOS. Soc, VoL. LIV.

AGARICUS RODMANI

ast ree

4
i

4

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{

PRoceepiNGs Am. PHiLos. Soc. VoL. LIV. No. 220 J PLaTe XIV

MANGANESE LOCALITIES

of
{leet SE NEWFOUNDLAND
after
Murray and Howley, 1707.
4 by

o N.C Dale, 17/4.

>

QO CStFrancis S cale

5 -) is miles
Legend
i
Camb
Ordevicia |
= Tre Cambrian
[za] tines
[e@ | Manganese
| @ | Localities

C Race
TREPASSEY

Fic. 1, Map showing manganese localities of southeastern Newfoundland, based on Geological Map of Newfoundland by Murray and Howley,
1907. m

ety | ed oe
ie
a ha

INCLU

3 2044 093 311 645