tiJiiV.LJji.ixL

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY

r

OF

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

NEW S E R I E S.
Vol. IV.

WHOLE SERIES.
Vol. XIL

from may, 1876, to may, 1877.
SELECTED FROM THE RECORDS.

BOSTON:
PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON.

1877.

^ • 1 -Slo

2 ^' ^ I

CONTENTS.

PAGE

I. Researches in Telephony. By A. Graham Bell ... 1
II. ScheeWs Green : Its Composition as usunlbj prepared, and
Some Experiments upon Arsenite of Copper. By S. P.
Sharples, S. B 11

III. Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of Harvard

College : —

1. On the Ethers of Uric Acid. By H. B. Hill . . 26

2. On Some of the Salts of Methyluric Acid, Q H^ (CH^)

N^O^. By Oscar R. Jackson 36

IV. Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of the Massa-

chusetts Institute of Technology : —

11. On the Effect of Temperature on the Viscosity of Air.

By Silas W. Holman 41

V. Contributions to the Botany of North America. By Asa

Gray 51

VI. Contributions from the Laboratory of S. P. Sharpies : —

Schweinfurt Green : Some Experiments on the Action of
Arsenic Trioxide on Copper Acetate, with the View
of Investigating the Composition of the above Com-
pound. By E. R. Hills 85

VII. Milk Analyses. By S. P. Sharples 98

VIII. On a New Mode of Manipulating Hydric Sulphide. By

JOSIAH P. CoOKE, Jr 113

IX. On the Process of Reverse Filtering and its Application to Large

Masses of Material. By Josiah P. Cooke, Jr. . . . 124
X. Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of Harvard
College : —

12. On Vortex Rings in Liquids. By Johx Trow-

bridge 131

XL Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of Harvard
College : —

14. On a New Method of Comparing the Electro-motive

Forces of Two Batteries and Measuring their Inter-
nal Resistance. By B. O. Peirce, Jr. . . . 137

15. On a New Method of Measuring the Resistance of a

Galvanic Battery. By B. O. Peirce, Jr. . . 140

IV CONTENTS.

PAGE

XII. Note on (lie Deternnnation of the Law of Propagation of Heat

in the Interior of a Solid Body. By B. O. Peirce, Jr. 143
XIII. Antigeny, or Sexual Dimorphism in Butterflies. By

Samuel H. Scudder 150

XIY. Characters of some Little-knoxvn or New Genera of Plants.

By Asa Gray 159

XV. Ohserrationes Liche7iologicce, No. 4. Observations on North
American and other Lichens. By Edward Tucker-

max, M.A 166

XVI. Theory of the Horizontal Photohelio graph, including its Ap-
plication to the Determination of the Solar Parallax by
Means of Tra?isits of Venus. By Professor William

Harkness, U. S. X 186

XVII. On Diamido-sulpliobenzide-dicarhoriic Acid. By Arthur

Michael and T. H. Xorton 205

XVIII. Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of Harvard
College : —

Pccsearches on the Substituted Benzyl Compounds. By

C. LoRixG Jackson 209

First Paper. On Certain Substituted Benzylbrom-

ides. C. LoRiNG Jackson 211

Second Paper. On Parabrombenzyl Compounds.

Woodbury Lowery 221

XIX. Contribution toward the History of the Fluorides of Man-
ganese. By W. H. Melville 228

XX. On some Algce new to the United States. By W. G. Far-
low 235

Description of a New Alga of California. By Professor

Daniel C. Eaton, of Yale College 245

XXI. Descriptions of New Species of Plants, with Revisions of Cer-
tain Genera. By Sereno Watson 246

Proceedings 279

List of the Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members 336
Index 343

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY

OF

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

VOL. XII.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY.

I.

RESEARCHES IN TELEPHONY.
By A. Graham Bell.

Presented May 10, 1876, by the Corresponding Secretary.

1. It has long been known that an electro-magnet gives forth a
decided sound when it is suddenly magnetized or demagnetized.
"When the circuit upon which it is placed is rapidly made and broken,
a succession of explosive noises proceeds from the magnet. These'
sounds produce upon the ear the effect of a musical note, when the
current is interrupted a sufficient number of times per second. The
discovery of " Galvanic Music," by Page,* in 1837, led inquirers in dif-
ferent parts of the world almost simultaneously to enter into the field of
telephonic research ; and the acoustical effects produced by magnetization
were carefully studied l)y Marrian,t Beatson,! Gassiot,§ De la Rive,||

* C. G. Page. "The Production of Galvanic Music." Sllliman's Journ.,

1837, XXXII., p. .596; Silliman's Journ., July, 1837, p. 854; Silliman's Journ.,

1838, XXXIIL, p. 118; Bibl. Univ. (new series), 1839, XL, p. 398.

t J. P. Marrlan. Phil. Mag., XXV., p. 382; Inst., 1845, p. 20; Arch, de
l']fclectr.,V., p. 105.

t IF. Bfalson. Arch, de I'Electr., V., p. 197 ; Arch, de Sc. Phys. et Nat.
(2d series), II., p. 113.

§ Gassiot. See " Treatise on Electricity," by De la Rive, I., p. 300.

II De la Rive. Treatise on Electricity, I., p. 300; Phil. Mag., XXXV., p. 422 ;
Arch, de I'Electr., V., p 200; Inst., 184G, p. 83; Coniptes Kendus, XX.,
p. 1287; Comp. Rend., XXII., p. 432; Pogg. Ann., LXXVI., p. 637; Ann. de
Chim. et de Phys., XXVI., p. 158.

VOL. Xll. (n. S. IV.) 1

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Matteucci,* Guillemin,t Wertheim,| "\Vartraann,§ Janniar,]| Joiile,11
Laborde,** Legat,tt Reis,tl PoggeiidorfF,§§ Du Moucel,|||| Dele-
zenne,1[ir and others.***

2. In the autumn of 1874, I discovered that the sounds emitted by
an electro-magnet under the influence of a discontinuous current of
electricity are not due wholly to sudden changes in the magnetic con-
dition of the iron core (as heretofore supposed), but that a portion of
the effect results from vibrations in the insulated copper-wires composing
the coils. An electro-magnet was arranged upon circuit with an in-
strument for interrupting the current, — the rheotome being placed
in a distant room, so as to avoid interference with the experiment.
Upon applying the ear to the magnet, a musical note was clearly per-
ceived, and the sound persisted after the iron core had been removed.
It was then much, feebler in intensity, but was otherwise unchanged,
— the curious crackling noise accompanying the sound being well
marked.

The effect may probably be explained by the attraction of the coils
of the wire for one another during the passage of the galvanic current,

* Matteucci. Inst., 1845, p. 315 ; Arch, cle I'Electr., V., 389.
t Gui/leniin. Corap. Rend., XXII., p. 264; Inst., 1846, p. 30; Arch. d. So.
Phys. (2d series), I., p. 191.

I G. Wertheim. Comp. Rend., XXII., pp. 336, 544; Inst., 1846, pp. 65, 100;
Pogg. Ann., LXVIII.,p. 140; Comp. Rend., XXVI., p. 505; Inst., 1848, p. 142;
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., XXIII., p. 302; Arch. d. Sc. Phys. et Nat., VIII.,
p. 206 ; Pogg. Ann., LXXVII., p. 43 ; Borl. Ber., IV., p. 121.

§ Elie ]Vartmann. Comp. Rend., XXII., p. 544; Phil. Mag. (3d series),
XXVIII., p. 544; Arch. d. Sc. Phys. et Nat. (2d series), I., p. 419; lust., 1846,
p. 290; Monatscher. d. Berl. Akad., 1846, p. 111.

II Janmar. Comp. Rend., XXIII., p. 319; Inst., 1846, p. 269; Arch. d. Sc.
Phys. et Nat. (2d series), II., p. 394.

IF J. P. Joule. Piiil. Mag., XXV., pp. 76, 225 ; Berl. Ber., III., p. 489.

** Lahorde. Comp. Rend., L., p. 692; Cosmos, XVII., p. 514.

tt Legal. Brix. Z. S., IX., p. 125.

\X Reis. " Te'le'phonie." Polytechnic Journ., CLXVIII., p. 185; Bottger's
Notizbl., 1863, No. 6.

§§ J. C. Poggendorff. Pogg. Ann., XCVIII., p. 192; Berliner Monatsber.,
1856, p. 133 ; Cosmos, IX., p. 49 ; Berl. Ber., XII., p. 241 ; Pogg. Ann.,
LXXXVII., p. 139.

nil Du Moncel. Expose, II., p. 125; also. III., p. 83.

Tn[ Delezenne. " Sound produced by Magnetization," Bibl. Univ. (new series),
1841, XVI., p. 406.

*** See London Journ., XXXII., p. 402; Polytechnic Journ., CX., p. 16;

Cosmos, IV., p. 43 ; Glosener Traite' gene'ral, &c., p. 350 ; Dove.-Repert.,VI.,

p. 58 ; Pogg. Ann., XLIII., p. 411 ; Berl. Ber., I., p. 144; Arch. d. Sc. Phys. et
Nat., XVI., p. 406 ; Kuhn's Encyclopedia der Physik, pp. 1014-1021.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 6

and the sudtlen cessation of such attraction when the current is inter-
rupted. When a spiral of fine wire is made to dip into a cup of mer-
cury, so as thereby to close a galvanic circuit, it is well known that
the spiral coils up and shortens. Ferguson * constructed a rheotome
upon this principle. The shortening of the spiral lifted the end of the
wire out of the mercury, thus opening the circuit, and the weight of
the wire sufficed to bring the end down again, — so that the spiral was
thrown into continuous vibration. I conceive that a somewhat similar
motion is occasioned in a helix of wire by the passage of a discontinu-
ous current, although further research has convinced me that other
causes also conspire to produce the effect noted above. The extra
currents occasioned by the induction of the voltaic current upon itself
in the coils of the helix no doubt play an important part in the pro-
duction of the sound, as very curious audible effects are produced by
electrical impulses of high tension. It is probable, too, that a molecular
vibration is occasioned in the conducting wire, as sounds are emitted
by many substances when a discontinuous current is passed through
them. Very distinct sounds proceed from straight pieces of iron,
steel, retort-carbon, and plumbago. I believe that I have also obtained
audible effects from thin platinum and German-silver wires, and from
mercury contained in a narrow groove about four feet long. In these
cases, however, the sounds were so faint and outside noises so loud that
the experiments require verification. "Well-marked sounds proceed
from conductors of all kinds when formed into spirals or helices. I
find that De la Rive had noticed the production of sound from iron
and steel during the passage of an intermittent current, although he
failed to obtain audible results from other substances. In order that
such effects should be observed, extreme quietness is necessary. The
rheotome itself is a great source of annoyance, as it always produces
a sound of similar pitch to the one which it is desired to hear. It
is absolutely requisite that it should be placed out of earshot of the
observer, and at such a distance as to exclude the possibility of sounds
being mechanically conducted along the wire.

3. Very striking audible effects can be produced upon a short circuit by
means of two Grove elements. I had a helix of insulated copper-wire
(No. 23) constructed, having a resistance of about twelve ohms. It
was placed in circuit with a rheotome which interrupted the current
one hundred times per second. Upon placing the helix to my ear I

* Ferguson. Proceedings of Royal Scottish See. of Arts, April 9, 18G6;
Paper on "A New Current Interrupter."

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

could hear the unison of the note produced by the rheotome. The
intensity of the sound was much increased by placing a wrouglit-iron
nail inside the helix. In both these cases, a crackling effect accompa-
nied the sound. When the nail was held in the fingers so that no
portion of it touched the helix, the crackling effect disappeared, and a
pure musical note resulted.

When the nail was placed inside the helix, between two cylindrical
pieces of iron, a loud sound resulted that could be heard all over a large
room. The nail seemed to vibrate bodily, striking the cylindrical pieces
of metal alternately, and the iron cylinders themselves were violently
agitated.

4. Loud sounds are emitted by pieces of iron and steel when sub-
jected to the attraction of an electro-magnet which is placed in cir-
cuit with a rheotome. Under such circumstances, the armatures of
Morse-sounders and Eelays produce sonorous effects. I have
succeeded in rendering the sounds audible to large audiences by
interposing a tense membrane between the electro-magnet and its
armature. The armature in this case consisted of a piece of clock-
spring glued to the membrane. This form of apparatus I have found
invaluable in all my experiments. The instrument was connected
with a parlor organ, the reeds of which weie so arranged as to open
and close the circuit during their vibration. When the organ was
played the music was loudly reproduced by the telephonic i-eceiver
in a distant room. When chords were played upon the organ, the
various notes composing the chords were emitted simultaneously by
the armature of the receiver.

5. rhe simultaneous production of musical notes of different pitch
by tlie electric current, was foreseen by me as early as 1870, and
demonstrated during the year 1873. Elisha Gray,* of Chicago, and
Paul La .Cour,t of Copenhagen, lay claim to the same discovery.
The fact that sounds of different pitch can be simultaneously produced
upon any part of a telegraphic circuit is of great practical importance ;
for the duration of a musical note can be made to signify the dot or
dash of the Morse alphabet, and thus a number of telegraphic mes-
sages may be sent simultaneously over the same wire without confusion
by making signals of a definite pitch for each message.

6. If the armature of an electro-magnet has a definite rate of oscil-
lation of its own, it is thrown bodily into vibration when the interrup-

* ElUha Gray. Eng. Pat. Spec, No. 974. See " Engineer," March 26, 1876.
t Paul la Cour. Telegraphic Journal, Nov. 1, 1875.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 5

lions of the current are timed to its movements. For instance, present
an electro-magnet to the strings of a piano. It will be found that the
etrinjj which is in unison with the rheotome included in the circuit
will be thrown into vibration by the attraction of the magnet.

liehnholtz,* in his experiments upon the synthesis of vowel sounds
caused continuous vibration in tuning-forks which were used as the
armatures of electro-magnets. One of the forks was employed as a
rheotome. Platinum wires attached to the prongs dipped into mer-
cury.

The intermittent current occasioned by the vibration of the fork
traversed a circuit containing a number of electro-magnets between
the poles of which were placed tuning-forks whose normal rates of
vibration were multiples of that of the transmitting fork. All the
forks were kejjt in continuous vibration by the passage of the inter-
rupted current. By re-enforcing the tones of the forks in different
degrees by means of resonators, Helmholtz succeeded in reproducing
artificially certain vowel sounds.

I have caused intense vibration in a steel strip, one extremity of
which was firmly clamped to the pole of a U-shaped electro-magnet, the
free end overhanging the otlier pole. The amplitude of the vibration
was greatest when the coil was removed from the leg of the magnet to
which the armature was attached.

7. All the effects noted above result from rapid interruptions of a
voltaic current, but sounds may be produced electrically in many other
ways.

The Canon Gottoin de Coma,t in 1785, observed that noises were
emitted by iron rods placed in the open air during certain electrical
conditions of the atmosphere ; Beatson $ produced a sound from an
iron wire by the discharge of a Leyden jar; Gore § obtained loud
musical notes from mercury, accompanied by singularly beautiful cris-
pations of the surface during the course of experiments in electrolysis ;
and PagH || produced musical tones from Trevelyan's bars by the action
of the galvanic current.

8. When an intermittent current is passed through the thick wires
of a Ruhmkorff's coil, very curious audible effects are produced by the

* Helmholtz. Die Lelire von dem Tonempfindungen.

t See " Treatise on Electricity," by De la Rive, I., p. 300.

X Ihid.

§ Gore. Proceedings of "Royal Society, XII., p. 217.

II Page. " Vibration of Trevelyan's bars by the galvanic current." SiUi-
man's Journal, 1850, IX., pp. 105-108.

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

currents induced in the secondary wires. A rheotome was placed in
circuit with the thick wires of a Ruhmkorff's coil, and the fine wires
were connected with two strips of brass (A and B), insulated from one
another by means of a sheet of paper. Upon placing the ear against
one of the strips of brass, a sound was perceived like that described
above as proceeding from an empty helix of wire during the passage of
an intermittent voltaic current. A similar sound, only much more
intense, was emitted by a tin-foil condenser when connected with the
fine wires of the coil.

One of the strips of brass, A (mentioned above), was held closely
against the ear. A loud sound came from A whenever the slijs B was
touched with the other hand. It is doubtful in all these cases whether
the sounds proceeded from the metals or from the imperfect conductors
interposed between them. Further experiments seem to favor the
latter supposition. The strips of brass A and B were held one in each
hand. The induced currents occasioned a muscular tremor in the
fingei'S. Upon placing my forefinger to my ear a loud crackling noise
was audible, seemingly proceeding from the finger itself. A friend
who was present placed my finger to his e.ar, but heard nothing. I
requested him to hold the strips A and B himself. He was then dis-
tinctly conscious of a noise (which I was unable to jierceive) proceed-
ing from his finger. In these cases a portion of the induced currents
passed through the head of the observer when he placed his ear against
his own finger ; and it is possible that the sound was occasioned by a
vibration of the surfaces of the ear and finger in contact.

When two persons receive a shock from a Ruhmkorff's coil by clasping
hands, each taking hold of one wire of the coil with the free hand, a
sound proceeds from the clasped hands. The effect is not produced when
the hands are moist. When either of the two touches the body of the
other a loud sound comes from the parts in contact. When the arm
of one is placed against the arm of the other, the noise produced can be
heard at a distance of several feet. In all these cases a slight shock
is experienced so long as the contact is preserved. The introduction
of a piece of paper between the parts in contact does not materially
interfere with the production of the sounds, while the unpleasant
effects of the shock are avoided.

When a powerful current is passed through the body, a musical note
can be perceived when the ear is closely applied to the arm of the
person experimented upon. The sound seems to proceed from the
muscles of the fore-arm and from the biceps muscle. The musical
note is the unison of the rheotome employed to interrupt the primary

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 7

circuit. I failed to obtain audible effects in tbis way when the pitch
of the rbeotome was high. Elisha Gray * has also produced audible
effects by the passage of induced electricity through the human body.
A musical note is occasioned by the spark of a Ruhmkorff's coil when
the primary circuit is made and broken sufficiently rapidly. When
two rheotomes of different pitch are caused simultaneously to open and
close the primary circuit, a double tone proceeds from the spark.

9. AVhen a voltaic battery is common to two closed circuits, the
current is divided between them. If one of the circuits is rapidly
opened and closed, a pulsatory action of the current is occasioned upon
the other.

All the audible effects resulting from the passage of an intermittent
current can also be produced, though in less degree, by means of a
pulsatory current.

10. When a permanent magnet is caused to vibrate in front of the
pole of an electro-magnet, an undulatory or oscillatory current of
electricity is induced in the coils of the electro-magnet, and sounds
proceed from the armatures of other electro-magnets placed upon the
circuit. The telephonic receiver referred to above (par. 4), was con-
nected in circuit with a single-pole electro-magnet, no battery being
used. A steel tuning-fork which had been previously magnetized was
caused to vibrate in front of the pole of the electro-magnet. A
musical note similar in pitch to that produced by the tuning-fork
proceeded from the telephonic receiver in a distant room.

11. The effect was much increased when a battery was included in
the circuit. In this case, the vibration of the permanent magnet threw
the battery-current into waves. A similar effect was produced by the
vibration of an unmagnetized tuning-fork in front of the electro-magnet.
The vibration of a soft iron armature, or of a small piece of steel spring
no larger than the pole of the electro-raagnet in front of which it was
placed, sufficed to produce audible effects in the distant room.

12. Two sino-le-pole electro-magnets, each having a resistance of
ten ohms, were arranged upon a circuit with a battery of five carbon
elements. The total resistance of the circuit, exclusive of the battery,
was about twenty-five ohms. A drum-head of gold-beater's skin,
seven centimetres in diameter, was placed in front of each electro-
magnet, and a circular piece of clock-spring, one centimetre in
diameter, was glued to the middle of each membrane. The telephones
so constructed were placed in different rooms. One was retained in

* Elisha Gray. Eng. Pat. Spec, No. 2646, see " Engineer," Aug. U, 1874.

8 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the experimental room, and the other taken to the basement of an
adjoining house.

Upon singing into the telephone, tlie tones of the voice were re-
produced by the instrument in the distant room. When two persons
sang simultaneously into the instrument, two notes were emitted simul-
taneously by the telephone in the other house. A friend was sent
into the adjoining building to note the effect produced by articulate
speech. I placed the membrane of the telephone near my mouth, and
uttered the sentence, "Do you understand what I say ? " Presently
an answer was returned through the instrument in my hand. Articu-
late words proceeded from the clock-spring attached to the membrane,
and I heard the sentence : " Yes ; I understand you perfectly."

The articulation was somewhat muffled and indistinct, although in
this case it was intelligible. Familiar quotations, such as, "To be, or
not to be ; that is the question." " A horse, a horse,*my kingdom for
a horse." " What hath God wrought," &c., were generally understood
after a few repetitions. The effects were not sufficiently distinct to
admit of sustained conversation through the wire. Indeed, as a gen-
eral rule, the articulation was unintelligible, excepting when familiar
sentences were employed. Occasionally, however, a sentence would
come out with such startling distinctness as to render it difficult to
believe that the speaker was not close at hand. No sound was audible
when the clock-spring was removed from the membrane.

The elementary sounds of the English language were uttered suc-
cessively into one of the telephones and the effects noted at the other.
Consonantal sounds, with the exception of L and M, were unrecog-
nizable. Vowel-sounds in most cases were distinct. Diphthongal
vowels, such as a (in ale), o (in old), i (in isle), oiv (in now), oy (in
boy), oor (in poor), oor (in door), ere (in here), ere (in there), were
well marked.

Triphthoogal vowels, such as ire (in fire), our (in flour), ower
(in mower), ayer (in player), were also distinct. Of the elementary
vowel-sounds, the most distinct were those which had the largest oral
apertures. Such were a (in far), aw (in law), a (in man), and e (in
men).

13. Electrical undulations can be produced directly in the voltaic
current by vibrating the conducting wire in a liquid of high resistance
included in the circuit.

The stem of a tuning-fork was connected with a wire leading to one
of the telephones described in the preceding paragraph. While the
tuning-fork was in vibration, the end of one of the prongs was dipped

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 9

into water included in tlie circuit. A sound proceeded from the distant
telephone. When two tuning-forks of different pitch were connected
together, and simultaneously caused to vibrate in the water, two musical
notes (the unisons respectively of those produced by the forks) were
emitted simultaneously by the telephone.

A platinum wire attached to a stretched membrane, completed a
voltaic circuit l)y dipping into water. Upon speaking to the membrane,
articulate sounds proceeded from the telephone in the distant room.
The sounds produced by the telephone became louder when dilute sul-
phuric acid, or a saturated solution of salt, was substituted for the
water. Au'lible effects were also produced by the vibration of plumbago
in mercury, in a solution of bichromate of potash, in salt and water, in
dilute sulphuric acid, and in pure water.

14. Sullivan * discovered that a current of electricity is generated
by the vibration of a wire composed partly of one metal and partly of
another ; and it is probable that electrical undulations were caused by
the vibration. The current was produced so long as the wire emitted
a musical note, but stopped immediately upon the cessation of the
sound.

15. Although sounds proceed from the armatures of electro-magnets
under the influence of uiidulatory currents of electricity, I have been un-
able to detect any audible effects due to the electro- magnets themselves.
An undulatory current was passed through the coils of an electro-
magnet which was held closely against the ear. No sound was per-
ceived until a piece of iron or steel was presented to the pole of the
magnet. No sounds either were observed when the undulatory cur-
rent was passed through iron, steel, retort-carl)on, or plumbago. In
these respects an undulatory current is curiously different from an inter-
mittent one. (See par. 2.)

16. The telephonic effects described above are produced by three
distinct varieties of currents, which I term respectively intermittent,
pulsatory, and undulatory. Intermittent currents are characterized by
the alternate presence and absence of electricity upon the circuit ;
Pulsatory currents result from sudden or instantaneous changes in the
intensity of a continuous current ; and undulatory currents are pro-
duced by gradual changes in the intensity of a current analogous to
the changes in the density of air occasioned by simi)le jiendulous
vibrations. The varying intensity of an undulatory current can be

* Sullivan. " Currents of Electricity produced by the vibration of Metals."
Phil. Mag., 1845, p. 201; Arch, de I'^lectr., X., p. 480.

10

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

represented by a sinusoidal curve, or by the resultant of several sinus-
oidal curves.

Intermittent, pulsatory, and undulatory currents may be of two
kinds, — voltaic, or induced; and these varieties may be still further
discriminated into direct and reversed currents ; or those in which
the electrical impulses are all positive or negative, and those in which
they are alternately positive and negative.

I 00

(

^ s

CD in

H ^

Intermittent.

( Voltaic.
(^ Induced.

{

( Reversed (See par. 8).

Direct (See par. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).

Reversed.

Direct.

a

_ r^ •— '

.--^Pulsatory-

\

Voltaic,

Undulatory.

\

( Direct (See par. 9).
( Reversed.

/ Induced. < r, ' j
^ I Reversed.

ect (See par. 11, 12, 13, 15).

versed.
Direct.
Reversed (See par. 10).

Voltaic.

Induced.

( Direc
( Reve

{

17. In conclusion, I would say that the different kinds of currents
described above may be studied optically by means of Konig's mano-
metric capsule.* The instrument, as I have employed it, consists
simjily of a gas-chamber closed by a membrane to which is attached
a piece of clock-spring. When the spring is subjected to the attraction
of an electro-magnet, through the coils of which a "telephonic " current
of electricity is passed, the flame is thrown into vibration.

I find the instrument invaluable as a rheometer, for an ordinary
galvanometer is of little or no use when " telephonic " currents are to
be tested. For instance, the galvanometer needle is insensitive to the
most powerful undulatory current when the impulses are reversed, and
is only slightly deflected when they are direct. The manometric cap-
sule, on the other hand, affords a means of testing the amplitude of
the electrical undulations; that is, of deciding the difference between
the maximum and minimum intensity of the current.

* Konig. " Upon Manometric Flames," Phil. Mag., 1873, XLV., No. 297,
298.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 11

II.

SCHEELE'S GREEN,

ITS COMPOSITION AS USUALLY PREPARED, AND SOxME EX-
PERIMENTS UPON ARSENITE OF COPPER.

By S. p. Sharples, SB.

Presented, June 14, 1876.

In 1778, the eminent Swedish chemist, Charles William Scheele, com-
municated to the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm the method of
preparing the green pigment which has since borne his name. He,
however, says, that it was discovered three years previously.

This piument is of a yellowish green color, and has been long used
in the arts under various names ; such as, mountain green, mineral
green, and Swedish green. At the time of its discovery, it was the
most brilliant green obtainable.

The discovery, in. 1814, of the copper aceto-arsenite, known as
Schweinfurth green, Paris green, English green, and sometimes wrongly
called Scheele's green, has, however, almost entirely tlirown Scheele's
green out of the market ; and it is at the present day an unknown sub-
stance, so far as its use as a pigment is concerned ; although it may be
still found on the price lists of manufacturing chemists, and the receipts
for its manufacture are found in works on dyeing and calico-printing.
But its covering power is very low, and it is far inferior in brilliancy
to its successful rival, Paris green.

Having had occasion to examine some samples of this pigment some
time ago, I became convinced that the composition of Scheele's green,
as laid down in the books, was altogether a matter of conjecture ; since
I could find no record of any analysis that had ever been made of the
substance prepared according to Scheele's directions, which have been
copied without change for the last hundred years.

The formula given varies with the date ; Scheele himself, of course,
neither made a quantitative analj'sis nor gave a formula. Succeeding
writers seem to have followed him in the first respect, but have given
formulas to correspond with their ideas of the composition that the salt
should have.

12 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The older writers give the formula CuOAs^Og, this would give the
percentages of copper oxide and arsenic trioxide, as follows : —

Copper oxide, 29.50

Arsenic trioxide, 70.50

100.00

(The atomic weights used through this paper are: oxygen, 16;
copper, 63.4 ; the old formulas being changed to correspond to these
weights. As a matter of convenience, I have made all statements of
composition in terms of copper oxide and arsenic trioxide, but in so
doing I have no wish to be understood as asserting that they exist as
copper oxide and arsenic trioxide in the compound.)

Berzelius * gives the formula, Cu2:S.s ; this, in modern notation, would
be Cu^As^Og ; or in percentages.

Copper oxide, 44.50

Arsenic trioxide, 55.50

100.00

He describes the methods by which it may be obtained as either, by
digesting carbonate of copper with water and arsenious acid, or by
Scheele's method, giving for the latter almost exactly Sclieele's receipt.
Ure t gives Scheele's receipt, and then says it consists of oxide of
copper, 28.51, arsenious acid, 71.46. This corresponds to the first
formula given above, CuAs^O^.

Miller t gives the formula CuHAsOg. This in percentages would
be:

Copper oxide, 42.37

Arsenic trioxide, 52.83

Water, 4.80

This formula seems to be the favorite one at present, and may be
found in most of the text-books.

Bloxam,§ in the course of his long and elaborate investigations of
the arsenites, made some experiments upon copper arsenite, but
failed to obtain a definite compound. The first salt made, he says,
contained : —

« Ure's Diet., New York, 1847, p. 1100.

t Traite ile Cliemie, Tome 4, p. 182. Paris, 1847.

t Miller's Elements of Chemistry. London, 1864, p. 292.

§ Bloxam, C. L., Jour. Chem. Soc, 1862, p. 292.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

13

Per cente.

Equivalents.

40.54

1.88

53.80

1.

5.67

1.16

Per cents.

Equivalents.

44.29

2.21

49.98

1.00

5.73

1.26

Per cents.

Equivalents.

46.52

2.35

49.36

1.00

4.12

.92

Per cents.

Equivalents.

42.69

1.96

52.67

1.

4.64

.97

Copper oxide,
Arsenic trioxide,
"Water,

The second contained : —

Copper oxide,
Arsenic trioxide.
Water,

The third product gave : —

Copper oxide.
Arsenic trioxide,
Water,

The fourth gave : —

Copper oxide.
Arsenic trioxide,
Water,

From this last analysis he deduces the formula CuIIAsO.. In a
foot-note he says : " Scheele's prescription for the commercial green
arsenite of copper involves 2.3 equivalents of oxide of copper for one
equivalent of arsenious acid, so that Scheele's green dried at 212° F.,
appears to be essentially a mixture of CuHAsO^, with an excess of
oxide of cojiper."

This observation is perfectly correct if nothing is taken into the ac-
count except the quantities taken by Scheele ; but Sclieele himself says,
in a foot-note:* "Tlie water with which the color is lixiviated con-
tains a little arsenic, and must not be thrown out in a place to which
cattle have access." The evident tendency of this loss of arsenic
would be to make the salt more basic than the formula (CuO)2.32As„03
(H.,0)g2 calls for, this being the formula which Bloxam supposes to
represent Scheele's green.

In Watts's Dictionary,! under the head of arsenite of copper, this
sentence occurs : " It is a light green precipitate, which dissolves in an
excess of ammonia, without color, yielding a solution of arsenic acid
and cuprous oxide."

Berzelius's formula is given, and the sentence just quoted is evi-

* Scheele's Essays. London, 1786, p. 254.
t Vol. I., p. 376.

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

dently a translation, either directly or indirectly, from the same
author.

The description of copper arsenite in the French edition of Ber-
zelius, Paris, 1847, is as follows: "The neutral salt is obtained by
precijiitatinLT sulphate of copper by arsenite of potassa. The precipi-
tate is green. When it contains an excess of base, its color is more in-
tense ; but it decomposes spontaneously, in a little time becoming a dark
brown, and then contains cupric arsenate and cuprous arsenite. Caustic
ammonia dissolves this salt into a colorless liquid containing, probably,
cuprous arsenate." The German of 1838 is the same as the above,
with the exception that it reads : " When the alkali is in excess, the
color is more intense, but it decomposes in a little time," &c. " This
salt " referred to in the above paragraph, is evidently the brown salt,
and not the green. Moreover, the German text, and not the French,
is the coi'rect one, as is shown by my own experiments.

In this connection, the following extract is of interest. Rose says
of Scheele's green : " This precipitate is soluble in an excess of ammonia,
also in an excess of hydrate of potassa. The solution has in both cases
a similar blue color. The blue solution formed by hydrate of potassa
deposits in time reddish-brown suboxide of copper ; the liquid becomes
colorless, and contains arsenate of potMssium. The blue solution formed
by ammonia is not modified by time."

The reference from Berzelius seems to have been misunderstood by
German as well as English writers, as the same statement occurs in
the Handworterbuch der Chemie, B. 2, 1858, p. 300, which says
Scheele's green dissolves colorless in ammonia as arsenic acid and
cuprous oxide. Graham-Otto * also repeats the same.

In the New Chemistry,! the above blunder is repeated, and two
formulas are given, as follows : " Arsenite of copper, (Cu.,0)2As.,03 or,
Cu./AsO,)^." And the article finishes by saying there are also two
hydrated salts, CuH_,(As0.5)2, and CuHAsOn. The percentage com-
position of these salts would be as follows, supposing the above formulas
are correctly given : —

Copper
Arsenic

CCusC
oxide, (sub.
trioxide,

O2AS2O3.
59.06)
40.94

CU3(AS03)2.

54.61
45.39

CuH4(As03)o.
25.33
63.18

CUHASO3.
42.37
52.83

Water,

11.49

4.80

* Vol. III., 557, 4th ed.

t Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical. Lippincott & Co. ; Phila., 1876,
p. 260.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 15

In the first of these formulas, there is an evident mistake ; it is a
copy of the formula given by Watts, without takiug into account that
Watts, while doubling the atomic weight of oxygen, retained the old
weight of copper, so that, corrected, this formula reads (CuO)2 ASjOj ;
or, in other words, is Berzelius's formula.

But both of the formulas, one and two, are wrong, from the fact that
they contain no water. No. 3 is an evident attempt to represent the
acid arsenite which Berzelius mentions, and No. 4 is Bloxam's
formula.

As will be seen, the whole literature of the subject is founded upon
three sets of facts. Scheele's prescription, which all the authors, whom
I have quoted, have given, making only such alterations as were necessary
on account of chancres in weights and measures. And it is a sintjular fact,
that not one of these authors has taken the trouble to see if the quan-
tities of copper sulphate and arsenic trioxide taken would produce a
salt of the formula given ; or have discovered the fact tiiat nearly
twice as much potassium carbonate is used as is necessary to saturate
the sulphuric trioxide of the copper sulphate, and Scheele's foot-note
has been totallv ignored.

Secondly, Berzelius's account of the salt, which has evidently been
misunderstood.

Thirdly, Bloxam's analyses of salts, which he would have found
difficult, if not impossible, to reproduce, had he been so inclined.

After comparing the various works cited, it became a matter of in-
terest to find out, in the first place, what Scheele's green really is,
what are its properties, and whether there is more than one copper
arsenite.

The experiment was tried of making copper arsenite according to
the method given by Berzelius ; that is, by dissolving copper carbonate
in an aqueous solution of arsenic trioxide.

Hydrocopper carbonate was prepared by precipitating copper sul-
phate in the cold by an excess of sodium carbonate, and washing the
precipitate with cold water until free from sulphates. Some of the
precipitate was boiled with a saturated solution of arsenic trioxide, its
blue color soon changed to a bright green, which it maintained,
although boiled for upwards of an hour. The green i^recipitate was
filtered off, and washed with hot water, until the wash waters were free
from arsenic.

The substance remaining on the filter was of a bright sfreen color,
scarcely inferior to Schweinfurth green in brilliancy, although of a
vellowish shade.

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The green precipitate was dried and analyzed, it gave, —

Al^ALYSIS No. I.

Per cents. Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide, 66.02 8.31

Arsenic trioxide, 8.32 .42

Carbon dioxide, 15.26 3.47

Water, 10.33 5.74

99.93

This corresponds well with a mixture of dibasic carbonate and tribasic
arsenite.

The brown basic carbonate produced by boiling the hydrocopper car-
bonate with water was then boiled with arsenic trioxide, but was not
changed in color. The filtrate from the green precipitate contained a
large amount of arsenic, but was free from copper ; and I failed to
obtain on evaporation the yellowish-green acid salt spoken of by Ber-
zelius.

P'urther experiments on the carbonate were tried to see if it could
be completely decomposed by boiling with excess of arsenic trioxide,
but they all resulted in failure.

It seems to me that Berzelius must have been misled by the produc-
tion of the brilliant green arsenio-carbonate, as he gives no analysis to
support his assertion.

Arsenic trioxide seems to have a very strong influence in preventing
the blackening of copper carbonates and hydrates, a very small per-
centage preventing this well-known reaction.

A series of expei-iments were then tried on the production of
Scheele's green, following the course laid down in the books and by
Scheele himself; viz., first, the production of a more or less basic,
sodium or potassium arsenite ; and, secondly, the addition of this to a
solution of copper sulphate.

Experiment No. 1.

Parts.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper sulphate.

CuS0,5H„0

50

2.04

Potassium carbonate.

K,C03

25

1.81

Arsenic trioxide.

As,03

10

.50

Dissolved the potassium carbonate in water, boiled and added the
arsenic trioxide, filtered and added to the boiling solution of copper sul-
phate. The precipitate, when washed and dried, was of a yellowish
green; the filtrate was blue.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

17

Analysis No. II.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide, 56.98

7.18

Arsenic trioxide, 21.45

1.08

Sulphur trioxide, 12.80

1.60

Ferrous oxide, 1.60

.22

Water, 7.17

3.98

Experiment No. 2.

Parts.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper sulphate, CuSO^oH^O

50

2.04

Potassium carbonate, Kg^^s

30

2.17

Arsenic trioxide, AS2O3

15

.76

Treated as before ; filtrate pale blue, precipitate, a brighter green
than No. 1.

Analysis No. III.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide, 49.58

6.24

Arsenic trioxide, 32.12

1.62

Sulphur trioxide, 4.42

.55

Water, 13.88

7.82

Experiment No. 3.

Atomic Ratios.

CuSO,5H20, 50

2.04

K,C03, 40

2.90

As.,0„ 10

.50

Treated as before ; filtrate pale yellow, precipitate had more of a
yellowish tinge than before.

Analysis No. IV.

Copper oxide,
Arsenic trioxide,
Sulphur trioxide.
Water,

CuSO,5H20,
K..CO3,

ASgOg,

VOL. XII. (n. 8. IV.)

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

51.26

6.43

31.67

1.60

5.32

.66

11.75

6.53

No. 4.

Parts.

Atomic Ratios.

50

2.04

50

3.61

18

.90

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The potash and arsenic were dissolved and allowed to cool, then
added to the cold solution of copper. The mixture effervesced strongly ;
half of it was allowed to stand until next day, then filtered ; the other
half was boiled, whicii operation it stood without blackening. Analysis
of the first half gave, —

Analysis No. V.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide,

49.55

6.24

Arsenic trioxide,

38.90

1.96

Water,

11.55

6.42

The second half gave, —

Analysis N

0. VI.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide,

46.65

5.87

Arsenic trioxide.

42.94

2.17

Water,

10.41

5.78

Per c«iits.

Atomic Ratios.

51.40

6.47

39.57

1.99

8.72

■ 4.85

This preparation was repeated, using the same proportions ; the pre-
cipitate was boiled, and washed with hot water until the filtrate was
free from arsenic.

Analysis No. VII.

Copper oxide.
Arsenic trioxide,
Water,

This seems to indicate that either the salt is decomposed by washing
with hot water, or that it consists of a strongly basic salt mixed with
free arsenious acid. The first view is most likely the correct one, if we
modify it so as to read : "it is decomposed by washing with either hot
or cold water, forming a more basic salt."

But further experiments seem to show that this decomposition is
much slower with cold tlian with hot water. And I have found it
utterly impossible to remove the whole of the arsenic by prolonged
washing.

This fact was further confirmed by an experiment of Prof. J. M.
Ordway, who waslied a portion of the salt with 3,000 times its weight
of water, without completely decomposing it. The basic salt produced
by washing does not blacken on boiling with water, thus showing that
we have a true basic salt or mixtures of several basic salts, and not a
mixture of Bloxam's normal arsenite, HCuAsO^, and hydrate of
copper.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

19

Parts.

Atomic Ratios,

124.8

2.

49. .5

1.

53.

2.

Experiment No. 5.

In order to see if the salt IICu AsO^ could be prepared by taking the
exact amount (if arsenic trioxide and copper sulphate necessary to
form it, the following ^Jroportious were taken : —

Copper sulphate,
Arsenic trioxide,
Sodium carbonate,

The solution of arsenic in the sodium carbonate was boiled, and
added, while boiling, to the solution of copper sulphate. And the
ebullition was continued till all the carbonic aoid was driven off. The
precipitate was washed by decantation once or twice, and then divided
into three portions ; the first was merely drained, the second was
washed a little, and the third was washed until arsenic ceased to be
found in the wash-water. These portions were numbered respectively,
VIIL, IX., X. They all contained basic copper sulphate, and No. VIII.
probably contained a little sodium sulphate.

Analysis No. VIII.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide.

49.78

6.27

Arsenic trioxide.

35.93

1.80

Sulphur trioxide,

6.07

.76

Water,

7.56

4.20

99.34

Analysis No. IX.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide.

47.71

6.00

Arsenic oxide.

43.74

2.21

Sulphur trioxide,

3.10

.39

Water,

5.47

3.04

100.02

Analysis No. X.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide.

57.77

7.27

Arsenic oxide.

27.50

1.39

Sulphur trioxide,

5.27

.66

Water,

8.97

4.98

99.51

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

None of the above blackened on boiling with water, and all gave a
blue solution with ammonia. Nos. VIII., IX. closely approximate a
mixture of tribasic sulphate with Bloxam's salt; while No. X. is
more basic than the formula for triarsenite calls for.

Experiment No. 6.

Molecules.

Copper sulphate, 6

Sodic carbonate, 3

Arsenic trioxide, 1

The filtrate was blue and acid ; the precipitate gave, —

Analysis No. XL

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide.

60.80

7.66

Arsenic trioxide,

14.53

.73

Sulphur trioxide.

13.34

1.67

Water,

11.11

6.17

This corresponds with a mixture of tribasic arsenite and sulphate,
with a little excess of copper oxide.

To the blue filtrate from the above, three molecules more of sodic
carbonate were added, the filtrate was faint yellow, and free from
copper, but contained arsenic; the precipitate contained a little car-
bonate.

Analysis No. XII.

Per cents.

Atomic RatioSc

Copper oxide.

56.71

7.14

Arsenic trioxide.

28.62

1.44

Sulpliur trioxide,

1.59

.20

Water,

9.50

5.28

Carbon dioxide,

.3.35

.77

99.77

These precipitates both dissolved in ammonia with a blue color, and
stood boiling without change of color.

Experiment No. 7.

Molecules.

Copper sulphate, 6

Potassium carbonate, 6

Arsenic trioxide, 1

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 21

Boiled for half an hour, filtrate colorless, free from copper, but con-
tained arsenic ; precipitate did not blacken on boiling, was free from
carbonates, but contained basic sulphate. Washed until filtrate was
free from arsenic.

Analysis No. XIII.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide,

58.85

7.41

Arsenic trioxide,

27.08

1.37

Sulphur trioxide,

4.83

.60

Water,

8.55

4.75

99.30

Experiment No. 8.

Scheele's orijrinal receipt is very nearly one part by weight ot
arsenic to three each of copper sulphate and potassium carbonate, and
is frequently so given. The proportions as given by Scheele are, eleven
ounces of the first, and thirty-two of each of the otiiers. In molecules,
supposing the potassium carbonate to be pure and anhydrous, as he
directs it should be, the receipt will be as follows : —

As A, 1-

CuO, 2.32

ICCOg, 4.34

Or nearly double the amount of potassium carbonate required in the

CuSO, + IVjCOg = CuCOg + K,SO,.

A portion was, therefore prepared, using

Parts. Molecules.
Copper sulphate 6 2.35

Potassium carbonate, 3 2.17

Arsenic trioxide, 2 1.

The filtrate was slightly acid and blue, but the potassium carbonate
used not quite anhydrous. The color produced was fully equal to that
produced by the oi-diuary receipt. The filtrate contained arsenic.

Analysis No. XIV.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide,

51.37

6.62

Arsenic trioxide,

39.94

2.02

Sulphur trioxide,

1.80

.22

Water,

6.61

3.67

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

This is an almost exact mixture of tribasic sulphate and arsenite.
It dissolved in ammonia with a blue color, and did not blacken on boil-
ing. Tlie potassium carbonate may, therefore, be considerably dimin-
ished from that called lor in Scheele's receipt.

Experiment No. 9.

This was nearly a repetition of Experiment No. 4 as to quantities
used. The object being in this case to study more iully tlie effects
of washing, the proportions taken approximate closely to Scheele's
receipt : —

Copper sulpliate,
Arseuic trioxide,
Potassic carbonate,

The solutions were mixed and boiled for half an hour; the first
(No. XV.) was washed until the wash-water was free from sulphates;
the other (No. XVI.) until the wash- water was free from arsenic.

Analysis No. XV.

Parts.

Molecules.

3

2.35

1

1.

3

4.34

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide,

52.23

G.60

Ar.-ienic trioxide.

35.41

1.79

Sulphur trioxide,

5.88

.74

Water,

6.02

8.35

99.54
Analysis No. XVI.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratioa,

Copper oxide,

57.18

7.20

Arsenic trioxide,

25.(32

\.m

Sulphur trioxide,

6.31

.79

Water,

10.85

3.90

'Experiment No. 10.

This preparation was made exactly according to Scheele's own direc-
tions, as given by himself in the Proceedings of the Stockholm
Academy, using the English translation for the weights and measures.
The sample was divided after precipitation. No. XVII. was washed
by decantation with the amount of water he specifies.

No. XVIII. was first boiled with water, and then washed with hot
water so long as arsenic was found in the filtrate. The proportions
used were, —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 23

Parts.
Arsenic trioxide, 11

Potassium carbouate, 32

Dissolved the potassium carbonate in thirty-two parts of water,
added the arsenic trioxide boiled and filtered.

Parts.

Copper sulphate crystallized, 32

Water, 192

Dissolved and boiled while hot ; added, with constant stirring, the
hot solution of arsenic trioxide.

Analysis No. XVII.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Found.

Taken.

Copper oxide,

50.76

3.10

2.32

Arsenic trioxide.

40.82

1.00

1.

Sulphur trioxide,

1.63

.10

Water,

6.41

1.75

99.62
Analysis No. XVIII.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide.

49.25

6.20

Arsenic trioxide.

42.66

2.15

Sulphur trioxide.

.42

.05

Water,

6.71

3.72

99.04

In summing up, I will first call attention to the fact that in no one
of the eighteen samples does the arsenic exist in these compounds in
as great a ratio as required by Bloxam's formula. Further, they all
contain water, and this water is not driven off at a temperature of
150° C. In every case, arsenic was found in the filtrate, sometimes in
considerable amount, as is shown by comparison of the ratios of copper
sulphate and arsenic trioxide taken, and the ratios between the copper
oxide and arsenic, as found in the analysis. All the samples dissolved
in ammonia with a blue color.

In Experiments Nos. 4, 9, and 10 almost identical amounts of sub*
stances were taken ; but the results, as will be seen, ditl'er widely.

Scheele's green may, accoiding to my experiments, be described as a

24 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

more or less basic copper arsenite, which may or may not contain basic
copper sulphate and carbonate ; the composition of it seeming to de-
pend to a considerable extent upon the degree of concentration of the
liquid from which it is precipitated. Its basicity also seems to depend
to a considerable extent upon the same fact, the more dilute the solu-
tion the more basic tlie salt.

The composition also depends, to some extent, on the amount of
wash-water used in washing it.

The normal pi<fment which is represented by Analysis XVIII. may
be described as follows : —

It is of a yellowish green color, soluble in dilute acids and in caustic
alkalies. It dissolves in alkalies with a blue color, and is decomposed
by excess of soda or potassa, or their carbonates, but is not decom-
posed by ammonia, even upon boiling. It does not blacken upon
boiling with distilled water. When dissolved in ammonia, if a solu-
tion of soda or potash is added, the solution is bleached, from the
reduction of the copper salt to a cuprous salt.

Its average composition, as generally prepared, omitting the sulphur
trioxide which is generally found in it, is about as follows : —

Copper oxide,

50.00

Arsenic trioxide,

42.00

Water,

8.00

This approximates closely to the formula,

Cu3As20,2Il20.

This formula would give the following percentages : —

Copper oxide.

51.44

Arsenic trioxide.

41.93

Water,

7.93

Taking this view of the subject, Scheele's green is the normal tri-
cupric arsenite, and corresponds to the triargentic arsenite described
by Bloxam.

It is almost impossible, however, to obtain a perfectly constant prod-
uct, from the strong tendency to form basic sulphates and basic
arsenites.

As a matter of economy in the preparation, it will be found more
advantageous to take the following proportions rather than those given
by Scheele : -

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 25

Parts.
Copper sulphate, 6

Arsenic trioxide, 2

Sodium carbonate, Na^CO3l0H2O, 8

Dissolve the soda and arsenic in ten parts of water, and the copper
sulphate in forty parts of water ; filter botli solutions if necessary. Mix
while boiling, boil for a few minutes, and then allow to stand until
next day ; pour off the supernatant licjuid, fill up the vessel with hot
water ; repeat this operation about three times, then filter, and dry at
about 100° C.

In analyzing these salts, the water was determined by ignition in a
current of oxygen. The water being collected and weighed in a
chloride of calcium tube. The arsenic was determined in various
ways, but it was found that the conversion into arsenic pentoxide and
trituration with uranium solution gave the most satisfactory results.
The copper was determined with the battery.

The separation of copper and arsenic was made either by boiling
with a slight excess of potassa with previous oxidation by nitric acid
or bromine, or by adding potassa, and then passing hydrogen sulphide
through the solution until the copper was completely precipitated.

My thanks are due to my assistant, E. R. Hills, for the able manner
in which he has aided me by making many analyses of these salts, — an
undertaking that can be appreciated only by those who have tried
working with copper and arsenic in combination.

Since the above paper was finished, I have succeeded in obtaining
two samples of copper arsenite as found in commerce. The first of
these resembled closely that analyzed in Analysis No. XII. in color,
and on examination it was found to contain carbon dioxide and sul-
phur trioxide ; the other resembled Analysis No. XVIII., and, like it,
contained a trace of sulphate.

Boston, June 1st.

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

III.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF

HARVARD COLLEGE.

I.— ON THE ETHERS OF URIC ACID.
By H. B. Hill.

{First Paper.)
Presented, June 14, 1876.

Although the constitution of many of the derivatives of uric acid
may be said to be fairly established, the structure of uric acid itself
is still a matter of conjee-ture. The formulae given by Baeyer,* Kolbe,t
Streckert Erlenmeyer, § Mulder, || Hiifner, T[ Gibbs, ** Medicus, ft
Drechsel, tt and Mallet ; §§ differing, as they do, in points more or less
essential, show that the experimental data are as yet insufficient to estab-
lish its structure. In this connection the ethers of uric acid seem to
have attracted little attention. In 1864, Dryjiin |{|| prepared the diethyl
and triethyl ethers by the action of ethyl iodide upon diplumbic urate.
I have been unable to obtain the original paper, but from the summary
of it given in the Jahresbericht HH for that year, and in Gmelin's***
hand-book, it would appear that he submitted them to no very ex-
tended examination. I have, therefore, undertaken the study of the
ethers of uric acid, with the hope that a careful study of the products

* Ann. Chem. u. Pliarm., 127, 235.

t Journ. fiir prakt. Chem. [2] 1. 134. Berichte, Deutsch. Chem. Gesellsch.
III. 183.

J Zeitsehr. fUr Chem. 1868, 863.

§ Zeitsehr. fur Chem. 1869, 176. Munchen. Acad. Ber. 2, 276.

II Bericht. der Deutsch. Cliem. Gesellsch. VL 1237.

t Journ. fur prakt. Chem. [2J 3, 23.

** Amn. Journ. [2] 46, 289.

tt Ann. Chem u. Pharm. 175, 243.

tt Chem. Centralbl. 1875, 493.

§§ Amn. Journ. Mch. 1876, 195.

nil Russ. Zeitsehr. Pharm. ii. 3, 28, 49, 113, 121.

IT Jahresbericht. 1864, 629.

*** Gmelin, Suppl. ii. 1026.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 27

of their decomposition may throw additional light upon the structure
of uric aci(i.

A few preliminary experiments convinced me that the compounds in
the methyl series could be much more conveniently made than those
of the ethyl or benzyl. I tlierefore began with the methyl ethers, and
this paper gives tl^^ results I have obtained in the study of the first of
these.

Methyhiric acid, C-H3(CH3)N^03.

Methyluric acid may readily be prepared by the action of methyl
iodide upon monoplurabic urate. The metathesis takes place slowly
at 110°-130°, rapidly between 160° and 165°. The dry lead salt
mixed with methyl iodide in molecular proportions, enough ether being
added to keep the mixture fluid, is heated in sealed tubes for eighteen
hours at 165°. After tlie evaporation of the ether, the product of the
reaction is boiled with water, and the solution filtered from the un-
altered plumbic urate. The lead is then precipitated with hydric
sulpliide, and the plumbic sulphide filtered off boiling hot. The filtrate
deposits, on cooling, meihyluric acid in small crystals. Tliese are
dissolved in dilute potassic hydrate, the solution boiled for a ^evf
minutes, reprecipitated by hydrochloric acid, and recr}stallized from
boiling water. The yield is about 60 f^ of the amount theoretically
required by the lead salt which enters into the reaction. 220 grms.
plumbic urate gave 54 grms. methyluric acid, and 89 grms. of unaltered
lead salt. Afterwards, in working up the recovered lead salt, which
was much more compact in form than the salt originally employed, I
found the decomposition almost complete. In this case 100 grms. lead
salt gave me 41 grms. methyluric acid. A portion of the uric acid is
completely decomposed, and is found as ammonium salt in the mother
liquors and the crude product. I attempted to increase the yield by
employing anhydrous ether in the place of common ether. Although
no ammonium compounds were then formed, a much smaller percent-
age of the lead salt entered into reaction. Longer heating at a .ewer
temperature did not increase the yield, inasmuch as a larger quantity
of dimethyl ether was then formed. The amount of dimethyl ether
formed by heating to 16.)° is small; and as it is much more soluble in
water than the monomethyl ether, it may readily be removed by re-
crystallization.

Methyluric acid crystallizes in small clear flat prisms, apparently of
the triraetric system, the crystals being often pointed at either end.
By slow cooling of a dilute solution, these crystals sometimes reach a

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

length of 2-3 mm., but they are usually much smaller. The substance
undergoes no visible change when heated to about 300° ; at a higher
temperature, it melts with complete decomposition, and without per-
ceptible sublimation. It is soluble in boiling water, almost insoluble
in cold water or in boiling alcohol ; insoluble in ether. Cold concen-
trated sulphuric acid dissolves it abundantly ; upon dilution it crystal-
lizes out, apparently unchanged. Air-dried it contains water, a portion
of which it loses at 100° ; the rest slowly, but completely, at 160°.

1.3887 grm. substance air-dried lost at 165° 0.1124 grm. =
8.09%.

The formula C5H3(CH3)N^03 . Hp requires 9.00%. Of substance
dried at 100°: —

1. 0.7772 grm. lost at 165° 0.0399 grm. = 5.13 %.

2. 0.4953 „ „ 0.0289 „ = 5.83 %.

3. 0.4670 „ „ 0.0238 „ = 5.10 %.

4. 0.8106 „ „ 0.0451 „ = 5.57 %.

The formula C5H3(Cri3)N,03 . iHp requires 4.77 %.

from these determinations, it would appear that water is not a
definite constituent of the compound. The microscopic appearance of
the substance remains unchanged.

The substance dried at 165° has the formula 05113(0 H3)N^03, as
the following analyses show: —

1. 0.4284 grm. gave 0.1310 grm. 11,0, and 0.6210 grm. OO2.

2. 0.2748 grm. gave 0.0985 grm. II.p, and 0.3972 grm. OO2.

3. 0.1822 grm. gave 50.0 cc. nitrogen, at 20°.o, and 754.3 mm. pressure.

Calculated for Found.

0,H,N,03. 1 2 3

0 39.56 39.53 39.43

H 3.30 3.39 3.98

N 30.77 30.98

To determine the solubility in boiling water, a boiling saturated
solution was filtered through a hot, water filter into tared fiasks. After
cooling, the flasks were weighed, the contents washed out, evaporated
in platinum, and the residue dried at 165°.

1. 52.290 grm. solution left 0.2043 grm. residue.

2. 55.379 grm. solution left 0.2187 grm. residue.

The boiling saturated solution contains, therefore, the percentages, —
1 2

0.3906 0.3950

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 29

A boiling solution was allowed to stand overnight at a temperature
of about 20°. For three hours before tiltering. it was kept at 20°,
with constant stirring. Portions of the filtered solution were weighed,
evaporated, and the residue dried at lo5°, —

1. 39.020 grm. solution gave 0.0083 grm. residue.

2. 49.854 grm. solution gave 0.0111 grm. residue.

The solution saturated at 20° contained, therefore, in percentages, —

1 2

0.0213 0.0223

As the mean of these determinations, we find that there is required
for the solution of one part of methyluric acid 253.6 parts of boiling
water, and 4596 parts of water at 2(1°.

The aqueous solution reddens litmus feebly, and decomposes car-
bonates readily on heating. A solution in potassic or sodic hydrate is
not precipitated by carbonic dioxide. From a concentrated cold solu-
tion, stronger acids precipitate it gelatinous, from hot or dilute solutions
crystalline.

With bases metliyluric acid forms a series of definite salts, some of
which have been studied by Mr. O. R. Jackson in this laboi-atory.
The results of this investigation he presents to the Academy in a
separate communication. He has shown tliat the monomethyl ether
of uric acid is itself a dibasic acid, like uric acid; a fact which is
certainly remarkable, and of obvious theoretical importance.

Action of Hydrochloric Acid.

In 1867, Streeker* showed that uric acid heated with fuming hydro-
chloric or liydriodic acid to 170° assimilates five molecules of water,
giving carbonic dioxide, ammonia, and glycocoll, —

C,H,X,03 + 5H,0 = 3C0, + 3NH3 + C,H,NO,.

The inferences which he drew f from this reaction concerning the
structure of uric acid are well known. Emmerling$ has I'ecently
shown that cyanogen gas passed into boiling hydriodic acid is converted
into glycocoll, and seeks thus to give Strecker's reaction a new interpre-
tation. In either case, however, it seemed to me of importance to

* Ann. Cliem. u. Pliarm. 146, 142; Zeitschr. fur Chem. 1868, 215.

t Zeitschr. fiir Cliem. 1868, 363.

t Bericlite Deutsch. Cliem. Gesellsch. VI. 1351.

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

determine the products of the decomposition of methyhiric acid under
these conditions.

Two tubes, each containing 1.3 grm. methyluric acid, and an excess
of hydrochloric acid saturated at 0°, were heated four or five hours at
170'^. The gas wliich escaped on opening the tubes was found to con-
tain no methyl chloride. The excess of acid was driven off on the
water bath, and the residue distilled with plumbic hydrate until the
distillate was no longer alkaline. The ammoniacal distillate was caught
in hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to dryness on the water bath.
The residue was treated with a small (juantity of absolute alcohol, and
the filtered solution again evaporated to dryness. There was then left
a white saline residue, wliich gave with great readiness Hofmaiin's iso-
cyanide reaction, showing the presence of a monamine. The chloride
was converted into the platinum salt, and this was analyzed after re-
crystallization from hot water.

0.4760 grm. gave on ignition 0.1991 grm. platinum.

Calculated for Found.

. (CH3NH,).PtClg
Pt 41.61 41.82

Methylamine is, therefore, one of the products of the reaction.

From the residue left on distillation, it was easy to isolate glycocoll
in the ordinary way. The licjuid was filtered from the basic [dumbic
chloride, the lead removed from the solution by hydric sulphide, and
the filtrated evaporated. On standing, glycocoll crystallized out with
its characteristic properties. For its identification, it was converted
into the copper salt by boiling with freshly precipitated cupric oxide,
and precipitation of the blue solution by alcohol. Of this salt, —

0.4400 grm. lost at 130° 0.0388 grm.

Calculated for Found.

(C2H,N0,)_,Cu . li.fi
Bfi 7.85 7.68

A determination of copper in the dry salt gave, —

0.4068 grm. left on ignition 0.1523 grm. CuO.

Calculated for Found.

(C,H,NO,),Cu
CuO 37.00 37.43

The reaction in this case may therefore be writtten, —

C,H3(CH3) N,03 + 5 H,0 = 3C0, + 2NH3 + CH.NH, + CJI.NO,.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 31

It will be seen that this reaction proves the commonly accepted view
that uric acid is not an hydroxyl but an iniid acid.

In order further to establish tlie relative position of the methyl
radical, it seemed to me of chief importance to follow it through oxida-
tion in alkaline and acid solution, and thus determine its relation to
allantoin and alloxan or paraban.

Methylallantoin. C^H. (CHg) N^^.

Methyluric acid is readily oxidized in alkaline solution, according to
the metliod of Claus and Emde.* The .solution must be dilute with
but a small excess of alkali, the potassic permanganate added slowly
in exact molecular proportion. As soon as the manganese dioxide has
separated, it must be filtered rapidly with the aid of the pump, and the
filtrate slightly acidified with acetic acid. I then found it most ad-
vantageous to evaporate as quickly as possible on the water bath to
small volume. After standing twenty-four hours, the methylallantoin
crystallizes out in clusters of radiated prisms. These separated from
the mother liquor by pressure, and recrystallized several times from
hot water, form clear distinct monoclinic prisms, closely resembling
ordinary allantoin. They are readily soluble in hot water, sparingly
in cold ; almost insoluble in alcohol, hot or cold, and insoluble in
ether. These crystals melt with decomposition at 225°.

In spite of many variations of the method, I could obtain in this way
but fifteen per cent of the theoretical yield. From the mother liquors
evaporated to a syrup, alcohol separates a potash salt, probably of
methylallantoic acid. On account of its uninviting character it was
not further examined.

Methylallantoin dried at 100° gave, on analysis, —

0.23G2 grm. gave 0.1092 grm. 11,0, and 0.2978 grra. COg.

Calculated for Found.

C,H,(CIl3)NA.
C 34.89 34.39

H 4.65 5.13

Silver nitrate gives in a hot saturated solution on the cautious addi-
tion of ammonic hydrate, a crystalline precipitate consisting of needles
or short prisms. This salt is readily soluble in hot water, more
sparing'y in cold. By spontaneous evaporation of the cold solution,

* Bericlite Deutsch. Chera. Gesellsch. VII. 226.

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

tolerably perfect crystals of the trimetric system were obtained. This
compound may be dried, without decomposition, at 100°, and gave then
OQ analysis, —

0.1668 grm. left on ignition 0.0646 grm. silver.

Calculated for Found.

AgC,II,(CIl3)N,03.
Ag 38.71 38.61

Baeyer * has shown that allantoin, when heated with hydriodic acid,
breaks up into urea and hydantoin ; and it was evident that methyl-
allantoin should give an analogous reaction. I therefore heated
methylallantoin with concentrated hydriodic acid, following the direc-
tions given by Baeyer.t When the reaction appeared to be ended,
the liberated iodine was reduced with sulphide of hydrogen, and the
hydriodic acid removed by plumbic carbonate. The filtrate gave on
evaporation, after standing for some time, clear crystals, which, freed
from the syrupy mother liquor, and recrystallized from water, formed
transparent prisms, readily soluble in water or alcohol, and giving no
precipitate with zincic chloride. Ti)eir melting point I found to be
144°-145°. The quantity at my disposal was insufficient for analysis,
but there can be no doubt of the identity of this substance with methyl
hydantoiu described by Neubauer t as resulting from the action of
baric hydrate upon creatinine, inasmuch as he gives these properties and
the melting point 145'^. The reaction may, therefore, be written, —

CH3

/

C,H,(CH3)N,03 + H, = Co' + Co''

\ \

NH^ NH— CO

Once, as the action of the hydi-iodic acid was longer continued, I
obtained a substance crystallizing in broad rhombic plates, readily
soluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, wlii^h gave a precipitate
with an alcoholic soUition of zincic chloride. These crystals melted
at 10,5°, and sublimed readily at 100°. They were evidently sarcosine
formed from the decomposition of methylliydantoin.

* Ann. Chem. u. Plmrm. 117, 178.
t Ann. Cliera. u. Pharm. 130, 158.
} Ann Chem. u. Pharm. 137, 288.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 33

Oxidation of methyluric acid with nitric acid.

By the oxidation of methyluric acid with nitric acid, a solution is
obtained which gives a deep red coloration on wanning with amnionic
hydrate. From this solution, however, I have as yet been unable to
isolate a crystalline product. By spontaneous evaporation in the air,
a sticky syrup is obtained, which does not solidify, even after long
standing in vacuo over sulphuric acid. Alcohol dissolves this residue,
the solution remains clear after the addition of ether, and on evaporation
again leaves an uncrystallizable syrup. I have been equally unsuccess-
ful in separating by stannous chloride or sulphide of hydrogen a
crystalline alloxantine or dialuric acid. Oxidation with potassic
chlorate and hydrochloric acid, according to the method of Schlieper,*
gave the same result. These reactions were sufficient to give a quali-
tative proof tliat the solution did not contain ordinary alloxan. I
therefore attem(»ted to prepare from this solution a methylalloxanate
in form fit for analysis. I first tried with baric hydrate, to form the
barium salt. The ordinary method, following closely the directions
of Schlieper, f gave me, however, a salt containing but a trace of
nitrogen and with percentages of barium, carbon, and hydrogen,
closely approximating those required by a basic baric mesoxalate,
BaCgO^.BaO^H^. At the same time a strong smell of methylamine
was perceived. If a smaller quantity of baric hydrate were added in
the cold, and then alcohol in excess, a barium salt was thrown down
which contained nitrogen, but it could not in this way be obtained of
constant cumposition. Plumbic hydrate seemed to determine the for^
mation of the methylalloxanate, but no better results were obtained.
The silver salt blackened too rapidly to admit of analysis.

The lime salt is the only one I have been able to prepare with con-
stant composition. Methyluric acid is dissolved in as small a quantity
of nitric acid of 1.42 sp. gr. as possible, the solution somewliat diluted,
and the excess of acid neutralized with calcic carbonate in the cold.
The solution is tiien allowed to stand in vacuo for some time, to free it
from carbonic dioxide, afterwards diluted with six or eight volumes of
alcohol and filtered. The cautious addition of amnionic hydrate to
the filtrate throws down a bulky semigelatinous precipitate, wiiich, well
washed with alcohol, and dried at 100°, forms an amorphous powder,
which has a faint pink color, — undoubtedly caused by a trace of alloxan.
The dry salt was soluble in cold water, though with some difficulty.

* Ann. Cliem. u. Pharm. 55, 2G1.
t Ann. Chem. u. Pharui. 55, 212.
TOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 3

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Analysis gave for substance dried at 100°, —

1. 0.1778 grm. gave 0.1125 gnu. CaSO^.

2. 0.2275 grm. gave 0.1446 grm. CaSO,.

3. 0.3049 grm. gave 36.8 cc, nitrogen at 21°.5, and 762.1 mm. pressure.

Calculated for Found.

CJI(CH3)N20,Ca 1 2 3

Ca 18.87 18.61 18.69

N 13.21 13.68

The analyses 1 and 2 were made with different preparations.

If ammouic hydrate be first added, and the calcic salt then precipi-
tated by alcohol, the salt contains too little nitrogen A sample
prepared in this way gave, on analysis, 20.88 % Ca, and 10.75 % N.
So also if the precipitate thrown down by ammonic hydrate in alcoholic
solution be dissolved in water, and reprecipitated by alcohol, the per-
centage of calcium is increased, and the nitrogen diminished. Analysis
gave 20.49 % Ca.

Inasmuch as the chief point was to prove the formation of methyl-
alloxan by this oxidation, I distilled the calcium salt, prepared in the
manner described, with potassic hydrate in a current of steam. The
ammoniacal distillate readily gave the characteristic isocyanide reaction
by heating with alcoholic potash and chloroform. It was neutralized
■with hydrochloric acid, evaporated, and from the residue the methyl-
amine chloride separated by absolute alcohol. An analysis of the
platinum salt gave —

0.2160 grm. left on ignition 0.0902 grm. platinum.

Calculated for Found.

(CH^Nig.PtCl,

Pt 41.61 41.76.

Thus proving that the calcium salt contained the group = N — CH^ .
lu further confirmation, I was able to isolate common urea as the
secondary product of the methylalloxan formation. After oxidizing
with hydrochloric acid and potassic chlorate, the excess of acid was
driven off by evaporation at gentle heat, the potassic chloride separated
with absolute alcohol, and the alcoliolic solution evaporated to a syrup.
The cautious addition of strong nitric acid caused the separation of
abundant crystals of urea nitrate in characteristic form. The base, set
free as usual with baric carbonate, after recrystallization from water,
melted at 129°-130'>.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 35

The reaction may, therefore, be written : —

CH3

/

NHjj N — CO

/ / I

C,H,(CH3)N,03 + H,0, = CO + CO CO

\ \ I

NH2 NH— CO

Methyl paraban, C3lI(CIl3)N203.

Although methylalloxan is so unstable in the presence of bases, in
acid solution it possesses remarkable stability. It may be boiled for
some time with strong nitric acid, or with hydrochloric acid aud
potassic clilurate before tbe red coloration with ammonia disappears.
On prolonged boiling (about an hour) with strong nitric acid, the
oxidation is complete, and the solution contains methylparaban. For
its preparation I have found it most advantageous to boil methyluric
acid with five or six parts of nitric acid of sp. gr, 1.3, until a drop
taken out fjives no coloration with ammonia. The excess of acid is
then driven off on the water bath, the syrupy residue diluted with a
little water, and well shaken out with ether. On distilling off the
ether, a syrup remains which soon crj'stallizes in shining radiated
prisms, which are recrystallized from hot water. Thej are somewhat
difficultly soluble in cold water, readily in hot ; soluble in alcohol and
ether. The substance melts at 149°. 5, sublimes very slowly at 100°,
and at higher temperature with great readiness. For analysis, the
air-dried substance was heated three hours at 100° ; duriug that time
0.2260 grm. lost 0.0030 grm.

1. 0.1714 grm. gave 0.2333 grm. CO2. *

2. 0.2160 grm. gave 0.0785 grm. H,0, and 0.2629 grm. COg.

Found.

1 2

37.12 37.48

4.04

The substance gives no precipitate with calcic chloride, even after
the addition of ammonic hydrate. On warming the ammoniacal solu-
tion, a precipitate falls not wholly soluble in acetic acid. Argen-
tic nitrate precipitates it only in concentrated solution. The silver
salt prepared from concentrated solution, wnth the cautious addition of

* The hydrogen in this analysis was lost.

Calculated for

C,N,H,03

C

37.50

H

3.13

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ammonic hydrate, crystallizes in prismatic needles ; quite readily solu-
ble in hot water, sparingly in cold. Under the microscope it crystal-
lizes from hot aqueous solution in rhombic plates. It may be dried at
100° without decomposition. It gave on analysis, —

0.1210 grm. left on ignition 0.0056 grm. silver.

Calculated for Found.

AgC,N,Il303.
As 45.95 45.95

There can be no doubt that this substance is identical with that
obtained by Dessaigiies* from creatinine, which was first recognized
by Strecker f as methylparaban. Dessaignes gives no melting point,
but the description given corresponds peifectly with the substance I
have obtained ; the only diiference being that I find the substance
quite readily soluble in ether, whereas he gives it as somewhat soluble
only.

A consideration of the bearing of these facts upon the structure of
uiic acid I shall postpone until I have obtained further results.

n. — ON SOME OF THE SALTS OF METIIYLURIC ACID,

C^HstCHsJN.Og.

By Oscar R. Jackson.

Presented, June 14, 1876.

This work was undertaken with the purpose of proving the basicity
of methyluric acid. The acid was obtained by the method described
by Prof. 11. B. Hill, under whose direction the preparation and analyses
of the salts were conducted.

Owing to the fact that all the dibasic salts absorb carbonic acid very
readily when exposed to air, as is the case with the salts of uric acid,
special means had to be taken to dry the salts in an atmosphere free
from carbonic acid. For this purpose they were dried in vacuo over
sulphuric acid, and a few pieces of potassic hydrate were also placed
under the receiver when the dibasic salts were dried. For the de-
termination of the water of crystallization, the salts were heated to

* Ann. Chem. u. Pharm. 97, 343.
t Ann. Chem. u. Pharm. 118, 164.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 37

140° to 150° in a current of air ; the air being first caused to pass
tlirough a series of six tubes, each 2. J feet long; two being filled with
solid potassic hydrate, and the remaining four with calcic chloride.
The substance being weigiied before and after heating, the water was
estimated by the loss of weight. The bases were then estimated in the
anhydrous salts by the methods given below.

Dipotassic methylurate, K2CJI(CH3)N^03 . 311^0.

This salt was made by suspending about one gramme of the acid
in ten or fifteen cubic centimetres of boiling water in a small flask,
and then adding a solution of potassic hydrate in large excess over the
amount necessary to dissolve the acid. The solution was then boiled
for some time, and about 100 cc. of alcohol added. On the addition
of tlie alcohol, the salt separates out in a flocculent form. The flask is
then corked up, to avoid exposure to carbonic acid, and allowed to
stand twenty-four hours. The precipitate is then filtered off rapidly
by the Bunsen pump, washed with alcohol, and dried in vacuo over
sulphuric acid and potassic hydrate.

This salt when dry is an amorphous flocculent substance, and is
very soluble in hot water; but when a hot solution cools, the salt does
not separate out, but becomes a gelatinous mass resembling glue. This
salt absorbs carbonic acid very readily from the air. When carbonic
acid is passed tlu-ough a solution of this salt, the monopotassic salt is
probably formed, though no precipitate falls.

The water of crystallization was determined by the method given
above. For the determination of the potassium, the anhydrous salt
was ignited in a platinum crucible ; and, after the residue had been
burned as white as possible, it was treated with a few drops of hydro-
chloric acid. The excess of hydrochloric acid was then driven off, and
the crucible ignited gently to avoid decrepitation, and then finally
heated to dull redness for a few seconds.

0.3700 grm. of salt dried in vacuo gave 0.0635 grm. lip = 17.17 %
Calculated for K^C^HCCiyN.Og . 311,0 = 17.29 %

0.4974 grm. of dried salt gave 0.2367 grm. KCl; K = 24.95 %

Calculated for K,C5H(CH3)N,03 = 25.04 %

Monopotassic methylurate, KCgTT2(CIl3)NP3 . 1\0.

This salt was made by suspending about one gramme of the acid in
ten or fifteen centimetres of boiling water, and adding potassic carbon-

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ate in slight excess over the calculated amount. The acid dissolves on
the addition of the potassic carbonate with disengagement of carbonic acid.
The solution was then boiled for some time, until the effervescence
ceased, and precipitated with alcohol; allowed to stand twenty-four
hours, filtered, washed with alcohol, and dried as in the case of the
dipotassic salt.

This salt is quite like the dipotassic salt. It is very soluble in hot
water, gelatinous on cooling, and is insoluble in alcohol.

The method of analysis was the same as for the dipotassic salt, with
the exception that the potassium was estimated in the hydrous salt.

0.3161 grm. of salt di-ied in vacuo gave 0.0228 grm. H^O = 7.21 %
Calculated for KCJi^CCHjjN.Oj.H.O = 7.56%

0.3766 grm. of salt dried wt7a(;Mo gave 0.1152 grm. KCl ; K= 16.01 %
Calculated for KC5H2(CH3)N^03 . II^O = 16.42 %

Disodic methyhirate, Na,C5H(CIl3)NP3 . 3II2O.

This salt was made bv dissolving; the acid in an excess of sodic
hydrate and precipitating with alcohol, exactly as in the case of the
dipotassic salt, which it closely resembles.

The analysis was conducted in the same way as above.

0.6691 grm. of salt dried in vacuo gave 0.1287 grm. H^O = 19.23 %
Calculated for Na2C5n(CH3)N,03 . 3H,0 = 19.28 %

0.4548 grm. dried salt gave 0.2304 grm. NaCl ; Na = 19.92 %

Calculated for Na2C5H(Cn3)N,03 = 20.35 %

Monosodlc methylurate, l^a.C^:l.XCYi^)l!ifi.^ . H2O.

This salt was made by adding, very carefully, a solution of Na.,SO^
to a boiling-hot solution of monobaric methylurate until there is no
further precipitate of baric sulphate. The solution was then filtered
from the BaSO^, evaporated to a very small quantity, and then pre-
cipitated with a large amount of alcoljol 100 to 150 cc. ; allowed to
stand twenty-fovtr hours, filtered, washed with alcohol, and dried in
imcuo. This salt does not seem to be quite as gelatinous as the rest,
and is much more soluble in dilute alcohol.

In the analysis of this salt the water was determined as above, and
the sodium by ignition of the anhydrous salt, and treated with a few
drops of sulphuric acid.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 39

0.1944 grm. of salt dried in vacuo gave 0.0150 grm. H^O = 7.81 %
Calculated forNaC,n,(CIl3)N,03. 11,0 = 8.10%

0.1790 grm. of dried salt gave 0.0G13 grm. Na^SO^; Na = 11.00 %
Calculated for NaCJI.CCigN.Og = 11.27 %

Dibaric methylurate, BsLC^W^CR^^fi^ , S^HgO.

This salt was made by dissolving one gr. of the acid in as little boil-
ing water as possible in a small flaj^k, and adding tweuty-Hve cc. of
cold saturated solution of baric hydrate. The solution was then boiled
for some time, corked up, and allowetl to stand. The salt separates
out in very minute needles, clustered together in places, and of a
slightly greenish tinge. The salt was collected on a filter, and washed
rapidly with a very small quantity of cold water, and then dried in
vacuo. The chief feature of this salt is, that it is the only one of the
salts obtained which shows the slightest tendency to assume a crystal-
line form. It is also the most insoluble of any of the salts.

The salt prepared in this way gave, in several analyses, too great a
percentage of barium. It was found impossible to free it from the
excess of baric hydrate by washing on account of the ready solubility
of the salt.

The water was determined as before, and the barium by ignition o'f
the anhydrous salt in a platinum crucible, and treatment with a little
sulphuric acid. The excess of acid was driven off, and then the crucible
heated for some time in a current of air to oxidize any sulphide which
might have been formed.

o

1.2318 grm. salt dried in vacuo gave 0.1979 grm. H^O = 16.06 %
Calculated for BaC,H(CH.)N,03 . 311120 = 16.57 %

0.4738 grm. dried salt gave 0.365G grm. BaSO^; Ba = 44.07 %

Calculated for BaC5H(CH3)N^03 = 43.22 %

3fonobaric methylurate, BaC5(H(CH3)N^03)2 • 4H2O.

For the preparation of this salt, about one gramme of the acid was
suspended in boiling water, and baric carbonate added until no more
would dissolve. The solution was then boiled for some time, and
filtered from the undissolved baric carbonate, and precipitated by
alcohol. On tiie addition of alcohol, it separates out as white powdei".
It is very soluble in hot water, and solidifies on coolins: into a white
jelly-like mass.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The analysis was made as in the case of the dibarium salt.

0.5073 <rrm. salt dried in vacuo gave 0.0G14 grm. H^O = 12.10 %
Calculated for Ba (C5H(CH8)N,03) . 4H,0 = 12.60 %

0.4472 grm. dried salt gave 0.2109 grm. BaSO, ; Ba = 27.73 %
Calculated for Ba(C5H(Cn3)N,Oj2 = 27.45 %

Monocaldc methylurate, Ca(C.H(CH.j)NP8)2 • 3HoO.

This salt was made from calcic carbonate in the same manner as the
monobarium salt, except that it was found necessary to boil the acid
with the carbonate for several hours, in order to ensure the complete
conversion of the acid.

This salt has nearly the same properties as tlie monobarium salt. It
is a grayish substance, very soluble in hot water, and gelatinizes on
cooling.

The analysis was conducted as in the case of the barium salts.

0.2123 grm. salt dried in vacuo gave 0.0244 grm. H^O = 11.49 %
Calculated for Ca(C5lI(CH3)N,03)2 . 411^0 " = 11.89 %

0.1864 grm. of dried salt gave 0.0600 grm. CaSO^ ; Ca = 9.43 %
Calculated for Ca(C5H(CH3)N,03)2 = 9.95 %

A dicalcium salt has been obtained by the action of methyluric acid
on calcic hydrate, but has not yet been analyzed.

The action of methyluric acid on plumbic carbonate was tried with
expectation of obtaining a lead salt, but the reaction does not seem to
work easily, for though carbonic acid is evolved, and sulphide of
hydrogen gives a slight precipitate with the filtrate, still the salt which
separates out on cooling does not seem to be homogeneous, and on
analysis gives but a very small percentage of lead. It probably con-
sists of tlie free acid with a small amount of lead salt.

We thus see that there are two distinct sets of salts, and it is evident
that methyluric acid is dibasic, — a fact of considerable theoretical in-
terest, inasmuch as uric acid only forms two sets of salts, and not
without some bearing on the constitution of uric acid.

Before closing. I wish to express my sincere thanks to Prof. IL B.
Ilill for his valuable advice, and for the kind interest which he has
taken in the progress of this work.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 41

IV.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF
THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.

XL ON THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE VISCOSITY

OF AIR.

By Silas W. Holman.

Read, June 14, 1876.

The developments of the "kinetic theory" of gases made within the
last ten years have enabled it to account satisfactorily for many of the
laws of gases. The mathematical deductions of Clausius, Maxwell
and others, based upon the hypothesis of a gas composed of molecules
acting upon each other at impact like perfectly elastic spheres, have
furnished expressions for the laws of its elasticity, viscosity, conduc-
tivity for heat, ditfusive power and other properties. For some of
these laws we have experimental data of value in testing the validity of
these deductions and assumptions. Next to the elasticity, perhaps the
phenomena of the viscosity of gases are best adapted to investigation.

According to the kinetic theory, the molecules of the gas are con-
stantly in rectilinear motion. In virtue of their mass and velocity,
these molecules have a certain momentum. Hence, if we have two
layers of air moving over each other, we shall have a mutual inter-
change of momentum from the transference of molecules from one
layer to another, the result being a tendency toward an equalization
of the velocities of the two layers. This produces the effect of friction
between the two layers, and its amount determines the viscosity of the
gas in any particular case. From analytical considerations Maxwell
has deduced * an expression which, as corrected by Clausius,t should

read,

_ Mu

where j/ is the coefficient of viscosity of any gas ; Mis the mass of a mole-
cule ; u the "velocity of mean square " of the molecules ; and s thedis-

* Pliil. Mag. xix., xx.; 1860. t Phil. Mag. xix., 434.

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

tance between the centres of two molecules at impact. The value of t] is
expressed in units of length, mass and time, since it is a tatigentifJ
force. This formula, if true, shows that the viscosity of any gas sliould
be independent of its density at a constant temperature, and should in-
crease proportionally to the value of u. But u'^ is proportional to the
absolute temperature, whence we see that the viscosity should increase
proportionally to the square root of the absolute temperature (which
we may reckon from — 273*0.). Maxwell has also pointed out * that
in this expression we should obtain the same result with regard to the
pressure, whatever ast^umption we adopt of the mutual action at impact
of the molecule ; but tiiat it is necessary to make some special assump-
tion upon the nature of this action to determine the variation with the
temperature.

Previous to this deduction by Maxwell, there had been but little
work done upon the viscosity of gases, and almost nothing as to its
variation with temperature. Subsequently, experiments have beeu
made by Meyer, Maxwell, Puluj, and v(m Oliermayer. The forms of
apparatus used have depended upon two fundamental methods : I*', the
retardation of pendtdums by the surrounding ga-es ; 2°, the transpira-
tion of gases through capillary tubes. In the present pai)er, I propose
to discuss somewhat the value of these experiments in determining the
variation of the viscosity with the temperature, and to describe some
recent experiments made with a modification of the second of the
above methods.

In a paper published in Poggendorff's Annalen, exxv., 177, 1865,
O. E. Meyer describes a series of experiments upon the internal friction
of air made by measuring the retardation of three circular glass plates
oscillating around a vertical axis in a closed receiver containing the gas,
whose temperature and pressure could be varied. From the results
of these measurements, Meyer concludes that the coefficient of viscosity
is independent of the pressure. It will, however, be evident, upon an
inspection of the published results, — especially by application of the
graphical method, — that no reliance can be placed ui)on them for de-
termining variation with the tempeiature. IVIeyer's second paper
(Pogg. Ann. cxxvii., 199, 353) is devoted to a discussion of Graham's
transpiration experiments,t from which we may derive quite a satis-
factory proof of the law of Poiseuille as a|)plied to gases. In the
Philosophical Transactions, London, 186G, Maxwell published a series

* Pliil. Mag. XXXV., 211.

t riiil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. 1846-49.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 43

of results obtained by a similar apparatus to that used by Meyer.
From these Maxwell concludes that the viscosity is independent of the
pressure upon the gas, aud that it increases as the first power of the
absolute temperature. If, however, the results published in that paper
be all upon which this law is based, we cannot regard it as very
securely established. A third pa{)er was published by Meyer, in Pogg.
Ann. cxliii., 14 ; in which the results of seven experiments with oscil-
lating plates after Maxwell's pattern, but with bitilar suspension, were
given. These, like the others, are iusutiicient to determine the etFect
of temperature. In three subsequent papers* by Meyer a large num-
ber of experiments are described. These were made by the method
of transpiration through capillary tubes, and preliminary experiments
were made to prove the validity of the law of Poiseuille. This law
may be expressed by the following equation : —

where V is the volume of gas transpired in the time t, measured at
the temperature of the capillary, and under the pressure p ; the pressure
at entering tlie tube being jo,, and at leaving it jo,. The length of the
capillary is 1, and its radius R ; ij being the coefficient of viscosity of
the gas. This law may, I think, be regarded as established for varia-
tions of pressure not exceeding two atmospheres, and for tubes in
which the length is very large as compared with the diameter.

]Meyer gives a series of twenty-five experiments, and selects eleven
as the most reliable. These all seem to indicate an increase of viscos-
ity with rising temperature greater than the \ power, but appear at
the same time quite discordant among themselves. Upon the ac-
companying figure, I have shown the extremes of these by a graphical
representation. The method used to discuss them is one described in the
Proceedings of the Academy for 1874, page 222. If we have a line
of the general form represented by the equation yz=.jnx^, we may
take logarithms of both sides and get the equation, log y=-n \ogx
-\- log m, which has the form of the ecjuation to a straight line. Hence,
if we have the coordinates of a series of points which we suppose may
be connected by a curve of the exponeutitU form, we may determine
this fact by plotting logarithms of these cooi'dinates, which should give
us points along a straight line whose tangent is the exponent in the
primary equation. Thus, if our equation to the variation of ri with the

* Pogg. Ann. cxlvui., 1, 203, 526.

44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

absolute temperature r be of the supposed form i] = ct', vvliere c is a
constant, we may take the value of log t] and log t fi-ora our experi-
ments, and expect upon plotting them to get a straight line making an
angle whose tangent is x. This method I have applied to the results
of Meyer, and the extreme points are shown at the points marked
D and £ in the accompanying cut.

Fig. 1.

3.^

4.40

.00

The single experiment at zero centigrade gives the point 0. All
the other experiments furnish points scattered between Z) and E. The
absolute values of the coefficient in these cases are : —

For the line CD, x :

T =

»? =

C 273°. (7

0.000168

D 203°.2

0.000198

E 287°.5

0.000178

- 2.3 ; for the line GE, a;— 1.12.

This gives us

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 45

an idea of the value of these results in determining the variation of the
viscosity with the temperature. We cannot say from them, wliether this
variation is proportional to the first or second power of the absolute
temperature. Even the results published in the tifth paper, which was
to determine this law, are insutHcient. In the first series of these re-
sults, shown upon the curve by the extreme lines NS and TS, we see
that the exponent representing the law of variation with the tempera-
ture varies from x= 0.2 1 for line NS to x=.[).i)9 for line TS, a
variation even greater than in the results previously discussed. All
the other observations give points intermediate between xVund T, The
second series furnishes little better data; and the tliird series, from
determinations witii oscillating plates, are not sufficiently complete for
discussion in tliis way. They, however, afford no greater satisfaction.

Puluj has used the method of transpiration for some measurements
of this law, and his results appear in the Sitz'ber. Wien. Acad, of
1874, Ixix., 287. The results which he has obtained appear rather
more concordant than those of Meyer, but still siiow considerable
disagreement. Upon the above cut, the lines OP and 0 Q show the
extremes of these results as obtained by a discussion of his experi-
ments. These lines do not represent the greatest variations between
successive results in the same series, but the extreme variation between
the mean results of various series. For OP, x= O.Go ; for OQ,
x = 0A7. It will thus be seen that these results are more concordant
than the different series of Meyer : they are not, however, completely
satisfactory.

Later than these we have a brief notice of some experiments by von
Obermayer, in the Phil. Mag., xlix., 332, 1875, in which he states
that he has ol)tained results " which confirm those of JNIeyer's experi-
ments in a perfectly satisfactory manner." He states Meyer's results
as furnishing the exponent | for the variation of q with the absolute
temperature ; whence we must conclude that this number expresses the
result at which he has arrived.

What value now are we to place upon these results, and which is
the true one ? Maxwell has given a: = 1 ; Meyer, x =z ^ ; Puluj,
a; = f ; von Obennnyer, x = |. The first two values, x =1 and
a:=:|, we can hardly accept as certain, from the consilerations pre-
viously shown. Tlie value given by Puluj of x=5 is undoubtedly
somewhat greater than is warranted by his results. Of the remaining
experiments we cannot judge, since they have not yet appeared in full,
so far as I have been able to ascertain.

The importance of this question in its bearing upon the kinetic

46

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

theory, as well as from its prominent plaee among the phenomena of
gases, renders it very desirable that we should know the true law.

In endeavoring to arrange some new form of apparatus for a more
accurate study of this law, the idea of a differential arrangement
was sugjrested to me by Professor Pickering. This has been the
origin of the following method. Two glass capillaries, AB and
CD, were placed side by side, each in a tin trough to contain a bath
to regulate the temperature of the gas. Air-tight glass and rubber
connectors extended from G to the gauge F, and to tlie end D of one
capillary. The ends ^ and Cof the capillaries were connected with
the gauge E by means of a T joint of glass. Tiie end A of the second
tube communicated with the external air throusfh the chloride of
calcium tubes -^aad I. The size of the connectors at the ends of AB

Fig:. 2.

and CD was sufficient to allow the gas to assume the temperature of
the bath. The tube at G was connected with a large flask, from which
the air was continuously exhausted by means of a Richards' jet aspira-
tor. The size of this flask rendered the pressure co:istant in spite of
slight variations in water pressure. An inspection of this arrangement
will show that when the flask is exhausted, and a vacuum produced at
G, the air will enter at A under the atmospheric pressure, and will
pass with constantly diminishing pressure to G ; so that, at any inter-
mediate point, as the junction of the two tubes at BC, we shall have a
pressure intermediate between the two extremes. It will also be seea
that the same volume of air is successively transpired through ^5 and
CD; providing that there be no leak, which was carefully guarded
against by making all the joints about C, B, and B — which were the
only ones that affected the results — as tight as possible. By the two
baths we may have the gas transpired successively through AB and

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 47

(7Z), either at the same or at different temperatures. Now, if we de-
note by Fj, i?j, ^p r]^, &c., the vohime of gas transpired by A£, the
radius and length of AB, and the coefficient of viscosity of the air pass-
ing througii it, while V^, &c., represent the same quantities for CD ;
also, if PpP2' 7'" Pi '"epresent the pressure of the gas at A, B, C, and B
respectively as obtained from the gauge and bai'ometer readings ; then
from (1) we may write,

and

But if both baths are at the same temperature F^ = F^ if <^ ^ #05 and
11^ = /^i,? whence we may write,

^V^i ~ Ih'-p-z''

(4.)

Also in general it will be seen from the nature of the apparatus that

V V.

1 — — — where 8^ and 8.^ represent respectively the tempera-

l-l-a5^ 1 -|- "So

tures at which \\ and F^ are transpired. Hence

(o.)

From equation (0) it will be seen that, in order to determine with
this apparatus the ratio j/j : //„ between the coefficients of viscosity
in the two tubes when the temperature of these is 8^ and 8.^ respectively,
we have onl}- to know the ratio of the dimensions as expressed by

jHrti and to measure jt?p p.^, and p^ by reading three mercury columns.

Also we can obtain a value of Trrr f™m readings of the gauges when

8^ = 8.,, which needs only to be corrected for expansion of the glass
to be used directly in equation (5). The whole process is thus re-
duced to the simple matter of reading columns of mercury, no meas-
ure-ments of volumes of gas being necessary. The nature of the
correction of Ji and I for temperature appears by putting into the
above formuhs in which these values are supposed to be for 0° C,
the coefficients of expansion of the glass =: A ; we thus get from (5) : —

Vj _ R,H\ -}- A6,)%{1 -\- A6.2) Pi'-P^^ 1 + «S2
V2 — /?2'( 1 + A6,]iX,( 1 + .4c5j • ;v -7-3- ' I + aS,

(6.)
_R,H\-\-AdJ^?., pf-pl 1 + oh

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Lest, however, an error might occur in the last reduction fi'om a
difference between the coefficient of expansion of the bore of a capillary
tube and of its lineal expansion, I have carefidly measured both, and
find that the coefficient for the bore is 0.0000075, while for the linear
expansion I find 0.0i)00080 per degree centigrade, a difference too
slight to affect the results in my use of it ; I have thought it best to
use the value 0.0000075 as it entered in the fourth power, while the
other entered only in the first power. The tubes used have also been
calibrated to insure the selection of those of uniform bore, and their
dimensions have been accurately measured by mercury and a micro-
meter screw. The dimensions of the two tubes used in ihe experi-
ments to be described, were, for tube No. I., }. = 1272.3 mm., R =
0.1098 mm. ; for tube No. II., ;i= 1274.1 mm., ie = 0.1115 mm.

To make an experiment with this apparatus, it is merely necessary
to start the jet of wafei" and allow the exhaustion to proceed until the
mercury columns in J^ and J^ have come completely to rest. Read-
ings are then taken of the heiglits of these columns by means of a
cathetometer from a steel scale placed beside the gauges. Tlie reading
of the barometer corrected for instrumental error gives the pressure
at A. All these are reduced to the freezing point, and A' and i^are
corrected for capillaiity by the tables of Delcros. <rhe temperature of
the baths is also taken by thermometers in various positions in the
troughs. This must be kept constant throughout the experiment, and
I have, therefore, principally used the temperatures of melting ice and
boiling water. In the experiments of which the following table gives
the results, advantage ha^s been taken of the four methods of checking
the results of one experiment by another, by reversing tiie direction of
flow of the air through the tubes and heating alternately? in each case,
first one and then the other trough. In the table, column first gives the
number of the experiment; column second, the direction of flow of the
air, which entered at the tube whose number is first given and passed out
from the other ; columns three, four and five give the pressures at
A, B and D respective'ly ; columns six and seven show the temperatures
in centigrade degrees of the baths around tubes I. and II. respectively ;

column eight shows the values of the ratio j^-^ at different tempera-

tures ; column nine, the values of — , i.e. of ri at the higher to ?/ at the

lower temperature ; column ten shows the values of the exponent x in
tlie equation )^= cr^. This is the quantity which it was the object of
the experiments to obtain.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

49

No.

Dir.

Z*!

Pi

Pi

3-1.

^11.

V2

X

m. m.

m. m.

VI. 711.

1

I.-II.

759.9

525 2

16 3

ii'o

17.°0

0.912

•1

»1

,,

5i9.3

17.1

17.0

47.5

1.083

0.799

4

}f

759.8

525 6

18 0

15.1

15.1

0.916

5

M

'1

584.4

18.9

1 »

J?

0.921

6

J»

765.7

550.9

18.6

17.8

178

0.934

7

II-I.

)f

490 7

17.7

17.5

99.0

1.212

0.776

8

>>

)»

491.2

17.6

17.5

99.5

1.206

0.755

9

»I

«»

490.0

17.3

17.5

99.8

1.215

0 780

11

755.2

467.8

20.4

0.0

100.0

1.272

0.771

12

»>

»>

46K.4

19.4

>)

>J

1 2()7

0.7,57

VA

)J

>1

467.9

19.6

))

>)

1.271

0.708

14

J»

I»

Vu 7

19.3

)*

)'

1.273

0.773

16

»t

&14.2

20 7

0.0

0.0

0.027

17

i.-i'i.

756.7

525.3

23.4

*»

VI

0.928

18

J)

T1

5W.8

21.5

0.0

100.0

1.277

0782

19

It

761.4

529 1

16.1

100.0

100.0

0.933

20

>>

762.0

530.2

16 7

f*

?»

0.937

21

M

763.1

452.2

18.5

100.0

0.0

1.259

0.738

Vi

R^%

In the calculation of the ratio - of this table, the value of ^ ^ used

was the mean of that obtained from experiments 16 and 17, after cor-
recting for temperature. The agreement of these two values within
0.1 per cent is a test of the accuracy of the method, as the two ex-
periments were made on different days, and the direction of the current
was reversed. It will be seen that the vahie of this quantity increases
slightly with the temperature, as we should expect from the slight
ditFerence in size of the two tubes used. The values of x will be seen
to agree quite closely, with the exception of experiments 2 and 21.
I have treated these results in the same manner as those of Meyer, and
the result is shown on Fiij. 1-

The point A is plotted from experiment 18. and i? from 21 ; so that
the lines AC and BC show the greatest variation in nine out of ten
determinations, while the majority of these lie so close together as not
to be capable of clear representation between A and B. The point C
has been raised from C for distinctness. Experiment 2 would indicate
a deviation from the straight line ; but I do not regard this as a per-
fectly reliable determination. More experiments are needed between
0° and 100° to establish the law.

In order to compare these results with those of Meyer, I have been
obliged to assume his value of jy = 0.000168 at 0.° C. as a start-
ing-point, since the apparatus which I have used does not give absolute
values of the coefficient of viscosity, but only ratios. It would ap-
pear, however, that the great concordance among the results thus far
obtained would warrant its application to absolute measurements, for

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 4

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

which it would only be necessary to measure the "volume of the gas
transpired in a known time. These, with experiments upon other gases,
and also upon the validity of Poiseuille's law, I hope to be able to ac-
complish. The many points of superiority of this apparatus, and the
excellence of these preliminary results, would seem to indicate more
accurate determinations than others preceding them.

As a result of these experiments, it would appear that the viscosity
of air increases proportionally to the 0.77 power, nearly, of the absolute
tempei-ature between 0° and 100° C. Tiiis value corresponds quite
closely to the | power, and we might infer tiiat this was tlie value of x
towards which the experiments pointed ; but as I feel assured that
further experiments will furnish still more concordant results, I should
be unwilling to accept 0.75 until tiiese had been performed. The gen-
eral agreement of my results with the numbers of iMeyer and von
Obermayer would seem to point to the fact that the value of x cannot
be as great as unity, and is probably about 0.75.

Plate 1,

J7y<if«o"

■"^

Siiciair * ist lis:.

yhil3.

Canbya Candida.

Plate II.

^M ciadai: 4 Sm.iiit. Jbli ,

Arctomecon Californicum.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 51

V.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BOTANY OF NORTH

AMERICA.

By Asa Gray.

Presented June 13, and October 11, 1876.

1. Characters of Canhya {n. gen.) and Arctomecon.

WITH TWO PLATES.

CANBYA, Parry, nov. gen. Papaveracearum.

Sepala 3, caduca. Petala 6, obovata, diu persistentia, deraum scari-
osa, capsulam obvolventia. Stamina 6-9 : filaraenta antheris oblongo-
linearibus breviora. Ovarium subglobosum : placentae 3, nerviformes,
multiovulatfB : stylus nullus : stigmata 3, oblongo-linearia, reflexo-
divaricata, ovario adpressa, placentis superposita, facie superiore
(interiore) prorsus papillosa. Capsula ovoidea, membranacea, a vertice
ad basim trivalvis, valvis placentas filiformes cum stigmatibus persistentes
nudantibus. Semina plurima, elongato-oblonga, parum arcuata; testa
laevissima nitida ; rhaphe baud prominula nuda. Embryo prope basim
albuminis minimus, cylindraceus. — Herbula annua, glabra, parum unci-
alis ; foliis alternis linearibus integerrimis subcarnosis cum ramis
brevissimis ciBspitoso-confertissimis ; scapis perplurimis filiformibus
(semipollicaribus) unifloris ; petalis l«te albis.

Canbya CANDIDA, Parry. South-eastern California, in sandy soil
on the Upper Mohave River, Dr. E. Palmer, May 18, 1876 (in flower
and fruit). — This charming little winter-annual is one of the discov-
eries made by the botanical party, consisting of Doctors Palmer and
Parry and Mr. Lemmon, which passed last winter in S. E. California
and adjacent districts. Dr. Parry, who immediately recognized its
botanical interest, proposed to dedicate the plant to our common friend
and worthy fellow botanist, William ]\I. Canby, Esq., of Wilmington,
Delaware ; and I have peculiar pleasure in carrying this proposition
into effect.

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The plant is of most diminutive size, but of much botanical interest
and no small beauty. From the Sagina-Wkc tuft of foliage at the
surface of the ground rises a multitude of tiny peduncles or scapes,
each tipped with a bright white flower which lasts for many days ; the
petals (barely two lines long) opening at sunrise, and at sunset
closing over the ovary, and at length permanently over the capsule,
into a globular form, which the discoverer likens to a pearl. The
most unexpected anomaly in this order of a persistent (instead of ca-
ducous) corolla is shared by Arctomecon, native of the same district,
as Dr. Parry himself ascertained upon rediscovering that exceedingly
rare plant in the spring of the preceding year. There are other
Papaveraceous plants which hold their petals for a day or two, notably
Sanguinaria in which they open and close for four or five days before
falling; but in these two peculiar genera they become scarious, re-
maining permanently in Arctoniecon, and up to the full maturity of the
capsule iu Canhya.

The two genera, although closely related, differ in some important
points of floral structure as well as in aspect. The most marked differ-
ence is in the stigmas, which in Canhya are perfectly sessile, long,
entire, and divergent to the utmost, so that their backs are closely
applied to the surface of the rounded top of the ovary, directly over
the placentae, and the upper or ventral face papillose-stigmatic ; while
Arctomecon has a short style, the indistinct lobes of which bear extrorse
and two-lobed stigmas, which are alternate with the placentae, and
are closely appressed or even partly united in a kind of head. The
capsule of the one is membranaceous and dehiscent to the base; of
the other, coriaceous and apparently dehiscent only to the middle.
The seeds and the stamens are likewise different. The wretched figure
of Arctomecon in Fremont's Report exhibits none of these characters,
and it led Bentham and Hooker to conjecture that plant might be
only a Papaver, allied to P. nudicaule. Dr. Parry's specimens were
received in time for a partial, reconsti-uction of the generic character
in the Botany of California ; but the position of the stigmas and the
presence of a j^rominent crest of the seed have not before been noticed.
A full character of that genus is therefore here given, along with that
of Canhya.

ARCTOMECON, Torr.

Sepala 2, raro 3 ? Petala 4, latissime obovata, persistentia, demum
tenuiter scariosa. Stamina indefinite plurima: filamenta sursum parum
dilatata, antheris brevi-linearibus lougiora. Ovarium obovoideum:

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 53

placentaj 3-6, nerviformes, pluriovulatae : stylus brevissimus, sublobatus,
lobis erectis pi. m. coadunatis stigmata placentis alterna cordato-biloba
capitato-couferta extrorsum gereiitibus. Capsula obovoidea, suban-
giilata, apice brevitcr 3-6-valvis; valvis coriaceis a placentis filiforra-
ibus stylo brevissimo persistente connexis solutis. Semina paiiciuscula,
majuscula, oblonga, recta; rhaplie cristata; testa tenuiter lineolata,
crista ad hilurn cariincnlato-dilatata sursum sensim angustiore. Em-
bryo cylindraceus, alhumine § brevior. — Ilerba nana, ut videtur
biennis; foliis alternis (summisve nunc oppositis) cuneatis vel spathu-
lato-lanceolatis apice 2-o-dentatis seu inciso lobatis barbato-setosis ;
pedunculis subumbellatis nunc scapiformibus uniiioi'is ; floribus majus-
culis albis.

Akctomecon Californiccm, Torr. in Frem. Rep. ed. 2, 312, t. 2;
Parry in Am. JSaturalist, ix. 139 & 268 ; Brewer «& Watson, Bot.
Calif, i. 21.

The accompanying plates illustrate the two genera: —

PLATE I. CANBYA CANDIDA. Plant of the natural size.
Fig. 1. Flower bud, enlarged.

2. Expanded flower, enlarged.

3. Stamen, more magnified, as are all the following details.

4. Base of ovary showing cross section, and upper part, with the stigmas.
6. Mature capsule witli the investing persistent petals.

6. Dehiscent capsule, with seeds.

7. Same, the seeds fallen.

8. Seed, more magnified.

9. Embryo, on the same scale.

PLATE II. AKCTOMECON CALIFORNICUM. Natural size : the detaus
variously magnified.
Fig. 1. A stamen.

2. Pistil transversely divided.

3. Dehiscent capsule.

4. Seed, lateral view.

5. Same, witli crest anterior.

6. Embryo, equally magnified with the seed.

7. Portion of surface of seed, more magnified, to show the lineolation.

8. Portion of bristle from a leaf.

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

2. Characters of New Species, &c.

IsorYRUM STiPiTATUM. Perenne ; radicibus fuscicnlatis ; caulibiis
spitham^is versus apicetn 1-2-foliatis 1-2-rioris; foliis radicalibus tri-
caulinis saepius bi-ternatisectis, petioliilis primariis secundariisque
elonofatis, sesmentis ultimis foliolisve sessilil)us nunc confluentibus
lineari-oblongis intefrris vel cuneatis trifidis ; pedunculo sub flore
parvo incrassato ; sepalis 4-5 oblongis ; petalis niillis ; staminibus
parum 10, filainentis subulato-complanatis : folliculis totidem oblongis
utrinque obtusissimis vix venosis 3-4-spermis longiuscule stipitatis.
— Northern C^dif()rnia, near Yreka, Siskiyou Co., April, 187G, under
Ceanothiis and Oak bushes, Rev. E. L. Greene. A most distinct species ;
with flowers much smaller tlian those of T. occidentale, of which it has
the habit, although larger than those of T. fumarioides. Stipe of the
fruit nearly a Line long.

Nastuktium traciiycarpum. E radice annua ? erectum, ramosum
(pedale), fere glabrum ; foliis lyrato-subpinnaiitidis ; racemis laxis ;
floribus albidis ; petalis spathnlatis sepala antherasque oblongo-sagitta-
tas parum supeiantibus ; siliquis oblongo-linearibus (lin. 4-5 longis)
papilloso-asperatis in pedicello rigido mox recnrvato curvato-adscenden-
tibus stylo longo subulato superatis. — S. W. Colorado, on the San
Juan, &c., T. S. Brandegee, in Hay den's Expedition, 1875. The
rhachis of the raceme and the stout peilicels are more or less studded
with the small rough papill;^ which abound on the pod and suggest the
name for the specirs, which is a very distinct one.

Lepidium dictyotdm, Gray, var. ? acutidens, siliculis magis ovatis,
dentibus loniiioribus deltoideo- immo subulato-trian<fulatis omnino acu-
tis. — California at Yreka, E. L. Greene.

Claytonia bulbifkka. C. SibiriccB, L. (alsinodei, Sims) similis,
sedbulbillis radicalibus bulboso-confertis pereunans; ra'-emis elongandis
fulioso-bracteatis ; bracteis spathnlatis sen lineari-oblongis ; sepalis
latioribus, fructiferis dilatatis. — Scott Mountains, Siskiyou Co., Cali-
fornia, P>. L. Greene. Also received from some other Californian col-
lectors, but without the bulbiferous base. To the acute observation of
Mr. Greene we are also indebted for an indication of the characters
which appear to demand the re-establishment of C. parvijlora, Hook,
and perhaps one or two other specicvS.

Astragalus coi>linus. Dough, var. C\lifornicus, leguminibus
cum stipite sesquipoUicaribus purpureo-marmoratis. — Yreka, Califor-
nia, E. L. Greene.

Astragalus FLAVus, Nutt, var. candicans. Canescens ; pedun-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 55

culis subscapiformibus. — Near Richfield, Utah, at 5,900 feet, in loose
a§hy soil, Lester F. Ward, in Powell's Expedition. Apparently a
form of Nattall's species, but more condensed as well as hoary, and
witli somewhat the aspect of Oxytropis. The specimens supply mature
fruit, which is wanting in Nuttall's specimens. The legume is one-celled,
with little or uo introflexion or thickening of the dorsal suture ; while
externally the ventral suture has a very salient ridge and a shallow and
broad groove each side of it, somewhat in the manner of A. bisulcafus.

Astragalus Ward[. laflnti : perennis? viridis, undiqne fere gla-
ber ; caulibus erectis nltrapedalibiis foliosis : stipulis triangularibus vel
subnlatis parviilis : foliolis multijngis angusto-oblongis obtusis retusisve
(lin. 3-4 longis) ; pedunculis filiformibus folio brevioribus laxe racemoso-
10-15-floris; floribus moxpendulis; calycis dentibus subulato-setaceis
tubo breviter campanulato aeqiiilongis ; corolla alba nunc purpurascente
lin. 2-3 longa; legumine vesiculoso ovato acuto recto sub«quilatero
baud stipitato glaberrimo purpureo-marniorato |-pollicari. — Sevier
Co., Utah, on the edge of Aquarin's Plateau, at 8,700 feet, Lester
F. Ward, in Powell's Expedition.

Astragalus Newberkyt. Scyfocarpi : subcaulescens ; caudicibus
in radice elongato profundo brevissimis confertis ; foliis argenteo-seri-
ceis ; foliolis 3-7 nunc lato- nunc angusto-obovatis approximatis (lin.
4—6 longis) ; pedunculis brevibus vel brevissimis pauciHoris ; calyce
cylindraceo sericeo, dentibus tubo plus dimidio brevioribus ; corolla
ochroleuca |-pollicari, unguibus elongatis ; legumine chartaceo ovato
infiato villoso pollicari uiiiloculari, acumine lato lateraliter compresso
subincurvo, suturis baud incrassatis nee intiis nee extus prominulis. —
A. Chamceleuce, Gray in Bot. Iv'es Colorad. Exp. 10, quoad pi. New-
berry.— On the frontiers of Utah and Arizona, Prof. Newberry.
Cafion east nf Glen wood, Sevier Co., Utah, at 7,000 feet, Lester F.
Ward, in Powell's Expedition, 1875. Having now the fruit, it is clear
that Newberry's plant, in flower only, is not the same as Phaca pyg-
mcea, Nutt., which should retain the name of A. Chamceleuce, while this
may take that of the original discoverer.

Astragalus Patthrsoxf. Snjfocarpi : robustus, 1-2-pedalis, ad-
presso-piiberulus, nunc glabellus ; foliolis 6-10-jugis oblongis crassius-
cnlis (semipoll. ad pollicem longis) : pedimculis racemoso-plurifloris
folium fcquantibus vel superantibus ; floribus mox pendulis ultra-semi-
pollicaribiis ; calycis dentibus setaceo-subulatis tubo cylindraceo dimidio
brevioribus ; corolla alba ; carina apice nunc purpurascente ; legumine
ovali crasso-coriaceo inflate glabro (saepius pollicari) polyspermo, basi
intra calycem abrupte contracta substipitiformi, suturis nee intrusis nee

56 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

extus prominulis. — Foot-hills of Gore Mountains, Colorado, H. N.
Patterson. Rio McElmo, Southwestern Colorado, T. S. Brandegee, in
Haydeii's Expedition, 1875. Utah on Dirty-Devil River, and near
Richfield, L. F. Ward, in Powell's Expedition, 1875. The two last in
fruit only ; while the fruit of Mr. Patterson's plant (who alone has
found the flowers) is decidedly smaller, sometimes little over half an
inch lonw.

Astragalus subcompressus. A. racemoso sect. Galegiformhim
admodum siniilis ; dentibus calycis brevioribus ; corolla ochroleuca ;
legumine falcato lateraliter compresso intus septo completo bilocellato,
sulco dorsali angusto subclauso, stipite e calycis tubo baud exserto. —
S. W. Colorado, common at the altitude of 7,000 feet, T. S. Brandegee,
in Haydeu's Exped. 1875. Legumes an inch and a quarter or only
an inch long, 2\ to nearly 3 lines wide, the well-developed ones
decidedly falcate ; the partition about twice the length of the depth of
the groove, which in the cross-section of the well-grown pod before
dehiscence is oval and almost closed.

Astragalus ITaydknianus. A. bisulcato affinis, minor; pube
magis cinerea ; spica elongata virgata ; floribus multo minoribus (lin.
3-4 longis) ; calycis dentibus subulatis tubo multo brevioribus ; corolla
alba, carina apice purpureo tincta ; legumine ovali utrinque obtusissimo
venis transversis ruguloso 6-7-ovulato 2-4-spermo, facie ventrali late
profundeque impressa sutura ccstteformi valde piominente percursa,
stipite calycem hand superante. — Common in S. W. Colorado, at the
altitude of 7,000 feet, T. S. Brandegee, in Hayden's Expedition, 1875.
Also banks of Grand River in Middle Park, II. N. Patterson. " Plant
2 or 3 feet high." Dedicated to Dr. F. V. Hayden, the Director of
the expedition in wliich it was collected, and the distinguished ex-
plorer and surveyor of our whole Rocky Mountain district.

Astragalus tricarinatus. A. arrccto subsimilis, 1-2-pedalis ;
foliolis plnrimis parvis (lin. 3-4 longis) ovalibus obovatisve emarjiinatis
crassiusculis supra glabellis subtus cauo-puberulis secus rhachin elon-
gatam sat rigidam sparsis vel remotiusculis ; racemis sparsifloris longe
pedunculati:^ ; bracteis ovato-subulatis minimis ; floribus subpatentibus ;
calycis nigro-hirsutuli tubo brevi-campanulato pe^licello aequilongo
dentibus subulatis parura longiore ; corolla ochroleuca sen flavida (semi-
pollicem longa) ; ovario glaberrimo ; legumine lato-lineari, matnro
arcuato ultrapollicari coriaceo bilocellato quasi tiicarinato, nempe dorso
inter carinas obtusas late sulcato, ventre acutissime carinato, faciebus
concavis, sectione transversa late Y-formi, stipite calycis tubo breviore.
— White Water, San Bernardino Co., California, Parry, 1876.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 57

Astragalus humtllimus. Caespitoso-depressus, condensatus ;
caudice lignescente ; caulibus vix polli<;anbus stipulis scariosis coalitis
imbricato-tectis petiolis persistentibus hystricosis ; foliolis 3-5-jugis
oblongis canescentibus mai'jjine revolutis liiieain lon^is demiini de-
cidiiis ; pedum-ulis brevibus 1-3-flons ; calycis deiitibus subulads tubo
oblongo-campanulato dimidio brevioribus; corolla pallida: k^guraine
ovato coriaceo albido-pubescente parvo (liii. 2 loiigo) uniloculari
9-ovulato fere moiiosperuio, siituris extus promiuulis. — Flat rocky
grounds on the jMesa Verde, S. W. Colorado, T. S. Brandcgee, in
Hayden's Expedition, 1875. Habit of A.jejimns, AVatson, but much
more dwarf and condensed, not rising moie than 2 or 3 inches
above the ground, and often choked in drifting sand. Persistent
petioles and rhachis only an inch long, more rigid and spinescent
than those of A. Jejunus, which are also persistent : the jjod decidedly
different.

Lespedeza leptostachya, Engelm. in herb. Gray. Pube undique
adpressa argenteo-canescens ; petiolo j)etiolulo terminali longiore ;
foliolis linearibus ; spicis paniculatis gracilibus sublaxifloris longiuscule
pedunculatis ; legumine calycem adsequante vel subsuperante. — Min-
nesota, T.J. Hale. Illinois, Bebb. Iowa, T. C. Arthur, Bessey. Has
passed for L. angusti folia, from which its slender s()ikes and paniculate
habit at once distinguish it. Our species of the group are dilficult and
need revision, witii very ample materials to be studied with the atten-
tion which Maxiraowicz has bestowed upon the Asiatic species. L.
capitafa, Michx., should be known by its very short petioles, short-
peduncled and globular heads of flowers, and legume much shorter
than the calyx ; L. angusfifolia. Ell., by smaller and often oblong
heads, on distinct ami sometimes slender peduncles, and legumes hardly
shorter than the calyx, the leaflets linear ; L. kirta, by pubescence
of stem perhaps always spreading, leaflets from orbicular to narrow
oblong, petioles mostly slender, oblong spikes on elongated peduncles,
and legume at maturity hardly shorter than the cnlyx.

Epilobium jucundum. E. paniculato affine ; floribus multo majori-
bus thyrsoideo-paniculatis ; calycis tubo ultra ovarium longe producto
tubuloso-infundibuliformi ; petalis Isete purpureis late obcordatis semi-
pollicaribus ; antheris fere linearibus ; stylo prrelongo. — Scott Valley,
Siskij'ou Co., California, E. L. Greene, Aug. 28, 1876. A showy
species, well worthy of cultivation, having llowers almost as large as
those of E. obcordaium, and very numerous in a rather crowded pani-
cle. The calyx beyond the ovary is half an inch long, more narrowly
funuel-form thau in E. paniculatum, the tubular part about equalling

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the ovary ; the petals are much broader as well as larger, and the
anthers (of short-linear outline) fully twice longer.

Galium Brandegei. Caespitoso-depressum, parvum, glabrum,
laevissimum ; radieibus fibrosis ; foliis quaternis obovatis vel spathulatis
fere aveniis lin. 1-3 longis; peduncuHs uniHoris solitariis biiiisve nudis ;
flore albido semi-lineam loiigo ; fructu l,T3vi glabro. — Valley of the
Rio Grande, New Mexico, on Los Finos Trail, at 9,000 feet, Sept,,-
1875, T. S. Brandegee, in Hayden's Expedition. Spreading extensively
over the barely moist ground, evidently perennial ; the stems only 2
or 3 inches long. We have no other North American s^Decies much
resembling this.

BiiicivELLiA Greenei. Subsesquipedalis, pube viscidissima ; cauli-
bus usque ad capitula solitaria ramus terminantia foliosis ; foliis cauli-
nis ovatis obtusis medium versus inajqualiter serratis basi subtruncatis
brevissirne petiolatis, ramealibus oblongis subintegerrimis, sumrais
capitulum involucrantibus eoque brevioribus ; involucro proprio multi-
floro, squamis liuearibus acumiaatis glabellis, extiniis brevioribus tan-
tum lauceolatis ; acheniis ad angulos hirtellis. — Siskiyou Co., California,
on the south fork of Scott River, E. L. Greene, Aug. '24, 1876. Cau-
line leaves an inch long, thinnish ; those of the short and somewhat
corymbose flowering branches barely half an inch long. Head three
quarters of an inch long.

BiGELOViA Vaseyi. Chrysothamnus : depressa, glabra, Ifevis ; cau-
libus e basi decumbente erectis spithamaeis ; foliis atigustis spathulato-
linearibus obtusis: capitulis corymboso-confertis plerumque sessilibus ;
involucro aiigusto oblongo subclavato 5-floro, squamis minus carinatis
oblongis obtusissimis chartaceis, exterioribus apice crassiore viridulo ;
appendicibus styli obtusiusculis parte stiginatica lineari dimidio
brevioribus ; ovario glaberrimo. — Colorado, in Middle Park, Dr. Geo.
Yasey. in Powell's Exped., 1868. Utah, on Aquarin's Plateau, at 9,000
feet, L. F. Ward, in Powell's Exped., 1875. Leaves an inch or less
in length, a line or less wide. Heads in Vasey's specimens 4 lines
long, in Ward's better developed ones are 5 or almost 6 lines long; the
scales of the involucre less carinate and less prominently straight
ranked than in the related species ; the greenish tij)s also suggesting
the Aplodiscus section.

SoLiDAGO SPARSIFLORA. Virgaurea, Virgatce : scabrido-puberula ;
foliis inferioribus ignotis, su; erioribus floralibusque parvulis lanceolatis
(lin. 6-12 longis); racemulis oligocephalis laxis laxcque thyrsoideis ;
involucri squamis linearibus ])uberulis apice viridulis acutiusculis ; flori-
bus radii circiter 10 ligulis parvulis, disci 4-5 ; acheniis sericeo-pubes-

OF AllTS AND SCIENCES. 59

centibus. — Arizona, near Camp Lowell, Sept., 1874. Rothrock, in
Wlieekr Expedition, 1874.

Gymnolomia (Heliomeris) Porteri. Annua, ramosa ; foliislan-
ceolatis linearibusque plerisque alternis integerrimis margine inferue
parce hisjjidis ; capitulLs cymoso-pauiculatis, pedunculo gracili ; involu-
cro laxo e squamis angiiste liiiearibus siibfoliaceis fere uniseriatis
ligulas subjequantibus ; receptaculo alte conico; corolla disci fauce
lati^sime campanulata lobis aequilonga, tubo abrupto brevi basi incras-
sato ; St) lo basi bulboso, ramis liispidulis appeiidice tenuiter subulata
hispida terminatis ; acbeniis turgidis hispidulis calvis, marginibus ad
apicem latum truncatum in umlionem parvum productis, areola parva
vix anuulata. — Hudbeckin? Porteri, Gray, PI. Fendl. 83. Stone
Mountain, Upper Georgia, Porter, Hendee, Ravenel, and later Engel-
mann and Canby, August and September.

Palafoxia Feayi. Scabra ; foliis oblongis lanceolatisque basi vel
utrinque obtusis (poJlicaribiis) ; capitulis subcymosis ; involucro e
squamis linearibus obtusis floribus 2-3-pIo brevioribus pedunculisque
eglandulosis ; corollje fauce cylindracea lobisque breviusculis P. lineari-
fijlicB ; pappi paleis oblongis obtusis basi incrassatis achetiio multoties
corollae tubo dimidio brevioribus. — S. Florida, Dr. William T. Feay,
Dr. Chapman.

HuLSEA Parryi. Hurailis ; foliis plerisque radicalibus confertis
spathulatis infequaliter argute dentatis priuiura albo-lanuginosis ; cauli-
bus floriferis plurimis scapiformibus (spithanijeis) gracilibus glabellis
simplicibus monoce[)halis vel basi tlivisis bracteis paucis linearibus
subulatisve instructis ; capitulo pro genere parvo (semipollicem alto) ;
involucro viscoso-pubescente, squamis lato-linearibus flores disci ligu-
lasque paucas incons[)icuas subfequantibus ; pappi paleis oblongis parum
erosis subfequalibus. — S. E. California, in tiie Mohave district. Dr.
Parry, 1876. The flowers appear to be yellow, with tips disposed to
turn to purple.

Gaillardia spathulata. C. acaw/i spec, insigni peraffinis ; cau-
libus spithamjBis e caudice perenni multicipiti plurimis plerumque
ramosis foliatis ; foliis spalhulatis integerrimis basi sensim attenuata
sessilibus ; pedunculo breviusculo , paj^pi paleis 9-11 oldongis longius
aristatis, arista corollam disci mox superante. — S. Utah, in Rabbit
Valley, at 7,000 feet, L. F. Ward, in Powell's p]xped., 1875. Leaves,
as in G. acaidis, thickish and firm; the larger a full inch long; the
uppermost reduced to half or a third of an inch. Heads rather smaller
than in G. acauiis. on a slender terminal peduncle of an inch or two ia
length. Disk-corollas 3 lines long.

60 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Tetrabyimia comosa. Lagothamnus : lana gnaphaloiclea flealbata,
3— 4-peclalis ; ramis ramulisque erectis ; foliis sparsis linearibus plaiiis
(s£Epe ultra-pollicaribiu-i) cuspidato-mucronatis aiitdeciduis autnoiiiiuUis
in spinam modice induratam persistentem mutatis ; fat-cic'ulis axillaiibus
nullis ; capitulis ad apicem ramosum corymboso-cymiilosis ; caeterum
fere T. spinosce. — W. Nevada, Lemmoii. 8. E. borders of California,
E. Palmer. Potrero, San Diego Co., D. Cleveland.

Nemacladds longiplouus. Foliis radicalibus magis cano-birtis;
corolla tubulosa sepalis aequalibus a basi fere discretis sublinearibus 3-4-
plo longioribus, tubo fere integro ; filamentis longius monadelphis ;
ovario fusiformi ; capsula oblonga septo contrario subcompressa calyce
libero plus diiplo longiure ; seminibus turgide ovalibus. — S. E. Cali-
fornia, Wallace, Lemnion. A specimen of this, collected by Mr. Wal-
lace (probably between Los Angeles and San Bernardino), has long
been in our herbarium, but the charaoters have been noticed only nov?
upon the coming of fine specimens collected recently by Mr. Lemmon.
The flowers and fruit differ strikingly from those of iV^ ramosissimus,
and call for emendation of tlie generic character. In the new species
the calyx is actually free from the ovary and capsule, and 5-parted to
the base, and the long and narrow capsule is 2-valved from top to bot-
tom. It is very interesting to have a second species of this remarkable
genus; but it throws no additional light upon its affinities.

Lobelia Ludoviciana. Inter L. paludusam et L. appendlculafam
quasi media, glabra, caule 2-3-pe(lali gracili folioso ; foliis crassiusculis
basi angustatis, superioribus lanceolatis acutis, inferioribus petiolatis,
imis spathulatis obtusis ; racemo nudo laxe 5-2()-floro ; floribus secun-
dis horizontalibus puberulis ; corolla casruleu semipollicari ; calycis
tubo fere hemispboerico, lobis ovato- seu .(auriculis brevibus integris
reflexis) cordato-lanceolatis tubo corolla; dimidio brevioribus capsula
parum longioribus margine saepius integerriniis ; autheris majoribus
superne hirsutis, apice imberbi. — In wet prairies, Western Louisiana,
J. Hale ; Texas, near Houston. Liiidheimer.

Lobelia. Feayana. L. Cliffortiance et L. Berlandleri affinis,
glabra, annna; caulibus spitbamajis ramosis ditfusis tenellis ; foliis
(^-|-pollicaribus) obovatis vel rotundatis petiolatis repando-denticu-
latis, summisve spathulatis seu lanceolatis sessilibus ; racerais nudis
pedunculatis laxe 4-10-floris ; pedicellis (lin. 2—4 lougis) flori a;quiIongis
bractea subulata 2— 3-plo longioribus ; calycis tubo capsulaque (§ iiifera)
lato-obconicis, sinubus nudis, lobis subulatis tubo corollre laste ca^ruleae
(parum lin. 2 longne) dimidio brevioribus apicem liberum capsuhv vix
Buperautibus ; antheris glabris, brevioribus apice barbulatis ; seminibus

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 61

oblongis, te*ta cellulosa. — Eastern and Southern Florida, Dr. Feay,
Dr. K. Palmer, Mrs. Treat, &c.

Akctostaphylos Clevelandi. a. bicoloris quoad folia et tomen-
tum sat similis, bipedalis ; ramis longe crebreque foliosis ; foliis sub-
sessilibus oblongis sublauceolatis cuspidato-acuminatis supra mox
g^abratis iiitidulis subtus albido-tomentulosis ; racemis folioso-bractea-
tis ; pedicellis bractea brevioribus flore diiplo longioribus supra niediuui
folioso-bibracteolatis ; sepalis ovatis imbricatis tonientosis ; corolla
brevi-oblonga sub-urceolata (lin. 4 loiiga) albida multinervulosa; fila-
mentis subulatis villosis ; stigmate capitato ; disco hypogyno ovarii
glabri dimidiiim aBquante : drupa ignota. — Potrero, San Diego Co.,
California, D. Cleveland, 1876. In flower Sept. 20.

Rhododendron Chapmanii. R. punctato perquam similis ; ramis
rigidioribus erectis; foliis crassioribus minus petiolatis ; floribus prieco-
cioribus ; corolla? infundibuliformis lobis ovatis tubo staminibus styloque
brevioribus ; seminibus anguste oblongis. — R, pimctatum var. Cbapra.
Fl. 266. — Sandy pine barrens of W. Florida, Dr. Chapman.

CLETHRA, PYROLA, etc. The early view that the anthers of
Pyrolece. are in normal position in tiie bud (in other words, that they
are extrorse and the foramina basal), to which I reverted in the later
editions of the Manual of Bot. N. U. States, upon some observations by
the late Prof. H. J. Clark, must be adhered to. Baillon, indeed (in
Adansonia, i. 194), states the contrary with much particularity, appar-
ently from direct ol)6ervation : " Cliaque loge se termine en un tube k
pore de dehiscence apical. L'antliere est introrse quand le pore est
en haut.; elle est, par consequent, extrorse quand le pore regarde en
bas. Le filet est dans son jeune Tige rectiligne et dresse. Plus tard il
s'alonge beaucoup et s'inflecliit en se moulant sur la convexite de
I'anthere. Lors de I'epanouissement complet, il se redresse une seconde
fois en totalite." I can affirm, on the contrary, that the anthers are
developed from the first in this extrorse position, and undergo no in-
version in the bud ; indeed, the anther is well formed and the basal
horns i)lainly recognizable before the filament has an appreciable length,
at least such as would allow the former to execute the supposed
" mouvement de bascule."

Clethra agrees with the Pyrolece in having primarily extrorse
anthers, as well as in the simple pollen and completely polypetalous
corolla. These characters are fully equal in value to those upon which
De Candolle and others break up the original Ericaceoi into separate
orders, and, if apprehended by Bentham and Hooker, might have led
them to give ordinal rank to the /*?/rofe«, appending Clethra, which they

62 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

almost exclude from Ericacece. Much preferring to retain the order
as a jireat whole, I would combine Clethra and the tribe Fyrulece into
the third suborder, Pyrolinece.

Galax aphylla, Linn. The name first appears in the first edition
of the Species Flantarum, p. 200, in 1753. Neither generic nor spe-
cific name has any fitness ; the herb is not milky, nor is it leafiess,
except as to tiie scape. The plant in view, the Anonymos s. Belvedere,
of Clayton, is recognizable by the good generic character in the first
edition of the Flora Virginica, and from Clayton's herbarium. The
generic character of Galax first appears a year later, in the 5th
edition of the Genera Plantarum, and it is, as has been noted, utterly
incongruous with Clayton's plant, to whicli Linnasus meant to apply it.
This generic character Linnasus copied from Mitchell's Nova Planta-
rum Genera, viz., from his VUicella, merely substituting the name of
Galax. Consequently not a word of the Linn;«an generic character
is applicable to Galax aphylla^ Linnanis's only species ; wherefore it is
not surprising that Andrews, Richaid, and Ventenat should have re-
spectively described that plant under other generic names. Although
the contradiction was long ago pointed out, still most authors, down
to Endlicher, De Candolle, and later, have followed LinuiBus in citing
Viticella as a synonym of Galax. Gronovius, in the second edition
of the Flora Virginica, was evidently struck by this total discrepancy ;
and he covered it in a curious way, by omitting altogether the correct
character of Clayton's plant, as printed in the original edition. It was
reserved for INIr. Bentham to divine what Mitchell's Viticella really is,
viz., HydropJtyllum appe^vliculatum, to which the name of Galax etymo-
logically is equally inap|)lical)le. See lk'ntli.& Ilook. Gen. ii. 827.

STEIRONEMA, Raf. in Ann. Gen Phys. Brux. vii. 192 (1820).
Genus between Trientalis and Lysiinacliia, distinguished from both by
the presence of staminodia (the rudiments of the other series of
stamens) between the fertile filaments, and by the {estivation of the
corolla, in whicli each division is separately involute around, or even
convolutely enwraps the stamen before it. The latter character, which
I have I'ecently ascert dned, is not alluded to by Baudo in his index of
the caulescent Anagallidece (Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 2, xx.), nor by Bentham
and Hooker in the second volume of the Genera Plantarum, in which
tlie aestivation of the corolla is first systematically einployed in the
arrangement of this order.* Following Bigelow (§ Seleucia) I had

* The tribe Li/simackiem is characterized as having convolute (or " contorted ")
aestivation of the corolla; the Primulece, by quincuncially imbricated. This

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 63

long ago marked out Steironema as a subgenus ; but this new particu-
lar warrants the complete se{)aration.

The species are not easy to define, as they incline to run into each
other. But they are on the whole tolerably well distinguished in the
later editions of the Manual of the Botany of the N. United States.
iliey ace : —

S. ciLiATUM. (S. ciliata, Raf. 1. c.)

S. RADiCANS. Lysimachia radicans, Hook. Companion to Bot.
Mag. i. 177.

S. LANCEOLATUM. {S. heleropliylla, Raf. & S. Jlorida, Baudo,
mainly.) Lysimachia Ifinceolata, Walt. Var. hybrid um, tlie L. hy-
brida, Michx. Var. angustifolium, the L. angustifuUa, Lam., and
L. heterupliylla, Michx.

S. LONGIFOLIOM. (^S. longifuUa'^ & S. revoluta, Raf.) The oldest
specific name is Lysimachia quadrijlora, Sims, Bot. Mag. t. G60, but
that name is an inappropriate and deceptive one. L. longifoUa^ Pursh,
is only a little later, and is unobjectionable.

FuAXiNUS Gkeggii. Onuis: fruticosa, glabra ; ramis gracilibus
teretibus ; foliolis 3-7 angusto-spathulatis seu oblongo-obovatis obtusis
obtuse paucidentatis vel integerrimis planis coriapeis fere aveniis sessili-
bus parvis, petiolo inter foliola alato-marginato ; samara oblongo-lineari
apice retusa stylo brevissimo apiculata. — F. Schiedeana vav. parviJoHa,
Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 16G. — S. W. Texas, and adjacent parts of
Mexico, Gregg, Schott, Bigelow, Parry.

FoRESTiERA Neo-Mexicana. F. acuminatcB proxima; foliis rai-
noribus (pollicaribus) spathulato-oblongis apice obtusis vel obtuse
subacuminatis brevi-petiolatis ; floribus foemineis fasciculatis (baud
paniculatis) ; calyce minuto subpersistente ; drupis brevi-oblongis vel
ovoideis obtusis. — F. acuminala var. parvifolia, Gray, Proc. Am.
Acad. iv. 364:. — New Mexico, Fendler, C. Wright, Palmer, Brandegee.

holds well, the anomalous case of Steironema excepted, yet with somewhat of
the gradations which are almost everywiiere apt to occur between these two
modes. On tiie one iiand some PrimuJie (notably P. Boveana) will occasionally
have three of the lobes in the "contorted" fashion, and only two wholly cov-
ered ; on the other, species of Li/simachlu, such as L. clethroides, not rarely
present flowers with one lobe wholly exterior and one wholly interior. By
suppressing the tribe Li/siinachiece, C/jclauien and Dodecalheon are brought into
juxtaposition, and the four tribes are made to rest on stable cliaracters, — Hot-
toniece on the anatropous ovules, Corklece on tlie irregular flowers, and SamoletB
on the adnation of the base of calyx and ovary.

The authors of the Genera Plantarum have overlooked the heterogone
dimorphism of the flowers of Hottonia.

64 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Amsonia brevifolia. Glabra ; foliis ovatis vel superiorlbus lan-
ceolatis crassiusculis basi aiigustata subsessilibus ; corolla lobis ovatis
oblongisve tubo subclavato dhnidio brevioribus, fauce sub ore tantum
barbato : stigmate subtrochleari apice bilobato ; foUiculis moniliformi-
torosis in articulis turgidis facile secedentibus. — S. Utab and "W.
Arizona, to tlie border of California, Mrs. Tbouipson, Dr. Parry, Dr.
Palmer. Tbere are four western species, forming a section, charac-
terized by having a bilobed tip to the stigma, and the more or less clavate
tube to tlie corolla always longer than the lobes ; the calyx deeply
parted into attenuate-subulate divisions (2 or 3 lines long) ; the stems
lower, more branched, and bearing smaller or simpler flower-clusters
than the eastern species. Of these the present and the nearly i-elated
A. tomentosa, Torr., have very torose follicles, disposed when dry to
break up into joints. A. longijlora, Torr., and the following appear
always to produce slender and continuous follicles, and have a tube to
the corolla four or five times the length of the lobes.

Amsoxia Palmeri. Glabra ; foliis angusto-lanceolatis lineari-
busque sessilibus ; corollce alboe lobis ovatis (lin. 1^-2 longis) tubo
clavato intus longe barbato 3-4-plo brevioribus ; stigmate didymo hir-
tello ; fulliculis gracilibus continuis. — Arizona, Dr. Palmer. Described
from specimens raised from seed collected by Dr. Palmer. Inter-
mediate in appearance between A. tomentosa, which is sometimes gla-
brous, and A. longijlura. The stigma consists of two tliick lobes,
which are distinct almost down to tlie reflexed ring or collar. The
eastern species, reducible to two, have a depressed-cajjitate stigma,
truncate and entire at the apex.

PiiiLiBEETiA ToRREYi. Velutino-pubesccns ; foliis cordato-lan-
ceolatis vel sagittatis acuminatis ; pedunculis folia a^quantibus 10—15-
floris ; corolliB ut videtur albai (lin. 8-9 diametro) lobis late ovatis
obtusis extus puberulis villosissimo-ciliatis pedicello parum brevioribus ;
columna filamentorum vix ulla. — Sarcosleinma eleffcins? Torr. Bot.
Mex. Bound. 1G2, non Decaisne. — S. W. Texas, Parry, ]>igelow.
P. elegans is less pubescent, has smoother corolla variegated with pur-
ple witliin, narrower lobes, and a manifest column. P. cynanchoides
(Sarcosteinma cynanchoides, Decaisne in DC.) is a variable species,
with smaller and more numerous flowers, on longer filiform pedicels,
the smoothish corolla barely ciliate. P. linearis is a variable low
species, of which Sarcostemma heterophyllum, Engelm., appears to be
a form approaching the narrowest-leaved P. cynanclioides ; and var.
hirtella (^Sarcostemma, Bot; Calif), a narrow-leaved and pubescent
form, the leaves rarely auriculate or cordate at base. P. viminalis

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. ' 65

(Asclept'os vuninolis, Swartz) appears to be the most proper name for
the Sarcostemma Brownii (not Bi-oivnei) of INIt-yer and Grisebach,
S. claitsnm of Decaisne, mainly, and /S*. crassifolium of Chapman
P. undulata (^Sarcostemma unduhitum, Torr. 1. c.) is our only species
with a conspicuous column, somewhat longer than the tumid scales of
tlie stamineal corona.

ASCLEPIAS, &c. In elaborating this genus and its allies for the
North American Flora, the limitation of the genera has to be consid-
ered. More than thirty years ago this work was done by the excellent
Decaisne for De Candolle's Prodromus, evidently in a hunied way ;
Dr. P^ngelmanu and the late Dr. Torrey have |)ublislied important
details; and the former has supplied me wiili full notes and many
sketches of his elaborate studies, which, unfortunately, have for a long
time remained unpublished. For his I'erent elaboration of the whole
order in the new Genera Plantarum, Mr. Benthain could not critically
examine all the species. Had he done so, he would probably have
either re-established Nuttall's Anantherix (as Dr. Engelmann in his
notes long ago proposed), or he would have remanded it to Asclepias.
The process of the hood, s[)ecially ciiaracteristic of this last genus,
although generally corniform, not vei-y rarely takes the form of a
pointless crest or plate, like that which in Ananthertx divides at least
the upper part of the cavity. Then Acerates angustifoUa (Polyotus,
Nutt.), as Nuttall intimated, has the technical character of Asclepias
in a reduced form. I think I have found a character in the anthers,
which may be turned to useful account; and it may be of no disadvan-
tage that, while distinguishing Acerates from Gomphocarpus (the latter
sufficiently heterogeneous without the addition of the former), it helps
to separate Nuttall's original Auantherix (the anomalous Asclepias
connivens of Baldwin) from the two more common sj)ecies which
Nuttall long afierwai'ds added to it, along even with Podustigma,
his Stylandra.

I venture to rearrange the genera in question, in the manner pro-
posed in the foot-note.*

* SYNOPSIS.
A. CucuUi coronae basilares intus nmli, ab antheras longe remoti.
PoDOSTiGMA, Ell. Coroilae lobi campanulato-erecti. Colunina staminea
praelonga. Antherarum alse triangulares basi lata truncata.

B. CucuUi (aut basilares aut in columna brevi pi. m. elevati) antlieris prox-
imae : corolla rotatopatens vel reflexa. •

* Cuculli intus processu dorsali vel subbasilari corniformi seu cristseformi aucti.

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 5

66 ^ PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

To obviate confusion or mistake wliich may arise as to the priority of
Elliott's names over those of Nuttall, it sliould be recorded that, al-

AjTANTiiEnix, Nutt. (Gen.) Corolla sub anthesi reflexa. Columna sub cu-
cuUis brevissima. CucuUi adsurgentes, corollEe aequiloiigi, antlieras longe supe-
rantes, oblongoclavati apice incurvo, a latere compressi, praeter niarginem
ventralem anguste apiceque dilatato bilamellatum solidi, crista obtusissima
inclusa. Aiitlierarum alae ntembntnacere, deorsum valde dilatatfe, latissimas, basi
liorlzontaliter tnincatffi. Caudiculaj capillares poUijiiis oblongis 2-8 j)lo longiores !
Folia opposila. — A. connivens. A. viridis, Nutt. Gen. excl. syn. Asclejiins viridis,
Walt.

AscLEPiODORA. Corolla rotato-patens. Cuculli basilares coluninfpbrevissimae
totffi inserii, patenti-adsurgentes, calceolifornies, prorsus cavi, versus apicem
crista lamellitbrmi quasi bilocellati. Antlierarum alas corneae basi pi. ni. angus-
tat£e. Cnudicula polliniis pyr'forinibus breviores. Folia sjei)ius alterna. —
A. VIRIDIS. A^chpias viridis, Walt. Anantherix jmnicidafmt, Nutt. Trans. Am.
Plul. Soc. V. 202. ulcerate joa/ijc((/a/a, Decaisne. — A. decumuens. Anantherix
decurnhens, Nutt. 1. c.

Asclepias, L. Corolla sub anthesi fere semper reflexa. Cueulli intus pro-
cessu c'oriiifonni vel crista^fornii audi. Antlierarum alfe corneiB deorsum usque
ad basim truncatam seu late rotiindatam dilatatae. Folia sanpius opposita.

* * Cuculli intus prorsus inappendioulati : corolla sub anthesi reflexa.

AcERATES, Ell. Cuculli involuto-concavi, intus aperti. Antlierarum alae
medio vel supra medium (nee basi) dilatatae vel angulatce. Folia sa^pius alterna
vel subalterna. Cfet. Aschpiadis.

ScHizoNOTUS. Cuculli saccati, ovales, intus toto longitudine columnae ad-
nati, extus longitudinaliter bivalves. Antherae, etc., Aceratis. Folia opposita. —
S. PURPURASCENS. Goinpliocarpiis purpuruscens, Gray, Bot. Calif, i. 477.

GoMPHOCARPUS, R. Br. Cuculli intus vel apice aperti. Antherae, etc., Ascle-
piadis.

ASCLEPIAS, L.

An American genus except for two African species, mainly North American.
I do not see the way to a really natural arrangement of our species ; but the
following may serve as a key to them.

§ 1. Cuculli sessiles, nee basi attenuati: antlierarum alae basi latae angulato-
truncatae vel auriuulato-deflexae, rarius rotundatae.

* Corolla cum corona aurantiaca : folliculi nudi in pedicello decurvo arrecti :
folia pleraque alterna vel sparsa : herba non lactescens !

A. TUBEROSA, L., et var. decumbens.

* * Corolla laete rubja vel purpurea : folliculi nudi, in pedicello decurvo arrecti,

A. Curassavica & A. incarnata exceptaj.

-1- Cuculli aurantiaci : columna sat longa : herbae glabrae.

A. CcRASSAvicA, L. Naturalized if not native in Florida, &c. ; now widely
dispersed over the tropical coasts.

A. PAL'PERCULA, Michx. A. lanceolata, Walt., a name which might be restored.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 67

though the first volume of Elliott's work bears the date of 1821 upon
the title-page, the first fasciculus was issued in the year 1816, and re-

•t- •«- Cuculli purpurei vel purpurascentes : urabellae multiflorae.

A. KUBRA, L., wliich is founded on Clayton's no. 263 in Gronov. Fl. Virg.,
with uppermost leaves accidentally alternate.

A. PURPURASCENS, L., founded on Dill. Elth. t. 28, and Herm. Parad. Bot.
33. A. amana, L., founded on Dill. Elth. t. 27, not of herb. L., which is A. vari-
egata.

A. iNCARNATA, L., With var. PULCHRA, Pcrs., and var. longifolia, the latter
a Texan and New Mexican narrow-leaved form.

* * * Corolla et corona viridulae, flavescentes, albae, nunc sordide vel pallide
purpurascentes.

^ Foiliculi processibus mollibus echinati, crebre tomentosi, turgidi, in pedicellis
defle.xis arrecti : plantse tomentosae.

A. SPECiosA, Torr. A. Donglasii, Hook.
A. CoRNUTi, Decaisne. A. Syriaca, L.

-t- ■*- Foiliculi rostro tantum parce verrucoso-echinulato : herba glabra.

A. S0LLIVANTII, Engelm.

-I- -1- -f- Foiliculi laeves, aut glabri aut tomentulosi,

■w- In pedicellis deflexis vel decurvis arrecti.

= TJmbella in pedunculo elongato caulem siniplicem terminante solitaria : folia
arete sessilia seu amplexicaulia : plantse gluberrimae glaucescentes.

A. OBTL'siFOLiA, L. A. purpurascens, Walt. Car. 103.

A. Meadii, Torr. in Gray, Man. ed. 2, addend. ; ed. 5, 397.

= = Umbellae in caule elato 2-4 ; pedunculis folia lata oblonga aequantibus vel
superantibus : herba praeter inflorescentiam glabra.

A. GLAUCESCENS, HBK. Specimens of this Mexican species were collected
in S. \V. Texas, and referred in the Botany of the ]\Iexicun Boundary Survey
to A. Sitllicantii.

^ = = Umbellae pedunculo caulibus abbreviatis foliisque orbicularibus longiore.

A. nummularia, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 163, t. 45.

= = = = Umbellae 2-8 vel plures, raro solitariae ; pedunculis (A. cinerea ex-
cepta) folia baud superantibus.

a. Folia lata seu latiuscula, sat magna : cuculli lati antheras vix parumve
superantes : caules dodrantales ad 4-pedales.

1. Herbse glabrae vel primum puberulaj, nunquam floccosffi.

A. CRTPTOCERAS, Watsou, Bot. King, 283, t. 28. Sat humilis, decumbens,
rotundifolia; cucuUis saccato-ovatis apice bi-aouminatis cornu includentibus.

A. AMPLEXiCACLis, Michx. Decumbens; foliis carnosulis cordatis amplex-
antibns ; cucuUis obovato-truncatis, cornu fere incluso. — A. humistrata, Walt.,
" floribus rubris " exceptis.

68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

issued, with the second fasciculus, before the close of that year ; aud
the third and fourth appeared before November, 1817, — the latter

A. Jamesii, Torr. Adscendens, subpedalis, prinium farinoso pubera ; foliis
orbiculatis sen late ovalibus crassis ; cucullis latis apice truncatis, cornu cristae-
fornii falcato parum exserto.

A. rHYTOLACCOiDES, Pursh. Glabra, 4-5-pedali8 ; umbellae laxae pedicellis
filiformibus elongatis; corolla vlridula; cucullis albis vel subroseis eroso-trun-
catis angiilis internis in dentein longe productis, cornu erecto tenui-subulato
exserto. — A. nivea, Bot. Mag. t. 481, non L.

A. VARiEGATA, L. Glabra vel glabrata, l-2«pedalis ; unibellis compactis
brevi-pcdunculatis ; corolla alba basi cucullisque vijntricosis purpureo tiiictis ;
cornu falcato-subulato breviexserto. — Founded wholly on syn. Dill. & Pluk.
A. nivea, L. in part, as to syn. Gronor. & herb.

2. Tomentosa vel pubescens : umbellae laterales brevi-peduneulatae : flores viri-
duli : cucuUi truncati : folliculi tomentosi vel canescens. Cismontanse.

A. TOMENTOSA, Ell. CuculU in columna brevissima antheris breviores, pro-
cessu vix exserto.

A. ARENARiA, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 1G2. CucuUi antheras superantes,
processu horizontaliter exserto.

3. rioccoso-Ianuginosae vel canescentes, demum nunc glabratse; caules robusti:

folliculi ovati. Ultramontanae.

<=> CucuUi erecti apice horizontaliter truncati : herbae pube brevi sen lana
adi)ressa primuni dcalhatae : umbellfe peduneulataj, pedicellis lanuginosis.

A. Fremonti, Torr. Pacif. R. Rep. vi. 87, sine char. Canescenti-tomentosa
vel pubera; foliis ovalibus vel oblongis obtusis retusisve nunc subcordatis
petiolatis, margine lasvi ; coroUae albidae lobis oblongo-ovatis ; columna brevis-
sima; cucullis antheris aequilongis marginibus anti^e in dentem productis, pro-
cessu lato apice suhulato inflexo parum exserto. — >«orthern California, Fremont,
Newberry. Not since met with.

A. ehosa, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 162. A. leucophi/I/a, Engelm. in Am.
Nat. ix. 349; Gray, Bot. Calif, i. 476. — This species proves to have bien tirst
described by Dr. I'orrey, on a glabrate state of the plant which, in the younger
and white-lanuginous condition, appropriately received from Dr. Eiigelmann the
name of A. leucophijlla. Completely glabrate speciinens have since come in. The
rough erosion of the edges of the leaves, to which the original name refers, is
evident in all the specimens.

o o CucuUi ventricosi, processu lato incluso : herbae lana longiore floccosa
vestitae. Californicae.

A. eriocarpa, Benth. Umbellas pedunculatae.

A. vestita. Hook. & Arn. Umbellae laterales sessiles.

b. Folia angusta, glabra ; caules humiles ramosi : cuculli obtusi antheris
breviores vel paullo longiores : folliculi ovati : umbellse pauciflorte.

A. BRACHYSTEPHANA, Engelm. in Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 163. Cuculli
brevissimi.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 69

containing the genera in question. Nuttall's Genera of North Ameri-
can Plants appeared as a whole in the year 1818, the copyright
bearing the date of April 3 of that year.

A. iNVOLUCRATA, Eiigehii. 1. c. Uiiibella foliis quasi involucrata.

c. Folia angustissiina : caules huniiles insigniter ramosi: cuculli lanceolato-
subulati longissimi, basi eoncavi.

A. MACROTis, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 164, t. 45. A peculiar species.

d. Folia ovata seu oblonga, pubescentia vel glabella : caules erecti 1-2-pedales :
cuculli oblongi, antheris 2-3-plo longiores, apice iategerrimo rotundato.

1. Cuculli involuto-concavi, supra medium a processu corniformi apice incurvo
vel inflexo exserto liberi : foUiculi toruentosi vel pubescentes.

A. ovALiFOLiA, Decaisne in DC. A. variegntn var., Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. ii.
252, t. 141. A. Nuttallitna, Gray, Man. ed. 2, non Torr. — Tlie habitat, " Cali-
fornia," assigned to tiiis si^ecies by Decaisne, stood in the way of its identifica-
tion. Tlie following, from a more south-westerly district, which I confounded
with it, appears to be quite distinct.

A. Hallii. Puberula, niox glabrata : foliis crassiusculis ovato-seu oblongo-
lanceolatis subacutis basi rotundatis brevi-petiolatis, costa valida, venis leviter
adsceiulentibus rectis subtus proniinulis : umbellis multifloris paucis corymbosis
pedunculatis ; corollse viridiilo-albae purpiirascentis lobis oblongis : cucuUis elon-
gato-oblongis inteyerrimis basi liastato-bigibbosis cornu sicajfornie parum super-
antibus. — .1. oral ifoliu, Gray in Proc. Acad.Philad. 1863, 75. — Colorado; near
Denver, E. Hall, no. 480. Upper Arkansas River, T. C. Porter. In aspect this
most resembles A. Snllirainii. The follicles are not known; but the anther-
wings are destitute of the corniculations at the basal angle which are conspicu-
ous in the latter species.

A. OBOVATA, Ell. Sk. i. 321. A well-marked species, with somewhat the
aspect of Acerates viridiflora. The anther-wings are manifestly bicorniculate at
the salient basal angle. Tlie hoods are dorsally somewhat hastately bigibbous
above the short contracted base, and from the gibbosity are narrowly wing-
appendaged upward and inward for some distance : the inner margins of the
hood entire, straight, and so involute as to meet vertically for almost tlie
whole length : at the very base inside is a pair of short and roundish fleshy
internal auricles. The abruptly inflexcd apex of the horn is subulate and
traversed with a dorsal groove or channel.

2. Cuculli a latere complanati, solidi, margine ventral! petaloideo-bilamellato,
lamellis semi-obovatis, parte dilatata cristam subconformem eroso-trun-
catam includente, angulo interno processu subulato breviter exserto api-
culato.

A. NYCTAGiNiFOLiA. Scabrido-puberula ; caule ut videtur pedali adsurgente :
foliis ovatis subrhombeis basi in petiolum sat longum contractis, venis adscen-
dentibus : umbellis axillaribus 4-8-floris brevissime pedunculatis ; pedicellis
petiolo a?qni!ongis ; corolla viridula semipollicari, lobis oblongis ; cucullis erectis
antheris subtriplo longioribus : columna sub corona vix ulla : antherarum alls

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Melinia angustifolia. Fere glabra, subvolubilis ; caulibus fili-
formibus ; foliis angustissime linearibus petiolatis ; pedunculis brevibus

basi rotundatis. — Rock Spring, Providence Mountains, S. E. California, Palmer,
1876. — Belongs, with the preceding and tlie following, to the Oturia section of
Kuntli and Decaisne ; but with a pecuhar hoot!, not unlike that of A. Cuii/teri
(infra) and certainly much like that of the original Anantherix. The crest is
produced at its internal angle into the horn which is the distinguishing mark
of Ascle/ikts.

■M- ++ Folliculi in pedicellis recurvis patulisve penduli vel patentes : caules elati
junciformes, foliis subulato-fihformibus delapsis nudi : cucullis panduratis
erectis antheras longius superantibus: processu cristjeformi adnato intus bre-
vissime cornuto.

A. SUBULATA, Decaisne in DC. 1. c. ; Torr. in Pacif. R. Rep. v. 3iJ2, t. 7. —
This remarkable Asdepius of the S. Californian and Arizonian desert appears
to be tiie Mexican species briefly described by Decaisne; but a comparison of
specimens should be maile.

•M- ++ ++ Folliculi (tamquam noti) in pedicellis adscendentibus erecti, stepius
fusifornies.

= Folia lata plerumque quaterna : flores roseo-albi.

A. QUADRiFOLiA, L. A pretty species, with the middle leaves almost always
in whorls of four.

= = Folia lata vel latiuscula opposita, nee vertieillata: flores parvi albi.

A. PERENNis, Walt. A. parviflora, Ait., published one year later. A. dehilis,
Michx , partly confused with A. qiiudnfolid, to which the "Obs." relates.
Towards its northern limits this species conimonl}- wants the coma to the seeds.
— Var. PAKVULA is a low and remarkably small-leaved form of the species,
from \V. Texas, mentioned by Torrey in Bot. Mex. Bound. 104. — The two
following related species are not known to occur within the United States; and
the last by its narrow leaves would belong to the next division. They are
introduced in reference to the synonymy.

A. xivEA, L. (n(jn herb., but {\\q Apocipium Pevsicnrm j)u7('s, etc., Dill. Elth.
t. 29, and A. Ainericannm, etc., Plum. t. iiO, on which the species was founded),
Griseb. Fl. W. Ind. 419, excl. syn. Bot. Mag. (which belongs to A.pIi'/toluiToides),
is West Indian, and probably not in Louisiana, to which Grisehach credits it.
It is distinguislied from A. )>eren>iiti by the greenish-white corolla, longer hoods
with shorter horn, and an undulation near the base of the anther-wings, at least
when dry.

A. viRGATA, Lagasca, Gen. & Spec. 14, is Mexican, and resembles the pre-
ceding in the flowers; but the petals are wiiite, or sometimes rose-iinled (as
in Brit. Fl. Gard. ser. 2, t. 8.5), the anther-wings plane, and the leaves linear or
linear-lanceolate and less petioled. From Kunth's character (but not that of
Decaisne) it may be the A. Unifolia, HBK. I have seen only cultivated speci-
mens, under the name of A. angustifolia and of A. linearis.

===== Folia angusta sen angustissima (elongato lanceolata ad lineari-fili-
formia), in sp. nonnuUis vertieillata, in unica alterna.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 71

bibracteolatis pleruraque unifloris nunc geminis ; corolla campanulata
fere 5-partita sepalis lanceolatis acuiuiuatis parum longiore, lobis

a. Corolla reflexa generis : cuculii cornusubulato exserto instructi.
1. Colurana sub cucuUis conspicua, antlieris parum dimidlo brevior.

A. Mexicana, Cav. Ic. i. 42, t. 58. A. fascicularis, Decaisne in DC. A.
macrop/ii/!la, Nutt. PI. Gamb. 180. This species, which is common from Oregon
to the borilers of Mexico, appears to be identical with specimens collected in
the valley of Mexico by Bourgeau (no. (33), and by Ghiesbreght still farther
south. The figure in the Icones of Cavanilles very well represents it.

A. VERTiciLLATA, L. A widely distributed species, including ^4. galioides,
HBK., of Me.xico. Var. pu.mila is a singularly dwarf or depauperate form, of
the western dry plains, from Nebraska to New Mexico. Var. suBVERriciLLAXA
(A. verticillata \a.r. galioides, Torr. Dot. Mex. Bound. 164, chiefly), is a marked
form, with single stems, simple or branched, the leaves mostly in pairs and
threes, and their margins little revolute, the horns of the hoods rather less ex-
serted. Decaisne's A. verticillata var. lini folia may include this ; but it is evi-
dently a mixture of A. verticillata (to wliicli the specimens from "Florida and
Georgia" mny belong) ; of A. virijala, L;ig. {A anf/astifolia, Roeni. & Scliult. &c.),
which, from Kunth's character of opposite leaves and little exserted horn, may
be A. UnifoUa, HBK.; and of ^1. Mexicana, Cav. (from which may come the
character of leaves 4-6-nate), which must be identical with A. fascicularis of
Decaisne. Here also A. linearis, Scheele in Linntea, xxi.

(A. LiNARiA, Cav , a Mexican species which has been associated with A. vet-
ticillnta, differs much in the very short stamina! column, short and almost
included horns, and in the ovate follicles becoming erect on the docurved pedi-
cel, which is not known to occur in any species of this section.)

2. Columna brevis crassior.

A. QUINQUEDENTATA. Facie fere A. verticillatce var. suhverticillntK ; foliis
omnibus oppositis angusto-linearibus elongatis; umbellis paucifioris longiuscuhi
pedunculatis ; corollas virescenti-alb£e lobis ovalibus (lin. 2|-3 longis) ; cucuUis
antlieris aequilongis columna triplo longioribus complicatis, dorso subcarinato,
apice truncato grosse argute 5-dentato ; processu falcato ad apicem cucuUi usque
adnato ihiqiie bifido, lobo dorsali minimo dentiforiin, ventrali in coriiu suljula-
tum inflexum breviter exsertum producto. — W. Texas, on or near the San
Pedro River, C. Wright, no. 1689, referred in Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 104, to a
variety of A. verticillata. It is much more related to the appended Mexican
species.

(A. CoDLTERi. Praecedenti affinis ; foliis oppositis filiformibus ; umbellis
3-6-floris ; pedicellis filiformibus pedunculo subaequilongis ; coroUae albse lobis
oblongis (lin. 3— t longis) ; cucullis columna crassa triplo longioril)Us antheras
aequantibus complicatocorapressis subquadratis dorso carinatis centro solidis
apice truncatis subintegris; processu lato-subulato falcato infra apicem cuculli
libero integerrimo longius exserto. — Mexico, Coulter, coll. no. 983. Single
specimen, in flower: fruit not seen. The horn of the hood springs from a solid
central portion, which is winged dorsally by a keel; the ventral part and top
bilamellar and open.)

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

lanceolatis apice crassiusculo recurvo intus piiberulis basim versus
penicillato-barbulatis : corona phyllis spathulato-oblongis planis crassi-

A. ANGUSTiFOLiA, Ell. Sk. i. 325, 1817. A. tuberosa ? Walt. Car. fide Eil.
A. Michanrii, Decaisne, 1. c. : so named because a specimen in Micliaux's herba-
rium is mixed with his A. longifolia ; but Elliott's specific name has priority
of all homonj'ms. The narrow and elongated thickish leaves are mainly
alternate, which marks the species.

A. viRiDULA, Chapm. Fl. 302. A well marked species, with opposite and
very narrow leaves, most resembling tlie following ; but with smaller yellowish-
green flowers, and hoods considerably exceeding the anthers and the horn.
— Found only in the vicinity of Apalachicola, Florida.

3. Columna sub cucuUis nulla : folia opposita.

A. ciNEREA, Walt. Well distinguished by the few-flowered lax umbels, and
short very obliquely dorsally truncate hoods, the ventral cusps of which surpass
the broad-triangular horn.

b. Corolla cum calyce rotato-patens, nunquam reflexa : crista mutica adnata in
cucuUo.

A. Fkayi, Chapman in litt. A. cinerece subsimilis ; foliis fere filiformibus
longis patentissirais ; umbellis terminalibus et subterminalibus brevi-peduncu-
lat'is paui'ifloris ; corolla alba majuscula explanata ; cucullis etiam albis prajter
costam petaloideis oblongis integris involuto-concavis antheris aequilongis sed
patenlibus intus dorso medio lamella semiovali integerrima instructis. — Tampa,
Florida, Dr. Leavenworth (a single specimen in herb. Torr., collected 40 jears
ago), Dr. Wm. T. Feay, Dr. A. F. Garber. Dr. Chapman proposed to call this
an Acerates, but in my view it is clearly an Asclepias.

§ 2. PoDOSTEMMA. CuculH stipitati, erecti, stipitibus antheraslonge superanti-
bus basibus columnae adnatis, lamina spathulata intus cristata, crista insequal-
iter bicorniculata : antherarum aliB medio latiores et subangulatae.

A. i.oNGicoKNU, Benth. A. Litidhrimerl, Engelm. & Gray. — Ranges from
Texas to Nicaragua. Follicles arrect on the deflexed pedicels.

§ 3. NoTHACERATES. CuculU sessiles, oblongi, apice bidentati, intus crista
angusta jjrorsus adnata e sinu corniculato-excurrente : antherarum alffi
deorsum dilatat;B, supra basim late rotiindatam auriculatoemargiiiatfe : pol-
linia arcuato-obovata. Habitus Acerutis aiiriculuke.

A. STENOPHYLLA. Poli/otiis nnf;iistifi>liiis, Nutt. in Trans. Anier. Phil. Soc. v.
201. Acei'iti's angustifoUa, Decaisne in DC. 1. c. Nuttall noted the clear transi-
tion to Asclepias.

ACERATES, Ell.
« Gynostemium subglobosum : columna sub cucullis brevibus manifesta : folia
pleraque allerna.

A. AURicuLATA, Engelm. in Bot. Mex. Bound. 160. Foliis preelongis ang s-
tissimis umbellisque ^.sc/«=/»Vu/t stenophylhe simillima; cucullis basi late auric i-
latis ; antherarum alls angustis utrinque sequilatis.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 73

usculis inappendiculatis basi coroUae et columnne longiusculae insertis
corolla dimidio brevioribus ; rosiro stigmatis gracili iutegerrimo mem-
braiiam aiitlierurum erectam pauUo superante. — Metai>telina? angusti-
fuliu/n, 'I'orr. Bot. Mex. Bouud. 159. Ravine at Santa Cruz, Sonora,
Mexico, very near tbe southern boundary of Arizona. Instead of
constituting a new genus for this species, it is here referred to the
extra-tropical South American genus Melinia, on account of the long
and slender beak to the stigma, corolla-lobes distinctly but narrowly
dextrorse-convolute, narrow sepals, &c. It is excluded from Oxypetalum
by the absence of any tooth" or appendage to the caudicles of the
poUinia. The corona is attached rather more distUictly to the corolla
than to the cclumn. and the pieces are wholly distinct and rather widely
separate ; but a slight ridge at the base of each is decurrent into a
slightly salient line on the column. The latter is about the length of
the body of the anthers, w^hich, again, bear a still longer erect mem-
brane, ovate-oblonoj in form.

MetastiiLma Blodgetti. Eiimetastehna : caulibus filiformibus ;
foliis parvis anguste lanceolatis ; pedunculis 3-6-floris pedicillis
(lineam lonois) et petiolo brevioribus vel nullis ; corolke 5-partitae
lobis obloiigo-lanceolatis iutus sub apice peuicillato-barbatis : coronge

A. LONGiFOLiA, Ell. Columna pauUo longiore ; ciicuUis ovalibus intejierrimis
inappendiculatis niarginibus ventralihus medio coluninte adnatis antlieris di-
midio brevioribus ; antiierarum alis senii-rliombeis basi niagis attenuatis.

* * Gyiiostemiuni longius quam latum : cucuUi oblongi parum breviores, basi
bus columnam brevissimam tola longitudine obtegentibus : folia latiora saepe
opposita.

A. LAXUGixosA, Decaisne. Als antherarum paullo infra medium latiores
subangulatai.

A. viRiDiFLORA, Ell. AIsB autlierarum versus apicem latiores subangulatae,
basi longius angustatse.

GOMPIIOCARPUS, R. Br.

This genus is briefly defined as Asclepias without any crest or horn in the
hoods. E.xcept for two ai>pended Californian species, which technically belong
to it, it would be restricted to the Old World, mainly to Africa.

G. TOMEXTOsus, Gray, Bot. Calif, i. 477 {Acerates lomentosa, Torr.),has wholly
tlie aspect and the structure of Asclefjias vestita, of the same region, except
as to the hoods, which are spreading or even depending, so that the (juasi-
bivalvular opening is superior or in appearance dorsal, giving a resemblance to
the structure in the plant which I named G. purpurascens, but am now obliged
to separate genericall y.

G. coRDiFOLius, Benth., except for the want of horn, would be an Asclepias,
related to A. phytolaccoides.

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Bquamis termi-subiilatis imae basi corollas insertis antheris cum columna
breviore (sed manifesta) adaequantihus. — M. parvijioruin, Cbapm.
Fl. 367, non R. Br.— Pine Key, S. Florida, Blodgett.

GONOLOBUS and LACHNOS TOiAIA. Later autbors generally
appear to liave taken tbeir idea of Gouolohus from tbose numerous
tropical speoies wbicb ditler considerably from tbe typical ones of tbe
Soutliern Atlantic States. Tbe latter have not the coloied-reticulated
corolla of most of tbe tropical species, nor tbe broad and rounded
lobes of many of them, nor tbe strongly salient-angled stigma, which
has been made a part of tbe generic character, nor is the corona borne
on tbe corolla, but either distinctly on tbe short stamineal column or at
its very base at tbe junction with tbe corolla. Laclmosfoma^ 11 BK.,
was founded on a single and peculiar species, with " corolla subbypo-
crateriformis," or at least with tube as long as the limb, and with
"corona pentapbylla, fauci coroUte inserta, foHolis cuneatis carnosis
apice lunato-bilobis," etc. Noting that tbe column of (llatnents is
aduate to tbe tube of tbe corolla (as it truly is for tbe whole length),
Kunth, indeed, adds the query : '' An igitur corona summo tubo fila-
mentorum nee fauci coroUae inserta?" But the flowers I have exam-
ined, from Fendler's no. 1050, show that the first view was tbe correct
one. On separating the tube of the corolla from that of the filaments,
almost without lesion, the coronal appendages are left on tlie former,
to which they manifestly belong. There are, moreover, vestiges of a
stamineal corona, in tbe form of minute scale-like processes, one under
tbe base of each anther. Decaisne adds three other species to the
genus, and characterizes it by the " corona staminea gynostegio plus
minusve adnata, pentapbylla." It will be allowed that, if tbe genus
can stand upon tbe 5-pbyllous corona, tbe mere insertion will be
unimportant. But Mr. Bentbam, enlarging the genus much more by
adding Decaisne's Ibutia and Chthamalia, includes species with cup-
shaped and wiih annular corona, thus resting LacJmostoma mainly ou
tbe insertion of this oi'gan, which is variable from species to species,
and really not different fi'om that of typical species of Gonolobus.
And our only reticulate-petaled species of the latter bears the annular
corona distinctly on the column, close to its base, but wholly separate
from the corolla. It thus appears, on tbe whole, that LacJmostoma
should be restricted to the original L. tigrinum ; and that CJdhamalia
(as the subjoined details show) should form only a subgenus of Gono-
lohus. Those reticulate-flowered tropical species (of which we have
one, not very typical, representative in Texas), with all its variations
in the gyuostemium and corona, may form another section, which may

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 75

conveniently take the name of Dicfyolohus, using here the Greek word
in the sense of lobe, instead of pod.

The North American Gonolobi, of the Atlantic United States, are
confused and dilfitnilt, partly because flower and fruit have seldom
been had from the same plant. The subjoined conspectus gives the
result of my study of the present available materials, aided by notes
and sketches from Dr. Enoelmanu. *

* GONOLOBUS, Michx. Fl. i. 119.

§ 1. DiCTTOLOBUS. Corolla rete subtili conspicuo saepius colorato venosissima,
nunc rugulosa ; lobis plerumque hitis. ilores in nostra parvuli, in pleris
majusculi.

G. RETicuLATUs, Engelm. Mss. G. qramtJntna, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 165,
non Scheele in Linnsa. — Texas and adjacent borders of Mexico. Well described
(except as to antlier-tips, which really overlie the edges of tlie stigma), but
wrongly referred, by Dr. Torrey. Scheele's description of the peduncles as
shorter than the petiole, the pedicels as barely equalling the flowers, and the
lobes of the corolla as lancei)late-attenuate from a broader base, is incompatible
with the present species, and relates to a variety of G. Items, Michx.

§2. EcGONOLOBUs. Corolla baud reticulata, lobis angustioribus : corona sim-
plex, intus inappendiculata, columnae basi sspius iuserta : stigmatis anguli
parura prominuli : caules herbacei.

* Pedunculi pauci-pluriflori : corolla 5 partita, rotata, patentissima,

••- Crassiuscula, viridula, extus cum calyce pedunculo brevi pedicellisque gla-
bra : corona sub gynosteraio pateriformis undulatocrenata, carnosa : antherae
membrana tenuiter scariosa super marginem stigmatis inflexa : folliculi laeves
5-angulati.

G. suBEROSus, R. Br. Ci/nanchum, L. Hort. Cliff. 79 (excl. syn. Apocymim
scandens fruticosum finnioso coiiice BrasiUamuii, Herm. Parad. 53), & Spec. 212,
excl. syn. Gronov. Periplocn Carnllnensis, etc., Dill. Elth. 300, t. 229, f. 296. G.
macroplii/llus, Chapm Fl. 368. Corolla in alabastro late conica, lobis ovato-trian-
gularibus a basi sensim angustioribus acuminatis supra albido-hirsutulis nunc
glabratis. — Although Hermann's Brazilian plant, referred to, suggested the
name, we may consider the Linnaean species as founded on the Dillenian plant,
the figure of which very well represents what we take for this species. More-
over tlie Grouovian synonym belongs to G. hirsidns or G. Camfinensis. De-
caisne's G. siiber<>s>is, with ovate pubescent sepals, and corolla glabrous within,
must be some quite other species.

G. l;evis, JMiclix. Fl. i. 119. Minus pilosus vel glahellus ; nmbellis 5-10-floris
petiolo vix aequilongis: foliis oblongo-cordatis ; corolla in alabastro elongato-
conica, lobis lanceolatis sen lineari-lanceolatis glabris ; folliculis laevibus 5-angu.
latis. — Mississippi to Arkansas and Texas. Pursh introduces some confusion
by adding a wrong synonym, and a consequent misstatement of the color of the
corolla. It passes freely into

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

GiLTA (Dactylophyllum) Parry^. Pygmaea, floribunda, pubes-
cens ; caule e radice annua nunc vix semipollicari floiibus breviore
nunc demum bipollicuri a basi confertim ramoso ; foliis plerisque
oppositis 5-7-partitis, segmentis acerosis (lin. 2-3 longis) ; floribus iu
dicbotomiis subsessilibus ; calyce profuude 5-fido corolla fere triple
breviore lobis lanceolato-subulatis, tube brevissimo obconico ; corolla
aut alba aut sulpliurea aut casruleo-lilacina, tubo brevissimo cum

Var. MACROPHYLLUS. Foliis rotundato-cordatis majoribus (nunc 9-10-polli-
caribus), acuniine abrupto, lobis basilaribus rotundatis sinuni sjepe claudentibus,
pagina inferiore pube molli brevi nunc granulosa saepius indutis; calycis lobis
versus apicem rariter ciliolatis ; foUiculis brevibus angulatis 5-costatis. — G.
macrophyllns, Miclix. 1. c. G. viridiflorus, Nutt. Gen. i. 163 ( G. Nuttallii, De-
caisne in DC.) G tiluefolius, Decaisne in DC. G. grunulatus, Scheele in Linnaea,
xxi. 759. Viiicetoxiciim gonocaipos, Walt. Car. 1U4, pro parte. — S. Carolina to
Texas, Kentucky and Missouri. Elliott's G. viacrofiliyllus, with muricate fruit
and slender lobes to the corona, must be G. Baldwhiidnus, Ciiapnian's is G.
mberosas, and Decaisne's, in the Prodromus, is mainly G. oUiquus. Pursh's
addition of " flowers dark purple or dirty yellow " was taken from Walter,
who evidently had more than one species under his Vincetoxicuin gonocarpos.

■*- -1- Corolla submembranacea, purpurea, ochroleuca, vel albida : corona cupu-
lifoimis, gynosteniio adsequans : niembrana antherarum inconspicua vel ob-
soleta : pedunculi saepius loiigiusculi pluriflori, cum calyce pedicellisque
pubescentes : corolla extus pi. m. pubera : folliculi teretes muricati.
•t-t. Coronae subcarnosae margo tantum crenatus.

G. OBLiQuus, R. Br. Corolla intus sanguineo-purpurea, extus viridula,
lobis lineari-ligulatis : corona 10-crenulata, crenulis aitemis angustioribus
plerunique emarginatis vel bidenticulatis. — Roein. & Schult. Syst. vi. 64 ; Bart.
Fl. Am. Sept. iii. t. 99; Gray, Man. ed. 5, 399. G. hlrsutus, Nutt. Gen. i. 1G3,
non Michx. G. macrojihyllus, Decaisne, I. c, non Michx. Goiiolol'ium hirsiitum,
Pursh, Fl. i. 179. Cynanchum oblirpnnn, Jacq. Ic. Ear. t. 341. C. discolor, Sims,
Bot. Mag. t. 1273. C. hirtum, L. ? quoad Apocynum scandens Virginianum, etc.,
Moris. Hist. The most northern species, ranging from (Carolina?) the moun-
tains of Virginia to Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kentucky. — Var. Shortii, ap-
parently a form with larger (and dull purplish?) flowers, said to exhale the
scent of Calycanllttis-h\os,soms : known only in specimens collected by Short
and Peter, near Lexington, Kentucky, where it should be re-discovered.

G. HiRSUTUs, Michx. 1. c. Pedunculi pauciflori : corolla intus atro-purpurea,
lobis elliptico-oblongis : corona margine obtuse aequaliter 10-crenata. — Virginia
and Tennessee to Florida. The corolla in dried specimens by transmitted light
shows a reticulate venation more distinctly than any other species of this group.

•w- ++ Corona 5-lobata, dentibus geminatis vel bifidis interjectis : pedunculi
pluriflori sublongiores.

G. Carolinensis, R. Br. Corolla badia vel atro-purpurea, majuscula. lobis
oblongis seu lineari-oblongis: corona subcarnosa, undiilato-.5 lobata, sinubus
processu subulato biiido gynostemio adaequante instructis. — Cynanchum Caroli-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 77

fauce obconico lobis obovatis integerrimis vel erosulis apice saepius cus-
pidalis 2-4-plo breviore ; antheris oblongis ; capsula ovali-oblonga
polysperma ; semiiiibus angulatis fere cubicis, tegumento externo laxo
temii uec spirillifero nee mucilaginoso. — San Bernardino Co., S. E.
California, on desert plains near the head of the Mohave River, Parry
and Lemmon, also Palmer. A very distinct and pretty little species,
in appearance somewhat intermediate between G. dianthoides and a

nense, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 342. This from the character should he WaUer's Vince-
toxiciim acaidliocarpos, Elliott's G. Carolinensis (excluding the fruit), and probahly
(t. kii-suins, Sweet, Brit. Fl. Gard. t. 1. It extends from South Carolina to
Louisiana and Arkansas.

G. Baldwixianus, Sweet. Corolla albida vel flavida, lobis oblongis demum
subspathulatis tenuioribiis : corona fere membranacea altius fissa, segnientis 5 latis
ssepius eniarginatis, 10 per paria interjectis lineari-subulatis duplo longioribus
stigma superantibus. — G. »«(;c;o/</(////((s, Ell., non Michx. G. Carolinensis, 'Nutt
Gen. i. ItJo, non R. Br. G. Iiirsutiis, Lodd. Cab. t. 305 ? Georgia and Alabama
to N. W. Arkansas. Elliott and Nuttall, who describe from dried specimens, speak
of the corolla as " obscure yellow " or " yellowish," but Engelmann, who col-
lected it in Arkansas, says " wliitisii " ; and Buckley on tlie ticket of his speci-
mens in the Torrey herbarium, collected in Alabama, writes "flowers white."
This species clearly coimects Poli/stenuiia, Decaisne, with Emjoiiolohus.

* * Flores solitarii subsessiles : antiiera9 etiam Chtliamnlice, sed corona simplex

Eugonolubi.

G. SAGiTTiFOLTus. Plumilis, volubilis, vix puberula; foliis subcarnosis
parvis sagittatis, auriculis obtusis : corolla lutea glabra alte 5-tiila, lobis lanceo-
lato-linearibus : corona imae basi corollae inserta cyathiforma integerrima; foUi-
culis lanceolatis lajvihus. — Rio Limpio, W. Texas, Wright. This is Dr. Torrey's
G. parvifolius only as respects the specimen of Wright referred to by him, and
from which he describeil the follicle.

§ 3. Chthamai.ia. (ClithnmaUa & Lachnostomatis sytec. Decaisne.) Corolla
baud reticulata, campanulata vel rotata, 5 loba vel 5-partita: corona intus
cristata vel append iculata, raro (appendici>)us liberis) duplex : antherae
prominiilaj a stigmate niagis liberae, marginibus nunc (Asclepiadis modo) alls
corneis instructaj. Plantse humiliores saepius parviflores.

* Diffusae, nee volubiles : pedunculi nuUi : pedicelli 2-3 ad axillas fasciculati :
folia cordata.

G. PUBIFLORC9, Engclm. PI. Lindh. i. 44; Torr. Mex. Bound. 165. G.
prostratus, Baldw. in Ell., non R. Br. Chthatiuilia /nihifloni, Decaisne. — The
only species of this section east of the Mississippi, and an ambiguous one. It
has exactly the aspect of the two following, except that the campanulate corolla
is cleft barely to the middle (in which it is very unlike true Gonolohi), but the
cup-shaped crown, which overtops the stigma, is almost simple within, the five
crests being attenuated and inconspicuous or even obsolete : there are five
minute adnate auricles at the very base. The follicle, which I have not seen.
is said to be smooth.

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

very dwarf G. dichotoma, rlesirable for cultivation on account of its
abundaut and vaiiously colored flowers of comparatively large size for
the pygmy growth, the corolla being fully half an inch long, indeed
longer than the earlier stems. At the suggestion of Mr. Lemmou, this
dainty plant is dedicated to Mrs. Dr. Parry, one of the botanical party
who passed the last winter and spring in the San Bernardino district
■ — making many interesting discoveries — and whose services to botany
well merit this recognition.

G. BiFLORUS, Nutt. in herb. DC. ; Torr. 1. c. Chthamalia biJJora, Decaisne.
In this tlie corolla is rotate and deeply 5 cleft ; the corona tleeply lobed ; and
the canaliculate cre.st ailnate to each lobe is connected at base with the cobimn,
wliile it terminates above in tlie stout and conspicuous tliickened acumination
which incurves over the ed^e of tlie stigma. The follicles, as in the next,
are large and muricate. — Var. Wrightii, also from Eastern Te.xas, is a form
with the corolla almost 5-parted into narrower lobes, and the cusps of the
corona shorter.

G. CYNANCiioiDES, Engelm. PL Lindh. i. 48. has the inflorescence much
inclined to be racemose-clustered on a peduncle-like summit of the stem, the
upper leaves being reduced and bract-like, the corolla rotatecampanulate and
almost 5 parted, and the very obtusely 5 lobed corona is appendaged within by
a shorter crest which terminates in a free and blunt apex, shorter than the lobo
to which it adheres.

* * Caules Juimiles sed volubiles : fiores (luteoli) subsessiles solitarii, raro

geinini : folia parva, pi. m. hastata.

G. PARViFOLitrs, Torr. 1. c, excl. fruct. The corolla is globose in the bud,
deeply 5-lobed, and almost rotate when expanded, the lobes ovate. The fleshy
corona is at the very base of the short column; its lobes ovate, spreading, ap-
pendaged with a very broad adnate crest, the edge of which at base is united
with the column, at the apex extended into a minute iuflexed tooth.

G. HASTur.ATUS. Litc/inostoma hastulatitm, Gray, Bot. Calif, i. G20. In this
the corolla is narrowly oblong in the bud, the lobes linear. The corona is of
distinct pieces, like the hoods of AsrJe/)ias, and, as in that genus, borne at the
summit of the colunm, close under the antliers ; tlie ligule or horn within
is prominently exserted and inflexed. Follicle rather slender and minutely
muricate.

* * * Caules elongati subvolubiles : pedunculi axillares folio sagittato-cordato

brcviores, unibellato 3-5-fiori : corolla oblongo-campanulata, lurida, inajus-
cula (J pollicaris), alte 6-fida, lobis lineari-obloiigis : corona cyatliiformis,
8ub-lobata, intus lamellis 5 columnae adnatis quasi septata.

G. PRODOCTUS, Torr. 1. c. The follicles are ovate and smootli. The species
ranges from Western Texas to Arizona, and into adjacent parts of Mexico.

* * * * Pedunculi filiformes folia mox longe superantes, quasi racemoso-pauci-

flori : flores perpusilli: corolla rotata : corona alte lacuiiata, duplex : caulis
humilis, a basi ramosissimus, nee volubilis.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 79

GiLiA (Lfptostphox) brevicula. Inter Tenuiforas notabilis
tubo corollaj (cajruleae seu violaceae) limbo parum sesquilongiore, foliis
brevibus calyceque subglanluloso-liirtellis. — On the INIohuve River,
S. E. California, Dr. E. Palmer, 187G. — Stem barely a span liigh,
more branching than in G. unJrosacea, which it much resembles; the
branches becoming c^nnose. Leaves only 3 lines long ; the divisions
acerose-subulate, the j^nbescence short-hirsute and glandular. Tube
of the corolla barely 5 lines long, nearly double the length of the
calyx and bracts ; the oval lobes fully o lines long. Stamens ex-
serled from the very short cyathiform throat. Style exserted:
stigmas long and slender, almo>t capillary, fully equalling the lobes
of the corolla. The latter appears to have been blue, or violet-purple.
The flowers are abundant, and the species would be attractive in
cultivation.

GiLiA (Ipomopsis) Haydeni. G. subniidcB affinis, ramosior, fere
glabra ; ramulis peduncidis (corymbosis longioribus) calycibusque

G. PARViFLOROS. Lnchnostoma ? pnrviflorum, Torr. 1. c. This remarkable spe-
cies closes tlie series. Its principal corona is somewhat Hlce that of G. Bitldwini-
anits, which is a genuine Gonolofiits. It is diviileil into five short and broad
membranaceous h)bes, wliicti from tiie apex are produced into a pair of slender
subulate processes, witii a wide sinus between : opposite eacii lobe within, and
separately inserted, is a simihir and longer process, which may answer to the
lignle or otiier internal appendage of the foregoing species, become wholly free.
Tlie follicle is ovate ami tuberculate-muricate.

(G. PROSTRATUS, R. Br., the Lnchnostoma prostratum of Decaisne, is also a
Chtliainalia, with lobes of the corona nearly distinct, each produced into a pair
of processes like those of the preceding, but also with a shorter intermediate
one, and still another before this, the latter answering to the internal ligule
adnate up to the notch of the lobe.)

To Pl//ra»f!tpra — a little known genus, well referred by Bentham (who had
not seen specimens) to the Gonolobece, and marked by the direct adhesion of the
corona lobes by the whole length of the middle of tlie inner face to the column
— there are two Cuban species to add, both with flat-top(ied stigma: viz., —

rxTCANTHERA ACCMiNATA = 0/ i/io.sM acKiiiiiKita, Griscb. Cat. PI. Cubens.
175. In this the Io])es of the deeply G-parted corona are ovate-oblong, attached
along the middle only to the whole length of the column, the sinuses rounded
and open. Pollinia obliquely short-pyriform, pellucid at the insertion of the
caudicle.

Ptycan'tiiera OBLONGATA = OrlJiosin ohlongntn, Griseb. 1. c. Lobes of the
disk oblately oval and emarginate, with thinner free edges, the centre adnate to
the whole length of the column, wliicli is considerably shorter than in the pre-
ceding species, the sinuses somewhat auriculate. Pollinia nearly oblong,
strongly arcuate.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

praesertim glandiilosis ; foliis radicalibus pinnatifidis, caulinis parcis
brevibus liiiearibus iiitegerrimis ; corolla tubuloso-infiiiidihuliformi gra-
cili (^-|-pollicari) hete rosea, tube lobis obovatis 3-4-|)lo longiore ;
antheris subsessilibus fauci insertis ; stigmatibus brevisf^imis ; ovarii
loculis 6-ovulatis 2-3-spermis ; serainibns obloiigis, testa tenui sub aqua
nee spirillifera nee mucilaginosa. — High j^lains of the San Juan,
S. W. Colorado or adjacent part of Utah, Braudegee, in Hayden's
Exped. 1875.

GiLiA (Ipomopsis?) c^spitosa. Glanduloso-puberula, viscida ;
caulibus brevissimis e caudice inulticipiteca3spitante pedunculis ramisve
floridis nudiusculis (2-3-pollicaribus) laxe 3-5-floris terminatis ; foliis
radicalibus confertis crassiusculis spathulatis vel spathulato-lanceolatis
(imis lin. 2-3 longis) obtusissimis, sequentibus longioribus mucronatis,
pedunculorum ad bracteas subulatas diminutis ; pedicellis fere nudis ;
calycis angusti lobis subulato-setaceis ; ovulis in loculis paucis. —
Rabbit Valley, Utah, on barren cliffs of sandstone, at 7,000 feet, L. F.
Ward, in Powell's Plixpedition, 1875. The corollas gone, and fruit
not formed ; but the plant cannot belong to any already published
species.

Phacelia (Eutoca) orisea. Annua, cinereo-pubescens et hirsuta,
viscidula : caule ultra-spithamaio a basi ranioso ; ramis patentibus sat
validis, hirsutia patentissima rigidiila, pube brevissima densa; foliis
ovatis oblongisque integerrimis (semipollicaribus ad pollicaria) brevi-
petiolatis cinereo-strigosis ; spicis elongatis densifloris ; calycibus sub-
sessilibus, .sejxilis spathulatis patenti-hispidis corolla (alba?) subdimidio
brevioribus capsulam ovatam acutam paullo sujoerantibus ; filamentis
longe exsertis pills brevibus papillisve retrorsis hirsutulis basi plicis
transversis adnatis appendiculatis ; ovulis 10-12; seniinibus 5-6 grosse
rugoso-favosis. — On Pine Mountain, back of San Simeon Bay, Cali-
fornia, Palmer.

Eritrichium setosissimum. Krynitzhya inter subsect, Pseudo-
myosotidemei Pterygium, habitu potius E. glomerati, cinereo-pubescens,
hirsutulum, et setis ui'entibus hispidissimum ; caule valido ultra-bipe-
dali e radice nt videtur bieuni ; foliis spathulatis sen lanceolatis ; spicis
racemoso-paniculatis pauci- et parvi-bracteatis, friictiferis elongatis
strictis (4-pollicaribus) ; corolla alba parva (lin. 2-3 longa), tubo lobis
rotundatis vix duplo longiore intus versus basin 10-dentato-annulato,
fauce insigniter 5-fornicata ; antheris brevi-oblongis ; nuculis pro genere
magnis ala integerrima circumdatis (cum ala ovata lin. 2-3 longis)
opacis scabriuscnlis, fiicie dorsali parum convexis, ventrali angulo
obtusissimo per sulcum angustissimum gynobasi subuliformi aequiloDgae

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 81

affixa. — Shores of Fish Lake, Utah, at 8,700 feet, L. F. Ward, in
Powell's J^xpedition, 1875. A most remarkable species, which, without
the fruit, might be coufouuded with E. glomeratum.

F.RITRICH1UM Hoi.OPTEUUM. Kryiiitzkia, facie E. leiocarpt et E.
muriciilati formjB validioris ; corolla fance fornidbus Conspicuis basi
tubi appeudicibus parvulis instructis : nuculis omnibus ala an^usta in-
tegerrima circumdatis dorso muricatis. — S. Utah, Capt. F. M. Bishop ;
Ehrenberg, Arizona, Palmer.

Pectocarta (Gruvelia) ptjsilla. — Gruvelia pusiUa, A. DC.
Prodr. X. 118. That most successful plant-finder, Rev. E. L. Greene,
sends this Chilian species from the vicinity of Yreka, in the northern
part of California, east of the Coast Range mountains, therefore far
from the coast. It there abounds in company with the natives of the
region, and, as Mr. Greene states, would not be suspected to be other
than indigenous.

Pectocarta (Gruvelia) setosa. A prEecedente distiuctissima
foliis etc. hispidis ; calyce t^etis paucis validis divaricatis horrido ; nucu-
lis majoribus ala latiuscula nunc undulata marginatis undique uncinato-
setulosis. — S. E. California, on the desert plains of the upper Mohave
River, Palmer.

Lycium gracilipes. Vrscidulo-puberulum ; foliis crassiusculis
spathulatis seii oblongo-obovatis (lin. 2-6 longis) : pedicellis pubero-
glandulosis folia floralia longius superantibus flori subtequilongis : calyce
campaiiulato breviter 5-dentato ; corolla infuudibuliformi " violacea nunc
albescente " semipollicari, tubo proprio calycem vix superante, fauce
sensim ampliata, lobis 5 lato-ovatis obtusissimis lineam longis ; filamentis
filiformibus fauci versus basim iusertis iiiferue villosulis ; antheris sub-
inclusis. — Northern Arizona, at Williams Fork (alias Bill Williams'
River), Palmer, 1876.

Antirrhinum (Pseudorontium*) chttrospermum. Calycis
segmentis oblongo-lanceolatis tubo corollae tequilongis ; cyatho setuinis
maximo ollasformi. — Ehrenberg, Arizona. Palmer.

Pentstemon comarrhenus. Speciosi: gracilis, glaucescens, glaber
vel foliis (summis linearibus, imis oblongis ovalibusque) minutissime

* Antirrhinum sect. Pseudorontium. Capsula tenui-chartacea subdidy-
ma, loculis aequalibus apice irregulariter ruinpentibus Asurinoe. Semina ala
pelviforiui niodo Orontii. — Sjiee. 2, Am. Bor.-Occ. Merid. ; foliis alternis
petiolatis ovatis integerrimis ; caule erecto ; piibe viscidula ; floribus parvis.
A. CTATHiFERUM, Bentli., ex tab. & descr. calycis sefrmentis lineari-lanceolatis
tubo corollas multo brevioribus, cyatho seminis niajusculo; & A. chytro-
6PERMUM supra.

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 6

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

pruinoso-puberulis ; panicula virgata laxa ; pedunculis pedicellisque
loiigiusculis ; sep;ilis ovalibus parvis (liaud ultra liu. 2 longis) ; corolla
(pollicari) c«ruIeo-pur|)urea, tubo inferne loiigius attenuato ; antheris
longissime lanatis. — Common in Utah, especially southward, coll. by
Gordon, ¥.. W. Emef;^on, Mrs. Thompson, Siler, and recently by
L. F. Ward. Like P. secundijlorus ; but flowers larger, looser and
hardly secund in the panicle; and the anthers long-woolly almost in
the manner of P. Menziesii. Still nearer, perhaps, to the le-s-known
P. strictus, Benth. ; but that has much smaller and narrower flowers
in a crowded inflorescence, acuminate sepals, &c.

Pentstemon Wauoi. Speciosi: crebre caesio-puberulus ; caule sub-
pedali ; corollis extus pallidis ; antherte glabrie loculis subcartilagineis
basi acutis apicibus contiguis longiuscule inapertis : cvst. P. f/labri. —
Utah, near Glenwood, at 5,300 feet, L. F. Ward, in Powell's Expe-
dition, 1874.

MiMULUs Palmeri. Eumimulus: viscidulus sed fere glaber, spith-
amajus e radice annua, paniculato-ramosus ; fuliis sessilibus integerrimis,
imis spathulato-oblongis, superioribus linearibus ; pedunculis tiliformibus
folium bis superantibus : calyce baud obliquo, dentibus ae(]ualibus latis
obtusissimis ; corolla (^ poll, longa) move J^u nan i infundibuliformi san-
guineo-purpurea calyce triplo longiore, lonis brevibus suba^qualibus.
— S. E. California, on the Mohave Kiver, Palmer. A truly handsome
species, well worthy of cultivation.

Okthocarpus lasiorhynciius. 0. lacero proximus ; pube moUi-
ore ; floribus majoribus ; coroUie loete aurese saccis ampborilms galea
tenuiter subulata dense albo-villosa superatis. — Mohave River, S. E.
California, Palmer, 1876.

Munardklla Palmeri. Nana, rhizomatibus stoloniformibus per-
ennans ; capitulis corollisque M. odoratisslince ; caulibus vix spithjimceis
parum puberulis ; foliis coiifertis oblongo-linearibus lanceolatisve
obtusissimis parvulis crassiusculis viridibus fere glabris, venis glandu-
lisque punctiformibus obsoletis ; bracteis rubesceutibus ohlonjris sub-
hii'sutis ciliatis ; dentibus calycis lanceolatis acutis intus marginibusque
parce hispidis. — Redwood forests on Sta. Lucia Mountains, Cali-
fornia, Palmer.

Stachys Rothrockii. Spithamoea, a basi ramosa, villoso-lanata ;
radice ut videtur perenni ; foliis omnibus sessilibus lanceolatis obtusius-
culis subintegerrimis (pollicaribus), floralibus superioribus flores baud
superantibus; verticillastris sjepius trifloris spicato-confertis ; calyce
sessili subcampanulato, dentibus subovatis muticis ; coroUaj (lin. 4—5
longue) tubo iucluso, galea saltern extus albo-villosa. — Zuni Village,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 83

New Mexico, Dr. J. T. Rothrock, in Wheeler's Expedition, ISTk In
aspect considerably unlike any other North American species : appar-
ently indigenous.

Eriogonuji Greenei. Heterosepala inter E. proUferum et E.
ovalifoUum : niajusculum ; foliis oblongis acutiusculis ; scapo ultra-
sjjithamseo sub involucro priuiario sessili 3-radiato, radiis elongatis
involucra 1-3 turbiiuita (lin. 3 longa) gerentibus quandoque pro-
liferis ; perigouio albo (lin. 3 longo), segiuentis exteriuribus ovalibus
basi cordulatis per costam viridulana interioribus angustioribus baud
emarginatis longius adnatis. — Northern California, on rocky hills
about Yreka, E. L. Greene. Au interesting accession to the Hetero-
sepala section.

OxYTHECA TRiLOBATA. Cymoso-raniosa ; foliis radicalibus brac-
teisque fere 0. Watsoai ; involucris longius pedunculatis pio genere
maximis alte 5-partitis nunc hinc divisis, phyllis patentibus foliaceis
oblongo-lanceolatis costa valida excurrente aristatis ; perigonii sepalis
ligulato-oblongis superne trifidis, lobis ovato-lanceolatis erosulis
acuminatis. — San Bernardino Co , S. E. California, Lenimon and
Parry.

Chlor.ea Austins. Planta allia aphylla ; radicibus carnoso-
fibrosis ; caulibus fusciculatis (subpedalibus) laxe vaginalis ; spica ob-
longa laxiuscula ; floribus pro genere parvis albidis (perianthio parum
semipollicari) ; labello trilobo, lobo medio integerrimo transverse
oblongo ; anthera modo Cephalantherce substipitata. — Banks of a
wooded ravine iu the Sierra Nevada, California, near Quincy, in
Plumas Co., Mrs. R. M. Austin ; — whose zeal and services to botany,
and notably her observations upon the habits of Darlinytonia, render it
particularly proper that this remarkable plant of her own discovery
should commemorate her name. I refer it to the South American
genus ChlorcBa, rather than to the European and North Asian Cepha-
lanthera, on account of its habit, and because there is no articulation
between epichilium and hypochilium.

POSTSCRIPT.

Saxifraga chrtsantha. S. Hirculo et serpyllifoUce affinis :
caudiculis perennantibus caespitor^is diapensioideo-foliatis cum stolonibus
filiformibus ; foliis spathulatis seu lineari-spathulatis obtusissimis niti-
dulis glabris (lin. 2-3 longis) basi sensim angustatis sessilibus, caudi-
culorum crebre rosulato-imbricatis ; caulibus floriferis scapiibrmibus
fere bipoUicaribus 1— 4-foliatis 1— 2-floris glabris vel superne cum

84 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

calyce reflexo glanduloso-hirsutulis ; petalis ovalibus lajte aureis basi
ecallosis supra unguem truncatis vel subcordatis ; ovario et capsula
late ovatis apice breviter bilobis ; seminibus oblongis striolatis nitidis.
— S. Hirculus, Gray in Am. Jour. Sci. xxxiii. 409 (coll. Parry, no.
164 & 106), non L. S. serpyllifulia, Gray in Proc. Acad. Philad.
1803, 02 (coll. Hall & Harbour, no. 199), non Pursh. High alpine
region of the Coloi-ado Rocky Mountains, especially abundant on
Torrey's and Gray's Peaks, at 11-14,000 feet, its golden flowers
close to the sward, more brilliant than those of the equally abundant
Geum Rossii which accompanies it. S. Hirculus occurs at very much
less elevation, fully resembling the Arctic American and the European
plant. S. serpylUfolia, Pursh, now better known by good Alaskan
specimens, collected by Prof. Harrington in 1871-2, is more slender,
the flowers solitary and smaller, the calyx not reflexed even in fruit,
petals light yellow, cells of the anther parallel, ovary partly immersed
in a disk, its base adnate to the base of the calyx, the capsule dis-
tinctly 2-horned at the summit, and the tijJ of the horns narrow and
styliforra. These distinctions were made out several years ago, and
the Rocky Mountain species has been freely distributed among bota-
nists under the name of S. chrysantha, but it has accidentally escaped
publication.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 85

VI.

CONTRIBUTION FROM THE LABORATORY OF S. P. SHARPLES.

*

SCHWEINFURT GREEX:

SOME EXPERIMENTS ON THE ACTION OF ARSENIC TRIOX-
IDE ON COPPER ACETATE, WITH THE VIEW OF INVESTI-
GATING THE COMPOSITION OF THE ABOVE COiVU'OUND.

By E. R. Hills.

Read by title, November 8, 1876.

After the completion of the paper on Scheele's Green by Professor
S. P. Sharpies, I became interested to know something about the com-
position of the closely allied substance, Schweinfurt green, — as to
whether it was perfectly definite in its composition, or whether it varied
in a similar manner to Scheele's green. I therefore obtained a sample
of Schweinfurt green from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, which was procured by them in the market for analysis.
This was submitted to a careful analysis, and gave as follows : —

Analysis No. I.

Per cents,

Copper oxide,

25.82

Arsenic trioxide.

45.18

Acetic anhydride (CJT,jO,.j),

15.40

Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)

1.76

Barium sulphate,

11.44

•

99. GO

If now we deduct from this the sulphuric anhydride and barium sul-
phate, and calculate the percentages anew, we have, —

Per cents. Atomic Ratios.
Copper oxide, 29.88 4.26

Arsenic trioxide, 52.30 3.00

Acetic anhydride, 17.82 1.98

100.

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A sample of Schweinfurt green was then obtained from Messrs.
Folsom & Co. of this city. This sample was said to be perfectly
pure, and was made in their works. It was of a much brighter shade
than the preceding, and gave on analysis : —

Analysis No. II.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide,

30.97

4.43

Arsenic trioxide.

52.82

3.00

Acetic anhydride,

16.03

1.79

99.82

This is very nearly the same as the preceding sample, calculated

as pure copper aceto-arsenite. It corresponds quite nearly to the

formula,

2 (CuOCJip,) 3 (CuOAs^Og),

which calculated to percentages is thus : —

Per cents. Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide, 33.19 5.

Arsenic trioxide, 49.73 3

Acetic anhydride, 17.08 2.

100.

It will be seen by comparing the percentages that both samples
analyzed contain more arsenious acid than is called for by the formula:
this is most probably due to the difficulty of washing out the excess
of arsenic in process of manufacture.

The foi-mula given in the books for Schweinfurt green is, —

CuOC,H,03

3(CuOAsP3),

which was based upon the following analysis : —

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide,

31.24

3.96

Arsenic trioxide,

58.62

3.00

Acetic anhydride.

10.13

1.00

100.

This analysis was made by E. Ehrmann in the laboratory of Pro-
fessor Von Liebig, and the results were published in " Der Annalen
der Pharmacie," * in 1834, in which paper Ehrmann, after giving the

* Der Annalen der Pharmacie, Band XII., 1831, Seite 72.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 87

origin of the salt, gives a formula for its preparation, and then the
composition as determined by him.

The receipt he gives is as follows, which he states works as well in
small amounts as in large : —

"10 parts verdigris are mixed with as much water at 50-55° as is
necessary to produce a moderately thin emulsion : this is then passed
through a fine hair sieve, to separate the marc of the grape or the
small particles of copper from the basic acetate of copper.

" This emulsion is poured still warm into a solution of 8 parts of
powilered arsenious acid in 100 parts water, which is kept in a state
of brisk ebullition in a copper kettle. The mixing is done quickly,
and meanwhile the fire must be kept bright and hot, so that the boiling
of the solution of arsenious acid may not be interrupted. The color
appears in a few minutes. If the verdigris is added cold, or the boiling
of the arsenious acid is interrupted, the precipitate is of a dull yellow-
green color, in which case some acetic acid must be added to the solu-
tion, boiling a few minutes longer, and allowed to stand to cool by itself,
after which the dull precipitate becomes crystalline, and is converted
into Schweinfurt green.

" On account of the difficulty with which the arsenious acid dissolves
in pure water, many makers add to the water, with the 8 parts of ar-
senious acid, -^ parts (that is, to 8 pounds 1 oz.) of pure potash ; but,
before the addition of the verdigris, the solution must be made neutral
with acetic acid. . . .

" If a boiling solution of neutral acetate of copper and one of arse-
nious acid in water, the amounts of each being equal, are mixed, a very
voluminous precipitate of a dull olive-green color occurs immediately :
if the supernatant liquid be allowed to stand in contact with this some
hours, or cool slowly with it, it loses its gelatinous condition, sinks
together, becomes crystalline in granular crystals, and assumes the use-
ful color of Vienna green.

" The compound acquires a still more brilliant color, if an equal
volume of cold water is added to the liquid after mixing.

" If the mixture, instead of standing by itself, be boiled a few min-
utes, the conversion to the crystalline salt is accomplished in a very
short space of time.

'' The difference in the shades of color is due mainly to the size of
the crystalline grains : when rubbed to a fine powder on a color-slab,
their appearance is similar. . . .

" The pure compound which was obtained by the preceding method
was submitted to analytical investigation. . . .

88 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

" Sdiweinfurt green is a double salt of acetic 'acid, arsenious acid,
and oxide of copper : it is entirely insoluble in water. All mineral
acids, and even concentrated acetic acid, extract the oxide of copper
from it, leaving the white arsenious acid bthind. It is also decom-
posed by fixed alkalies, except that in this case oxide of copper
remains behind. If the alkaline liquid, which has dissolved the
arsenious acid, is boiled with the precipitated oxide of copper, this is
reduced to the suboxide by the arsenious acid : the oxide, which is at
first black, becomes orange-red by boiling. . . . Ammonia dissolves it
without decompo:*ition, with the well known blue color of copper."

Some Schweiiifurt green was now prepared by the first of these
receipts.

Experiment No. 1.

Took 20 grams verdigris and made it into a thin paste with water,
rubbing it well in a mortar to break up any lumps and mix thor-
oughly. IG grams of arsenic trioxide were dissolved in water, to
which about 1 gram of potassium carbonate was added : then the emul-
sion of verdigris was added to the boiling solution of arsenic trioxide,
which was made acid with acetic acid. At first yellow-green copper
arsenite was precipitated : this, on boiling, very gradually changed to
the aceto-arsenite, at first crystallizing in a pellicle over the surface ;
finally, with the addition of a little acetic acid, the whole mass became
more dense and crystalline, leaving a blue solution, from which the
precipitate was separated by a filter. The precipitate was washed
with boiling water, till no arsenic was fo\ind in the filtrate on testing
the acidulated liquid with sulphuretted hydrogen. The filtrate con-
tained copper, arsenic trioxide, and potassium acetate.

The precipitate was dried at 100° C. for twenty -four hours, and then
analyzed.

Analysis No. III.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide,

32.00

4.33

Arsenic trioxide.

55.G3

3.00

Acetic anhydride.

12.31

1.29

99.94

The precipitate was of a pale green color, inferior to the samples
previously examined, and its specific gravity was much lower.

The above receipt was now varied by substituting the neutral copper
acetate for verdigris : the manipulation is much easier than with the
basic acetate.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 89

Experiment No. 2.

80 grams arsenic trioxide dissolved in water.
100 „ copper acetate „ „ „

The copper salt was added to the solution of arsenic trioxide : as in
the former case, a yellow-green flocculent precipitate was produced,
which was graduMlly converted by boiling into the brilliant aceto-
arsenite. The filtrate from the pigment was acid, of a deep blue color,
and contained arsenic trioxide, copper, and acetates.

The precipitate wasdiied at 100° C. as before, and gave on analysis
these results : —

Analysis No. IV.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide,

32.12

4.r>6

Arsenic trioxide.

56.08

3.00

Acetic anhydride,

10.37

1.07

H) droscopic water.

.61

99.18

These two salts approximate to Ehrmann's formula, although they
vary somewliat from it. In 1858,* " N. Reilter found in four com-
mercial Schweinfurt greens (No. I. was pure, II.-IV. were mixed with
heavy spar and gypsum, all four samples showed the presence of free
arsenious acid, they were washed before analysis), after deducting
the water and impurities : —

I.

II.

in.

rv.

Copper oxide.

33.97

34.94

33.83

33,65

Arsenic trioxide.

57.52

58.18

54.31

57.93

Acetic auhydiide,

8.51

7.88

11.86

8.42

100.00 101.00 100.00 100.00

" He says it follows from these numbers that Schweinfurt green con-
sists of monarseiiite of copper, combined with vai-ying amounts of basic
(not mono) copper acetate."

It will be seen, by comparison of these results with those obtained
by Ehrmann, that they with one exception contain less acetic anhydride
and more arsenic trioxide and copper oxide, while they do not approach
the composition of the commercial samples analyzed by myself. Thia
is, I think, partly due to an admixture of free arsenic trioxide.

* Jahresbericht der Cliemie, 1858, Seite 651.

90 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Experiment No. 3.

The filtrate in Experiment No. 2 contained copper, arsenic trioxide,
and acetates. To this solution, in which no precipitate occurred on the
addition of more arsenic trioxide, sodium carbonate was added to
faint alkaline reaction. A yellow-green precipitate fell, which was
collected on a filter, washed until the filtrate was free from arsenic
trioxide. Dried, the composition was, —

Analysis No. V.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide, 50.G9

3.31

Arsenic trioxide, 38.13

1.00

Walter, 11.88

100.70

This is copper arsenite of the following formula, CugAs^O,; 2H2O,
with about 4 per cent of hydroscopic water, and contained, as far as
could be ascertained by careful testing, no acetic acid.

The question then arose. Does sodium arsenite precipitate pure cop-
per arsenite from copper acetate in all cases, or does it also carry down
some basic copper acetate with it ? This led to

Experiment No. 4.

Copper acetate, 33 grams.

Sodium carbonate, 50 „

Arsenic trioxide, 18 „

The arsenic; trioxide was dissolved in the sodium carbonate, and the
solution mixed with the copper acetate solution, both being near the
boiling point. A 3'ellow-green precipitate fell, the supernatant liquid
contained acetates, arsenic trioxide, and carbonates, and was slightly
yellow. The precipitate was separated by a filter, and washed till no
arsenic trioxide was found in the wash-water. This was much like the
product obtained in Experiment No. 3, except that the color was a
little brighter and of a bluer shade, and when analyzed gave : —

Analysis No. VI.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

Copper oxide.

62.06

10.35

Arsenic trioxide.

37.81

3.00

Acetic anhydride,

2.70

.40

Water,

8.21

7.08

100.78

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 91

This shows that when sodium arsenite acts on copper acetate, if there
is not a lai-ge excess of arsenic trioxide, we get copper arsenite,
•which contains some basic copper acetate, as is the case with the
copper sulpliate under like conditions, and tliat the acetic acid gives a
brighter shade to tlie color.

To answer the question as to whether an excess of copper acetate
would produce, when mixed with arsenic trioxide, a salt containiajr
more basic copper acetate, we have

Experiment No. 5.

Copper acetate, 250 grams.

Arsenic trioxide, 50 „

Dissolved in water separately, and mixed the boiling solutions and
boiled an hour. The precipitate was green, the filtrate from it was
blue, and contained arsenic trioxide, copper, and acetates. The pre-
cipitate had this composition : —

Analysis No. VII.

Per cents.

Copper oxide, 50.00

Arsenic trioxide, 35.57

Acetic anhydride, 2.47

"Water, 1 1 .07

99.11

This result, deducting hydroscopic water and calculating the per
cents anew, gives : —

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide,

52.06

10.80

Arsenic trioxide,

37 04

3.00

Acetic anhydride,

2.57

.39

Water,

8.33

7.38

100.00

This is a mixture of copper arsenite and basic copper acetate, almost
of exactly the same composition as that obtained by the action of sodium
arsenite on copper acetate in Experiment No. 4, and, instead of con-
taining a considerable amount of copper acetate, has a very small
amount.

92

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Experiment No. 6.

To Ihe filtrate from the pigment obtained in Expt. No. 5, 50 grams
of arsenic trioxide were added and some free acetic acid : a new forma-
tion of the well-known color of Schweinfurt green occurred after a
prolonged boiling ; this was allowed to stand over night in contact with
the solution from which it was precipitated ; it was tiien tiltered off and
washed free from the excess of arsenic trioxide. The filtrate was blue,
and acid, containing copper, arsenic trioxide, and acetates ; on the addi-
tion of more arsenic trioxide, no precipitate fell, but, on neutralizing,
one was produced having the color of the one in Expt. No. 3, and
it was probably of similar composition, but was in too small an amount
for analysis. The composition of the pigment obtained was : —

Analysis No. VIII.

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios,

Copper oxide.

31.00

7.09

Arsenic trioxide,

54.48

5.00

Acetic anhydride,

11.32

2.00

Combined water,

2.55

2.56

Hydroscopic water.

.65

.70

100.00
This is very near the formula, —

2(CuOCJI,03) 5(CuOAs,03)-}-2II,0,
which when calculated in percentages is : —

Copper oxide.
Arsenic trioxide.
Acetic anhydride,
Water,

Per cents.

31.12
55.43
11.43

2.02

100.00

Atomic Ratios.
7.00
5.00
2.00
2.00

This was the first hydrated copper aceto-arsenite obtained, excepting
the resulting pigments from Expts. Nos. 5 and 6, whicli may be consid-
ered as mixtures; for, although there was a small amount of water in
nearly all samples, it was hydroscopic water, and was entirely driven
oflf by heating to 105° C.

This experiment was repeated, giving : —

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 93

Analysis No. IX.

Copper oxide,
Arsenic trioxide,
Acetic anhydride,
Combined water,
Hydroscopic water,

Per cents.

Atomic Ratios.

31.53

7.05

55.03

5.00

10.16

1.76

2.28

2.32

.64

.60

100.04

This is a confirmation of the preceding result, and seems to prove
the existence of a hydrated copper aceto-arsenite.

Having experimented on an excess of copper acetate with a small
amount of arsenic trioxide, the other extreme was now tried, and, as
the proportion was 5 to 1 in preceding case, so here 5 to 1 was used.

Experiment No. 7.
Copper acetate, 25 grams.

Arsenic trioxide, 125 „

Dissolved separately, added the copper solution to the arsenic triox-
ide, and boiled ; the reaction was as in the preceding cases ; first cop-
per arsenite, changing to aceto-arsenite ; this precipitate was filtei'ed
off and washed with hot water; the filtrate contained a trace of copper
and a large amount of arsenic trioxide. When the excess of arsenic
trioxide was waslied out of the precipitate, the latter was dried at
100° C. and analyzed.

Analysis No. X.

Per cents.

Atomic Batios.

Copper oxide,

31.19

4.85

Arsenic trioxide.

46.47

3.00

Acetic anhydride.

14.05

1.76

Combined water,

7.05

4.85

Hydroscopic water,

1.15

99.91
This agrees with the formula, —

2(CuOC,H,03) 3(CuOAs203) +5H2O,
which, calculated in percentages, gives, —

04 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Per cents.

Atomic Katios

Copper oxide,

30.90

5.00

Ai'seiiic trioxide,

46.22

3.00

Acetic anhydride,

15.88

2.00

Water,

7.00

5.00

100.00

This salt is in color the most brilliant of all the samples in my pos-
session, and of a decidedly different shade from thei samples of the
formulae, —

(CuOC,H,.0,) 3(CuOAs20,) and
2(CuOC,H,63) 3(CuOAsA),

being more grass-green, having less blue in it. It comports itself
with acids and alkalies in a similar manner to the last-mentioned salt,
but is a little more dense ; it holds to its five molecules of water
strongly, it not being decomposed at 120° C. When heated for a long
time at this temperature, it oxidizes slowly and gains steadily in
weight. Tliis is probably the salt existing in the commercial samples
examined minus tlie water, and is the nearest approach to them I
have been able to make, the exact formula for their production being
a trade secret.

"* Wagner states that the formula given by Ehrmann is only
empirical, because a portion of the copper is present as the suboxide,
and a portion of the arsenic as arsenic acid."

To test this statement, I examined my samples of Schweinfurt green
in the following maimer: In each case a weighed amount of the green
was dissolved in pure hydrochloric acid, made alkaline with ammonia
water and " magnesia mixture " added, and in each case a precipitate
occurred. After allowing this to stand over night, it was filtered off
and washed with aqua ammonia dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and
neutralized with ammonia, then acidulated with acetic acid, and acetate
of uranium solution of known strength added, testing in the usual way
for an excess, with ferrocyanide of potash. The first drop of uranium
solution gave a brown coloration when tested with the ferrocyanide,
and an excess gave no precipitate, proving beyond a doubt the absence
of arsenic pentoxide.

The precipitate obtained by the " magnesia mixture " was doubtless
basic magnesium sulphate and magnesia itself.

* Handbook Chemiual Technology, Rudolf Wagner, Ph. D. Translated by
W. Crooks, F.R.S. Appletou & Co., N. Y., 1872. Page 58.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 95

Therefore I conclude that the formulae do represent the composition,
both empirically and rationally, and that there is no suboxide of cop-
per present, as also no arsenic acid.

Wagner, after giving Ehrmann's receipt, publishes the following from
M. Braconnot: '• 15 kilos of sulphate of copper (CuSO^-f-'^^^-.'O) are
dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of boiling water, and mixed
with a boiling ami concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potash,
so prepared as to contain 20 kilos of arsenious acid. There is imme-
diately formed a dirty greenish-colored precipitate, which is converted
into Schweinfurt green by the addition of some 15 litres concentrated
wood-vinegar. This having been done, the precipitate is filtered off
and washed. . . .

" It thus appears that the preparation of this pigment aims first at the
least expensive preparation of neutral arsenite of copper, which is then
converted into aceto-arsenite of cojjper, by digesting the precipitate
with acetic acid."

Kow this is very probably the method, by which the samjile
obtained from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was made, and
accounts for the basic copper sulphate found in it. The insoluble
matter is used to dilute the color and as adulteration.

These latter are therefore impurities, and are to be disregarded in
speaking of its composition.

Now with regard to the pure pigment: Ehrmann's analysis is with-
out doubt correct, and is sustained by two samples prepared by myself;
but this cannot be regarded as the universal composition of the salt,
and does not, as has be^u already said, cover the commerrial samples
that I found in the market. Therefore we must look farther, and we
find there is another salt having the formula, —

2(CuOC,HA) 3(CuOAsA),

in two commercial samples ; hence we infer that the composition varies
between these salts, that it may be CuOC^H^Og 3(CuOAs.,0.j), or
2(CuOC^Hy03) S^CuOAs^Og), or something between the two; and we
also see that the amount of arsenic trioxide may vary considerably,
from the difficulty with which it is removed by washing, even with hot
water, in process of manufacture.

In the extract from N. Reilter, we have a series of results which
vary from any obtained by Ehrmann and myself (with one exception),
where the amounts of acetic acid are much less. And he states
that Schweinfurt green is copper mono-arsenite combined with varying
amounts of basic copper acetate. We have a variance of from

9(5 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

7.88% — 17.82% of acetic anhydride, a variance of nearly 10%.
As the salt is crystalline, and is formed out of different propor-
tions of the materials used, with the same composition, as it was in
several cases where no great change was made, it appears as a definite
chemical compound, and the variation is, I think, best explained by
considering the existence of several definite salts. Also in three cases
I have found water chemically combined, which shows still more vari-
ance, but these salts also appear definite, and agree with vei*y simple
formulas.

Pure Schweinfurt green may therefore be composed either entirely
of the salt having the formula (CuOCJIuO.) 3(CuOAs03), or en-
tirely of that having the formula 2(CuOC^HP3) 3(CuOAs203), or
may have a composition between the two, from a mixture of these
salts, and it may contain combined water having this formula,
2(CuOC,H,03), 5(CuOAs20,3)4-2H,0, or may have the formula
2(CuOC,H,03) 3(CuOAs203) 5H,0. And all tiiese results may be
varied again still more by a mechanical mixture of arsenic trioxide,
from the difficulty of removing the same by washing. That the arsenic
is present as trioxide, it contains no arsenic pentoxide so far as I have
been able to find in this investigation. The salts of the formulae
2(CuOC,H,03) 3(CuAs,03) and 2(CuOC,HA) 3(CuOAs,03)+5H20
are more brilliant than the other two with less basic copper acetate
in them, the difference being quite marked.

Therefore this beautiful pigment is not so definite as has been pre-
viously supposed, but may vary some ten per cent in its amount of
acetic acid, twelve per cent in its arsenic trioxide, and five per cent
in its amount of copper oxide ; while some samples contain chemi-
cally combined water, in one specimen going up to seven per cent.
And all of these would be taken by an observer for Schweinfurt
green, and can only be distinguished by a slight difference in shade of
color and chemical composition, which latter shows there exists three
definite salts.

In the analyses of this paper, the following methods were employed:

A weighed portion was dissolved in an excess of nitric acid, the
solution boiled some time in order to oxidize the arsenic trioxide,
the solution was then made alkaline with caustic potasli, which pre-
cipitated the copper as oxide, which if the acids are all oxidized is
black; if not, orange-red, in which case the separation is not as per-
fect, and it cannot be manipulated with as much ease, as when the
oxidation is perfect. The fluid with the precipitate is boiled and

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 97

filtered, tlie precipitate washed with hot water, dissolved in dilute
sulphuric acid, and the metallic copper precipitated by a battery.

The filtrate containing the arsenic is made acid with acetic acid, and
titrated wilh uranium acetate solution.

This method was carefully tested against others and itself, and
proved to give the most satisfactory results.

The acetic anhydride was determined by ignition with lead chromate
as in an oi-ganic analysis, collecting the carbonic acid and water, and
weighing the same ; the excess in weight of water above that formed
from the combustion of the acetic acid, gave the total water. The
hydroscopic water was determined by drying the salt for three or four
hours in an air-bath at 100° — 105° C. until a constant weight was
obtained, of course deducting the hydroscopic from the total water,
gives that which is combined.

I owe my sincere thanks to Professor S. P. Sharpies, for his kind-
ness in allowing me the use of his very convenient laboratory, his
library, and for some suggestions as the investigation progressed.

Boston, October 24, 187G.

VOL. XII. (n. s. it.)

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

VII.

MILK ANALYSES.

By S. p. Sharples, S.B.

Presented, Nov. 8, 1876.

In my former paper on this subject, read before the Academy last
Decemlxjr, I gave the residts of the analyses of a number of specimens
of milk from the vicinity of Boston. Since that time 1 have iiad occasion
to examine critically the method of analysis which I a^as led to adopt
by my experiments, as then reported, and the results were so satisfactory
that I have extended my investigations further upon the subject of pure
milk as produced by cows of different breeds and by the same cow
under ditfurent conditions. The pure milk for these experiments was
kindly furnished me by Dr. E. L. Sturtevaut, and was in each case
drawn under his own supervision.

The method of analysis followed was &'st to determine the specific
gravity, by weighing 100 cc. of the milk : this was then set for cream ;
25 cc. were precipitated by acetic add and the sugar determined.
Five cubic centimetres were carefully weighed, evaporated to dryness,
again weighed, tlie fat dissolved out by benzine, the solids not fat
weighed, and then the ash determined by ignition. The caseine was
determined by difference, and of course includes all the albumen and
other substances of this nature that exist in the solids not fat after the
abstraction of the sugar and ash.

The test analyses, with two exceptions, were made on samples of
adulterated milk, which were seized during the past year by the milk
inspector of the city of Lynn.

Analysis No. I. April 1, 1876.

Cream 5^

Sp. Gr 1.020

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

99

Analysis
2So. 1.

Analysis
No. 2.

Average

Sugar . . .

2.86

2.86

2.860

Caseine . . .

2.99

3.00

2.995

Ash . . .

.42

.42

.420

Solids not Fat
Fat . . . .

Total Solids
Water . .

6.27
2.15

8.42
91.58

100.00

6.28

2.18

8.46

91.54

6.275

2.165

8.440

91.560

100.00

100.000

In each case, a sinnle precipitation of tlie caseine and fet for the
purpose of determining the sugar was made ; but the solution was
titrated at least twice, and the average of the results, which never
varied more than a cc, taken as the amount of sugar.

This method of determining the sugar has been condemned by many
chemists; but, if the precaution is taken of pi'eparing a fre-^h solution
every time a series of determinations are made, the results will, so far
as I have experimented, be found to be comparable with each other,
and those determinations made in the same sample of milk will agree
very closely with each other.

Analysis No. II. April 8, 1876.

Cream 6%

Sp. Gr 1.0215

Sugar .
Caseine .
Ash . .

Solids not Fat
Fat . . . .

Total Solids
Water . .

Analysis
No. 1

3.45

Analysis
No. 2.

3.45

Average.
3.450

2.78

2.79

2.785

.48

.47

.475

6.71

2.31

9.02

90.98

6.71
2.31

9.02
90.98

6.710
2.310

9.020

90.980

100.00

100.00

100.000

100 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Analysis No. III. April 14, 1876.

Cream 4%

Sp. Gr 1.022

Analysis Analysis

No 1. No 2. Average.

Sugar .... 3.74 3.74 3.74

Caseine. . . . 3.28 3.26 3.27

Ash .56 .56 .56

Solids not Fat . 7.58 7.56 7.57

Fat 2.32 2.34 2.33

Total Solids . . 9.90 9.90 9.90

Water .... 90.10 90.10 90.10

100.00 100.00 100.00

Analysis No. IV. May 2, 1876.

Cream 5%

Sp. Gr 1.023

Analysis Analj'sis

No. 1. No. 2. Average.

Sugar .... 3.36 3.36 3.360

Caseiue . . . ' . 3.25 3.22 3.235

Ash 50 .50 .500

Solids not Fat . 7.11 7.08 7.095

Fat 2.25 2.25 2.250

Total Solids . . 9.36 9.33 9.345

Water .... 90.64 90.67 90.655

100.00 100.00 100.000

Analysis No. V.

Cream 8%

Sp. Gr 1.0255

Analysis Analysis

No.l. No. 2. Average.

Sugar .... 3.96 3.96 3.960

Caseine .... 3.64 3.69 3.665

Ash 45 .45 .450

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 101

Solias not Fat . 8.05 8.10 8.075

Fat ' 3.30 3.30 3.300

Total Solids . . 11.35 11.40 11.375

Water .... 88.65 88.60 88.625

100.00 100.00 100.000

Analysis No. VL August 2, 1876.'

Cream 8.5^

Sp. Gr 1.023

Analysis Analysis

No. 1. Nu 2. Average.

Sugar .... 3.04 3.04' 3.04

Caseine .... 3.62 3.66 3.64

Ash 43 .43 .43

Solids not Fat . 7.09 7.13 7.11

Fat 2.18 2.14 • 2.16

Total Solids . . 9.27 9.27 9.27

Water .... 90.73 90.73 90.73

100.00 100.00 100.00

Analysis No. VIT. August 28, 1876.

(Sample of milk known to be pure.)

Cream 5^

Sp. Gr 1.030

Analysis Analysis

Ko. 1. J{o. 2. Average.

Sugar .... 3.94 3.94 3.940

Caseine .... 4.81 4.82 4.815

Ash 65 .65 .650

Solids not Fat . 9.40 9.41 9.405

Fat 2.47 2.49 2.480

Total Solids . . 11.87 11-90 11.885

Water .... 88.13 88.10 88.115

100.00 100.00 100.000

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Analysis No. VIII. August 28, 1876.

(Sample known to be pure.)

Cream 18%

Sp. Gr 1.033

Analysis Analysis

>i'o. 1. JS'o. 'A. Average.

Sugar .... 4.19 4.19 4.19

Ciuseiue .... 5.23 5.17 5.20

Ash .... . .72 .72 .72

Solids not Fat . 10.14 10.08 10.11

Fat 4.35 4.35 4.35

Total Solids . . 14.49 14.43 14.46

Water .... 85.51 85.57 85.54

100.00 100.00 100.00

These last two were samples of pure milk furnished by Dr. Sturte-
vant. After finishing the first analysis of each, I was led to suspect
that there must be some error in No. VII., as the total solids are low
for a pure milk. I therefore repeated both analyses, taking a second
sample from the bottles some five or six hours after the first samples
wei'e taken, with the above results. The above eiglit are not selected
analyses, but are all the duplicate analyses I have made up to this
time.

These analyses, with the exception of the two last, having been
made for legal purposes, it became necessary to compare the results
with some standard taken arbitrarily to represent an average pure
milk. The standard of 12.5 per cent total solids has been chosen by
many chemists, following Mr, Wanklyn in this respect.

It is in all prohabiHty a little too low for this vicinity ; but it has been
adopted for the reason tliat the courts have generally ruled that, provided
a milk-dealer keeps his milk abjve the quality of the poorest milk tliat
has ever been analyzed, he is to be regarded as selling pure milk, and
is therefore not liable to conviction for adulteraiiou. Tlie suit for
adulteration being a criminal suit and not a civil suit for damages, the
defendant is given every advantage, and the public is forced to be con-
tented if the milk is as rii-h in total solids as the poorest milk that a
half-starved cow was ever known to give. A much more just way to
the consumer and to the producer would be to give in the law a certain

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 103

standard below which the solids in milk should not be allowed to fall.
This might be even as low as 12 per cent. This low figure would be
better than the present system, because, in the first place, the consumer
would get a better article than he now gets, when all milk that contains
over Ut.75 per cent of solid matter has to be pa-;seJ as pure. The
producer woidd fire better also, since by stopping the sale of watered
milk, or rather tliat portion of watered milk tluit falls below 12 per
cent of total solids, the demand would be increased for pure milk. As
it is now, the majoi-ity of dealers seem to prefer to buy seven-eighths or
less of the milk that they need and make up the balance with water,
since water costs considerably less than milk.

It seems to be pretty generally conceded that the producer very
rarely waters the milk that he delivers to the middlemen or contrac-
tors. These deliver to the owuers of milk routes, who sell to private
families or to stores, from whence it is delivered to the consumer.
The owners of the milk routes are the ones who are generally accused
of adulterating the milk.

Such a law as that mentioned would, therefore, only diminish their
profits, while both tlie producer and contractor would be better satisfied ,
for the market would be better and the consumer would be better
served. It may be urged, oii the other hand, that milk being an un-
certain animal product, dependent on various circumstances for its
richness and strength, — any one of which circumstances may at any
time become abnormal, and so change the value of the milk, — there-
fore it would be unjust to establish any fixed standard below which
the solids should not fall. Tlie answer to this is that the milk of well-
fed cows, in good health, rarely, if ever, falls below 11.5 per cent of
total solids, and that it will average over 13 per cent of total solids,
and that by establishing the standard at 12 per cent, with a margin
of half a per cent for exceptional cases, no injustice is done to any
one, while the public would be decidedly benefited.

The average milk containing 12.5 per cent of solids should have
about the following composition : —

Actual
Theory, Analysis.

Sp. Gr 1.030 1.031

Cream 8% 6%

Sugar 4.40 4.32

Caseine 4.30 4.27

Ash 60 .64

104

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Solids not Fat .... 9.30

Fat 3.20

Total Solids 12.50

Water 87.50

100.00

9.23
3.27

12.50

87.50

100.00

For comparison I have annexed the figures as given by an actual
analysis of a sample of milk which contained 12.5 per cent of total
solidso

In determininj; the amount of added water for the information of
the court, we may use any one of several of the determinations given;
that is, we may compare the total soUds, when we have the proportion

12.5 : a :: lOO : x

a representing the amount of total solids found, and x the amount of
pure milk in the sample ; or we may use the proportion

9.3 : b :: lOO : x

b represents the amount of solids not fat. A third proportion is

4.4 : c : : lOO : x

c representing the percentage of sugar as found. In order to show
how nearly the amount of added water as determined by these three
methods agree, I will give, in addition to the six samples of adulterated
milk already given, a few more samples of milk suspected of being
adulterated, and then give the amount of pure milk and the amount of
added water in each sam})le as determined by each of tlie above pro-
portions. I also include in the table three other samples of milk known
to be pure, but which would be condemned by one or more of the above
tests.

Analysis.

Sugar.

Caseine.

Ash.

Solifls

not

Fat.

Fat.

Total
Solids.

Sp. Gr.

Cream.

No. IX.

3.52

3.37

.46

7.35

2.45

9.80

90,20

1.025

9

X.

3.58

3.25

.4.3

7.21

3.37

10.58

89.42

1 .024

9

„ XI.

3.52

3.11

.52

7.15

2.10

9.25

90.75

1 .024

6

„ XII.

3.58

3 5!)

.48

7.00

2.07

9.67

90.38

1.025

6

„ XIII.

3 78

3.40

.48

7.61

2.53

10.14

89 86

1.026

8

„ XIV.

4.88

3.48

.64

0.00

2 13

11 13

88.87

10315

10

„ XV.

4.82

3.54

.57

8.93

2.71

11.64

88.36

1028

6

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

105

Numbers VIL, XIV,, XV., were known to be pure milk.

From Total Solids.

From Solids not Fat.

From Sugab.

Analysis.

Pure Milk.

Added
Water.

Pure Milk.

Added
Water.

Pure Milk.

Adileil
Water.

No. I.

67.52

32.48

67.47

32 53

65.00

35 00

II.

72.10

27.84

72 15

27.85

7841

21.59

„ lit.

79.20

20.80

81.89

18.61

85.00

15.00

„ IV.

74.76

25 24

76.28

23.72

70.37

23.63

V.

91.00

9.00

86.83

13 17

90 00

10.00

„ VI.

74. IG

25.84

76.45

23 55

69.09

30.91

„ vn.

95.0S

4.92

101.13

—1 13

89.55

10.45

„ i.\'.

78.40

21.60

79.03

20.97

80.00

20.00

X.

84.04

15.36

77.53

22.47

80 23

19.77

„ XI.

74.00

26.00

7t..88

23.12

80.00

20 00

„ XII.

77.36

22.64

81.72

18 28

80 23

19.77

„ XIII.

81 12

18.88

81.83

18.17

84.77

15.23

„ XIV.

89.04

10.96

96 77

3.23

110 90

—10.90

„ XV.

93.12

6.88

90.02

398

109.55

— y.55

The figures with the — sign before them sliow that this iflgredient,
instead of being below the normal amount, was present in excess.

These cases, with the exception of Nos. V., VIL, XIV., and XV.,
were all carried into court, and convictions were secured. Xo. V. it
was thought not advisable to prosecute, though there could be but
little doubt of the adulteration. The other three, as before stated,
were pure milk, and each one of these three rises in one determination
above the standard chosen ; and, if they had been brought to me to be
examined as adulterated milks, I should have refused, as I did in the
case of Xo. V., to appear against the seller, as in each case there would
be a strong doubt in his favor.

A paper by Dr. Mott, of Xew York, on the milk from the right and
left breasts of women, suggested to me that I sliould try similar ex-
periments with the different quarters of tlie udder of the cow. This I
have been enabled to do throu<ih the kindness of Dr. Sturtevant.

I had previously found that I could, without any extra effort, make
from four to six com|)lete analyses a day, if I had a complete set of
apparatus for each analysis. Commencing work at 10 a.-\i., when the
milk arrived at my office, the four analyses have been completed, ex-
cept the reading of tlie volume of cream, by 6 p.m. Analyses Xos.
XVI., XVII.. XVIII., and XIX., were of milk yielded by the Ayrshire
cow " Model of Perfection." She was eleven years old, and calved
Dec. 31, 1875. Evening's milk, Aug. 13, 1876.

106

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The milk was drawn from each teat into a separate vessel, and was

brought to me next morning.

XVI. Right forward teat, yield 907. grams.

XVII. Left forward teat, yield 577. „

XV'^III. Right rear teat, yield 680. „

XIX. Left rear teat, vield 577. „

Total yield 2741.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

Average.

Cream

Sp. Gr

Sugar

Ch seine

Ash

25.
1.025

4.09

4.48
.68

42.
1.024

2.18

6.58

.61

29.
1.026

3.44

5.00
.66

24.
1.028

4.20

5.59

.67

28.1
1.0257

3.72

5.11

.66

Solids not Fat . . .
Fat

9.25
5 59

9.87
4.43

9.10
4.39

10.46
3.84

9.49

4.68

Total Solids . . .
Water

14.84
85.16

13,80
86 20

13.49

86.51

14 30
85.70

14.17

85.83

100.00

lOO.UO

100.00

lOO.OJ

100.00

The sugar in No. XVII. was tested a second time with the same
results.

Analyses Nos. XX., XXL, XXIL, XXIIL The above results
varied so much that it was desirable to repeat this experiment, which
v/as accordingly done with another cow, with the following results : —

Ayrshire cow " Tabitha;" feed, 4 quarts cob meal i)er day, hay. and
corn fodder ; age, 2^ years; calved last spring. Evening's milk, Nov.
19, 1875. AualyzedNov. 21, 1876.

XX. Right forward teat, yield 624. grams.

XXI. Left forward teat, yield 624. „

XXIL Right rear teat, yield 680. „

XXIIL Left rear teat, yield 737. „

Total yield 2665.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

107

1

; XX.

i

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

Average.

Cream, vol. p. c. .
Sp. Gr

Susar

Caseine ....
Ash

14.
1.032

4.00

3.58

.51)

11.

1.031

5.ro

3.42

.57

13.
1.0.306

4.72

3.61

.01

10.
1.0315

4 88

3.48

.64

11.9
1.031

4.87

3.51.

.60

Solids not Fat . .
Fat

9 02
3.32

8 90
3.00

8.94
2.73

9.00
2.13

8.08

2.77

Total Solids . . .
Water

12..34

87.66

11.90
8o.0l

11.67

88.33

11.13

88.87

1175

88.25

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

The variation in this case consists mainly in the amount of fat.
This variation, as will be seen, amounts to 1.21 per cent. The
averages for both the above milks were found by ascertaining the total
weight of each product given by tlie teat, adding the four weights
together and diviiiing by the total weight of milk yielded.

It is evident from these experiments that each quarter of the udder
yields a milk that may differ considerably from that given by any of
the other quarters. This, however, has only a scientific interest, as in
practice the four quarters are drawn simultaneously and the average
result is used.

Some further experiments were tried in reference to the influence
of breed and feed on the quality of the milk. These are far too few in
number to base any opinion on ; but, so far as I have been able to carry
them, they show the need of extended experiments on this subject, —
experiments which should be carried over the space of several years,
with analysis at least once a week, careful records being kept of tem-
perature of the air, state of the weather, and general condition of the
cow ; and a sufficient number of cows of each breed should be em-
ployed, that the individual equation of the cow should be eliminated
so far as possible. To be comparaljle, these analyses should be either
made by one person, or, if made by several, they should be made l)y the
same method, and these persons should compare their working by
making several simultaneous analyses of the same sample of milk.

Analysis No. XXIV., Ayrshire cow " Geor<rie ; " calved July 7,
1876; food, pasture, fodder corn, and six quarts of shorts. Evening
milk, Aug. 7, 1876.

108

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Analysis No. XXV., Ayrshire cow " Georgiana;" calved July 19 ;
food the same as last. Evening milk, Aug. 7, 1876.

Analysis No. XXVI., Ayrshire cow " Georgiana ; " feed for a
week previous, green fodder corn and grass. Evening milk, Aug. 19,
1876.

Analysis No. XXVII., cow " Georgiana ; " feed for the previous
week, green fodder corn, grass, and three quarts corn meal per day.
Evening milk, Aug. 28, 1876.

Analysis No. XXVllI., cow " Georgiana ; " feed for the previous
week, grass, and five quarts of shorts, and one quart of corn meal per
day. Evening milk, Sept. 3, 1876.

These two cows were full-blood Ayrshire, mother and daughter.
" Georgie " was imported, and " Georgiana " was calved in this
country.

XXIV.

XXV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

Average.

Cream vol. p. c.
Sp. Gr. . . .

Sugar ....
Caseine . . .
Ash ....

14.

1.029

5.00

360

.59

17.
1.031

5.19

4.13

.07

20.
1.030

5.20

3.34

.00

5.
1.030

3.94

4.82
.65

6.
1.031

4.32

4.27

.64

12.4
1.0302

4.73

4.03

.63

Solids not Fat .
Pat

9.19
3.09

9.99
. 4.20

9.14
4.34

9.41

2.48

023

3.37

9.39
3.48

Total Solids .
Water. . . .

12.28
87.72

14.19

85.81

13.48
86.52

11.89
88 11

12 50

87.50

12.87
87.13

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

Analysis No. XXIX., Jersey cow " Ilenny ; " calved July 17, 1876 ;
food, pasture and green fodder corn, two quarts mixed corn and oat
meal, and one quart shorts per day. Evening milk, Aug. 6, 1876.

Analysis No. XXX., Jersey cow "Danseuse;" calved May 11;
same feed as No. XXIX. Evening milk, Aug. 6, 1876.

Analysis No. XXXL, Jersey cow " Ileuny ;" feed for the previous
week, corn fodder and pasture. Evening milk, Aug. 19.

Analysis No. XXXII., Jersey cow " Henny ; " food, pasture and
corn meal. Evening milk, Aug. 27, 1876.

Analysis XXXIII., cow "Ilenny;" food, pasture and six quarts
of shorts per day. Evening milk, Sept. 3, 1876.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

109

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXIU

Average.

Cream vol. p. c.
Sp.Gr. . . .

Suojar ....
Caseine . . .
Ash ....

27.
1.027

4.20

4.42

.59

21.
l.OSl

4.57

378

.69

22.
1030

5.67

2.64

.62

18.
1.033

4.19

5.17

.72

13.5
1.030

4.81

8-83

.61

20 3
1.030

4.69

3.97

.02

Solids not Fat .
Fat

9 21
4.72

8.94
6.61

8.93
5.07

10.08
4.35

9.25

4.78

9 28
5.12

Total Solids . .
Water ....

1401

85.99

15.55
84.45

14.00
86.00

14.43

85.57

14.03

85.97

14.40

85.60

100.00

lOU.OO

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

It appears from the average of these two series of analysis that in
this experiment the two breeds of cows gave milk that averaged
almost exactly the same composition, with the exception of the yield
of flit ; the Jersey giving on the average nearly one half more fat
than the Ayrshire. The average result of the thirty-four analyses of
pure milk, twenty-two of which were reported kst December, and
twelve now, is as follows : —

Sp. Gr 1.030

Cream vol. p. c 13.8

Sugar 4.82

Caseine 4-06

Ash 65

Solids not Fat 9.53

Fat 4.62

Total Solids 14.15

Water 85.85

100.00

"With these analyses to judge from, it seems to me that an inspector
of milk is fully justified in asking a conviction from the courts, if, when
the theoretical milk containing 12.5 per cent of solids is taken as a
standard, each of the three proportions starting from total solids, solids
not fat, and sugar, show an addition of fifteen per cent or over of water.

110

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

No specimen of pure milk that I have ever examined, or that I can
find any records of, fails to the extent of fifteen per cent of indicated
adulteration in all three of these particulars. And I may add still
further, although the specific gravity of a milk is not regarded as a
reliable indication of its purity, that, in every case of adulterated milk
I have met with, the inspector was justified in his seizure, if the sp.
gr. fell below 1.026.

The mistake is sometimes made of con.sidering the estimation of
added water as an absolute determination, entitled to the same weight
as the actual analysis. But it must be evident to any one. on a few
moments' reflection, that these estimations cannot be so regarded, and
that they are only approximsitions, whose chief value is to show the
courts how much the milk falls below a milk of fair quality ; and,
when taken in connection with the fact that pure milk never falls so
far below this standard, tiiey enable the court to judge intelligently
whether there are fair grounds for considering the sample to be
adulterated.

Boston, Nov. 27, 1876.

APPENDIX.

It having been suggested that the first run of the milk of a cow was
much poorer than the strippings. and therefore a milkman, who was
desirous of proving that his milk was unwatered, might procure an
analysis of such a specimen, the foIlo^^ing experiment was tried : —

Analysis No. XXXI V., cow " Georgiana," right forward teat. Even-

Analysis No. XXXIV.

Average.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

Sp. Gr

Cream ....

Sugar

Ciiseine ....
Asli

1.029

6%

i.o;i2

y%

4.80

4.25

.58

1.027

11%

4.50

3.! 10

.54

1.029

«%

4.61

3 65

.55

4.
3.06
.54

49

3.01
.54

Solids not Fat . .
Fat

8.09
1.78

8.04
1.84

9.63
3.03

8.94
4.03

8.81
2.61

Total Solids . .
Water ....

9.87
90.13

9.88
90.12

12 66

87.34

12.97
87.03

1142

88.58

100.00

IOj.uo

lOJ.UO

100.00

100.00

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

Ill

ing, Dec. 3, 1876. The milk was divided into three portions, as follows .
319 grams were fir.st drawn into one bottle, 274 grams were drawn
into a second, and the remainder of the milk, 100 grams, was drawn
into the third bottle. These three samples of milk were brouj^ht to
Boston next morning and analyzed, with the following results. No. 1
proving so poor, a second analysis was made of it. This did not
change the figures to any amount.

The first drawing in this case, while showing a deficiency of total
solids, and soli<Is not fat, nevertheless has rather more than the average
amount of sugar, so the rule laid down would fail to condemn this as
a watered milk. No one, however, would hesitate a moment in saying
that it was a very poor article indeed. " Georgiana's" milk, as shown
all through tliis paper, is not a very rich milk.

The near approach of Ayrshire milk to woman's milk is worthy of
remark. The average of many analyses of woman's milk, as given by
different authors, is as follows : —

Colnrert
Woman's Milk

Average of

12 Analyses,

by Mott.

Wliite
Woman's Milk

Average of

89 Analyses,

by Verniiis and

Becquerel.

Wliite
Woman's Milk

Average of

14 Analyses,

by Sijiiou.

White
Woman's Milk

Average of

14 Analyses,

by Tidy.

Sugar

Caseine

Ash

5.71

332

.60

4 364

3.924
0.138

4 82
3.43
0.23

4 265
3.5-23
0.285

Solids not Fat . .
Fat

9.63
4.03

8.426

2.666

9.11
2 53

8.073
4.021

Total Solids . . .
Water

13.66
8634

11 092
88.908

11.64

88.36

12.194

87 806

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

These differ fully as much among themselves as any one differs
from the average of Ayrshire milk, as given. Any tampering with
Ayrshire milk, such as adding sugar and water to it, in order to make
it more nearly resemble woman's milk, will therefore evidently do
more harm than good: it is free from the excess of fat which often-
times renders Alderney milk unfit for food for delicate children, and I
have been assured by those who have used it that it makes an excellent
substitute for woman's milk. For children's food, it evidently needs

112 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

nothing done to it, except warming it slightly, so as to take the chill
off.

In this connection, I think I am justified in saying that no one cow's
milk. is as uniform in composition as the milk of a herd of cows, and
that, if a uniform diet is wished for a child, it will be much better
secured by mixing the milk of a number of cows, than when it is
attempted by trying to secure the milk of a single cow. Since, as we
see, the milk of any one of the cows taken varies very considerably.

Boston, Dec. 7, 1876.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 113

VIII.

ON A NEW MODE OF MANIPULATING HYDRIC

SULPHIDE.

By Josiah p. Cooke, Jr.,

Erving Prqfessor qf Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard College.
Presented May 30th, 1876.

In chemical laboratories, where instruction in qualitative analysis is
given to large numbers on the class system, the use of hydric sulphide
gas as a reagent is attended with grave inconveniences. These evils
can in great measure be avoided by substituting for the gas a solution
of the reagent in water, saturated at the ordinary temperature and
pressure of the air ; when, as is well known, one volume of water
dissolves about 3.4 volumes of the gas (measured at 15° C. and 76
cm.). Such a solution was for a long time used in the laboratory of
Harvard College. It was prepared in a long series of two litre bottles
connected by glass tubes in the usual way, and the solution was kept
in the laboratory in a large tubulated glass flask, from which it was
drawn by the students, as occasion required. This solution answers
almost every purpose for which the reagent is used in the ordinary
course of qualitative analysis, and the few conditions under which it
does not give satisfactory results can be easily avoided. Moreover, in
ease of application and promptness of effect it has all the advantages
of a liquid reagent ; and the only inconvenience its use involves is an
occasional evaporation of a solution, which the dilution by the reagent
may render necessary. Of course a solution of hydric sulphide is
liable to oxidation, and soon becomes turbid in contact with the air ;
but this change can be easily avoided by fitting to the neck of the
flask (in which the solution is kept), by means of a rubber stopper, a
glass tube dipping under the liquid, and connecting this tube with one
of the vents of illuminating gas in the laboratory.

For quantitative work, and for the preparation of chemical products,
when considerable quantities of metallic sulphides must be precipitated,
a solution of hydric sulphide, saturated under the ordinary pressure of

VOL. XII. (N. S. IV.) 8

114 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the air, is inconveniently dilute ; and two years since we described a
simple method by which a solution concentrated under pressure could
easily be prepared with the ordinary laboratory appliances. A heavy
glass bottle of about four litres' capacity served as a generator, and
from this the gas passed through a wash-bottle into two other bottles
of the same size and strength as the first. The intermediate bottle
was three-fourths filled with water, while the last served simply as
a gasholder. The connections were so arranged that the gas, after
bubbling up through the water, was delivered at the top of the gas-
holder ; and, by a tube uniting the bottom of the gasholder with the
water-pipes of the laboratory, the interior of the apparatus could be
submitted to the pressure of a column of water sixty feet high. The
gasholder was also provided with an exit tube, which could be closed
by a compression cock. The connecting tubes all passed through
rubber stoppers which were firmly wired to the necks of the bottles,
and the water-bottle was connected with its neighbors by two lengths
of stout rubber hose so that the water could be shaken up with the
gas without disturbing the rest of the apparatus. In order to saturate
the water with hydric sulphide, a charge of ferrous sulphide sulphuric
acid and water sufficient to yield at least three times the amount of
gas theoretically required was placed in the generator, and, after the
connections were made, the gas was allowed to stream through the ap-
paratus until all the air was displaced. The exit tube of the last bottle
was then closed, the water pressure turned on and the water-bottle
frequently shaken, until absorption ceased, and the aqueduct water —
at first forced by its pressure into the gasholder — was driven back
into the pipes. Before dismounting the api^aratus, the rubber connec-
tors were all closed by compression cocks, and care was taken to vent
the generator gradually. Moreover, the connectors of the water-bottle
were so arranged that when the apparatus was dismounted a short
piece of rubber hose was left attached to each orifice of the bottle,
both of which were closed by compression cocks. To one of these a
vent tube was subsequently attached, and by this the solution was
drawn off at pleasure, as from a soda-water siphon.

This simple apparatus was constantly used by us for two years, and
served an excellent purpose ; but it was found that after the glass
genei'ators had been charged several times they were liable to burst
under the same pressure which at first they had readily sustained. The
same accident never happened to the other bottles. But of course, if
the pressure is long continued, bottles of glass of the size named,
however well made, would be liable to such an accident ; and, if the

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

115

apparatus is to be remounted, it would be better to use a metallic vessel
for the generator, aud to cover the glass bottles with some kind of
netting. The experience with the glass apparatus led us to seek to
adapt to the same purpose some one of the various soda-water appara-
tuses which are greatly used in the United States for the production
of effervescing drinks. After examining several of the patterns in the
market, we selected for trial the one represented below, which is man-
ufactured by the firm of John Matthews, of New York, at their estab-
lishment, — First Avenue, 26th and 27th Streets, — in that city.
The apparatus was designed by them for preparing that overcharged
aqueous solution of carbonic dioxide, which in the United States is
familiarly called soda-water ; but with a very slight modification it can
be used with equal efficiency for the preparation of a similar solution
of hydric sulphide. We have worked out the details of the process,
which this new application involves, and publish them with the hope
that the apparatus may be found of as great value in other laboratories

Fig. 1.

116

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

as in our own. The wood-cuts are taken from the catalogue of the
firm, who have kindly loaned the blocks for this paper ; and we would
here express our obligations to them for their great courtesy and lib-
erality during the whole course of our exjieriments.

The apparatus consists of two parts, the generator and the fountains ;
and in Fig. 1 the generator is represented connected by a rubber hose
with one of the fountains, of which in practice we use three, connected
in a line by similar lengths of rubber hose, like so many Woolf's bot-
tles. In the figure, only the first of the line is represented, which is
set on trunnions in a frame, in order to facilitate the agitation of the
water and the gas. Only one of these frames, however, is required,
to which the other fountains can readily be transferred. A section of
the generator is represented in Fig. 2. It is made of cast iron, and in

Fig. 2.

two parts (readily distinguished in the figure), which are firmly bolted
together, so as to confine in its place the bell-metal jjlate M, which
separates the upper from the lower chamber. In the lower chamber is
placed dilute sulphuric acid, which is poured in through the bung A.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

117

In the upper chamber, and resting on the plate, is placed coarsely
powdered sulphide of iron, which is put in through the bung B.
Through the plate M, and on two lines at right angles to each other,
there are cut radial slits, ^ an inch wide, which are guarded by four
iron arms. These arms are attached to the agitator shaft S, and move
over the surface of the plate, alternately covering and uncovering the
slits, when the handle E is turned. To the lower end of the same
shaft is fastened the agitator O, which is turned simultaneously with
the arms just mentioned. After the apparatus has been charged, it is
evident that by turning the handle the sulphide of iron may be sifted
down at pleasure into the acid water below ; and the handles and arms
are so disposed that when the bungs are uncovered by the handles the
slits are covered by the arms. From the generator, the gas passes
through the washer R, whose relations to the apparatus, as well as that
of the pressure gauge, are evident from the figure. The generator is
lined with lead, and the rest of the apparatus, including the bell-metal
plate M, with pure tin. The lead lining of the generator is seamless
and very heavy, and all the cocks are lined with block tin tubing. Of
the various valves, bungs, and stuffing boxes indicated in the figure, it
is unnecessary to speak in detail. It is sufficient to say that they are
of excellent workmanship, and during a year's trial have kejit perfectly
tight. The charging bung, B, however, is closed by a safety cap of
peculiar construction, which deserves special mention, because it insures
the safety of the apparatus. The cap is represented by Fig. 3, and a
section is given in Fig. 4. It will be seen by the last that the escape
of the compressed gas from the generator through the apertures d is
only prevented by a thin disk a, which is shown in detail by Fig. 5.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 5.

FifT. 4.

This disk is made of two thin plates : the lower one, which comes in
contact with the acid spray, is of lead, and the upper one of silvered
copper, whose thickness is so adjusted that it must be at once ruptured
if the pressure in the apparatus should become unduly great.

118

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Although the so-called soda-water fountains — in which the solution
of the gas and water is made — have all in general the same simjDle
relation of parts, they are constructed of very different materials and
after very different methods. The outside shell may be either of ham-
mered copper or of some form of iron, and this may be lined with tin,
enamel, or glass. After having determined by experiment that a solu-
tion of hydric sulphide — especially when some carbonic dioxide is
added — exerts no action on a surface of metallic tin, except a very
slight and superficial staining, we selected as best adapted to our
purpose the steel fountains, also manufactured by the firm of John
Matthews, Fig. 6. These are made of plates of steel, united in a

K.VkKi.'i^^^^'^^^

Fig. G.

peculiar way invented by themselves so as to secure with comparative
lightness very great strength. They are lined on the inside with sheet tin,
and the tin lining forms an independent vessel, which alone is connected
with the bungs. The tubes and valve cocks are also either made or
lined with tin, so that the solution never comes in contact with any
other metal. For making ordinary soda-water, the fountain requires
only a single valve, which connects with a tube leading to the bottom
of the vessel, and this serves both to charge the fountain and to draw

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 119

off the solution when made. But since a solution of hydric sulphide
is rendered turbid if left in contact with eveu a small quantity of air,
and since a variable amount of free hydrogen is always formed by the
action of sulphuric acid on common sulphide of iron, it was necessary
for our purpose to add to the ordinary fountain a vent cock as shown
in the last figure. This enables us to connect together several foun-
tains after the manner of Woolf's bottles as already described, and, by
passing the current of gas through the whole line, to drive out all the
air originally in the apparatus, as well as the free hydrogen subse-
quently evolved. Moreover, in the preparation of the solution of
hydric sulphide, the generator should be much larger relatively to
the fountains than in the preparation of soda-water. Thus we use
for charging the so-called six-gallon steel fountains, the "Upright
Generator " known as No. 40, which has a capacity below the diaphragm
of sixty litres. It should be here stated that the fountains are only
rated at two thirds of their total capacity, which is the volume of soda
water which is ordinarily made in them. They should never be more
than thi-ee-fourths filled with water. But, even with this liberal
allowance for gas room, the six-gallon fountains referred to will hold
twenty-five litres of water. It may also be stated, although the fact
must be evident, that a single large fountain will not give as good
results as several small ones of equal capacity ; since in expelling the
air and free hydrogen, as we have described, there would be a consid-
erable loss of material, if only one fountain were used. Still, in labora-
tories where the consumption is not great, the loss is not important ;
and the smallest " Upright Generator," with one six- gallon fountain,
will be found to be a perfectly satisfactory apparatus.

Assuming first that the larger apparatus is used, the method of
charging is as follows : The large generator is too heavy to be readily
moved, and should be placed so that the discharge valve will empty
directly into a drain. Water also should be brought to the apparatus by
hose, — if possible, both hot and cold water, — not only for convenience
in charging, but also in washing. Finally, there ought to be a good
flue in the neighborhood, into which the waste gas may be discharged.
The apparatus having been thus established, the three fountains — first
rinsed out — are filled each with twenty-five litres of distilled water,
and, the valves having been secured, the fountains are connected with
each other and the generator by means of stout rubber hose as already
indicated, and the vent valve of the last fountain is connected with
the flue by a length of common gas hose. The generator is then
charged as follows : The handle is first placed so as to uncover the
bungs and cover the slits in the diaphragm. Through the bung A is

120 PEOCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

now poured 40 litres of hot water, heated to between 70° and 80° C,
and then 5 litres of common oil of vitriol are poured very cautiously
into the same bung through a lead funnel with narrow spout provided
for the purpose. The acid water will thus be heated nearly to the
boiling point, and its capacity of dissolving ferrous sulphate raised to
the maximum. Next 6 kilogrammes of sulphide of iron — previously
sufficiently pulverized to pass through a wire sieve with eight meshes
to the inch, and mixed with two kilogrammes of marble powder — is
run through a wide-mouth funnel into the bung B. The bungs having
been now all closed, the joints of the apparatus tested, the exit valve
D of the generator and all the valves of the fountains opened, a small
amount of the powder is sifted down into the acid water by turning
the handle not more than a single revolution, always taking care to
leave it so that the slits of the diaphragm shall be left covered. The
gas is then allowed to stream through the apparatus, and tested as it
escapes into the flue, until it burns without explosion, using a small
pneumatic trough for that purpose. The air is now nearly expelled,
and the escape of gas should be reduced by the last vent valve until
the current only su^jplies a small jet, which may now be attached and
lighted with safety, and by the size of this flame the vent may after-
wards be regulated. The handles are now slowly turned, and the
pressure in the apparatus carried up to about 120 pounds. The valves
of the fountains and the valve D of the generator are now all closed,
and the two last fountains detached, leaving the first (which is mounted
on a frame as represented in Fig. 1) united to the generator as before.
This is now rocked for several minutes to and fro, in order to
thoroughly agitate the water with the gas. The stop valve G should
then be opened, and then the valve D (very gradually), so that the gas
may be admitted slowly to the fountain. The valves are then again
closed, and the agitation renewed, and the same operation is repeated
several times until no more gas is absorbed by the water in the foun-
tain, the pressure in the generator meanwhile being maintained at 120
lbs., by turning the handle. The first fountain is then removed, and
the same process repeated with each of the others. At the close of
the operation, after all chemical action has ceased, there remains in the
generator — both free and dissolved in the liquid residue — a large
volume of hydric sulphide gas. This we economize by venting the
generator slowly through Woolfs bottles containing aqua ammonia,
and thus preparing at tlie same time ammonic sulphide. It is not
unimportant to aild that the generator should be emptied before it
cools, and the ferrous sulphate has time to crystallize. The discharge
valve R should then be removed, and the whole apparatus thoroughly

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 121

washed out. If the valve becomes clogged, it can generally be cleared
by developing pressure in the generator by means of a small charge
of ground marble. Otherwise, after the pressure has been relieved,
and the upper valves and bungs closed, the discharge valve must be
cautiously removed, and an opening forced through the lower bung.
Such details are necessary in order that others may profit by our ex-
perience ; but, lest the details should convey the impression that the
apparatus is complicated, and that the process requires skilled labor,
it may be stated that in this laboratory the apparatus is entirely iu
charge of a laboratory servant, and may be managed by any workman
of ordinary intelligence. It does not require more than four hours to
work over a single charge, and this yields 75 litres of hydric sulphide
solution under a pressure of 120 lbs. According to our experience,
this supply lasts with a class of one hundred students in qualitative
analysis about a month. For laboratories where the classes are much
smaller than this, we should recommend the smallest size generator,
which may be used with a single six-gallon fountain. The smaller
apparatus is managed in precisely the same way as the larger, only
taking one half the quantity of materials. It is important as before
to wash out in the first place all the air, and to maintain a small cur-
rent of gas through the vent valve of the fountain while the pressure
in the apparatus is rising. This of course entails some loss of hydric
sulphide ; but the chief loss is caused by the venting of the generator,
and all this gas may be utilized for the preparation of alkaline sul-
phides as described above, or this waste gas may be used for washing
out the air from a second fountain, and thus preparing it for a subse-
quent charge.

For dispensing the reagent in our qualitative laboratory, we place
the fountain iu a cupboard and connect it by a block-tin tube with a
so called "draught column," Fig. 7, in the ventilating hood above.
From this each student draws the reagent as it is required. In quan-
titative work we may draw the charged water directly from the fountain
into the midst of the solution to be treated, using simply a common
rubber hose terminated by a glass tube which dips under the surface
of the liquid : the hose is attached to the nipple of a cajj which
screws on to the valve of the fountain, and by confining two or more
disks of linen cloth between the cap and the head of the valve (like
washers) we can filter the solution as it flows out. It is more con-
venient, however, to distribute the reagent to advanced students in the
well-known soda-water siphon, Fig. 8. These require no description,
but as the simple apparatus used for filling the siphon is not yet
a familiar object in chemical laboratories, we give a figure of the

122

PRaCEZDLN'GS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY .

apparatus (Fig. 9), taken, like our other cuts, from the catalogue
of John Matthews. By pressing the foot on a pedal shown at the base

Fio-. 7.

Fis. «■

of the apparatus, the siphon — confined in a cage — is raised, so that
its mouth is forced tightly against one opening of a valve of peculiar
construction, the second opening of which is united by a block-tin tube
to a fountain ; while at the same time the handle of the siphon is
pressed back. On now pushing the upper lever shown in the cut to the
right, the valve of the fountain having been previously opened, a con-
nection is made between the fountain and the siphon ; when the charged
water rushes into the latter, condensing the air to a fraction of its origi-
Bal volume. If next the same lever is pushed momentarily to the left,
the first connection is closed; while a vent is opened, through which
the condensed air rushes out into the atmosphere before the gas in
solution has time to escape, and then on pushing back the handle a
further portion of liquid enters, nearly filling the interior of the bottle.
Lastly, on raising the foot, the valve of the siphon shuts at the same
time that the bottle is lowered and released from its cage, — the whole
process being the work of a few seconds. At the first filling, there
sometimes remains a small amount of air in the siphon, so that the
solution becomes slightly turbid on standing; but this effect of oxidation
can be easily avoided by using a sufficient amount of marble powder

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

123

iu charging the generator. This siphon unquestionably affords the

most convenient mode of using hydric sulphide; and for a private

laboratory a single siphon, well charged,

will afford as ample a supply as will

ordinarily be needed. It is greatly to be

hoped that our manufacturing chemists

may soon find an advantage in supplying

this important reagent in such an elegant

form.*

When the water is charged as directed
above, it of course holds in solution, be-
sides hydric sulphide, a considerable vol-
ume of carbonic dioxide ; and if, under
any circumstance, the presence of this
last gas would produce an injurious effect,
the marble powder can be simply omitted
in charging the generator. In almost all
cases, however, the carbonic dioxide ex-
erts a very beneficial influence, and in
several ways. In the first place, it in-
sures the non-action of the hydric sul-
phide on the metallic surfaces of the ap-
paratus. In the second place, it protects
the solution from the action of the air
when it is drawn into an open vessel, so
that after a metallic sulphide has been
precipitated by an excess of the reagent,
the products may be digested in an open
flask or beaker without fear of oxidation. In the third place, the
carbonic dioxide adds greatly to the tension of the confined gas, and
enables us to develop sufiicient pressure to charge the siphon without
unnecessarily increasing the strength of the solution of hydric sulphide.

Chemical Laboratort of Harvard College, 1876.

Fig. 9.

* All the apparatus here described may be obtained from the firm of John
Matthews, First Avenue, 26th and 27th Streets, New York, at very reasonable
rates. Be careful in ordering to state the use to which the apparatus is to be
put, with the caution that no silver plating or lead paint should be used upou it.

124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

IX.

ON THE PROCESS OF REVERSE FILTERING AND ITS
APPLICATION TO LARGE MASSES OF MATERIAL.

By Josiah p. Cooke, Jr.,

Erving Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard College.

Presented May 30, 1876.

Bt reverse filtering is meant a process of filtration in which the liquid
to be filtered is drawn upwards instead of flowing downwards in the
usual way. Such a system is often used in the arts, as when a porous
septum is attached to the mouth of a suction pipe ; or as in the small
portable filters so useful to travellers, by which clear water may be
sucked up from a muddy pool or turbid stream. These last suggested
the application of the same principle in chemical analysis to the treat-
ment of those precipitates which are usually weighed on a dried
filter. In such cases, it is of course essential that the weight of the
paper disk used as a filter should remain invariable ; and this constancy
can be best secured by making the disk as small as possible. If the
filter is large, it is impossible to have any confident assurance of the
constancy of its weight, however great the care that may be taken to
secure a similarity of hygrometric conditions at the two weighings ; and
hence it has not hitherto been practicable to determine on a dried filter
the weight of any considerable quantity of a precipitate with accuracy.
But, in the process of reverse filtering, we can both wash and collect
very large masses of precipitates with a filter not more than an inch iu
diameter ; and if, before drying, these little disks of paper are soaked in
dilute hydrochloric acid, and afterwards thoroughly washed in water,
their weight remains practically invariable. Indeed, it is not necessary
to enclose the filter in a weighing tube, or to pay any special regard to
its hygrometric conditions other than to keep the usual drying materials
in the balance case. The only liability to alteration of weight would
arise from the dissolving of soluble material in the paper, and this may
be wholly prevented by previously washing the disks as just described.
In the early part of 1873, having occasion to determine large quan-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 125

titles of sulphide of antimony, we in the first j^lace employed the porous
filtering cones described by Prof. C. E. Munroe ; * but we found these
both too limited in capacity, and too susceptible to hygroscopic influ-
ences, to give the degree of accuracy we required.
We were therefore led to devise the following
apparatus, which Figures 1 and 2 will help us to
describe. The most essential part of this appa-
ratus is the platinum " rose " represented by Fig.
I. This is cemented bv sealinor-wax to the end of
a glass tube, and to its perforated base the small
filters are applied. The glass tube is so cemented Fig. 1.

into the neck of the " rose " that the end may reach quite down to the
perforated plate, and thus draw up all the liquid which collects in the
hemispherical cup. Moreover, the perforated plate has an unbroken
rim about -jV ^^ ^^ '^^^^ wide around the edge, which is sufficient to
prevent any solid particles from creeping by the edges of the paper
disk. The success and rapidity of the filtering depend on the proper
construction of the perforated disk, and we obtained the best results
only after several trials. The holes should be smoothly perforated
about 5^0 of an inch in diameter, and as numerous as possible, leaving
the unbroken rim described above. After the perforations are made,
the face of the plate should be ground perfectly smooth. We use
two sizes of these " roses," in one of which the hemisphere is \^ of an
inch, and of the other li inches in diameter; but the smaller is the
more useful, and is sufficiently large for all ordinary purposes. A disk
of washed Swedish filtering paper, || of an inch in diameter, weighs
only about 20 milligrammes ; and, to give an idea of the rapidity of the
filtration, it is sufficient to say that, under a pressure of 50 centi-
metres of mercury, these filters will pass from 20 to 30 litres of clear
water in an hour. We have been greatly indebted to Messrs. John-
eon, Matthey, & Co., of Hatton Garden, London, for the care they have
taken in the construction of these " roses ; " and they can be procured
of them through the mail. The cost of the smaller size is fifteen
shillings sterling. The construction of the rest of the apparatus is
made clear by Fig. 2. One of the stems of a glass three-way tube is
clamped to an arm which can be raised or lowered on the vertical bar
of an elevating stand by a rack and pinion movement, which ought,
however, to be so loose, that the arm can be pushed suddenly up
when necessary. By its second stem, the three-way tube is connected

* American Journal of Science, May, 1871.

126

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

by a rubber hose with a large glass bottle, in which a partial vacuum
is maintained by a Buusen pump, but this connection can be closed by

Fig. 2.

a compression cock. The third stem, which makes a connection with
the atmosphere, is closed by a rubber connector and nipper tap, and
serves to suddenly relieve the pressure in case the filter slips or breaks.
From the first and vertical stem of the three-way tube below the
clamp is suspended the glass tube, having the rose at its end. The
suspension consists of a rubber connector, so long that it can be bent
double and the rose inverted, and so stout that when thus bent the
connection with the bottle is completely closed. When inverted, the
tube of the rose rests against the thumbscrew of the pinion, and is
thus confined.

In order that we may make clear the mode of using the apparatus,
let us assume that five grammes of antimonious sulphide have been
precipitated in a glass beaker, holding two litres of liquid, and that the
precipitate has settled, — as it will after boihog, — leaving the super-
natant liquid perfectly clear. A partial vacuum having been formed

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. ItiJ

in the bottle, and the beaker having been placed on the stand, we
begin by attaching the paper disk to the base of the rose, moistening
it for the pnrpose with water, and forcing it with the thumb against
the perforated plate until the adhesion is complete at every point. It
is important that the disk should not overlap the edge of the plate ; and,
if the plate has been made as described, it will adhere tightly without
so doing. The compression cock is then slowly opened ; and, as soon
as the sound indicates that the air is being sucked through the filter,
the base of the rose is quickly sunk under the liquid, and constantly
lowered by the rack and pinion movement, as fast as the liquid is drawn
off. The supernatant liquid may thus be decanted until the rose is
close down to the precipitate ; but care should be taken at this stage
not to push the process too far, lest the filter should become clogged
by the adhesion of solid particles, as would be the case, if it comes too
near the level of the precipitate. When the safe level has been
reached, the arm of the stand is suddenly pushed upwards, while the
rose is inverted and supported as above described. The beaker is now
filled up with hot water ; and, after the precipitate has subsided, the
wash water is drawn off as before, and so repeatedly as often as may
be necessary. It is important, however, to carefully watch the filter,
and every time before immersing the rose to see that the paper is
moist and firmly adhering to the perforated plate. It is further essen-
tial that the suction should not be for a moment interrupted while the
filter is immersed. This condition is secured by the simple rubber
joint we have described ; for, while when the rose is inverted the con-
nection with the bottle is closed, the moment it is turned down the
connection is opened, and the filter begins to draw. If, however, by
any accident the filter should slip, the operator when on his guard can
avoid loss of material by quickly opening the nipper tap, and relieving
the pressure until the rose can be withdrawn and washed out. The
filter can then be fished out with a glass I'od, washed off and replaced.
A good strong filter will bear quite rough treatment ; and, if in the pro-
cess it becomes clogged, it can be taken off when the rose is inverted,
and the adhering precipitate washed back into the beaker. When re-
placed, the paper thus cleansed often filters as rapidly as before. If, as
is sometimes the case, the paper becomes hopelessly clogged, no great
loss of accuracy is suffered by using a second or even a third filter.
Of course, they must all be dried, and weighed either with the precipi-
tate or apart, as most convenient.

The precipitate, having been thus washed, is next to be transferred
to the crucible in which it is to be weighed ; and, to hold five grammes

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of precipitated antimonious sulphide, we shall require a crucible hav-
ing a capacity of 250 cubic centimetres. As much of the water as can
readily be decanted from the precipitate is first poured into the cru-
cible and drawn off with the filter, and then the precipitate is washed
in with as little additional water as possible. Now the filter is
plunged into the semi-fluid mass, and must not afterwards be removed
until the process is completed. The rose ought not even to be raised
however slightly, although additional material may be poured in
around it. As the mass contracts in the crucible, the filter must be
made to follow, always keeping it immersed ; and during this time the
precipitate which has collected around the j^latiuum rose may be
washed down by a stream from a wash bottle. In this way the greater
part of the water can be removed, leaving the precipitate nearly as
compact as it is left on a common filter, when dried by Bunsen's
pump. When the precipitate is in this condition, the pressure is
relieved by opening the nipper tap, and the rose raised, which leaves
the filter behind. If any of the precipitate has clung to the platinum,
this must now be washed into the crucible with a few drops of water,
the rose and tube having first been detached from the connector for
the purpose. It only now remains to dry the precipitate with the
•little filter, and weigh it. If it is important to dry the precipitate at
a temperature above 150° C, or even to ignite it, the mass should
first be thoroughly dried at 100°. The little disk of paper can then
be removed and weighed sei^arately, while the rest of the mass is
heated to a higher temperature. The amount of material which
remains adhering to the paper under these circumstances is exceed-
ingly small, not usually exceeding a few milligrammes ; and allowance
can be made for it in the final result, without sensible error.

Like other analytical processes, this method has its limits ; and any
attempt to extend it beyond the sphere of its usefulness will lead to
unsatisfactory results. It is of no use for filtering turbid liquids, since
the small filters are rapidly clogged, and the process becomes propor-
tionally slow. Whenever, however, a precipitate settles clearly, this
method enables us to wash, collect, and weigh very large quantities of
precipitates in a very short time with wonderful accuracy. We have
used it chiefly to determine sulphide of antimony and chloride bromide
or iodide of silver ; and the results of the following analyses, extracted
from our forthcoming paper on the Atomic Weights of Antimony,
will show how great accuracy can be attained with it : —

OF ARTS AND SCIENXES. 129

Synthesis of Sulphide of Axtimo.vy.

Weiglit in Grammes
of Sb taken.

Weight of Sb„
dried at ISO'

S3
u.

Per cent of S
ill same.

2.1439

3.0025

28.58

2.3417

3.2792

28.59

2.2182

3.1061

28.59

Analysis of Antimoniods Chloride.

Weight in Grammes "Weight of AgCl Per cent

of Sb CI3 taken. obtained. of Chloiine

20300 3.8282 4G.652

1.3686 2.5813 46.659

1.8638 3.5146 46.651

Analysis of Antimonious Bromide.

Weight in Grammes
of Sb Bi^ takun.

Wei.'htof Ag
obtauied.

Br

Per cent
of Brouiine.

1.2124

1.8991

66.655

0.9417

1.4749

66.647

These analyses exhibit a fair sample of the results which can easily
be obtained with this method. In order to assure ourselves that the
weiglit of the small paper disks remained constant, we have repeat-
edly dissolved off the small amount of adhering precijiitate, and after
washing and drying reweiglied the disks at the completion of the
analysis. Even with the larger di?ks there was in no case any mate-
rial change in the weight, and in most aises no alteration whatever
could be detected with a balance turning readily with -j^ of a milli-
gramme.

The method of collecting precipitates here described, which, as we
have shown, is so useful where considerable quantities are to be esti-
mated, is equally applicable to very small amounts. When the quan-
tity of the precipitate does not exceed a few milligrammes, the whole
becomes fiistened by the suction to the surface of the paper. There is
then, of course, no need of a crucible in the process. The filter, hav-
ing been dried in a watch glass, is weighed by itself, and a result of very
great accuracy is reached with great i-apidity. AVe have in this way fre-
quently estimated minute quantities of baric sulphate and argentic chlo-
ride, whose weight proved to be only a fraction of a milligramme.

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 9

130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Although the apparatus here described and figured was invented
independently by myself in order to overcome difficulties, already
stated, which I met with in the course of my investigations, yet in its
main features I was anticipated by Professor H. Carmichael,now of Bow-
doin College ; and I had the misfortune not to have my attention called
to his paper on the subject — dated at Gottingen, 1870, and published
in the Zeitsclirift fur Chemie, neue Folge, Band VI., 481 — until long
after my own apparatus had been perfected. But although Professor
Carmichael and myself started from the same fundamental idea, yet we
have worked this idea out in very different forms, and with very differ-
ent purposes in view. While therefore I would acknowledge most
fully Professor Carmichael's priority, I have thought it best to publish
this paper with the sole object of adding to his previous work the
results of my own experience, and with the hope that I may thus aid
in introducing into analytical laboratories what I believe to be the
most important improvement in analytical chemistry which has been
made since the invention of the Bunsen pump.

Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College, 1876.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 131

X.

coxTRiBUTioxs feo:m physical laboratory of har-
vard COLLEGE.

No. XIi: — ON VORTEX RINGS IN LIQUIDS.
By Joiix Trowbridge.

Presented, March 14, 1877.

It has often been observed by chemists that a drop of colored liquid
falling from a burette into a liquid of a different specific gravity, in
which it can diffuse, assumes tlie form of a ring. Vortex motion, by
the researches of Helmholtz, Thomson, Rankine, and Maxwell, is now
attracting so much attention, that I have thought that a study of the
general equations of motion of matter in connection with a study of
these rings would contribute to our knowledge of vortex movement.

Prof. W. B. Rogers publislunl in " The American Journal of Arts
and Sciences," Vol. XXVI., 1858, a paper on smoke rings and liquid
rings, and described several methods of studying them. In Professor
Tait's " Recent Advances in Physical Science," a method of forming
smoke rings is given. The apparatus consists merely of a large box
closed at one end by a thin sheet of India rubber, or with a tightly
stretched towel, and having a circular opening of six or eight inches
in diameter at the other. Clouds of sal-ammoniac vapor are generated
inside the box, and rings are expelled from the circular opening by a
blow upon the rubber or towel. Sir William Thomson suggests that
two such boxes placed so that the rings may impinge on each other at
any angle would form a useful apparatus for studying the behavior
of such rings towards each other. At the conclusion of this paper,
several metiiods of studying liquid rings will be described. When a
drop of liquid falls from a short distance into a liquid of less density,
in which it cannot diffuse, the conditions of its motion just after the
instant of its striking the surface of the liquid of less density are
indicated by the general equations of heterogeneous strains.* " For

* Thomson and Tait's ivatural Philosophy.

V62 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

each particle we liave the component veh)cities u, v, w, parallel to the
fixed axes OX, OF, OZ. These have the following expressions: —

^ ^ ^ dt' dt' dt'

X, y, z, t being independent variables, and «, /3, /, functions of them. If
the disturbed condition is so related to the initial condition that every
portion of the body can pass from its initial to its disturbed position
and strain, by a translation and a strain without rotation, — i.e., if the
three principal axes of the strain at any point are lines of the sub-
stance which retain their parallelism, — we must have, —

Eq. (2) : — = ^ 'b z='i°- ^ =z^Ii -

dz dy dx dz dy dx

and, if these equations are fulfilled, the strain is now rotational, as
specified." But these equations express that a d x -\- ^ dy -\- y d z, i&
the differential of a function of three independent variables ; and there-
fore, in order that there may be no rotation, a strain potential must
exist. The forces which solicit the particles of tlie drop when it rests
upon the liquid of less density in which it cannot diffuse are evidently
their mutual attraction, a force arising from the superficial tension of
the liquid, and one ai'ising from gravitation. It is evident, from a
consideration of these forces, that, after the drop has suffered a strain
at the surface, every poilion of the drop cannot pass from its initial
position to the next following by a translation and a strain without
rotation. For the drop tends to return from a shape api)roaching an
oblate spheroid to that of a sphere. Equations (2) do not liold, and a
strain potential does not exist, and tlierefore this drop must rotate.
This rotation is not in general of the ring form. If, on tiie other hand,
the drop of liquid can diffuse itself in the liquid through which it falls,
each particle with the velocity u, v, w, is solicited at the moment of im-
pact by a superficial tension, by the force of gravitation, and by a force
arising from the rate of diffusion. In this case, there is no tendency
of the body to reassume the spheroidal form in its passage through
the liquid. On tiie other hand, to assume that each particle in
the next state of the drop very near that which it assumes on striking
the free surface of the liquid of less density, is translated without rota-
tion, is to assume that each particle is compelled to move in restrained
limits, which do not exist. For the components X\ Y^, Z^, of the
attraction, which tend to make the non-diffusible drop reassume its
spherical form, we have in the case of the diffusible the components

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

133

X, T, Z, of an external force arising from the superficial tension of
the liquid, and the impulse given to the drop.

If we follow the notation of Poisson * and Helraholtz,t we shall
have for the general equations of internal motion of a liquid : —

-rr 1 dp (fit I dii 1 du I dit
h dx dt ' (/x ' dy ' dz

rl dp do , do t du I du

— '- = — -4- u— -\- V— -+- w—

h dy dt ^ dx ^ dy ^ 'I-

rr 1 dp dw 1 dw i dw i

Z -L =^ — + U — -4- V — H-

k dz dt ^ dx * dy '

W-

dz
dw

I

' dz

dh \ dh I dh I dh Sh / ,\

— 4- u— -\- V— -\- w — = — (4)
dt~ dx~ dy~ dz U ^ ^

du I dv I dw f-^

— -U — -I- — =. 0 (0)
dx^ dy^ dz ^ ^

In which p is the pressure in a liquid at the point x, y, z; X, Y, Z,
are the components of the external forces acting on a unit of mass;
and h is the density. When tlie variation of h is infinitely small, we
have Eq. (5). The forces X, T, Z, are considered to have a potential
V. So that

X=ir, T^II. Z^.'-f Eq.(6)

dx dy dz

and the velocities u, v, w, a velocity potential qp. So that

u

d<i>

dtp
dy

IV. = ^ Eq. (7)

dx' dv' dz

or, udx -f- vay -f- wdz = d(f,

and q) satisfying the equation

dx-' ' dy' ' dz^

which is what equation (5) becomes under the conditions expressed
above. We must therefore have

du
dy

du
d~x'

do
dz

dw dw du T-i /o\

cV dx = d-z ^^^•('^)

* Traitede Mechanique.
t Crelle's Journ., LV., 1858.

dv
dz

d'o 2^

dw

7G~

dii ^

d. 2r

du

d>; gy
dx "^

dy

134 PEOCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

equations similar to the equations expressing a strain potential.
Helmholtz has shown that in the case of rotation of a fluid element,
Eqs. (8) become

Eq. 9

and therefore " the existence of a velocity potential is inconsistent with
the existence of rotation of the fluid element." We have seen from
the equations of strain that the existence of a strain potential is incon-
sistent with the rotation of a material particle. Let us now see if
vortex movement can arise in a liquid from variation of density and
pressure. Following Ilelmholtz's notation, we have, if t/; is a function

5i =:. ^ -]- rci^. + t>^ + w'!± Eq. (10)
St at ' dx "^ du ^ dz A V >'

Calling S, y, ^, the components of the angular velocity, we can obtain
their variations by substituting them in succession iu Eq. (10). If we
eliminate X, T, Z, from Ecjs. (.'J) by the help of P^qs. (G), supposing
that h and p are functions of x,y^ z, t, we obtain, introducing the values
of ^, 7, "Q, from Eqs. (9) : —

_, /-,,\ 8f v/f'y r dw\ I dv I ^dw , 1 /dh dp dh dp\

Eq. (11) ^ = - S(- + -^-) + r- + C^, + 2T.U '^~d, -i)

and similar expressions for the variations of / and ^. If the variation
of h is infinitely small, we obtain by the aid of Eq. (5) : —

Sf ^.dn I do I ydw

— = 5 \- y h t —

9( 'dx dx ' dx

If it is not infinitely small, we have the term

1 /dh dp fM dp\

2h\dz 'dy dy di)

which is independent of ^, y, t, and depends upon the variation of h and
p. This term enters into the expressions for the variations in the
angular velocities ; and shows, therefore, that a vortex movement can
arise iu a process of diffusion by a variation in density and pressure,
without the aid of initial angular velocities. This condition can be

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 135

shown experimentally by dropping a somewhat dense solution of one
of the aniline colors into a mixture of glycerine and water. The orig-
inal ring, after ceasing to move downward in the mixture, breaks up
gradually into segments, which slowly in their turn assume the ring
form. A mixture of water and glycerine is not necessary: jieculiar
cusp-like figures indiv'ating tlie first stage of vortical movement can be
seen whenever a thin stratum of one liquid slowly diffuses itself through
another liquid of different density.

By a consideration of the equations —

e ^ + ("1 - t^)dt = e(^ + ^i dt^

« C+ K - ^o)dt = e(^:+^^dt^

given by Helmholtz, from which he draws the conclusion that " each

vortex line remains continually composed of the same elements of

fluid, and swim^ forward with them in the fluid," we see, on intro-

^>

duciug the new expressions which we have found for --, &c., P]q. (11),

St

that we approach nearer and nearer to this theoretical conclusion when
the variations of h are smaller and smaller. Obviously, we should then
obtain tlie most perfect rings Tvlien the drop and the liquid in which
the motion takes place are composed of the same liquid. And, there-
fore, a drop of water falling into loater must form a more perfect ring
than that formed by a drop of any colored liquid of greater density
than water.

The formation of these liquid rings is as fascinating and as simple
an occupation as blowing soap-bubbles. All liquids falling from such
a height that the surface of the liquid is not too much disturbed tO'
enable the drup to be acted upon symmetrically by the forces at the
free surfiice will form rings, if too great differences of density do not
exist, and if the drop can diffuse in the liquid. The preceding mathe-
matical discussion, as we have seen, shows us that a drop of pure water
on striking the same element under the above conditions must neces-
sarily assume the ring shape. This can be shown experimentally by
covering the free surface of the water with a fine powder, or with mat-
ter in a fine state of subdivision. 1 have found that an alcoholic tinct-
ure of ginger, whicli gives on the surface of water a milky liquid
consisting of particles iu a fine state of subdivision, answers the purpose

136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

very well. Fine particles will be carried down by the drop, and will
be seen to rotate in a vortex ring far below the surface. This fact can
be stated, al^o, bj'- the employment of any of the aniline colors which
are solvent in water, the falling drop consisting of a colored solution
whose specific gravity does not differ sensibly from that of water. The
metiiod that 1 have emploj^ed to produce the rings consists merely of a
small glass tube, slightly smaller at one end than the otiier. A bit of
cotton is wedged in nearer the larger end, over wliich a piece of flexi-
ble rubber tubing is slipped. AVith the aid of the moutli, one can fill
this tube with licpiid and eject it in drops at pleasure. The same appa-
ratus enables us to form the rings beneath the surface of the liquid.
With a tube bent horizontally, one can send the rings through a liquid
in any desired direction ; and, by means of a three-way glass joint and
a small india-rubber bag, one can send forth, by the same impulse, two
rings whose paths make any desired angle with each other. By partly
immersing the glass tubes connected with the three-way tube in the
free surface of the liquid, and covering tiie surface of the water with
fine powder, one can study the mutual behavior of half-vortex rings.
A simpler method is to illuminate, by means of a gas-light, the bottom
of a flat, white porcelain dish filled with water, and to observe the
shadows of the half-vortex rings on the bottom of tlie dish formed by
the movement of two spatulse along the surfiice. It can be readily seen,
by this simple method, that a lialf-vortex ring moving near another in
a parallel path and with a less velocity tends to follow in the path of
the first ; and that two equal half-vortex rings moving in opposite
directions along the same path separate into two vortices which move
at right angles to the path of the original vortices. We can conclude,
also, from this general discussion, that, whenever a mass of vapor of
greater density than the surrounding air is suddenly formed in the
higiier regions of the atmosphere, it tends to descend through it in a
vortex ring.

The results of the preceding discussion are as follows : —

1. An an^dogy between the strain potential and the velocity poten-
tial is indicated.

2. It is shown that the formation of liquid rings is a necessary result
of the fumlameutal equations of strains and those of hydrodynamics ;
and that tlu-y constitute a general and not a special phenomenon. A
drop of water falling into water from a suitable height must assume a
ring shape.

3. Vortices can and do arise in certain processes of diffusion.

4. Simple methods of studying vortex motion in liquids are given.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

137

XI.

CONTRIBUTIOXS FROM THE PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF

HARVARD COLLEGE.

NO. XIV. — ON A NEW METHOD OF COMPARING THE ELECTRO-
MOTIVE FORCES OF TWO BATTERIES AND MEASURING
THEIR INTERNAL RESISTANCE.

By B. O. Peirce, Jr.

Presented, March 14, 1877.

The relative strengths of two currents which give ri?e to different
deflections of a galvanometer needle are not easily compared, and
therefore it has been the aim of pliysicists in making electric meas-
urements to choose such methods as require the current through the
galvanometer to be made either zero, or else equal in two given cases.
The method of measuring resistances by Wheatstone's Bridge is an
example of a '' nul" method. Mance's and Thomson's methods of
measuring the resistances of batteries are examples of the class which
require equal deflections.

Poggendorff's method of comparing the electromotive forces of
two batteries is the only accurate method vehich belongs under either
of these heads.

I have found that very accurate results can be obtained in the
following way : —

Fig. 1.

The batteries to be measured are arranged as in the figure, with
their electromotive forces conspiring, r is any small resistance. R^

138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and i?2 ^^^ resistances which may be varied until no current passes
through tlie galvanometer. AVhen the current through the galvano-
meter is nothing, the ratio of the electromotive forces of the two
batteries is very easily found. Let HJ^ and K2 be tlie electromotive
forces of the two batteries, and -5^ and B^ their internal resistances.

Kirclioff 's Second Law, when applied to the closed figure embracing
the resistance £^, H^, G, gives,

JE, = (B, + 7?J 0 (1)

where (7 is the current traversing the circuit.

The same law when applied to the closed figure r, B,^, B.^, G, gives

B,= (r + B, + B,)0 (2)

Dividing (1) by (2)

(3)

In order to use this formula, we must know the values of i?^ and
B^. These may be determined thus : Give to B., a little different
value, and vary B^ until there is again no current going through the
galvanometer. Repeat this operation with still a ditferent value of
B^, and there will be three different values of the ratio of the elec-
tromotive forces, which will give three equations to determine B^, B^,

E
and —^. B. and R„ are most conveniently made large ; and in this

case, if extreme accuracy is not needed, we may neglect B^ and B,^
compared with R^ and R^.

It is, of course, not necessary to have any resistance corresponding
to r ; but as it is often possible to get quite accurate results by making
R^ and ^2 small resistances, and then varying r by means of a
rheostat until no current traverses the galvanometer, a resistance r
is inserted in the figure.

Tlie chief advantages of this method are : —

1st, its great accuracy.

2d, that the current through the galvanometer is made zero.

3d, that the circuit does not have to be broken during the com-
parison.

4th, that the resistances of the two batteries are, very readily ob-
tained without altering any of the adjustments, if their electromotive
forces are constant.

The greatest disadvantage in this arrangement is that a large

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

139

current passes through the resistance coils. The current through the
coils may be reduced by connecting, through a shunt, the battery-
poles which are already connected by the resistance coils, and in this
way one can avoid all risk of injuriou.^ly heating tlie fine wire.

The use of the shunt makes the formula which determines the ratio
of the electromotive force of the two batteries a little more complex,
but the mechanical work of the comparison is not altered.

Fig. 2.

C (Fig. 2) is the strength of the current going through the un-
divided circuit. Cp and Cj are the strengtlis of the currents going
through the shunt and through the resistance box respectively. Let
S be the resistance of the shunt,

(7= (7,+ Co and C^{R^^R.^= C^.S

5+ /?! + /?,

.-. C=Ci

S

c. = ^

cs

Kirchoff's Second Law gives, when applied to the closed figures
B^, R^, and G, and r, B.^, R.,, and G,

B, = B,G +

R,SC

5 + i^i + i?2

(1)

B.,= (r + B.^)G+^^^^^

(2)

140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Dividing (1) by (2)

E., (r + B,) (6 + E, + R.,) 4- li;S ^ '

wliich is the formula required.

NO. XV.— OX A NEW METHOD OF MEASURING THE RE-
SISTANCE OF A GALVANIC BATTERY.

By B. 0. Peirce, Jr.
Presented, March 14, 1877.

Of the many known methods of measuring the resistance of a galvanic
battery, only two, those of Mance and Tiiomson, are found to give
accurate results. A third method, which seems to work well in prac-
tice, is this : —

A known resistance (r), a galvanometer of known resistance (G^),
and the battery whose resistance is to be measured, are joined up in
a simple circuit. The battery is shunted, and the deflection of the
galvanometer needle is noted. This shunt is now removed, and the
galvanometer is shunted, so that it gives the same deflection as before.
A knowledge of the ratio of the resistances of the shunts gives the
resistance of the battery by means of a simple formula. Let E be the
electromotive force of the battery, and B its resistance, and let ^S* and
G be the resistances of the shunts. In the expressions that follow,
Cff, Csi ^'^d Ca denote currents passing through the galvanometer and
the two shunts respectively.

When the battery is shunted, the whole current in the circuit is

8^ r -}- G

Kirchoff 's Laws give

(7 = Cff -I- C; and (T^ . ^ = Ga{r + G)

therefore

C^G,^A±L^r_0) ^2)

o

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 141

Equating the secoud members of (1) and (2)

i:S= C,|^(r+ G)-lrB{S-\-r-\-G)'^ (3)

When the battery shunt is removed, and a shunt put across the
terminals of the galvanometer, the whole current traversing the
circuit is

Kirchoff's Laws give

C = Ca-\- a and C^.G= Cg.G
therefore

C = C, (^i^) (5)

Equating the second members of (4) and (5)

Ea= cJ^G<s^(r + B) {G-]-o)^ (6)

Dividing (3) by (6) and cancelling, we have, since the current
passing through the galvanometer is the same in both cases,

[f7(T + (r + i?) ( (? + o)-]S = \_S{r J^ G) -\- B{S -\- r Jr G)']a
or if

(;._|_ G)8— G

In practice, the terminals of r are connected to the galvanometer
and to the battery respectively by binding-screws with three wire
holes in each. One terminal of a Wheatstone's Rheostat is perma-
nently fastened to one pole of the battery, and the other terminal is
connected, first with the binding-screw on one side of r, and then with
that on the other side. The handle of the Rheostat is to be turned
until the galvanometer needle gives the same deflection in the second

142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

case as in the first, and the ratio of the lengths of the shunt are taken
to represent the ratio of their resistances.

With a piece of uncovered copper wire, not more than two metres
long, and a resistance r equal to only twenty-four one hundredths
of an ohm, I have obtained results which are quite as good as those
obtained witli a box of resistance coil, using Thomson's method.

r should be a small resistance of not over five ohms for a long-coil
galvanometer, and not over three ohms for a short-coil galvanometer.
This method offers some advantages over that of Thomson, but it is
not generally as good as the method due to Mance.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 143

XII.

NOTE OX THE DETERMINATION OF THE LAW OF PROPA-
GATION OF HEAT IN THE INTERIOR OF A SOLID
BODY.

By B. O. Peirce, Jr.

Presented April 11th, 1877.

Newton's experiments upon the amount of heat communicated from
a body ^ to a neighboring body B, at a lower temperature than
A, led him to think that this amount was directly proportional to the
difference of temperature between the two bodies. In 180o. Biot,
assuminof that Newton's results were reliable, conceived that the same
law must hold for the communication of heat between two neighboring
molecules in the interior of a solid body, and he compared the observed
temperatures at different points of a long bar heated at one end with
the temperatures calculated on the assumption that the flux of heat
in the direction x is represented by

dv
dx

where y. is constant for the same body and v is the temperature of the
point under consideration. Fourier — whose " Tlieorie de la Chaleur "
was written in 1811, but not published until 1822 — followed Biot

in assuming

dv
dx

to represent the flux of heat in the inside of a body, and

7 dv
dx

the radiation at its surface, where x and h are different constants which
he calls respectively the " conducibilite propre " and '• condiicibilite
relative a I'air atmospherique." Just before Fourier's work was
publijjhed, MM. Dulong «nd Petit showed that the amount of heat
communicated from one body to another depends not only upon the

144 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

difference of their temperatures, but also upon the absolute tempera-
tures of each. Poisson published, in 1835, his ''Theorie de la Chaleur,"
in which he assumed that the expression which Dulong and Petit had
given for the loss of heat from radiation also represents the passage
of the heat from molecule to molecule in the interior of the body.
Libri, shortly before Poisson's book was pu!)li>hed, presented to the
Academy of Sciences a paper in which he assumed that Fourier and
Biot were correct in their hypothesis that the internal flux of heat
could be written

, dn

dx

but that the law of extra radiation was that stated by Dulong and
Petit. In 1837, Kelland published his "Theory of Heat." He
applied Libri's hypotheses to the problem of determining the final
distribution of heat in a ring, and showed that the solution thus
arrived at was not very different from that wliich Fourier had de-
termined. In other* respects, Kelland simply gave Fourier's work
with corrections, as his object was to furnish a book for students.
In 1841, Professor Kelland made a report to the British Association
for the Advancement of Science " On the Present State of our
Theoretical and Experimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction
of Heat."

In this report, Kelland says that, although olyections might be made
to the particular assumptions of Fourier, Libri, and Poisson, it is very
probable that the flux of heat in the interior of a body may be written

where c is a constant depending upon the bofly and /{i") is some un-
determined function of the temperature. Kelland assumed a particular
value for f{v), and compared the temperatures calculated from the
different hypotheses of Fourier, Libri, Poisson, and himself, with the
corresponding temperatures observed by Biot in his experiments upon
long bars. This comparison does not give the jDreference to any one
of the different assumptions. Since 1841, nothing of any importance
has been done, so far as I know, in the general theory of heat con-
duction. Lame, whose "Theorie de la Chaleur" was published in
18G2, follows Fourier in his hypotheses, and those writers who, like
Sir William Thomson, have had occasion to discuss practical questions
about the cooling of bodies, have also made the same assumptions,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 145

since the error thus introduced into their calculations is necessarily
less than those arising from eri-ors in observing the phenomena.

Dulong and Petit's experiments showed that Fourier's assumption
with regard to the flux of heat at the surface of a body due to ladia-
tion was wrong, and Principal Forbes's experiments upon heated
metallic bars showed that, in order to write the ^ux of heat in the
interior of a body

do

dx

X must be regarded as a function of the temperature. Forbes's ex-
periments evidently offer no objection to Kelland's hypothesis, for

— q,(v)$ and — c ^M
dx dx

are equivalent expressions, if

(p{v) = cf'(v).

The first step in determining the form of the function y is made by
showing that it must satisfy a differential equation which when the
heated body is at its final state, reduces to Laplace's Equation.

Consider the element of volume dxdydz, which has one of its
angles at the point (x, y, z) and its diagonally opposite angle at
{x -\- dx, y -\- dy, z -\- dz). During the instant dt, the flux of heat
across that face of the element which contains the point (x, y, z) and
is parallel to the coordinate plane xy, is

F{v, z)= — c ^ dxdydt.

The amount of heat which flows out at the opposite face of the
element is obtained by developing -F(t', z) by Taylor's Theorem :

F(v J^dv,z-\-dz)= — c ^ dxdydt — c ^^ dxdydzdt.

The flux across the second face is less than the flux across the first
face by

c I ' dxdydzdt.

Considering each of the other pairs of opposite faces, it is evident that
in the instant dt a quantity of heat equal to

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 10

146 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

have been arlderl to the element. Let Q be the total amount of heat
in the molecule, then

If Laplace's Operator is written " — V^,"

-^ = — cV-f(v) dxdydz.

Let s be the specific heat of the body which Dulong and Petit have
shown to be a function of the temperature, and lets = ^\v), then

d^Q ^ d^v . "^'s . dxdydz,

^^(^) 4f = - "^'-^(^^
If r"^ = x^ -{- ip' and (jp = tan"~^ —

— \/Hiv\ = ^!^ -J- ^'^") I ^/Tf) , ^y»

-^ ^ ^ df^ "> r^ . cl(t>-^ "I" r . dr "^ dz^

•' '^'^''^ ir = + ' [d7^ + 77dF+ ?W^ + d7^)-^^'^

If the body has reached its final state, the element loses as much heat
in any given time as it gains, so that f(^v) must satisfy Laplace's
Equation, or

vy(r) = 0.

Consider a thin plate of metal of practically infinite extent, and
of which all points are at a uniform temperature. Let this plate be
laid upon and covered witii some perfectly non-conducting material, so
that there can be no flux of heat perpendicular to the [)lane of the
plate, and let a single point be heated by means of a copper wire
pushed through the non-conducting material upon which the f)late lies.

There will be a fiux of heat from tlie heated point in all directions
in the plane of the plate ; and, if the plate is homogeneous, the flux
will be the same in all azimuths.

After the plate has reached its final state, the amount of heat added
to each element of the plate will be the same that flows out of it, and
dQ = 0. If the plate lies in the coordinate plane xy, there will be
no flux in the direction of the axis of z, and hence

d'f{") — 0 .
-d7^ ^'

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 147

and, if the plate is homogeneous,

Therefore /(r) must be a solution of the differential equation
or f{v) = J + i? log r,

and the flux = — c

clf\v) ^cB

dr r

Consider a second plate of metal in every way like the first, only that
it is heated at two points by means of a Y shaped piece of copper
which is itself heated at its stem. The two arms of the Y are pushed
through the non-conducting material and are of equal lengths, so that
the two points shall be equally heated.

If Tj and r^ are the distances of any point from the two heated
points, it is evident from the theory of conjugate functions that

f(v) is constant along any curve of the system [j\r..^ = const.] If a
is the distance of the heated points from each other, the equation of
the system of curves for any one of which /'(y) is constant may be
written

(x^ + /)((x-ar + /)=!'.

Before the plate is imbedded in the non-conducting material, let it
be covered with a thin layer of a mixture of parafRne, rosin, and wax,
and after it has been heated long enough to have sensibly reached its
final state let the source of heat be removed; then, if there is a
clean line of demarcation between the wax that has been melted and
that which has not, the form of one of the isothermals can be studied
at leisure. Wherever y(r) is constant, v must be constant unless f(^v)
is an equation of an infinitely high degree, which is inadmissible; and
conversely, if v is constant along any curve, /(y) must also be constant
at all points on that curve. If the isothermal traced by the melted
wax is a curve whose equation is i\r^ = c, it will be safe to assume
that the flux of heat in the intei'ior of a body is

_ c "^^^"^

148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

as Kellaud assumed. By use of a suitable arrangement, it would be
very easy to use such ranges of temperature as should make the
experiment decisive. If the points were unequally heated by accident,
the wax curve would not be symmetrical with respect to a line per-
pendicular to that joining the two heated points. There could be no
trouble with lack of homogeneity of the plate, as preliminary experi-
ments show that from a single heated point the curve is perfectly
symmetrical and distinct, with a probable error iu finding the line
of demarcation practically insensible. I am indebted to Professor
Gibbs for the suggestion that the New Hampshire Infusorial Earth
might be advantageously used as an almost perfect non-conductor of
heat.

Whatever might be the result of a series of experiments like those
referred to above, it is evident, from the differential equation, that
Fourier's solution cannot be a correct one. If the uniform tempera-
ture of the plate were taken as the zero of the scale, the temperature
of any point in the plate due to the two heated points would be tho
sum of the temperatures that would be given to the same point if each
heated point acted alone. On this hypothesis, it would be very easy
to find a point in the plate so situated that, when the plate had
reached its final state, the point would have a temperature nearly
double that which either of the heated points have, which is mani-
festly absurd. It does not appear that writers upon this subject have
noticed this fact.

If experiment shows, as it probably will, that the propagation of
heat in the interior of a solid is determined by the expression

— c^JM,

dx

it will not be hard to determine J{v) experimentally. The infusorial
earth, it is believed, will prevent any sensible loss of heat from con-
duction or radiation, so that the flow of heat in the plate will be de-
termined solely by the law of internal flux. Let a plate of any metal
other than copper be heated at a single point, and after it has reached
its final state let the temperatures of the different points of the plate
be determined relatively by means of the thermoelectric currents
obtained by touching different points of the plate by the copper ter-
minals of a Thomson's Short-Coil Galvanometer. These terminals
are to be held by wooden pincers, and pushed through the light infuso-
rial earth so as to explore the points of any line radiating from the
point where the heat is applied.

OF AETS AND SCIENCES. 149

Let Tf,, r^, r„ r.j, &c., be a series of points in such a line determined
by experiment, so tliut the galvanometer gives the same deflection
when one terminal is at /•„_! and the other at r« as it does when the
first terminal is at r^ and the second at r.^. If v is the temperature of
all points upon the circle whose radius is r^, the temperature of all
points at a distance from the heated point equal to r^ will be (v — V*'),
and all points at a distance of Vn will have a temperature equal to
(v — 7iVv). The temperatures may be determined as a function of
r, [y = qr(r)] by obtaining the equation of the curve drawn by
plotting the temperature as abscissas and the corresponding values of
r as ordinates ; and tlie form of the function y may be mathematically
obtained from the equation.

/(gr(r)) = ^' + ^'logr,

A' is the value of /(f/;(l)).

Kelland unintentionally says that the assumption of

dflv)
^ dx

as the law of flux will only necessitate the writing off(v) instead of
V in Fourier's formulas. This statement is evidently only true when
these formulas refer to a body which has attained its final state.

Mr. E. B. Lefavour and myself are engaged upon the experimental
work laid out in this paper.

Harvard University, April 4, 1877.

150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XIII.

ANTIGENY, OR SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN BUT-
• TERFLIES.

By Samuel H. Scudder.

Presented, March 14, 1877.

In bis work on Selection in relation to sex, Darwin discusses the dif-
ference of coloring which frequently distingui.shes the sexes of butter-
flies, and concludes that "the male, as a general rule, is the most
beautiful, and departs most from the usual type of coloring of the
group to which the species belongs." (op. cit. i. 390.) Of the first
proposition there can be no doubt; but, in the second, two distinct
elements appear to be confounded : the separation of these is the
object of the present eommunicalion.

Sexual dimorphism, or antigeny,* as exhibited in butterflies, is of
two kinds, — colorational and structural. Colorational antigeny again
may be divided into two classes: the first including those cases in
which it is partial ; the second, those in which it is complete.

As one example of partial antigeny, we may take Ci/aniris pseudar-
giolus (Boisd.-LeC). In the south, a portion of the females of the
spring brood have the upper surface of the wings uniformly brown ;
another portion have the greater part blue, like the male ; in the north,
all the females are blue. In Jasoniades Turnus (Linn.), the males, and
in the north all the females, are yellow above, heavily banded with
black ; in the south, a large proportion of the fem;des have lost the
yellow ground, and become wholly black ;, while others retain the
universal ground-tint of the male. The dark female of Atrytone
Zahuloa (Boisd.-LeC.) was for a long while considered a species dis-
tinct from the normal female, in which the tawny colors of the male
are shared by its mate.

* This term, signifying opposition or rlivcrsity of the sexes, is proposed to
avoid circumlocution; for tliere are so ni;iny forms of sexual dimorphism
requiring specific names, that a compound term for the general phenomenon
becomes inconvenient.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 151

These are all cases of melanism, and may be taken as examples of a
class; in the first two, perhaps iu all, it is only toward the southern
part of the insect's range that the melanism appears, and is in accord-
ance with the general rule that melanic antigeny is more common at
the south, while its opposite, albinism, is more frequent toward the
north.

Albinism, for instance, is a common feature in the northern genus
Enrynms. In our common E. Philodice (God.) and E. Earytheme
(lioisd.), many females may be found in which the bright yellow or
orange of the upper surface is replaced by a sordid greenish-white;
and if we go farther north, or to higher altitudes, we shall tiud other
species, iu which the albinism has become complete, affecting all the
females.

It is a curious circumstance that, while albinic antigeny finds its
most complete expression in high tem[)erate regions, and melanic an-
tigeny prevails toward the tropics, the albinic females of a partially
antigenic sj^ecies never appear in the spring brood, but increase in
numbers throughout the hot season ; while, at least iu the case of the
blue butterfly mentioned, the melanic females emerge in early spring,
are confined to this biood, and are replaced in warmer weather by the
gynandromorphic females ; thus, spring apparition appears to be corre-
lated with southern distrIl)ution, and summer apparition WMth northern
distribution : these two phenomena appear, in either case, to be directly
antagonistic.

Although both albinism and melanism may become complete, par-
tial antigeny, wherever it exists, is confined to the phenomena of
melanism and albinism, and does not extend to the more varied forms
of complete colorational antigeny, to which reference will now be
made.

In the male of Xanthidla Nicippe (Cram.), the black bordering
band of the wings is sharply defined, and extends across the entire
outer margin ; in the female, the band is blurred, and stops abruptly
before it reaches the lower angle of the front wings, or has half trav-
ersed the hind wings. In Redone Brettus (Boisd.-LeC), the female is
very dark-brown, almost black, with two little yellow spots in the
middle of the front wings ; while the male differs totally, being tawny
with indented brown borders and an oblique black dash in the middle
of the front wings : at first glance, no one could suppose them iden-
tical. In Semnopsyche Diana (Cram.), the male is a rich dark-brown
with a very broad fulvous margin upon all the wings, marked on the
front wings by one or two rows of black spots. The female, on the

152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Other hand, is a ricli purple-black, with no trace of fulvous, but with
the space where it belDiigs occupied on the fore wings by three rows
of white spots and dashes, and on the hind wings by two belts of blue,
broken into spots, one of the belts narrow, the other exceedingly broad.
In Erora lata (Edw.), the male is wholly brown, with a border of
deep blue on a 23oi'tion of the hind wings ; while in tiie female, the
blue has extended so as to cover almost all the hind wings, and even
the base of the fore wings. But it is in the Coppers ( Villicantes) that
this ph(?nomen<)ii is most common. Here the females are usually of a
fulvous color heavily spotted with black, and particularly noticeable
for their conspicuous broad dark border, and a row of spots crossing
the wing beyond the middle ; while the males are either of some dark-
brown shade with a purplish gloss, or of a fiery hue, almost always
without any border or spots.

Now in all these cases of colorational antigeny, it is the female, and
never the male, which first departs from the normal type of coloring
of the group to which the species belongs. Occasionally the feminine
peculiarity has been transmitted to the male, and, by this means, a new
type of coloration estal)lished in the group ; but I recall no case where
the male alone departs from the general type of coloring pecidiar to the
group. This is precisely the opposite conclusion to that wliicli Darwin
reached. He gives several examples on the authority of Bates, which
certainly favor his conclusion, but may, at the same time, be explained
from the opposite point of view. He gives other examples from the
European blue butterflies, which not only do not support, but even
oppose, his general statement.

Take the case of Semn. Diana, than which we could hardly find a
stronger, since the group {Dnjades) to which it belongs is remarkably
uniform, exhibiting in all its numerous membei's the same character-
istic play of fulvous and black markings. Tiie male of S. Diana is
indeed very unlike most otlier fritillaries, but it retains, nevertheless,
abundant traces of the same style of ornamentation, and has precisely
the same colors, while the female departs widely from the charac-
teristic features of ornamentation, and, in addition, loses every trace
of fulvous, so that no one at first glance woidd recognize it as a
member of the group. Take again Earyinus Philodice and its
allies. In some species, indeed, there are only pale females ; but in
others all, or most of the females, are yellow or orange, like the males ;
and any one who knows how yellow and orange tints prevail through-
out the group of Fugacia will acknowledge that the color of the males
is normal. So too with the Blues {^Adolescentes),\\\\\(A\ Larwiu him-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 153

self quotes : in almost all of them, both males anrl females are of some
shade of blue ; in comparatively few, the males are blue and the femnles
brown ; in exceedingly few, both sexes are brown ; and the very fact
that they are familiarly known as " Blues" is a popular recognition of
the prevailing color. In the group of Skippers to which H. Brettus
belongs (^Aslyn), tiie prevailing colors, at least in the temperate zones,
are certainly tawny and black, or brown ; the latter, marginal. This
is the case with the male of H. Brettns, while the female diverges
from the type in becoming wholly brown. In Jusonlades TiiniHS,
where we sometimes have a black female, it is more ditficult to decide
what should be considered tiie normal color, owing to diversity of view
upon the relationship of many of the Swallow-tails ; but. to judge only
from those agreed by all to be most nearly allied to it, there can be no
question whatever that the striped char.icter prevails.

It will also be noticed, in this last case and others given, that wher-
ever partial antigeny or dimor[)liism is confined to one sex, it is always
to the female : there seems to be no exception to this rule. In these
instances, on my hypothesis, half of the females depart from the type ;
on Darwin's, half of the females, and ail of the males. But if, on Dar-
win's theory, sometimes one-half, and sometimes three-quarters of a
species has diverged from the type, why does it never happen that
only one-fourth of the sjiecies diverges ? This seems to be a very per-
tinent and damaging inquiry.

The instances given by Darwin, which strongly sustain his view,
are drawn from specimens of the Sotith American genus Epicalia,
found in the rich cabinet of Mr. Bates. The facts, as stated by him. are
these : There are twelve sjjecies of the genus discussed by him ;* of
these, nine have gaudy males and plain females ; one has plain male
and plain female ; and two have gaudy males and gauily females. The
plain females, he adds, '' resemble each other in their general type of
coloration, and likewise resemble both sexes in several allied genera,
found in various parts of the world." To examine this case fairlv
would need a large collection of exotic butterflies. If we confine our-
selves to Epicalia, we evidently cannot say whether the gaudy or the
plain coloring be normal : there would be less variation from the
standard on the supposition that the gaudy were the normal t3'pe, and
in this case it is the female which has departed from the type ; but the
difference is not enough to form an objection. It is only when we
look outside of Epicalia that judgment seems to lean toward Darwin's

* Kirby, in his last general catalogue, gives fifteen.

154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

side ; but, from the unfortunate want of material, I cannot fairly dis-
cuss this point.

Take, however, another case, which appears to be equally compli-
cated,— our native Coppers (Villicaiites). We have one species in
which both sexes are fiery red marked with black ; another where both
are fulvous marked with black ; others where both sexes are brown ;
and several where the male is brown, marked with fulvous, and the
female fulvous, marked with brown ; others where the male is wholly
brown, and the female fulvous, spotted with brown ; and again others
with fiery male, and brown female. We have nearly every possible
variation, but the prevalent feature is a dark male, often with more or
less metallic reflections, which sometimes increase so as to give the
insect a fiery copper hue ; and a fulvous, spotted, and margined female.
I do not see how we can po.^sibl}' discover, with any certainty, fi'om
within tlie limits of the group of Coppers, what sliould be considered
the normal type. Nor are we much better off in an examination out-
side the group: there the prevailing tint is either brown or blue;
and I am inclined to think that brown, tending strongly to copper,
should be considered the normal type ; in which case the males are
normal, and the species generally antigenic.

But sexual dimorphism is not confined to color or pattern ; there is
also structural, as well as colorational, antigeny. This term embraces
all those minor features which, in these and other animals, have been
classed as accessory or secondary sexual peculiarities. Structural
antigeny is always complete, and, in direct opposition to the features
we have been discussing, is wholly confined to the males.

In butterflies, structural antigeny is mostly confined to the wings
and the legs ; occasionally it appears in the antennfe. Sometimes it
affects the contour of the wings. One of the most conspicuous cases
among our own butterflies is in Slrymon Titus (Fabr.), where the fore
wings of the male have a poinded tip, and the hind wings have the
inner angle sharply defined ; while in the female both the tip of the
fore wings and the inner angle of the hind wings are broadly
rounded.

Or it may affect the direction of the veins of the wings. Usually
the difference between the sexes is slight, and concerns the point of
origin of one or two of the upper branches of the subcostal vein of the
fore wings ; but occasionally it is very marked, as in many hair-streaks,
such as Thecla Edwardsii Saund., where the branches of the sub-
costal vein near the end of the cell are thrown far out of place to
accommodate a patch of peculiar crowded scales ; this patch itself,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 155

moreover, is a feature of the males alone, and occurs in many hair-
streaks wliere the position of the veins is not altered.

One of the most curious patches of tliis kind is found in the males
of some species of Eurymus, althouj^h wholly absent from others inti-
mately allied to them. It is a little patch of lustreless scales, which
occurs at that part of the base of the hind wings which is always cov-
ered by the front wings, so that it is quite concealed from sight.
Patches of a different nature also mark the male sex ; thus, next the
middle of the lower median vein of the hind wing of Danaida Plexip-
pus (Linn.), and in some of its allies, we have a heavy thickening of
the membrane, conspicuous from its covering of black scales.

In very many males of the larger Skippers {Hesperides), the front
edge of the fore wing is abnormally expanded, and folded compactly
upon the upper face of the wing, so snugly that often it can oidy be
discovered with the lens; moreover tlie scales within this have turned
to white silken floss, which, when the fold is raised, contrast conspicu-
ously with tiie ordinarily dark surface of this part of the wing. In
certain Swallow-tails (E(/m'tes) also, the inner border of the hind wings
is folded back in a similar, though looser, manner ; but is so much lar-
ger that, when opened, it often exposes a white downy surface as large
as the abdomen.

Then again there is much variety of male adornment in special mod-
ifications of hairs or scales upon ihe wings. The patch of tiie hair-
streaks already mentioned is one instance of this; another example
is found among the Dryadcs, in a row of long, fulvous, partially erect
hairs along the upper edge of the cell of the hind wings ; this is accom-
panied by a curious apparent thickening of the veins in tlie middle of
the fore wing, due altogether to the presence of a multitude of small
and densely clustered black scales, crowded against the veins at this
point. A faint oblique ])atch of minute and crowded lustreless scales,
accompanied by long silky hairs, is often seen crossing the wings of
some of the Satyrids ; but this feature finds fullest expression iu the
Astyci, or smaller Skippers, where a large proportion of males liave a
patch or oblique dash of peculiar scales covering veins and membrane
indiscriminately, but usually, and in our native butterflies ahvaj^s, occu-
pying the middle of the front wing, and crossing the median veins
obliquely near their base. This dash is variously formed, but the
scales which compose it are much larger than the ordinai-y scales, are
black, and frequently partially erect. They may also differ in various
parts of the patch itself, and alter its character abruptly ; for in-
stance, some comparatively huge and brilliant scales may occupy the

156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

middle line, and be buttressed by a multitude of minute, crowded, lus-
treless scales ; or there may be at one point a sort of whirlpool of large
party-colored scales, imbricated, in the most regular fashion, like the
normal scales, and, beyond them again, a multitude of the minute,
crowded, lustreless fcales. These peculiarities, however, must be
studied with a glass ; the naked eye may indeed discern that the patch
differs in different insect?, but the general effect in all alike is a vari-
ously formed velvety patch or olilitpie streak of black.

It may be remarked, in passing, that wherever antigeny, colorational
or structural, manifests itself in the wings of butterflies, the differences
between the sexes almost invariably occur upon the upper surface, and
generally upon the front wing only ; it occasionally happens that there
is a slight difference in the general tone of color on the under surface of
both sexes, corresponding to what appears above, as in Semrwpsyche
Diana ; but it rarely affects the markings of the wings. The differ-
ences upon the upper surface, however, and especially upon the fore
wings, are, as we have seen, often conspicuous and very curious. One
can scarcely doubt tliat tliis is in direct relation with the general
absence of all ornamentation from the lower surface of both wings, and
usually also from the upper surface of the hind wings, of moths.

Sexual dimorphism in the legs shows itself in the proportional length
of the different pairs in the two sexes, in the special development
of certain joints, in the appendages, and in the clothing. It ap|)ears
remarkably in the appendages of the two higher families of butter-
flies, Nijmphales and Rnrules, and especially in the latter family, where
the terminal appendages of the fore legs are nearly or quite lost in the
males, and are as cons|)icuous as on the other legs in the female. I have
not discovered that the differences in the length of tlie leg-joints follow
any general law, although tliere are few of our butterflies whose sexes do
not vary in this particular ; this form of antigeny is also most conspic-
uous in the Rurales. The males of certain VilUcantes ( Chrysophaniis,
Epidemia, Heodes, Feniseca) also present another curious feature in a
tumid swelling of the basal joint of the middle and hind tarsi. Finally,
the fore legs of the males of Nijmphales are frequently furnished with a
spreading brush of hairs ; or, in other butterflies, the thighs and shanks
of the middle and hind legs are supplied with curious pencils or fringes
of stiff hair, which appear to have the same sigaificauce as similar
adornments in higher animals.

Darwin supposes that these various male appurtenances, which
occur throughout the aniratd kingdom, have all arisen by natural selec-
tion, — that one of rival males being selected as a mate whose outward

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 157

cliarms are greatest. He certainly brings powerful argument and a
strong array of facts to support this hypothesis ; but what then shall
be said of tlie following ilhistration of structural antigeuy ; viz., the
presence iu many males, but in no females whatever, of scales of
the most exquisite beauty and delicacy, scattered among tlie more
common sort, and invisible to the naked eye ? Even with the help of
the microscope, they can often only be discovered by ruffling the wing,
and forciljly extracting them from their concealment; and, so far as
we can see, they give to tlie wing no peculiar character by which it
may be distinguished from other wings.

These peculiar scales, or androcouia, as they may be called in ref-
erence to their masculine nature, were first noticed by Bernard
Deschamps more than forty years ago,* but have never been properly
studied tliroughout the butterflies. Deschamps called them plumules,
from their feathery tips ; but the term is utterly inappropriate to most
of them ; and their form is so varied that only some word expressing
their masculine character should be accepted, since this is their single
common peculiarity.

These androconia are very capricious in their occurrence ; a number
of allied genera may possess them, while a single genus, as closely
allied, may be quite destitute. This is true throughout the butterflies,
and yet there are large groups in which they are altogether wanting,
and others in which their absence is extremely rare. In the highest
butterflies, they are long, slender, and invariably feathered at the tip.
In one small group (the Hdiconii), they are toothed as well as feath-
ered. With the exception of the Heliconii, they may generally be
distinguished from ordinary scales by the absence of any dentation
at the tip. In the Voracia, they are fringed, and, with a single known
exception, their extreme base is expanded into a sort of bulb ; else-
where, even in the other Pierids, they are not fringed, but have a
smooth rounded edge. In the Adolescentes they assume a battledore
or fan shape, with a smooth edge, and are generally beaded, and more
heavily striate than the scales. The same is true, but with more vari-
ations, in tiie Villicantes and Ephori, where they have been considered
wanting. In the Equites, where also they have been supposed to be
wanting, they differ but little from the scales, but are much smaller
and incjre coarsely striate. In the Urblcolce, where no one has hitherto
recognized them, they present the greatest variety in the same individ-

* Recherches microscopiques ?ur I'organlsation des ailes des Le'pidopteres,
Ann. Sc. Nat. [2] III. 111-37 (1835).

158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ual ; in one group (Hiesperides) there are hair-like androconia, and
others wliich are exceedingly hirge and spindle-shaped. In the Astyei,
besides hair-like and gigantic androconia, there are usually some which
are spoon-shaped, with long handles.

As a general rule, these androconia are present in the patches to
which we have alluded as forming oue phase of the antigenic charac-
ters of the male ; but often, as in the Adolescentes and Voracia, they
are scattered indiscriminately or in rows over the upper surface of the
wings ; and there are many patches, like those at the base of tlie hind
wings of some Fagacia, and next the median vein of the same wing
in Dan. Plerippus, where androconia are not found. They do, how-
ever, sometimes occur in patches on the hind wings, as in the fetid next
the inner margin of the Equltes ; but, with the exception of the discal
spot of the Ephori, they seem to be present in all patches found on
the front wings ; occasionally forming the principal part of such patches,
as in the Callidryades, and again taking no part in the display.
Take, for example, the Dryades, where so many small black scales
are crowded against certain veins as to give them a thickened appear-
ance ; the androconia are also present in great numbers, but entirely
concealed ; only by removing the scales can even the tassels of their
long and slender blades be seen. Perhaps even more curious than
this is the arrangement by which all the androconia of the Equites and
Hesperides are tightly enclosed in a fold of the membrane ; it is not
impossible that this fold can be opened at vvill by the insect, and it
would then become conspicuous, and probably an attraction to the but-
terfly's mate ; but what possible advantage can there be in partially or
wholly concealed androconia, scattered separately over the wing ? In
some Adolescentes, they are exceedingly scarce, numbering not more
than one to a hundred scales, and the exposed surface of this one not
one-tenth that of the scales about it. One might search an hour with
a microscope over an unruffled wing and overlook it; indeed, it is as
the merest speck of dust in a dust heap. Does the siglit of these creat-
ures surpass our power of vision with the microscope ? The theory
of sexual selection proposed by Darwin appears to fail here, just where
it should aid us most.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 159

XIV.

CHARACTERS OF SOME LITTLE-KNOWN OR NEW
GENERA OF PLANTS.

By Asa Gray.

Read May 9, 1877.

CANOTIA, Torr., Genus Rutacearum.

Flores hermaphroditi. Calyx parvus, qiiinquelobus, persistens ;
lobis latis sestivatione imbricatis. Petala 5, hypogyna, oblonga, utrin-
qiie obtusissima, basi lata iuserta, aestivatione imbricata, intus medio
costa prominula instructa, decidua. Stamina 5, hypogyna, calycis lobis
opposita : filamenta subulata, petalis parum breviora, persistentia :
antherje oblongo-cordatae, introrsae, sinu profiindo apici acutissimo
filamenti affixis, mucrone parvo apiculataj ; localis iutus longitudi-
nallter deiiisceiitibus. Pollen madidum tricorne. Discus iiullus. Ova-
rium gynobasi crassa eoque multo ranjore inferne leviter 10-sulcata im-
positum, o-loculare, stylo crasso demum elongando superatnra : stigma
parvum, leviter 5-lobum ; loculis ovarii oppositipetalis. Ovula in
loculis saepissirae 6, angulo iuterno biseriatim inserta, subhorizontalia ;
micropyle int'era. Capsiila ovato-fusiformis, lignescens, epicarpio tenui
subcarnoso induta, 5-locularis, ab apice 10-valvis (primum septicida, mox
loculicida), portionibus styli persistens 10-fissilis superatis ; columella
nulla. Semina in loculis solitaria vel bina loculum implentia, adscen-
dentia, subovata, complanata ; testa subcoriacea creberrime papillulosa
inferne in alam latam membranaceam nucleo sublongiorem producta.
Embryo in strato tenui albuminis carnosi rectus ; cotyledoiiibus ovali-
bu3 planis ; radicula breviuscula, infera. — Arbuscula 10-'20-pedalis,
prorsus apliylla. glaberrima ; ramis alternis spartioideis viridibus rigidis
nunc spiuesceutibus striatulis cicatricibus parvis remotis brunneis
notatis ; inflorescentia secus ramulorum racemiformi ; pedunculis bre-
vissimis fasciculatim vel cymoso-3-7-floris ; pedicellis articulatis ; brac-
teis parvis squamiformibus ovato-subulatis oppositis deciduis ; corolla
alba; glandulis ordinis evanidis.

160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Canotia holacantha, Toit. in Pacif. R. Rep. iv. G8 ; Benth. &
Hook. Geu. i. 616 (where the radicle is inadverteutly said to be
superior); Brewer & Watson, Bot. Cahf. i. 190. — Arizona, in the
arid desert region, especially along mountain water-courses, Emory,
Bigelow, and various other collectors, in fruit, first collected in flower
by Palmer, and recently by Rothrock in Wheeler's Expedition.

A genus of hitherto undetermined affinity. Dr. Torrey, who knew
only the fruit, with calyx and filaments persistent at its base, compared
it with Eucryphia ; upon which Beutham and Hooker appended it, alono-
with that genus and Euplironia, to Rosacea:, tribe Qalllajece. What-
ever may be said of those genera, this is certainly not Rosaceous.
Baillon, the first botanist to publish any thing upon the genus since
the flowers were known, and who describes the '• discum crlandulosum
incrassatum " under the ovary (but wrongly describes the calyx as
valvate and the ovules as anatropou-), refers Canotia without question
to Celastracece.* This is better than Rosacece, and the inferior radicle
tells in its favor, as against the view which I take, having now for the
first time examined the floweis. But I am confident that the plant
belongs to the Rutacece. The structure of the gynol)ase, as I should
call it, points strongly in this direction. This large and fleshy or, when
dry, rather corky body upon which the ovary is mounted is broader
than the latter in the blossom, as well as of twice its height; and is
so confluent with it that, upon superficial observation, it would be taken
for a component part of it. But it is solid within, and has a papillose-
glandular surface, unlike that of the ovary it supports, which is smooth.
Its likeness to that of Rue is manifest ; and in Thamnosma the same
body becomes stipitiform. I find no trace in Canotia of a proper disk
around the base of this, which is conspicuous in Thamnosma, As the
fertilized ovary enlarges, it soon becomes broader than the gynobase
as well as longer ; in the fruit the latter so inconspicuous that it has been
ovei'looked. The wood and bark are not bitter to the taste, in the
manner of most Simarubacece (which in a comprehensive consideration
of relationships must be taken along with Rutacece), nor is the surface
at all pustulate- or tuberculate-glandular as in Thamnosma. But in
the petals, and especially in the sepals and minute bracts of the inflo-
rescence, I discern evident traces of the Rutaceous oil-glands. Faint
and few though they be, they suffice to confirm the affinity.

There are four of these spartioid green-barked and raainl}'^ leafless
shrubs in the dry Arizonian region. Thamnosma montanum, Torr.,

* Adansonia, x. 18, & Hist, des Plantes, vi. 43, 1875.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 161

which is a jjenuine Ratacea ; Holacantha Emoryi, Gray, an undoubted
Siinaruhacea ; Koeberlinia spinosa, Zucc, which has been referred to the
same order, but is more anomalous ; and tinally Caiiotia holacantha.^
which, if I mistake not, must take its place among the typical Rutacece,
notwithstanding some anomalies.

The pollen of Canotia, as pointed out to me by Prof. Rothrock, who
has supplied the best flowering specimens we possess, is exactly repre-
sented by Sach's figure of that of Epilobium, viz., that in his Lehrbuch,
fiir. 349.

a

SYMPETALEIA, Nov. Gen. Loasaceariim.

Calycis tubus globoso-obconicus ; limbus o-partitus, lobis tubo
sequilongis. Corolla (alte gamopetala !) hypocraterimorpha ; tubo
elongato subclavato intus infra medium piloso-annulato ; limbo 5-par-
tito, lobis rotundatis testivatione imbricatis. Stamina circiter 25,
corollte tubo sub fauce ant inordinate ant 5-seriatim inserta : fila-
menta brevissima, tenuia : antherse subreniformes, uniloculares, bival-
ves. Ovarium uniloculare : stylus filiformis : stigmata 5, brevia,
conniventia. Ovula indefinite plurima, placentis 5 parietalibus in-
serta. Capsula subglobosa, apice tantum dehiscens. Semina per-
plurima, oblonga ; testa tenui conformi oblique striato-costulata.
Embryo in albumine parco granuloso axilis, rectus, oblongus ; cotyle-
donibus brevibns.

Sympetaleia aurea. Herba annua, humilis, Eucnidis facie, vis-
coso-hirsutala et setis urentibus Itevibus hispida ; foliis longe-petiolatis
rotundato-cordatis crenatis vel 3-o-lobatis ; pedunculis termiualibus et
supra-axillaribus, fructiferis elongandis recurvis ; corolla aurea semi-
poUicari. — Pulpito Point, Lower California, Dr. Thomas H. Streets,
U. S. N. Coll. in February, 1875 ?

In this we have the anomaly of a Loasaceous plant with a truly
gamopetalous corolla! In Eucnide of Zuccarini, — a genus which had
been merged in Mentzella, but which Mr. Watson, in the Botany of
California, has properly reinstated, — the petals are united at the very
base into a ring, which bears the stamens. Here they are combined
into a long tube, and even to the base of the spreading limb, and the
stamens are borne in and below the throat. The imbricated aestivation
of the corolla is shared by Eucnide, Mentzelia, &c. ; but the one-celled
anthers, of the Malvaceous pattern, are peculiar. The tube of the
calyx is completely adnate to the ovary, which is crowned by a flat
disk ; and the corolla is epigynous. The habit of the plant is wholly

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 11

162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ABIERICAN ACADEMY

that of J^ucnide. The name choseu for the genus expresses its most
striking character, viz., the union of the petals.*

LEMMONIA, Nov. Gen. Hydrojphyllacearum.

Corolla brevi-campanulata, sepala angusto-linearia hand superans,
5-loba, intus nuda. Stamina brevia, tubo corollte brevissimo a^qualiter
inserta : filamenta siibulata. ad insertionem subito dilatata, quasi ap-
pendiculata : antherce cordato-didjmEe. Discus obscurus. Ovarium
ovoideum, pilosum, biloculare, stylis 2 brevibus superatum : stigmata
capitellata. Ovula in loculis binis, superposita, obovata, auatropa.
Capsula ovoidea, retusa, 4-sperma, bivalvis ; valvis membranaceis
semisepta angusta firmiora ferentihus. Semina ratione capsulae magna,
obovata, grosse rariter ruguloso-impressa ; testa tenui ca^terum licvi.
Embryo cylindricus, rectus, albumine carnoso paullo brevier.

Lemmonia Californica. Herbula annua, depressa, dichotoma,
sericeo-canescens ; foliis alternis basi apiceque ramorum confertis spathu-
latis integerrimis ; floribus cymoso-congestis et in dichotomis infimis
solitariis subsessilibus ; sepalis albo-villosis angustissirais apice noa
latioribus, fructiferis (lineas 2 longis) capsulam superantibus ; corolla
lineam longa alba sen albida. — San Bernardino Co., California, on
Bear Valley Creek, on the head waters of the Mohave River, May,
1876, J. G. Lemmon. This interesting little plant, which was sent to
me in a letter by Mr. Lemmon at the time of its discovery, was passed
over by me as a Coldenia § Tiquiliopsis, which it resembles in aspect
and especially in mode of growth. But it proves to be the type of a
new geiuis, somewhat related to Draperia among the Pliacelieoe, yet
belonging jjroperly to the Namece. It is distinguished from Nama by the
short campanulate corolla and correspondingly short styles and subu-
late filaments (the latter dilated and thickened at the very insertion
in such manner as to form a sort of annulus to the corolla-tube), and

* In the small but interesting collection of plants of Lower California, made
b}' the discoverer of this genus, occurs a new Hemizotiia, the characters of which
are here appended : —

Hemizonia Streetsii. § Hartmannin, H. angnstifolkB et corijmhosce sat affinis,
humilis, ramosa e radice annua, pubescens, eglandulosa; foliis linearibus nunc
integerrimis nunc inciso-4-5-dentatis ; capitulis ramos terminantibus brevi-
pedunculatis ; ligulis ultra 12 biseriatis elongatis oblongo-spathulatis, tubo brevi
glanduloso ; paleis receptaculi convexo-conici circa flores disci plurimos steriles
basi connatis ; pappi paleis fl. disci 8-10 lineari-lanceolatis parum denticulatis
corolla paullo brevioribus ; acheniis radii Isevibus. — San Benito Island, Lower
California, Dr. Thomas H. Streets.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 163

by the single pair of ovules to each cell, forming large seeds. The
latter are very like those of Xama demissa and of Conanthus. As to
PhaceUa, which might be thought polymorphous enough to include
almost any plant of this sort, even if we disregard the technical char-
acter of the distinct styles, yet the geminate ovules and seeds in this
plant are characteristic, being superposed, while those of Phacelia,
when reduced to single pairs, are collateral.

Of late years I have had frequent occasion to associate the name of
Mr. J, G. Lemmon with species of his own discovery ; and I seize
with satisfaction the present opportunity of further commemorating the
services of a most ardent and successful explorer of the Siena Nevada
region, by naming in his honor this interesting new genus which he
alone has met with. By the specific name, Californica, I indicate the
principal field of Mr. Lemmon's arduous explorations.

ECHINOSPERMUM, Sect. Echinoglochin.

Nuculfe immargiuatse, ovato-trigonse, dorso (medio carinulato) undi-
que inordinate aculeolatoe, aculeis tota longitudine setulis retrorsis
armatis ; areola prope basim ovata. Corollas lobi convoluto-imbricati.
Pedicelli fructiferi erecti. Calyx fructifer patens, nee reflexus.

ECHINOSPERMUM Greenei. EritHcMo fulvo sat similis, iiltra-
spithamoeum, e radice annua laxe ramosum, pilis albidis striguloso-
pubescens ; foliis linearibus obtusis ; racemis solitariis geminisve
laxiusculis hie inde (basi prtesertim) folioso-bracteatis ; calyce fulvo-
sericeo-hirsuto ; lobis oblongo-Iinearibus obtusis corollam albam sub-
sequantibus ; nuculis (sesquilineam lougis) calyce brevioribus inter
aculeas sparsas teretes {^—\ lineam longas) tuberculato-scabris intus
acute carinatis. — About Yreka, Siskiyou Co., in the northern part of
California, 1876, E. L. Greene. An additional and singular link
between Echinospermum and Eritrichlum, but technically belonging to
the former, if not worthy of generic distinction ; remarkable for having
the prickles glochidiately barbed not merely at the apex, but for their
whole length, and not at all arranged in lateral ranks.

ECIIIDIOCARYA, Gray, char, reformatum.

Calyx o-partitus ; segmentis sub fructu parum apertis. Corolla
rotato-hypocraterimorpha ; tubo calycem suba^quante lobis rotundatis
breviore, plicis faucialibus pi. m. intrusis. Filamenta brevissima medio
tubo inserta : antherge oblonga?, inclusee. Stylus brevis : stigma capi-
tatum. Nuculae ovato-trigonse, obliquie, cristulato-rugosas, dorso ven-
treque carinatse, in stipitibus crassis aut discretis aut per paria coalitis

164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

(areolis pi. m. cavis gynobasin late conicara claudentibus) incurvo-
adscendentibus. — Herbaj annuaj, ditfusaj, Eritrichii sect. Plagiohothri-
dis facie ; foliis omnibus alternis ; floribus parvulis albis ; pube hirsuta.
— Gray in Benth. & Hook. Gen. ii. 854, & Proc. Am. Acad. xi. 89.

Two species are now known, of very similar aspect ; and it may
now be said of the senus that it should stand between Eritrichium and
Antiphytum.

EcHiDiocARYA Artzonica, Gray, 1. c. Corolla fauce plicis mini-
mis fere evanidis parum constricta ; nuculis parce cristato-muricatis
apice compresso-attenuatis basi productis in stipites crassos iisque tsqui-
longos inferne connatos, areola (paris) excavata maxima cava. —
This species was founded on a specimen collected by Dr. Smart, of
such peculiar character of fruit that it might have been thought to be
abnormal. But it is now confirmed by additional specimens, collected
in March of this year, near Tucson, Arizona, by my indefatigable and
sharp-sighted correspondent. Rev. E. L. Greene.* It is also confirmed
essentially, and the character modified, by the detection of a second
species, in which, however, each nutlet has a wholly separate stipe.
This species may be named

EcHiDioCARYA Californica. Corolla majore (lobis rotundatis
lineas circiter 2 longis) fauce plicis validis puberulis clausa ; nuculis
minoribus (lineam longis) minus acutatis dorso rugoso-alveolatis
(rugis acutis echinulatis), stipitibus bi-evibus compressis angulo ventrali
supra basim ortis discretis, areola carunculiformi parvula concava. —
South-eastern California, in San Bernardino Co., 1876, Parry and
Lemmon.

LEPTOGLOSSIS, Benth., subgenus Brachtglossis.

Corolla plane hypocraterimorpha ; tubo filiformi sub limbo rotato in
faucem campanulatam brevem stamina claudentem subito modiceque
ampliato. Anther* fertiles 4, superiores 2-3-plo minores : filamenta
quinta ananthera. Ovarium baud stipitatum, disco tenuiter cupulato
subtensum. Stylus sub stigmate angustiuscule bilobo bialatus. Semina
{L. Texance) subreniformia, grosse corrugato-rugosa. Embryo in al-
bumine earnoso sublncurvus. — Herbaj Texano-Mexicante, humiles, e
radice perenni diffusa^ ; floribus majusculis ut videtur albis.

Leptoglossis Texana. Multicaulis e basi firma ut videtur suf-
fi'utesceute, viscido-pubescens : foliis spathulato-ovalibus vel oblongis

* At the same station Mr. Greene likewise detected the most singular of all
our Borratjinacfv, viz. H(irjia<ioneHa Palincri, before known only from Guada-
lupe Island, Lower California.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 165

acutis })lerumque in petioluin brevissimum marginatum attenuatis :
calyce iufuudibuliformi-Ciimpanulato pedicello ajqiiilongo vel breviore
5-deutato, dentibus latis acutiusculis ; stigmatis lobis spathulatis deor-
snm in apicem styli alato-decurrentibus. — Nierembergia {Leptoglossis)
viscosa, & BrowalUa (Leptoylossis) Texana, Torr. Bot, Mex. Bound.
155, 156. — Western Texas, AVright, Bigelow. Adjacent Mexico, at
San Carlos, Berlandier, no. 3194. The two names above-cited refer
to the same plant. It was probably intended that the hrst should be
cancelled.

Leptoglossis Coulteri. Puberula ; caulibus debilibus laxis ;
foliis ovatis oblongisve tenuiter petiolatis ; pedicellis longioribus ;
calycis lobis triangulari-lanceolatis tubo turbinato cequilongis ; corollas
fauce subgibbosa : stylo sub stigmatis lobis subito latissirae alato. —
Mexico, coll. Coulter, no. 1346.

In habit and foliage these two plants are not unlike Bouchetia, a
genus established by Benthara and Hooker upon one of DeCandolle's
two species. The corolla is that of Nierembergia, except that the
limb is even flatter, or completely rotate, and the stamens are included
in a short and abrupt but small faucial enlargement of the very
summit of the tube. The five filaments are all short, not far from
equal in length ; the posterior destitute of anther ; the upper anthers
small, but polliniferous ; the lower pair with far larger fertile anthers.
These characters generally accord with Leptoglossis, Beuth., except ia
the shortness and comparative small ness of the throat, wliich in true
Leptoglossis is tubular-funnelform and continued downward for con-
siderable distance, thus giving the filaments greater length and lowness
of insertion. In the style, these plants partake of the peculiar charac-
ter of the related genus Reyesia, Clos {Fteroglossis, INIiers, which I
know only from the two published figures), except that the stigma is
manifestly two-lobed. The scarious-membranaceous wing, which is
decurrent from these lobes down the apex of the style, was overlooked
by Dr. Torrey in our scanty flowers of the Texan species. Its breadth
on either side is not quite equal to the length of the thickish stigma
lobe. But in the allied Mexican species the whole wing is much
broader, and quadrate or slightly cordate, not flabelliform-obcordate as
in Reyesia. The latter genus, of a single species, seems to be pretty
well marked in habit, the complete absence of the fifth stamen, &c.
But the two plants here described, notwithstanding their resemblance
to Nierembergia in general form of the corolla and to Reyesia in the
winged apex of the style, are probably best disposed of under a sub-
genus of Leptoglossis.

1G6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XV.

OBSERVATIONES LICHENOLOGIC^, No. 4.
OBSERVATIONS ON NORTH AMERICAN AND OTHER LICHENS.

By Edward Tuckerman, M.A.

(Continued from Vol. VI. p. 287.)

Read May 29, 1877.

Pyxine. The black hypothecium of Physcia picta distinguishes it
from the rest of the geuus, and suggests an association with Pyxine ;
to which, indeed, this Physcia is in other respects significantly similar.
Pyxine, thus enlarged, falls into two sections : —

1. DiRiNARiA. Apothecia scutellgeform. Thallus normally white
within, P. picta (S w.). — The species should probably include Parmelia
conflaens (Fr.) united by Nylander with the earlier P. cegialita, Ach. :
at least no difference seems to be noted. — P. picta occurs now safi'rou-
colored within (v. erytkrocardia, Tuckerm. in AYright Lich. Guh. n. 94)
like Physcia ohscura ; but also probably to be compared in this respect
with Pyxine coccinea, M. & V. d. B., of the next section.

2. Pyxine proper. Apothecia (similar at first, in a tropical form,
to those of the first section, but finally) blackening all over and leci-
deoid. Thallus soon more or less yellowish within. P. cocoes (Sw.)
— The other supposed species of this section are scarcely well defined.
P. cocoes V. Meissneri {P. 3Ieissneri of these Obs. 1, in Proc. Acad.
Amer. 4, p. 400) might indeed often be taken, and was taken by
Meissner, for a Physcia ; but the margin of the apothecium soon black-
ens, when tlie lichen is ill distinguishable from the oi'iginal Lichen
Cocoes (Sw. Lich. Amer. t. 2). — Another of the more delicate tropical
exhibitions of Pyxine is marked by the reticulate wrinkling of the
upper surface {P. retirugella Nyl. Lich. exot.) but otherwise is close
enough to P. Cocoes. — From this may well seem more separable the
larger lichen, extending far northward, which furnished Fries the type
of the genus (v. sorediata, Tuckerm. 1. c), but this differs only in size,
and not always in that respect, from forms easily included in P. Cocoes.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 167

— The larger form just named is not, however, confined to the north,
and exhibits in the tropics a peculiar luxuriance in quadrilocular spores
(v. Esclnceileri, Mihi ; given in Wright Lick. Cub. n. 94, iu part)
which renders necessary a modification of the genus-character, though
the liciien in question (like Physcia obscurascens, Nyl. Syti., as com-
jjared with Phijscia obscara) have little claim to be reckoned a species.
And, lastly, it may be said that Pyxine coccinen, M. & V. d. B. [Lic/i.
Jav. p. 40), which is distinguished, like the last variety, from the var,
sorediata by rather larger and quadrilocular spores, seems scarcely
otherwise to differ from this, but as P. picta, v. erythrocardia, from
the type of that species, or, as Physcia obscura, v. endochrysea, Ham p.
(the oldest name of a repeatedly named anamorphous condition) when
the medullary layer has become red from the same when as yet it is
only yellow. Systematic iXatural History is so much a matter of opin-
ion, that it may sometimes seem difficult, at this day, to fully assert its
position in the face of more purely objective science : surely, then, all
those who love the study of the system will desire that the term
" species " should express something worth knowing ; that its value
should be enforced and extended rather than diminished and frittered
away.

U-MBiLiCARiA Caroliniana, sp. nov.: thallo membranaceo Isevigato
papuloso rotundato-lobato mox polyphyllo complicatoque olivaceo-fusco,
subtus lacunoso papillato-granulato atro, fibrillis paucis hinc inde ob-
sito ; apotheciis subelevatis mox plicatis deinque papillato-ijroliferis.
Sporte (2""^?) ellipsoidea3, muriformi- multiloculares, fuscfe, longit.
0,()30-iO'"™-, crassit. 0,020-23"""-. — U. mammulata, Tuckerm. Syn.N.E,
p. 69, non A(A\.Jide Nyl. /. infra cit. — Rocks, Grandfather Mountain,
N. Carolina, M. A. Curtis. High mountains of N. Carolina, S. B.
BucMey. A well-marked Umbilicaria, but the material before me for
its illustration is small. The plant was pretty confidently referred, at
the place cited above, to the North American Gyrophora -mammulata,
Ach. Syn., both from the diagnosis and the name ; and this judgment
seemed to be confirmed by my notes (made in 1850) on a specimen then
preserved in the museum of the Royal Society of Upsal. But Dr. Ny-
lander {Lich. Scand. p. 115) says distinctly, that Acharius's lichen is
" spodochroa, apotheciis non rite evolutis." Dr. T. H. Fries also refers
it {Lich. Scand. p. 154) to '■'■ spodoch-oa, rhizinis erohitis vel {maxi-
mam partem) in tubercula nigra ryiutafis ; " and it is evident that neither
of these references is to the North Carolina plant. U. dictyiza, Nyl.
{Flora Itatisb. 1869, p. 388) of the same section of the genus as the
lichen above described, is, according to Stizenberger {Index Lich. Hy-

168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

perh., p. 22) from Newfoundland ; and no description of it is known
to me.

Sticta Hallii, sp. nov. : tliallo coi-iaceo reticulato-celluloso snbtiliter
rimuloso-granulato sparsimqiie villosiusculo cinereo-glaucescente, laciniis
rotundatis subintegris, subtus venoso-costato tomentoso maculis pallidi-
oribus nudis notato ; apotheciis sparsis (latit. 2-3 millim.) sessilibus,
excipulo villoso integre marginato, disro rufo-fusco. Sporae naviculares,
biloculares, fnscae, loiigit. 0,023-36"'™-, cra^sit. 0,009-14"'™-. — Trunks,
Oregon, E. Hall, 1871. Of the stock of S. scrobicidata, and closely
approaching this species, from which it yet differs in its more or less
villous upper side, its veiny under side, its villous apothecia, and espe-
cially in its brown, always bilocular spores, which are not reconcilable
with those of the other. Some of the specimens show indications of
the peculiar sorediation of S. ^scrohiculata, — a feature characteristical
also in S. anihraspis, Ach., of the same region. The lichen differs from
the older species perhaps less in the thallus, than S. Oregana {Mihi in
Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, April, 1874) from S. piihnonaria ; but more
in the spores. It is dedicated to the discoverer, my friendly corre-
spondent, P^lihu Hall.

Erioderma velligerum, sub-sp. nov. : thallo imbricato cinera-
scente, lobis adscendentibus rotundatis sinuato-incisis margine subcrispis
dense hirsutis, subtus sulphureo ; apotheciis (2-4 millim, latis) marginali-
bus extus hirsutis, disco fuscescente. SponB octonaj rotundato-ellipsoi-
dete, simplices, limbata;, longit. 0,009-1 G"""-, crassit. 0,008- 10™"'-, leviter
in thecis infuscatOB dein incolores. — Shores of the Straits of Magellan,
Mev.Dr. Thomas Hill (Hassler exp. 1872). Not well comparable with
such species as E. polycarpum and E. Wrightii, which exhibit the nor-
mal Peltigeriue frond, but differing from that exactly as some imbricated
and crisped forms of Peltigera mfescens. The hirsute upper surface and
sulphur-colored under side, as well as the habit of growth, distinguish
the lichen from what I have seen of Erioderma Chilense, but the last
is very near, and said by Montague to be also imbricate, as it has simi-
lar though more rounded spores. I cannot but still consider this little
group as belonging to the Peltigerei.

Pannaria symptychia, sp. nov. : thallo foliaceo membranaceo-car-
tilagineo ca\spitoso-polyphyllo livido-fnscescente, lobis sinuato-repandis
flexuosis complicatis subtus nudis fuscis ; hypothallo obsoleto ; a|)0the-
ciis (latit. c. 1""") biatorinis sessilibus, margine tenui integerrimo fusco
discum convexum nigrum opacum cingente. Sporre octonte, ellipsoidefe,
simplices, incolores, longit. 0,009-16"'™-, crassit. 0,007-10™'"-, paraphysi-
bu.o incrassatulis distinctis. — On rocks (apparently) island of Juan Fer-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 169

nanrlez, Rev. T. Hill (Hassler exp. 1872). Thallus with something of
the aspect of an Endocarpon not remote from E. miniatum v. aquuti-
cum, Schjer., but the internal structure of Pannaria § Coccocarpia.
Collogonidia disposed in short chains. Hymeneal gelatine becoming
first blue, and then wine-red with iodine. I cannot compare the spe-
cies witli any other. Spermogones have not occurred.

Paxxakia Soxomensis, sp. nov. : tliallo ^Jarvulo radiante olivaceo,
laciniis linearibus ramosis striatis, centralibus teretiusculis dein intrica-
tis, periphericis magis dilatatis flabellatisque dichotomo-multifidis, subtus
albis uudis hypothallo obsolete ; apotheciis minutis (0,3-0,4 millim.
latis) lecanorinis, margine iutegro dein excluso, disco e rufo-fusco
nigricante. Sporte fusiformes, curvuh^, simplices, incolores, longit.
0,020-33"""-, crassit. 0,002-3'"*- Hypothecium pallidum. Paraphyses
dein lax£e. — Rocks, Sonoma, and also in the Yosemite Valley, Cali-
fornia, Dr. H. N. Bolander. Interior of the thallus compact ; of elon-
gated cells. Collogonidia solitary or concatenate; reaching 0,018""°' in
length by 0,009"""' in width. Spores fusiform in the sense of Koerb.
Syst. t. 3, f. 5 ; and they might be called short-acicular. Belongs to
the same group with P. Jlabellosa (Ohs. Lich. 1. c. 5, p. 401) and P.
Petersii ( Gen. Lich. \). 54). The resemblance of the interior structure
of P. jlabellosa to that of the lichen before us has been well exhibited
bv Schwendener {Erijrt. z. Gonidien-frage, Flora Ratisb. 1872, p. 227,
t. 4) in the infertile Yosemite specimens sent to him as " Pannarice
affinis." It appears quite impossible to remove these plants from Pan-
naria ; or to continue to keep Pterygium, Nyl. apart from them in
genus.

Paxx'aria stenophtlla, sp. nov. : thallo orbicular! zonatim ceu'
trifufo olivaceo, laciniis tereti-compressiusculis, centro squamuloso-dirai-
nutis delabentibus, ambitu radiantibus ramosis, subtus pallidis nudis
hypothallo obsoleto ; apotheciis lecanorinis perminutis (latit. 0,2-0,3
millim.) disco fusco margine tenui dein disparente. Sporge ex ellip-
soideo oblongaj, sa^pe curvul^, biloculares, longit. 0,012-20"""-, crassit
0.003-5"""- — Lime rocks, Moulton, Alabama, Hon. T. M.Peters, 1874.
Thallus from a quarter to little more than half an inch in diameter.
Structure of the interior of the thallus as in the last species ; collogo-
nidia in chains; at length 0,012-20"""- long, and 0,010-12 """thick.
The lichen grows with and often commingled with P. Petersii, from
which it is readily distinguishable by its smaller size, lighter color both
of thallus and fruit and terete lobes. P. Sonomensis is nearer, but
exhibits a different habit of growth, and the spores are quite irrecon-
cilable with those of the Alabama lichen.

170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Synalissa melambola, sp. nov. : thallo effuso rimoso-areolato
nigro, areolis planiusculis (latit. deiii plusquam 1 millim.) stipitato-
elevatis polycarpis ; apotheciis (0,1-0,3 millim. latis) iunatis lecanoriuis
disco subpapillato concolore margiiiem teiiuem persistentem demum
superante. SporaB octonaj, ellipsoideas, simplices, incolores, loiigit.
0,010-12"""-, crassit. 0,005-8"""-; paraphysibus omnino conglutinatis. —
Lime rocks, Alabama, Ho7i. T. M. Peters. Thallus cellulose ; the col-
logouidia solitary. The reaction of the hymeneal gelatine with iodine
is blue. Plant noticeable for its large, flattish, black areoles, which the
lens shows to contain from two to six or more very minute but quite
regular apothecia.

Synalissa viridi-rufa, sp. nov. : thallo effuso granuloso mox rimu-
loso-diffracto fusco-viridi ; apotheciis (latit. 0,2-0,4 millim., visis) leca-
noriuis adiiatis subplanis, disco rufo, margine subpersistente. Sporae
octona;, ellipsoideai, Hmbatce, incolores, longit. 0,016-18""-, crassit.
0,008-1 0'""'- ; paraphyses conglutiuatte. — Lime rocks, Texas, G. Wright.
Structure not very different from that of the last ; rounded, green cel-
lules, with mostly solitary collogonidia, which reach a diameter of 12-15
mic. The reaction with iodine also as in the last. The lichen is marked
among our species of this group by its rather brighter colors.

Ojiphalaria kansana, sp. nov. : thallo pulvinato coriaceo-cartila-
gineo atro e lobulis stipitatis erectis clavatis vel sublobatis vel fructu
dilatato pileatis ; apotheciis (0,5-0,8 millim. latis) terminalibus con-
coloribus mox convexis margine disparente. Sporse — 12-"'^ in thecis
ventricosis, ex ellipsoideo dein ovoideo-oblongte, medioque constrictie,
simplices (tenuiter demum uniseptatae ?) incolores, longit. 0,005-8™™-,
crassit. 0,003-4"'™-, paraphysibus bene distinctis. — On lime rocks. Chase
County, Kansas, E. Hall, 1871. Reaction with iodine, blue. Collo-
gonidia mostly collected into small clusters of 3-5, amidst anastomosing
filaments, which alone occupy the centre of the thallus : the structure
of 0. corallodes (Mass.) Nyl., with which the Kansas lichen appears
best to agree generally. The two species differ from Omphalaria
PROPER, as here understood {Gen. Lich. p. 81) with umbilicate thallus,
in forming cushions of stalked lobes, which become more or less lobu-
late above. However ill exhibited this lobate or foliaceous character,
it seems enough to give these plants a higher place in the system than
that of Synalissa synnphorea. The Kansas lichen is, so far as seen, a
smaller species than the European with which it is above compared,
and less evidently foliaceous. It is characterized at sight by its ele-
vated convex apothecia, looking like nail-heads.

Leptogiuji rivale, sp. nov. : thallo membranaceo microphyllino

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 171

plumbeo, lobis imbricatis linearibus plauis repandis ; apotheciis (ostiolis
indicatis) iiniuersis. Sporje octonaj, e fusiformi ovoide^, biloculares,
incolores, loiigit. 0,01 6-23'""-, crassit. OjOOo-S"""-. Paraphyses parcse. —
" On small pebbles in the bottom of a clear brook around the Big Trees,
Mariposa," California (growing with and on Hydrothyria, Russ.) Dr.
Bolatider. Lobes scarcely exceeding 0,5 millim. in width. Texture
of the thallus parenchymatous throughout ; an outer row of polygonous
cells, distiusfuishable from the rounder and looser cells of the intei-ior,
indicating the cortex of the present genus. Collogonidia solitary, or
in very short chains. There is little in the lichen to remind one of
the equivocal Gollema rivulare, Ach., of Sweden, which yet agrees
with the other in the very interesting points of an entirely cellulose
texture and an aquatic habitat. The Californian plant was supposed
to be infertile ; but my friend Dr. Schweudener met accidentally with
an immersed apothecium in a section of the thallus which he was
examining, and I have since found such fruits to be indicated externally
by a distinct ostiolar margin. Whether there is ever any further de-
velopment or emergence of this apothecium is unknown. The small
material before me 2:ave no indication of lichenine with iodine.

Placodium galactophyllum, sp. nov. : thallo crustaceo-adnato
areolato-squamuloso ambitu lobato, farinoso lacteo, detrito fulvo ;
apotheciis (latit. 0,5-0,9 millim.) zeorinis sessilibus plauis disco auran-
tiaco tenuiter marginato. Sporte octonte, polari-biloculares, incolores,
longit. 0,008-1 4"""-, crassit. 0,00-4-6"'"'-. Tuckerm. Gen. Lich. p. 108.
— On lime rocks, Chase Co., Kansas, E. Hall, 1871. A distinctly lobed
lichen with the habit of Lecanora muralis v. albo-pulverulenta, Schier.
{Lich. Helv. n. 334) and differing in this respect from even the best
condition of the European P. erythrocarpium ; the spores of which are
also larger, and not rarely measure, in my specimens Vn^- ^^^- Apo-
thecium of our lichen distinctly lecanorine, with marginate disk.

Placodiuji FERRUGIN0SU5I, sp. nov. : thallo crustaceo rimoso-areo-
lato aurantiaco, areolis subinde lobulatis, hypothallo nigro ; apotheciis
(latit. 0,6-0,9 millim.) biatorinis sessilibus ferrugineis (nigricantibusque)
maro-ine demum flexuoso. SporiE octonas, polari-biloculares, incolores,
lono-it. 0,016-2r"'"-, crassit. 0,006-9"""-. — Volcanic rocks, Island of Chi-
loe, Chili, Dr. T. Hill (Hassler exp. 1872). Almost P. cinnaharinum,
as respects the thallus, but with the apothecia almost of P.ferrugineum.

Placodium ferruginecm (Huds.) Hepp, * miniaceum ; apotheciis
miniatis. — On buslies, Cape of Good Hope, C. Wright. The appressed
apothecia differing only, but remarkably, iu color, from Cape specimens
of P. ferruginemn (Drege in herb. Sonder ; Wright), which are uudis-
tiniruishable from the northern lichen.

172 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEBIY

Placodium atroalbum ; tliallo tenui granuloso dein 'et rimoso-
areolato luteolo-fuscescente ; apotheciis (latit. c. 0,3-0,5 mm.) adnatis
zeorinis, margiiie thalliuo tenui demisso integro albo discum margina-
tum nigi-um nudum cingente, intus incoloribus. Sporoe octonte, ellip-
soidea3, polari-biloculares sporobl. approximatis, lougit. 0,014-23"""-,
crassit. 0,005-9"""-, paraphysibus filiformibus fusco-capitulatis demum dis-
tinctis articulatisque. — On cretaceous sandstone and chalcedony, North
Platte, Rocky Mountains, Dr. Hayden. Lime rocks, Utah, Mr. Lapham.
Of the stock of P. variahile (Pers.) Nyl., which occurs with well-
marked distinctness from this in the same region ; and closely asso-
ciable with the P. Agardhianum of Anz. Lich. Langob. n. 37. But
our lichen is scarcely as well comparable with the P. Agardhianum of
Hepp {Lich. exs. n. 407), and differs still more from the specimen
before me of Pyrenodesmia Agardhiana, Mass. (Arn. in herb. Koerb.)^
which is wholly lecideoid. This last is represented here by a lichen of
the Alabama lime rocks {Judge Peters). If all these be to be taken
for states of the same variable species, our Rocky Mountain lichen
above described is, with little doubt, another. The polar type is not
easily made out in the spores of the latter ; which, but for the other
structure of the hymenium, might be supposed rather a Lecanora akin
to L. erysibe (Ach.), Nyl. There are no reactions of the thallus with
potash or chloride of lime.

Lkcanora. Semitensis, sub-sp. nov. : thallo e squamulis glebosis
stramiueis mox crenato-lobatis subinde hypothallo nigro marginatis ;
apotheciis (0""" , 7-1"""- latis) appressis plano-convexis tumentibusque
congestis, disco livido-fuscescente albido-pruinoso, margine demum sub-
granulato vel excluso. Hypothecium incolor. Sporoe octonoe ellip-
soide£E simplices incolores, longit. 0,011-10"""-, crassit. 0.005-6"™-.—
Granitic rocks, Yosemite Valley, California, Dr. Bolander. Clearly
a member of the Saxicola group, and very close to L. saxicola v. dif-
fracta, from which (largely exhibited on the Californian rocks) the
present differs in its scaly thallus, which is not radiant, and the ultimate
development of its fruit.

Lecanora glaucovirens, sp. nov. : thallo crustaceo orbicular!
verruculoso-granulato viridi-glaucescente versus ambitum albido, hypo-
thallo incolore; apotheciis (latit. 0'""'-, 7-1"""-) appressis, disco mox
convexo e livido-fusco nigrescente, margine integerrimo. Hypothecium
pallidum. Sporaj octonaj, ellipsoideoe, simplices, incolores, longit.
0,014-17'""-, crassit. 0,006-9, paraphysibus conglutinatis. Spermatia
acicularia arcuata.

On bark, Galapagos Islands, South America, Rev. T. Hill (Hassler

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 173

Exp.). Of the stock of L. suhfasca, but with rather the habit of
conditions of Rinodina sophodes. Patches about an inch in diameter.

Lecanora dentilabra, sp. nov. : thallo crustaceo tenui areolato-
verrucoso glaucescente ; apotheciis (hitit. 0"""-, 5-0"""-, 9) adnatis, mar-
gine tumidulo mox fisso-subcrenato, disco fusco oi)aco jilano vel demum
tumente niarginemque exchidente. Hypothecium incolor. Spor«
octonie, ellipsoidese, simplices, incolores, longit. 0,012-25"""-, crassit.
0,010-16"™', paraphysibus conglutinatis.

On bark, Island of Chiloe, Chili, and at Sandy Point, Straits of Ma-
gellan, Rev. T. Hill (Hassler exp.). Without doubt also of the sub-
fusca stock, the apothecia being characterized much as those of the
rupicoline L. ccesio-alba, Koerb., of Europe.

Lecanora orosthea (Sm. L. expcdlens, Ach.) var. Japonica ;
apotheciis (latit. 2-3 millim.) elevato-sessilibus flexuoso-lobatis ; sporis
longit. 0,020-23™""-, crassit. 0,008-14™™-. — On beech-trunks in the
mountains near Hakodadi. Japan, C. Wright (U. S. N. Pac. Exp.).
Closely associable with our luxuriant North American condition of L.
orosthea, but differs in the development of the apothecia and the larger
spores, which I have only seen in 4'- and 6'-, in the thekes. L. orosthea
perhaps deserves the rank of a sub-species under L. varia.

Lecanora Franciscana ; thallo verruculoso-granuloso albo-cine-
rascente ; apotheciis (latit. 0,7-1,5 mm.) pseudo-biatorinis liberis e
fusco-rufo nigris mox couvexis turgidisque marginem concolorem ex-
cludentibus. Hypothecium subduplex, superius incolor, inferius cras-
siusque fuscescens ; strato gonimo impositum. Spora3 octonje, ex
ellipsoideo mox oblongaj, biloculares, incolores, longit. 0,013-23™™-,
crassit. 0,003-5™™-, paraphysibus coalitis. — On sandstone, San Fran-
cisco, Cal., Dr. Bolander. A sub-species probably of L. erysibe (Ach.)
Nyl. Apothecia with the aspect of a Lecidea not very unlike a condi-
tion of L. enteroleuca, Ach., of the same rocks, but really biatorine,
except that the hypothecium rests on the gonimous layer. The reac-
tion of the hymeneal gelatine with iodine is blue.

Rinodina radiata : thallo crustaceo rimoso-areolato ambitu radi-
oso-lobato glaucescente, hypothallo nigro ; apotheciis (latit. 0,3-0,7 ram.)
imnatis deln emergentibus, disco plauo-convexo tumidove nigro albo-
pruinoso, margine thallino integro demum disparente. Hypothecium
fusco-nigrum. Sporte octonaj, brevi-ellipsoide^e obtusas, biloculares,
fuscce, longit. 0,007-12™™-, crassit. 0,005-7™™', paraphysibus congluti-
natis.— Buellia radiata, Mihi in Lich. Calif, p. 25.

b, thallo depauperato hypothallo radiante subfimbriato. Rocks on
the coast of California, Bolander. Referred to Buellia at the place

174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

cited, notwithstanding the now clear thalline border, on account of the
black hypotlieciiim, and the evident resemblance to B. albo-atra. But
Rinodina makes many approaches to Buellla, and the color of the
hypotliecium proves to be an insufficient criterion. Nylander, indeed
( Obs. Pijren. p. 52) has referred BiielUa albo-atra to the group now
before us ; the reference being, however, determined by the presence
of truly jointed sterigmas. I have been unable myself as yet to find
multi-articulate sterigmas in the specimens examined of this species,
or of that described above, but what might rather be taken for sub-
simple forms of the organ in question occur sometimes with a few
swollen joints. As originally observed, this lichen appeared comparable
rather, as respects thallus, with such effigurate ones as Lecanora circi-
nata; but the best developed plant (San Diego, Herb Willey) has a
laciniate circumference like that of Placodium candicans ; while on the
other hand depauperate conditions occur with no trace of a lobulate
margin.

Rinodina thtsanota, sp. nov. : thallo crustaceo verrucoso ambitu
radioso-lobato fusco-olivaceo ; apotheciis (qu. visis 0,5-0,7 mm. latis)
lecanorinis sessilibus, margine tumidulo integro discum nigro-fuscum
cingente. Hypotliecium pallidum. Spoi'oe octonaj, brevi-elliijsoideae,
biloculares, fuscaj, longit. 0,010-14™"'-, crassit. 0,005-6'"'"-.

Rocks, alt. 7,000 feet, in Alpine County, California, /. A. Lapham.
Thallus, in the single specimen, differenced much as in R. oreirm.
Reaction of the hymeneal gelatine with iodine, blue.

Rinodina mamillana, Tuckerm. Lich. Hawai. in Proceed. Amer.
Acad., 7, p. 226, has been collected more recently in the Galapagos
Islands, Rev. T. Hill (Hassler exp ). Apothecia of both lichens similar
in size (0,3-0,8"™- wide), but the specimens of that from the Galapagos
not exhibiting the peculiar protuberance and plaiting of the disk which
suggested the specific name, and their thalline margin at length black-
ening. Hypothecium in both blackish-brown. Spores, 0,012-20"""- long
and 0,005-10"""- thick ; the paraphyses at length distinct. Thallus higlier-
or sulphur- colored in the South American plant.

Rinodina ochrotis : thallo crustaceo granuloso mox fatiscente
furfuraceo albido ; apotheciis (qu. visis circ. 0,5 mm. latis) lecanorinis
sessilibus, disco e livido-carneo fuscescente, margine obtuso integro.
Hypothecium pallidum. Sporoe parv^e, obtuse ellipsoide«, biloculares,
fuscge, diam. 2-3° longiores. — Lecanora, Mihi in Wright Lich. Cub.
n. 115.

On charred surfaces of logs, IMonte Verde, Island of Cuba, G. Wright.
The description was reserved in hope of other specimens being sent.
In the absence of such, I can now add nothing to the above.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 175

RixoDiNA MiLLiARiA, sp. iiov. : tluxllo ci'ustaceo teniii verruculoso
viridi-fuscescente ; apotlieciis perminutis (latit. circa 0,2-0,'l: mm.) ad-
natis lecanorinis, disco fusco-nigro opaco plano-convexo, margiue tenui
integro dein uigricante vel excluso. Hypotlit'cium fusco-nigrum.
Spor?e octona?, obtuse ellipsoidea^, biloculares, fiisav, longit. 0,009-1 5"""-,
crassit. 0,005-8"""', parapliy!>ibus demum distioctis, fiisco-caiaitulatis.

A common bark-lichen about Boston, and found also at New Bed-
ford, H. WiUey ; and in Western New York, Miss Wilson. It is
differenced from ordinary R. sophodes v. exigna by its blackened hypo-
tbeciura, — a character, in this place, of some interest. The spores
occur now in twelves according to Mr. Willey, a variation like the
well-known one in the v. exigua (constituting R. jiolyspora, Th.
Fr.). But our lichen is also curious as seeming to exiiibit filiform,
bowed spermatia (0,012-20"™- long) on simple sterigmas. This obser-
vation has been made repeatedly both by Mr. Willey and myself, and
we are unable to refer the black, papillteform spermogones and contents
in question to any other lichen than the one upon whose thallus they
occur, though it appears quite inadmissible, in present knowledge, that
they can belong to it.

Pertusaria thamnoplaca, sp. nov. : thallo fruticuloso cartilagineo
appresso dichotomo-ramoso albido-fuscescente, ramis subteretibus papil-
lato-verrucosis subtus albis fibrillis sparsis concoloribus ; apotheciis de-
presso-globosis monothalamis mox papillato-coronatis (latit. dein 1 mm.)
ostiolo punctiformi nigro. Sporte octonte, ellipsoidece, simijlices, inco-
lores, longit. 0,0o0-72'"'"-, crassit. 0,023-38™™-.

Trunks, ShoU Bay, near the western entrance of the Straits of Ma-
gellan, orrowing with and often on the next, Rev. T. Hill (Ilassler exp.
1872). Another illustration of the fruticulose thallus in a properly crus-
taceous group ; and more remarkable than either of those described from
our own Pacific coast (Lich. Calif, in loc). Thallus (reaching a diameter
of more than two inches) closely appressed and affixed by its fibrils to
the matrix, dichotomously much branched, either terete or now a little
compressed, and in the larger parts almost attaining a thickness of one
millimetre. The whole is besprinkled, at length densely, with crowded
papillie, which surround the apothecia with one or more coronals, and
hide often, to a considerable degree, the branches. Under the micro-
scope, the direction of the very minute and confused network of fila-
ments which makes up the interior of the thallus is seen to be on the
whole longitudinal.

Pertusaria colobina : thallo crustaceo uniformi papillifero, papil-
lis dein confertis, centralibusque subelevatis ; apotheciis ab iis P. tham-

176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

noplacce vix distinguendis nisi sporis minoribus longit. circ. OjOiG-SG""™ ,
crassit. 0,023-2G™™-.

With the last, at Sholl Bay, and also, on bark, in the Galapagos Is-
lands, ^ey. T.Hill (Hassler exp. 1872). The material does not enable
me to explain the true relation of this lichen to that immediately pre-
ceding. With so much agreement in the fruit, the differences in the
tliallus are startling ; while yet specimens of each, well covered with
papillae, may be supposed at sight the same.

Pertusaria ambigens : thallo cartilagiueo la3vigato subinde rugoso-
veriucoso glaucescente ; apotheciis lecauorinis (latit. 0,6-1,8™"'') sessili-
bus vel subelevatis 1-2-tlialamis, margine thallino lacero-subcrenato
demum repetito-duplicato discum planum viridi-Ciesium cingente.
Sporaj octonce, ellipsoideai, simplices, incolores, 0,01 7-23"""-, longoe,
0,008-1 2"""' crassfe ; paraphysibus capillaribus. Lecanora ambigens,
Nyl. Eiium. Gen. Lich. p. 113, and Prodr. Ft. Nov. Granat. p. 40,
not.

On trunks, Oregon, at 49° N. lat., Dr. Lyall ; and elsewhere in the
same country, E. Hall. The lichen does not differ from a Cape of
Good Hope plant {Zeylier in herb. Sonder), also on bark, which is,
without doubt, what Nylander has described (Prodr. N. Granat.) irom.
the same herbarium. And, so far as appears, it fully agrees also with
a rock lichen collected by Mr. AVright at the Cape, and long since de-
termined by Nylander as his Lecanora ambigens. The spore-features
vary somewhat from the Pertusaria type, and appear to have influ-
enced the first describer in excluding the lichen from the genus to
which, however, he admits that it perhaps rather belongs. I can en-
tertain no doubt of this. Nothing illustrates so well the very peculiar
differentiatiou of the apothecia as forms associable more or less closely
with Pertusaria velata ; and sjiecimens of P. velata * rnidtijmncta are
before me which are hardly, at first sight, distinguishable but by the
spores. These apothecia (in the Oregon plant) present at length much
the a-p23earance in small of a pile of plates; the margin of the elevated
apothecium gaping horizontally into two, three, or more margins.
Spores enveloped in a halo in both the American and African lichens.
The spores of ours agree very well in size with my measurements of
the African {herb. Sonder), but Nylander (1. ( .) gives rather larger
figures, or 0,023-30""°- longit. and 0,010-11"^™- crassit.

Pertusaria flavicunda, sp. nov. : thallo cartilagiueo laevigato
verrucoso-areolato pallide sulphureo, areolis ambitus radiose subconcre-
scentibus; apotheciis depresso-globosis (latit. 1-1,5 mm.) monothalamis,
ostiolo mox dilatato hymenium nigricantem pulvere lutuleuto adspersum

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 177

exliibente. Sporte 2-3"* in thecis, ellipsoidece, simplices, incolores,
0,060-80"""- longis, 0,040-50"""- crassis.

Kock.-s, San Dietro, Califoinia, Dr. J. G. Cooper ; and received, also,
in excellent condition from other collectors (Herb. WiUey).

Pertusaria euglypta, sp. nov. : thallo cartilagineo insculpto-
rimoso glauco-cinerascente ; apotheciis sub-globosis (latit. 1-1,8 mm.)
pleiotlialamis, circnm ostiola punctiformia nigra depressis. Sjiorae '3- 6"",
ellipsoidea;, simplices, incolores, longit. 0,(192-138™"'-, crassit 0,040-60""°-.

Granitic rocks, Cape of Good Hope, C. Wright. Comparable with
states of/*, communis, Auct. {pertusa (L.) Ach.), but diifcring in the
spores, and in its elegantly sculptured crust, which reminds one of a
cuneiform inscription.

Pkrtusaria albinea, sp. nov. : thallo tenui rimuloso-areolato
lacteo linei^ nigris decussato ; apotheciis depresso-hemisphajiicis depla-
natisque pleiotlialamis (latit. 0,5-0,8 mm.) ostiolis minimis punctiformi-
bus nigris. Sporte octonte, ellipsoideae, simplices, incolores, longit.
0,043-58"""-, crassit. 0,023-40"'"'-.

On bark, Galapagos Islands, Rev. T. Hill (Hassler exp. 1872). Dis-
tinguishable from P. leioplaca bv habit, and the smalliiess of its parts.

Thelotrema Californiccji, sp. nov. : thallo subtartareo verru-
culoso pallide ochroleuco ; apotheciis lecanoroideis (longit. 0,3-0,7 mm.)
adnatis sub-planis, excipulo exteriori margine obtuso integerrimo thai-
lino discura nigrum velo margine concolore perforato subvestitum in-
cludente, demum flexuoso-irregnlaribus stellatis lirellatisqiie. Sporte
octon^e, ex ellipsoideo dactyloideae, 4-8-loculares, loculis integris, fuscag,
longit. 0,020-30'""-, crassit. 0,005-8"'™-.

On bark, San Diego, California, Dr. E. Palmer (Herb. AVilley).
The whole of the interior of the disk is black, without distinguishable
proper margin, and the general aspect is that of Lecanora ; but the
spores, and the crustaceous veil, whicli is more or less exhibited, appear
to associate the lichen with Thelotrema, tliough I know of no species to
compare it with. Apothecia now suggesting those of Chiodecton xphce-
rale. There is no reaction of the hymeneal gelatine with ioiline; nor
of the thalline tissues with liquor potassas or hypochlorite of lime.

PiLOPHORUs acicularis (Ach.) Tuckerm. Gen. p. 146, f. Hallii ;
apotheciis elongatis (longit. 2-4 mm., crassit. 0,5 mm. — 1 mm.) pistil-
liformibus. — On rocks. Cascade Mountains, Oregon, E. Hall. The
apothecia of Pilophorus pass from a globular, often depressed figure, as
in f. Fibula, into a slightly conical one, like an elevated skull-cap
(jiD.og;), as in the original f. acicularis. And the last is lengthened in
the present so as to resemble a pestle. As comjiaied with the other

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 12

178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

forms, the podetia of this are short and stout, the whole lei)gth scarcely
exceeding, in the specimens, thrice that of the longest ajwthecia. Spores
of the species, 0,016-23™™- long and 0,007-8"™- thick. — All the known
forms of PUophorus fall readily under one species ; there are no satis-
factory characters to distinguish them. But it is more difficult to follow
Dr. Th. Fries in his recent reference hither {Lich. Scand. p. 55) of
one of the two states of his Stereocaidon cereolinum, Monog. Stereoc.
p. 40, which is otherwise universally recognized as a Stereocaulon ;
and, as he says, is only with extreme difficulty (" cegerrirne,'^ Lich.
Scand. 1. c.) distinguishahle from the other form. The "good" figure
of Ach. Meth., of the fertile condition of S. cereolus, is not cited in this
reference of the plant to PUophorus. It is surprising, if Acharius
really had PUophorus fibula in fruit, before him, when he described his
Stereoc. cereolus, that he should not at once have recognized the resem-
blance of the former to his Cladonia acicularis. Such mistake could
hardly occur here, where the PUophorus is scarcely known but as
fertile, and the somewhat similar, commonly sterile, often subsimple
lichen, with powdery heads, is most readily and often certainly refer-
able to the Stereocaulon.*

BiATORA CAULOPHYLLA, sp. nov. : tliallo 6 lobulis stlpitiformi-
erectis compressis sursum dilatatis lobatisque griseo-virescentibus in
crustam plicatam subinde albo-fai-inosam stipatis ; apotheciis mediocri-
bus (dein et 2 mm. latis) margine obtuso mox livescenti-nigro discum
planum rufo-fuscum uigrumque cingente. Sporje octonas, ovoideo-ellip-
soideae, simplices, incolores, longit. 0,007-13™™-, crassit. 0,004-G™™-, para-
physibus conglutinatis. — On rocks, mountains of California, Z)/-. J5c»/an-
der. The erect lobes are at length 5-7 mm. long, and, in their widest
portions, 2-3 mm. wide. This is a pronounced exhibition in the squa-
mulose BiatortB of the extraordinary modification of thallus in Lecidea
vesicular is (llotfni.), Ach., and L. coiiglomerata, Ach. As in Lecanora
thamnoplaca, Tuckerm. {Gen. Lich. jj. 113) the stipitate lobes of the
lichen before us are comparable, in fact, with those of L. 7'iibina, v.
complicata (Anz. Lich. Ital. p. 158), the type of which is an almost
foliaceous, and in every way distinguished representative of the crusta-
ceous thallus. And, as with the LecidecB just named, there is no species
to which our Biatora should be referable as a sub-caulescent over-
growth. But this is scarcely as clear in the case of somt^ other stipitate-
lobate lichens : L. thamnina, noticed in Gen. Lich. p. 1 20, being probably
inseparable from luxuriant Californian conditions of L. cerviua b. squa-

* In t])e above cited Gen. Lick. p. 146, note, the spores of the f. robuslus
should be said to be 0,016-23°'"- long.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 179

mttlosa, Fr., and Lecidea. canlesrens, Anz. (Lich. Langoh. n. 139) as
close, in all respects, to L. sqitalida (Sclileich.) Ach. Curious as it is
then, too much stress should perhaps not be laid on the systematic
value of the thallus we have been considering,

BiATORA PETRI, sp. nov. : thallo e sqnamis membranaceo-cartila-
gineis ex orbiculatft- oblongo-difFormibus undiilato-lobatis subimbricatis
glauco-cinerascentibus (fuscescentibus) subtus ambituque asceiidente
mox fiiscis ; apotheciis marginalibus sessilibus nitidis (latit. 1-2 mm.)
disco subplano rufo (nigro) margine flexuoso nigro demiim excluso.
Sporce octonse, ovoideo-ellipsoideae, simplices, incoloi'es, longit.
OjOOO-ll""-, crassit. 0,004-o'"™-, paraphysibus coalitis.

On lime and other rocks, growing over mosses, Moulton, Alabama ;
Hon. T. M. Peters. The smooth scales at length reticulately rimulose,
as common especially in B. globifera (Ach.), Fr. ; but the lichen is
readily distinguished from the species named, as from B. Russellli. and
B. hiridella of these papers, by the colors, and the thinness of the loosely
aopo-reffated thallus.

BiATORA CARNULENTA, sp. nov. : thallo obsoleto ; apotheciis parvis
(latit. 0,3-0,6 mm.) adnatis convexis ex albido livescenti-carneolis, mar-
gine perquam tenui demisso obscurato vel stei»ius evanido. Hypothe-
cium incolor. Sporge octona3, ovoideo-ellipsoideiJe, simplices, incolores,
lou'dt. 0,007-12"""-, crassit. OjOOS-o™"-, paraphysibus conglutinatis. —
Dead, soft wood in the White Mountains. Found also on the same
substrate at Geneseo, N. Y., H. Willey. Reaction of the hymeneal
gelatine with iodine, blue.

BiATORA PELiASPis, sp. nov. : thallo tenuissimo albido vel obsoleto ;
apotheciis parvis (latit. 0,3-0,6 mm.) sessilibus subplanis, disco livido-
fuscescente pruinato, margine tenui nigro disparente. Hypothe-
cium fusco-nigrum. Spor* ellipsoideas, simplices, incolores, longit.
0,005-11 mm., crassit. 0,003-5 mm., paraphysibus conglutinatis. — On
dead, soft wood, South Carolina, H. W. Ravenel, &c. ; Massachusetts,
H. Willey. Very close to this is a minute lichen {B. peliaspi'stes, Mihi
herh.) found by me on living hemlock trunks, with leprous-granulose,
white thallus ; and on dead, soft wood, without thallus, in the White
Mountains, in which the ajiothecia are always naked, and the spores
rather smaller (0,005-11 mm. long, and 0.0025-35 mm. thick) and
oblong. Both lichens long represented with me the old '' Biatora
anomala" of authors. Both exhibit with iodine the same blue re-
action.

BiATORA GLATJCONiGRANS, sp. nov. : thallo granuloso giaucescente;
apotheciis (latit. 0,2-0,5 mm.) sessilibus mox convexis e livido-fusco

180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

nigris, margins tenuissimo demisso mox nigricante vel evanido. Hypo-
thecium nigrum. Sporae octon£e, ex ellipsoideo oblongae, biloculares,
incolores, longit. 0,009-15"""-, crassit. 0,0(»3-4"""-, parapliysihus coalitis.
— On the bark of white pine, New Bedford, Mass., Mr. Willey. The
well-developed crust, the hypotliecium, and the paraphyses distinguish
this from B. lenticulans (Acli.), &c.

BiATORA LiviDO-NiGRrcANS, sp. Hov. : thallo e granulis cartilagi-
neis discretis livido-glaucescentibus ; apotheciis minutis (latit. 0,2-0,4
mm.) sessilibus plauis tenuiter marginatis fusco-uigris. Hypoihecium
pallidum. S[)or9e octonjB, dactyloideas et oblongte, 4-o-locuhires, inco-
lores, longit. 0,015-23"'™-, crassit. 0,003-6"™-, paraphysibus distinctis,
capitulatis. — On bark, Sandy Point, Straits of Magellan, Jiev. T. Hill
(Hassler exp. 1872). Specnuen a very small one, but the characters
sufficient to distingnish the lichen from Lecidea sororiella, Nyl., of New
Grenada (Lindig exs. n. 2838) as from the Australian L. Uvido-fusca,
Nyl. (Si/n. JV. Caled. p. 42, not.) and L. licido-fuscescens, Nyl., of
Brazil {Flora, 1869, p. 122), all of which are taken by their author to
relate nearly to Blatora trachona, Flot. With iodine a vinous tint is
exhil)ited by the hymeneal gelatine of the antarctic lichen, following
a bluish.

Lecidea mamillana, sp. nov. : thallo squamaceo-areolato viridi-
glaucescente (cinerascente aut dealbato) areolis mox turgescentibus
radiatimque striatulis ambitu sublobatis, discretis vel dein aggregatis ;
apotlieciis in areolis innatis centralibus minutis (latit. 0,3-0,7 mm.)
plano-convexis nudis margine tenui evanido. Hypothecium fuscum.
Sporse octon^e, ellipsoidete, simplices, incolores, longit. 0,009-1 8™™-, cras-
sit. 0,005-9""-, paraphysibus conglutinatis. Spermatia minuta, recta,
in sterigmatibus simpliciusculis. — On lime rocks, Alabama, Judge
Peters. Suggests L. mammlllaris (Gouan) Duf., of the soutli of
Europe ; but the areoles, for the most part, are little more than a
quarter of the size of those of the European lichen. Tiiey occur now
in a reduced, glebous state, which is quite smooth, glaucescent, and
finally crowded into a close crust ; but are more commonly discrete,
when the effigurate margin is manifest, the color often darkens, and
the surface is at length prettily marked with striae radiating from the
apothecium, instead of becoming cancellated, as in the foreign plant.
As seen in section, no important differences are observed in the internal
structure of the apothecium of our lichen from that of X. mammilhiris,
though the thinner hypothecium of ours is possibly also paler. I cannot
recognize in either the distinctly twofold hypothecium sometimes at-
tributed to this group of Lecidece.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 181

Lectpea psephota, sp. nov. : thallo areolato albo, areolis mitiutis
tumidiilis discretis, hypothallo nigro ; apotheciis perruiuutis (latit.
0,2-0,4 mm.) areolis plerumqne immixtis e concavo planis margine
tenui incurvo persistente, saepe angulo.so-difformibus. Hypothecium
nigrum. Sporje in tliecis ventricosis octonse, elli[)Soideas, simplices,
incolores, longit. 0,012-20™'"-, crassit. 0,007-10"""-, paraphysibiis con-
cretis. — On granite rocks, shores of Straits of Magellan, accompanying
(in the specimen) BuelUa petrcea b. vulgaris and B. geographica, Rev.
T. Hill (Hassler exp. 1872). The lichen itself not a little resembles
B. stellulata (Tayl.).

Lecidea tessellina, sp. nov. : thallo rimoso-areolato glaucescente
(cinerascente vel dein sublutescente) areolis planis Isevigatisque (rarius
turgidis) hypothallo atro subinde marginatis ; apotheciis minutis (latit.
0,3-07 mm.) areolis immersis e concavo mox planis nudis, margine
tenui acuto subpersistente, demum confluenti-difformibus. Hypothe-
cium incolor. Sporse octonfe, ellipsoideae, simplices, incolores, longit.
0,009-14°""-, crassit. 0,005-7"""-, para|)hysibus coalitis. — Common on
•various rocks throughout the Appalachian range, and observed also
■westward, in Kansas and Missouri, by E. Htdl. A well-marked lichen,
which I long tried to consider a lecideoid Lecanora (§ Aspicilin), with
which group it accords, moreover, in its spermogones and staff-shaped
spermatia on subsim[)le sterigmas. The rtniction of tlie thallus with K.
is yellow (becoming in time reddish), and that of the hymeneal gelatine
with iodine, blue.

Lecidea cyrtidia, sp. nov. : thallo effuso tenuissimo leproso oli-
vaceo-virente ; apotheciis perminutis (latit. 0,2-0,4 mm.) appressis
mox conv^exis immarginatisque. Hypotliecinm nigrum. Sporie 6-8"®
ovoideo-ellipsoideis, sim|)lices nebulosiE vel pseudo-biloculares, incolores,
longit. 0,006-10""-, crassit. 0.0025-45""'-, paraphysibus coalilis. — On
sandstone, IMissouri, B. Hall ; Pebbles, Quincy, Mass., H. Willey. A
very humble, but yet marked, lichen.

APPEXDIX.

Kerguet.en Lichens. A brief notice of lichens collected in Ker-
guelen's Land by Dr. Kidder, Naturalist of the United Statt-s Transit
Expedition in 1874-75, as of a few others gathered previously in the
same island by Dr. Hooker, and now preserved in the late Dr. Thomas
Taylor's herbarium (Herb. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.), was prepared and
published by the present writer in the Bulletin of the Toney Bot.
Club, Vol. VI. No. 10 (Oct. 1875). In the November following, a
note on " New Lichens from Kerguelea Land," joUected by the Rev.

182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A. E. Eaton, of the British Transit Expedition, and determined by
Dr. Nylander, was publi.<hed by tlie Rev. J. M. Crombie in the "Jour-
nal of Botany," and was followed by a full enumeration of Mr. Eaton's
lichens by the same gentleman, with tlie same assistance, in the '• Jour-
nal of the London Linnaean Society, Vol. XV. ; as now, at length, by
a " Revision of the Kerguelen Lichens collected by Dr. Hooker," in
the "Journal of Botany," for April, 1877. The naturalist of the Brit-
ish expedition had much better luck m collecting, amid the countless
discouragements of the " island of desolation," or was less embarrassed
by other and higher branches of natural history, than ours ; and Messrs.
Nylander and Ci-ombie have tiius been able to largely extend this cu-
rious lichen-flora ; while a comparison with Dr. Hooker's specimens
(very few, indeed, of which could be discovered in the herbarium of
Dr. Taylor) has enabled them to determine some of the latter writer's
new species, fbc the determination of which his own descriptions were
entirely inadequate. There is also something over a page, in Mr.
Crombie's last paper, of observations on the present writer's list of
Kerguelen lichens above mentioned, upon which it will be proper to
make some remarks.

And first as to what is called the unfortunate " neglect of the chemi-
cal reactions," which, it is said, renders the " diagnosis incomplete, and
so far uncertain." This is simply a matter of opinion. I studied the
question of the use of certain chemicals in the systematic investigation
of lichens, witli such care as I could give it, ten years ago, and have
since seen no reason to change the view then expressed (Amer. Natu-
ralist, April, 1868). The application to the lichen-tissues of the tests
used is not without interest, and may give results of some utility, so far
at least as they go ; but this quantum vidctar impedes every stage of
the inquiry, and the unequivocal value assumed for the results has
never been any thing but an assumption. And opinions may also differ
as to the value of the chemical "species" which have resulted from the
" reactions." Dr. Nylander has remarked of one of these species, his
Parmelia cetrarioides, that it scarcely differs from another except chemi-
cally, — " vix differt nisi reactione. . . . a P. oUvetorum : at distin-
guenda est nomine propria, Jam earn ob causam" (Nyl. Obs. Lich. Pyr.
Orient, p. i 6), and his remark is applicable to not a few others, whether
or not now appearing to be supported by secondary lichen-characters.
I decline, for my part, to receive such species. And there can be no
doubt that the tendency of this scrutiny of " the reactions," as of another
now far from unknown method <.f study, — the scrutiny, that is, of minute
and not seldom unimportant differences of all sorts, to the ignoring, for

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 183

the time at least (whatever may be intended in tlie future), of the more
difficult and important consideration in full of the points of agreement
with known forms, — is simply to minimize the value of species; and
can have but one I'esult, and that only a disastrous one, on the future
of Licheiiology.

Usaea sulplmrea (Miill.), Th. Fr., is the same certainly as Neuro-
pogon meluxanthiis (Ach.) Nyl. But it is not questioned that the
lichen named is indigenous to both the Arctic and Antarctic zones, and
was first published from the former under the name first cited above.
The fact that the Arctic condition is less luxuriant than the other can
make no difference in the application of the universally recognized rule
of nomenclature, which overrides individual preferences, and is intended
to. But my reviewer continues tliut '* Tuckerman also seems to imply
that Neuropogon Taylori (Hook, fil.) cannot rightly be discriminated
from the preceding." It was, perhaps, rather more than implied. Hav-
ing, for many years, been in receipt of specimens of the yellow Usnea
of the polar regions, especially of the antarctic forms, it became a matter
of some interest to me to determine the U. 2\(yh>ri, considered (it
should appear) by Dr. Taylor to take the [)lace, in Kerguelen's Land,
of the older species ; but not likely to be restricted to the island. The
endeavor was in vain, and even in Dr. Kidder's large Kei'guelen col-
lection there was nothing that appeared separable from the [)l:int of the
Falkland Islands, as there was nothing in either Taylor's or Nylauder's
diagnosis of U. Taylori satisfactorily to distinguish it.

Pannaria Taylori, Tnckerm. ubi sup., Oct. 187.5, which was de-
scribed from a specimen without name in the Taylor lierbarinm, is the
same, it fully appears, as the P. placodiopsis, Nyl, of the ".Journal of
Botany," of November of the same year. But Mr. Cronibie is now
able t(» show, from Dr. Hooker's specimen, that the lichen is Lecanora
dichroa, Tayl., which would hardly be guessed from the description.
That certainly seems to indicate an areolate, oidy sub-effigiirate plant,
of much the type of Lecanora gelida ; and by no means this marked
Pannaria.

'^^ Pannaria glaucella, Tuck., sp. n. = Amphidium molyhdoplacum,
Nyl." I cite this definite statement as it stands in Mr. Crombie's paper.
It seems, however, from the evidence of the same gentleman, that there
is no doubt at all that the plant is new ; or that it was published by one
writer, under the specific name glaucella in October, and by another
under that of molyhdoplaca, in tiie following November. This should
appear to settle the name of the species ; but what of the g>'nus, and
where is it defined ? The only reference to it that I can discover is in

184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Dr. Nylander's Obs. Lich. in Pijren. 1873, p. 48, where a " Leptogmm
(Ampkidium) terrenum " is described, and the remark immediately
follows, that this new Leptogimn of the new section AmphicUum is really
to be taken for a new genus, — ^' genus novum quoad thalluin, quasi Pan-
naria . . . sed sporce solitce Leptogii . . . Genus Amphidium nnndum
satis cognitum." But the Amphidium of Kerguelen's Land differs con-
siderably from the Pyrenean one, and the proposed genus seems as far
from establishment as ever. In his full diagnosis of tlie species in Mr.
Crombie's " Enumeration of Kerguelen Lichens," cited above. Dr. Ny-
lander compares it with Pannaria elceina. I must still consider the
affinity of the plant Pannariine and not CoUemeine, and continue to
call it Pannaria glaucella.

Placodium hicolor, Tuckerm. uhi sup., is, without doubt, correctly
referred by Messrs. Nylander and Crombie to Lecanora gelida, v. late-
ritia, Nyl. I had myself remarked that my plant was the same with
the red L. gelida of Taylor's herl)ariiim, upon which, doubtless, Nylan-
der founded his Squamaria luteritia {Enum. Gen. Lich.), but the color
suggested Placodium, and the spores seemed to look the same way.
The polar-bilocular type (whicli is hardly well named '' placodiomor-
phous ") is, indeed, a very distinct one ; but its exhibition in nature, if
we limit groups rather by the sum of their characters than by any par-
ticular character, is now far enouujh from distinct.

" Urceolina Kergueliensls *, Tuck., n. gen. S^ sp. = Lecanora Ker-
guelensis (Tuck.)." I cite once more from Mr. Crombie's revision ;
and can but repeat here, in reply to Dr. Nylander's criticism, what I
said at first: " the lichen is not referable to Lecanora § Aspicilia, and
is excluded by its exciple from § Sfpiamaria;" as, of course, from the
section re|)resented by L. suhfusca. The apothecium certainly carries
the plant into the Urceolariei, as these have been understood, and is
irreconcilable with the Lecanorine type. It is true that Nylander has
not recognized this sub-family, referring, from the first, Gyalecta to Le-
cidea, Nyl., and proposing to unite even Urceolaria with Lecanora (in
fact, U. scruposa really appears as Lecanora ( Urceolaria) scruposa,
Ach., Nyl., in Norrlin Beratlelse in Not. Scilsk. p. F. ^ Fl. Fork., 13,
1873) ; but the latter of these emendations of the system is now given

* A better word, perhaps, than eitlier Kerguehnsis, which Messrs. Nylander
and Crombie have taken leave to sub.stitute for it in the cited pajier, or Kergue-
lena, which tliey elsewiiere employ. It is formed from Kerguelia, an attempt at
a short latinization of the land or island of Kerguelen. Kergudenia may be more
correct, and Kergueleniensis ; but hardly Kerguela.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 185

up, and the former should appear to be also, as the learned author has
of late described new S[)ecies of Gyalecta (Add. nov. in Flora Ratisb.
1875, 1876), though witliout any indication of his present opinion of
the limits and place of tlie genus. Possibly, then, the new Urceolarii-
form genus from Kerguelen's Land may hereafter come into favor.

To this it is only necessary to add that the fragment of rock upon
which apothecia of BuelUa parnsema, as I certainly considered them,
appeared, is no longer within reach. Dr. N} lander is of opinion that
they are " probably to be referred to "the closely related B. wyriocarpa,
which he has recognized on other fragments. But the former is a
cosmopolitan lichen, and may well occur also.

186 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XVI.

THEORY OF THE HORIZONTAL PHOTOHELIOGRAPH,

INCLUDING ITS APPLICATION TO THE DETERMINATION OF THE
SOLAR PARALLAX BY MEANS OF TRANSITS OF VENUS.

Br Professor William Harkness, U. S. Navy.

Presented March 15th, 1877.

The terra "Horizontal Photolieliograph " is used to designate that
form of Photolieliograph which, it is believed, was first employed by
the late Professor Joseph Winlock; and which consists essentially of
a fixed telescope whose optical axis is accurately horizontal and in the
meridian, and whose objective is directed toward the same side of
the zenith as the elevated pole ; the sun's rays being reflected into the
telescope by a suitable heliostat. The sensitive plate for the reception
of the photogra|)hic image, is, of course, situated at the chemical focus
of the telescope ; the plane of the plate being perpendicular to, and its
centre coinciding with, the optical axis of tho telescope.

S

D,

Fig. 1.

The details of the construction of the horizontal photoheliograph, in
60 far as they are necessary for a proper understanding of the theory
of the instrument, are shown in Fig. 1.

A is the heliostat mirror, consisting of a piece of highly polished,
but unsilvered glass, whose two surfaces make an angle of about
sixty minutes with each other. The front surface is worked as truly
plane as possible, and serves to reflect the solar rays through the
objective, to the photographic plate. In working the back surface no
particular pains are taken, and, on account of its inclination to the

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

187

front surface, any light reflected from it is thrown entirely away from
the photographic plate. B is the objective, wliicl) is corrected for the
chemical, and not for the visual rays. The distance between the
objective and mirror is made as small as possible, consistently with
keeping the latter clear of the shadow of the former. D is the reti-
cule, the construction and use of which will be ex[)lained presently.
C is the photograpliic plate, the sensitive surface of wliich faces the
objective. Tlie rays from the sun S are reflected by tlie mirror A
through the objective B, and after traversing the reticule D they form
an image upon the photographic plate C.

The reticule consists of a system of squares, formed by the inter-
section of two systems of very fine, straight lines, wbicli are drawn

upon one side of, and respectively paral-
lel to the edges of, a thin, square plate
of piano-parallel glass ; as shown in
Fig. 2. In each of these linear sys-
tems the number of lines is odd, and
the middle line is drawn through the
centre of the plate. This reticule is
fixed at D, Fig. 1, with its rided sur-
face toward, parallel to, and two or three
millimeters distant from, the sensitive
surface of the plate C. Moreover, one
of the two systems of lines is set as
nearly as possible vertical, and its inclination is accurately deter-
mined ; and as an additional safeguard, a plumb line, consisting
of a silver wire about 0.05 of a millimeter in diameter, is suspended
between the reticule and the photographic plate, in suih a position
that it may hang freely, and at the same time be very nearly in the
vertical plane passing through the centres of the reticule and objective.
As the light from the objective traverses the reticule bifore it reaches
the photographic plate, the shadow, both of the reticule and of the
plumb line, is impressed upon every picture taken with the apparatus ;
and thus three different ends are gained : Firstly, by comparing the
squares of the reticule witli the corresponding ones upon the picture,
every thing relating to the shrinkage of the c'dlddion can be deter-
mined ; secondly, the impression of the plumb-line, and also that of
the vertical lines, furnishes upon each picture a fixed direction from
which to measure angles of position ; and, thirdly, the intersection
of the middle vertical with the middle horizontal line furnishes a
fixed point, which will hereafter be designated as the centre of the

_.pi^.

Fig. 2.

188 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

plate. To determine the zenith distance and azimuth of this point
it is necessary to measure the zenith distance and azimuth of the
corresj^onding point of the reticule, as seen from tlie second principal
point of the objective. P'or that purpose the mirror A, Fig. 1, is
temporarily removed, and a transit instrument is set up in front of
the objective B, and in tlie prolongation of its axis. The objective
thus becomes a collimator to the transit instrument, through the
eyepiece of which the lines of the reticule may be observed as if they
were at an infinite distance. It should be remarked, however,
that, as the reticule is slightly inside the visual focus of the objective,
it is not generally possible to obtain perfectly distinct vision of its
lines and of the wires of the transit at the same time. This difficulty
is obviated by mai'king the intersection of the middle vertical and
middle horizontal lines of the reticule in such a distinct manner that
the slight mal-adjustment of focus does not prevent it from being
seen. Then, by means of the transit, the reticule is adjusted so that
the point in question is very approximately in the meridian, and at
a zenith distance of ninety degrees. Finally, the exact azimuth and
zenith distance of the point are measured.

If the photoheliograf)h is employed to depict any object whose
linear magnitude is such that it subtends an angle a at the first
principal point of the oljective, and if the centre of the image
coincides with the centre of the plate upon wliich it is taken ; then,
no matter what may be the solar focal distance of the objective, the
magnitude of the iuiajje will be

2 tan la (Z> + E" — T) (1)

where D is the distance between the back surfice of the objective
and the sensitive surface of the photograi>hic plates, E" the distance
from the back surface of the objective to its second principal point ;
and T A correction due to the thickness of the reticule plate. It is
thus evident that, in all calculations involving measurements of pic-
tures taken with this apparatus, the value to be employed as the focal
distance of the objective is

D-\- E" — T (2)

D is obtained by direct measurement, the accuracy of which must
be such that the uncertainty of the resulting value will not exceed
one part in ten thousand, and it is desirable that it should not ex-
ceed one part in forty thousand. To obtain E" we put

n = refractive index of crown -jjlass lens.

n' = refractive index of flint-glass lens.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

189

ne = thickness of crown-glass lens.

n'e' = thickness of Hint-jilass lens.

s = space between the interior surfaces of the crown

and flint lenses, measured along the optical axis.
()i — 1)/' = radius of first surface of crown lens. N. B. — This

is the surface nearest the heliostat.
()i — 1)/" = radius of second surface of crown lens.
(»i' — l)y" = radius of first surface of flint lens.
(n' — l)y^ = raiiius of second surface of flint lens.

= focal distance of crown-gla>s lens.
= focal distance of flint-glass lens.

Then, from the "Dioptrische Untersuchungen " given ia "Gauss*
"Werke," Vol. 5, pp. 262-2G5, we derive the formulce

^'

/'/"

qp' =

yw fi

(3)

And if the objective is an ordinary double achromatic, corrected either
for the visual or chemical rays,

t' = s + '^ +

(4)

But if it is a single lens, then

f

(5)

a

A'V

To find the value of the correction T, let abed, Fig. 3, be a section
of the reticule plate, and let efhe a. ray of light incident upon it in

the plane of the paper. If this ray
suffered no refraction, it would emerge
from the plate at g ; but, owing to
refraction, it actually does emerge at
h, after which its path is parallel to
ef produced. At k erect a perpen-
dicular to be. It will be intersected
at i by ef produced, and the distance
hi will be the required value of T.
Let t be the thickness of the glass
composing the reticule plate ; n its
index of refraction ; and i the angle
of incidence of the ray ef. 'Then

190 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

n

and as i oannot exceed half a degree, its cosine will be very nearly
unity, and it will be sufficiently accurate to write

T= '-i^i^ (7)

If we assume the reticule plate to be of crown glass, and its refractive
index to be 1.53, then T =: 0.347 t; and it is evident that, in order
to make 7" small, the reticule plate should be as thin as possible.

From the experience thus far had with the horizontal photohelio-
graph, it appears that, if the focal distance of the objective is F, its
clear aperture should be 0.0100 i^. The clear aperture of the helio-
stat mirror, which is circular in form, should be 0.0142 i^. The plates
upon which the pictures are taken should be square, and of such a
size that their sides, as seen from the centre of the objective, may
subtend an angle of about sixty minutes. This should also be the
size of the reticule plate, and the distance between any two consecu-
tive lines of the reticule should subtend an an^le of about four minutes.
Throughout the remainder of this paper it will be assumed that these
are the proportions of the apparatus. The actual focal distance of the
objectives of the instruments heretofore constructed has generally been
about twelve meters.

To avoid repetition, the notation which will be employed through-
out the remainder of this paper is here given. Let PA, Fig. 4, be
the meridian of the place of observation; P being the pole, and Z
the zenith. Let S be the position of the sun as seen from the centre
of the earth, and S^ its position as seen from the place of observation.
Hereafter, to avoid circumlocution, S will be designated as the true,
and S^ as the apparent, sun. Let v be the vertex of the apparent
sun, and V the position of Venus as seen from the centre of the earth.
Also, let M be the point where the normal to the heliostat mirror
pierces the heavens, and V, S', S'^, and v', the positions of the re-
flected images of Venus, the true sun, the apparent sun, and the
vertex of the apparent sun, as seen from the second principal point
of the photographic objective. Then the following notation will be
adopted : —

(^ = latitude of the place of observation.

cp' = co-latitude of the place of observation = PZ = 90° — gj.

As =■ polar distance of true suu = PS.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

191

Fig. 4.

192 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A,. :^ polar distance of Venus = PV.

a's = polar distance of the reflected image of the true sun = PS'.

A'y = polar distance of the reflected image of Venus = PV.

tg = hour angle of true sun = APS.

ty = hour angle, of Venus = APV.

t's = hour angle of the reflected image of the true sun = APS'.

t'y = hour angle of the reflected image of Venus ^ APV.

^g = zenith distance of true sun = ZS.

^'s =: zenith distance of the reflected image of the true sun = ZS'.

^"s = zenith distance of the reflected image of the apparent

sun = ZS'^.
t,'^, = zenith distance of the reflected image of Venus = ZV.
As = azimuth of the true sun = AZS.

A's = azimuth of the reflected image of the true sun = AZS'.
A"s = azimuth of the reflected image of the apparent sun = AZS'^.
A'v = azimuth of the reflected image of Venus = AZV.
d = the angle ZS'^S'.
r =. the refraction.

7i' = the parallax in altitude. Hence r — tt' = SS^ = S'S'^.
§ = the angle ZS'V.
7 = the angle ZV'S'.
X = the angle PS'V.
Q =. the geocentric distance from centre of sun to centre of

Venus = S V = SV.
CO = the geocentric position angle of Venus relatively to the sun's

centre = PSV.
a z= the angle PVS.
^ =. the angle PSS'.
yj = the angle PS'S.

We have next to show how pictures obtained vpith the horizontal
photoheliograph may be measured, and the results expressed in terms
of some one of the systems of spherical co-ordinates usually employed
in astronomy.

Upon an engine arranged to give polar co-ordinates, the plate to be
measured is carefully adjusted, so that the centre of the image of the
sun coincides as accurately as possible with the origin of co-ordinates.
The fixed line, from which the angles of the co-ordinates are to be
measured, is taken perpendicular to the image of the plumb line ; the
zero being toward that edge of the plate which was on the right hand,
as viewed from the object glass, when the picture was taken, and (the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 193

collodion side of the plate being nearest the observer) a motion of the
radius vector iu the opposite direction to that of tiie hands of a watch
corresponding to increasing angles. Then the distance from tlie origin
of co-ordinates to the sun's limb is measured at every thirty degrees,
throughout the whole circumference ; an<l the distances and angles to
the centre of Venus, and to the centre of the plate, are also measured.
Owing to the effect of refraction, the outline of the sun's image will
not be circular, but may, with sufficient accuracy, be assumed to be
an ellipse whose minor axis coincides with the vertical circle passing
through the sun's centre. To find the position of the image of this
vertical circle upon the photographic plate, we refer to Fig. 4 ; and
remark that, owing to the equality of the angles of incidence and re-
flection, S^M = S'^M, vM = v'M, and the angle S^My is equal to
the angle S'^i^My'. Hence t^'S^S'ju = ^^S'^v', and ZS'^v' = ZS'^S^
-\- S^S'^r' = ZS'*S^ -|- ZS^S'^. But ZS'^ is the direction of the
plumb line upon the plate, and S'^u' is the semi-minor axis of the
elliptical image of the sun. To find the value of the angle ZS'j^w'
we require the zenith distance and azimuth of the true sun, which
are given by the formulae (8) ; the necessary data being, the exact
instant at which the picture was taken, the right ascension and polar
distance of the sun, and the latitude of the place of observation.

cot As
tan JU = ■

cos tg

tan fg cos }f

tan As = ^ TTT

sin ((^ — Ji)

tan ^a

tan {(p — M)
cos Ag

(8)

The zenith distance, ^"s, and azimiith A"g, of the reflected image
of the apparent sun, are found by methods explained in a subsequent
part of this paper. Then, in the spherical triangle ZS^S'^^, the angle
S*ZS'« is equal to Ag ~ A"s, ZS'» = C"«, and ZS, = Lg — r -\- 7t',
where r and n' are the refraction, and parallax in altitude. Whence,
putting the angle ZS>' = 180° — 0,

Thus the anjrle upon the photographic plate, between the fixed line
of reference and the major axis of the image of the apparent sun, will

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 13

194

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

be d ; and if R and £ are the polar co-ordinates of any point of the
limb of this ima^e, its rectanofiiUxr co-ordinates, referred to its axes
and approximate centre will be

y' = R sin (e ^ Q)
x' = R cos (e =F G)

(10)

in which the upper signs are to be taken when the sun is west, and
the lower when it is east, of the meridian.

Owing to atmospheric disturbances, the image of the sun's limb will
generally be more or less irregular, and no matter liow carefully it
may be centred on the measuring engine, the point from'which the
measures are made will seldom coincide quite accurately with the
centre of the image. On this account, to obtain the co-ordinates of
any point of the limb referred rigorously to the centre and axes, the
equations (10) must be corrected by the small quantities 8y and dx,
and thus we get

y = Rsm (£ T 6) + %'
X = R cos (e =F ^) + ^^

(11)

The image of the sun's limb being taken as an ellipse, its equation
will be

0 = — A'B'' + AY + ^x^ (12)

where A and B are respectively the horizontal and vertical semi-
diameters of the sun, affected by refraction and parallax. Putting
^' = nJt^ substituting this value in equation (12), and dividing by

A% we get

0 = — nA'- -{- f -{- nx^ (13)

Finally, substituting the values of y and x from the equations (11),
neglectmg the squares of dy and 8x, and reducing, we obtain

+ 1 [sin^ (e rp ^) + ^ cos'^ (e ^^ 6)]R'

0 = <! _ ^ ^2 + sin (fc- qp 0) 8y
-\- n cos (s T 6) dx

(14)

Each measurement of the sun's limb, made upon the photograph,
gives one equation of the form (14), and from all the equations thus

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 195

obtained the values of A, 81/, and dx are found by the method of least
squares.

The contraction of the sun's vertical serai-diaraeter on account of
refraction will be J (r' — r ') ; where r' and r" are respectively the
refraction of the lower and upper limbs. The contraction of the
horizontal semi-diameter on account of refraction, for all zenith dis-
tances less than 85°, may be taken as constant and equal to 0".25.
Hence, if s represents the sun's semi-diameter, we have

/s-iir'-r")y

which is the value to be employed in equation (14).

As changes of refraction are not strictly proportional to changes of
zenith distance, the centre of the sun's image will not coincide rigor-
ously with tlie image of the sun's centre. Let the distance between
those two points be 8r, and let r'" be the refraction of the sun's centre,
r" and r' being respectively the refraction of his upper and lower
limbs, as before. Then

8r = I {r' -\- r") — r'" (16)

and the co-ordinates of the image of the sun's centre are 81/ -\- 8r, and
8x. These rectangular co-ordinates are transformed into polar co-
ordinates of our original system by means of the formulae

li=[(8r/+8ry+{8xy]i]
Sy + Sr

s>n V = ^

5.r
COS J? = -

(17)

where the double sign is to be taken in the same way as in equa
tious (10).

The polar co-ordinates of the image of the centre of the apparent
sun have thus been found ; and our original measurements gave the
polar co-ordinates of the centres of the image of the apparent Venus
and of the photographic plate. Let i?, H', R" be, respectively, the
radii vectores, and s, «', e" the angles of these co-ordinates. Passing
now to a system of rectangular co-ordinates whose origin is at the
centre of the plate, and whose axis of X is parallel to the fixed

196

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

line of the original system of polar co-ordiuates ; we get for the image
of the centre of the apparent sun,

3in e — B" sin s" "i

JOS e — i?" cos s" )

2/ = i? sin e —
X = R cos i

and for the image of the centre of the apparent Venus
y = B' sin £' — B" sin s"
x' = R' cos e' — R" cos e"

(18)

(19)

Let it be assumed that when the picture was taken ^^ and A^ were
the zenith distance and azimuth of the centre of the plate, as seen
from the second principal point of the ol)jective ; and that i^was the
reduced distance between the latter point and the sensitive surface of
the plate, or in other words,

F=D-\- E" — T (20)

as given by equation (2). Further, let the angles subtended at the
second principal point of the objective by the co-ordinates, _v, x,y', a;',
of the equations (18) and (li)) be, respectively, d'Qg-, 5A> 5^,-, 8Ay.
Then, as the plate was perpendicular to, and its centre coincided
with, the optical axis of the objective,

i? sin e — R" sin e"

tau ou =

tan bAo =

tan 8^v =

tan dAi, =

F

R

cos e -

—

R" cos e'l

F

R'

sin e'

—

R"

sin e"

F

R'

cos f '

—

R"

cos e"

F

(21)

Denoting by C"s^ ^"s, C'V, A"y, the apparent zenith distances and
azimuths of the reflected images of the sun and Venus, as seen from
the second principal point of the objective, we now have

A", = A + ^^*

A"y = ^0 + ^^y J

(22)

OP ABTS AND SCIENCES.

197

Tlie next step will be to free these zenith distances and azimuths
from the effects of refraction and parallax. For that pur[)ose, con-
sider the spherical triangle ZS S'*, Fig. 4 ; but instead of limiting the
points S, S,j, S', S'^, to the sun, let them represent any heavenly body
whatever. Then, ZS' = l' ; ZS'^ = ^" ; S'S'^ = SS^j^ = r — n' ;
S'ZS'^it = A" ~ A' ; and ZS^^S' = d, the value of which is given by
equation (9). The relations subsisting among these parts are,

sin ^ cos (A" ~ A') =

tan m = tan (r — n') cos d

cos (;• — it') sin {C" — "0

cos III

sin ^' sin (A" ^ A') = sia (r — n') sin d

(23)

To simplify these equations we remark that (r — n') will rarely
amount to 5', and as cos d must always be less than unity, we may
write with all needful accuracy

m = (r — 7i') cos d

(24)

^ will never differ from 90° by so much as 30', and therefore its sine
may be taken as unity ; while as {A" ~ A') can scarcely amount to
5', and will usually be far less, we may write unity for its cosine, and
substitute the arc for its sine. We thus find

C' = C" — (r — 7t') cos d
A' = A" q: (r — 7t') sin 6

(2o)

As these equations are perfectly general, we have only to substitute
in them, for ^" and A", the apparent zenith distances and azimuths of
the images of the sun and Veuus, given by the equations (22), and
there results the true zenith distances and azimuths of the images of
these bodies, which are

Ts = Co — 5C« — (^s Tt's) cos ds

A's = ^0 + ^^s =F (r-s — n's) sin ds

^^ = To — 8Xv — (?V — Tt'v) COS dy
A'v = Jq -[- 8A„ =F (r^ — n'v) sin d^ _

(26)

in which the upper signs are to be taken when the body is west, and
the lower when it is east, of the meridian. Strictly speaking, the
value of d will not be the same for Venus as for the sun, but the

198

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

difference will generally be so slight that either value may be em-
ployed for both bodies.

The effect of parallax in azimuth in displacing Venus relatively to
the sun's centre can never exceed 0".08, and will usually be much
less; but, if it is thought desirable to correct the equations (26) on
that account, the mode of doing so will be obvious wiien it is remem-
bered that it will be sufficiently accurate to consider the parallax in
azimuth as acting perpendicularly to the parallax in altitude.

From the zenith distances and azimuths given by the equations
(26), the corresponding; polar distances and hour angles must next be
found. The rigorous fbrmuliB for this purpose are

tan m = tan ^ cos A'

tan A' sin m

tan t =.

cos \(f> — m)

cotan A = tan (g) — in) cos t .

(27)

but A' will generally be so small that its cosine may be taken as
unity, and then we may write

' tan t =

tan A' sin ^'

cos (<p — C)
cotan A = tan (g) — ^') cos t

(28)

In the spherical triangle PS'V, Fig. 4, we have the relations

tan m = tan A 'v cos (t's — f V)

cos aV . , , .

sm o cos /, = sm (As — m)

^ cos »« ^ * ^

sin (» sin A = sin A V sin {t's ~ t'y) .

Usually it will be sufficiently accurate to put cos {t's
and then m = a'v, and these equations become

sin Q cos X = sin {a's — A V)
sin p sin A = sin A 'v sin (t's ~ t'^)

(29)

t'.) = 1,

(30)

from which q and X are obtained. As a check, q may be computed
directly from the zenith distances and azimuths furnished by the
equations (26), the requisite formulae being

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

199

tan B ■

Q =

(.4^, ~ A'u) sin C's

i V f S

sin B cos B

From the spherical triangle PSS', Fig. 4, we get

cos i (A', — A,)

(31)

tan 1 (x + V) =

tan H;f — '^) = .7

cos i (A'^ + A,)
A.)

sin i {A's + AJ

cot J (<'s
cot L (f.

ts)

ts)

(32)

Referrino- ao^ain to Figf. 4, it is evident that SV is the distance, and
PSV the position angle of Venus from the centre of the sun. To find
the values of these quantities we have

SV=S'Y' = Q )

K33)

PSV = PSS'±S'SV = PSS'±SS'V = PSS'±PS'S=fPS'V')

But PSV = w, PSS' = X, PS'S = xp, PS'V = X, and thus we get

03 = (z ± V) T ^ (34)

in which the upper signs are to be taken when PS'S is greater than
PS'V, and the lower when PS'S is less than PS'V. If it is assumed
that the pole which forms part of the triangle PSV is always the
elevated one ; and also that position angles are counted from the north
around by the east ; then, in the northern hemisphere, when the sun
is east of the meridian the position angle will be 360° — w, wliile
west of the meridian it will be w ; and in the southern hemisphere,
when the sun is east of the meridian the position angle will be
180° -|- w, while west of the meridian it will be 180° — m.

Finally, if the polar distance of Venus, and the difference between
her right ascension and that of the sun are required, these quantities
may be obtained from the spherical triangle PSV by means of the

formulae

tan n = tan q cos (o

tan A V cos («« ~ «^) = tan (As — n)

sin n tan a
tan A ^ sin («« ~ «^) =

(35)

cos (A^ — ii)

in which a, and a^ are respectively the right ascensions of the sun and
of Venus.

200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

In the preceding development of the theory of the horizontal
photoheliograph, continual reference has been made to the centres
of the sun and Venus, but of course it will be understood that all the
equations apply equally well to any other pair of celestial objects
which may have been photographed with the same apjjaratus.

As the horizontal photoheliograph was much used in observing the
last transit of Venus, it is perhaps desirable to give here a direct
method of deducing the solar parallax from the photographs then
obtained. For that purpose consider the quadrilateral PZS'8, which
is composed of the triangles PZS' and PS'S. In the triangle PZS'
we have the relation

sin A's cot B =z sin ^'g cot <f' -(- cos ^', cos A' 3 (36)

in "which qp' is the colatitude, ZP; and £ is the angle ZS'P. Con-
sidering all the parts, except gj', as variable, and differentiating, we get

dB = — - cos C'i (cot flp' c?l's + sin A's dA's)

sill A'g

4- cos A's ( - — -- sin ^'s d^'s — 4^^ cos B dA's)
\sm A'g sin A'g /

(37)

To obtain approximately the maximum value of this differential,

we remark that A's can never exceed ± 13' ; and as sin B must

, IT 1 • ^, sin S , , , . , sin'^ B

always be less than sin A's , must be less than unity ; and

sin A\ •' sin A'^

must be less than sin A's , that is, it must be less than 0.004. ^'s can

never differ from 90° by more than ± 13', and therefore its sine may

be taken as unity, and its cosine cannot exceed 0.004. If the latitude

of the place of observation is less than 50°, g;' will be greater than

40°, and its cotangent will be less than 1.20. Substituting these

values in the second member of equation (37), all the terms except

the last become evanescent, and we may write, without an error of

one part in ten thousand,

dB= — dA', (38)

But the only way in which A's can be made to vary is by varying the
adopted value of the solar paralkax, tts. Hence, as ZS' is nearly 90°,
dA's is the resolved value of drts, and as it can never exceed that
quantity, it is safe to write

dB = — drts (39)

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 201

In the triangle PSS' we have the relations
cos %-=■ — cos T/; cos (1^ ~ <'$) -\- sin i/; sin (<, ~ t' ^ cos A j
cos T/^ = — cos '1^ cos (i's ~ t'^ -j- sin ;f sin (4 ~ i'^) cos A '«

(40)

Considering all the parts as variable, differentiating, and reducing, we
get

di = sin A 's sin (ts ~ t\) dAs — cos A ', d(t^ ~ t'^) — cos S8'd\p)

dip = sin A s sin {t^ ~ t't) dA's — cos A ^ dQ^ ~ t'j) — cos SS' dx )

Adding, this becomes

^~^ ^— l + uos SS' ^ ^

To obtain approximately the maximum value of this differential,
we remark tliat at the time of the transit the sun's north polar distance
was 112° 49', and therefore sin As = 0.922, and cos As = 0.388.
If the latitude of the place of observation is not greater than 50°, the
value of A's will lie between 130° and 180°; and consequently its
sine will not exceed 0.766, and its cosine cannot be gi'eater than
unity. Sin (tg ~ i's) cannot exceed unity. Further, as the triangle
PSS' can only be varied by varying the assumed value of the solar
parallax,* of As and dA's are the resolved values, and d {tg ~ t'g) is
the sum of two resolved values of dTts. It is therefore certain that
«?As and </a's are not greater than dTts, and that d{ts^t's) is not
greater than 2 drCs. Substituting these values in equation (42), and
adding all the terms, without regard to sign, we get

dy^dip= ^^'^''' (43)

^ ~ ^ 1 + C08 SS' ^ ^

* Strictly speaking, although the point S' can only be varied by varying the
assumed value of the solar parallax, the point S can be varied, not only in that
way, but also by varying the tabular place of the sun. In practice it will
probably be best to neglect at first the errors of the solar tables, and after-
wards, when tiiey become known from the solution of the final equations, to
compute rigorously the value of dx + d\l/ for each photograph, by means of
(42), and in all cases where it exceeds two or three seconds, which will rarely
'happen, the corresponding conditional equations of tlie form of (55) and (56)
may be corrected so as to accord with the new values of the solar elements,
and a second solution will give very accurate results.

202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Hence if SS' does not exceed 120° the value of c?/ -f" ^^ cannot
be so great as 9 ditg. Adding to this the value of dB, fiona equation
(39), we find th;it, under the circumstances specified above, the total
variation of the sum of the angles ZS'S and PSS' cannot be so great
as 10 djts. But it is not possible tliat the value of the solar parallax
now generally adopted can be in error by so much as ()".2, and there-
fore the value of 10 d;ts cannot be so great as 2" and will probably be
less than 1".

Referrino^ to the fijjure, it is evident that

ZS'V + PSV = ZS'S + PSS' or

|3 4- w = ZS'S + PSS' (44)

As the angle ^ must be obtained from measurements made upon a
photograph, it is not probable that it can be depended upon to within
5". It has just been shown that the right-hand member of (44) will
not be vitiated so much as 2" by any possible error in the adopted
value of the solar parallax. It therefore follows that the left-hand
member of (44) may be regarded as constant, within the limits of
eri'or of observation, and thus it appears that

— d^ = dco (45)

In the triangle ZS'V we have

o

tan 1 (^ -f ;/) = cot ^{A's^ A',)

(46)

from which ^ and y are derived. In the same triangle we also have
the relations

cos Q = cos ^'i, cos (^'s -\- sin ^'y sin ^, cos (A's ~ A' J) )

[ (47)
sin (A's ~ A'y) cot ^ = sin i^'j cot ^y — cos (A's ^ A'y) cos ^'s )

Considering all the parts as variable, differentiating and reducing,
we find

dQ =z sin ^y sin yd(A's ~ A'y) -4- cos yd^'y -\- cos ^d^g

— smQd^=sin^'y cos y d(A's r^ A'y) — sin y c? ^^ -)- cos p sin ^ djs

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

203

Reverting to the equations (2G), putting n' i = Mrts, 7r'„ = iV;T„,
Ks = /«;?,., where tt, and ;r^ are respectively the equatorial horizontal
parallaxes of the sun and Venus ; regarding jtv as the variable, and
difFerentiatiug, we get

dA's = ± »jjj/sin ds drty
d^y = -j- -^ cos dv djtv
dA'y = ± iV" sin dy ditv

(49)

Substituting these values in (48), writing unity for sin ^^, ds for ^„,
and d(a for — dp, we obtain

dg = cos ds{_±. {mM±_ N) sin y tan ds -j- -A^cos y -\- mil/cos ^] (Ztt^ )

cos e . r (5<^)

dco=z— — :'[ ± (mJ/±i\r)cosj' tan (9^ — iV^sinj'-|-?Mil!/'sin^cos(>](^!7r„ }

From an epheraeris the polar distances of the sun and Venus, and
the difference of their right ascensions are taken; and thus two sides
and tiie iucluded angle are known in the triangle PSV. The remain-
ing parts are given by the formulae

tan IX = tan A v cos («j — «,,)
cos A.,

sin P(, cos cOf, = sin ( A « — u)

cos fi

sin Pq sin 0)^ = sin A v sin («s — «,,)
sin pg sin a = sin A « sin (a, — «^)

(51)

in which we write p^ and co^^ to distinguish the quantities deduced from
the ephemeris from the similar quantities q and w obtained from the
photographs by means of the equations (30), (32), and (34).
Still considering the triangle PSV, we have the relations

cos Qq = cos A V cos A J -|- sin Ay sin A $ cos («, — a^)
sin («, — ciy) cot cOq = sin A s cot Av — cos A j cos (a, — Uv)

(52)

Regarding all the parts as variable, differentiating and reducing,
we get

dn^ = sin A„ sin ad(^as -^ «^) -{- cos adAv -j- cos a)„<?As
— sinp(,<?(Wo = sin A vCOsad^Uj ^ «^) — sincrc? A v -j- cos^q sin w^c? A $

(53)

204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

If now «., «^, As, Avi'^si and Tt^ are the tabular values of the
right ascensions, polar distance-*, and parallaxes of the sun and Venus ;
and if as-\-d<is, «r -|- rf«;,, As -\- dAs, Av -\- dAv, rts-^drts,
nv -f- drtv, are the true values of the same quantities; then we must
have

Q -\- di) = Q^ -\- dn^ )

[ (54)

(o -\- d(o =^ cOq -\- c?a)„ )

Substituting the values of dQ, dQ^, doo, and dco^ from (50) and (53), we
obtain finally

( Po — P ~f~ ^'" ^i> sin ""^(tti ~' Km) -1- cos (rdAy -\- cos w.dA. )

0 = ] [ (55)

( — cos e^ [J; {mM -i- iV) sin y tan ©^ + iV cos 7 + ^^^ cos fijdir^, )

(<l)^) — w : — - [sin A^ cos irdla,'^ay) — sin <rc?A„-j-cos p^ sin uodA^] )

^= cose ''"''' (56)

V ; — -^ [-l-(/ftJ/-J-.iV)cos 7 tan tf^. — iVsin7-|-'«-3i'siny3cosp]c?iry )

siu p

Each photograph furnishes one conditional equation of the form (55),
and another of the form (56), and from all the equations thus obtained
the values of 6?((iCj ~. «^), dAs, dAv-> and rf;Tr^are found by the method
of least squares, the resulting value of the solar parallax being

ns -\- m drty (57)

At the time of the last transit the value of m was 0.2684. Tho
term ± {mM ± N) of equations (55) and (56) is to be interpreted
thus : When the sun and Venus are on opposite sides of the meridian,
it will be -\- {mM-\- N) ; when the sun and Venus are on the same
side of the meridian, if the sun is most distant from the meridian, it
will be -|~ (juM — N) ; but if Venus is most distant from the me-
ridian, then it will be — {mM — N).

It will not escape notice that those parts of equations (55) and (56)
which correspond to q^ -\- do^, and w^ -\- doj^, of the equations (54),
are general for the whole earth, and can therefore be tabulated at
suitable intt-rvals for the period of the transit ; while the terms which
correspond to p -f" ^Qj and w -|- da, must be computed specially for
each photograph.

Washington, Nov. 15, 1876

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 205

XVIL

ON DIAMIDO-SULPIIOBENZIDE-DICARBONIC ACID.
By Arthur Michael axd T. H. Norton.

Presented by E. N. Horsford, May 9th, 1877.

Of the large number of amido-sulpho-benznic acids which are possi-
ble according to our present theories, but three have been obtained
thus far. Two of tiiese were prepared by Griess,* from the action of
sulphuric acid on meta-araido-benzoic acid. Limpricht and Uslarf
obtained the third by reduction of the mono-iiitro derivative of
meta-sulpho-beuzoic acid. It seemed therefore of interest to us to
study the action of sulphuric acid on ortlio-amido-benzoic acid and
para-amido-benzoic acids, not merely in oider to increase the list of
isomeric amido-sulpho-benzoic acids, but because of the possibility
that, by removal of the amido group, the as yet uuliuowu ortho-sulpho-
benzoic acid could be obtained.

Our experiments were first directed to para-amido-benzoic acid ; and
here an unexpected character was assumed by the reaction, the re-
sults of which we briefly communicate.

We prepared the para-amido-benzoic acid for our purpose from the
solid para-nitro-toluol, by oxidation and subsequent reduction of the
nitro group. lu the former operation it was observed that much
better results were obtained from treatment with potassium per-
manganate, than from the methods hitherto used for this body,
viz., with nitric acid or potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid.
The best proportions were found to be 2.V mol. KMuO^ to 1 mol.
C6H^(NO^)(CIl3) in a solution of 40 parts water to I part KMnO^.
The reduction was effected by means of tin and hydrochloric acid, in
proportions 1 part CaH^(NO^)(COOH) to 2.15 parts Su. In order

* Jour. f. prakt. Cliemie [21, 5, 214.
t Ann. Chem. Pharm., 106, 29.

206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

to remove the excess of hydrochloric acid previous to the precipitation
of the tin, tlie sohition is evaporated on the water-bath to dryness.
The temperature should not, however, go beyond this point, as we had
opportunity to observe that even at lOC^ small quantities of aniline
were formed, while at 12t>'' the para-amido-benzoic acid was decom-
posed completely iuto carbonic acid and aniline. It would be of
interest to examine the action of SnClg on other aromatic acids under
the conditions mentioned. The solution of para-amido-benzoic acid
was treated with sodium carbonate, and the acid precipitated out by
means of acetic acid. After a single crystallization in water, it
showed the melting point 18G°.

The para-amido-benzoic acid obtained in this way was placed in a
flask, and a sufficient quantity of slightly fuming sulphuric acid
(s. g. 1.850) added to dissolve the mass. Tiie flask was then exposed
to a temperature of 170* — 190", for from three to four hours, in a
paraffine bath. After cooling, the contents of the flask were removed
by means of water, and barium-carbonate was added to the solution
until it was neutralized. The liquid was boiled for several hours, and
then filtered. It was necessary to heat the residue repeatedly with
hot water before a slight pinkish Ime could be removed. Exactly
enough sulphuric acid was added to the filtrate to precipitate the
baruun, and it was separated from the barium sulphate formed. By the
evaporation of this solution, groups of crystals separated out, showing
various shades of yellow, orange, and red. Several crystallizations
from water freed tliem from small quantities of a by-product consisting
of minute red crystals, and after boiling with animal charcoal they
retained a faint pink color. The substance was dried at 110°, and
submitted to a series of analyses. The sulphonic acid which was
expected as the natural result of the reaction, would have yielded the
following percentages: —

\

COOH

J

C — 38.7
11= 3.3
S = 14.5

LN= 6.4

The analyses showed, however, that we had obtained a body of
an entirely diiferent nature, and led to the following formula : —

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 207

Calculated. Found (mean).

C = 50.00 50.18

H = 3.57 4.20

N == 8.26 8.06

S = 9.60 10.10
O = 28.57
100.00
This formula would naturally be resolved into the structural for-

^^\ /COOII

mula,

'' "XNH,

■2

or diamido-sulphobenzide-dicai-bonic acid, the reaction being as fol-
lows : —

an.

/NH,

/NIL / ' '\COOH

2 an/ ' + H,so, = 2 H,o 4- SO2 ^^^„

' '\COOH ^ ' * \ /COOH

' '\NH2

The melting point of the acid is above 350°. It is easily soluble
in hot water, and on cooling separates out in groups of fern-shaped
crystals. It is much less soluble in alcohol and ether, their addition
to the aqueous solution causing the precipitation of the acid in a white,
flocculent mass; chloroform dissolves it with difficulty; while it is
almost entirely insolulde in carbon bisulphide and benzine. Sul-
phuric acid dissolves it easily, forming a compound which is pre-
cipitated on the addition of alcohol, and is extremely soluble in water.
This compound awaits farther investigation. In concentrated hydro-
chloric acid it is completely insoluble. It dissolves easily in warm
nitric acid, but cannot be precipitated by the addition of alcohol.

The new compound exhibits strongly marked acid properties, and
dissolves easily in alkalies. The neutral solution in ammonia yields
on evaporation the ammonium salt, in handsome laminated crystals,
which are easily soluble.

The potassium salt obtained in the same way consists of small, fine,
colorless needles.

The lead salt is white, and nearly insoluble in water.

208 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The silver salt precipitated from the solution of the ammonium
salt by the addition of nitrate of silver, is obtained in the form of
small, white laminae, which are tolerably insoluble in water, and
gradually assume a brown color on exposure to the sunlight. The
analysis of this salt coincided closely with the formula

/ ' '\COOAff
SO.,

Xntr/

an

COOAff

o

6'-^3

xnh^

Calculated. Found.

Ag= 37.45 37.62

The barium salt is extremely soluble, and not adapted for analysis.

The reaction of para-amido-benzoic acid, just described, recalls the
analogous reaction of phenol with sulphuric acid. Glutzt* and
Annaheim t have shown that, if an excess of sulphuric acid I )e avoided,
oxysulpho-benzide is obtained with great ease. As in the case of
oxysulpho-betizide and all members of the snlphine group, our com-
pound should also pass over into the corresponding sulphonic acid,
by increasing the amount of sulphuric acid used.

Unfortunately we are compelled temporarily to interrupt the in-
vestigation, but hope at an early date to be able to communicate
farther experiments in the direction mentioned.

Merz and Weith J obtained several years since a dicarboxyl-sulph-

carbauilid,

/NHQirCOOH

XNnCgii^cooii

a well-defined crystalline compound, by the action of carbon disul-
phide on metamido-benzoic acid. We have sought to prepare the
corresponding derivative of para-amido-benzoic acid, but so far without
success. The alcoholic solution of carbon disulphide and para-amido-
benzoic acid was heated in an open flask and in sealed tubes at various
temperatures. In all cases we obtained a yellow, resinous mass, from
which no well-characterized compound could be separated.

Berlin, Univeksitats-Laboratorium, April, 1877.

* Ann. Chem. Pharm., 147, 52. t Ann. Chera. Pharm., 172, 28.

t Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., 3, 812.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 209

XVIII.

CONTllIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEAOCAL LABORATORY
OF HARVARD COLLEGE.

RESEARCHES ON THE SUBSTITUTED BENZYL COM-
POUNDS.

By C. Lorixg Jacksox.

Presented, June 14th, 1S76.
INTRODUCTION.

The existence of the benzyl compounds was first established by
Cannizaro,* in 1853 ; for, although Liebig and Wohler.t in their clas-
sical research on the benzoyl compounds, obtained benzylalcohol as a
secondary product from the action of ^lotassic hydrate on benzaldehyd,
they merely spoke of it as an oily liquid, and did not determine its
composition or properties. It was also Cannizaro t who, in 1855,
showed that toluol, when treated with chlorine, yielded a substance
identical with the benzylchloride prepared fi-om benzylalcohol by
means of hydrochloric acid. The nature of the action of chlorine on
toluol was not, however, thoroughly understood until Beilsteia and
Geituer,§ in 1866, found that chlorine converted cold toluol into chlor-
toluol, while, with boiling toluol, it yielded benzylchloride. In the
same paper, they predicted that pure chlorbenzylchloride could be pre-
pared by the action of chlorine, either on hot chlortoluol or on cold ben-
zylchloride. Both these methods were tried successfully by Neuhof || in
the same year, but the chlorbenzylchloride thus obtained was not the
first substituted benzyl compound known, as Beilstein ^ had already
obtained the chlorbenzylmercaptan, and Naquet** the chlorbenzyle-
thylether, from the mixture of dichlortoluols, made by acting upon toluol

* Ann. Chem. Pharni., 88, p. 129.
t lb., 3, p. 249.
t lb., 96, p. 246.

§ Beilstein and Geitner, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 139, p. 331.
11 Neuhof, Zeitschr. der Chem., '66, p. 653.
T Beilstein, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 116, p. 346.
** Naquet, ib., Sup. 2, p. 250. Comptes Rend., 56, p, 129.

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 14

210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

with chlorine. Immediately after the preparation of the pure chlor-
benzylchloride by Neuhof, many of its derivatives were studied by
Beilstein and Kuhlberg and Neuhof;* and the two former extended their
investigations to the chlorbenzyl compounds containing more than one
atom of chlorine attached to the benzole ring. Since that time, but
little attention has been given to this class of compounds ; the only
researches being those of Bohler,t and later, Vogt and Henninger,| on
the sulphoacids, of Berlin,§ who obtained some curious results from
the amines, and of Sintenis,|| who investigated the ethers.

Beside these chlorbenzyl compounds, only two other classes of sub-
stances lying within the range of this paper have been studied, the
nitrobenzyl compounds, — the first of which, nitrobenzylchloride, was
described by Beilstein and Geitner in 1866, in the paper already
referred to ; IT its derivatives were further studied by Grimaux,**
Beilstein, and Kuhlberg.ff Bohler,t$ Strakosch,§§ Czumpelik.||||
Radziszewski,1[ir Henry,*** and Jackson ; fff and a few amidobenzyl
compounds, the cyanide prepared by Czumpelik,||| and the amines by
Strakosch.§§§

All these substances belonged to the para series, and no isomeric
chlor- or nitrobenzyl compounds were known with the exception,
perhaps, of the monochlorbenzylsulphosalts described by Vogt and
Henninger, {|||{| and the isomeric nitrobenzylalcohol obtained by Gri-

* Beilstein, KuhlLerg, Neuhof, Ann. Chera. Pliarm., 147, p. 339; ib., 150.
p. 280 ; ib., 146, p. 3iy.

t Biihler, Zeitschr. Chem., 1868, p. 440.

t Vogt, Henninger, Ann. Chim. Pliys. [4], 27, p. 130; Ann. Chem. Piiarm.,
165, p. 362.

§ Berlin, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 151, p. 137.

II Sintenis, ib., 161, p. 329.

TF Beilstein and Geitner, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 139, p. 331.

** Grimaux, Comptes Rend., LXV., p. 211 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 145, p. 46.

tt Beilstein, Kuhlberg, Neuhof, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 147, p. 339; ib., 150,
p. 286 ; ib., 146, p. 319.

U Bohler, Zeitschr. Chem., 1868, p. 440.

§§ Strakosch, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1872, p. 692.
nil Czumpelik, ib., 1870, p. 473.

ITF Radziszewski, ib., 1870, p. 198.

*** Henry, ib., 1869, p. 637.

ttt Jackson, ib., 1875, p. 321.

Jtt Ozumpelik, ib., 1870, p. 473.

§§§ Strakosch, ib., 1872, p. 692.

lijlll Vogt, Henninger, Ann. Chim. Phys. f4J,27, p. 130; Ann. Chem. Pharm.,
165, p. 362.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 211

maux* from uitrobenzaldehyd, until Wachendorff,t in 1875, described
the orthonitrobenzylbromide aud chloride. Soon after, iu a preliminary
notice! of a portion of the work contained in these papers, the para- mela-
and orthobrombenzylbromides were described ; finallj^, in 1877,Wachen-
dorff published a very interesting paper § upon the nitrobenzylchlorides
aud bromides, in which he described the metanitrobenzylbromide, and
called attention to the striking foct that metanitrobenzylchloride could
not be obtained under conditions which gave without difficulty the
paranitrobenzylchloride, while he had not as yet succeeded in obtain-
ing the orthonitrobenzylbromide under the conditions which furnished
both of its isomeres ; he said, however, that he did not despair of ob-
taining it by new'experiments under different conditions ; from this it
would seem probable that the statements made in his preliminary
notice in regard to orthonitrobenzylchloride and bromide, have been
proved incorrect by his later exi^eriments.

The object of these papers is to add to our knowledge of this little
studied class of compounds, and, also, to make some comparisons be-
tween the replaceability of the haloid atoms in the side-chain, which it is
hoped may in the future throw some light upon the nature of chemi-
cal attraction. The substituted benzylbromides have been used as the
starting-point for each class of compounds, because these substances
can be easily obtained by the action of weighed amounts of bromine
upou the corresponding substituted toluols in the state of vapor. This
action of bromine on boiling toluol was first studied by Lautli and Gri-
mauxjll Cannizaro,ir and Beilstein,** who proved that the substance thus
formed was identical with the benzj^lbromide previously obtained by
Kekule ft from benzylalcohol by means of hj^drobromic acid.

FIRST PAPER.
OX CERTAIN SUBSTITUTED BENZYLBROMIDES.

C. LoKiNG Jackson.
p
Parabromhenzylbromide {C^H^Br.CH.^Br.). — Preparation. First

Method. Ten grammes of pure parabromtoluol, melting-point 28.5°,

* Grimaux, Comptes Rend., LXV., p. 211 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 145, p. 46.
t Wachendorff, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1875, p. 1101.

I Jackson, ib., 1876, p. 931.

§ Wachendorff, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 185, p. 259.

II Lauth and Grimaux, Bull. Soc. Chim. [2], VII., p. 108.
II Cannizaro, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 141, p. 198.

** Beilstein, ib., 143, p. 369.
tt Kekule, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 137, p. 188.

212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

either from the factory of Kahlbaum, in Berlin, or of Schuchardt, in Gor-
litz, were heated to boiling in a small flask, through whose cork passed a
return-cooler and the delivery-tube from a flask containing 10 gr. of
bromine, the end of which within the flask was less than a centimeter
above the sui'face of the bromtoluol ; the bromine was driven over in
the form of vapor by heating the flask containing it with a small flame
placed some distance below at such a rate that it was completely de-
colorized at a few centimeters from the end of the exit-tube : to pre-
vent condensation of the bromine, the delivery-tube was made as short
as possible ; the heat was carefully regulated so that the bromtoluol
boiled gently, the explosive boiling with evolution of white fumes,
which was apt to occur toward the end of the process, being especially
avoided. If these precautions were observed, the liquid solidified
almost completely on cooling, and the substance was easily purified by
j)ressing the crystals thus obtained between filter-paper and recrystal-
lizing once or twice from hot alcohol. The average yield from ten
grammes of parabromtoluol was ten grammes of parabrombenzylbro-
mide, that is about sixty-eight per cent of the theoretical amount; but,
if more than ten grammes of parabromtoluol were used in one opera-
tion, the yield was not so large.

The substance was also obtained from the mixture of para- and ortho-
bromtoluol,* prepared by treating cold toluol with bromine. On cooling
the product of the action of bromine on the hot mixture with ice and
salt, some parabrombenzylbromide separated out, and more was ob-
tained by distilling off a part of the oil with steam, as the orthobrom-
benzylbromide distils more easily with steam than the paracompound.
This distillation is not to be recommended, however, as under these con.
ditions a portion of the bromide is converted into the corresponding
alcohol ; but without doubt this difficulty could be I'emoved by using
hydrobromic acid in jilace of water. Compare p. 214.

Second Method. Benzylbromide was treated in the cold with an
equal weight of bromine, to which a little iodine had been added ; on
freezing the product of the reaction, a quantity of parabrombenzylbro-
mide separated out. This method is decidedly inferior to that with
pure parabromtoluol, as it not only gives a smaller yield, but also there
is a i^ossibility that orthobrombenzylbromide may be formed. The
composition of the parabrombenzylbromide was established by the fol-
lowing analyses : —

0.5934 gr. of substance gave 0.7377 gr. CO2 and 0.1378 gr. H^O.

* Ann. Chem. Pliarm., 147, p. 39.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 213

0.5679 <rr. of substance gave, after ignition, with CaO 0.8579 gr.

AgBr.

Required for C-HgBr^. Found.

Carbon 33.6 33.90

Hydrogen 2.4 2.57

Bi'omine 64.0 64.28

100.0 100.75

Properties. — Crystallized from alcohol, it forms thick, colorless nee-
dles, with a brilliant lustre ; from the oily mother-liquor formed in its
preparation or from benzole, it sejiarates on slow evaporation in well-
formed prisms, apparently of the orthorhombic system, often a centime-
ter or more long and two to four millimeters thick, which have the
consistency of sublimed sal-ammoniac. Its odor is agreeable and
aromatic, but its vapor attacks the mucous membrane with very great
violence, causing tears and running at the nose ; it was observed, how-
ever, by all who were exposed continually to its action that they
became much less sensitive to it after a few days. "When brought upon
the more delicate parts of the skin, it causes a sharp, stinging pain, but
produces no such effect on the hands ; the taste is extremely biting,
causing great pain to the tongue for several minutes ; it melts at 61-^°,
can be distilled with steam, sublimes in laeedles, and burns with a lumi-
nous green-bordered flame. It is almost insoluble in water, although
it imparts its odor to it; (the flat needles, mentioned in a preliminary
paper* as separating from water by spontaneous evaporation, were
undoubtedly the more soluble parabrombenzylalcohol) ; it is but slightly
soluble in cold, freely in hot alcohol, very readily in ether, benzole,
carbonic disulphide, and glacial acetic acid. On one occasion, it was
oxidized very rapidly by a mixture of potassic dichromate and dilute
sulphuric acid, the action being attended by flashes of light visible even
in diffused daylight, the product was an acid melting in the crude state
at 239" to 240^*, which must therefore be parabrombenzoic acid.

It seems highly probable that this parabrombenzylbromide is the
substance obtained, but not purified or studied by Lauth and Grimaux,t
in 1866, in the residue from the distillation of bromtoluol ; since they
described it as crystallizing in needles, and in the highest degree irritat-
ing to the eyes.

* Ber. D. Ch. G., 1876, p. 931.

t Lauth and Grimaux, Bull. Soc. Chim. [2], V. p. 347.

214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

m

Metahromhe7izylbromide (CfR^Br.CH.Br.) was made from meta-
bromtoluol, prepared by Wroblevsky's * method (compare also
Grete t)j as follows : 30 gr. of the mixture of para- and orthoacettoluid,
obtained as a secondary product in Wroblevsky's process for purifying
orthotoluidin, previously reduced to a granular condition by crystalli-
zation from boiling-water, were suspended in cold water, and 45 gr.
of bromine dissolved in water added in small portions at a time^ shak-
ing until the yellow color disappeared after each addition ; the acetyl
group was removed from the metabromacettoluid thus obtained by
boiling with fuming hydrochloric acid in a flask with a return-cooler ;
the base, set free by an alkali, was dissolved in portions of 10 gr. at
a time in absolute alcohol, and the amido group replaced by hydro-
gen by Griess's reaction ; the alcohol was then partly distilled off on
the water-bath ; the residue distilled with steam, dried, and rectified, the
portion passing over from 179° to 185°, being collected. To convert
this into metabrombenzylbromide, 10 gr. of it were heated to boiling,
and treated with 12 gr. of bromine in the way described under para-
brombenzylbromide (see page 212) ; the slight excess of bromine over
the molecular proportion was taken to allow for the loss in the pro-
cess ; the metabromtoluol took up the bromine somewhat more slowly
than the parabromtoluol. The liquid left after the brorairing was fin-
ished, was distilled in a current of the vapor from hydrobromic acid
(boiling-point 125°), prepared according to Naumann,]: until a con-
siderable portion had passed over : the flask containing the substance
was not heated for fear of decomposition. The hydrobromic acid
vapor cannot be replaced by steam ; as under these conditions some of
the brombenzylalcohol might be foi-med, although I am inclined to
think that this reaction woul 1 take place much less readily here than
it does in the case of the parabrombenzylbromide (compare page 212).
The residue left in the flask was transferred to a funnel-tube, closed
with a rubber stopper on a glass rod, and surrounded with ice. If
the distillation had been carried on long enough, nearly the whole of
the oil solidified to a dark, j^asty mass. The stopper was then removed,
and the bi'own oil sucked out as completely as possible by means of
the Bunsen pump. The white scales left on the funnel were boiled
with a small quantity of alcohol ; the clear solution poured off from the
undissolved oil and cooled in a corked flask. As soon as no more oil was

* Wroblevsky, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 168, p. 153.

t Grete, ib., 177, p. 231.

I Naumann, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1876, p. 1574.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 215

■deposited, the clear liquid was decanted into another flask, and cooled
with ice, when crystals were formed. The same process was repeated
"with the mother-liquor and the residue until the whole was converted
into crystals ; while another crop of less pure metabrombenzylbromide
was obtained by adding snow to the mother-liquor from the final opera-
tion. The crystals were purified by similar crystallizations from hot
alcohol. It was necessary that all these operations should be carried
on in corked flasks, as the metabrombenzylbromide, when moistened
wnth alcohol, evaporated when exposed to the air so rapidly that there
was a very considerable loss from working with open vessels.

The composition of the metabrombenzylbromide was established by
the following analyses : —

0.4333 gr. substance gave after ignition with CaO 0.6609 gr. AgBr.

Required for C-HgBro. Found.

Carbon 33.6 " 34.63

Hydrogen 2.4 2.G6

Bromine 64.0 63.96

100.0 101.25

Properties. — Crystallized from alcohol by cooling, it forms white bladed
needles or plates arranged in radiated groups ; by slow evaporation of
its alcoholic solution, it can be obtained in flat prisms with square ends
sometimes reaching a length of 3 cm., and a breadth of 2 mm. It has
an agreeable odor, aromatic, but different fi-om that of the parabrom-
beuzylbromide, while its action on the mucous membrane is even
more violent, perhaps because it is more volatile ; its taste and action
on the more delicate parts of the skin is similar to that of the para
compound; it melts at 41°, can be distilled with steam only very
slowly, sublimes in oily drops, and burns with a luminous flame
having a green border. One of its most striking properties is that,
when moistened with alcohol or ether, it evaporates very rapidl}'- ;
whereas when dry it is comparatively fixed. It is almost insoluble in
water, but imparts its odor to it, is freely soluble in cold, still more so
in hot alcohol, and very readily soluble in ether, benzole, carbonic
disulphide, and glacial acetic acid. An oxidizing mixture of potassic
dichromate and dilute sulphuric acid seems to be without action on it ;
but the same mixture converts the alcohol derived from it into an acid,
which, in a not perfectly pure state, melts at 151° , and must therefore
be metabrombenzoic acid.

o

Ortholromhenzylhromide {C^^H^Br.CH.Br.). — After several unsuc-
cessful attempts to obtain an orthobromtoluol free from the para com-

216 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

pound from the mixture prepared by adding bromine to cooled toluol,
I decided to insure a perfectly pure substance as my starting-point, by
making the orthobi'omtoluol from orthotoluidin. The first method
employed for purifying the orthotoluidin was that of Wroblevsky,*
by boiling crude toluidin sixteen hours with glacial acetic acid ; but all
the samples obtained by this process contained traces of paratoluidin.
After I had convinced myself by experiment that the methods of
Rosenstiehl,t by treating the oxalates with ether ; and of Beilstein
and Kuhlberg,J by precipitating an acetic acid solution of acettoluid
with water, — were almost impracticable for large quantities, I tried the
method of Schad,§ recommended by Kekule,|| which depends on the
crystallization of the nitrates and chlorides, and in this way succeeded in
obtaining a liquid toluidin which with acetylchloride gave an acet-
toluid melting after one recrystallization from boiling-water at 107°.
As some previous attempts to convert orthotoluidin into orthobromto-
luol by the usual method through the diazoperbromide had given me as
unsatisfactory a yield as that obtained by Wroblevsky,!! I treated this
according to a new modification of the process of Hiibner and Majert**
for preparing parachlortoluol, which I had found to work admirably
in making that substance. This modification was suggested by Victor
Meyer's ft method of applying Griess's reaction, and consisted in dis-
solving 20 gr. of the orthotoluidin in an excess of hydrobromic
acid (boiling-point 125°, prepared according to Naumann t|); the pasty
mass was then treated with somewhat more than the calculated amount
of solid potassic nitrite, which was thrown in in small portions at a
time, the fiask being corked after each addition, and shaken until all
the red fumes were absorbed ; after the last portion of nitrite had
been added, the greater part of the liquid was distilled off, and the resi-
due then treated again in the same way. The distillate consisted of
dilute hydrobromic acid and a heavy oily liquid which was separated
with a drop-funnel, washed with potassic hydrate solution until the odor
of kresole was removed, then with water, and finally dried and rectified ;
in this way 40 grammes of orthotoluidin gave 29 grammes of crude

* Wroblevsky, Ann. Chem. Pharra., 168, p. 162.

t Rosenstiehl, Zeitschr. Chem., 1868, p. 557, 666.

t Beilstein, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 156, p. 75.

§ Schad, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1873, p. 1361.

II Kekule, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1874, p. 1006.
IF Wroblevsky, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 168, p. 171.
** Hiibner and Majert, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1873, p. 794.
tl V. Meyer, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1875, p. 1074, note.
tt Namnann, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1876, p. 1574.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 217

orthobromtoluol, and 24 grammes of this gave on the first fractioning
19 grammes of a colorless liquid boiling between 179^ and 182° ; that is,
about thirty-six per cent of the theoretical yield, whereas the diazoper-
bromide furnishes under the best conditions only ten per cent. The
new method has the further advantages of taking much less than half
the time occupied by either of the old ones, and the product is not
contaminated with the nitro compounds which compelled Hiibner and
Majert to reduce before rectifying. Von Richter * has also obtained
tetrabrombenzole by the action of nitrous anhydride on a mixture of
tribromaniline with hydrobromic and glacial acetic acids ; he ascribes
the reaction to the presence of the negative atoms, and announces his
intention of trying similar experiments with compounds containing
fewer bromine atoms or nitro groups ; that the reaction is not due to
the presence of such negative radicals is proved by the previous
researches of Hiibner and Majert, which he seems to have overlooked,
and the results given above. I should not have intruded on Von
Richter's field of work, had it not been necessary for me to obtain the
orthobromtoluol, but I felt the less hesitation in doing so, as I am
unable to see that his method differs in any essential particular from
that of Hiibner and Majert, published nearly two years before the
appearance of his article.

The orthobromtoluol was converted into orthobrombenzylbromide
by treatment with bromine in the way described under the para com-
pound. The purification of the substance was a matter of some diffi-
culty, as it seemed to be completely decomposed by rectification, and
converted into the alcohol by distillation with steam ; the method
finally adopted was distillation in a stream of the vapor from aqueous
hydrobromic acid, as described under the metabrombenzylbromide ; the
first fifth of the distillate was rejected to make sure of the absence of
orthobromtoluol ; that which came over later was washed till it ceased
to give an acid reaction, and then dried in vacuo. In this way, 17
grains of pure orthobrombenzylbromide were obtained from 18 grains
of orthobromtoluol.

Its purity was established by the following bromine determina-
tion : —

0.5035 gr. of substance gave after ignition with CaO 0.7608 gr. of

AgBr.

Required for C-HgBro. Found.

Bromine 64.0 64.30

* Von Richter, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1875, p. 1428.

218 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

A number of bromine determinations made in products from
•distillation with steam gave invariably results which were below the
theory.

Properties. — It forms a pale yellow oil (the color is undoubtedly
due to a trace of some impurity), with an agi'eeable odor, somewhat
resembling that of parabrombenzylbromide, and an action on the
mucous membrane even more violent than that of the preceding com-
pounds ; its boiling-point seems to lie between 250° and 260°, but
could not be determined with accuracy because it is decomposed with
evolution of hydrobromic acid by boiling. A careful study of the
action of heat on this and the allied substances is reserved for a future
2)aper. It does not solidify even at — 15°, can be distilled with
steam, burns with the usual luminous green-bordered flame, and
does not mix with water, although it imparts its odor to it, but
mixes readily with absolute alcohol, ether, benzole, glacial acetic
acid, and carbonic disulphide. It does not seem to be attacked
by a mixture of potassic dichromate and dilute sulphuric acid, but
the alcohol derived from it is completely destroyed by this oxidizing
mixture.

ParacMorbenzylhromide,G^Hj^ClCH„Br, was prepared from para-
chlortoluol ; melting-jwint, 6°. 5 ; boiling-point, lo8°-161'* ; made by the
modification of the method of Hiibner and Majert, already described in
connection with orthobromtoluol (see page 216); crude fuming hydro-
chloric acid took the place of the hydrobromic acid,and 40 gr. of paratolu-
idin were used for each operation ; the oil, after washing with potassic
hydrate, proved on rectification to be almost absolutely pure parachlorto-
luol, the yield being about 13 gr. It was converted into parachlorbenzyl-
bromide in the way already described ; the product of the reaction
deposited crystals on cooling, which were drained, and a fresh crop
obtained from the mother-liquor by heating it gently for a few minutes
in a watch-glass placed on a sand-bath, and then allowing it to stand
for some time. The crystals after pressing between filter-paper were
purified by crystallization from hot alcohol in corked flasks, as the sub-
stance is so volatile that work in open vessels would have been at-
tended with great loss ; upon cooling the solution with ice. a little oil
separated; and if the liquid was then stirred it immediately became filled
with beautiful white needles. On one occasion, the substance was dis-
tilled with steam in order to obtain it perfectly white, but this is not to
be recommended, as the water left in the distillation-flask deposited long
thin ribbons melting at 66°, and therefore evidently the jiarachlorbenzyl-
alcohol, while the supernatant liquid contained hydrobromic acid. This

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 219

observation furnished a very ueat and convenient way of obtaining
the corresponding alcohols from the bromides. (See parabrombenzyl-
alcohol in the next paper, p. 221).

The composition of the parachlorbenzylbromide was established by
the followino; analvses : —

0.3399 gr. of the substance gave after ignition with CaO 0.5580 gr.
AgBr+AgCl.

0.4224 gr. of substance gave 0.6779 gr. AgBr-|-AgCl.

Required for C-HgCl Br. round.

Chlorine and Bromine 56-20 57-20 55-94

Pfoperties. — By slow evaporation of its alcoholic solution, it can
be obtained in well-formed colorless prisms, by cooling in radiated
bunches of needles often three centimeters lonor ; it has an agreeable
aromatic odor, and acts on the mucous membrane more violently than
any of the other substances described in this jjaper ; it melts at 48 i'^,
sublimes in oily drops, can be distilled with steam, is Tery volatile at
ordinary temperatures, so that a crystal will evaporate completely if
exposed to the air for a few days, and burns with a flame similar to that
of the bromine compounds. It is slightly soluble in water, easily soluble
in cold, still more so in hot alcohol, and very readily in ether, benzole,
carbonic disulphide, and glacial acetic acid. It is attacked with diffi-
culty, if at all, by potassic dichromate and dilute sulphuric acid.

Paraiodbenzylbro>mde,0,.H^ICff,,B)\ WAS made from paraiod toluol ;
melting-point, 35° ; prepared according to Koruer* by the action of
hydriodic acid on the nitrate of diazotoluol, this last being obtained
by Victor Meyer's f excellent modification of Griess's reaction. The
introduction of the bromine into the side-chain by treating the boiling
substance with bromine vapor was much more difficult than in the
preceding cases ; the precautions to be observed were in general the
same as those given under parabrombenzylbromide ; but occasionally, in
spite of all possible care, a black tarry liquid was the only result of the
process. The conditions under which the j^araiodbenzylbromide is
formed are now undergoing very careful study by Mr. C. F. Mabery,
and the results will be published in his paper upon the paraiodbenzyl
compounds. It is a very remarkable fact that in several cases, when
the paraiodtoluol was not perfectly pure, the liberation of iodine in
considerable quantity was observed during the bromiring; but, in spite
of this, the product contained paraiodbenzylbromide, thus apparently

* Kurner, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. [2], 24, p. 157.
t V. Meyer, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1875, p. lOl-i, note.

220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

furnishing an exception to the general rule of Beilstein that, in pres-
ence of iodine, bromine goes into the benzole ring even at high temper-
atures. The product of the reaction, if properly managed, solidified
on cooling, and was best purified by standing on paper, which sucked
out a quantity of black oil, and afterward by repeated crystallizations
from boiling alcohol with the assistance of bone-black.

The composition of the paraiodbenzylbromide was determined by
the following analyses : —

0.3721 gr. of substance yielded 0.3773 gr. CO, and 0.0773 gr. of H^O.
0.1774 gr. of substance gave, according to Carius, 0.1285 gr. of Ag.
0.1971 gr. of substance gave 0.2755 gr. of AgBr-|-AgI. There were
indications in this analysis that the oxidation had not been complete.

Required for C^HglBr. Found.

Carbon 28-28 " 27-66

Hydi'ogen 2-03 2-31

Iodine and Bromine 69-69 69-47 68-41

100-00 99-44

Properties. — Crystallized from alcohol, it forms flattened needles,
which usually have a straw yellow color, but can be obtained white by
repeated recrystallization with boneblack. It has an aromatic odor
and attacks the mucous membrane much less violently than any of
the other substances mentioned in this paper ; this, however, is very
probably due to the fact that it is not readily volatile at ordinary tem-
peratures ; it melts at 78|° ; does not distil with steam or only with
great difficulty ; sublimes in needles ; burns with a luminous green-
bordered flame ; and is insoluble in water, almost so in cold, much more
soluble in hot, alcohol, but slightly soluble in glacial acetic acid, freely
in ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide. It is not easily attacked if
at all by an oxidizing mixture of potassic dichromate and dilute sul-
phuric acid.

That all the substances mentioned in this paper contain bromine in
the side-chain is proved by the fact that, when boiled with alcoholic
sodic acetate, each one of them yields the corresponding substituted
beuzylacetate, from which the alcohol can be obtained by heating with
aqueous ammonia at 150° to \Q0°. The description of these com-
pounds, as well as of certain other derivatives of these substances, will
be found in the following articles of this series. For descriptions of
the parachlorbenzyl compounds the reader is referred to the papers
already cited in the introduction.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 2'Al

SECOND PAPER.

ON PARABROMBENZYL COMPOUNDS.
Woodbury Lowery.

Parahromhenzylalcohol^ C^JI^Br CB., Off.) — This substance was most
easily prepared by boiling jjarabrorabenzylbromide with water, in a
flask with a return-cooler, for two or three days, until it no longer at-
tacked the eyes. The reaction ran as follows : C^H^BrCH^Br-l-H^O
=:CgH^BrCH.,OH-j- HBr. The presence of the hydrobromic acid
was established by treating the acid aqueous filtrate with argentic oxide,
when argentic bromide was formed, and the solution became neutral.
This method is analogous to that employed by Grimaux * for convert-
ing tollylenebromide into tollyleneglycole, except that Grimaux heated
the haloid compound with water at 170° to 180'^, while I obtained the
alcohol by boiling in a flask with a reverse-cooler. The action of
water on benzylchloride at high temperatures has been very thoroughly
studied : the first research in this field having been undertaken by
Limprichtf as early as 1866, who by heating the two substances to
190° obtained anthracene, a hydrocarbon Cj^Hj^, later identified by
Van Dorp t as benzyltoluol, and beuzylether, which he supposed was
formed from benzylalcohol ; but neither he, nor Van Dorji, nor
Zincke, § who afterward made out the theory of this reaction, men-
tioned obtaining benzylalcohol in this way. The alcohol was also
obtained in the ordinary way by heating parabrombenzylacetate with
aqueous ammonia in a sealed tube to 160*^. The alcohol in whichever
way prepared was 25urified by crystallization from boiling watei', and
its composition established by the following combustion : —

Required for C.HeBr.OH. Pound.

Carbon 44.92 44.94

Hydrogen 3.74 3.99

Properties. — It forms long elastic transparent colorless flattened
needles, with a brilliant pearly lustre and a disagreeable odor; its vapor
does not attack the eyes. Melting-point, 69°. It burns with a lumi-
nous green-bordered flame, distils with steam although slowly, and is
very slightly soluble in cold, more freely in boiling water, easily soluble
in alcohol, ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide.

* Grimaux, Comptes Rend., 70, p. 1363; Ann. Chem. Pharra., 155, p. 338.

t Limpricht, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 139, 303.

X Van Dorp, ib., 169, 207.

§ Zincke, Ber. D. Cli. G., 1874, 276.

222 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The parahromhenzylacetate ( C^H^Br. CH,, C.ylT.. 0^) was not obtained in
a condition pure enough for analysis. On adding water to the alco-
holic solution left after boiling parabrombenzylbromide with sodic
acetate and absolute alcohol, a more or less dark-colored oil which did
not attack the eyes or nose was precipitated : this was dried and frac-
tioued. In the first rectification the greater part came over at about
253°, but on fractioning again a considerable portion came over at
lower temperatures ; the ofteuer it was distilled, the less constant
became the boiling-point, and after several distillations crystals ap-
peared both in the residue and distillate, while nearly one quarter of
the entire amount came over below 100'^, and another quarter below
247° ; all these fractions attacked the eyes with great energy, whereas
the acetate before fractioning did not possess this property ; the crys-
tals were little white needles which dissolved readily in ammonic
hydrate, and gave a silver salt which was analyzed. 0.2822 gr. of the
salt gave 0.1009 gr. of Ag.

Required for CgH^Br. COO Ag. Found.

Silver 35.06 35.75

As the acid melted at 240° to 250°, there could be no doubt that it
was parabrombenzoic acid. Unfortunately the amount of parabrom-
benzylacetate at my disposal was so small that it was impossible to
isolate the other products of this interesting decomposition, and the
complete study of this reaction must therefore be postponed until next
year, when it will be undertaken in this laboratory.

The acetate before fractioning was an oily liquid heavier than water,
having an agreeable odor distantly resembling that of acetic ether, and
burning with a luminous green-bordered flame ; the boiling-point
could not be determined with accuracy on account of the decomposi-
tion described above, but probably lies between 250° and 260°.

ParabrombenzyJcyaiiide (GqH^B): CM^CN), was obtained by boiling-
parabrombenzylbromide with an alcoholic solution of potassic cyanide
as long as potassic bromide was formed ; on addition of water a yellow
oil was precipitated, which deposited crystals after standing for some
time, and finally solidified completely. The crystals were drained on
filter-paper, and j^urified by crystallization from alcohol. Their com-
position was determined by the following volumetric nitrogen determi-
nation : —

0.3565 gr. substance gave 20 cc. nitrogen under a pressure of 742 mm.,
and a temperature of 9^.

Eequired for C^HgBr.CN. Found.

Nitrogen 7.10 6.58

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 223

Properties. — The substance sepai-ates from the oil at first obtained,
either in flat truncated octahedra with a marked basal cleavage belong-
ing either to the tetragonal or orthorhombic system, and having a very
strong resemblance to the crystals of ferrocyanide of potassium, or else
in flat twins imitating in a very beautiful manner the architectural
forms of the trefoil and quatrefoil. These crystals are yellowish
white, but the substance is rendered colorless by crystallization from
alcohol ; it has a disagreeable odor, does not attack the eyes, melts at
46*^, burns with a luminous green-bordered flame, and is insoluble in
water, moderately soluble in cold, freely in hot alcohol, soluble in
ether and glacial acetic acid, still more readily in carbonic disulphide
and benzole ; by boiling with alcoholic potassic hydrate or heating
in a sealed tube with hydrochloric acid it is easily converted into para-
bromalphatoluylic acid. It is to be remarked that the chlorbenzyl-
chloride, according to the observations of Neuhof,* gave when heated
as above with alcoholic potassic cyanide, the amide of chloralphatoluylic
acid, the cyanide being obtained only by heating the substances in a
sealed tube ; this difference in the behavior under like conditions of
two substances so nearly related as chlorbenzylchloride and parabrom-
benzylbromide is interesting.

Parahromalphatoluylic Acid (^C^^H^Br.CH.-^COOH). This substance
was most easily obtained by heating the cyanide with crude fuming
hydrochloric acid to 100^ in a sealed tube. On cooling, the liquid
was found to be full of shining flattened needles of the acid, another
portion of which had fused on the side of the tube ; this method gave
better results more neatly than the saponification with potassic hydrate ;.
the acid was purified by recrystallization from boiling water, and its
composition established by analyses of its silver and copper salts.
(See bilow.)

Properties. — It crystallizes in white glistening flattened needles
with but little odor, melts at 114.5", sublimes above its melting-point
m little plates, and burns with the usual luminous green-bordered
flame. It is but slightly soluble in cold, freely in boiling water, and in
alcohol, ether, benzole, carbonic disulphide, and glacial acetic acid.
Ammouic and sodic hydrates dissolve it at once, forming the corre-
sponding salts; it seems to decompose carbonates, but very slowly and
imperfectly : potassic dichromate and dilute sulphuric acid convert it
with some difficulty into parabrombenzoic acid melting in an impure
state near ■24C.

* Zeitschr. Chem. 1866, p. 653.

224 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

In 1869, Br. Rarlziszewski * obtained a substance which he called
parabromalphatoluylic acid, by the action of bromine in the cold upon
alphatoluylic acid ; he does not describe it fully, but only says that it
crystallizes in prisms melting at 76^, and gives baric and calcic salts
crystallizing in warts, and easily soluble in water and alcohol, by
oxidizing it with potassic dichromate and dilute sulphuric acid he
obtained nothing but parabrombenzoic acid melting at 251*^. He also
obtained in the same operation another acid containing bromine, which
melted at 99^, and was not further examined. The discrepancy
between my results and those of Radziszewski, is j^robably due to the
fact that he did not obtain a pure parabromalphatoluylic acid, but that
the two acids observed by him were mixtures of para and ortho com-
pounds, with perhaps some of the phenylbromacetic acid, CgH-CHBrC
OOH, melting-point 82", discovered by him in conjunction with
Glaser,t and which he shows in the paper under discussion, is formed
from the alphatoluylic acid by the action of bromine at 150'*. The
l^resence of a small quantity of orthobromalphatoluylic acid could
easily lower the melting-point from 114.^5 to 99°, or even 76" ; and,
as it would be entirely consumed by oxidizing with jiotassic dichromate
and sulphuric acid, such a mixture would yield only parabrombenzoic
acid. On the other hand, my acid being prepared from pure parabrom-
beuzyl-bromide, by jDrocesses in which the temperature never rose
above 100°, must be perfectly free from isomeres ; and this view is
confirmed by the fact that its melting-point is higher than that of the
acid obtained by Radziszewski.

Amynonic parahromalphatoluate obtained by dissolving the acid in
ammonic hydrate, and driving off the excess of ammonia on the water-
bath, crystallized in long curving groups of colorless needles very
soluble in water.

Argentic 'parahromalphatoluate ( C^JIJir. CH.^ CO OAg.) was preci-
pitated by adding the ammonic salt to argentic nitrate, as a white
curdy mass similar in appearance to chloride of silver ; it was washed
with cold water, and dried at GO".

0.3106 gr. of the salt dissolved in dilute nitric acid, and precipitated
with hydrochloric acid, gave 0.1375 gr. AgCl.

Required for C-Br-HgCO., Ag. Found.

Silver 33.57 33.33

* Radziszewski, Ber. D. Ch. G., 1869, p. 207.
t Zeitschr. Chem., 1868, p. 110.

or ARTS AND SCIENCES. 225

It is almost insoluble in water, perhaps a little more soluble in hot
than in cold, but it could not be obtained crystallized ; it is readily
soluble in dilute nitric acid ; it blackens slightly by exposure to the
light, and even at a temperature of 60°.

Ciipric parabromalphatoluate, Cu (C^H^Br CH.,COO),,was precipi-
tated as a flocculent bluish green solid, on mixing cupric sulphate with
the amnionic salt.

0.3028 gr. of the salt gave 0.05028 CuO.

Required for Cu(r8HeBr.0Jo. Tound.

Copper 12.90 13.24

It is insoluble in water, but soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid.

The baric salt, obtained by neutralizing a solution of the acid with
baryta water and evaporating, formed white indistinctly crystalline
crusts easily soluble in water.

The calcic salt obtained in a similar way, and also, although very
slowly from calcic carbonate and a solution of the acid, appeared in
the form of white warts ; which, under the microscope, were seen to be
globular groups of sharp needles looking somewhat like a chestnut-
bur ; it was easily soluble in water.

The behavior of a solution of ammonic parabromalphatoluate with
solutions of" the following salts was also observed : —

Mercurous salts, a heavy flocculent white precipitate.

Mercuric salts, a slight white precipitate.

Plumbic salts, a heavy white precipitate, somewhat soluble in boil-
ing water, and separating from this solution in crystalline flocks.

ferric salts, a pale yellow amorphous precipitate, while Chromic,
Aluminic, Manganous, Cobaltous, Nickelous, Zincic, and Magnesia
salts produced no precipitate.

Triparabrombenzylamine, ( C^H^Br. CK,).. N, was formed even in the
cold, when alcoholic ammonia was added to the parabrombenzyl-
bromide ; the white crystals which separated in large quantity were
washed with water, and then recrystallized repeatedly from alcohol ; in
this way the triparabrombenzylamine was easily separated from its brom-
hydrate, which is very slightly soluble even in hot alcohol, and two
sorts of crystals of the former substance were obtained, one in irregular
somewhat bent thick needles, the other in fan-shaped groups of fine
needles, both had the same melting-point, seemed to be about equally
soluble in alcohol, and mutually convertible under conditions which
could not be determined ; it was therefore assumed that they were
identical, and this assumption seems to be confirmed by the following
analyses : —

VOL. XII. (X. S. IV.) 15

226 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

I. 0.5397 gr. of the thicker needles gave 12 cc. nitrogen, at 757.4 mm.,
and 20° t.

II. 0.2664 gr. of the fan-shaped crystals gave 5.2 cc. nitrogen, at
763.1 mm. and 17.°5. t.

Eequired for (C^HsBrOgN. Found.

I. II.

Nitrogen 2.67 2.53 2.26

Owing to the small amount of the fan-shaped crystals which could be
isolated, I have not been able to establish its composition more securely
by a second analysis.

Properties. — It crystallizes either in thick irregular w^hite prisms
or fan-shaped groups of white needles, is odorless, melts at 78°-79°,
burns with the green-bordered luminous flame belonging to all these
compounds, and is insoluble in water, soluble in cold, more so in hot
alcohol, freely soluble in ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide. All
attempts to obtain a salt with hydrochloric acid alone, or in connection
with platinic chloride were unsuccessful.

Triparabromhenzylamine bromhydrate, (C^.II^Br.CII^).^]}^}! Sr, was
formed at the same time as the free base, and separated from it by
boiling out the product of the reaction, with alcohol ; the viscous residue
left after the removal of the triparabromlieuzylamine by this means
was dissolved in ether, from which it crystallized on evaporation.

0.4269 gr. of the substance gave 8 cc. nitrogen, at 767. 7 mm. and
17° t.

0.4713 gr. of substance gave 0.5818 gr. AgBr.

Required for (C^HgBr.JaNH Br. Found.

Nitrogen 2.29 2.19

Bromine 52.54 52.54

Properties. — White odorless plates with a pearly lustre, melting in
the neighborhood of 270'-'', is insoluble in hot or cold water, almost
msoluble in alcohol even when boiling, soluble although not very easily
in ether, gives no double salt with platinic chloride.

The tbrmation of triparabromhenzylamine as the principal product
of the reaction is not to be wondered at, as benzylbroraide gives a
similar result when treated with alcoholic ammonia (Kekule*). It is
not impossible, however, that some di- or even mono-parabrombenzyl-
amine bromhydrate was formed, as this would undoubtedly have been

* Kekule Ann. Chem. Pharai., 137, p. 188.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 227

dissolved in washing tlie product of the reaction with water, and this
wasli-water was unfortunately lost before it was investigated.

Parabrombe)izyhulphocija)iate {C^H^Br.CH.,SCN) was obtained by
boiling the bromide with alcoholic potassic sulphocyanate, and purifying
by crystallizing from alcohol at low temperatures. I have but one
imperfect sulphur determination of this substance, but have not thought
it of sufficient importance to go through the purification of a fresh
quantity, which is rendered difficult by its low melting-point, in order
to confirm this result.

0.2455 gr. of substance gave .2339 gr. of Ba.SO^.

Required for C^HsBr.SCN. Found.

Sulphur 14.03 13.08

Properties. — It forms white ribbons often 5 cm. long, made up of
needles united together laterally, having a strong odor similar to that
of benzylsulphocyanate, melting at 25*^, and soluble in alcohol. The
surprisingly low melting-point rendered the management of the sub-
stance very difficult, and preserving the crystals impossible ; it also — as
the benzylsulphocyanate melts at 36°-38°, according to Henry ; * at
41"^, according to Barbaglia f — throws doubt on the analysis given
above, and therefore on the correctness of the formula.

Tlie investigation of the pai'abrombenzyl compounds will be continued
in this laboratory ; the next portion of the subject to be studied being
the action of heat, superheated steam, and sodium on these bodies.

* Henry, Ber. D. Cli. G., 1869, p. 637.
X Barbaglia, Ber. D. Ch. G , 1872, p. 687.

228 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XIX.

CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS THE HISTORY OF THE
FLUORIDES OF MANGANESE.

By W. H. Melville.

Presented by the Corresponding Secretary, June 14th, 1876.

The investigation described in this jiaper was undertaken with a
view to the re-examination of the fluorides of manganese. Many in-
vestigations have been made upon this subject during this century, and
necessarily a large amount of fact has been accumulated.

* Berzelius noticed that, on the evaporation of a solution of man-
ganous carbonate in hydrofluoric acid, ill-defined crystals were obtained,
which dissolved in water only when containing an excess of acid. This
amethyst-colored substance he called the proto-fluoride of manganese.
He furthermore prepared a fluoride of manganese and potassium by
double decomposition of a solution of manganous sulphate and fluoride
of potassium. Similarly the soda salt was precipitated. These double
fluorides were described as white precipitates, insoluble in water, and
soluble in acids.

t When hydrated sesquioxide of manganese is dissolved in hydro-
fluoric acid and the solution left to evaporate spontaneously, dark
brown prisms crystallize out, which dissolve completely in small quan-
tities, but are decomposed by excess of water. When this decom-
position ensue*, a basic salt is deposited, while an acid salt remains in
solution. A part of the former is redissolved on cooling, if free acid
is present. Ammonia precipitates pure hydrated manganic oxide.
(Berzelius.)

t A fluoride of manganese has been prepared, in which the Mu and
F exist in the ratio 1 : 7 respectively. When a mixture of two parts
potassic manganate or permanganate and one part fluor-spar is digested

* Gmelin, vol. iv. Manganese.

t Ibid.

J WGhler, Fogg. 9, 619; Dumas, Ann. Chim. Phys., 3G, 82.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 229

with sulphuric acid in a platinum retort, a yellow vapor, purple in
moist air, is evolved. This fluoride having the above ratio cor-
rodes glass, and in so doing is resolved into (SiFJ silicic fluoride and
(H^MnoOg) permanganic acid. Chloride of calcium exposed to the
yellow vapor evolves chlorine. The compound is absorbed by water,
forming a purple solution, which contains hydrofluoric and perman-
ganic acids. When the solution is evaporated in air, it evolves oxygen
gas and hydrofluoric acid vapor, and leaves a brown residue from which
water dissolves manganous fluoride, leaving a black insoluble basic salt.
The solution dissolves copper, mercury, and silver, with formation of
the corresponding fluorides.

* The tetrafluoride of manganese, MnF_,, is produced in solution :
(1) when hydrofluoric acid is allowed to act on an ethereal solution of
MnCl^ ; (2) when the acid acts on MuOj, in which case all the acid
employed cannot be neutralized. The solution decolorizes indigo, and
produces colors with anilin and naphthylamine ; but may be preserved
in the presence of glucose and gum-arabic. The substance dissolves
in alcohol ; decomposes in presence of much water, especially when it
is alkaline, peroxide of manganese being formed. When potassic flu-
oride is added to the preceding solution, a rose precipitate is formed,
which when dried at 100°C yields the formula MuF^2KF. Ammonic
fluoride yields a compound of analogous composition. The alkaline
fluorides appear to give stability to the tetrafluoride. The potash salt
melts, and after lengthened fusion the salt MnF^.iKF is obtained.
The solution of tetrafluoride precipitates an alcoholic solution of
plumbic acetate. None of these compounds are crystalline. If to a
boiling solution of potassic fluoride or ammonic fluoride perchloride
of manganese is gradually added, a red powder comes down, the consti-
tution of which is represented by the formula MnOF,. This oxy-
fluoride and the preceding tetrafluoride are soluble in anhydrous ether.
Under the same conditions as above the sesquifluoride of manganese
acts in a similar manner, the properties of the compounds thus formed
being generally the same. With K^Mn^O^ and hydrofluoric acid, either
one or other of the following bodies is obtained: MnF^. 2KF ; Mn^
F,0H-2KF.

t When Mn02 is treated with hydrofluoric acid, brown crystals are
sometimes deposited, especially when the mixture has been digested
with the aid of heat. The crystals when dried on paper furnish the

* Bull. Chim. Soc. viii. 4.8, NLkles.
t Ibid.

230 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

formula MngFg. lOH^O. The substance is soluble in a small quantity
of water, but decomposed by an excess into the brown oxide of man-
ganese. Its solution forms a red precipitate with potassic fluoride.
Dissolves silver, and is decolorized in passing to the state of proto-
fluoride.

* A fluosilicate of Mn has been artificially prepared, represented by
MnSiFg. 7H^0. Crystallizes in long six-sided prisms, and rhombo-
hedrons. Color very light red. When heated, it first gives off seven
molecules of water, then gaseous SiF^, leaving MnFg of the same form
as the original crystals. Easily soluble in water.

Manganous Fluoride, MnF\ — Owing to the difficulty of obtaining
mangauous oxide free from higher oxides, it was found more practi-
cable to prepare this fluoride by dissolving the white manganous car-
bonate in hydrofluoric acid. The resulting liquid was then evaporated
on the water bath to dryness. The fluoride rendered anhydrous by
drying at lOO^C. gave by analysis : — •

Found. At. Ratio. Theory.

Mn 58.G8 LOG 59.14

F3 40..57 2.13 40.86

99.25 100.00

Manganese and fluorine were separated by decomposition with a con-
centrated solution of potassic hydrate, the hydrate of Mn thus formed
converted into pyrophosphate, and the fluorine in the filtrate precipi-
tated as calcic fluoride.

Properties. — Color white, shading faintly into pink. Structure crys-
talline, but indistinct. Insoluble, or sparingly soluble, in water and
alcohol. Decomposed by the fixed alkalis and their carbonates. Dis-
solves in mineral acids, but in no case evolves hydrofluoric acid vajjor ex-
cept when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. (It may be well to
notice once for all that concentrated sulphuric acid invariably decom-
poses fluorides with evolution of hydrofluoric acid.) Dissolves in water
containing free HF. Not decomjjosed by water, or by exposure to
air. At red heat fuses to a dark brown mass with loss of fluorine.

Manganous Fluoride and Hydrofluoric Acid, MnF.^. 2)HF. ^dH.^0.
— When the anhydrous MnFg is dissolved in aqueous hydrofluoric
acid, and the solution evaporated in vacuo over snlphuric acid, crystals
containing free hydrofluoric acid are deposited. Also prepared directly

* Gmelin, vol. iv. Mn. Berzelius.

OF ARTS AKD SCIENCES. 231

from manganons carbonate. The crystals freed from hygroscopic
moisture gave the following numbers : —

Found.

At. Ratio.

Theory.

Mn

17.90

.32

17.46

F5

29.16

1.54

30.16

H3

.96 1

QH^O

51.42 i

52-38

100.00

Tlie salt was dissolved in water, the manganese precipitated with a
solution of sodic carbonate, and, after filtration, fluorine was thrown
down by calcic chloride.

Properties. — Colorless, sometimes light pink. Crystals are trans-
parent long prisms of the trimetric system. Soluble in water, giving
acid reaction. Soluble in acids. Effloresces in air ; when heated at
lOO'^C, changes into the simple MnFg.

Double Fluoride of Manganous Oxide and Potassium, MnF^. KF.
— On the addition of an excess of potassic fluoride to a solution of
manganous chloride, an immediate separation of an insoluble compound
results. A double decomposition ensues, which is expressed by the
reaction : —

MnCl2 + 3KF = MnF2. KF + 2KC1.

The precipitate collected on a filter is washed with water, then with
alcohol, and subsequently with ether. Alcohol and ether are employed
to remove the last traces of water,
same result : —

Found.

Mn 36-23

K 26-06

Fg 37-71

Heating

at

100° produces the

At. Ratio.

Theory.

-66

36-40

•66

25-87

1-98

37-73

100-00 100-00

The method used in analysis was based upon the conversion of the
double fluoride into a mixture of sulphates of manganese and potas-
sium. The weight of the sulphates being known, as also that of the
manganese therein contained, the percentages of the metals were easily
calculated, while the fluorine was inferred by difl^erence.

Properties. — Flesh colored. Crystalline. Insoluble in water and
alcohol. Not decomposed in air and water. Dissolves in acids. Fuses
at red heat.

232 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

This fluoride was first prepared by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, and
afterwards described by Berzelius as a compound of manganese and
potassium ; but the latter established no ratio between the constit-
uents.

An analysis of the soda salt which is precipitated under the same
conditions will by analogy furnish the formula MuFg. NaF.

Another double fluoride of manganese and potassium has been ob-
tained by adding potassic fluoride to a solution of MnF.,. 3HF. A
white crystalline precipitate is immediately thrown down, which anal-
ysis shows to contain Mn and K in the ratio 1 : 4 respectively. This
double fluoride has identical properties with the preceding.

Tetrajiuoride of Manganese, 3LiF^. AK^O. — (1) A black oxide of
manganese was prepared by exposing manganous carbonate to a dull
red heat for a considerable time. This oxide was proved to be

Mnp., : -

—

Found.

At. Ratio.

Theory.

Mn^

69.62

1.26

69.60

O3

30.38

1.89

30.40

100.00 100.00

This oxide dissolves readily in hydrofluoric acid with the aid ot
heat, and the deep red solution, when evaporated to the crystallizing
point, deposits crystals on cooling. A larger crop of crystals is ob-
tained by carrying the solution to dryness in vacuo. (2) Pure per-
oxide of manganese is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid under j^ressure
with the aid of heat. On evaporating the solution red crystals are
obtained.

In the following analysis, Mn was estimated, and the combined
weight of fluorine and water inferred from the loss. The water was
then determined in a second portion of the material by ignition with
plumbic oxide. The fluorine was thus indirectly ascertained: —

Found.

At. Ratio-

Theory.

Mn

27.22

.49

27-10

F4

36.82

1.94

37-43

4H,0

35.96

1.99

35-47

100-00 100-00

Properties. — Color, red by reflected, purjile by transmitted, light.
Crystallizes in the monoclinic system in rather long, narrow prisms.
These prisms consist in basal planes at the end of the ortho and klino

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 233

diagonals, and in four jilanes constituting a vertical dome ; they ter-
minate at one end in two planes which form one-half of a klino dome.
Partially decomposed by large quantities of water and alcohol ; com-
pletely by a solution of a fixed alkali into the brown hydrate of man-
ganese and fluoride of the alkali. Soluble in acids ; partially soluble
in anhydrous ether. Insoluble in benzol and toluol. When the solu-
tion of this fluoride before crystallization is boiled, a dark brown
substance is deposited, which evolves HF vapor with suliihuric acid.
The crystals retain their crystalline form, but turn dark brown on
exposure to air or the temperature of 100°C. This brown sub-
stance is probably an oxyfluoride, in which two or a multiple of two
atoms of fluoride in the original fluoride are replaced respectively by
one or more atoms of oxygen.

I can account for the formation of MnF^ instead of Mn^Fy from the
sesquioxide in no way except by assuming either that during the pro-
cess of evaporation the sesquifluoride breaks up into tetrafluoride, or
that the existence of a sesquifluoride is impossible.

Double Fluoride of Peroxide of Manganese and Ijptassium, 3fnF^. 2KF.
— To a moderately concentrated solution of MnF^, potassic fluoride dis-
solved in water is added in excess. Care must be taken that the solu-
tion of potassic fluoride is concentrated, otherwise the tetrafluoride
of manganese will be decomposed. A rose-colored precipitate imme-
diately separates, which when dried at 100°C. presents the following
composition : —

Found.

At. Ratio.

Theory.

Mn

22.00

.40

22.25

K,

31.82

.81

31.65

Fe

46.18

2.43

46.12

100.00 100.02

The analysis was conducted in the same manner as that of the for-
mer double fluorides.

Properties. — Rose colored. Under the microscope exhibits traces
of crystalline structure ; form indistinct. Decomposed by water, but
not so readily as the tetrafluoride. Soluble in acids. Stable in air.
Fuses to a blue mass, which on cooling resumes its original color.

A fluoride of manganese was prepared, in which the ratio between
manganese and fluorine was found to be 1 : 8 respectively. This fluo-
ride, however, requires further study ; and it is hoped that, if the above
ratio shall be proved beyond question to exist, the exact relation and
disposition of the atoms will be determined.

234 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Finely pulverized K„MnoOg was dissolved in aqueous hydrofluoric
acid, and the solution subjected under pressure to the temperature of
100°C two or three hours. The red solution was then evaporated in
vacuo. Claret-red prisms belonging to the trimetric system were
deposited, in which the ratio of the constituents — Mn, K, and F —
was not determined. Consequently this substance also remains for
future investigation.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 235

XX.

ON SOME ALG^ NEW TO THE UNITED STATES.

By W. G. Farlow.

Presented May 9, 1877.

The present paper is a supplement to one presented to the Academy,
March 9, 1875 ; and our object is to com[)lete, as far as possible, the
list of marine algiB found in the United States. We include a number
of species which were referred to in a paper in the " Report of the
United States Fish Commission" for 1875, which was intended to
serve as a guide to the collection of algse in the Government Building
at the Centennial Exhibition. Some species of New England, which
are soon to be described at length in another publication, are here
mentioned only by name.

Of the species added to our marine flora, a number were collected at
Key West and the Tortugas by Mr. F. W. Hooper, in the winter of
1876. New Californian species have been received from Dr. Anderson,
of Santa Cruz; Mr. Cleveland; Mr. Hemphill, of San Diego; and
Miss Lennebacker, of Santa Barbara. Several interesting forms were
collected by Dr. Edward Palmer at the island of Guadeloupe and in
the vicinity of San Diego, and Prof. D. C. Eaton, of New Haven, has
kindly communicated species from both east and west coasts.

FLORIDE^.

Dasya subsecunda Suhr. K.tz. Tab. Phyc, V. XIV., PI. 78 a. b.
D. CalUthamnion Harv. Farlow, Proc. Am. Acad., 1875, San Diego,
Cleveland ; Santa Barbara, Dr. Dimmock. This minute species, which
is not uncommon in Southern California, has the habit of C. Wurde-
manni Bail., but the ramuli are robust and more or less secund, while
in C. Wvrdemanni they are attenuated and dichotomous, bi-anching at
wide angles. We formerly erroneously referred this species to D. Cal-
Uthamnion Harv., being led to that conclusion by tlie fact that a cross-
section of the stem showed four cells around a central cell, as was also
the case with an authentic specimen of D. CalUthamnion Harv. Far-

2C6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ther study shows, however, that the number of cells seen in cross-
section varies from four to eight ; and it may be remarked that, in
most of the species belonging to the subgenus Stlchocarpus, the number
of cells is too inconstant to constitute a specific character.

Dasya trichoclados 3IerL var. Oerstedi, J. Ag. = Dasya lopho-
clados Mont., Ner. Am. Bor. II. p. 65.

T^NiOMA Clevelandii, n. sp. fronde capillacea erecto-cpespitosa
ad 4 pollicares ; ramis flexuosis irregulariter pluries pinnatis, ramulis
ad basem contractis, ultimis subulatis incurvatis ; articulis subcom-
pressis, 4 siphouiis fere ecorticatis, 2 siphoniis lateralibus marginatis ;
stichidiis nunierosis sparsis vittfeformibus tetrasporas oppositas foven-
tibus in apicem subacutum abeuntibus. — San Diego, Cal., INIr. D. Cleve-
land. — But two species of this genus are as yet known, T. perpusillum
Ag., found by Liebmann on the west coast of Central America, and T.
macrourum Thur., found by Schousboe at Tangier. We should naturally
expect the first-named species to occur at San Diego ; but, as it is de-
scribed by Agardh as closely resembling CalUthamnion Rothii in habit
and mode of growth and having subfesciculate stichidia, it would hardly
seem as though the plant collected by Mr. Cleveland, which has scat-
tered stichidia, is four inches high, and has a striking resemblance to
Griffithsia tenuis Harv., could belong to the same species. The
specimen sent by Mr. Cleveland is unfortunately broken off near the
base ; but, judging from what was sent, there seems to be no creeping
primary filament. From T. macrourum the present species differs in
having the stichidial branches terminate in a more or less acute apex
instead of two hairs. When seen in front view, the frond shows a
series of articulations, each of which is composed of three subequal
cells bordered on both sides by a wider cell. A cross-section is rather
narrowly elliptic, and shows four subequal cells arranged round a
central cell, as in many species of Polysiphonia ; but each of the cells
lying in the longer axis of the ellipse has a cell in contact with it on
the outer side and of about the same size as itself, so that the short
axis of the ellipse is composed of two, and the long axis of four, cells
besides the central cell. In the lower part of the frond, the angles
between the primary cells are filled with a small but irregular number
of secondary cells.

Polysiphonia senticulosa Harv. This species, described in the
Jour. Proc. Linn. Soc, Vol. VI. No. 24, p. 169, is apparently common
along the whole Californian coast. It admits of question whether the
species should not be considered a variety of Pol. urceolata.

Polysiphonia secunda Ag. Under this species is included by

OF AETS AND SCIENCES. 237

Agardh PoIi/sipJwnia pecten- Veneris, var. B. Harv,, of the Ner.
Am. Bor. II., p. 4G. The question then arises, "VVliat is the plant de-
scribed in the Ner. Am. Bor. 11., p. 35, as having but four siphons, and
referred to Pohjsiphonia secunda IMont., said by Montagne himself,
Syll. Crypt, p. 424, to be the same as P. seciindn Ag.

PoLYSiPHONiA PENXATA Ag. To this species was doubtfully re-
ferred a small Polysiphonia from San Diego, which seemed not uncom-
mon on Gelidium cartilagineum and other large Floridece. The
specimens should have more properly been referred to Polysiphonia
verticillata Harv. A single specimen received from Mrs. T. M. Allen,
collected at Santa Barbara, Cal., does not seem to belong either to
P. verticillata or to P. dictyurus, if the figure in the Tab. Phyc. is to
be trusted, and may belong to Pohjsiphonia pennata.

Polysiphonia thyrsigera J. Ag. Key West, Mr. F. W. Hooper ;
Nassau, Miss Minns.

Polysiphonia dictyurus J. Ag. San Diego, Cal., Mr. D. Cleve-
land. A single specimen, which we supposed to be new and to which
we gave the manuscript name of P. Clevelandii, seems to be a variety
of P. dictyurns, in which the ramuli are very regularly pinnate, and
the ultimate ramuli all beautifully recurved. The number of cells in
cross-sections of the larger branches is ten.

Acanthophora muscoides Ag. The true A. Delilei has never
been found in this country. The species given by Harvey with that
name, in the Ner. Am. Bor., is Acanthophora muscoides, Ag. and
the name A. Delilei should have been suppressed in the Proc. Am.
Acad., 1875.

Ricardia Montagnei Derbes. San Diego, Cal., Mr. Cleveland ;
Santa Barbara, Miss Lennebacker. This curious little plant is rarely
over quarter of an inch liigh, and grows in small clusters on the con-
cave tips of species of Laurencia. The Californian specimens on
L. virgata resemble, in all I'espects, those from the Mediterranean,
except that tliey are rather more luxuriant.

Laurencia Brongniartii J. Ag. Key West, Mr. F. W. Hooper.
One of the more beautiful species of the genus, and which bears a
striking resemblance to Amansia multijida.

Laurencia tuberculosa J. Ag. Prof. Agardh regards Lauren-
cia gemmifera Harv., as a variety of this species.

Laurencia intricata Lam. Key West, Mr. F. W. Hooper. A
species forming dense cushions, and resembling closely the figure in
Kiitz. Tab. Phyc, Vol. XV., tab. 61, was collected by Mr. Hooper.

Laurencia spectabilis, Post. & Rupr. Prof. Agardh is inclined

23,8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

to keep this sjoecies distinct fi-om L. pinnatijlda, with which it was
united by Harvey.

Erythrocystis Grevillei J, Ag. Epicr. = Lomentaria'? saccata
J. Ag. Sp. p. 738.

Delesseria Woodii J. Ag. Santa Barbara, Cal., Miss Lenne-
backer.

NiTOPHYLLUM viOLACEUM, J. Ag. Epicr. This is the species de-
scribed in the Ner. Am. Bor. and Proc. Am. Acad., 1875, as Nitcphyl-
lum laceratum Grev.

NiTOPHYLLDM LATissiMUM Harv. Under this species should be
included Nit. areolatum Eaton mscr. of the Rep. U. S. Fish Comm.,
1875.

NiTOPHYLLUM MULTiLOBUJi J. Ag. Epicr. Golden Gate, Cal.,
Berggren. We have never seen this species, which, according to Prof.
Agardh, differs from all other species in having large transverse sori.

NiTOPHYLLUM SPECTABiLE Eaton. California.

EuCHEUMA ACANTHOCLADUM J. Ag. Epicr. ^= Chry^ymenia acan-
thocJada Harv.

Rhabdonia ramosissima J. Ag. Epicr. == Chrysymenia ramosis-
sima Harv., Ner. Am. Bor.

The species of CoralUnece found on the coast of the United States
are in a state of great confusion, and it will probably be some time
before they are clearly made out. One great difficulty in the way is
the uncertain characters by which the genera are at present constituted.
In this connection, we only wish to call attention to the forms found
on our coast, giving the names under which they are commonly de-
scribed, without meaning to indorse the specific value assigned by dif-
ferent writers. We are greatly indebted to Dr. Ed. Bornet for notes
and suggestions with regard to our species, especially the Gorallineae
and Sqnumarice.

CoRALLiNA PiSTiLLAETS Mont. A small Coralline, nearly related
to this species, perhaps identical with it, has been found at Santa Cruz,
Cal., by Dr. Anderson.

Amphiroa Orbigniana Harv. The common Amphiroa from
California, which is usually distributed as Amphiroa Californica,
D.cue., does not, according to Dr. Bornet, conform to the type of
that species, but more properly belongs to Ainpk. Orbigniana. Harv.
The species is incorrectly referred in Proe. Am. Acad., 1875, p. 364,
to Arthrocardia frondescens, Aresch., to wliich some of the broader
forms have a not very remote resemblance.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 239

Amphiroa vertebralis D.cne. This form, collected in Oregon
by Rev. E. Hull, in 1871, resembles the species described by Postels
and Ruprecht as Amph. tuberculosa, Illust. Alg., p. 20, T. XL. fig. 100,
and it may be asked whether it is not really the same species.

Amphiroa Tribclus Lam. A West-Indian species also found at
Key West by Mr. F. W. Hooper.

Amphiroa fragilissima Lam. In the Ner. Am. Bor., Harvey
mentions both Amph. fragilissima Lam., and Amph. dehilis K.tg., as
found at Key AVest. The Amph. debilis of Kiitzing is, however, only
a synonyme for Amph. fragilissima Lam., while the plant refen-ed to
by Harvey is a much larger species, possibly Amph. cuspidata Lam.

LiTHOTHKix AsPERGiLLUM. J. E. Gray. San Diego, Cal., Mr.
Cleveland ; Santa Barbara, Miss Lennebacker ; Santa Cruz, Dr. Ander-
son, This species seems to be tolerably common along the California
coast. It was quoted in the Rep. U. S. Fish Com., 1875, under the
name of Amphiroa nodulosa K.tg. Judging from the figure in the
Jour. Bot., 1867, there can be no doubt that this is the species there
described ; but it is difficult to understand the grounds for separating
the genus Lithothrix from Amphiroa.

Melobesia amplexifroxs Harv. A species which appears com-
mon on Zostera, Gelidium cartilagineum, and other algte from Santa
Cruz, Cal., southward. The conceptacles are immersed so that the
frond appears punctate.

Melobesia Lexormandi Aresch. San Diego, Cal., Mr. D, Cleve-
land. A Melobesia occurs at Wood's Hole, Mass., which is probably
also to be referred to this species.

Melobesia Lejolisii Rosanoff. Common on Zostera at Nahant,
Mass.

LiTHOTHAMXiox POLYMORPHUM Aresch. Very common from
Boston northward, forming purple crusts on the rocks in tide pools.
Also found at San Diego, Cal. ^

LiTHOTH AMNION FASCICUL ATC.M Aresch. Dredged in several places
near Eastport, Me.

Petr'>cklis cruenta Ag. Common on rocks from Nahant, Mass.,
northward ; also at Santa Cruz, Cal. It has, as yet, been found only
with tetraspores.

Peyssonnklia rubra (Grev.) J. Ag. Tlie species referred to in
the Rep. U. S. Fish Comin , 1875, under the name of P. atro-purpurea
Crn., belongs more properly to P. rubra.

Peyssonnelia Dl'byi Crn. San Diego, Cal., Mr. Cleveland.
Although P. rubra is common at Key West, it is douDtful whether

240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

P. Duhji occurs there. "We have also found sterile specimens of a
Peyssonnelia at Eastport, Me., which is pi'obal}ly referable to P. Duhyi.
P. imbricata, K.tg., in the absence of fruit, will remain a doubtful
species.

Cruoria purpurea, Crn. San Diego, Cal., Mr. Cleveland.

Cruoriella armorica, Crn. San Diego, Cal., Mr. Cleveland.

Galaxaura (Microthoe) lapidescens Lam. Key West, Mr.
F. W. Hooper.

Galaxaura rugosa, Kiitz. Key West, Mr. F. TV. Hooper.

Liagora farionicolor, and L. Cayohuesonica Melville, Jour, of
Bot., Sept., 1875, do not seem to be admitted as species by Agardh
in his Epicrisis.

Nemalion? Andersgnii, n. sp. frondibus congregatis lubrico-car-
tilagineis simplicibus vel sparse furcatis ; raniis primura subcompressis
solidis demum cavis cylindraceis ad 6-8 pollicares altitudine, plerumque
subjequalil)us ramulis dense cinctis ; ramulis simplicibus vel furcatis ;
antherozoideis ad cellulas externas fasciculatis ; cystocarpiis ? — Santa
Cruz, Cal., Dr. C. L. Anderson. — This species, first found by Dr. An-
derson, is variable in appearance. AYhen young, the fronds are solid,
and consist of an undivided axis, from which ai'e given off short lateral
branches in all directions. When older, the main axis forks once or
twice, as do also the ramuli ; and, still later, the main axis becomes
swollen and hollow, and not unfrequently perforated. The substance
is always lubricous and cartilaginous, and the color is a blackish-purjile.
The frond is composed of closely interwoven longitudinal filaments,
from which are given off at right angles dichotomous moniliform fila-
ments. We liave never found the cj^stocarps or tetraspores of this
species, and consequently there must remain some doubt with regard to
the genus. Antherozoids are abundant, and nearly cover the surface
of some specimens. As we have not been able to find traces of cysto-
carps, it is probable that the present species is dioecious, and, in ihat
respect, different fi-om other sjiecies of Nemalion. In aspect it not
unfrequently resembles a coarse Ghordaria, and in its later stages bears
a certain resemblance to some forms of Halosaccion rameMaceum. As
ordinarily seen, it is easily recognized by the rather thick main axis,
closely beset with short ramuli of nearly equal length. The ramuli are
often distorted by the parasite Strehlonema fasciculatnm Thuret. Np-
malion virens, Ag.. of the Pacific coast of Mexico, might be expected
to occur in California. The description of that species, however, does
not at all apply to the plant found by Dr. Anderson.

Plocamium violaceum, n. sp. froude anguste liiieari ad 5-6 pol-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 241

Hcares altitudine irregiilariter pinnata ; ramis ecostatis prrecipiie ad
apices Hexuosis ; piniiis alterne 2-4, plerumque 3, pinna inforiori subuli-
formi sxpe recurvata pinnas superiores decomposito-pinnatas superante;
spluerosporis biseriatim ad 2-3 furcatos apices ordinatis. Color pur-
pureus. — Santa Cruz, Dr. C. L. Anderson ; San Diego, Mr. D.
Cleveland. — Tlie present species is said by Dr. Anderson to
inhabit rather deep water. It resembles Plocamium coccineum in
having the pinna; arranged alternately in thi-ees and fours, but differs
in having the lower pinna larger than the others and slightly recurved.
In the length of the lower pinna, the species approaches P. cornutum
which, however, does not have pinnae arranged in threes or fours. In
the flexuous character of the branches, the species resembles PI. coc-
cineum var.jlexuosum Harv., which is considered by Agardh a variety
of PL lepophyllum Kiitz. We have compared the present species
with specimens of PI. coccineum var. Jlexuosum, named by Harvey,
and find it to differ in color and substance and in the large lower pinna.
The plant adheres slightly to paper, and is of a dark purple color, un-
usual in species of the genus.

CoRDTLECLADiA CONFERTA (Schousb.) Mont. San Diego, Cal.,
Mr. Cleveland ; Santa Barbara, Miss Lennebacker. jVot an uncom-
mon species of Southern California, but sometimes distributed as a
species of Gracilaria.

Sarcophyllis Californica J. Ag. In his Epicrisis, Prof. Agardh
separates this species from aS^. edulis, to which species California speci-
mens had been previously referred.

Farlowia crassa J. Ag. Santa Cruz, Cal., Dr. Anderson; Ore-
gon, Rev. E. Hall.

Farlowia cojipressa J. Ag. Santa Cruz, Dr. Anderson ; Santa
Barbara, Miss Lennebacker ; San Diego, Mr. Cleveland.

Cryptosiphonia Woodii J. Ag. Santa Cruz, Cal., Dr. Anderson.

Kallymenia Californica, n. sp. fronde carnosa radiatim pro-
lifera demum irregulariter fissa inferiori parte costata ; prolificationibus
flabelliformibus in stipitem basi attenuatis stepe phyllis marginalibus
minutis fimbriatis ; cystocarpiis in media fronde nuinerosis immersis.
— Santa Cruz, Cal., Dr. Anderson. — This species was found by Dr. An-
derson thrown up from deep water in company with Constantinea
Sitchensis, which it resembles in texture and color. In fact, until the
tetraspores have been discovered, it will not be possible to affirm that
this is not a Constantinea, although the absence of a distinct stipe would
lead one to place the plant in the genus Kallymenia rather than Con-
stantinea. We first supposed the plant to be Kallymenia^ phyllophora

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 16

242 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

J. Ag. ; but having sent a specimen to Prof. Agardh, he has decided
that it is not the species prevously sent him from Vancouver's Island.
The fronds are fixed by a disk, from which they rise, or more probably
expand out horizontally, for five or six inches. As most commonly
seen, they resemble a species of Opuntia with fan-shaped or obovate
joints, which are usually fringed with small leaflets on the margin.
All tlie lower parts are distinctly costate. The color is a deep I'ed,
which becomes very dark. The cystocarps are densely scattered in
the central part of the upper portion of the frond. In none of the
specimens which we have received is the fruit ripe ; but, using the
common exjiression adopted in this order, there is a compound nucleus,
not a simple one, as found in Prionitis^ Schizymenia, and other allied
genera.

Phyllophora Clevelandii Farlow. Tetraspores in oval shaped
nemathecia in the upper part of frond.

Gymnogongrus leptophyllus, Ag. California, Dr. Anderson.
Under this name Prof. Agardh distinguishes the species commonly
distributed as Gymnogongrus Griffithsice of our west coast, in which
the cystocarps are immersed, or nearly so. There is still another
Gymnogongrus, not uncommon in California, in which the cystocarps
project hemispherically on one side of the frond, and which, with little
doubt, is G. tenuis, Ag. G. linearis Ag. was accidentally omitted from
the list in Proc. Am. Acad., 1875.

Chondrus canaliculatus Ag. California in several places. It
is doubtful whether G. qfftnis Harv. is really distinct from this
species.

Cryptonemia obovata J. Ag. Santa Cruz, Cal., Dr. Anderson.

Crytonemia dichotoma J. Ag. A single specimen of what seems
to be this species was collected by Mr. D. Cleveland at San Diego.

Prionitis Andersoniana, Eaton mscr. Santa Cruz, Dr. An-
derson.

Prionitis ? Clevelandii, n. sp. fronde coriacea substipitata repe-
tite flabellatim prolifera inferiori parte subcostata demura irregulariter
perforata ; prolificationibus a disco aut intra margiuem exeuntibus ;
cystoearpiis — ? — San Diego, Mr. D. Cleveland. — Of this striking
species we have seen but a single steiile specimen, from which it is of
course impossible to determine the genus with certainty. We at first
supposed it to be the same as the plant to which we have given the
name of Kalbjmenia Galifornica. The resemblance, however, is only
external, for the structure of the frond is exactly that of Prionitis. If
the fruit of the present species should show that it really belongs to

OF ARTS AHB SCIENCES. 243

the genus Prionifis, it may be readily distinguisliefl by its flabellate
habit. In some respects, it resembles in form Iridcea lacera, Post, and
Rupr. Ill, p. 17.

SciiiZYMEXiA ? COCCINEA Harv. Santa Cruz, Cal., Dr. Anderson ;
San Diego, Mr. Cleveland. To this species, described in Jour. Proc.
Liunean Soc, Vol. VI., No. 24, is doubtfully assigned several large
specimens from California.

Grateloupia Cutleri^, Binder. Santa Cruz, Cal., Dr. Anderson ;
San Diego, Mr. Cleveland. This very variable species has undoubt-
edly received several specific names, and it must be said that even
Gr. Gibbesii Harv., of our southern coast, is not decidedly distinct. If
one is to found species of Grateloupia on the outlines of the frond
alone, it will be easy to make almost any number of species out of
Gr. Cutlerice.

Haltmenia decipiens, J. Ag. Key West, Mr. Hooper.

Nemastoma Californica, n. sp. fronde gelatinosa roseo-purpurea
tereto-compressa basi alternata irregulariter pinnata ; pinnis pinnatis ;
pinnulis ultimis subuliformibus ; cystocarpii§ in corticali parte frondis
numerosis. — Santa Cruz, Dr. Anderson ; Santa Barbara, Miss Lenne-
backer. — This plant, which we formerly referred to Halymenia ligu-
lata under the name of variety Californica, differs in the structure of
the cortical filaments from. any species of Halymenia ; and granting
that the genera Halymenia, Nemastoma, Gloiosipho7iia,and Calosiphonia,
are nearly related to one another, the present species, owing to the fact
that the central siphon can be traced only at the tips of the branchlets,
cannot well be included in GloiosipJionia or Oalosipho7iia, nor in
Halymenia, since the cortical filaments are not united into a membrane,
as is more or less the case with the species of that genus. In aspect
the plant resembles rather closely Gloiosiphonia capillaris, and some
of the older specimens are not very unlike narrow forms of Halymenia
ligulata. It seems to be a connecting link between the genera Gloiosi-
phonia and Halymenia as far as the structure of the frond is concerned.
When freshly mounted, the species is of an agreeable purplish-rose
color ; but, as usually received from California, it is brownish, and dis-
torted by too heavy pressure.

Griffithsia opuntioides Ag. Santa Cruz, Cal., Dr. Anderson.

Griffithsia Bornetiana Farlow. In the Ner. Am. Bor., Harvey
refers the common Griffithsia of the North American coast to Griffith-
sia corallina, Ag., with some doubt, and describes a variety globifera
and a variety tenuis. In his Epicrisis, Agardh adopts the manuscript
name of Harvey, G. globifera, to designate the American species.

244 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Harvey states, however, that his name, G. ghhifera, was only intended
to apply to what he afterwards called a variety of G. corallina. We
have ascertained by examination of the living jDlant, which is common
in Long Island Sound, that there is but one species which comprises
all the forms described by Harvey under the name of Griffithsia in the
Ner. Am. Bor. The so-called var. ghhifera is merely the male plant,
of which the terminal cell is enlarged and globose, and has the anthero-
zoids borne in the form of a cap on the summit, in which respect it
differs from any other species of the genus. The male plant is always
shorter and stouter than the female plant. The var. tenuis of Harvey
is usually tetrasporic, and the tetraspores are borne in whorls of sev-
eral consecutive joints. In another place we shall have more to say on
the present species ; and we only need remark, iu this connection, that,
under G. Bornetiana, we include all the forms erroneously referred by
Harvey in the Ner. Am. Bor. to Griffithsia corallina, and by Agardh
in his Epicrisis to G. glohifera^ Harv., which was the name applied by
Harvey himself to what is really only the male plant.

Callithajinion Lejolisea, n. sp. fronde minuta repente ad nodos
Amphiroce parasitica ; filis verticalibus superne nudis in parte infe-
riore ramulosis ; antheridiis ovalibus ad ramos inferiores terminalibus ;
cystocarpiis (favellis) ad ramos inferiores terminalibus ; sphserosporis
triangiilatim divisis in ramulis lateralibus terminalibus. This very
small species of Callithamnion, which is seldom an eighth of an inch
high, was found growing on the joints of an Amphiroa received from
San Diego, Cal. It is probably not rare on the coast of California,
but from its small size escapes detection. It resembles i:)erfectly, ex-
cept in the cystocarps, Lejolisea Mediterranean which grows upon Udotea
Jlahellata. In both species the frond is procumbent and attached by
disk-like cells, and the erect filaments give off at the base a few lateral
branches, upon whose tips the organs of fructification are borne. In
both species the antheridia are oval, and the tetraspores tripartite and
more or less clustered. In the one case, however, the fruit is a true
favella, and the species must be considered a true Callithamnion, while
in the other the fruit is more complicated, having a sjiecial covering,
and with the spores arranged not in indefinite masses, but around a
central placenta.

Callithamnion Dasyoides J. Ag. {Gall, ptilophora Eaton mscr.).
California.

Callithamnion arbdscula, var. Paeijiciim., Harv., Jour. Proc.
Linn. Soc, Vol. VI., No. 24 = G. Pikeanum, Harv., Ner. Am. Bor. 11,
p. 230.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 245

Callithamnion heteromorphum J. Ag. Califonia.
Chantransia efflorescens, Thuret. {Gallithamnion Ag.). On
Rhodymenia. Gay Head, Mass.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ALGA OF CALIFORNIA.
By Prof. Daniel C. Eaton, of Yale College.

NiTOPHYLLUM SPECTABiLE, fronde subsessili, erecta, maxima, eco-
stata atque ut videtur avenia, oblonga, profunde pinnati-lobata ; parte
media duple vel triple latitudiue loborum, ssepe in lobum terminalem
magnam producta ; lobis laciniisve crebris, patulis, liguliformibus
sa-pius integris, nunc apice lobatis vel profundius partitis, margiue
vix undulata, rarissime phylla minima obovata e margine vel e disco
emittentibus ; soris et coccidiis per totam froudem creberrime con-
spersis.

Hab. ad Sanctam Crucem, California: legit Anderson, Aug.-
Sept. 1874.

Among the largest species of the genus, often two feet long, or even
longer, and, in the spread of the lobes, two-thirds as broad. The lobes are
so crowded as to overlap each other, and are 6-8 inches long and about
an inch wide, lanceolate or strap-shaped, rather obtuse, mostly entire,
but now and then two to three forked, or slighily dichotomously lobed.
One specimen bears numerous minute obovate prolifications along the
margin, and sparingly on the disk, especially where there has been
some injury. No veins visible. The tetraspores are in oblong or
irregular sori, thickly scattered all over the frond ; and in the fruiting,
plant mature and young coccidia are sprinkled with almost equal pro-
fusion. The substance is rather firm, but thin, and not adhering very
well to paper, except in the younger portions. I find but two layers
of cells in the sterile portions of the lamina. The color is a dull pur-
plish-red, more rosy in the newer portions.

246 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XXI.

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES OF PLANTS, WITH RE-
VISIONS OF CERTAIN GENERA.

By Sereno Watson.

Presented May 25, 1877.

Theltpodium Cooperi. Annual, erect or ascending, glabrous
and glaucous, a foot high or more, rather lax and slender, sparingly
branched : leaves oblong-lanceolate, an inch or two long, sessile, and
cordate or auricled at base, acutish, entire : flowers on very short
spreading or soon reflexed pedicels; sepals narrow, 1^- or 2 lines long,
the narrow purplish petals a half longer: stamens included; anthers
short: pods reflexed, 1 to 1^ inches long, subterete, beaked, on
pedicels a line or two long. — Collected by Dr. J. G. Cooper near
Fort Mohave in 1861, and referred to in Bot. Calif, i. 38; more com-
plete specimens, gathered by Dr. Edward Palmer last season on the
Mohave River, have been distributed under the above name.

LYCHNIS, Linn. The American species of this genus (conven-
iently retained as distinguished from Silene by the increased number
of styles and carpels, though otherwise not to be separated from it)
are more numerous than has been supposed. So far as known they
may be arranged as follows: —

* Calyx clavate-oblong : capsule incompletely septate, 5-toothed.

1. L. ALPiNA, Linn. Biennial or perennial, glabrous, slender, 2 to
10 inches high : leaves linear-oblanceolate : bracts somewhat mem-
branous : flowers small, in capitate cymes : petals exserted, 4 or 5
lines long, 2-lobed : capsule shortly stipitate. — Greenland to Labra-
dor. (Eui-ope, Asia.)

* * Calyx more or less inflated : capsule not septate, 5-10-toothed : peren-
nials.

-(- Dwarf and cespitose, alpine or arctic : stems 1-flowered : seeds with a
loose membranous margin : capsule very shortly stipitate.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 247

++ Petals includeil, or nearly so.

2. L. APETALA, Linn. Glandular-pubescent above with short
spreading hairs, sparingly so below, 3 to 8 inches high : leaves nar-
rowly oblanceolate to linear, an inch or two long : flower nodding, or
erect in fruit : calyx much inflated, 6 to 8 lines long, with short acut-
ish teeth, strongly purple-veined : petals purple, the blade not broader
than the claw, 2-lobed nearly to the middle ; appendages very small ;
claw slightly auricled (not 1^ lines wide), naked, — Aleutian Islands
and about Behring Straits ; Greenland. (Europe, Asia.)

Var. GLABRA, Kegel. Wholly glabrous. — Rocky Mountains of
British America, by Bourgeau ; St. Paul's Island, H. W. Elliott. '

3. L. MONTANA. Glandular-pubescent above with short spread-
ing hairs, nearly glabrous below, slender, 2 to 4 inches high : leaves
linear-oblanceolate, an inch or two long, the petioles somewhat ciliate;
flowers erect: calyx ovate-campanulate, 5 or 6 lines long, with short
acute teeth : petals with the emarginate blade not broader than the
very narrow claw (not ^ line broad) ; appendages very small : seeds
rather broadly margined. — L. opetala, Gray in Am. Journ. Sci. 2 ser.
xxxiii. 405, and Proc. Acad. Philad. 1863, 58, in part ; Watson,
King's Rep. 36. Mountain peaks of Colorado (n. 132 Parry, 63 Hall
& Harbour), and in the Uintas (n. 152 Watson).

++ ++ Petals exserted.

4. L. AFFiNis, Vahl. Glandular-pubescent throughout, 3 or 4
inches high: leaves linear, an inch long or less, ciliate at base: flowers
erect: calyx ovate-campanulate, 4 lines long, with short acutish teeth:
petals 6 lines long, the blade undulate, emarginate, narrowing from
near the top (1|^ lines wide) to the base of the naked claw; append-
ages small, toothed. — Greenland to Labrador. (Europe, Asia.)

5. L. KixGii. Resembling the last, covered throughout with a
short spreading jiubescence : leaves linear-oblanceolate, 1 to 1^ inches
long : calyx 6 lines long : petals with the short flat blade rather deeply
emarginate ; appendages entire or toothed ; claw ciliate, rather broadly
auricled : filaments ciliate. — L. Ajanensis ?, Watson, King's Rep. 37,
but quite distinct from that Asiatic species. Peaks of the Uintas at
head of Bear River ; apparently also in Northwestern Wyoming (n. 43
Parry), but with a shorter calyx and petals, and naked filaments.

H- -(- Flowers rarely solitary : seeds tuberculate.
++ Low, arctic or alpine.

6. L. TRiFLORA, R. Brown. Rather stout, glandular-pubescent
throughout, 2 to 9 inches high : leaves thickish, narrowly oblanceolate,

248 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

an inch long : flowers usually 2 or 3 together, nearly sessile, erect :
calyx much inflated, densely pubescent, 5 or 6 lines long, with short
rounded teeth, 2>ui*plish and strongly veined : petals light rose-color,
7 or 8 lines long ; blade narrowly obcordate, nearly 2 lines broad ;
appendages rather prominent, entire ; claw narrowly auricled. — Green-
land, from Polaris Bay (Dr. Bessel) southward.

7. L. Californica. Slender, cespitose, glandular-puberulent above,
nearly glabrous below, 2 to 4 inches high, deep green : leaves linear
to linear-oblanceolate, an inch or two long, ciliate at base : flowers 1 to
3, on slender pedicels : calyx ovate-campanulate, 4 or 5 lines long,
deeply toothed, the teeth ovate-triangular, acutish : petals about 7 lines
long, the obovate blade bifid, lobed on each side near the base ; ap-
pendages prominent, entire or toothed ; claw broadly auricled, the
auricles prolonged upward : capsule shortly stipitate : styles sometimes
only 3 or 4. — In the high Sierra Nevada; near Ebbett's Pass (n. 2081
Brewer), on Mount Dana (H. N. Bolander), and in Sierra or Plumas
County, J. G. Lemmon.

++ ++ Taller, not alpine nor arctic.
= Petals included or nearly so.

8. L. Drummondii, Watson. Stems strict and rather stout, a
foot or two high, finely glandular-pubescent above : leaves narrowly
oblanceolate, 2 or 3 inches long, erect: flowers few, erect, on stout
often elongated strictly erect pedicels : calyx cylindric, becoming
oblong-ovate, 5 or 6 lines long, with short acutish teeth : petals rarely
slightly exserted, white or purple, the entire or emarginate blade nar-
rower than the auricled (a line wide) claw ; appendages minute : cap-
sule nearly sessile. — King's Rep. 37 ; Silene Drummondii, Hook. Fl.
i. 89 ; L. apetala. Gray, 1. c, in part. Winnipeg Valley and on the
Saskatchewan, and in the mountains to New Mexico and S. Utah.

= = Petals long-exserted.

9. L. NUDA, Watson, 1. c. Slender, finely pubescent, a foot high :
leaves narrowly oblanceolate, 2 or 3 inches long : flowers on slender
pedicels, nodding, at length erect : calyx 4 to nearly 6 lines long,
cylindric becoming ovate-oblong, with rather narrow acutish teeth :
petals white or rose-colored, 8 lines long, the broad limb 2-parted
with the segments deeply bifid, the lobes irregular and mostly acute ;
appendages ovate, entire, thickish ; claw broadly auricled, margined to
the base : capsule nearly sessile. — East Humboldt Mountains, Nevada.

10. L. Parryi. Slender, finely pubescent, glandular above, a
foot high or less : leaves linear, an inch long or more : flowers erect

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 249

or somewhat nodding, the lateral pedicels mostly short : calyx inflated,
ovate-oblong, 6 lines long, with broad acutish teeth : petals purplish,
8 lines long, the broad blade cleft to the middle (the rounded segments
entire, crenate, or bifid) and with a short narrow lobe on each side ;
appendages quadrate or ovate, thin and crenate ; claw broadly auricled,
very narrowly attenuated below : stipe of capsule a line long or
more. — Northw^estern Wyoming, collected by Dr. C. C. Parry on the
expedition of Capt. W. A. Jones to the Yellowstone in 1873.

11. L. ELATA. Tall and slender, finely pubescent, slightly glan-
dular above, 1^ feet high or more: leaves narrowly oblanceolate, 2 to
4 inches long, acute or acuminate : flowers nodding or erect, on slender
pedicels : calyx inflated, ovate-oblong, 6 or 7 lines long, with triangular
acutish teeth: petals purplish, 9 to 12 lines long, the blade cleft to the
middle, with a narrow shorter lobe on each side ; appendages broad,
toothed ; claw not auricled, attenuate to a t'ery narrow base : stipe
of capsule nearly 2 lines long. — Collected in the Rocky Mountains of
British America by Bourgeau in 1858, and distributed as Silene
Sconleri.

Lavatera insularis. a stout perennial, probably woody at base,
finely stellate-pubescent : leaves with a narrow sinus, 3 to 6 inches
broad, 7-lobed to the middle ; the lobes rounded and obtuse, coarsely
crenate : flowers solitary in the axils, on stout deflexed and curved
pedicels nearly an inch long and with one or two small bractlets or
naked : involucre of three nearly distinct oblong-spatulate acutish
bracts, 6 lines long : calyx 5-cIeft to the middle with broadly ovate
acute lobes, becoming an inch long in fruit : petals spatulate and un-
guiculate, emarginate, naked at base, apparently purplish yellow with
the claw dai-ker, 1^ inches long: styles not exserted : fruit half an
inch broad, slightly pubescent, about 10-carpelled, the sides of the
carpels smooth. — Received from D. Cleveland, Esq., of San Diego, and
collected on the Coronados Islands, 20 miles distant from that town.
Like the following, it differs from the two previously known California
species in the nearly distinct bracts of the involucre.

Lavatera venosa. Similar in habit to the last, glabrous or
nearly so : leaves 3 to 4 inches broad, 7-cleft to the middle with tri-
ammlar acutish lobes: flowers two or three in the axils, on slender'
ascending naked pedicels 1 to H inches long: involucre of 3 nearly
distinct oblong-ovate acutish bracts, equalling the calyx, 3 or 4 (be-
coming 7) lines long: petals 15 lines long, cuneate-obcordate, deep
purple with darker veins, villous on each side at base: styles long-
exserted: fruit 5 lines broad, glabrous, about 10-carpelled: sides of the

250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

carpels strongly veined. — From San Benito Island, off the coast of
Lower California ; collected by Dr. T. H. Streets, U. S. N., December,
1875. This is the fourth species of the genus that has been found on
the small islands near the southern coast of California, and is peculiar
in the prominent veins upon the sides of the carpels.

Malvastrum Palmeri. A stout perennial, densely stellate-
pubescent and -hirsute : leaves broadly ovate, 2 or 3 inches long, some-
what 3-o-lobed, the lobes obtusish, crenately toothed ; stipules conspic-
uous, broadly lanceolate, acuminate, nearly half an inch long: floral
bracts large and conspicuous : flowers nearly sessile, in terminal clus-
ters, large (1^ inches broad), yellowish rose-color: bractlets linear-
lanceolate, 8 to 10 lines long, nearly equalling the acuminate calyx-
lobes : carpels rounded, somewhat pubescent. — At Cambra in South-
ern California, a mile from the sea-beach ; collected by Dr. E. Palmer
(n. 50 of his distribution), July, 1876. Marked by its stout leafy
habit and by its large floral bracts and calyx.

LuPiNUS TRIFIDUS, Torrey in hei'b. Very closely resembling L.
micranthus, but the lower lip deeply 3-cleft with linear segments : pod
narrower and shorter (about 6 lines long and \\ broad), usually 5-6-
seeded : seeds a line broad, uniformly mottled : flowers 3 lines long
or less, mostly in a single terminal whorl. — L. micranthus, var. trijidus,
Watson, Rev. Lup. 535. Near Sau Francisco, by various collectors,
and recently in fine specimens by Mr. G. R. Vasey. The ordinary
L. micrant/ms, besides the nearly entire lip. has a pod often an inch
long and 2k lines broad, 6-9-seeded, and the larger seeds variously
mottled, but with a lighter spot around the sometimes dark eye.

LuPiNUS Arizonicus. Annual, slender, erect, a foot high or less,
villous throughout with scattered spreading hairs : leaflets 6 to 8, shorter
than the slender petioles, linear-oblanceolate, obtuse or acute, a half to
an inch long: flowers scattered in loose racemes; bracts long and some-
what persistent: calyx rather broad at base, the lower lip trifid: petals
4 or 5 lines long, deep purplish blue or sometimes ochroleucous, the
broad wings (2| lines wide) exceeding the orbicular standard : pod 6
to 9 lines long, 3-6-seeded : seeds rounded, compressed, with prominent
sides and rather thin margin, 1 ^ lines broad, nearly white. — L. concin-
mis, var. (?) Arizonicus, Watson, Rev. Lup. 537. In Arizona and
South-eastern California. The typical L. concinnus, Agh., is much
more densely villous, lower and of more diffuse habit ; leaflets broader ;
calyx narrow at base, and flowers narrower (wings \\ lines broad, and
standard elliptical), the petals usually becoming reddish purple, or the
standard yellowish : pods 3-4-seeded, but seeds similar.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 251

PsORALEA Califouxica. Stems very short and clustered, from
tul)eroiis (?) roots : pubescence short, silky, appressed : leaves digi-
tately 5-foliolate, the leaflets broadly oblanceolate, acutish, 9 to 15 lines
long ; stipules lanceolate, scarious and deciduous : peduncles shorter
than the petioles : flowers on slender pedicels, in a short raceme : calyx
silky-villous, half an inch long, the linear acuminate lobes a little ex-
ceeding the persistent petals : pod very thin, somewhat villous, beaked :
seeds smooth, compressed and rather thin, 2 to 2.V lines long. — At
McGinuis' Ranch, near head of Salinas River, 25 miles from San Luis
Obispo, California; collected by Dr. Edward Palmer, July, 1876, in
mature fruit. Resembling in habit P. esculenta of the eastern plains.

Lythrum breviflorum. Much branched, with the habit of nar-
row-leaved forms of L. alatum, the long slender branches flower-
bearing their whole length : calyx strongly striate, nearly 2 lines long
in fruit, exceeding the narrow bracts, shortly pedicellate : petals 6, pur-
ple, a line long or more : stamens 6 or 8 : seeds minute, round-ovate,
somewhat compressed. — L. alatum, var. (?) hrevijiorum. Gray in PI.
Lindh. 187 (n. 609 Lindheimer, 1847, in part). On damp rocks in
the Guadalupe River, Texas. The seeds of L. alatum are linear-
oblong and twice longer.

Q^xoTHERA (Taraxia) Palmeri. A dwarf cespitose annual ;
branches very short, stout, covered with a loose white epidermis :
leaves lanceolate or oblanceolate, an inch or two long, pubescent,
ciliate, entire or nearly so : calyx-tube filiform, nearly equalling the
leaves : petals yellow, 2 lines long : capsules crowded, ovate, 3 or 4
lines long, quadrangular at base, acute and strongly winged above,
dehiscing along the truncate upper edge of the wings : seeds lanceolate-
ovoid, terete, | line long, nearly smooth. — Collected in Arizona by Dr.
Edward Palmer, 1876.

Qj^NOTHERA TRILOBA, var. (?) PARViFLORA. Flowers Very small,
not more tlian an inch or two long, fertilized in the bud, and rarely
fully opening : fruit abundant, forming at length a densely crowded
hemispherical or cylindrical mass, nearly 2 inches in diameter and often
2 or 3 inches high. — A curious form of this very va'riable species, or
possibly distinct, frequent in butfalo-wallows in the neighbourhood of
Ellis, Kansas, where it has been collected by Dr. Louis Watson. It
is also found in previous collections, and is probably common on the
plains of Kansas and Nebraska in like localities. Under cultivation
in the Botanic Garden, Cambridge, it has retained its peculiarities
as respects the manner of flowering. It is strictly an annual, coming
early into bloom. The capsules are rarely over a half inch long,

252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

less attenuate above and smaller than is usual in the ordinary large-
flowered state of the plant.

Mentzelia hirsutissima. Stout, erect, with ascending branches,
very hirsute with spreading rigid hairs in addition to the usual barbed
pubescence: leaves linear-lanceolate, 1^ to 3 inches long, acuminate,
irregularly pinnatifid with divaricate acute segments and teeth ; lobes
of the floral leaves vei'y narrow : flowers terminal, sessile : calyx-limb
deeply 5-cleft, 8 to 12 lines long, the lanceolate lobes long-acuminate :
petals yellow, acute, 1^ inches long: filaments very numerous, orange-
colored above, shortly cuspidate on each side of the anther, nearly ^
inch long, shorter than the style: capsule oblong, ^ inch long. — Angels
Island, in the Gulf of California ; Dr. T. H. Streets, U. S. N,, February,
1876. With M. tricuspis forming a section distinct from § Bartonia,
characterized by the filaments dilated and bicuspidate above ; style
tubular and terete, 3-cleft at the summit (sometimes twisted) ; seeds
(in M. tricuspis) in one row on each thin jjlacenta, horizontal, not mar-
gined, irregularly flattened, coarsely and irregularly rugose, opaque
and very minutely and densely tuberculate.

Elaterium minimum. Stems very slender, almost filiform, a
foot or two long, glabrous or nearly so : leaves thin, smooth above,
white-papillose and scabrous beneath, triangular-cordate and more or
less deeply hastate-lobed, 1 to li- inches broad, the lobes entire or some-
what serrate: the sterile raceme little exceeding the leaves; limb of the
flowers 4 lines broad : fertile flowers on slender pedicels 1 to 6 lines long,
the limb 3 lines broad, and the slender tube 2 lines long : fruit very small
(4 lines long), acute at each end and beaked above by the persistent
calyx-tube, echinate with spine-like processes, 2-celled and bursting
irregularly on each side near the top; cells 3-ovuled, mostly 1-seeded:
seeds oblong-ovate, 1^ lines long, compressed, dark-colored. — Marah
minima^ Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad. ii. 18. On Cerros Island, off
Lower California (Dr. J. A. Veatch, Dr. T. H. Streets), and at Cape
St. Lucas, L. J. Xantus.

Elaterium Bigelovii. Very similar : leaves more decidedly has-
tate, the middle segment lanceolate, acute and cuspidate, the lateral
ones 2-lobed, all entire or obscurely sinuate : staminate panicles shorter
than the leaves: flowers smaller; limb less than 2 lines broad:
ovary smooth, seemingly 1-ovuled: fruit unknown. — In the Lower
Colorado Valley, Dr. J. M. Bigelow and Dr. E. Palmer. Referred
to Melolhria pendula in the Botany of California.

Angelica leporina. Tall and stout in the manner of the genus,
glabrous : leaves bipinuate ; leaflets linear-lanceolate, acuminate, entire

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 253

or coarsely few-toothed, 1 to 3 inches long : umbels naked, the rays
very unequal and somewhat scabrous: fruit small (about 1^ lines
long) ; dorsal ribs prominent ; oil-tubes solitary or the lateral in
pairs. — Rabbit Valley, S. Utah ; collected by L. F. Ward on Col. J.
W. Powell's Exploring Expedition. Distinguished from our only
other narrow-leaved species (A. lineariloha, Gray) by the very much
shorter fruit.

MiRABiLis Greenei. Very stout, with the habit of M. multijlora,
somewhat glandular-puberulent : leaves rather thick, ovate, acute,
attenuate to a short stout petiole, 3 inches long: involucre 7— 10-flow-
ered, acutely lobed, 1 to 1^ inches long : perianth tubular-funnel form,
a half longer than the involucre, greenish purple : fruit ovate-oblong,
usually abruptly contracted near the base, rather strongly 5-angled,
the sides somewhat ridged longitudinally and more or less tuberculate,
3 lines long or more. — On mountain sides about Yreka, California;
in flower and fruit, June, 1876; Rev. E. L. Greene. The fruit ap-
proaches that of an Oxyhaphus.

Abronia micrantha, Torrey, Frem. Rep. 96, and Marcy's Rep.
t. 18 (as A. cycloptera). Prostrate : peduncles shorter than the petioles :
flowers small and inconspicuous, 3 or 4 lines long, reddish green, the
limb scarcely 2 lines broad : fruit orbicular with three thin wings,
emarginate above and below, 8 to 10 lines wide, the body rather broad
and with a light spongy exterior. — Frequent on the plains from the
Saskatchewan to the Arkansas and S. W. Colorado, and well repre-
sented in the figure of Marcy's Report, excepting the limb of the
perianth. A. cycloptera, Gray (Am. Journ. Sci. 2 ser. xv. 319, excl.
syn.), with which it has been confounded, is a more southern species of
Western Texas, New Mexico, and S. Colorado, of stouter habit, and
with large showy flowers upon elongated peduncles. The fruit has a
firmer and more prominently veined wing, emarginate at neither end,
the firm smooth narrow body 7 to 12 lines long and usually 3-nerved
between the wings. The third species of the section, A. Crux-Maltce,
Kellogg (Proc. Calif. Acad. ii. 71, fig. 16), of Western Nevada, with
very showy flowers upon peduncles about equalling the leaves, has
a smaller orbicular-winged fruit (5 or 6 lines in diameter), the ovate
body pubescent and coarsely reticulate-pitted.

RuMEX occiDENTALis. Tall and rather slender, often 3 to 6 feet
high : leaves oblong-lanceolate, the lowest sometimes ovate, usually
narrowing gradually upward from the truncate somewhat cordate base,
not decurrent on the slender often elongated petiole, acute, a foot long
or more, scarcely uudulate : panicle narrow, elongated, nearly leafless :

254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

pedicels filiform, 3 to 6 lines long, obscurely jointed near the base :
valves without grains, broadly cordate with a very shallow sinus,
becoming about 3 lines in diameter, often denticulate near the base :
akene a line and a half long. — From Alaska to Northern California,
eastward to the Saskatchewan and Labrador, and southward in the
mountains to Colorado and New Mexico. It has hitherto been referred
to R. longifolius, DC, but that Old World species has narrow and very
undulate leaves, broadest near the middle, the pedicels with a tumid
joint below the middle, and the valves more deeply cordate.

ERIOGONUM, Michx. During the seven years that have elapsed
since the thorough revision of the Eriogonece by Dr. Gray, published
in the eighth volume of these Proceedings, so much additional mate-
rial has been collected and so many new species have been described
that it seems not useless to give again a summary of the two larger
genera of the group. Some modifications are made in the arrange-
ment of the species in Eriogonum, based mainly upon the characters
of the bracts and involucres, by which the genus is divided naturally
into three princijjal sections, as follows : —

§ 1. Involucres not nerved or angled, 4-8-toothed or -lobed, more or less
broadly turbinate (mostly 2 lines long or more) : bracts foliaceous, indefinite
in number (2 to 5 or more), rarely somewhat ternate. Mostly perennial. —
Ederiogonum.

* Tall perennials with scarcely branching caudex, more or less villous-pubescent
or silky, with long oblanceolate alternate leaves and alternate branches,
loosely di- or trichotomous above : bracts small : involucres pedunculate, soli-
tary, with 5 erect teeth : akenes large (2 to 4 lines long): embryo straight
and axile.

H- Akenes membranously winged : flowers not attenuate at base, nor much en-
larged in fruit. — (§ Alata, Benth., excl. sp.)

1. E. ALATUM, Torr. Loosely silky-villous throughout, or the
leaves nearly glabrous except on the margin and midrib : flowers a
line long, yellow, nearly glabrous, abrupt at base : akene winged the
whole length, 3 lines long. — Nebraska to W. Texas and Arizona.

2. E. TRISTE, Watson, Proc. Am. Acad. x. 347. Similar, but
nearly glabrous : flowers deep purple, glabrous, somewhat narrowed at
base: akene 4 lines long. — S. Utah.

3. E. HiERACiFOLiUM, Benth. Hoary-pubescent throughout and
leaves usually tomentose beneath : flowers pubescent, yellow or rose-
colored, 1^ lines long (or 2 lines in fruit), abruptly narrowed at base :
akenes 2^ lines long, winged above the middle. — W. Texas and Rio
Grande Valley.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 255

•^ -t- Akenes not winged : flowers attenuate at base, enlarging in fruit. —
(sp. of § Eriantha, Bentli., Torr. & Gray.)

4. E. LONGiFOLiUM, Nutt. Hoary-pubescent throughout and the
leaves tomentose beneath : involucres and flowers densely white-silky :
Hewers mostly herbaceous, 1 h becoming 2 or 3 lines long : akene 2
lines long, pubescent above. — Indian Territory and Texas ; Florida.

* * Tomentose perennials, with radical leaves, and naked scapelike stem, di- or

trichotomous above, with large conspicuous bracts : involucres solitary, ses-
sile, with 6 erect teeth : flowers attenuate to a stipelike base, pubescent, en-
larging in fruit : akene mostly smaller : embryo straight and axile, or nearly
so. — (§ Eriantha, Benth., Torr. & Gray, excl. sp.)

5. E. TOMENTOSUM, Michx. Tall, herbaceous, rufous-tomentose :
radical leaves elongated, oblanceolate-spatulate ; bracts elliptical, ses-
sile, smooth above undulate: flowers white, tomentose, 2 lines becoming
4 or 5 lines long, the inner sepals largest: akene 2| lines long. — S.
Carolina to Florida.

6. E. UNDULATUM, Benth. A little-known Mexican species,
described as low and cespitose, woody, much branched and leafy :
leaves and bracts ovate, petioled, with revolute undulate margins :
flowers much smaller.

7. E. Jamesii, Benth. Eather slender, herbaceous, with branch-
ing eaudex, a foot high or less, wdiite-tomentose : leaves and bracts
oblong-oblanceolate, the latter shortly petiolate : flowers whitish,
silky, 2 becoming 3 or more lines long : akene 2 lines long. — Var.
FLAVESCENS. Stouter ; flowers yellow or yellowish. £. Jlavi(m,va.r.
veyetius, Torr. & Gray. Rev. 156. — Colorado to New Mexico and
W. Arizona. The variety is distinguished from the next by the strictly
solitary sessile involucres.

* * * Perennials, more or less tomentose or rarely glabrous, with peduncles

naked and scapelike or verticillate-bracteate in the middle : bracts mostly
conspicuous : involucres 5-8-toothed or -cleft, in a simple or compound um-
bel (rarely sub-capitate) or solitary : flowers mostly attenuate to a stipelike
base: akenes glabrous or nearly so (2 lines long or less) : embryo mostly
somewhat curved and excentric (as in the rest of the genus). — (§ Umbellata,
Benth., in part. §§ Umbellata & Pseudo-Umbellata, Torr. & Gray.)

■I- Teeth of involucre short, erect or nearly so.
t-f Umbel simple (compound in n. 13), on a naked peduncle.
= Flowers villous.

8. E. FLAVUM, Nutt. Tomentose throughout, a span high or less ;
eaudex branching : leaves oblanceolate : umbel of 3 to 9 rays, often
short : flowers yellow, 2 or 3 lines long, long-attenuate at base, very

256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

silky. — Washington Territory to the Saskatchewan and south to
Colorado.

9. E. ANDROSACEUM, Bcnth. Dwarf, tomentose throughout or
smoother above ; caudex branching : leaves oblanceolate : rays short,
slender: flowers yellow, 2- or 3 lines long, short-attenuate, sparingly
villous. — Rocky Mountains of British America.

10. E. PYROL^FOLiUM, Hook. Dwarf, somewhat villous ; caudex
sim^jle : leaves ruund-obovate to oblong, thick : rays few, very short :
flowers rose-color, 2 lines long, short-attenuate, sparingly villous. —
Var. CORYPH^UM, Torr. & Gray. More tomentose, with narrower
leaves and smaller flowers. — Mountains, N. California and Oregon.

= = Flowers glabrous : caudex diffusely branched. — In the Sierra Nevada.

11. E. INCANUM, ToiT. & Gray. Somewhat cespitose , tomentose,
low : leaves oblanceolate, shortly petioled : bracts and involucres
small : flowers yellow, often reddish.

12. E. MARiFOLiuM, Torr. & Gray. Low and very slender, dif-
fusely branched below, tomentose : leaves ovate to oblong : bracts and
involucres (a line long) small : flowers yellow or yellowish.

13. E. URSiNUM, Watson, Proc. Am. Acad. x. 347. Taller and
stouter, tomentose, villous above: leaves ovate: bracts elongated:
umbel compound : involucres large : flowers whitish.

•M- ++ Involucres solitary : peduncle verticillate-bracted in the middle : dwarf.

14. E. Kelloggii, Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. viii. 293. Very
slender, much branched at base, villous-tomentose : leaves oblanceolate,
2 to 4 lines long: flowers glabrous, white or rose-colored, Ij to 2^
lines long. — Mendocino Co., California.

15. E. THYMOiDES, Benth. Densely branching and woody, with
revolute linear leaves 1 to 5 lines long : peduncles slender : flowers
densely villous with long hairs, purplish, 2 or 3 lines long, with broad
sepals. — Oregon and Washington Territory.

H- ^- Involucres deeply lobed ; lobes becoming reflexed.

++ Flowers pubescent : involucres solitary (rarely umbellate in n. 18), on verti-
cillate-bracted peduncles (naked in n. 16) : low, cespitose, with yellow flow-
ers, and leaves tomentose both sides.

16. E. c^SPiTOSUM, Nutt. Dwarf, densely matted : leaves ovate- to
oblong-spatulate, 2 to 6 lines long : peduncles naked. — N. W. Nevada
to Wyoming Territory.

17. E. DouGLASii, Benth. Larger and more diffuse: peduncles
with a whorl of oblanceolate leaves in the middle. — N. California,
Oregon.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 257

18. E. SPH^ROCEPHALUM, Dougl. Similar, but still more diffuse :
leaves linear-spatulate, often revolute : the whorl of bracts on the
peduncle sometimes subtending a 2-4-rayed umbel, the lateral rays
also bracteate. — N. California and Nevada, to Washington Territory.

++ -w Flowers glabrous: umbels simple or compound, on naked (rarely l-braeted)
peduncles (verticillate-bracted in n. 22): caudex diffusely branched: leaves
glabrate above or glabrous, oblanceolate or spatulate.

19. E. UMBELLATCM, Torrev. Tomentose: umbel simple, of 3 to
10 naked rays. — Var. monocephalum, Torr. & Gray. A reduced
dwarf alpine form, the naked or bracteate peduncle bearing a solitary
involucre: leaves small. — N. California and Oregon to Colorado;
common.

20. E. Torre yanum, Gray. Glabrous throughout : umbel of few
rays, the lateral rays bracteate in the middle and often divided : flow-
ers large. — In the Sierra Nevada.

21. E. stellatdm, Benth. Tomentose: rays 2 to 4, usually and
often repeatedly cymosely divided : the nodes and lateral rays all
leafy-bracted. — £. elUpticum, Nutt. E. 2)oJyantkum, Benth., Torr. &
Gray. — Var. bahi^forme. Umbel very compound: leaves mostly
small, often densely tomentose both sides. — Oregon to S. California
and Arizona.

22. E. HERACLEOiDES, Nutt. Similar, but the peduncle usually
verticillate-bracted : leaves narrower, mostly somewhat revolute or
undulate: umbel about 6- (1-11-) rayed, usually some or all of the
rays once or twice divided. — Washington Territory to Utah.

++++++ Flowers glabrous : umbels usually compound, on naked peduncles :
caudex short and thick : leaves round to oblong, tomentose.

23. E. COMPOSITUM, Dougl. Leaves oblong-ovate, cordate : pedun-
cle stout and tall : umbel compound, of 6 to 10 elongated rays. —
Washington Territory and Idaho to N. California.

24. E. LoBBii, Torr. & Gray. Leaves oval or rounded : peduncles
short, decumbent : rays few, usually very short and undivided : flowers
less attenuate at base. — In the Sierra Nevada.

* * * * Perennials, densely tomentose, with naked peduncles : bracts small :
involucres with 5 short erect teeth : flowers small, abruptly narrowed at
base, pubescent: akenes densely villous. — (Lachnogyna, Torr. & Gray.)

25. E. ACAULE, Nutt. Very dwarf and densely matted : leaves
crowded, 2 or 3 lines long, oblong: peduncle half an inch Iiigh, bear-
ing a head of 1 to 5 nearly sessile involucres. — S. Idaho to S. W. Col-
orado.

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 17

258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

26. E. LACHNOGTNUM, Torr. Cespitose : leaves oblong-lanceolate :
the slender peduncle a foot high, sparingly dichotomous above : invol-
ucres solitary, sessile or long-pedunculate : flowers densely tomentose :
akene attenuate above, 2 lines long. — S. Colorado and New Mexico.

***** Perennial, villous, dwarf, with naked peduncles bearing a subcapi-
tate umbel : bracts conspicuous : involucres campanulate, 4-8-parted, with
erect somewhat unequal lobes : flowers abruptly attenuate at base, villous :
akenes glabrous.

27. E. viLLiFLORUM, Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. viii. 630. Densely
cespitose, very villous throughout, the crowded oblanceolate leaves half
an inch long : peduncles slender, an inch high : bracts linear : invol-
ucres few in the loose heads, bracteate at base, the slender pedicels a
line long: flowers 1^ lines long, but little exserted; sepals oblong and
nearly equal, silky within and without. — S. Utah; a very peculiar
species.

****** Annuals, di- or trichotomously divided, with mostly conspicuous
leafy bracts: involucres turbinate, unequally 4-8Iobed or parted (lobes
erect), long-pedunculate or sometimes sessile in the forks: flowers not atten-
uate at base: akenes glabrous. — {§ Foliosa, Benth., Torr. & Gray.)

f- Involucres rather large, deeply cleft : flowers glabrous ; sepals broad and
cordate at base.

28. E. Abertianum, Torr. Stout and leafy, often tall, silky-vil-
lous : leaves ovate or subcordate, the bracts becoming oblanceolate or
linear: flowers rose-colored, the outer sepals round-cordate, at length
2 lines broad, the inner linear-oblong. — E. Arizona and New Mexico.

29. E. pharnaceoides, Torr. Tall and slender, loosely branched
tomentose and villous : leaves linear-oblanceolate, revolute : flowers
whitish, a line long ; outer sepals ovate, at length bigibbous at base, the
inner linear-oblong, retuse. — Arizona and New Mexico.

-1- -(- Involucres divided : flowers pubescent, yellow ; sepals narrow, closely
appressed to the akene.

30. E. SALSUGiNOSUM, Hook. Low and leafy, glabrous, somewhat
fleshy : leaves spatulate-oblanceolate, the bracts becoming linear : akene
acutely triangular, a line long. — W. Wyoming to S. Utah and S. W.
Colorado.

-I- 4- H- Involucres very small, 4-cleft or -parted, few-flowered : flowers pubes-
cent, minute, narrow at base : difl^usel}' branched and very slender, glandular :
bracts mostly very small.

31. E. SPERGULiNUM, Gray. Leaves and bracts linear-oblanceolate,
hirsute : involucres 1-2-flowered : flowers nearly a line long, slightly
puberulent. — In the Sierra Nevada.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 259

32. E. HiRTiFLORUM, Gray in herb. Somewhat glandular-puberu-
lent, 6 inches high or less : bracts oblong, hispid : involucres half a
line long or less, on erect or nodding pedicels 1 to 3 lines long, or
sessile in the forks, 3-o-flowered : flowers very hirsute, reddish, half a
line long or less : akenes slightly exserted. — Collected by Dr. Gray,
1872, probably in the mountains of California.

§ 2. Involucres campanulate or short-turbinate, not angled or nerved, with 5
rounded erect teeth, pedunculate in diffuse repeatedly di- or trichotomous pan-
icles : bracts not foliaceous, all ternate, small and mostly triangular and
rigid: flowers not attenuate at base: ovary glabrous. Mostly annuals. —
Ganysma.

* Annuals : leaves all radical or nearly so, and mostly rounded : involucres,
flowers and akenes small (a line long or less). — (§ Pedunculata, Bentii.,
Torr. & Gray, e.xcl. sp.)

■t- Flowers glabrous ; outer sepals broad and somewhat cordate at base, the
inner much smaller : pedicels very short, deflexed : leaves floccose-tomen-
tose.

33. E. BRACHYPODUM, Torr. & Gray. Low, depressed, rather
rigid, much branched and glandular: iuvolucres campanulate-turbinate,
^ to f line long, on pedicels less than a line long. — S. E. California.

34. E. Parryi, Gray in Proc. Am. Acad. x. 77. Less rigidly
branched : iuvolucres rather narrowly turbinate, a line long : pedicels
slender, 1 to 3 lines long. — S. Utah.

35. E. DEFLEXUM, Torr. Taller and more erect, glabrous above
the base : involucres and pedicels as in £J. brachypodum, but more
secund along the branches ; jjedicels reflexed, rarely a line long or
more : outer sepals becoming a line long, the inner very small, obovate
and retuse. — Nevada and Utah to S. K. California.

H- t- Flowers glabrous ; outer sepals panduriform or oblong and emarginate or
retuse, the inner narrower : pedicels longer : leaves floccose-tomentose.
++ Pedicels deflexed : outer sepals oblong or somewhat broader above.

3G. E. NUTA:ys, Torr. & Gray. Low, sparingly branched : leaves
small : pedicels minutely glandular : involucres campanulate : outer
sepals nearly obcordate. — N. E. California and N. Nevada.

37, E. Watsoni, Torr. & Gray. Taller, more diffuse, glabrous :
leaves larger, obtuse, round, often cordate at base : involucres narrowly
turbinate : outer sepals oblong, often retuse. — N. Nevada.

38. E. CERNUUJi, Nutt. Like the last, but leaves broadly ovate,
acute : involuci'es turbinate-campanulate : flowers narrower at base,
the outer sepals broader above, retuse. — E. Oregon to Colorado and
New Mexico.

260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

++ -M. Pedicels erect or somewhat spreading : outer sepals much broader above.

39. E. Thuebeki, Torr. Very slender, tomentose below: leaves
small : pedicels a half to an inch long : involucres often glandular-
puberulent : flowers becoming a line long ; outer sepals with a large
rounded terminal lobe, minutely pubescent in the centre. — S. Cali-
fornia and Arizona.

40. H ROTUNDiFOLiUM, Benth. Rather stouter and more diffuse,
with larger leaves : pedicels shorter and more rigid : flowers becoming
\l lines long, the outer sepals very broadly dilated above. — New
Mexico and W. Texas.

•*--(--(- Flowers mostly minutely glandular-hispid, longer than the small in-
volucre, the outer sepals mostly ovate : pedicels long and filiform, rarely
deflexed.

++ Leaves floccose-tomentose : stem not inflated : pedicels all in the forks or
terminating the branches.

41. E. PUSiLLUM, Torr. & Gray. Often tall and rather stout:
leaves rounded or obovate, usually less tomentose above: greenish
bracts and involucres minutely glandular-hispid : involucres hemispheri-
cal : flowers yellow, often reddish : akene thick-lenticular. — N. W.
Nevada to Arizona and S. California.

42. E. RENiFORME, Torr. Low and slender, glabrous : leaves reni-
form or cordate-orbicular, densely white-tomentose both sides : bracts
smooth, the margins ciliate : involucres smooth, turbinate-campanulate,
nearly a line long : flowers rose-colored, glabrous ; sepals ovate-oblong.
— S. California.

43. E. SUBRENIFORME. Sparingly villous at the nodes: leaves
round-reniform or -cordate, tomentose beneath, silky-villous above :
involucres smooth, turbinate-campanulate, ^ line long : flowers rose-
colored, glabrous, or slightly hispid ; sepals oblong. — E. rem'forme,
Torr. & Gray, Rev. 184, in part. Arizona, S. Utah.

44. E. TuOMASir, Torr. Low, very slender, glabrous : leaves
rounded and ovate, small : bracts minute, glabrous : involucres turbi-
nate-campanulate, smooth : flowers yellowish, often reddish, slightly
hispid or glabrous ; outer sepals often much dilated below, the inner
Hnear-oblong. — S. California to S. W. Colorado.

■M- ++ Leaves more or less villous-pubescent or glabrous, not tomentose : stem
often inflated : pedicels often scattered and secund on the branches.

45. E. TRiCHOPODUM, Torr. Glabrous, diffusely much branched and
very slender, the stem rarely inflated : leaves pubescent : bracts very
small: involucres minute: pedicels 3 to 0 lines long : flowers yellow-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 261

ish, pubescent, I line long ; sepals ovate-lanceolate, acute. — S. Cali-
fornia to New Mexico.

46. E. iNFLATUM, Torr. Taller, less branched, the stem and inter-
nodes longer and often inflated: pedicels 6 to 12 lines long: flowers
and akene twice larger. — S. California to Nevada and Arizona.

47. ¥j. Gordoni, Bentli. A similar species, but glabrous through-
out, or the petioles slightly pubescent: flowers glabrous, light rose-
color : outer sepals ovate, the inner oblong. — Colorado.

48. E. GLANDULOSUM, Nutt. Beset with short-stipitate glands :
leaves small, obovate, somewhat villous : involucres glabrous, half a
line long, turbinate-campanulate: flowers nearly a line long, slightly
hispid ; sepals oblong-ovate, acutish. — Collected only by Dr. Gambel,
probably in New Mexico.

49. E. SCALARE. A peculiar allied species, collected in imperfect
specimens by Dr. T. H. Streets, U.S.N., at Canvas Point, on the coast
of Lower California. Main branches of the inflorescence slender and
glabrous, a foot long, with opposite or alternate brauchlets (sometimes
in threes), divaricate or ascending : bracts distinct, linear, a line or two
long, spreading or reflexed, on the branchlets smaller and erect : pedicels
scattered on the brauchlets, 1 or 2 lines long, filiform, ascending : in-
volucres narrowly turbinate, f line long, glabrous : bracteoles spatulate,
naked : flowers slightly pubescent, a line long ; sepals oblong, the inner
a little narrower.

* » Perennial or biennial, the peduncles and inflorescence glabrous and leafless :
involucres and flowers larger, glabrous: akene 2 or 3 lines long. — (Spec,
of §§ Pedun'cclata & Alata, Bentli., Torr. & Gray.)

•f- Perennial ; woody caudex much branched and leafy : densely white-tomentose.

50. E. TEXELLU3I, Torr. Tall; branches of the caudex short and
crowded or elongated : leaves ovate or i-ouuded, tomeutose both sides :
inrtorQ^ceuce rather sparingly branched : flowers white or pinkish, be-
coming 1| lines long; outer sepals broadly obovate or orbicular, the
inner linear-oblong. — S. Colorado to W. Texas and New Mexico.

■i- -4- Biennial (?) ; peduncle very sparingly branched : leaves all radical, villous.

51. E. ciLiATUii, Torr. Leaves broadly spatulate, 2 inches long,
glabrous excepting the very villous margin and midrib : involucres
few, long-pedunculate : flowers deep red ; sepals ovate, acute, the inner
narrower. — Northern Mexico.

52. E. ATRORUBENS, Engelm. Very similar: leaves narrowly lan-
ceolate, 4 inches long, on long petioles, villous, somewhat tomentose
beneatli : peduncle inflated : flowers deep red : akene somewhat winged
above with a thick narrow margin. — Chihuahua.

262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

* * * Annuals (or n. 54 perennial), branching from the base, with leaves devel-

oped at the nodes in tlie axils of ordinary triangular bracts : flowers minutely
glandular. — (§ Substipulata, Benth. Pseudo-stipulata, Torr. & Gray.)

53. E. ANGULOSUM, Benth. Floccose-tomentose, the branches mostly
4-6 angled : lower leaves orbicular to oblong-ovate, the upper oblong
to oblanceolate : involucres hemispherical, very many-flowered : flowers
rose-colored or greenish, J line long ; outer sepals ovate, concave, the
inner longer, lanceolate. — California to Arizona and Utah.

54. E. Greggii, Torr. & Gray. Apparently perennial, puberulent :
leaves spatulate, ciliate and somewhat villous, smooth above, acutish :
involucres turbinate-campanulate, many-flowered : flowers purplish, the
sepals ovate-oblong. — N. Leon, Mexico.

55. E. DiVARiCATUM, Nutt. Low, greyish pubescent : branches
terete : leaves thickish, all rounded or the upper oblong, petiolulate :
involucres very small and few-flowered : flowers whitish ; sepals oblong,
nearly equal. — W. Wyoming and S. W. Colorado.

* * * * Tall stout white-tomentose annuals, with leafy simple stems, naked

above : inflorescence cymose : involucres turbinate-campanulate, shortly ped-
unculate : flowers white, nearly glabrous ; sepals very unequal, the outer ovate-
oblong or round-cordate. — (Sp. of § Corymbosa, Benth., Torr. & Gray.)

56. E. ANNUUM, Nutt. Leaves narrowly oblanceolate or oblong,
attentiate to a short petiole, mostly flat : involucres densely white-to-
mentose : flowers |- to 1 line long ; outer sepals oblong-obovate. —
Colorado to W. Texas and Northern Mexico.

57. E. MULTiFLORUM, Beuth. Leaves lanceolate, sessile and some-
what aiiricled at base, smoother above and margin undulate : involucres
smoother: flowers 1^ lines long; outer sepals rounded cordate. —
Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas.

§ 3. Involucres cylindric-turbinate, more or less strongly 5-6-nerved, and often
becoming costate or angled, with as many short erect teeth, sessile (rarely
some of tliem pedunculate) in heads or clusters, or scattered in cymes or along
virgate panicled branches, always erect, rather large (1 to 3 lines long) :
bracts ternate, connate at base, usually short, acute and more or less rigid
(sometimes more or less foliaceous) : flowers not attenuate at base : akenes
usually glabrous. Mostly perennials, sometimes woody and leafy, more or
less white-tomentose. — Oeegonium.

* Outer sepals broad and somewhat cordate, the inner much narrower : ces-

pitose densely toraentose perennials, with short closely branched caudex :
involucres in a single head or short cymose umbel on the naked peduncle:
ovary scabrous above. — (§ Heterosepala, Torr. & Gray, & sp. of § Vir-
GATA, Benth., Torr. & Gray.)

58. E. OVALIFOLIUM, Nutt. Low, densely cespitose : leaves round
or rarely oblong : bracts very small : involucres in a single close head :

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 263

flowers rose-colored, white, or yellow ; outer sepals oblong, becoming
orbitailar, the inner sjxatulate, often retuse. — Var. proliferum. In-
volucres more or less cjmose-umbellate. E. proliferum, Torr. & Gray.
— N. California to Colorado and British America ; frequent.

59. E. DiCHOTOMUM, Dougl. Caudex more diffuse : leaves oblan-
ceolate, acute : lower bracts often foliaceous : inflorescence cymose-
umbellate ; the involucres mostly solitary, about three lines long, strongly
toothed: flowers white or pinkish ; outer sepals broadly elliptical, the
inner linear-spatulate. — E. Greenel, Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. xii. 83.
Oregon and N. California.

60. E. NIVEUM, Dougl. Like the last : most of the bracts more or
less foliaceous and spreading : involucres usually shorter and broader,
with some or all of the teeth jjroduced and often recurved : outer sepals
round-oval, the inner obovate-spatulate. — Including E. strictum, var.
lachnostegia, Benth., referred to the last in Torr. & Gray, Rev. 175.
Washington Terr, to Oregon and Idalio.

* * Flowers narrower at base, the sepals similar and nearly equal: akenes
smooth or nearly so.

-!- Perennials with short-branched caudex, naked peduncles, small bracts, and

capitate involucres (rarely solitary).
*+ Heads solitary (few and umbelled in n. 66) : dwarf and cespitose, alpine or

subalpine, densely white-tomentose. — (§ Capitata, Torr. & Gray, excl. sp.)

61. E. Kennedyi, Porter, MS. Dwarf and very densely matted :
leaves narrowly oblong, revolute, 1^^ to 3 lines long, densely tomeutose
both sides : peduncles very slender and wiry, glabrous, 2 to 4 inches
high: involucres 2 to 10, somewhat tomeutose, thick and strongly
nerved, with short teeth, 1 \ lines long : flowers glabrous, wliite, veined
with red, H lines long. — In the Sierra Nevada, Kern Co., California ;
W. L. Kennedy, 1876.

62. E. KixGir, Torr. & Gray, excl. var. Dwarf and densely cespi-
tose, villous-tomentose throughout : leaves oblanceolate or spatulate, an
inch long or less, including the slender petiole : involucres thin and
scarious, deeply toothed, villous, in dense heads : flowers rose-colored,
glabrous. — N. Nevada.

63. E. PAUCiFLORUM, Nutt. Rather less densely cespitose, tomeu-
tose throughout, or the linear-oblanceolate revolute leaves (2 inches
long) glabrous above : involucres broadly turbinate, nearly glabrous,
2 lines long, thin, with broad somewhat scarious teeth : flowers white,
glabrous. — Colorado.

64. E. ciiuYsoCEPHALUM, Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. xi. 101. Caudex
more diffusely branched, woody : tomeutose throughout, the narrowly

264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

oblanoeolate leaves (1 to 2 inches long) sometimes glabrate above :
involucres narrower and rather more firm, 1| lines long, shortly toothed,
somewhat tomentose : flowers yellow, glabrous. — E. Kingii, var. laxi-
folium, Torr. & Gray, Rev. 165. Wahsatch Mountains.

65. E. MULTicEPS, Nees. Densely white-tomeutose throughout,
rather diffusely branched at base : leaves narrowly oblanceolate, 1 or 2
inches long: peduncles 2 to 6 inches high : involucres rigid, narrowly
turbinate, H to 2 lines long, with very short teeth; one of the bracts
often foliaceous: flowers rose-colored, pubescent, a line long. — Ne-
braska and Colorado.

66. E. SPATHULATUJi. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. x. 76, Tomentose
throughout, somewhat diffu^e at base, the stout peduncles (8 inches high)
usually bearing a simple few-rayed umbel : leaves linear-oblanceo-
late, 2 to 4 inches long: involucres rather broadly turbinate and I'igid,
2 lines long, with broad acute teeth : flowers white, glabrous, 2 lines
long. — S. Utah.

++ ++ Peduncles mostly tall and stout, from a sparingly branclied caudex : heads
solitary or few, in a long-jointed subumbellate cj-rae : flowers white or rose-
colored. — (§ Capitellata, Torr. & Gray, and § Capitata, in part.)

67. E. LATiFOLiUM, Smith. Stout, tomentose throughout: pedun-
cle not fistulous : leaves oblong to ovate : involucres tomentose, 2 lines
long, in large dense heads (solitary, or few in a nearly simple umbel) :
flowers glabrous. — E. nhlongtfolmm, Benth. ; Torr. & Gray, Rev. 167.
Seashore, California.

68. E. NUDUM, Dougl. More slender, mostly glabrous above : pe-
duncle fistulous or inflated : leaves broadly ovate to oblong, cordate or
abruptly cuneate at base, glabrate above : involucres glabrous or nearly
so, 2 or 3 lines long, in smaller and more numerous heads in a sparingly
branched panicle : flowers glabrous or somewhat villous. — Var. pau-
CIFLORUM. Involucres solitary or occasionally in pairs, much scattered.
— Var. OBLONGiFOLiUM. Often somewhat tomentose throughout:
leaves oblong, narrowed to a long slender petiole : bracts occasioually
foliaceous : flowers usually somewhat pubescent. E. affine, Benth. —
Washington Territory to S. California.

69. E. ELATUM, Dougl. Leaves large, villous-pubescent, ovate-
oblong to lanceolate : peduncle (fistulous or inflated) and rigid panicle
IJr to 3 feet high, smooth and glaucous : involucres glabrous, in clusters
of 2 to 5 : flowers somewhat villous. — Washington Territory to N.
California and W. Nevada.

•(- H- Stout woody perennials, more or less tomentose, virgately branched and
very leafy : leaves small (9 lines long or less), shortly petioled and often

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 265

fascicled: bracts mostly foliaceous : involucres capitate or fascicled, the
clusters more or less closely cj'mose-umbellate. — (§ Fasciculata, Benth.,
Torr. & Gray.)

70. E. ciNEREUM, Bentli. Leaves round to oblong, obtuse : pedun-
cles elongated, sparingly dichotomous, with iew rather open heads :
bracts short : flowers very villous. — Seacoast, S. California.

71. E. PARViFOLiUM, Smith. Leaves broadly ovate to oblong,
acute: peduncles usually rather short, with few close heads: lower
bracts conspicuous : flowers glabrous. — Near the coast, S. California.

72. E. FASCICULATUM, Benth. Leaves narrowly oblanceolate, acute,
usually revolute, often glabrate above, much fascicled : peduncles short
or elongated, bearing a short cymosely divided umbel, often much con-
tracted or capitate : bracts more or less conspicuous : involucres pubes-
cent or glabrate : flowers glabrous or often villous. — J^. ericcefolium,
Torr. & Gray, Rev. 170. S. California to Arizona and S. Utah.
Very variable.

^- 4- -t- Involucres mostly solitary (terminal and alar), in a repeatedly di- or
trichotomous corj-mb-like cyme : leaves not fascicled : bracts small, very
rarely foliaceous below. — (§ Corymbosa, Benth., Torr. & Gray, excl. sp.)

•w- Perennials, woody and diffusely much-branched, leafy below : leaves ovate-
to oblong-oblanceolate or linear : sepals obovate, the inner emarginate.

73. E. MiCROTHECDM, Nutt. Low and rather slender, more or less
white-tomentose : leaves usually narrow, revolute, becoming glabrate
above: involucres usually small (f to 1| lines long), often pedun-
culate: flowers a half to a line long. — Var. effusuji, Torr. & Gray.
With very diffuse and repeatedly divided inflorescence. — Oregon and
eastern base of Sierra Nevada to Nebraska and New Mexico ; the
variety eastward.

74. E. C0RYMB0SD>i, Benth. Stouter and more rigid, usually
densely tomentose : leaves broader and less revolute : umbel stifl\,
broadly cymose : involucres mostly sessile, 1 to 2 lines long : flowers
a line or two long. — Including E. microthecum, var. Fendlerianum,
Benth., Torr. & Gray. Of nearly the same range and hardly distinct.

++ *+ Perennials, less woody and more shortly branched at base : leaves mostly
narrow : sepals nearly equal.

75. E. Thompsons, "Watson in Am. Naturalist, vii. 302. Stout
and rio-id, erect, a foot high, yellowish, glabrous above the tomentose
base: leaves obovate-oblong, densely tomentose beneath, glabrate
above, on long petioles : involucres 2 lines long : flowei-s yellow, 1^
lines long. — S. Utah.

266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

76. E. BREVICAULE, Nutt. More lax and slender, glabrous or
glabrate above the white-tomentose base : leaves linear to narrowly
oblanceolate, 1 to 3 inches long, attenuate to a very short petiole,
often revolute, sometimes glabrate above: involucres 1| lines long,
nearly glabrous : flowers yellow, a line long. — Idaho and Wyoming
to New Mexico.

77. E. LONCHOPHYLLUM, Torr. & Gray. Described as taller than
the last (a foot high or more), with a loose panicle-like cyme ; leaves
lanceolate to broadly linear, 3 inches long and attenuate into a petiole
an inch long or more : flowers white, few in the involucres. — New
Mexico, only by Dr. Newberry.

1-t- •»-+ ++ Annuals : leaves mostly rosulate at the base, a whorl rarely subtend-
ing the umbel : peduncle short.

78. E. TRUNCATUM, Torr. & Gray. Slender, a foot high or less,
floccose-woolly throughout : leaves oblanceolate, an inch long : umbel
leafly-bracted, of 4 to 6 elongated once or twice divided rays : involu-
cres tomentose, oblong-turbinate, 2 lines long : flowers rose-colored, a
line long. — Near Mount Diablo, California ; W. H. Brewer.

79. E. MoHAVENSE. Very slender, glabrous except at the base:
leaves round or ovate, tomentose, small : umbel naked, of 3 or more
repeatedly divided rays : involucres glabrous, broadly turbinate, a line
long : flowers yellow, very small (scarcely a half line long), abruptly
narrowed at base. — Mohave Valley ; Dr. Edward Palmer, 1876.

80. E. Lemmoni. Rather stout, a span high, more or less hirsute
with very short spreading hairs, not at all tomentose : leaves orbicu-
lar-reniform, 6 to 9 lines broad, on slender petioles : peduncle fistulous
or inflated, bearing a naked 3-rayed narrow umbel, twice or thrice
divided: involucres glandular-pubescent, rather broadly turbinate, 1^
lines long : flowers pale rose-color, half a line long, with narrow sejmls.
— On sand hills near Reno, Nevada; J. G. Lemmon, 1876. A very
peculiar species.

-1- -4- -I- ^- Involucres sessile and solitary (often secund) along the ascending and
usually long-virgate branches of the open naked dichotomous panicle : lowest
bracts rarely foliaceous : flowers glabrous (except in n. 89). — (§ Vikgata,
Benth., Torr. & Gray, excl. sp.)

++ White-tomentose perennials, leafy below : panicle sparingly branched, usu-
ally virgate : involucres tomentose, the teeth not margined: flowers white
or rose-colored.

81. E. Wrightii, Torr. Much branched and usually very leafy
at base, rather slender : leaves oblong- to linear-oblanceoiate, acute, an
inch long or less : bracts all small, triangular : involucres and flowers

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 267

1 to li lines long: akene scabrous above, very acute at base. — Cali-
fornia to New Mexico. Variable ; inflorescence in subalpiue specimens
at times reduced to a very few nearly capitate involucres.

82. E. SAXATiLE. Biennial or perennial (?), sparingly branched
and very leafy at base, rather stout, a foot high or less : leaves rounded
or obovate, obtuse, 6 to 8 lines broad or less, cuneate at base upon a
short thick petiole, densely tomentose both sides : branches of the
cymose panicle short and somewhat spreading : bracts larger, subfolia-
ceous, triangular to acute-oblong: involucres and flowers 1^ to 2 lines
long: sepals apj^ressed to the nearly glabrous akene, which is more
abruptly narrowed at base. — On rocks above San Bernardino (Dr.
C. C. Parry, 1876), and in the Santa Lucia Mountains, Dr. E. Palmer.

83. E. STRICTUM, Benth. Very slender, glabrate above : branches
of caudex very short : leaves small, ovate to oblanceolate, on long
slender petioles : panicle twice or thrice divided, with 1 to 3 involucres
on the short branches : bracts short, the lower somewhat elongated :
flowers and glabrate involucres 1^ lines long. — Blue Mountains,
Oregon.

84. E. RACEMOSUM, Nutt. Sparingly or not at all branched at
base, stout, 1 to 3 feet high: leaves large (1 to 2|- inches long), ovate
or oblong, on long petioles : lower bracts somewhat foliaceous : invo-
lucres approximate upon the few strict branches of the once or twice
forked panicle : flowers 2 lines long. — Utah to New Mexico.

85. E. ELONGATUM, Benth. Sparingly branched at base, a foot or
two high : leaves usually scattered, smaller, lanceolate to ovate, on
short petioles : bracts rarely elongated : involucres 2^ to 3 lines long,
obtusely toothed, distant on the few elongated branches of the panicle.
— S. California, near the coast.

++ -w- Perennials, woody and leafy below : panicle diffuse with short and rigid
branclilets : involucres short, with rounded and more or less membranously
margined teeth ; bracts very small.

86. E. Heermanni ; Dur. & Hilg. A foot high, soon glabrate above,
divaricately dichotomous, the branclilets somewhat spinescent : leaves
oblanceolate, ^ inch long, on slender petioles : involucres few and dis-
tant, campanulate, a line long : flowers rose-colored or yellowish, 1 J
lines long. — S. California, Nevada.

87. E. Palmeri. More tomentose throughout, and usually taller :
leaves oblanceolate, ^ inch long, on short petioles : branches somewhat
flexuous, mostly alternately divided, the short branclilets divaricate or
deflexed, very short-jointed : involucres rather numerous, narrowly tur-
binate, a line long, nearly glabrous : flowers a line long, reddish white;

268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

outer sepals ciineate-obovate, the inner slightly narrow : akene some-
what pubescent, — San Diego County, California, and in S. Utah;
Dr. Edward Palmer.

H-c -w. -w Annuals : leaves usually rosulate at tiie base, and occasionally occur-
ring at the nodes.

= Tomentose throughout : branches of the panicle virgate, sparingly divided :
involucres narrow, 2 lines long.

88. E. viRGATUM. Benth. A foot or two high : leaves oblanceo-
late : branches elongated, ascending : flowers glabrous, a line long,
white, reddish, or yellow. — California ; variable, verging upon JE. vim-
ineuiifi.

89. E. DASTANTHEMUM, Torr. & Gray. Shorter, more slender :
leaves rounded, somewhat scattered : panicle more branched, rather
diffuse : involucres very narrow : flowers a line long or less, somewhat
villous. — N. California.

= = More slender and diffuse, glabrous or somewhat tomentose : involucres
smaller, narrow or turbinate.

90. E. viMiNEUM, Dougl. Rather diffuse, the branches often
elongated, usually somewhat tomentose, at least below the panicle :
leaves i-ounded to broadly ovate: involucres IJ lines long, narrow and
often contracted above : flowers rose-colored, or yellowish, a line long
or more. — Washington Territory to N. Nevada and S. California ;
variable.

91. E. Baileyi, Watson, Proc. Am. Acad. x. 348. Very diffusely
much-branched, glaucous and glabrous : leaves round to broadly ovate,
densely tomentose : involucres .a line long or usually less, mostly wider
above with obtuse teeth : flowers |^ to f line long. — Var. tomen-
TOSUM. Loosely tomentose throughout : bracts more linear : involucres
broadly turbinate, deeply toothed. — N. W. Nevada to S. California
and Arizona. ''■

92. E. gracile, Benth, Usually more strict and narrowly pani-
cled, more or less tomentose throughout: leaves oblanceolate or ob-
lonor : bracts more or less elongated or foliaceous, the lower often
including one or more leaves: involucres a line long or less, broader
above, with rigid acute teeth: flowers f line long. — S. California;
very variable.

93. E. POLYCLADON, Benth. Stouter, white-tomentose throughout,
the stem leafy its whole length : panicle erect and elongated : leaves
oblong-lanceolate : sepals narrower at base and bracteoles much more
villous. — Arizona and New Mexico.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 2Qd

94. E. Plumatella, Dur. & Hilg. Low, grayish tomentose
throughout: intrioately much-branclied from the base, leaves rounded:
involucres i line long or less: flowers | to at length 11 lines long,
the sepals broadly cuiieate-obovate and refuse. — N. W. Nevada to
S. California.

95. E. IXTRICATUM, Benth. Leaves rounded and viscid-pubescent :
panicle diffuse with numerous short divaricate branchlets, glabrous or
glabrate : involucres very small, glabrous: flowers minute, sparingly
pubescent. — Lower California.

CHORIZANTHE, R. Br. A polymorphous genus, with which
it seems necessary to unite Centrostegia as too closely related to the
section Mucronea to be kept distinct. The character upon which that
genus mainly rested, the spurs at the base of the involucre, is of fre-
quent occurrence in the Chilian Chorizanthe commissuralis, which is
without doubt a true Chorizanthe. Moreover, the involucres and spurs
in the two recognized species of Centrostegia are very different in char-
acter, and in some of the 3Iucronea species the angles of the involucres
are frequently rather strongly gibbous at base, showing a tendency
towards a like peculiarity. The known species, excepting the peren-
nials of Chili, are the following : —

§ 1. Glabrous or glandular, not villous or tomentose, with radical spatulate
leaves and ternate foliaceous more or less connate bracts : involucres in open
dichotomous panicles, coriaceo chartaceous, the awns not uncinate : flowers
6-parted, soft-pubescent, on slender pedicels : stamens 9, inserted at the
base. — Mucronea. S.California.

* Involucres 1-3 flowered, with 3 to 6 mostly erect teeth and 3 to 6 divaricate
cuspidate or awned spurs at base: bracts small. — (Centrostegia, Gray.)

L C. Thdrbkri. Involucres chartaceous and triangular, with 3 to 5
broad short teeth, and 3 broad straight spurs. — Centrostegia Thurbert,
Gray.

2. C. LEPTOCERAS. Livolucres coriaceous, deeply 4-6-cleft, the
lobes rigid and attenuate, and with as many rigid usually uncinate awn-
like spurs. — Centrostegia leptoceras, Gray.

* * Involucres l-flowered, with 2 to 5 stout divergent teeth, not spurred :
bracts conspicuous. — ( Mucronea, Benth. § Mucronea, Torr. & Gray. )

3. C. PERFOLIATA, Gray. Sparingly glandular-hirsute: bracts per-
foliate : involucres scattered : sepals laciniate.

4. C. Califorxica, Gray. More hirsute : bracts unilateral : in-
volucres often cl^astered: sepals entire.

270 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

§ 2. Villous-pubescent or hirsute, not glandular, fragile : bracts 1 to 3, distinct,
at least the uppermost acicular-subulate : involucres more or less clustered
or capitate, coriaceous, 1-flowered, 6-angled and tootlied, the divergent teeth
often uncinate : flowers mostly 6-cleft, nearly sessile, glabrous or bristly-
villous on the midveins (pubescent in n. 5) : stamens mostly 9, inserted
below the middle. — Euchorizanthe, Torr. & Gray.

* Involucres subcapitate ; margins of the teeth mostly scarious : stems more or
less leafy and bracts foliaceous.

■1- Teeth united by a petaloid margin (except in the alar involucres) : stems
erect : heads few and dense.

5. C. MEMBRANACEA, Beuth. Floccose-tomentose, slender, leafy :
leaves linear : scarious limb of the involucre at length broadly dilated :
flowers as in the preceding section ; the sepals spatulate : stamens at
the base. — Mendocino County to San Luis Obispo.

6. C. STELLULATA, Beiith. Low, hirsute : leaves liuear-oblanceo-
late, scattered : involucres 2 or 3 lines long ; margin of the teeth
narrower : flowers glabrous, sessile, 2^ lines long, equally 6-cleft ;
segments obcordate. — Sacramento Valley ; only from Hartvveg.

7. C. DouGLASii, Benth. Similar, but leaves in 1 or 2 whorls:
involucres 1^ lines long: flowers shortly pedicelled, a line long; seg-
ments truncate, the outer cuspidate, the inner shorter and retuse. —
Near Monterey (?) ; only from Douglas.

H- -1- Teeth distinct, scariously margined or herbaceous : usually more diffuse
and decumbent, villous-pubescent, with more numerous scattered heads.
•w- Slender and mostly decumbent : involucres and flowers 1 to 1^ lines long.

8. C. DIFFUSA, Benth. Leaves narrowly spatulate, an inch long or
less : bracts short, acerose : involucres and flowers a line long, the
teeth long-awned and broadly scarious : calyx-segments oblong, nearly
equal, the inner slightly narrower. — Near Monterey.

9. C. Breweri. Ascending or erect, 2 to 4 inches high, softly
pubescent : leaves ovate or rounded, 3 to 6 lines broad, on slender
petioles : bracts foliaceous, linear-oblanceolate, pungent : involucres
and flowers 1^ lines long, the short slightly unequal teeth united at
base by an inconspicuous margin, stout and curved, shortly awned :
flowers glabrous or villous ; segments broadly oblong, the inner ones
shorter : stamens at the base. — On dry rocky hillsides at San Luis
Obispo and in San Margarita Valley ; collected by Prof. W. H.
Brewer.

10. C. PUNGENS, Benth. Decumbent or at first erect: leaves
oblanceolate, mostly opposite: bracts foliaceous: involucres 1^ to 2
lines long, the unequal teeth usually margined : calyx-segments short,
equal, oblong. — San Francisco and southward, common.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 271

++ ++ Stouter, erect : bracts foliaceous : involucres and tiowers 2 to 2^ lines
long.

11. C. VALiDA. Mostly stout, 6 inches high or less, sparingly
branched : leaves oblanceolate, an inch long, the bracts similar : in-
volucres in rather close heads, 2h to 3 lines long; teeth nearly equal,
slightly si)i'eading with straight awns, scarcely margined : flowers 2^
lines long, villous or glabrous ; segments oblong, very unequal, the
shorter ones erose : stamens adnate to the middle of the tube or
nearly to the top. — Specimens in herb. Gray are from the '' Rus-
sian Colony " (from herb. Acad. St. Petersb.), and also collected by
Rev. Mr. Samuels, probably in the same region.

12. C. Palmeri. Stout and branching, a span high or less: leaves
spatulate, 2 inches long : bracts oblanceolate, conspicuous : involucres
in large close cymes, 2 lines long ; teeth not margined, slightly diver-
gent, one long-awned, the rest nearly equal : flowers glabrous, broadly
lobed ; outer segments rounded, entire, the inner shorter, truncate or
bifid, shortly laciniate : stamens near the base. — Near San Luis
Obispo; Dr. Edward Palmer, 1876 (n. 464).

» * Involucres at length scattered or only loosely cymosely clustered ; teeth
unequal, not margined.

■t- Calyx-segments lanceolate, fimbriate : leaves all radical : bracts not folia-
ceous : villous-pubescent or glabrate. — S. California.

13. C. FiMBRiATA, Nutt. Segments coarsely fringed below the
obtuse summit.

14. C. LACiNiATA, Torr. Segments long-acuminate, copiously
fringed.

■t- I- Calyx-segments short, oblong, entire.
++ Bracts not foliaceous.

15. C. STATICOIDES, Bentli. Erect, often a foot high, branching
above: leaves oblong, tomentose beneath: involucres 1^ to 3 lines
long, alternate teeth often much enlarged: flowers rose-colored, 2 to 2^
lines long, glabrous ; segments oblong, the inner ones nearly a half
shorter. — Monterey to San Diego.

16. C. PROCUMBENS, Nutt. Slender, procumbent, diffusely branched
from the base : leaves spatulate, not tomentose : involucres 1 to 1 ^
lines long: flowers yellowish, 1;^ lines long, with equal narrowly oblong
segments. — San Diego.

t-f -w- Bracts more or less foliaceous : flowers 1^ lines long: branched from the
base.

17. C. Parryi. Small, villous-pubescent, leafy: leaves narrowly

272 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

oblanceolate, not tomentose, an inch long : lower bracts as large, simi-
lar: tube of involucre a line long, tlie very divergent alternate teeth
as long or longer : flowers white or pinkish, villous ; segments recurved,
somewhat undulate, oblong-ovate, crenate, acutisli, the inner narrower,
scarcely shorter : stamens 9. — Common on gravelly mesas near Crof-
ton, San Bernardino County; Dr. C. C. Parry, 1876.

18. C. Xanti. Small, villous-pubescent and tomentose : the leaves
ovate-oblong, 2 to 6 lines long, tomentose beneath : lower bracts simi-
lar or linear-oblanceol ale : involucres tomentose, in diffuse cymes, the
tube 2 lines long ; teeth very divergent, often half as long or more, the
alternate ones much smaller : flowers rose-colored, 2^ lines long, vil-
lous ; segments linear-oblong, entire, acutish, the inner a half shorter :
stamens 6 (rarely 7 or 8.) — C. procumbens, Gray, Proc. Bost. Soc.
vii. 148; referred to C staticoides, in Torr. & Gray, Rev. 195. Near
Fort Tejon (C. L. Xantus, Dr. Horn) ; San Bernardino and San Gor-
gonio, on sandy washes, Dr. C. C. Parry.

19. C. Wheeleri. Small, villous-pubescent and tomentose : leaves
and bracts tomentose beneath, the latter oblanceolate, an inch long or
less : involucres in small cymes, nearly glabrous, a line long, with short
stout teeth, the alternate ones smaller: flowers rose-colored, \\ lines,
long, glabrous ; segments broadly oblong, the inner slightly shorter and
broader : stamens 6. — Near Santa Barbara ; Dr. J. T. Rothrock, on
Lieut, G. M. Wheeler's Geogr. Survey, 1876.

20. C. UNiARiSTATA, Torr. & Gray. Villous-pubescent : leaves
and bracts spatulate or oblanceolate : involucres numerous, scattered ;
one tooth with a long straight awn, the rest short and uncinate:
flowers yellowish, \\ lines long; segments very unequal, the outer
obovate, entire, the inner oblong, crenate: stamens 3 or 9. — S. Cali-
fornia; near New Idria (Prof. Brewer), and on the Ui^per Salinas, Dr.
Palmer.

21. C. BREVICORNU, Torr. Pulverulent or nearly glabrous, erect
or ascending, very fragile at the tumid nodes : leaves and bracts broadly
spatulate to linear-oblanceolate : involucres scattered, narrow ; teeth
very short, uncinate: flowers included; segments narrowly oblong,
nearly equal : stamens 3 or 6. — N. W. Nevada to S. E. California
and S. Utah.*

§ 3. Villous-pubescent and tomentose, low, branching and fruiting from the
base : bracts 2 or 3, distinct : involucres scattered, coriaceous, 1-flowered,
unequally 3-5-tootlied or -lobed, triangular or C3'iindrical, transversely cor-
rugated : flowers tubular, shortly and equally 6-cleft, glabrous : stamens G or 9,
short, on the throat. — Acanthogonum, Torr. & Gray.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 273

* Involucres broadly triangular : bracts foliaceous : flowers nearly sessile.

22. C. POLTGONOIDES, Torr. & Gray. Decumbent, villoiis-pubes-
cent: leaves and bracts narrowly oblanceolate ; floral bracts very
short : involucres 3-costate, with 3 stout broad divergent uncinate
teeth, exceeding the (1 line tube) long. — Near Placerville, California;
only by Rattan.

23. C. KiGiDA, Torr. & Gray. Erect, low, dense, becoming rigid
and persistent : leaves and bracts ovate, tomentose beneath ; floral
bracts linear-subulate, stout and spinescent, 6 to 15 lines long: in-
volucres 6-costate, with 3 very unequal lanceolate carinate spinescent
or pungent teeth. — N. W. Nevada to S. E. California and S. Utah.

* * Involucres cylindrical : bracts not foliaceous, subulate-setaceous : flowers
on slender pedicels : leaves tomentose beneath : low.

24. C. CORRUGATA, Torr. & Gray. Leaves ovate : the involucres
strono-ly corrugated, 8-toothed : flowers white, included : stamens on
the middle of the tube. — Valley of the Lower Colorado.

25. C. Watsoni, Torr. & Gray. Leaves narrowly oblanceolate :
bracts rarely foliaceous : the involucres obscurely corrugated, very un-
equally 5-toothed : flowers yellow, slightly exserted. — N. Nevada to
S. E. California.

OxTTHECA iNERMis. Low and slender: leaves broadly oblanceo-
late, glabrous, with scabrous-ciliate margin : bracts linear-oblong, united
only at base, acute without awns, 2 or 3 lines long : involucres shortly
pedicelled, 4-parted nearly to the base, the oblong-lanceolate lobes
nearly equal, acute without awns, a line long : flowers rose-colored,
half a line long ; sepals oblong, the inner smaller and retuse. — Cali-
fornia, probably on Mount Diablo : collected only by Miss M. J. Ban-
croft. Remarkable for the total absence of awns, but otherwise with
the characters of the genus, and nearly allied to 0. dendroidea, Nutt.

Amarantus (Pyxidium) blitoides. Prostrate or decumbent, the
slender stems becoming a foot or two long, glabrous or neaily so :
leaves broadly spatulate to narrowly oblanceolate, attenuate to a slender
petiole, an inch long or usually less : flowers in small contracted axil-
lary spikelets : bracts nearly equal, ovate-oblong, shortly acuminate,
1 to 1^ lines long, little exceeding the oblong obtuse and mucronulate
or acute sepals : utricle not rugose, slightly longer than the sepals :
seed nearly a line broad. — Frequent in the valleys and plains of the
interior, from Mexico to N. Nevada and Iowa, and becoming intro-
duced in some of the Northern States eastward. It somewhat resem-
bles the A. Blitum, Linn., of the Old World, and has been mistaken

VOL. XII. (N. S. IV.) 18

274 ^PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

for it ; but that species is usually erect, with shorter and more scarious
bracts, and a smaller seed more notched at the hilum. The allied
A. albus, Linn., also common and indigenous throughout the interior,
is distinguished by its usually erect dilFusely branched habit : rhachis
of the spikelets often somewhat elongated (^ to 3 lines long) : bracts
subulate, rigid, pungently awned, 1 to 2| lines long, the lateral ones very
much smaller or wanting : sepals oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, shorter
than the slightly rugose utricle: seed smaller (| line broad). It is
very abundant on the western prairies, where it is populai-ly known as
"rolling" or "tumble-weed," the stem breaking off at the root when
dry and the compact top rolling before the wind to any distance.

Amaranths (Amblogyne) Pa.lmeri, Dioecious, rather stout,
erect, 2 or 3 feet high, branching, somewhat pubescent above or glab-
rate : leaves oblong-rhomboid, an inch or two long and about equalling
the petiole, the upper linear-lanceolate : flowers in close elongated
linear spikes, leafy at base : bracts solitary, mostly twice longer than
the flowers, spreading, subulate and rigid, narrowed into a stout awn :
sepals of fertile flowers distinct or nearly so, 1 to 1 J lines long, oblong
and somewhat broader above, obtuse or retuse, two or three usually
slightly larger and more acute or setaceously apiculate : stigmas
usually 2 : utricle circumscissile. — At Larkin's Station, San Diego
County, California, by Dr. E. Palmer (n. 323 of his collection) ; also
on the banks of the Rio Grande, by Berlandier (n. 2407) in 1834.
Staminate flowers have not been detected among the fruiting speci-
mens, but what is probably to be considered the sterile form has been
found by various collectors from the Rio Grande through Arizona to
S. California and Cape St. Lucas. These accord in habit and foliage
with the pistillate plants, and have very narrowly acuminate or seta-
ceous pungent bracts, equalling or usually exceeding the lanceolate
long-acuminate sepals. An examination of all our species of the group
seems to fully justify the reference by Mr. Bentham of the genus
Arnblogyne (including Sarratia) to Amarantus. To the A. jimhriatus,
A. Torreyi, &c., of the same region, the following species from the
mouth of the Rio Grande may be added : —

Amaranths (Amblogyne) Greggii. Dicecious, erect, glabrous or
nearly so : upper leaves rhombic-ovate, an inch long or less, on short
petioles, rather thick and somewhat scabrous : spike elongated, leafy and
interrupted at base : bracts solitary, lanceolate, acuminate, scarious, erect,
much shorter than the fruiting calyx: sepals distinct, \^ lines long,
oblong-spatulate, acute, the inner ones somewhat the narrower below :
stigmas 3 : utricle a little shorter, thin and not circumscissile : seed

OF AETS AND SCIENCES. 275

^ line broad. — Collected by Dr. Gregg near the mouth of the Eio
Grande, in 1848 — only pistillate specimens.

Amaranths (Euamarantus) Wrightii. Glabrous, erect and
slender, with ascending branches and spikes, 2 or 3 feet high or more,
reddish : leaves small and thin, the upper ones but an inch long, on
slender petioles, oblong to narrowly lanceolate : terminal compound
spike erect, narrow, and rather leafy : bracts solitary, subulate,
rigid, attenuate into a pungent awn, about 1|^' lines long: sepals ^ to
nearly 1 line long, oblong to oblong-spatulate, obtuse, sometimes
emarginate : utricle about equalling the sepals : seed orbicular, h line
broad. — Collected at the Copper Mines, New Mexico, by Mr. Wright
(n. 1748, in part), October, 1851 ; also in the Upper Arkansas Valley,
by Messrs. Wolf & Rothrock (n. 275) in 1873. Approaching the
section Amhiogyne in the characters of the calyx.

A5IARAXTUS (Euamarantus) obovatus. Pubescent, slender,
erect, 2 feet high, reddish, sparingly branched: leaves small, 1 to 1^
inches long, lanceolate, on short slender petioles : spikes erect, narrow,
the terminal ones an inch or two long, the axillary shorter : bracts
subulate, acuminate and pungent, 1^ to 2 lines long, much exceeding
the unequal narrowly oblong acute sepals : utricle equalling the calyx :
seeds oblong-obovate, f line long. — Also collected by Mr. Wright and
in the same locality, and distributed under the same number ; referred
in Bot. Mex. Bound, to A. hybridus. Remarkable in the shajje of the
seed.

Atriplex decumbens. Decumbent or procumbent, slender and
branching from the base, densely hoary-scurfy, the stems becoming
somewhat woody below : leaves mostly opposite, oblong-ovate, sessile,
acute or acutish, cuneate or obtuse at base, ^ to 1 inch long or less :
staminate flowers in dense clusters in short interrupted terminal spikes ;
calyx 5-cleft: fruiting bracts coriaceous, compressed, united to above
the middle, triangular-cordate, acute, 2 lines long and broad, entire or
slightly denticulate, not herbaceously margined nor the sides muricate :
seed nearly a line long. — Near San Diego; Dr. E. Palmer, 1876
(n. 334). Allied to A. leiicophylla, Dietr.

Corallorhiza Bigelovii. Scape stout, 6 to 15 inches high:
sepals and petals oblong, obtuse, about 4 lines long, twice longer
than the column, purple and veined (not spotted) ; lateral sepals
oblique and with the base of the column strongly gibbous over the
top of the ovary ; lip entire, fleshy, darker colored and strongly veined,
deeply concave, elliptical, broad and somewhat auricled at base, with
two thick laminae ; spur none : column rather slender, broadly margined

2T6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

below : capsule oblong-ovate, 6 to 9 lines long, shortly attenuate to
a short pedicel, — G. striata, Torrey, Pac. R. Rep. iv. 152, t. 25. In
the Sierra Nevada and mountains of N. California. Recognized by
Dr. Torrey as distinct from C. MacrcBi, which is doubtless identical
with the original C. striata of Lindley. The figure cited fails to
represent the gibbosity of the perianth. C. striata is very similar,
but with the flowers still larger (often 6 or 7 lines long) ; lip rather
less fleshy, somewhat narrower below, reflexed above the base, and
bearing the prominent laminie upon the arch : ranging from Washing-
ton Territory and Oregon to the Great Lakes.

Habenaria sparsiflora. Stem rather slender, a foot or two
high, leafy : leaves narrowly lanceolate, acutish or acute : bracts linear-
lanceolate, acuminate, usually much exceeding the greenish flowers,
which are few (10 to 20) and distant : perianth thin and delicate,
apparently spreading: sepals 3-nerved, the lateral ones oblong or
lanceolate, 2 or 3 lines long, the upper ovate and a little shorter : lip
several-nerved, narrow, linear or lanceolate, 3 or 4 lines long, nearly
equalling the narrow sjjur : anther emarginate ; stalks of the pollen^
masses very slender : glands orbicular : beak of stigma broadly tri-
angular : capsule oblong, sessile, 6 lines long. — H. Thurheri, var..
Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. vii. 389. Common in the Sierra Nevada and
mountains of Northern California ; marked by its peculiar habit.
The typical H. Thurheri is to be referred to H. leucostachys.

Habenaria pedicellata. Stem leafy : raceme loose, 20-30-flow-
ered, with linear-lanceolate bracts shorter than the long-pedicellate
flowers : sepals 3-nerved, 2h lines long, oblong, the upper ovate ; lip
fleshy, several-nerved, oblong-lanceolate, half broader at base, 3 lines
long ; spur filiform, twice longer than the sepals : pollen-masses at-
tached to the oblong glands by a short thick pedicel: beak of stigma
ovate-triangular, prominent : capsule ovate-oblong, 4 lines long, attenu-
ate into a slender pedicel about as long. — A single specimen of this
very distinct species was collected by Prof. W. H. Brewer (n. 1453,
in part) in the Shasta Mountains, California ; September.

Habenaria Cooperi. Stout and tall (3 feet high), leafy : flowers
numerous, spicate, yellowish green : sepals and petals nerveless, con-
nivent at base, rather thick, equal, 2 lines long ; lateral sepals oblong,
the upper ovate ; lip ovate, truncate at base, with a broad claw ; spur
short and thick : glands orbicular : beak of stigma triangular : capsule
oblong, sessile, 4 or 5 lines long. — On clay hills near San Diego, Cali-
fornia ; Dr. J. G. Cooper. A strongly marked species, allied to H.
hyperhorea, R. Brown. Of the other western species of this genus,

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 277

H. Unalaschcensis (Spiranthes Unalaschcensis, Spreng.,and H. Schisch-
mareffiana, Cham.) must include H. foetida, Watson (Platant/iera,
Geyer), and Gymnadenia longispica, Dunind. Liudley's Platanthera
striata is to be referred to H. gracilis (^Platanthera gi-acilis, Lindl.),
distinguished by its short saccate spur.

SiSYRiNCHiUM BELLUM. Stems ancipital, ^ to 2 feet high or more,
smooth or scabrous on the narrow margins, of a single node or often
with 2 or 3 nodes, each node bearing 1 to 4 (usually 2) peduncles :
leaves a line or two wide, shorter than the stem ; peduncles 2 to 4
inches long, usually about equalling the nodal bract : spathes of two
mostly nearly equal bracts, a half to an inch long, scabrous on the
keel, 4— 7 -flowered : segments of perianth about 6 lines long, broad,
3-toothed or sometimes mucronate, light purple, darker below and yellow
at base, somewhat pubescent, as also the ovary : stamineal column
3 lines long, purplish, pubescent at base : capsule depressed-globose
or -obovoid, 2 or 3 lines long; cells about 10-seeded: seeds irregularly
and obtusely angled, roughened, f line in diameter. — Common through-
out California and to the Columbia River ; the western equivalent of
S. anceps, Linn., in the Atlantic States. It strongly resembles the
latter species, differing in its generally stouter habit, broader foliage,
and larger flowers, in its less mucronate petals, and in its twice larger
seeds. It occasionally occurs with scapelike stems bearing a single
spathe, simulating the eastern S. mucronatum, Michx., which is distin-
guished by its low and usually very slender habit, the scape always
terminated by a single spathe sessile within the terminal longer bract,
the flowers small with segments setosely mucronate, and capsules glo-
bose ; the size of the seeds is about the same in both. The two eastern
species are distinct from the Linnean *S. Bermudianiun, as plainly ap-
pears on comparison with specimens from the Bermudas kindly furnished
by Governor Lefroy. These have a very stout broadly winged
branching stem, with leaves 3 lines wide, broad spathes, larger flowers
(6 to 9 lines long), and obovate capsules 3 lines long. The Texan
S. minus, Engelm. & Gray, referred to S. Bermitdianum by Klatt, is
even more distinct, with its low slender very branching habit, small red
flowers, oblong capsules, and minute round seeds. There are indica-
tions of other species to be found in Florida and the western Gulf
States.

Erythronium purpurascens. Leaves undulate, oblong- to narrowly
lanceolate, 4 to 6 inches long : scape low, often stout, occasionally di-
vided, racemosely or somewhat umbellately 4-8-flowered or more ;
pedicels very unequal, the upper becoming 2 to 4 inches long : flowers

278 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

light yellow, more or less tinged with purple, deep orange at base ; the
lanceolate segments spreading, 9 to 12 lines long: anthers oblong, 1^
to 2 lines long, yellow, on very slender filaments : style thickened
above, o-lobed at the summit : capsule erect, narrowly oblong and ob-
tusely triangular, faintly nerved, 1;^ inches long. — E. grandijlorum,
var. multijiormn, Torrey, Pac. R. Rep. iv. 90 ; Baker, Journ. Linn.
Soc. xiv. 298. In the Sierra Nevada : near Downieville, Sierra Co.
(Dr. J. M. Bigelow), and frequent in Plumas Co., whence fine speci-
mens have been received from Mrs. M. E. Pulsifer Ames and from
Mrs. R. M. Austin. Abundantly distinct from E. grandijlorum, and a
very pretty species, well deserving cultivation.

PllOCEEDIXGS.

Six hundred and ninety-second Meeting.

May 30, 1876. — Annual Meeting.

The Peesident in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from the follow-
ing gentlemen : Professor W. D. Whitney, offering the thanks
of the American Oriental Society for the use of the hall of
the Academy ; Dr. Thomas Andrews, expressing his thanks
for the gift of the " Works of Rumford ; " Messrs. Stewart
and Rowland, accepting their election as members of the
Academy ; and Mr. George S. Hillard resigning his Fellow-
ship.

The Treasurer presented his annual report, which was
accepted and ordered to be entered on the records.

The Librarian jjresented his report, which was accepted.

Professor Cooke presented the report of the Rumford
Committee, which was accepted. In accordance with a sug-
gestion contained in this report, it was

Voted, To jolace six hundred dollars ($600) of the Rum-
ford fund at the disposal of the Rumford Committee to aid
Professor H. A. Rowland in a determination of the mechan-
ical equivalent of heat.

The President announced the death of Christian Lassen,
Foreign Honorary Member.

On the motion of the Treasurer, it was

Voted, To appropriate from the general fund : —

280 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

For general expenses 12,100

For Library expenses 700

For Publications 1,500

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Acad-
emy : —

William Edward Story, of Somerville, to be a Resident Fel-
low in Class L, Section 1.

Bennett Hubbard Nash, of Boston, to be a Resident Fel-
low in Class III., Section 2. '

Alfred Tennyson, of Freshwater, to be a Foreign Honorary
Member in Class III., Section 4, in place of the late Mar-
chese Giho Capponi.

Francois Auguste Alexis Mignet of Paris, to be a Foreign
Honorary Member in Class III., Section 3.

Ernst Curtius, of Berlin, to be a Foreign Honorary Mem-
ber in Class III., Section 3.

Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, of London, to be a For-
eign Honorary Member in Class III., Section 2, in place of
the late Christian Lassen.

Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, of Loudon, to be a Foreign Hon-
orary Member in Class III., Section 3.

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc, of Paris, to be a For-
eign Honorary Member in Class III., Section 4, in place of
the late Joaquim Jose da Costa de Macedo.

Mark Pattison, of Oxford, to be a Foreign Honorary Mem-
ber in Class III., Section 3, in place of the late Jean Baptiste
Benoist Eyries.

Thomas Hill, of Portland, to be an Associate Fellow in
Class L, Section 1.

George Mary Searle, of New York, to be an Associate
Fellow in Class L, Section 2,

Henry Larcom Abbot, of New York, to be an Associate
Fellow in Class I., Section 4.

Nathaniel Holmes, of St. Louis, to be an Associate Fellow
in Class III., Section 1.

Richard Saltonstall Greenough, of Floi'ence, to be an Asso-
ciate Fellow in Class HI., Section 4.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 281

The annual election resulted in the choice of the following
officers : —

Charles F. Adams, President.

Joseph Lovering, Vice-President.

JosiAH P. Cooke, Jr., Corresponding Secretary.

Edward C. Pickering, Recording Secretary.

Edmund Quincy, Treasurer and Librarian.

Council.
John B. Henck, \
WoLCOTT GiBBs, \ of Class I.

Charles W. Eliot, )

Alexander Agassiz, \

John A. Lowell, [ of Class 11.

Benj. E. Cotting, )

George E. Ellis, \

Andrew P. Peabody, \ of Class III.

Charles C. Perkins, )

Rumford Committee.
Morrill Wyman. James B. Francis.

WOLCOTT GiBBS. JOHN M. OrDWAY.

Edward C. Pickering. Stephen P. Ruggles.
John Trowbridge.

Committee on Finance.

Charles Francis Adams, ) ^ .
„ „ ) ex officio.

Edmund Quincy, ) *^

Thomas T. Bouve.

The following Committees were appointed on the nomina-
tion of the President : —

Committee on Publication.

Alexander Agassiz. W. R. Goodwin.

John Trowbridge.

282 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Committee on the Library.

Charles Deane. Henry P. Bowditch.

William R. Nichols.

Auditing Committee.
Henry G. Denny. Robert W. Hooper.

Voted, To adjourn this meeting, at its close, to the second
Wednesday in June.

Professor Watson presented a continuation of his paper on
" Inland Navigation."

Six liiindred and ninety-tliird Meeting.

June 14, 1876. — Adjourned Annual Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The following papers were read : —

On parachlor and paraiodbenzjdbromides, by Professor
C. L. Jackson.

On derivatives of parabronibenzylbromides, by C. L. Jack-
son and Woodbury Lowery.

On methyluric acid, by Professor H. B. Hill.

On the salts of methyluric acid, by O. R. Jackson.

The following papers were presented by title : —

On the solubility of sodic and potassic bromides in absolute
alcohol, by J. H. Bullard and A. L. Thomsen.

On the atomic weight of antimony, by Professor J. P.
Cooke, Jr.

Contribution towards the history of the fluorides of man-
ganese, by W. H. Melville.

Researches on the substituted benzyl compounds, by Pro-
fessor C. L. Jackson.

On the effect of temperature on the viscosity of air, by
S. W. Holman.

On the characters of a new genus of Papaveraceae, Canbya;
also, of certain other new Californian species of plants, by
Professor Asa Gray.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 283

Six Imndred and ninety-fourth Meeting.

October 11, 1876. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Letters were read from Messrs. Curtius, Le Due, Mignet,
Pattison, Rawlinson, Stanley, Abbot, and Searle, accepting
their election as members of the Academy ; also from Messrs.
Bowen and Cabot resigning their membership.

Voted^ To place six hundred dollars ($600) of the income
of the Rumford Fund at the disposal of the Rumford Com-
mittee to aid Professor Langiey in his researches on radiant
energy.

Professor A. G. Bell, by invitation presented a paper on
telephony.

On the motion of IMr. Emerson it was

Voted, To heartily congratulate Professor Bell on his won-
derful discovery in telephony.

The following papers were presented : —

On the use of glass circles for meridian instruments, by
Mr. W. A. Rogers.

On the suspension of a ball in a jet of air having an incli-
nation of 45° by Mr. W. A. Rogers.

On a new edition of Ptolemy's catalogue of stars, by Mr.
C. S. Peirce.

Dr. Gray presented, by title, the following paper : —

Contributions to North American Botany.

Six hundred and ninety-fifth Meeting.

November 10, 1876. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary announced the death of
Nicholas St. John Green, William A. Stearns, and Edward
Wigglesworth, Fellows of the Academy ; also of Charles
Davies, Associate Fellow, and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg,
Foreign Honorary Member. He also read letters from Mon-
sieur G. A. Him acknowledging the receipt of the Works of

284 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Count Rumford, and from Dr. F. Garrigou, requesting the
Academy to send him samples of the principal American
thermal springs. This last was referred to the Smithsonian
Institution.

Professor John Trowbridge, on behalf of Professor J. D.
Whitney, presented a paper on the velocity of the shock of
the Hell-Gate explosion.

Mr. W. A. Rogers exhibited a series of drawings of the
planet Jupiter, by Mr. L. Trouvelot ; he also presented, by
title, a paper, by Mr. L. Waldo, on the pitch of the screw
of the micrometer of the equatorial of the Harvard College
observatory.

Mr. S. P. Sharpies presented the following papers by title : —

On the aceto-arsenite of copper.

On some further determinations of standard milk.

Six hundred and ninety-sixth Meeting.

December 13, 1876. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The President read a letter from Mr. Alfred Tennyson,
accepting his election as Foreign Honorary Member ; also, a
letter from Mr. William Ferrel, resigning his fellowship.

The following papers were presented : —

O'n the structure of the chrysalis of butterflies, by Mr.
S. H. Scudder.

On the two-point and three-point problem in surveying, by
Professor E. C. Pickering.

On the water of the ponds of eastern Massachusetts, by
Mr. S. P. Sharpies.

Six hundred and ninety-seventh Meeting.

January 10, 1877. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The following papers were presented : —

On the micrometer level, by Professor E. C. Pickering.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 285

On vortices, by Professor John Trowbridge.

On tri-iodo-resorcin, by A. J. H. Norton, presented by Pro-
fessor E. N. Horsford.

On the mythology of the Noith American Indians, by
Professor J. W. Powell.

The President announced the death of Professor Alexis
Caswell, of Providence.

Voted, To adjourn this meeting, at its close, to the second
Wednesday in February.

On the suggestion of Professor F. W. Putnam, it was

Voted, To refer to the Council the question of depositing a
Mexican mask and a plate of Dighton Rock in the Peabody
Museum of Archaeology.

Six hundred and ninety-eighth Meeting.

February 14, 1877. — Adjourned Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Sir James Paget, of London, was elected a Foreign Hono-
rary Member in Class II., Section 4, in place of the late
Gabriel Andral.

On the motion of Professor Lovering, it was

Voted, That a committee of three be appointed to consider
and report upon the expediency of memorializing Congress to
pass a law making it the duty of postmasters to collect the
facts in regard to accidents to life or property by lightning
which may occur within the area covered by their departments,
and communicate the same as may hereafter be designated.

A committee was appointed consisting of Messrs. Lovering,
Bigelow, and Pickering.

Dr. Thomas M. Brewer read a paper on parasitic birds.

Professor A. Graham Bell, introduced by the Recording
Secretary, presented a description of his further researches in
telephony.

Dr. Williams, on the introduction of Dr. B. E. Cotting,
read a paper on French verbs.

286 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Six liwnclred and ninety-ninth Meeting.

March 14, 1877. — Stated Meeting.

The President m the chair.

The President announced the death of Alexander Braun,
Wilhehn Hofraeister, J. C. Poggendorff, and Karl Ernst Von
Baer, Foreign Honorary Members; and of C. H. Davis,
Charles Wilkes, and F. B. Meek, Associate Fellows.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the
Academy : —

Alexander Graham Bell, of Salem, to be a Resident Fel-
low in Class I., Section 3.

Jeremiah Lewis Diman, of Providence, to be an Associate
Fellow in Class III., Section 3.

William Ferrel, of Washington, to be an Associate Fellow
in Class I., Section 1.

The Treasurer read a letter from the Hon. E. B. Wash-
burne, giving an account of the repairs which he had caused
to be made at the expense of the Academy of the monument
of Count Rumford at Paris.

The following papers were presented : —

A mathematical discussion of vortex rings in liquids, by
Professor John Trowbridge.

Upon an application of Lane's law of the accumulation of
solar heat, by Professor Benjamin Peirce.

On systematic errors in star declinations, by Professor
E. C. Pickering.

Antigeny ; or, sexual dimorphism in butterflies, by Mr. S. H.
Scudder.

On a new form of clock escapement, by Professor C. A.
Young.

The following papers were presented by title : —

Theory of the horizontal photoheliograph, including its
application to the determination of the solar parallax by means
of transits of Venus, by Professor William Harkness.

On a base from the residues of aniline, by Professor C. L.
Jackson.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 287

On a method of measuriug electro-motive power by B. O.
Peirce, Jr.

A note on tlie conduction of heat in a solid, by B. O.
Peirce, Jr.

Seven hiindredtli Meeting.

April 11, 1877. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from Messrs.
Diman, Ferrel, and Paget, accepting their election into the
Academy.

On the motion of the Treasurer it was

Voted, That the thanks of the Academy be presented to
the Hon. E. B. Washburne and to Mr. Riggs for their services
in connection with the repairs of the monument of Count
Rumford in Paris.

The following papers were presented : —

On the haloid compounds of antimony, by Professor J. P.
Cooke, Jr.

On the temperature of a perfect gas which is in convective
equilibrium, by Professor Benjamin Peirce.

The following papers were presented by title : —

On parabrombenzyl compounds, by C. L. Jackson and
Woodbury Lowery.

On furfurol formed in the dry distillation of wood at low
temperatures, with a note on Scanlan's pyroxanthin, by Pro-
fessor H. B. Hill.

On some new algse of the United States, by Professor
W. G. Farlow.

Mode of germination in the genus Megarhiza, by Professor
Asa Gray.

Seven hundred and first Meeting.

May 9th, 1877. — INIonthly Meeting.

The Vice-President in the chair.

Messrs. Cooke, Eliot, Agassiz, Ellis, and Perkins were ap-
pointed a committee on nominations.

288 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The Recording Secretary declined to be regarded as a
candidate for re-election.

The following papers were presented : —

On the iodides of antimony, by Professor J. P. Cooke, Jr.

On the chemical relations of pressure, by Professor T. S.
Hunt.

On adiabatic surfaces, by Professor John Trowbridge.

On the preparation of nitrogen gas, by Professor Wolcott
Gibbs.

On diamido-sulphobenzide-dicarbonic acid, by Arthur
Michael and T. H. Norton, presented by E. N. Horsford.

On paraiodbenzyl compounds, by Professor C. L. Jackson
and Mr. C. F. Mabery.

On some new algse new to the United States, by W. G.
Farlow.

Descriptions of new species of plants with synopses of cer-
tain genera, by Sereno Watson.

The following paper was presented by title : —

Characters of some new, or little known, genera of plants,
by Professor Asa Gray.

The Corresponding Secretary presented the following
annual Report of the Council : —

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Since the last report, May 10, 1876, the Academy has lost by
death fifteen members, as follows : four Fellows, Nicholas
St. John Green, W. A. Stearns, Emory Washburn, and
Edward Wigglesworth ; five Associate Fellows, Alexis Cas-
well, Charles H. Davis, Charles Davies, Fielding B. Meek,
and Charles Wilkes; six foreign Honorary Members, Braun,
Ehrenberg, Hofmeister, Lassen, Poggendorff, and Von Baer.

NICHOLAS ST. JOHN GREEN.

Mr. Nicholas St, John Green, Professor at the Boston Law
School, and formerly lecturer at the Harvard Law School, died at
Cambridge, on the 8th of September last. Although his name was
only beginning to be known to the public, yet, to the eyes of his asso-
ciates, he occupied, at the time of his death, as important a position in
the field of jurisjjrudence as did the equally lamented Chauncey
Wright in that of philosophy ; and in the sudden deaths so near
together of these intimate friends in the prime of life, the Academy
has lost two of its most gifted members.

In the early practice of his profession, Mr. Green acquired a critical
knowledge of the criminal law ; and he undoubtedly started with a
superstitious respect for the technical element which still prevails in
that part of the law. In fact, it would seem evident that, as a younger
man, he must have held a good many of the prejudices, legal and polit-
ical, which are natural to a strong nature unchastened by learning and
reflection. But his reason was stronger even than his temperament ;
and as time went on, and he became a student of history, political
economy, psychology, and logic, prejudice gave way to philosophy, and
his convictions, without losing in strength, were tempered by an appre-
ciation of the other side which powerful men do not always acquire.
VOL. XII. (y. s. IV.) 19

290 NICHOLAS ST. JOHN GREEN.

He handled a question of law not only with tlie mastery of a logician
who easily reduced a case under established principles, but, also, and
with equal jDOwer, in the light of the history which explains those
principles, and the considerations of political science and human nat-
ure which justify them. The evidence of his ability was not confined
to the lecture-room ; for it is not too much to say, that no man at the
Suffolk bar produced a greater effect upon the opinions of the Supreme
Court, in the cases which he presented, than he. His arguments, in
addition to the qualities of substance which we have mentioned, had a
terseness and simple beauty of form which it is impossible to compare
with any less-distinguished models than those of Judge Curtis. Mr.
Green did not live long enough to construct a systematic work ; but
as, with him, theory was not an excuse for ignorance of details, but
was based aS much on exact and practical knowledge as it was on
broad and careful study outside the law, those who knew him best
hoped and expected that, when he was satisfied with his patient prep-
aration, he would produce results worthy of his talents. A few notes
to his two volumes of criminal cases, two or three articles in the
" American Law Review," and three model volumes of reports, are all
that the profession can judge him by; and they are, perhaps, enough.
But those who have had the benefit of his conversation and criticism
know that, although he had already justified the opinion of his friends,
he gave promise of still greater achievements with which he might
have enriched the world and honored his profession had he lived.

" He was such a philosopher as needs a Diogenes Laertius to por-
tray him," writes, in a private letter, one who was familiar with his
modes of thought. " The basis of his philosophy was, that every form
of words that means any thing indicates some sensible fact on the exist-
ence of which its truth depends. You can hardly call this a doctrine :
it is rather an intellectual tendency. But it was Green's mission to
insist upou it and to illustrate it. This was his guide, I feel sure, in
the study of law. Witness his essay on the doctrine of responsibility.
And he desired to apply the same principle to other branches of philos-
ophy, — to Logic, to Psychology, &c. But these subjects he did not
choose to follow out for himself into detail. He cared for them chiefly
as fields to assert his ruling principle in : beyond that, he was more or
less out of his province. He rather undervalued systems ; prizing
more highly brochures which put some single principle in a strong
li<i"ht. Bentham's refreshina: manner of searchinoj for realities, and
contemptuously tossing aside formal doctrines of the law in rummag-
ing down to the very pleasures and pains which result from different

WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS. 291

legal arrangements, greatly pleased him. But he did not much care
for Bentham's systematic works : it was rather his horde of pamphlets,
raiding like Cossacks into the legal realm, which delighted him. So,
of political economists, he most admired Jean Baptiste Say, perhaps
because he was a great pamphleteer.

" Green carried the same keen scent for sensible facts and contempt
for every thing else into his affections and his tastes. He was a most
warm-hearted man, with an abounding sympathy for all sorts of people,
a great fondness for children, and a love for animals. He had also a
fine taste for poetry, of which he had read a great deal. But one did
not at first so much note his delicate ajipreciation of what was real, as
his scorn for all that was unreal. He had a quality, which was cer-
tainly not roughness, but which, for want of a better appellation,
might be called a Socratic coarseness. It was well fitted to be the
sturdy support of his realism, and gave one a positive pleasure when
one knew him, as if it had been an artistic study. He had an over-
flowing spirit of good-fellowship, and a Rabelaisian humor, without the
Rabelaisian cynicism. I see him now, as he draws back from a game
of whist, his genial nature shining through the merry twinkle of his
eye. But, as he speaks, one perceives that it is not pure mirth that
moves him, but sympathetic amusement ; for his talk is generally of
some fine observation of human or animal nature. . . . He was wont
to take up prostrate or hopeless causes with a zeal, unwise and Quix-
otic from a worldly point of view, but which exemplified some of his
highest traits."

o

WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS.

The Reverend Williasi Augustus Stearns, D.D., LL.D.,
President of Amherst College, died at Amherst, June 8, 1876, in the
seventy-second year of his age. The genealogy of Dr. Stearns would
add another proof, were such necessary, to the truth of the doctrine of the
transmission of.moral and intellectual qualities, and even of tendencies
towards particular pursuits, by hereditary descent. He came by the side
both of his father and his mother of lon^ lines of Conorre^ational min-
isters, devout and learned men, not inexperienced in the ways of mankind
and the management of worldly business, from the part taken by the
ministers of the old Congregational Establishment in the administra-
tion of the affairs of their parishes and often of their parishioners.
The Triennial Catalogue of Harvard College contains the names of
graduates, nomina Uteris italicis exarata, scattered along the ranks of
the eighteenth century and reaching back into those of the seven-

292 WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS.

teenth, througli whom Dr. Stearns traced his lineage. The earliest of
all of his cis-Atlautic progenitors was of a time preceding the foundation
of the College, — the Rev. John Woodbridge, who came to New England
in the year 1634, and was the first minister of Andover in this State.
Descended from ancestors educated in the best learning of their times,
spending their lives in a profession which involved responsibilities,
practical and secular, as well as moral and religious, it would have
been strange if his mind and character had not had impressed upon
them the qualities for which he was distinguished during his life. He
was in a manner preordained to be a minister and the head of an insti-
tution of learning from his birth.

The father of Dr. Stearns was the Rev. Samuel Stearns, who grad-
uated at Cambridge in the year 1794, and his mother was the daughter
of the Rev. Jonathan French, long the minister of Andover. Mr.
French had begun his active life in the military service of the Prov-
ince, and was Sergeant in the garrison which was maintained at the
Castle in Boston harbor, when he was moved to exchange the sword
of the flesh for that of the spirit ; and, after graduating in 1771, he
was ordained minister of Andover as above. Mr. Stearns was settled
over the town of Bedford, in this State, with a salary of three hundred
and thirty-three dollars and thirty-three cents. The town further
gratified him with a loan of a thousand dollars without interest, which
probably enabled him to purchase a form of twenty acres to help in
the support of his family. That some addition to his meagre stipend
was convenient may be inferred from the fact that his children were
thirteen in number, of whom eleven grew up to adult age. His farm
he made a part of the physical education of his boys, and of their
moral education as well, they assisting him, as they successively at-
tained the proper age, in its cultivation, which he carried to a high
degree of perfection. Notwithstanding the narrowness of his means,
Mr. Stearns managed to send four of his five sons to Harvard, three of
whom were ministers, and eminent in their profession. Of the sons,
William, born March 17, 1805, was the second. He showed an early
love of study and an extraordinary power of memory, some remarkable
feats of which were remembered in the family ; such as his knowing the
Assembly's Catechism perfectly at six years old, a curious example of
purely verbal memory, as it was impossible that he should have at-
tached any meaning to most of those doctrinal apophthegms at that
childish age. A little later he learnt by heart the Gospel of Luke in
one week in the intervals of his farm work and other occupations. A
more chai'acteristic attempt of his was made on the outworks of good

WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS. 293

learning by getting surreptitious possession of the Latin grammar, —
for the good minister's means admitted of but one for all his sons,
— and secretly beginning the study of Latin by himself, an effort
which proved to be quite beyond his boyish strength.

When young Stearns reached the age at which his brothers had
been sent to Phillips Academy, in Andover, where his father also had
had his school education, he naturally asked to be allowed to go thither
in his turn. But his father, oppressed by the res angusta domi, replied,
sadly, " My son, desirous as I am of doing what you ask, I do not see
that Providence opens the door ! " "I do not iDelieve, sir," replied the
boy, " that Providence will open it, unless you knock ! " Struck by the
spirit or the good sense of the answer, the father knocked in faith:
the door o^jened and remained open until the sou had passed through
the school and afterwards throui2;h the college. It was a favorable
time when the boy of fifteen took up his abode in that beautiful town,
which Improvement had as yet spared, and where he spent three
hajjpy and profitable years. The academy was then under the mas-
tership of the excellent Principal, John Adams. The government of
this gentleman differed from that of most masters of his time and
before and since. His rule, though firm and decided, was gentle and
kind. Corporal punishment was almost unknown, and inflicted only
in cases of the grossest misconduct. He did not permit the principle
of rivalship and emulation as motives of action. There was no head
and no foot to classes, no medals or rewards of merit, no parts at the
Annual Exhibition distinguishing degrees of scholarship. His pupils
were expected to study because it was their duty and what they were at
school to do. He thus saved them from the jealousies, heart-burnings,
and disappointments which so cruelly wring the breasts of very young
persons. At the more mature age of young men in college, the case
may be different, and such contentions and prizes may be fitting prepara-
tion for the conflicts of life. But for young children we are satisfied that
Mr. Adams's philosophy is the wise and true one. His system justi-
fied itself by its success. The scholarship of his pupils was quite
equal to the best of his time. We believe that there was ne.ver an
instance of one of his scholars failing at the examinations for admission
to college, and in college they won their fair share of college distinc-
tions. In his old age his Alma Mater, Yale College, gave him the
degree of Doctor of Laws, an honor which she might have gracefully
bestowed forty years sooner, when, besides being a compliment and a
gratification, it would have been a professional advantage. For he was
a most dutiful son of that mother of his mind, and always did what he

294 WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS.

2:)i'operly could to cletennine the steps of a questioning pupil in the
direction of her academic shades.

Under these gentle and gracious influences, young Stearns spent
three diligent years, and at the Commencement of 1823 he entered
Harvard College to pass four other diligent years of studious prepara-
tion for his vv,ork in life. From the first he took a high rank among
his fellows. His preparation for the exercises of the class-room was
always thorough to 2:)erfection, and his recitations accurate, elegant,
and fluent, but without any studied attempt at disj^lay. Though not
recluse, he was retired in his habits, and devoted himself earnestly to
the work that he was there to do. Though his intimates were few,
there was no man of his time more cordially esteemed and respected
of all that knew him than he. The chief drawback on the happiness
of his well-spent hours was the narrowness of his circumstances, which
more than once threatened to cut short his colleire career. At the most
critical moment, however, when he was brought face to face with this
cruel necessity, he was relieved from his distress by the timely and
judicious generosity of President Kirkland. By dint of keeping school
in the winter vacations and of the most rigid economy he managed to
win his way to the end, and he took his degree at the Commencement
of 1827 with the third honor of his year. If his worthy master, Mr.
Adams, had entertained any fears — which it is altogether probable
that he did — that his promising pupil might be shaken in his faith in
the strict theology of his fathers through the heretical influences to
which he was subjected at Cambridge, he was happily disappointed ;
for the young Bachelor of Arts issued from the furnace without the
smell of fire upon his garments. Indeed, we imagine that it would
have been necessary for him to court the flames to have had his gar-
ments even singed by the fires of heresy. We believe that there was
never the slightest attempt at proselytism made by the heresiarchs of
the college. Even attendance on the theological lectures of Dr. Ware,
which were necessarily imbued with Unitarian ideas, was not required
of students who objected to their doctrine. However this may have
been, Mr. Stearns remained faithful to the religious tenets he had
imbibed in youth, in which he was assisted by a society of young men
of Evangelical views, which met weekly for devotional purposes and to
strengthen one another to hold fast to the faith as delivered to the
Fathers.

After a year's interval of school-teaching, Mr. Stearns joined the
Theological Seminary at Andover, and went through the regular course
of three years. Having received his license to preach in 1831, and

WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS.

295

gone forth into the world to seek a fit field for his labors, he showed
iu the choice of one his characteristic wisdom and moderation. He
was ambitions rather of doing effective work iu his calling than of
winning the high prizes of his profession. He preferred to build up
the waste places rather than to enter into the rewards of other men's
labors. Instead of continuing to preach as a candidate in the expecta-
tion of securing one of the metropolitan parishes, which his learning,
his character, and his gift of pulpit eloquence would almost certainly
have procured for him, he cast iu his lot at once with a young and
struggling congregation in Cambridgeport, which had little to offer
him excepting an opportunity for work and friendly co-operation in it.
His superiors in the profession, among them at least one of the pro-
fessors at Andover, marvelled at his choice, and looked upon it as a
throwing away of himself and his gifts and graces. And, indeed, Cam-
bridgeport was not at that time the thriving and populous settlement
that it has since become. There was little that was inviting to the
eye or to the taste in the straggling streets and flat surroundings of
that uninteresting suburb. Such as it was, however, there it was that
Mr. Stearns set up the staff of his rest and entered upon what he had
accepted as the business of his life. His neighborhood to Boston and
Cambridge, it is very likely, was a consideration which may have had
some weisfht in his decision. He began his ministerial life with a sal-
ary of seven hundred dollars and a proportion of the pew-lettings, — a
provision scarcely more ample, the difference in the value of money
considered, than the humble stipend which was thought sufficient for
the modest needs of his father at Bedford, nearly forty years before.
Here Mr. Stearns remained for twenty-three years, beloved of his
people, respected by his neighbors, and useful in various directions
outside of his vocation. Besides being chairman of the School Com-
mittee of the town, he was a member of the State Board of Education
and an Overseer of Harvard University umler the charter as modified
in 1810. The twenty-three years of the pastorate of Mr. Stearns
were years of great success in his function. He built up his congrega-
tion from the feeble beginnings of the commencement of his ministry
to be one of the most prosperous and flourishing in the neighborhood
of Boston. And he had provided for himself a convenient and pleas-
ant home.

While thus happily situated and usefully employed, doing well what
he loved best to do, Dr. Stearns — for his Alma Mater had given him
the degree of Doctor in Divinity the year before — was invited in the
year 1854 to assume the Presidency of Amherst College. The offer

296 WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS.

of so important a positiou was naturally gratifying to him as a testi-
mony of the most eminent men in his denomination to their belief in
his qualifications for such a post, but its consideration could not be
entertained without a painful conflict of contending personal feelings
and professional duties. The unwillingness of the congregation he
had so successfully built up to part with him, and his own reluctance
to leave a scene where he had done and enjoyed so much, for a new
and untried field of labor, embarrassed the decision of a question so
material to his future with many conflicting emotions and considera-
tions. Happily for himself and the college, his deliberate judgment
was in favor of the acceptance of the Presidency, and he entered upon
its duties in November, 1854. If the governing authorities of the
college had ever doubted Dr. Stearns's eminent qualifications for the
wider field of activity they had opened to him, they very soon learned
from his otficial conduct how wise and fortunate their choice had been.
By nature, by education, and by experience of men, he was eminently
fitted for the oversight and direction of an institution for the higher
education of youth. Learned, and a lover of sound learning, standing
by preference upon the ancient ways of academic teaching, but not
stubbornly tenacious of them, he was ready to consider and accept the
newer ideas and methods which European influences and the growing
claims of the physical sciences are urging upon the educators of the
day, to the degree and in the manner that seemed to him best adapted
to the present condition of education in this country.

While he was thus at once wisely conservative and judiciously pro-
gressive in his dealings with the more recent theories of academic
instruction, his personal and official relations with the undergraduates
were of the most kindly and paternal description. His native courtesy
and winning suavity of manners won for him their afiection and confi-
dence whenever they came into personal contact with him. His weight
of character and sound judgment impressed them with a sense of his
sagacity and wisdom in all his counsels and suggestions. His very
presence bore the stamp of perfect uprightness and absolute truthful-
ness. He held that to be the best government which governs the
least, and his endeavor was to make his students a law unto them-
selves and to teach them to rule their spirits and their lives by the laws
of self-respect and right reason. But when discipline was needed to
maintain the good order or the good reputation of the college, he could
be as stern and severe as Justice herself. The transgressor found that
his way was hard when he had incurred the just displeasure and judicial
censure of the President. His heart's desire was to prevent misrule

WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEARNS. 297

or disorder by his moral influence over the minds of his students, but
yet so that they should understand it to be deliberate wisdom and not
timid 23olicy that inspired his mild rule, and that the severities of dis-
ci[)line were at hand for the vindication of the laws in the last resort.
Personal instruction of the students in the class-rooms was not to his
taste, and he had no special gift in this direction, and he largely left
that office to those to whom nature or experience had made it easy.
In planning, directing, and superintending the teaching of others, he
found his more congenial and appropriate employment as the head of
the college. In these duties, and especially in the exercise of the most
important function of the president of a college, that of the selection
of the instructors and officers who are to work under his supervision,
he used his constitutional diligence and evinced that instinctive knowl-
edge of men and that intuitive discernment of spirits which leads to
the filling of the right places with the right men at the right time.

Besides the qualities at which we have glanced, which eminently
fitted President Stearns for the headship of an institution of good
learning, he had others which enabled him to do his college most ma-
terial service. He had a natural turn for affairs and was an admirable
man of business. Under his presidency, the funds of the college were
very largely increased, the number of students and of teachers more
than doubled. The college buildings are twice as many as at his
accession to office. The departments of instruction have been enlarged
and extended in every direction. While holding firmly to the sound
orthodox faith that a knowledge of the ancient languages is the indis-
pensable foundation of a truly liberal education, the departments of
the modern languages and literatures, of theology, astronomy, the
physical sciences, of history and philosophy, and of the science of gov-
ernment, were all of them reinforced, and some of them established
during his incumbency. The importance of the fine arts and an-
tiquities as a part of education was first recognized in his time, and a
museum established for the promotion of those elevating and refining
pursuits. The long-neglected but most important study of hygiene
and the physical education wliich belongs to it received under him the
attention it deserves, and with excellent results in the improved health
of the students. The marked advance which Amherst Colleore has
made within the last quarter of a century and the high rank it holds
among the academic institutions of the country may be said, without
disparagement of his eminent predecessors, to be mainly owing to the
zeal and labors of President Stearns. The interests of his own col-
lege, however, did not absorb his attention, to the neglect of those of

298 WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEAENS.

education elsewhere. He asfaiu served on the State Board of Educa-
tion, and it was lie who first proposed the Annual Convention of Col-
lege Presidents to compare and discuss opinions as to matters of
interest common to them all.

When the civil war broke out, President Stearns was not slow to
discern the needs and the duties of that hour of crisis. Though he
calmed the first enthusiasm of his young men who wished to answer
at once the first call of the country, yet as soon as the urgency of the
case was manifest, and it was clear that an appeal to arms was inevi-
table, he encouraged the enlistment of his students, and sent them to
the field with his blessing and hearty God-speed. And he did not
withhold the sacrifice of his own son when duty to his country called
for it. His youngest son, Frazar A. Stearns, then an undergraduate,
went to the front as Adjutant of the 21st Massachusetts Regiment.
After a brief but brilliant term of service this gallant youth fell at the
battle of Newbern on the l4th of March, 1862, in the twenty-second year
of his age. His father met this cruel calamity in a true spirit of
Christian patriotism. His loyalty to the Union was but strengthened
and made more active after it was thus sealed by the blood of his son.
He might have said with the old Duke of Ormond on losing his sou
the P^arl of Ossory, "I would not exchange my dead son for the living
son of any man in Europe ! " General Burnside gave one of tlie guns
captured by the men under Adjutant Stearns's command to the Col-
lege as an expression of his sense of the merit of the young officer and
as a fitting monument to his memory. This household offering to his
country gave force and touching energy to the patriotic words which
the President never failed to utter in the hour of need. He never
failed to enforce the Christian duty of citizens to do their part in the
jDolitical as well as the military service of the nation in his Baccalaure-
ate and other addresses to the youth who sat at his feet.

It will be seen, from this impez'fect sketch of the career and the char-
acter of President Stearns, that he had been singularly fortunate and
happy in his life. And he was equally happy and fortunate in his
death. He certainly died at his post, if ever man did. He was con-
ducting the college prayers on the morning of his death, when ari-ested
by the illness of which he died before the sun went down. In the
fulness of his powers, in the bosom of his family, with every consola-
tion that religion, domestic affection, and friendship could afford, with
little pain and no fear, his useful and honorable life came to a tran-
quil and happy close. It was a true Euthanasia.

The natural endowments and literary attainments of President

WILLIAM AUGUSTUS STEAENS. 299

Stearns were of a high order. His sermons and occasional addresses,
man , of which have been published, show great clearness of thought,
accuracy of reasoning, force of illustration, and rhetorical skill. But
he was even more distinguished as a ready debater and brilliant ex-
tempore speaker. He had great quickness of thought and remarkable
fluency and felicity of speech. It is related of him that, while yet at
Cambridgeport, he was told while on his way to church of the de.tth of
Daniel Webster. He at once laid aside the sermon he had prepared,
and delivered an unpremeditated discourse upon the dead orator,
which his hearers regarded as not inferior to any of the more elaborate
efforts of the eminent men who followed him on the same theme. On
another occasion, at a public meeting where Mr. Webster and Mr.
Everett had swayed the audience with their words of i^ower, Mr.
Stearns was called for after the crowd began to disperse, and he held
them long in eager attention, not less earnest and enthusiastic than
that commanded by the great speakers who had gone before him. The
moral and personal qualities of President Stearns, however, were those
that endeared him most to his friends and enabled him to do the excel-
lent work that filled his days, and to win the success that crowned his
life. His personal and moral courage was perfect. He feared noth-
ing but doing wrong. His success in the various activities of his life
was owing not so much to the preponderance of any one quality of his
character as to the balance and proportion of them all. His soundness
of judgment, his absolute integrity and perfect truthfulness, his unfail-
ing common sense, all contributed to give him that weight of character
which made his voice potential in all matters of practical or academ-
ical detail. He was firm and persevering in matters about which he
had deliberately made up his mind, and he generally carried his points ;
but it was because they were points that ought to be carried. His
nature was singularly rounded and complete. His demeanor was
marked by a modest dignity which claimed what was due to himself,
while giving to others all that was due to them. Courteous of speech,
gentle and polished in manner, cheerful in conversation, thinking and
speaking no evil, yet capable of sternest indignation at injustice, cru-
elty, or meanness, President Stearns left to his academic children, to
his friends, and to the world an example of a highly educiited, high-
principled, high-bred Christian Gentleman.

300 EMORY WASHBURN.

EMORY WASHBURN.

Emory Washburn, Governor of Massachusetts, and Professor in
the Harvard Law School, was born during the first year of the present
century, amid the simple life of one of the hill towns in the interior of
the Bay State. He received a collegiate education first at Dartmouth
and afterwards at Williams Colleges, from which he graduated iu 1817 ;
he studied law at the Law School of Harvard College, and entered upon
the practice of his profession in his native town of Leicester. In a few
years, he removed to Worcester, where for many years he possessed
the confidence of the tribunals and the community, and had, perhaps,
the largest practice in this, the central county of the State, at a bar
always eminent for the character and ability of its members. He was
sent to the Massachusetts House of Representatives both from Leicester
and from Worcester ; and was subsequently elected to the State Senate,
for Worcester County. Soon after he was appointed a judge of the
Court of Common Pleas, an office which he held for four years ; and
in 1853 he was elected Governor of the State. In 1854, the degree
of Doctor of Laws was conferred on him by his Alma Mater, and also
by Harvard College. During this period of active life, in addition to
his arduous professional and official duties, he gave freely of his time
and support to all the best interests of society.

From such a career, at the ripe age of fifty-six, he became a Professor
in the Law School at Cambridge, and remained in that position for
twenty years. To it he brought the fruit of a long and ho'iiorable life ;
to it he brought also the character which had made that life so truly
honored, besides that warmth of the most abounding personal sympathy,
and that devotion to his work which seemed more the prompting of
his nature than the command of duty. These twenty years were the
crown and glory of his life. And when, a year ago, at the ripe age of
seventy-six, he resigned his chair^ because he felt that it might better be
filled by a younger man, his associates could discover no abatement of
force in mind or body. And such an active nature could not remain
idle or be spared from the public service. After an interval of fifty
years since his first election, he was returned to the Legislature of his
native State by his fellow-citizens of Cambridge, and there with all the
vigor of a youth he entered upon the arduous duties of Chairman of the
Judiciary Committee of the House. While full of activity in manifold
ways, both in public official duties, in private life, and in numerous
associations for the promotion of the best interests of society, and amid
friends and home, he received the last summons, and, through a short

EMORY WASHBURN. 301

illness, passed into the other life. Such is the outline of his career ;
what work has he left behind him ?

The work of such a man and teacher it is difficult to trace. It has
mingled with the characters and minds of his pupils. Words of sym-
pathy and 'wisdom, fitly spoken, have turned the current of many a
life from waste to blessing. It is the very presence of his life and
character, rather than his intellectual processes, which influences those
around such 'a man as Emory Washburn. Yet some things may be
definitely said of the result.

In the school where the great work of his life was done, he was ever so
free-hearted in giving his sympathy and counsel to all who, from year to
year, needed or sought it ; his usefulness in this respect was so tran-
scendent that, by universal consent, he is pronounced the best beloved
of all the teachers that school has ever had. His devotion was not to the
ideal entity of the Institution, whose being is to live through the cen-
turies. That might secure the devotion of more poetic minds. His
labor of love was with and for the young men who resorted to it, full
of the mingled holies and fears that attend their entrance upon life, com-
ing often from the res angusta domi to secure encouragement and aid in
the new and brief home where he was always found a father and a friend.
Among the teachers of that school who have gone to their rest were
Ashmun and Story and Greenleaf and Parker and Sumner ; yet so
well known to the living that the name of each is a biography. Of
those yet living, his companions in instruction, we may not speak.
They, with the thousands of his pupils, will concur in the inscription
to his memory, that he was the best beloved of all the teachers of this
school of the law.

But a more specific and definite work he has done for the country
at large, for our English-speaking race, for its body of jurists, and
the administration of justice. His instructions in the school were
chiefly given in the most difficult department of the law, — that
of real property; the most difficult to us, because it does not grow
out of the convictions or practices, or needs of our age or of our
institutions, alone. It comes to us from other ages, from other political
and social organizations, from other ideas of right, from other views
of the nature and obligations of property, and specially of landed
property. Its system of rules is, therefore, comjxjsite and intricate ;
and not always reasonable to our minds, or even useful to existing
interests. The needs of the present, and a forecast of those of the
future, are innovating ui^on it, changing it, not always wisely. A
remedy for one evil often admits greater evils into such ,a system of

802 EMORY WASHBURN.

law. Most of the law of personal property, on the contrary, is the
growth of modern times, suited to the wants of the present ; or, in
fact, but an adoption into the law of the life of the age. Its ideas
become action ; its action becomes the law. The law follows the fact ;
becomes its transcript and record. Not so with our law of real property.
Some law of real property is everywhere essential : decisions upon it
following the ancient pi*ecedents, bending to the emergencies or legisla-
tion of recent times, are issued in scores of volumes with every year.
The labor which will carefully study and collate them all ; which will
sever the essential from the incidental part of each of these decisions ;
which will collect, in two or three volumes, the substance of all of
them ; which will endeavor to mould them into a harmonious system,
for the guidance and instruction of the profession, the courts, and
the community, — such labor, indeed, requires, in the first instance, a
most faithful conscience in him who has undertaken such a work.
That faithful conscience Professor Washburn had ; that immense labor
was conscientiously performed. And the result is contained in his
work upon the " Law of Real Property," now in three volumes ; and
in the supplementary work on " Easements and Servitudes." It is
one of the most useful works on that subject, both for the bar and for the
public; the most useful practical work upon this subject which exists
in the En£;lish lansuaste. The faithfulness of its citations saves an
amount of time for those engaged in the administration of justice, and
for those whose interests are involved in such administration, which
exceeds any estimate.

A more forcible and less conscientious hand might mould the mass
into more symmetrical form. Professor Washburn's duty was not to
make the law, but honestly to report it as others declared it to be.
" Blackstone's Commentaries" were written for students. The clear
and easy flow of their style is yet unexcelled among expositions of the
law ; for the law deals not with the graceful sentiments of life. It has
no eesthetic side. It is devoted to the stern demands of justice, and
to practical interests. Professor Washburn's style in recording its
decisions was, like that of most law-writei's, —

" Subdued
" To tliat it works in, like the dyer's hand."

Professor Washburn's influence upon the young men who com-
menced with him the manly study of the law, and who are yet as-
cending the paths of life ; the great tribute, rather than debt, which he
paid to his profession and to the cause of justice, which is the first inter-

EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH. 303

est of civilized society, — these are the works of his life. To the
results of them uo limit can be easily assigned.

His friends (no one could know him, aud not call him friend) all
recognize that these crowning works of his life had their origin in the
governing elements of his character, — devotion to duty and good-will
to man. In him, wisdom and charity in its largest sense were most
completely blended. His life, moreover, was fully rounded and his
work well done. As he often expressed the wish, he died before "his
eye was dim or his natural force abated." Never to have known weari-
ness during a life of nearly fourscore years, full of usefulness, honor,
and domestic comfort, is as great a blessing as ever falls to the lot of
man, and this blessing Judge Washburn fully enjoyed.

EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH.

Edward Wigglesworth, a Fellow of the Academy of Class IH.,
Section IV., died at his residence on Sunday, October 15, 1876, in this
city, where he was born, January 14, 1804. He was in his seventy-
third year.

His ancestral and family name connects him with individuals conspic-
uous and honored in their several generations, from the first settlement
of the country, for their characters and services in the various ranges
of life. His first progenitor in this country was li^dward Wigglesworth,
from Yorkshire, in old England, who, coming to Charlestown in this
colony in the summer of 1638, removed in the autumn to New Haven,
where he died, October 1, 1653. A stone in the Green in that place,
marked with the initials " E. W.," was long supposed to designate the
grave of Colonel Edward Whalley, a member of the High Court of
Justice which condemned Charles I. ; but it is now reasonably believed
to denote the grave of the first Edward Wigdeswoi'th. Among; the
children whom he brought with him to this country was one, then
nearly seven years, who, bearing the name of Michael Wigglesworth,
won great distinction in this colony as divine, physician, and poet.
Having been trained by the famous school-master, Ezekiel Cheever,
whose service as a pedagogue in New England covered a period of
nearly seventy years, Michael became, in 1647, one of the earliest of the
students in Harvard College. Graduating in 1651, he became a tutor
and a Fellow of the college, while preparing for the ministry. Having
labored for a season in the instruction of the Indians at INIartha's
Vineyard, he was ordained as pastor of the church in Ma'den, in this
colony, in August, 1656. Here, after a long service, he died in office,

804 EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH.

June 10, 1705, Though he was noted for his skill and efficiency
in the medical practice of those days, he could not explain the nature
of the malady which made him for most of his life a sufferer from a
mysterious form of invalidism which interrupted his professional work,
and caused him to make a voyage to Bermuda. As the poet of his
age and country, he was the author, among various other compositions,
of that which, under the title of " The Day of Doom," was the classic
for children and their parents for more than half a century in New
England.

Edward, the youngest son of Michael Wigglesworth, was inaugu-
rated in 1722 as the first divinity professor in Harvard College, where
he had graduated, on the foundation of Thomas Hollis, Esq., of Lon-
don. Dr. "Wigglesworth having held this office for more than forty
years, was succeeded in it, in 1765, by his son, Dr. Edward Wiggles-
worth, Jr., who, in 1791, had, as his successor in it, the Rev. Dr.
David Tappan, who was a great-grandson of Rev. Michael Wiggles-
worth, till 1803. Thus, for a period of eighty years, descendants in
three generations from the old Maiden divine filled one of the places
of highest influence and responsibility in this colony, province, and
State of Massachusetts. The second Prof. Wigglesworth was one of the
original Fellows of the Academy, at its incorporation. Papers con-
tributed by him appear in the earlier volumes of the Memoirs. His
calculations for the consti-uction of Life Tables were especially valued.
Thomas Wigglesworth, a graduate of Harvard in 1793, who studied
law, but afterwards, in wide commercial business, became one of the
most honored and successful merchants of Boston, was the youngest
son of the second Professor Wigglesworth. The subject of this Memoir
was the oldest son of Thomas, by his wife, Jane Norton, a sister of that
eminent Biblical scholar, Prof. Andrews Norton of Harvard College.

From his earliest childhood Edward Wiijglesworth manifested those
fine traits and virtues of character, and that love of the jjrocesses of
thought and the acquisition of learning, which were so marked in him
through his whole life. Having been prepared for college by the Rev.
Ebenezer Pemberton of Boston, he completed his course there in
1822, graduating with the highest honors of his class. He pursued
the study of the law in the office of the late Judge William Prescott,
having there, as fellow-students, the late Franklin Dexter, and the late
Nathaniel I. Bowditch. Though he began the practice of the profes-
sion, it did not prove to be congenial or attractive to him, and he
abandoned it to enter his father's counting-room, to aid him in his mer-
cantile aflTairs.

EDWARD WIGr.LESWORTH. 305

Those who at the time or in later years had a personal and intimate
acquaintance witli Mr. Wigglesworth, and were thus appreciative of the
his[h and ahnost morbid conscientiousness, and of tlie even excessive
tenderness of sympathy and benevolence, which were so marked in his
character, can answer only with an assenting smile when told that he
was not, either as a lawyer or a merchant, an effective agent in the
collection of even the most honest debts. When put upon such errands
his frequent report was that the creditors seemed so much in need, or so
reluctant to pay. that he shrank from using any urgency, and so came
back empty. Still, he was of service to his father in his business
affairs, though he never engaged in such interests with partners or by
himself. He acquired sufficient practical knowledge for the care of a
paternal estate, his share in which made him •affluent. Intellectual and
scholarly culture, with the oversight and administration of a large
number of charitable, benevolent, and humane societies, divided in
about equal measure the whole half-century of Mr. Wigglesworth's
mature life. He was a dil gent reader and student, and acquired a
large amount of varied knowledge, which he aimed to have accurate and
thorough. When, in 182;), that learned and laborious German scholar,
Dr. Fiancis Lieber, who had become naturalized among us, undertook
to translate, and to adapt to the uses of American readers, the volumi-
nous Encyclopaedia puldished by Brockhaus, of Leipsic, under the
title of " Allgemeine deutsche Real-p}ncykiopiedie (Conversations-
Lexicon), " he found it necessary to have efficient helpers. The enter-
prise was for its time, a very serious and important one, having been
preceded in that form of literature here only by the republication of
the Loudon edition of Dr. Rees' Cyclopaedia. Dr. Lieber was so for-
tunate as to secure the ready and competent co-o|)eration of IMr. Wig-
glesworth. as his foremost helper. In the preface to the work, in
thirteen volumes, published under the title of the '' Encyclopfedia
Americana," Dr. Lieber makes the following recognition of the aid
which he had received: ''Above all, I ought to acknowled<ie the zeal-
ous and al)Ie co-operation of my friend and associate, Mr. Wiggles-
worth, who will not permit me here to express my obligations to him
in such terms as my feelings would dictate. With him I shall be
hapj)y to share whatever approbation the public may think the work
shall deserve."

If Mr. Wigglesworth had been prompted to devote his years of
easy leisure to the examination and exposition of sotne single subject
in science or literature, that he might prove his claims as an author, he
would undoubtedly have produced one or more works that would have

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 20

o

06 EDWARD WIGGLESWORTH.

secured for him approval, reputation, and fame. Such productions
from his pen as came into print are simply fragmentary, mostly in the
form of brief sententious "Reflections," having the point and force
of clear moralizing and cast into the compressed shape of proverbs.
He had a sagacious discernment, a fertility of imagination, and a
vivacity and sparkle of wit and humor, running with equal facility into
ppose or verse, which, however, he indulged in fulness only in the fes-
tive enjoyments of a large and happy family circle.

Intervals of impaired health, making journeys and travels in this
coiHitry and in Europe occasionally necessary for restoration, and a
genei'al susceptibility to some depressive moods, — no doubt aggravated
by his constant and faithful service in agencies of ministration to the
sorrows and ills of humanity, — seemed at times to cloud the spirit of
Mr. Wigglesworth. His modesty, diffidence, and self-depreciation, his
purity of heart, his gentleness of spirit, and the fulness and generosity
of his benevolent sympatiiies, drew to him the most tender attachment
of his family and his connections, and the profoundest respect and
regard of the whole community in which he was known. His name,
with a generous sum attached to it, appeared in answer to all such
appeals as made necessary the announcement of subscriptions for the
purpose of drawing others ; but there was no record, public or private,
of his da ly alms or of the secret channels of his generosity. The reli-
gious sentiment was deep and strong in him through life, and it was
the most potent element in the training ami influence of his character.

For more than thirty j^ears, Mr. Wigglesworth gave of his means,
his time, and his warm interest, most efficient service to that foremost
of the benevolent institutions of this city, " the Massachusetts General
Hospital ; " having been through the whole of this period a member of
its corporation, as one of its trustees, or vice-president, or president. He
was also an officer of the first and best administered of the now numer-
ous corporations for similar purposes among us, " 1 he Provident Insti-
tution for Savings in the Town of Boston." In the discharge of this
responsible trust, he engaged with a constant and patient diligence and
fidelity, examining investments and securities as if he were himself the
guardian of the frugal savings of each of the depositors. He took en-
tire charge of two of the City Districts of the Boston Provident Asso-
ciation, and for years supported them from his own resources, making
no draught whatever upon the funds of the Association. Most of the
other numerous charitable institutions of the city, and very many of
its literary and religious enterprises found in him a wise and just
administrator, and a generous patron. There are many of his associ-

ALEXIS CASWELL. 307

ates in one or more of these multiplied fellowships who will long cher-
ish in love and respect the memory of this upright, kind-hearted, and
thoroughly good man, as he came with his modest presence to husiness
meetings, sitting for the most part in silence, but ready always, when
his word and opinion were needed, to utter them with a calm wisdom
and a gentle earnestness.

ALEXIS CASWELL.

Ox the 8th of January, 1877, Rhode Island lost, by death, an
accomplished man of science, and one of her best citizens. Alexis
Caswell was born in Taunton, Mass., on the 29th of January, 1799.
His ancestors, on the father's side, were prosperous farmers, and were
among the earliest settlers of Taunton. Thomas Caswell, of the fifth
generation preceding, came, according to tradition, from Somersetshire,
England. His will was admitted to probate in 1697; only fifty-eight
years after the incorporation of Taunton. The grandfather of Alexis
married Zibiah White, who was the great-granddaughter of Peregrine
"White, the first born of the Pilgrims in America on board the May-
flower, November, 1 620. Alexis Caswell, after spending his early years
upon the farm, was prepared for college at tlie Bristol Academy in
Taunton. Little is known of hi-> chara-ter and attainments at this
time ; but, if ihe child is fjither of tlie man, he must have been ami-
able, docile, and full of a liiirh ambition. At the age of nineteen he
entered Brown University, over which Dr. Messer then presided. His
course in college was eminently successful; and, at his graduation, in
1822, he received the first honors.

From 1822 to 1827, he was connected with Columbian College,
Washington. D. C, as tutor or professor of languages; at the same
time studying theology under Dr. Staugiiton, the President. In the
autumn of 1827, he went with Dr. Irah Chase (professor in the New-
ton Theological Seminary from 1825 to 1843), to Halifax for the pur-
pose of establishing the Granville Baptist Church in that place. His
plans were changed, in consequence of an invitation which he receivcMl
from the people to remain among them. He was ordained on the
7th of October, and settled over them as their pastor. Having
preached to them acceptably for a year, he received an invitation from
the first Baptist Church in Providence in the summer of 1828 to
assist the Rev. S. Gano, tlie pastor of that church. He had been in
Providence only a few weeks, when he was ai)pointed Professor of
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Brown University. Witli the

308 ALEXIS CASWELL.

exception of the time wlien he visited Europe, in 18G0-61, he dis-
charged the laborious duties of this office for thirty-five years, to the
complete satisfaction of the government and the pupils of the institu-
tion. Engaging in its instruction soon after Dr. VVayland's accession
to the presidency, he was his strong support throughout an able and
vigorous administration. In many respects, one was the fitting com-
plement of the other, and respect and confidence were felt equally on
each side. In 1840, while Dr. AVayland was absent in Europe, Pro-
fessor Caswell discharged the duties of President ; and, dui'ing the last
three years of President Wayland's otfii-ial term, Professor Caswell,
under the title of Regent, relieved him from all tlie anxieties of disci-
pline, bringing to this delicate duty qualities of mind and heart which
secured good order without alienating the affection of the students.

When Dr. Caswell resigned his professorship in 1863, he was sixty-
four years of age ; and had fairly earned the leisure and the retire-
ment which are the reward and the luxury of old age. But he was
still young in the best sense of the word; young in his feelings, in his
habits of industry, in his intellectual faculties, in the good constitution
which he had inherited fi-om his father (who died in 1851 at the
advanced age of ninety-one), and young in his passion to serve his day
and generation to the end. Accordingly, he engaged in active affairs
with a vigor and success which younger men might well have envied.
Kefreslied by five years, not of repose, but of a change in his intellec-
tual diet, he again obeyed jhe voice of his Alma Mater, which called
him, in 18G8, to the Presidency of Brown University ; Dr. Sears, his
predecessor, having been summoned to an urgent and difficult service
by the strong voice of patriotism and humanity. Although Dr. Cas-
well had been moving for a few years outside of the University
domain, his heart was always there. He knew, better probably than
any one else, the wants, the resources, and the aims of the institution ;
and, notwithstanding that he stood on the brink of threescore years
and ten, he brouglit to his high position the vigor, the freshness, and
the hope of youth. Among the various needs of the University
which he pressed upon the attention of the corporation, in his anninil
reports, was the establishment of an astronomical observatory, suffi-
cient for the purposes of instruction if not of research.

Soon after leaving the office of president, in 1872, Dr. Caswell was
elected into the Board of Trustees, and, in 1875, he was chosen a
Fellow of the Corporation. In 1841, he received the degree of
D.D., and, in 1865, that of LL.D. ; both from his own university.
For nearly fifty years, he had been associated with it, either as student,

ALEXIS CASWELL. 309

teaclier, president, trustee, or fellow : and in each and all of the«e rela-
tions he had reflected back all the honors which he had received as a
favorite son. Earnest, devoted, and generous himself, he had the
power and the disposition to enlist others, of larger means, in the same
cause. None of its distinguished children has exceeded him, perhaps
none has equalled him, in length of service and fidelity to its sacred

tl"US*S.

The special function and the liiirh deliiiht of Dr. Caswell were those
of an educator. When lie began his profession of teacher, he shared
the fate of his contemporaries in older and richer universities in a new
country. He was responsible for all the instruction given in mathe-
matics and natural philosophy ; in face, he alone represented the scien-
tific side of the institution to which he was attached. Afterwards, a
professor of chemistry, and at a much later period professors of natu-
ral pliilosophy or mathematics, were associated with him; so that, in
1850, his own duties were restricted to astronomy, from 1851 to 1855
to mathematics and astronomy, and after 1855 to natural philosophy
and astronomy. It could not be expected of any man who was
required to scatter his energies over a variety of subjects, which in a
well appointed university would tax the best efforts of half a dozen
professors, that he should have much leisure or dispositioii for original
investigation in one direction. It was enougii, and more than enough,
for the most laborious and ambitious teacher tliat he should maintain
a high standard of scholarship in the wide field which circumstances
forced him to cultivate. Much has been written durino; the last few
years in regard to the endowment of scientific research. But this is a
luxury of which no one dreamed in Dr. Caswell's day ; and its strong-
est advocates at the present time are not in agreement as to the best
way of accomplishing the desirable result. Mr. Huxley may be cor-
rect in Iiis opinion that a moderate amount of teaching will not check
but stimulate the zeal of the original explorer. But no one will think
that a mind, wearied by excessive teaching, distracted by a multiplicity
of topics, and prevented from rising in his instruction to tiie Alpine
heights of science by the dulness or indifference of the average stu-
dent who despairs even of reaching the table-land, is a congenial soil
for advancing human knowledge. Under such circumstances, one of two
things must happen, — either the work of teaching will be neglected,
or that of original research will be left to men more favorably
placed.

It must not be inferred from these remarks that Dr. Caswell was
contented to remain stationary. At no time, since his scientific life

310 ALEXIS CASWELL.

began, has it been an easy task even to keep in sight the few who are
steadily advancing the outposts of science; and, of late, it is quite
impossible without concentration. Dr. Caswell's predilection was for
meteorology and astronomy. During the long period of twenty-eight
aud'a half years (fi'om December, 1831, to May, 1860), he made, with
few interruptions, a regular series of meteorological observations, at
the same spot on College Hill, in Providence. These observations,
precise as regards temperature and pressure, and including also much
information on winds, clouds, moisture, rain, storms, the aurora, &c.,
have been published in detail in Volume XII. of the " Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge," and fill 17'.* quarto pages.

In 18-')S, Dr. Caswell delivered four lectures on astronomy at the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington. They were of the highest
order of pojjular instruction, and, on that account, were thought
by Professor Henry worthy of being peimanently preserved in his
printed report for that year. Whatever may have been, or may still
be, the conflict between science and theoh)gy, there is no conflict
between science and religion ; least of all in Dr. Caswell's mind. He
says in his introductory remarks : " The mechanism of the heavens, in
proportion as we comprehend more and more of its vastness atid seem-
ing complexity, bears witness to the enduiing order and harmony of
the universe, and points with unerring certainty to the superintending
agency of an intelligent and infinite Creator." And again : •' We
spontaneously pay the tribute of our homage to all great achievements.
But in no case is homage more just or more enduring than that which
all cultivated minds pay to him who stands as the minister and inter-
preter of Nature, and makes known to us her laws and her mysteries.
Many such adorn the annals of astronomy."

Dr. Caswell joined the American Association for the Advancement
of Science at its second meeting, which was held at Cand)ridge iu
1850. Although he made no formal contribution to its proceedings, he
was a fi'equent attendant upon the annual meetings, took part in the
discussions, and always gave dignity to its deliberations by his character
and his words. In 1855, the Association had its ninth meeiing iu
Providence; and the hospitable reception then given to it, and the
hearty appreciation felt for its labors, were largely due to his influence.
The members expressed their gratitude for this service by electing him
as the vice-president for the next meeting, in Montreal, But the
death of the President elect. Professor J. W. Bailey of West Point,
called Dr. Caswell to the chair. At this large representation of
the science of the Continent (the only meeting which has taken place

ALEXIS CASWELL.

311

outside of the limits of tlie United States), he sustained the credit of
his country on a foreign soil, by his dignified presence and his manly
eloquence, to the great .-at i.s faction of all liis associates. At such a
time and in such a position, Dr. Caswell appeared to great advantage.
By his dignity, his address, and his courtesy he was eminently qualified
to he a j)residing officer; and he was gifted witli a fluency, a felicity,
and a weight of speech which rose to tlie requirements of the occasion.
At tiie next meeting of the Association in Baltimore, the president and
vice-president elect were absent, and every hand was u|)lilted in favor
of placing Dr. Caswell again in the chair. Having been called to pre-
side over two of the most brilliant gatherings of this scientific body, he
was ex|)ectetl to discharge the last duty of a retiring president by giving
the address at Springfield. After showing that science had an intellec-
tual value far transcending its practical use, he discussed the objects, the
opportunities, and the hopes of science in America ; drawing his illus-
trations chiefly from astronomy, partly because it was his fiivorite
study, and partly because it had the start of all others in material
resources. In this excellent address, admirable in thought, spirit, and
stvle. Dr. Caswell reiterates his conviction that genuine science is not
unfriendly to religion. " We participate in no such fear. We wish
explicitly to exonerate this Association from all suspicion of undermin-
ino', or in any manner weakening, the foundations of that faith which
an apostle says was once delivered to the saints. We cannot admit the
opinion that any progress in science will ever operate to the disparage-
ment of that de\out homage which we all owe to llim in whose hand
our breath is. and whose are all our ways. Science, on the contrary,
lends its sanction and adds the weight of its authority to the sublime
teachings of revelation."

In this connection, two other scientific publications of Dr. Caswell
may be mentioned: I. On Zinc as a covering for building; "American
Journal of Science," 1^37. II. Review of ISichol's Architecture of the
Heavens; "Chri.-tian Review," 1841. Dr. Caswell was elected an
Associate Fellow of this Academy in 1850. He was one of the
original members of the ^National Academy of Sciences. He wrote a
Memoir of that worthy pioneer in American Science, Benjamin Silli-
man, which has been printed in one of its volumes of Proceedings.

In this retrospect of the life and labors of Dr. Caswell, he has been
seen almost exclusively in his professional relations, as the student and
teacher of science. And here his mind took more delight in ranging
over a wide field than in dissecting some single flower or tracing the
path of a solitary molecule, although that may be a microcosm in

312 ALEXIS CASWELL.

itself. lie could not have become one of Berkeley's minute philoso-
phers. He was no specialist, though he was never superficial. If he
was not himself an original discoverer, he understood and admired the
discoveries of others, and led others to do likewise. At one time he
taught Butler's Analogy at the university, and with as fresh an euthu-
siasm as if that alone had been the chosen work of liis life. And
wherever there was a gap in the means of instruction, he was the per-
son thounht to be fitted to fill it. His whole nature revolted at the
suggestion of becoming a bookworm or a secluded student. He was
emphatically a man of the world, though not of it. He was inter-
ested in trade, manufactures, and finance. He was a good citizen,
and took an active part in promoting the industrial, intellectual,
and moi'al welfare of his city, his State, and the whole country. His
sympatliies were deep and generous. Always welcomed in the cir-
cles of the refined and educated, he will be no less missed in the
homes of the poor and the unfortunate. His heart and mind and
strength were liberally expended in the administration of the public
charities of the city and State.

Dr. Caswell was an earnest spe^aker, ami a clear, warm, and vigorous
writer. To his public^itions, ah'eady mentioned, may be added :
I. <h B K oration in 1835. II. Review of Whewell's Bridgewater
Treatise; "Christian Review," 1836. HI. Article on P^mulatiou ;
"North American Review," 1836. IV. Address at the funeral of
Rev. J. N. Granger, 1857. V. Memoir of John Barstow. VI. Ser-
mon on the Life and Christian work of Dr. Francis Wayland.

Truly was it said of Dr. Caswell, at his funeral, that nature did
much for him, but that grace had done even more. Firm and earnest
in his own religious convictions, inflexible in his own peculiar theology,
he had no taint of illiberality in his intellect or his heart ; ever abound-
ing in that Christian charity which thinketh no evil of any who con-
scientiously worshipped the same God from a different altar. He had
mingled in the affaii-s of practical life more than usually happens to an
academic career, but the purity, the integrity, ami the simplicity of his
character were superior to its surroundings ; and, to the end, he
seemed as much in place in the pulpit as if he had never left the pro-
fession of his early choice. There was no austerity in his goodness ;
hence it attracted those who could not have been driven. Sweet iu
temper, cheerful in disposition, gentle, affectionate, affable, hospitable,
he was happy in his life, and even more happy in his death. After his
long day, in wliicli he had not labored in vain, his sun went suddenly
down iu a cloudless sky. And behold the end of such a man : it is all

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS. 313

honor, and affection, and peace. The press, the university, the church,
and the State, have borne witness to the excellence of his character and
the usefuhiess of his life.

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS.

Charles Henry Davis was born in Boston, 16th January, 1807.
His father was the Hon. Daniel Davis, a lawyer of distinction, and
lonsr the Solicitor-General of Massachusetts. His mother was born
Margaret Freeman, sister to the Rev. James F'reeman, the eminent
mini!«ter of the King's Chapel. He was admitted to Harvard College
in 1821 ; but left it two years later, to enter the naval profession.
In 1841, however, the university conferred on him the degrees of
A.B. and A.M., and, in 18()8, that of LL.D., and his name stands iu
the triennial catalosue iu the list of members of the class of 1825.

His commission as midshipman bore date 12th August, 1823. For
some fifteen or twenty years after this time, his life was occupied with
the duties and pleasures of his profession. He became passed midship-
man iu 1829, and lieutenant in 1834. His ever distinct personality
outwardly displayed itself chiefly in the gayety, the spirit, and the
physical energy of youth. But the activity of nature which thus
found its expression was iu reality the outgrowth of the vigor and
brilliancy of his mind and character; and these qualities were all the
time gaining maturity and tempered strength in reading, reflection, and
intercourse with the world. His habits of thou<iht and feeling bore ever
after deep and pleasant traces of the education of those earlier years.

About 1840, Lieutenant Davis took up his residence in Cambridge,
and undertook a serious course of reading and study, especially in
mathematics, which he pursued under the guidance of Professor
Peirce. In 1842, he was ordered to duty on the Coast Survey, of
which Professor Bache was the next year appointed superintendent;
and he continued as one of the most valued officers in this service till
1849. The department to which he was primarily assigned was the
investigation of the velocity and directitm of the tides and currents in
New York Harbor, in the Gulf Stream, and in the neighborhood of
Kantucket ; and the efficiency and ability which he displayed in this
work led to his frequent appointment on commissions, both then and
subsequently, tx) examine the principal harbors of the country. These
researches engaged him in the genei'al study of the laws of tidal action,
in which he made valuable additions to knowledge, and was led to the
adoption of new and striking views, embodied in his " Memoir upon

314 CHARLES HENRY DAVIS.

the Geolo"-ical Action of the Tidal and other Currents of the Ocean "
(Mem. Am. Acad., new series, vol. iv.) and his " Law of Deposit of
the Flood Tide" (Smithsonian Contributions, vol. iii.). The object of
these publications, which made him known to men of science as an
hydrogr;ipher of the highest learning and skill, was to exhibit the law
of connection between ilie currents of tlie st^a and the alluvial deposits
on its borders and in its depths, and to show tliat this law had con-
tributed in past ages, in an important degiee, and was still constantly
contributing, to the determination and modification of the forms of the
continents.

At tiie same time with the performance of this valuable scientific
work, he was rendering conspicuous services to the country, by labors
of more directly practical utility. His discovery, in the successive years
from 184G to 1S49, of a series of important shoals, before utterly un-
suspected, lying in one of the most constantly traversed regions of the
ocean, directly in the track of vessels sailing between New York and
Europe, or between Boston and West Indian or Southern ports,
attracted public attention very powerfully to the value of the Coast
Survey, which had not then acquired the position it now holds in the
confidence of the country. Several considerable wrecks and accidents,
before unexplained, were accounted for by tiiese discoveries, which
called forth special letters of acknowledgment from merchants and
insurance companies.

Lieutenant Davis was detached from the Coast Survey in 1849,
and ordered to duty as the first superintendent of the new "American
Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac," which owed its foundation directly
to his efforts. The following extract from a letter of Professor Bache
to the Secretary of the Treasury, dated 17th July, 1849, — a letter in no
way called for by any courtesy of custom, — shows the estimation in
which he was held by his eminent chief: " The official reports of the
progress of the Coast Survey have, from time to time, brought the
name and services of Lieutenant Davis very prominently before
the department, as marked by all the (jualities which insure distinction
in such a work. The loss of his services will be deeply felt. The
zeal, industry, knowledge, and judgment ripened by experience, which
he has brought to the survey, cannot soon be replaced. They have
conferred upon it some of its most decided claims to usefulness and
public approval. In parting with this most valued officer for a field of
duty alike honorable to him and useful to the country, I desire to place
on the records of the Treasury Department the strongest expression
of my sense of his merits in the career which he leaves."

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS. 315

But while the labors of our deceased associate in the hydrographic
work of the Coast Survey establisiied his reputation as an accomplished
and able investigator, and were of high public value, he rendered still
more important benefits to his country and to science by his successful
organization and conduct of tlie '• American Ephemeris." Tlie establish-
ment of this work was urged by its projectors, and especially by Lieu-
tenant Davis (the prime mover in the undertaking), wiih two motives:
first, to advance the scientific character and standing of the country, by
a publication of the highest order fiom a scientific point of view ; and,
secondly, to promote the cause of astronomy itself, and render substan-
tial services to navigation, by producing a work on a higher plane tiian
the '• British Nautical Almanac," fully conformed to the latest develop-
ments of knowledge, and likely to give an additional stimulus to pure
research. To carry out this ambitious plan, with the revision of the
solar, lunar, and planetary tables, and of various points of astronomi-
cal theory, which it involved, it was necessary to eidist iu the work the
ablest mathematical astronomers of the country, and at the same time
to train up a body of young computers, and to inspire them not only
with the spirit of numerical accuracy, but with the tiiie love of science
and desire to advance it. To this arduous but most interesting task,
Davis brought his admirable judgment and his fine scientific talents,
together with that fortunate temperament which easily united various
men in loyalty to one enterprise, and that generosity of nature which
thought only of doing the work in the best manner, and gladly gave
the freest possible play to others' individuality. The first volume of
the " E^pliemeris " appeared in 1852, and was very favorably received
on both sides of the Atlantic ; and it may be safely said, that, except
the Coast Survey, of which the vast scope of course gives it pre-emi-
nence, uo scientific work which has been carried on in this country has
redounded more largely to the national credit. " The policy adopted in
the newly formed office," writes one who was familiar with it, and
whose judgment is authoritative, " tliough not in all respects to be per-
manently imitated as a piece of administrative machinery, was such as
to make it a more efficient promoter of mathematical astronomy in this
country than any organization we have ever had. Young men of
talent were looked for from all quarters, were employed without regard
to personal or political influence, were paid according to their efficiency,
and were encouraged to engage in any branch of mathematical or
astronomical research which would tend to improve the almanac. In
the work of th« office there was a freedom from discij)line ami restraint,
which, though it might work badly under other circumstances, was

316 CHARLES HENRY DAVIS.

very favorable to the development of a school of mathematicians.
Besides men like Peiice and Walker, who had attained eminence
before becoming connected with his office, the names of President
Runkle, Professors VVinlock and Newcorab, Chauncey Wright, and
William P"'errel, may be cited as representatives of the men who
were first brouirht out throu";h their connection with the Nautical
Almanac."

In 1854, Davis attained the rank of commander; and, in 1857, he
published an English translation of Gauss's "Theoria Motils Corporum
Ccelestium." The period of his superintendency of the almanac was
interrupted by a three years' cruise in the Pacific Ocean. This cruise
was signalized by a striking exhibition of the decision of character
and willingness to assume responsibility for which he was ever noted
in the service, in his acceptance, in the name of the United States, of
the surrender of Walker in Nicaragua, — a step which saved many
lives, and prevented serious complications, and which Davis took with-
out any explicit instructions from the commander-in-chief of the
squadron.

In 1861, soon after the outbreak of the civil war, Davis was made
a member of a board of officers assembled at Washington to inquire
into and report upon the condition of the Southern coast, with a view
to oifeusive operations on the part of the United States. This
inquiry led to the organization of the squadron which was placed
under the command of Flag-Officer Du[)ont, and of which Davis was
appointed fleet-captain and chief-of-staff, and to the capture of Port
Royal, — the first brilliant naval achievement of the war. Davis was
prominently engaged in both the planning and the execution of this
magnificent action ; in which two strong forts, splendidly manned, and
mounting forty-three guns, nearly all of heavy calibre, yielded in four
hours to an attack as beautiful as it was able, and one of the largest
and noblest harbors of the South, — indeed, one of the finest in the
world, — with all the surrounding country, fell into the hands of the
Federal Government. In Flag-Officer Dupont's official report of
11th November, 1861, he says of Commander Davis : " In the organiza-
tion of our large fleet before sailing, and in the preparation and system-
atic arrangement of the details of our contemplateil work, — in short,
in all the duties pertaining to the flag-officer, — I received his most
valuable assistance. He possesses the rare quality of being a man of
science and a practical officer, keeping the love of science subordinate
to the regular duties of his profession. During the action, he watched
over the movements of the fleet, kept the official minutes, and evinced

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS. 317

that calmness in dan;i;er, which, to my knowledge for thirty years, has
been a conspicuous trait in his character."

In May, 1862, Davis (now captain) was appointed flag-officer of
the Mississippi flotilla off Fort Pillow ; and, one or two days after
assuming command, he with seven vessels beat off a squadron of eight
iron-clads which had steamed up the river and attacked him. The
action was a spirited one, and lasted nearly an hour. Three of the
hostile gunboats were disabled, but avoided capture by taking refuge
under the guns of the fort. On the 5th of June Fort Pillow was
abandoned by the Confederates, and on the sixth Davis fell in with
their ironclads and rams, opposite Memphis. A rimning flght ensued,
resulting in the capture or destruction of all the Confederate vessels
but one, and the surrender of IMeraphis. Davis then joined Farragut,
and was engaged in various opei-ations near Vicksburg, and in the
Yazoo River.

In this year, the Bureau of Navigation was established, and Davis
was appointed its first chief. In 186"}, he received tlie thanks of Con-
gress,— a distinction which entitled him to ten years of active service
beyond the regular time of retirement, — and was promoted to the rank
of rear-admiral. Two years later, he became superintendent of the
Naval Observatory at Washington. In 186G, in compliance with a
resolution of the Senate, he prepared a valuable '' Ueport on Inter-
oceanic Railroads and Canals," which was revised and reprinted in
1870, and furnished by the Navy Department to Captain Selfridge for
his instruction in making his surveys. In 1867, he was again ordered
to sea, in command of the South Atlantic Squadron cruising in South
American waters.

In 1868, while Admiral Davis was in command of this squadron, he
became the object of a bitter personal attack, in consequence of his
not acceding to the views of the United States Ministers in Paraguay
and Brazil as to his proper action in relation to the troubles then agi-
tating the former country. Into matters of controversy this is not the
place to enter; but our notice would be incomplete without a brief
recital of the facts of the case. A state of war existed in Paracruay,
then subject to the dictatorship of Lopez ; and our minister, deeming his
position insecure, withdrew from the country, leaving behind him two
citizens of the United States, who were arrested and imprisoned, at the
moment of his departure, on the charge of conspiracy against the Para-
guayan government. Admiral Davis was accused of delay in demanding
the release of these prisoners, and of accepting their surrender, when it
■was made, after a parley with Lopez and under conditious. In fact, the

818 CHARLES HENRY DAVIS.

charpje of delay arose from his declining to consider his squadron as under
the orders of tiie diplomatic authorities : he acted with as much prompt-
itude as lie conceived to be consistent with his duty of making sure of
his ground in a much-debated case ; and the men were given up on a
peremptory summons, accompanied by a proper display of force, and
under no conditions. His line of conduct was thus completely success-
ful ; and it was fully sustained by the State and Navy Departments.
But a vote of censure was passed by the House of Representatives,
under the influence of the hostility which had been excited in certain
quarters by his independent course. The moral weight to be attached to
this vote may be estimated from the circumstance, that it joined in the
same condemnation Admiral Godon. whose action had been dictated
by the explicit orders of tlie Secretary of the Navy. His reputation
suffered nothing among those who fully understood the merits of the
case. The affair was, in truth, a conspicuous instance of the decision
of character, the soundness and reasonableness of judgment, the con-
scientious and noble-minded patriotism, and the high sense of professional
res|)onsiliility, which always distinguished him.

Admii'al Uavis returned from his South American cruise in 1809,
and was for several years in command of the Navy Yard at Norfolk.
In the winter of 187o-74, he was again appointed to the superintend-
ency of the Naval Observatory, in time to take an active part in com-
pleting the preparations for the expedition to observe the transit of
Venus. Tn the session of 1874-75, Congress made an a|)pro|)riation
for printing illustrations of the results of the Polaris Expedition to
the Arctic regions, commanded by the late Captain C, F. Hall. The
Secretary of the Navy requested Admiral Davis to prepare the work
and take charge of its publication ; and this labor formed the principal
occupation of the last two years of his life. He threw into it an
interest which seemed to deepen at last witii every chapter; giving
assiduous attention to the least details of the narrative, and l)ringing to
bear on it all the additional illustrations he could anywliere gather of
the character and purposes of the conmiander and other officers of the
expedition. The work, which was nearly completed under his hand, is
early expected ; and it is believed that it will be found fully worthy of
its connection with his name.

For several years his health has somewhat declined. But he
worked re<.'ula'-ly on the proofs of the Polaris narrative till the fourth
day before his death, when he had to abandon the effort and go to bed.
From that time he tailed very rapidly, but without sulfering, and died
early in the morning of Sunday, 18th February, lb77.

CHARLES HENRY DAVIS. 319

" Notwithstanding the active and prominent hfe wliich Admiral
Davis led, and his energy and dash as a naval commander," siiys one
w^hose words have been already cited, "his tastes, especially in his
later years, were much more those of the reiined gentleman of literary
leisure than of the active man of the world. He was little inclined to
mingle in general society, but rather sought that of the cultivated few
whose tastes were congenial with his own. His relations with the men
of science who were liis olHcial subordinates were singularly free from
those complaints, jealousies, and distrusts which so often arise when
military men are placed iu charge of works of a purely scientific
character. This arose from an entire absence of every trace of jeal-
ousy in his nature, combined with an admiration of intellectual supe-
riority in others, which led him to concede every thing to it. He
combined independence of cliaracter with Christian courtesy, in a way
that made him a model to the young men by whom lie was surrounded.
No human being who ever came into his presence was too lowly to be
addressed with the most kindly courtes}' ; and, when arroganct- or im-
pertinence became insufferable, no respect for position or influence
gloved the hand which dealt the blow."

" His conversation was forcible, full of good sense, and most amus-
ing," says another writer. " He brought to bear on any subject he
took up a host of argument, illustration, and elucidation ; and he liked
to brighten up the dryest discussion of professional and scientiflc mat-
ters \\ith his original and vivid turns of expression, or with some apt
and unhackneyed quotation. . . . He was an admirable officer. He
had the true spirit of command, — strong, dignified, and quiet ; and one
that, not needing artificial support, was accom[)anied by a thoroughly
friendly relation to liis officers and mt^n. . . . But that which is felt
most det'ply now by those who knew Admiral Davis well is the loss of
a man of rare and noble character. He was a charming companion,
abounding to the last in a natural freshness and gayety of spirit ; and
he hud one of the most honorable, upright, true, generous, and gentle
hearts that ever beat. He was a man of marked cournge, and had,
eminently, the courage of his convictions. At the same time, he was
distinguislied by perfect courtesy, having but one standard of manners
— and that a finished, but unaffected standard — for all classes of
men. . . . He bore good-will to every one, and was always in a cor-
dial vein. Meanness, trickery, and malice, indeed, roused his bitter
contempt. But a salient characteristic of at least his later years was
his profound trust in human nature, his complete freedom from cyni-

320 CHARLES DA VIES.

cism, and his faith in the power of right anrl truth to conquer both the
world and the individual conscience. He

" ' Still in his right hand carried gentle peace
To silence envious tongues.'

. . . We may say of him, as it was said of Sir Launcelot, he was
' the kindest man that ever struck with sword.' "

CHARLES DA VIES.

On the 18th of September died Professor Charles Davies, of
Fishkill, on the Hudson. His family was of VVcL-h origin, settled in
Washington, Litchfield County, Connecticut. Born in 1797, he was
removed with his father and his family to St. Lawrence County, New
York, in the early part of this century. That region was then almost
a wilderness, on the northern frontier. There he was a farmer's boy,
inured to work, to country habits, and to some measure of hardship.
With a strong constitution, quick mind, and impulsive character, he
had all the elements which were necessary to sustain those habits of
study and labor which made him a successful stuient and a most useful
teacher. Li December, 1813, he was appointed a Cadet at West Point.
In consequence of the rapid promotions (it then being war time), he
was promoted Second Lieutenant of Artillery in December, 1815. He
was only one year in the army proper, except being paymaster at West
Point from 1841 to 184G. In December, 1816, he was appointed As-
sistant Professor of Mathematics at the Military Acailemy, — a civil
officer, created by law for the purpose of having permanent teachers.
In 1821, he was appointed Assistant Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy; and in May, 1823, Professor of Mathematics. In
this chair he remained until May, 1837, when he resigned, and removed
to Hartford, Connecticut, chiefly with a view of preparing and pub-
lishing the series of educational works which have since made him so
well known. The offi.-e of teacher had, however, become habitual
and natural to him. He loved it, and so he continued in it almost to
the last years of his life. From 1839 to 1841, he was Professor of
Mathematics in Trinity College, Hartford. Removing to West Point
as paymaster, and subsequently to Fishkill on the Hudson, he was
appointed Professor of Mathematics and Philosophy in the University
of New York, in 1848, and Professor of the Higher Mathematics in
Columbia College, New York, in 1857. There he remained until
1865, when he retired, and was elected Emeritus Professor. Even
then he did not cease wholly his connection with teachers and teach-

FIELDING BRADFORD MEEK. 321

ing. He was invited to and often attended the Teachers' Associations
and meetings throughout the country. In 1844, he was President of
the Teachers' Association of New York ; and in recent years, a mem-
ber of the "• University Convocation " of New York. It was to that
body that he made his Report on the " Metric System," which was
published in 1870. In 1824, the degree of A.M. was conferred by tlie
College of New Jersey (Princeton) ; and in 1825, the same degree, by
Williams College, Massachusetts; and in 1840, the degree of LL.D.,
by Geneva College, New York. If his was a life of actual teaching,
it was perhaps still more so as the writer of text-books, and the author
of methods. He began with the translation of Legendre's Geometry.
It was a capital book on that subject ; and its success induced him to
go on with other works. Among them are no less than six different
grades of Arithmetics ; Elementary works on Algebra, Geometry,
Trigonometry, Practical Mathematics, Surveying and Navigation,
Analytical Geometry, Differential and Integral Calculus, Descriptive
Geometry, Shades, Shadows and Perspective. In addition to these, he
wrote the Logic and Utility of Mathematics ; and, jointly with Profes-
sor Peck, the Mathematical Dictionary. The following is a complete
list : Primary Arithmetic, Intellectual Arithmetic, First Lessons in
Arithmetic, Elements of Written Arithmetic, Old School Arithmetic,
School Arithmetic, Practical Arithmetic, University Arithmetic, Ele-
mentary Algebra, New Elementary Algebra, University Algebra,
Bourdon's Algebra, Elements of Geometry and Trigonometry, Legen-
dre's Geometry, Practical Mathematics and Mensuration, Elements of
Surveying, Elements of Calculus, Analytical Geometry and Calculus,
Desfriptive Geometry, Shades, Shadows and Perspective, Foundations
of Mathematical Science, Grammar of Arithmetic, Outlines of Mathe-
matics, Mathematical Tables, The Metric System, Logic and Utility of
Mathematics, Mathematical Dictionary.

FIELDING BRADFORD MEEK.

Fielding Bradford Meek was born in Madison, Ind., on Dec.
10, 1817, and died in Washington on Dec. 21, 1876. The circumstances
of his little-eventful life are of small intere>t to his fellow-workers in
science, save in so far as they show the conditions under which his pe-
culiarly acute perceptions and admirable judgment became fitted for
his excellent scientific work. Born in a community where science had
no place, and urged by his surroundings to begin commercial ventures
in a frontier society, with little preliminary training of any sort, and

VOL. XII. (n. S. IV.) 21

822 FIELDING BRADFORD MEEK.

with seemingly no inherited instincts leading towards a scientific career,
we yet find him, after one or two unfortunate essays in business, which
deprived him of a small patrimony, taking to the study of nature as by
an instinct. Such inquiries as the writer of this notice has been able
to make of his lamented fellow-worker, in their infrequent meetings,
and of his narrow circle of early intimate friends, have failed to show
in any clear way the steps which led to his beginnings in science.
Much is, perhaps, to be attributed to the fact that his birthplace and
the scene of his last work was in the midst of a region richly stored
with fossil remains of an extinct and peculiar life ; remains that are so
captivating in their very strangeness that they cannot fail to gain the
attention of eyes not sealed to the great problems of the earth. His
body, naturally weak, — for he inherited a malady of the lungs that
made his life a long struggle with disease, — may have helped him to
that isolation of interests which readily drives a mind of acute percep-
tions into studious ways.

It is no part of the purpose of this notice to consider his altogether
admirable personal life, — that must be left to other and fitter hands ;
but there is yet another circumstance of his labor which will interest
all those who are concerned with the question of the circumstances that
have surrounded those who have done great work in science : for the
greater part of his life, our late comrade was cut off by almost total
deafness from all ready contact with the world ; for all the later and
most studious years he was absolutely deaf to every sound. Yet it
should be told, as a part of his excellence, that this imprisonment
within himself never lessened his beautiful kindliness of spirit, nor
checked his ready sympathy with the life about him.

It is Mr. Meek's paheontological labors which will remain his fittest
claim to the gratitude of scientific men. Extending, as they do, over a
long term of years, and concerning materials from all parts of the geo-
logical section, it is difficult to give them any general characterization.
To them all may be given the highest praise for painstaking labor and
perfect honesty of purpose. They nearly all belong to that class of
works which are done in the interests of historical geology, ratlier than
of biology. In this method in which his work was done, he but fol-
lowed the necessary course of all those who take part in the great work
of exploring a region unknown to science, describing facts as they are
successively ascertained without much reference to general conclusions.
His palajontological work was begun in connection with the surveys of
Dr. David Daleman iu Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, in 1848.
After the close of these labors, he remained unconnected with any

ADMIRAL CHARLES WILKES. 323

public work until 1852, when he became an assistant of Mr. James
Wall in his great palfeontological explorations of New York. From
this time to his death he was steadily occupied in that class of govern-
mental researches that forms so large a part of our American scientific
work. In the palseontological studies of the surveys in New York,
Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio, he had a large share ; and in all of them
has raised for himself monuments to his painstaking researches. His
most important work, however, was done in connection with tlie gov-
ernment surveys of the Territories. This work was begun as an assist-
ant of Mr. Hall in the study of the then Territory of Nebraska. The
principal results of this labor were published by this Academy in Vol.
Y. of its Memoirs, 1855. The last twenty years of his life he was a
resident of Washington, and continually engaged in the study of the
rich faunre of invertebrate life from the districts beyond the Mississippi.
His reports on the invertebrate life of these districts, measured by any
standard, are to be ranked with the labors of the first palaeontologists
in the world. The very week of his death, the writer of this notice
received the last and greatest of his works, — a report on the inverte-
brate cretaceous and tertiary fossils of the upper Missouri country, —
a quarto volume of between six and seven hundred pages of text and
nearly fifty plates. This work alone would prove the fit basis of a
great reputation. It shows him to have carried his admirable powers,
the unwavering fidelity, the patient courage, which he had borne
through forty years of bodily weakness, unshaken to his end.

The peculiar seclusion in which Mr. Meek's life had been passed will
not serve to make his loss so quickly felt as that of many another stu-
dent of nature. But, though he passes from us leaving behind few
connected with him by intimate friendships or even close acquaintance,
there are few names in the history of American science so sure
of a place for the time to come.

ADMIRAL CHARLES WILKES.

This distinguished officer entered the navy in 1818, as a midshipman.
In 1826, he was made a lieutenant; in 1843, commander; in 1855,
captain; in 1862, commodore; and in 1866, rear-admiral. His first
cruise was up the INIediterranean ; the next on the west coast of South
America, under Commodore Stewart. In 1836, he surveyed, in the
" Porpoise," George's Bank, oflf" Massachusetts ; and, in 1837, Tybee
Bar, at the mouth of the Savannah River. In 1838, he was selected
by President Van Buren to command the South Sea Exploring Expe-

324 ADMIRAL CHARLES WILKES.

dition, which sailed from Norfolk, August 19 of that year, and returned
to the United States, June 10, 1842. Many valuable contributions
to science, geography, and general physics resulted from this expedi-
tion. The Antai'ctic Continent was discovered Jan. 19, 1840 ; and
several islands, reefs, and shoals, before unknown, were placed on the
charts. In 1861, he relieved Commodore Dornin on the coast of
Africa, and took command of the " San Jacinto ; " and with her capt-
ured the Rebel commissioners. Mason and Slidell, who were found on
board of the British mail-steamer " Trent." In July, 1862, he took
command of the James River flotilla, — a large number of vessels, —^
and served on that station until the Federal troops were removed from
Harrison Landing, September of the same year. He was immediately
ordered to the command of the flying squadron, and sailed without de-
lay for the West Indies, where his squadron did valuable service, capt-
uring many vessels, until June, 1863, when he was ordered home.
This was his last sea service.

At an early age he exhibited a remarkable taste for scientific pur-
suits, especially astronomy and geodesy. In 1830, he took charge of
the Department of Charts and Instruments, at Washington, — a new
bureau. Under his supervision, a small observatory (the first) was
established at Washington in 1833, when the first astronomical obser-
vations, under the auspices of the government, were taken by him, with
fixed instruments. In 1835, he erected on his own property, Capitol
Hill, a small observatory, which was used by the government for sev-
eral years. In 1837, he was sent to Europe to purchase instruments
for the South Sea Exploring Expedition, then fitting out under
command of Commodore Ap Catsby Jones, a duty he w^as peculiarly
fitted for.

Admiral Wilkes was the author of several valuable works. The
narrative of the exploring expedition — five large quarto volumes and
atlas — was written by him. All the charts of the exploring expedi-
tion were constructed under his supervision, comprising two large folio
atlases. He wrote the hydrography of the exploring expedition. Vol.
XXIII. of the series, — a large quarto volume, — and produced a quarto
volume of tlie meteorological observations made during the voyage, —
Vol. XI. of the series of exploring expedition works. He also pub-
lished works on " Western America," the '" Theory of the Winds,"
" Circulation of the Ocean," and " Zodiacal Light." He was, with
others, appointed by the Secretary of the Navy to examine the iron,
coal, and timber regions of the Deep River District, N. C, and made
an interesting report thereon, which was published by Congress in

ALEXANDER BRAUN. 32o

1858, The twenty-fourth volume of the results of the exploring expe-
dition, " General Physics," was prepared by him (nearly ready for the
press), but was never published, although money was appropriated by
Congress for that purpose. It was to contain moon cuhninations for
longitude ; transit observations of the sun and stars, for error and rate
of astronomical clock ; reduced rates of clock or chronometer, by tran-
sit of stars, &c., &c. ; pendulum observations — not the least valuable
those made on Mauna Loa, Hawaii ; magnetic observations for vai'ia-
tion, dip, and intensity ; tides, heights, and a variety of subjects, prin-
cipally the result of his own observation and experience.

Admiral Wilkt^s was emphatically a hard worker, never idle ; and his
eflforts in behalf of science were fully appreciated and acknowledged
by many learned societies, as were also his nautical achievements. He
was made the recipient (1848) of a splendid gold medal, awarded by
the Royal Geographical Society of London, in acknowledgment of his
discovery of the Antarctic Continent. In 1862, the merchants and
citizens of Boston presented him with an elegant sword, and he was
complimented with honorary membership in several scientific associa-
tions in this country and abroad.

It is worthy of note, that Admiral "Wilkes, but a few days after the
registering telegraph of Professor Morse was put in operation between
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844, by a series of observations, having
a well-rated chronometer at each end of the line, determined the differ-
ence of longitude between the two cities.

ALEXANDER BRAUN.

Alexander Braun, one of the ablest botanists of our day, died at
Berlin, on the 29th of March last, after a short illness. He was born
at Ratisbon, May 10, 180-5, and therefore had not quite completed his
72d year. In his childhood the family removed to Carlsruhe, where
his father took an appointment in the postal service, and at length be-
came postmaster-general of the Grand-Duchy of Baden. Just fifty
years ago, Braun was a student at the University of Heidelberg with
Agassiz, Carl Schimper, and Engelmann as intimate companions.
Our associate. Dr. Engelmann, is now the sole survivor. Braun,
Schimper, and Agassiz soon went to ^luuich, where Oken, Schelling,
DoUinger, and Martius (just returned from Brazil) were teaching:* but
the party, Schimper excepted, was again united at Paris in 1832. The
iiUiance with Agassiz was cemented by the marriage of the latter to
Braun's sister.

326 ALEXANDER BRAUN.

Braiin's predilection for botany must have developed early ; for the
long series of his communications to the scientific journals began in
1822, when he was only seventeen years old. Upon the completion of
his university studies, he became Professor of Botany and Zoology in
the Polytechnic School at Carlsruhe. He was transferred to the
botanical chair at the University of Freiburg in the Breisgau in 1846,
accepted a call to that of Giessen in 1850 ; but in 1851, upon the death
of Link and Kunth, he was appointe<l Professor of Botany and Di-
rector of the Botanic Garden at Berlin, where his useful life has just
closed. Although the name of Braun is not connected with any dis-
covery of the first order, yet he early took and has well maintained a
leading position in the science. He was a botanist of wider culture
and acquirement than is now common ; but his strength was given to
morphology and to the systematic botany of the higher and some of
the lower Cryptogamia. His earliest contribution of considerable
extent and permanent importance is his memoir upon the arrangement
of the scales of pine-cones, published in 1830, which opened the pro-
lific and interesting subject of phyllotaxy. It is understood that the
first steps in this direction were taken by Braun's fellow-student, Carl
Schimper, who, however, published nothing upon the subject, either
then or since : so that, practically, the development of the doctrine was
left to Braun, whose memoir is classical. Next to this paper in im-
portance and extent is his memoir on Rejuvenescence in Nature,
especially as exemplified in the Life and Development of Plants, which
first appeared at Freiburg, in 1859, and then at Leipzig in 1851 ; and
which was reproduced in 1853, in an Englisli translation, by the Ray
Society. This, and his paper on the Individual in Plants, which ap-
peared at Berlin in 1852, are writings in which his powers of philo-
sophical generalization as well as of acute observation are strikingly
manifested. His systematic work, ranging over a variety of topics,
is equally marked by acute insight, close observation, and scrupulous
exactness. His investigations of 3Iarsilia, Isoetes, and their allies,
are most complete. Upon the Gharacece his first essay bears the date
of 1834, and various papers have followed from time to time; but,
overtasked by official duties during all his later years, his general
work upon the subject has not appeared; yet we may hope that it is
left in a condition for posthumous publication. Systematic botanists
of ability and experience nowhere abound. In the early part of
Braun's career, Germany had its full proportion ; but owing to the
almost exclusive preference for histology of late years, there are now
extremely few, and the loss of a veteran like Alexander Braun will
be sadly felt.

CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED EHRENBERG. 327

CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED EHRENBERG.

Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg died June 27, 1876, in liis
eighty-second year. He belonged among the founders of our present
zoologj', and was the first to treat in a scientific way that mass of
minute beings formerly included in the vague term " Infusoria." With
the synchronism that often marks valuable discoveries, it happened that
considerable improvements in the microscope were made about the
time he began his favorite investigations, and the demands of his sub-
ject led him ever to encourage and aid such improvements.

In 1830 appeared his great work on living infusoria, with admirable
plates from his own hand. His interpretation of forms so novel was
naturally influenced by previous ideas of organization in the animal
kingdom ; so that to many of them he attributed oi-gans more or less
defined, and a certain complication of structure. As microscopy pro-
gressed, these views were modified and corrected by the observers he
had trained, or who had been stimulated hj his example. The studies
of Schwann and Henle on the nature and development of the cell gave
a new interpretation to these microscopic creatures. Some were found
to be unicellular plants, and others proved the embryos of sponges, and
to be even of articulated or radiated animals. But all such corrections
were simply the unvarying steps that mark discovery. Ehrenberg it
was who took the first step, and who, to the end, remained the master-
spirit in this field.

In 1840 appeared his chief work on the fossil infusoria, which ex-
hibited their extraordinary part in building geological formations,
whether as a fine sand (Bergmehl), or in more compact forms. He
showed that some cretaceous foraminifera are still living, and explained
in advance the structure of portions of the deep-sea bottom which have
recently been examined by the dredge. The number of these low or-
ganisms, figured in his chief works and in his numerous minor publica-
tions, is so great as to give data for their geographical and geological
distribution over a large portion of the globe.

It must not be thought that Ehrenberg was a specialist of the narrow
type which is, unfortunately, so common to-day. He was a man learned
in all branches of natural history, and had grown side by side with the
science he fostered. Although he spent the greater part of his life in
his native Prussia, he travelled a good deal. Having studied at first
theology, and afterwards medicine, at Leipzig, he moved, in 1817, to
Berlin, and there devoted himself to what proved to be the occupation
of his life. From 1820 to 1825, he travelled with Hemprich in Arabia,

828 WILHELM FRIEDBICH BENEDICT HOFAIEISTER.

Egypt, and Nubia, and brought back to his patrons of the Berlin
Academy a rich collection. He published from it " The Corals of the
Red Sea," a work which gave him a high reputation. In 1829, he went
with Humboldt to the Ural Mountains; and, in 1839, he received the
appointment of professor in the University of Berlin.

Ehrenberg enjoyed the advantage that originality gives. He helped
build up zoology, and he created a special department in its study.
Thus it was easy for him to keep on the crest of the front wave. All
the labors of his followers only added to his power and elevation.

WILHELM FEIEDRICH BENEDICT HOFMEISTER.

"WiLHELM Friedrich BENEDICT HoFMEiSTER, the distinguished
vegetable anatomist, and the successor of von Mohl in the chair of
Botany at the University of Tubingen, died on the 12th of January last,
in the 53d year of his age. He was born at Leipzig, May 18, 1824,
where his father was a publisher ; and the son entered upon the same
profession, devoting, however, his leisure to microscopical research.
His first memoir, which established his reputation, viz., that on the
formation of the embryo in plants {Die Entstehung des Embryo der
Phanerogamen), was published at Leipzig in the year 1849. These
researches were confined to the monocotyledonous and proper dicoty-
ledonous plants. It was followed, in 1851, by his still more impor-
tant and elaborate researches upon the development and fructification
of the higher Cryptogaraia and the Coniferae ; and soon after ap-
peared another memoir upon the Vascular Cryptogamia {Beitrage ziir
Kentniss der Gefcisskryptogamen). In 1859 and 1861, he brought out
the results of his new investigations upon the formation of the embryo
in phanerogamous plants. His minor contributions to the journals of
the day are numerous, all relating to vegetable anatgmy and develop-
ment. Called now to the chair of Botany in the University of Heidel-
berg, he undertook the preparation of a text-book, viz., the Handbuch
der Physiologischen Botanik, in connection with DeBary, Jrmisch,
and Sachs ; each taking a particular department. Hofmeister pub-
lished the main anatomical part {Die Lehre von der PJianzenzelle) in
1867, and the morphological {Allgemeine Morphologie der Gewclchse)
in 1868. Since his translation to Tubingen, in the autumn of 1872,
only minor papers have appeared, to testify that his wonderful energy
was not exhausted. Hofmeister was a worthy successor of Mohl ; but
the contrast is striking. Mohl published far too little ; but all that he
wrote was clear and plain. Although the value of Hofmeister's work

CHRISTIAN LASSEN.

329

may be well proportioned to its amount, and although his earlier writ-
ings are not wanting in perspicuity, it is reported that his fellow-
laborers among his own countrymen find it difficult to understand his
later publications.

CHRISTIAN LASSEN.

Among the many illustrious scholars who have passed away during
the last year, none had achieved a higher or more deserved fame than
Christian Lassen, of Bonn. He was a native of Norway, born at
Bergen almost with the century, or late in 1800; and he died on the
8th of May last. The weakness of age, with a growing infirmity of
eyesight, which rendered him during all the last years of his life nearly
blind, has withdrawn him for some time from the ranks of the active
workers, and given him the aspect of a survivor from a past genera-
tion. He belongs, indeed, to the little band of men who inaugurated
in Europe the study of India through its own sacred language, the
Sanskrit ; and he was the last of them yet left in life. It is striking and
strange that there should have died so recently one whose activity as
a scholar covered the whole history of a branch of knowledge which
lias assumed such importance and prominence, which has yielded such
great results, and become an acknowledged necessity to an education
in philology. Lassen was led to take up Sanskrit by the influence of
A. W. von Schlegel, under whom he first studied at Bonn, becoming
afterwards his collaborator, and his successor. The (incomplete) Rama-
yana, the Bliagavadgita, and the Hitopade^a, were the works in whose
preparation he took more or less part : the two last of these, especially,
are still authoritative, unsurpassed in method and merit of execution.
In 1827 appeared his first two works: the celebrated Essai sur le
Pali, prepared in company with Burnouf, and a geographical and his-
torical dissertation on the Penjab, which was the forerunner of his
gigantic ladlsche AlterthumsTcunde, the principal labor of his life.
This began to appear in 1847, and was broken off" with the fourth
volume in 1861—62, by reason of its author's physical infirmities; al-
though he was still able to produce a second edition of the first two
volumes, rewritten and enlarged, in 1867-74. It was the misfortune
of this work, meritorious as it is, that it was begun too soon for the
results of the Vedic researches to be brought fully into its early por-
tions. The study of India, indeed, was and still is in too inchoate a
state to admit of its results being cast into any thing like a permanent
form. Apart from those already mentioned, Lassen's principal con-
tributions to this department of learning were an edition of the

330 JOHANN CHRISTIAN POGGENDORFF.

Gitagovinda, with notes and Latin version ; part of the drama Malati-
Madhava ; a Sanskrit Anthology, with glossary ; and an elaborate Prakrit
grammar : also, a host of important articles in Oriental journals. Of
the Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes he was long editor and
chief author. He by no means, however, confined his studies to India.
His aid in the decipherment of the Persian cuneiform inscriptions was
very important ; and he tried his hand also, with effect, yi])0\x the
Umbrian. The Zend and modern Persian were subjects included in
his University lectures.

Lassen was admirable for singleness and simplicity of character,
freedom from affectation or pedantry, and courtesy and helpfulness to
his pupils. A contented cheerfulness of disposition, too, was a striking
characteristic. Few men have combined a life so splendid in the eyes
of the learned world with such narrowness of means and such physical
trials. The failing of his eyes, probably brought on by excessive use
in difficult collations, began to grow serious after 1840 ; and it was fol-
lowed by other weaknesses, which compelled him to spend the greater
part of his time i-eclining on a lounge, and to be wheeled about in a
chair. His lectures came to an end in 1864. His last literary work
was done by the aid of his wife and of a reader and amanuensis. He
lost until the very end neither his memory nor his keen interest for
every thing that bore upon the studies of his life. He was married in
1849, and leaves no children.

JOHANN CHRISTIAN POGGENDORFF.

The story of the noble and useful life of Johann Christian Poggen-
dorff may be told in a few words. He was born at Hamburg, Dec. 29,
1796 ; received his early education at the Gymnasium in that city ; and
at the age of sixteen entered the shop of an apothecary, where he re-
mained eight years. In 1821, he became a student in the University
of Berlin, and in the following year published his first paper, in which
he described the galvanometer, since, in its improved form, so necessary
an instrument of physical research. The true work of his life began in
1824, when he issued the first number of the '• Annalen der Pliysik
und Chemie " as a continuation of the " Annalen der Physik " of Gil-
bert. During fifty-three years, Poggendorff directed the publication
of the "Annalen," — the noblest scientific periodical which has ever
appeared, the one work which is indispensable to the student of physi-
cal science. Every important memoir in any department of physics
appeared in this journal. Almost the whole scientific life of Berzelius,

KARL ERNST VON BAER. 331

Faraday, Mellon!, Magnus, the two Roses, Mitscherlich, Regnault, and
a host of others, is written in its pages, and a large proportion of the
translations from foreiijn lansjuaores were the work of the editor alone.
After fifty years of his unassuming labor, Poggendorff's friends united
in contributing to a " Jubelband," or jubilee volume, in honor of the
anniversary of his connection with the " Annalen ; " and a goodly tome
filled with oriirinal memoirs marked the besinning of the second half-
century of his life-work. A short time before his death, Poggendorff
sought to give the "Annalen" a still wider range of usefulness by the
occasional publication of " Beibliitter," or supplements, containing brief
abstracts of the work of foreign investiojators. The first number of this
supplement appeared only a few days before his death. It might well
be thought that the superintendence of the "Annalen" would be
work enough for one man. But Poggendorff found time for original
researches in several branches of physics, chiefly in electricity and
magnetism. We owe to him the invention of the method of measuring
small angular variations by means of a plane-mirror telescope and scale,
now in constant use. To chemistry he contributed the method of indi-
rect analysis, which is frequently of great value. The list of his pub-
lished papers embraces more than one hundred and thirty titles. In
1863, he published, in two large volumes, the well-known " Biographisch-
literarisches Handworterbuch zur Geschichte der exacten Wissenchaf-
ten," — the worthy forerunner of the noble work of the Royal Society,
and in itself a monument of careful labor. In Berlin, Poggendortf
was surrounded by a circle of warmly attached friends. He was him-
self the type of the German scientist. Of unusual discrimination and
critical ability, — laborious, jjatient, untiring, — he worked in his own
vocation for nearly sixty years " without haste and without rest." Per-
sonally, he was kindly, genial, and hospitable, perfectly free from osten-
tation, with the heartiest sympathy for the student of science, and
the most cordial ajjpreciation of the work of others. On the 24th of
January last, in his eighty-first year, he died, leaving a name honored
wherever science is honored, cherished and loved by all who knew the
man.

KARL ERNST A^ON BAER.

Karl Ernst Von Baer was born the 29th Feb., 1792, at Piep, the
estate of his father in Esthonia, and died at Dorpat, aged eighty-four.
It was a long life devoted to intellectual work, and, though it included
active periods of travel and exploration, its most memorable events be-
long to the laboratory and are to be found in the annals of scientific

'832 KARL ERNST VON BAER.

research during two-thirds of a century. The opening and closing
scenes of liis life were closely connected ; fur at Dorpat, in the early
days of the University (1810-14), he received his collegiate education
and his doctor's diploma, and there he retired to devote the quiet decline
of his old age to his favorite studies, interrupted only by his death, Nov.
28, 1876. Although he graduated as a physician, he left the university
at twenty-one years of age with a strong bent for natural history, strength-
ened by the influence of the botanist. Professor Ledebour, and the
phjrsiologist, Burdach. But to the naturalist in those days, unless fortune
had made him independent, no path was open except that of medicine.
The study of disease, with its accompanying branches of comparative
anatomy and physiology, was the indirect road to the study of nature.
Yet the young Von Baer struggled manfully with his predilection, and
on his way to Vienna where he went to acquire practical familiarity with
his profession, though keen to observe every thing of interest, he himself
tells us tliat he avoided collections, as he would have done "a consuming
fire." At Vienna, he tried, by throwing himself with new ardor into his
professional work, to forget his passion for natural history. To this ob-
ject, however, his excursions in the neighborhood, on which he allowed
himself to botanize and geologize a little, were by no means favorable.
On one of these rambles, somewhere in the environs of Salzburg, he
fell in with Martius, the botanist, and this chance meeting proved a
turning point in his career. Martius told him to go and study with
Dollinger at Wiirzburg, and gave him as an introduction a package of
mosses to be delivered to him. One of the most pleasing passages in
his autobiography is that in which he describes himself as coming full
of hope into the presence of the professor ; handing the package, and
stating at the same time his desire to attend his course on comparative
anatomy. "I do not lecture on comparative anatomy this term," an-
swered Dollinger, in the quiet, slow manner peculiar to him, at the same
time opening the package and examining the mosses. As the young man
stood for a moment silent and bewildered in his disappointment, the
professor looked up again and said, " Why lectures ? Bring an animal
and dissect it here, and then another." The difficulty was solved. The
young student appeared the next morning with a case of instruments
and a leech purchased at an apothecary's shop. From that time, his
table was in the laboratory of Dollinger, who was not slow to recog-
nize in his new pupil a naturalist of the first order. A true teacher,
Dollinger was lavish of his intellectual capital, giving to his pupils
with generous disregard of his own scientific riglits, the results of his
original and unpublished investigations. His unselfishness was appre-

KARL ERNST VON BAER. ' 333

ciated by his pupils, and by none more than Von Baer, wlio speaks of
him as his " worthy, well beloved, deeply revered teacher." During
his stay at Wiirzburg, Von Baer became intimate with Pander, then
beginning, under the direction of Dollinger and with the assistance of
Dalton, the great series of embryological investigations, in which Von
Baer afterward took so prominent a part, and which has made the
names of all three, Dollinger, Von Baer, and Pander, synonymous
with the science of embryology. Pander's embryology of the chick
first gave the clew to Kaspar Friedrich Wolff's descriptions, and the
connection of Von Baer with Pander's researches led him to investi-
gations long unnoticed, and barely appreciated even now in thei/ full
value and significance, tliough they have gained for him the title of
the founder of modern embryology.

The doubts as to his future career were happily solved at the close
of his two years' residence in Wiirzburg by a letter from Burdach his
former professor in Dorpat, offering him a place as assistant in the
newly founded anatomical department in the University of Kbnigsberg.
This he gladly accepted, and, after a winter spent in Berlin in prepara-
tion for his new office, we find him established in 1817 at Konigsberg.
He entered on his duties with energy and success, cheered by seeing
his old professor amon^ the regular attendants at his lectures. His
knowledge of the lower animals w3s extensive ; and, though compelled
to give his time chiefly to human anatomy, he made a series of prepa-
rations intended as the basis of a small museum. In 1819, through the
influence of his colleague, Schweigger, he was appointed professor of
zoology, with an additional salary of 300 thalei's, and the understanding
that he was to build up a great museum for the University of Konigs-
berg. With his prospects thus improved, he now married Friiuleiu
von ]\Ieden, and felt himself bound by new ties to Konigsberg, where
-he remained till 1829. It was a brilliant period in the life of the
university when, beside Von Baer, its faculty could boast of men like
Schweigger, Schubert, Jacobi, Bessel, Struve, Lobech and the older
Hagea. On Schweigger's death, Von Baer was made regular professor
of natural history and zoology, with a considerable increase of salary,
virtually diminished, however, by the necessity of purchasing books for
his department, which the university found itself too poor to supply.
His professional duties, combining instruction to the medical and zoolo-
gical students with the care of the museum, were now very onerous.
With all his energy and devotion, the museum moved far too slowly for
his zeal. Occasionally, he was cheered by donations or by collections
contributed from distant lands ; and he succeeded in enlisting the sym-

834 KARL ERNST VON BAER.

patliies of the minister of public instruction and of the professors of
the university. But the very modest allowance he received from the
university, spite of occasional aid from outside, forced upon him a dis-
couraging economy in the administration of the museum.

In the midst of all these professional duties, he found time for his spe-
cial studies in geology, anthropology, and anatomy, and continued his
systematic observations in embryology. As early as 1818, he had laid
the foundation of his great generalization on the distinct modes of de-
velopment for the four great branches of the animal kingdom, and in
182G he published, in Burdach's ''Physiology," his embryology of the
chick and frog. Chiefly attracted by the development of Vertebrates,
he first showed the identity of the mammalian egg, including that of man,
with the (^gg of fishes. These results first appeared in the memorable
treatise entitled " De Ovi Mammalium et Hominis Genesi," in 1827.
It was in advance of the time, and, with the exception of a sneering
comment on the egg found by a great man in the ovary of a woman,
was hardly mentioned in the annual scientific reports of the day.
The light thrown upon this paper by the writnigs of a later set of
embryologists, Rathke, Bischoff", and Kolliker, first made known the
vast importance of the theory of embryonic layers announced by Von
Baer. It was followed in 1828 by the first volume of his " Entwicke-
lungsgeschichte ; " but it was only in 1831 that Von Baer was
rewarded by the French Academy with one of its prizes. The Eng-
lish were even slower to recognize his merit, and the first English
translation of the most important biological work of the century, the
" Entwickelungsgeschichte " appeared only in 1855.

In 1829, Von Baer was invited to take charge of the zoological
department in the Academy of St. Petersburg. He had, however, a
certain distrust of the position from the long-continued delay in the
publication of the great work of Pallas. On this account, although
they were inclined to grant all he asked, he decided to remain at
Konigsberg, making it a condition, however, that he should have cer-
tain facilities for his embryological investigations. He now devoted
himself especially to his investigations on the special modes of devel-
opment characterizing the principal types of the animal kingdom, the
results of which were embodied in the second volume of his " Ent-
wickelungsgeschichte." During the second period of his Konigsberg
life, the social and ^wlitical circumstances became less favorable to his
aims, and in 1832 he renewed his negotiations with St. Petersburg;
this time with a different result, for in 1834 we find him established
there. He now entered on a life of greater activity and variety than

KARL ERNST VON BAER. 335

any he had hitherto known. Under the auspices of the academy, he
made a number of journeys first to Lapland and Nova Zerabhi, and
later in the interests of the fisheries to the Volga, Lake Peipns, and
the Caspian Sea. He published full reports of all these explorations,
and remained a most active member of the Academy till 1862, when he
was made an honorary member.

Von Baer was a strong believer in development, but an uncompro-
mising opponent of Darwinism, one of his last papers being a protest
against the assumed descent of Vertebrates from Ascidians. The
breadth of his culture, his great learning, his native simplicity of
character, are nowhere better shown than in the volumes of his col-
lected addresses, more popular essays and lectures. While, however,
he inclines to make knowledge accessible to all, he speaks with quiet
contempt of the dilettante science. Phytogeny, — if we may so call it,
— which threatens to drown all serious investigations under its fan-
tastic theories.

A few men in every century leave the tide line of human knowl-
edge higher than they found it. Von Baer was one of these. Less
brilliant perhaps than Cuvier, he is equally identified with the theory
of types ; and the fame of Von Baer may even outrun that of his
great contemporai-y, since to embryology rather than to any other
science we may look for the elucidation of the prominent biological
problems of the day.

Since the last Report, the Academy has received an acces-
sion of eighteen new members : three Fellows, A. Graham
Bell, B. H. Nash, W. E. Story ; seven Associate Fellows,
William Ferrel, J. L. Diman, Thomas Hill, George Mary
Searle, Henry Larcom Abbott, Nathaniel Holmes, Richard
Saltonstall Greenough ; eight Foreign Honorary Members,
Ei-nst Curtius, F. A. A. Mignet, James Paget, jNIark Pattison,
H. C. Rawlinson, A. P. Stanley, Alfred Tennyson, Viollet-
Le-Duc. On the other hand, by removal from the State or
by resignation, the following Fellows have abandoned their
membership : Francis Bowen, Edward C. Cabot, William
Ferrel, George S. Hillard, Ira Remson, William E. Story. The
list of the Academy corrected to June, 1877, is hereto added.
It includes 181 Fellows, 96 Associate Fellows, and 72 For-
eign Honorary Members.

LIST

OF THE FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

June 14, 1876.

FELLOWS. — 181.

(Number limited to two hundred.)

Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 58.

Section I. —

Mathematics.

7.

Ezekiel B. Elliott,
Benjamin A. Gould,
Gustavus Hay,
Benjamin Peirce,
James M. Peirce,
John D. Runkle,
Edwin P. Seaver,

Washington.

Cordoba.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Section IT. — 8.
Practical Astronomy and Geodesy.
J. Ingersoll Bowditch, Boston.

Alvan Clark,
Henry Mitchell,
Robert Treat Paine,
E. C. Pickering,
William A. Rogers,
L. Trouvelot,
Henry L. Whiting,

Cambridgeport.
Roxbury.
Boston.
Cambridge.
Cambridge.
Cambridge.
Boston.

Section III. — 26.

Physics and Chemistry.

John Bacon, Boston.

A. Graham Bell, Boston.

John H. Blake, Boston.

Thos. Edwards Clark, Williamstown.

W. J. Clark,
Josiah P. Cooke, Jr.
James M. Crafts,
William P. Dexter,
Charles W. Eliot,
Moses G. Farmer,
Wolcott Gibbs,

Amherst.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Roxbui'y.

Cambridge.

Newport.

Boston.

Augustus A. Hayes,
Henry B. Hill, '

Eben N. Horsford,
T. Sterry Hunt,
Charles L. Jackson,
Joseph Lovering,
John M. Merrick,
William R. Nichols,
John M. Ordway,
Edward S. Ritchie,
S. P. Sharpies,
Frank H. Storer,
John Trowbridge,
Cyrus M. Warren,
Charles H. Wiug,

Brookline.
Cambridge.
Cambridge.
Boston.
Cambridge.
Cambridge.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Cambridge.
Jamaica Plain.
Cambridge.
Brookline.
Boston.

Section IV. ~17.
Technology and Engineering.

G. R. Baldwin, Woburn.

John M. Batchelder, Cambridge.

C. O. Boutelle, Washington.

Henry L. Eustis, Cambridge.

James B. Francis, Lowell.

John B. Henck, Boston.

John C. Lee, Salem.

William R. Lee, Roxbury.

Hiram F. JMills, Lawrence.

Alfred P. Rockwell, Boston.

John Rodgers, Washington.

Stephen P. Ruggles, Boston.

Charles S. Storrow, Boston.

John H. Temple, W. Roxbury.

William R. AVare, Boston.

William Watson, Boston.

Morrill Wyman, Cambridge.

FELLOWS.

337

Class II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 66.

Section I. — 11.

Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of
the Globe.

Thomas T. Bouve,
William T. Brigham,
Algernon Coolidge,
John L. Hayes,
Charles T. Jackson,
Jules Marcou,
Raphael Pumpelly,
William B. Rogers,
Nathaniel S. Shaler,
Charles U. Shepard,
Josiah D. Whitney,

Boston.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Amherst.

Cambridge.

Section n. — 10.
Botany.

Jacob Bigelow,
George B. Emerson,
WilHam G. Farlow,
George L. Goodale,
Asa Gray,
H. H. Hunnewell,
John A. Lowell,
Chas. J. Sprague,
Edward Tuckerman,
Serene Watson,

Boston.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Wellesley.

Boston.

Boston.

Amherst.

Cambridge.

Section IIL — 26.

Zoology and Physiology.

Alex. E. R. Agassiz, Cambiidge.

J. A. Allen, Cambridge.

Robert Amory, Brookline.

Nath. E. Atwood, Provincetown.

James M. Barnard, Boston.

Henry P. Bowditch, Boston.

Thomas M. Brewer, Boston.

Samuel Cabot, Boston.

John Dean, Waltham.

Silas Durkee, Boston.

Herrmann A. Hagen, Cambridge.

C. E. Hamlin, Cambridge.
Alpheus Hyatt, Cambridge.
Wm. James, Cambridge.
Samuel Kneeland, Boston.
Theodore Lyman, Boston.
John McCrady, Cambridge.
Edward S. Morse, Salem.
Alpheus S. Packard, Jr., Salem.
Charles Pickering, Boston.

L. F. Pourtales, Cambridge.

Frederic W. Putnam, Cambridge.
Samuel H. Scudder, Cambridge.

D. Humphi'eys Storer, Boston.
Henry Wheatland, Salem.
James C. White, Boston.

Section IV
Medicine and

Samuel L. Abbot,
Henry J. Bigelow,
Henry I. Bowditch,
Edward H. Clarke,
Benjamin E. Cotting
Thomas Dwight,
Robert T. Edes,
Calvin Ellis,
Richai'd M. Hodges,
Oliver W. Holmes,
R. W. Hooper,
John B. S. Jackson,
Edward Jarvis,
Edward Reynolds,
Horatio R. Storer,
John E. Tyler,
J. Baxter Upham,
Charles E. Ware,
Henry AV. Williams,

. — 19.
Surgery.

Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
, Roxbury.
Boston.
Roxbury.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Dorchester.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.

VOL. XII. (x. s. iv.)

22

338

FELLOWS.

Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 57.

Section I. — 15.

Philosophi/ and Jurisprudence.

George Beinis.
George T Bigelow,
Richanl II. Dana, Jr.
C. C. Everett,
Horace Gray,
Frederic H. Hedge,
L. P. Ilickok,
Ebenezer R. Hoar,
Mark Hopkins,
C. C. Langdell,
Henry W. Paine,
Theophilns Parsons,
Charles S. Peirce,
Benjamin F. Thomas,
Francis Wharton,

Sectiox H. — 12.

Philolo[iy and ArchcEology .

Ezra Abbot,
William P. Atkinson,
H. G. Denny,
Epes S. Dixwell,
William Everett,
William W. Goodwin,
Ephraim W. Gurney,
Bennett II. Nash,
Chandler Kobbins,
John L. Sil)ley,
E. A. Sophocles,
Edward J. Young,

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge .

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Section HI. — 16.
Political Economjj and History.

Boston.

Chas. F. Adams, Jr.,

Quincy.

Boston.

Henry Adams,

Boston.

, Boston.

Erastus B. Bigelow,

Boston.

Cambridge.

Caleb Cushing,

Newburypoi't

Boston.

Charles Deane,

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Charles F. Dunbar,

Cambridge.

Northampton.

Samuel Eliot,

Boston.

Concord.

George E. Ellis,

Boston.

Williams town.

E. L. Godkin,

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

WilUam Gray,

Boston.

Cambridge.

Edward Everett Hale

Boston.

Cambridge.

Francis Parkman,

Brookline.

Washington.

A. P. Peabody,

Cambridge.

, Boston.

Nathaniel Thayer,

Boston.

Cambridge.

Henry W. Torrey,

Cambridge.

Robert C. Winthrop,

Boston.

Section IV. — 14.
Literature and the Fine Arts.

Charles F. Adams,
William T. Andrews,
George S. Boutwell,
J. Elliot Cabot,
Francis J. Child,
Ralph Waldo Emerson
John C. Gray,
Henry W. Longfellow,
James Russell Lowell,
Charles Eliot Norton,
John K. Paine,
Thomas W. Parsons,
Charles C. Perldns,
John G. Whittier,

Boston.

Boston.

Groton.

Brookline.

Cambridge.

, Concord.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Wellesley.

Boston.

Amesbury.

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.

889

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. — 96.

(N'limber limited to one hundred.)

Class L — Mathematical and Pliysical Sciences. — 36.

Section I. — 7.
Mathematics.

Charles Avery,
"William Ferrel,
Thomas Hill,

Clinton, N.Y.
Washington.
Portland, Me.

Simon Newcomb, Washington, D. C.
H. A. Newton, New Haven, Conn.
James E. Oliver, Ithaca, N.Y.
T.H. Safford, Williamstown, Mass.

Sectiox n. — 11.

Practical Astronomy and Geodesy.

S. Alexander, Princeton, N.J.

W.H.C.Bartlett, West Point, N.Y.

J. H. C. Coffin, Washington, D.C.

Wm. H. Emory,
J. E. Hilgard,
George W. Hill,
Elias Looniis,

Washington, D.C.
Washington, D. C.
Nyack, N.Y.
New Haven, Conn.

Maria ^litchell, Poughkeepsie, N.Y''.
C. H. F. Peters, Clinton, N.Y.
George M. Searle, New York.
Chas. A. Young, Hanover, N.H.

Section HI. — 12.

Physics and Chemistry.

F. A. P. Barnard, New York.
John W. Draper, New York.
Joseph Henry, Washington, D.C.
S.W.Johnson, New Haven, Conn.
John Le Conte, San Francisco, Cal.
A. M. Mayer, Hoboken, N.J.
W. A. Norton, New Haven, Conn.
Ogden N. Rood, New York.
H. A. Rowland, Baltimore.
L.INI. Rutherfm'd, New York.
Benj. Silliman, Ne-w Haven, Conn,
J. L. Smith, Louisville, Ky.

Section IV. — 6.

■ Technology and Engineering.

Henry L. Abbot, New York.
R. Delafield, AVashington.D.C.

A.A.Humphreys, "Washington, D.C.
Wm. Sellers, Philadelphia.
George Talcott, Albany, N.Y.
W.P.Trowbridge, NewHaven, Conn.

Class II. — Natural and Physiologiccd Sciences. — 29.

Section I. — 13.

Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of
the Globe.

George J. Brush, New Haven, Conn.
James D. Dana, New Haven, Conn.
J. W. Dawson, Montreal, Canada.
Edward Desor, Neufchatel, Switz.

J. C. Fremont,
F. A. Genth,
Arnold Guyot,
James Hall,
F. S. Holmes,
JosejDh Leconte,
J. Peter Lesley,
Wm. T. Roepper,
Geo. C. Swallow,

New York.
Philadelphia.
Princeton, N.J.
Albany, N.Y.
Charleston, S.C.
San Francisco.
Philadelphia.
Bethlehem, Pa.
Columbia, Mo.

S40

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.

Section II. — 4.

Botany.

A. W. Chapman, Aijalachicola, Fla.
G. Engelmann, St. Louis, Mo.
Leo Lesquereux, Columbus, Ohio.
S. T. Oluey, Providence, R.I.

Section III. — 9.

Zoology and Physiology.

S. F. Baird, Washington, D.C.

C. E. Brown- Sequard, London.
J. C. Dalton, New York.

J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio.
J. L. LeConte, Philadelphia.
Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia.
O. C. Marsh, New Haven, Conn.
S. Weir Mitchell, Philadelphia.
St. JuUen Ravenel, Charleston, S.C.

Section IV. — 3.

Medicine and Surgery.

W. A. Hammond, New York.
Isaac Hays, Philadelphia.

George B. Wood, Philadelphia.

Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 31.

Section I. — 7.

Philosophy and Jurisprudence.

D. R. Goodwin, Philadelphia.
R. G. JIazard, Peacedale, R.I.
Nathaniel Holmes, St. Louis, Mo.
James McCosh, Princeton.
Noah Porter, New Haven, Conn.
Isaac Ray, Philadelphia.

Jeremiah Smith, Dover, N.H.

Section II. — 11.

Philology and Archceology.

A. N. Arnold,

D. C. Gilman,
S. S. Haldeman,
A. C. Kendrick,
Geo. P. Marsh,
L. H. Morgan,
A. S. Packard,

E. E. Sahsbury,

Hamilton, N.Y.
Baltimore.
Columbia, Pa.
Rochester, N.Y.
Rome.

Rochester, N.Y.
Brunswick, Me.
New Haven, Conu.

A. D. White, Ithaca, N.Y.

W. D. Whitney, New Haven, Conn.

T. D. Woolsey, New Haven, Conn.

Section IH. — 8.
Political Economy and History.

S. G. Arnold,
Geo. Bancroft,
S. G. Brown,
Henry C. Carey,
J. L. Diman,
Henry C. Lea,
Barnas Sears,
J. H. Trumbull,

Newport, R.I.
Washington.
Clinton, N.Y.
Philadelphia.
Providence, R.I.
Philadelphia.
Scranton, Va.
Hartford.

Section IV. — 5.

Literature and the Fine Arts.
James B. Angell, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Wm. C. Bryant, New York.
F. E. Church, New York.
R. S. Greenough, Florence.
Wm. W. Story, Rome.

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

341

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. — 72.

(Appointed as vaoancies occur.)
Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 25.

Section I.

— 8.

Section I

II. — 11.

Mathematics.

Physics and

Chemistry.

John C. Adams,

Cambridge.

R. Bunsen,

Heidelberg.

Sir George B. Airy,

Greenwich.

E. Chevreul,

Paris.

Brioschi,

Milan.

J. Dumas,

Paris.

Arthur Cayley,
Chasles,

Cambridge.
Paris.

H. Helmholtz,
A. W. Hofmaun,

Berlin.
Berlin.

Le Terrier,

Paris.

G. Kirchhoff,

Berlin.

Liouville,

Paris.

J. C. Maxwell,

Cambridge.

J. J. Sylvester,

Woolwich.

V. Regnault,
Balfour Stewart,

Paris.

Manchester

Section II

.—4.

G. G. Stokes,
F. Wohler,

Cambridge.
Gbttingen.

Practical Astronomy

DoUen,

H. A. E. A. Faye,

and Geodesy.

Pulkowa.
Paris.

Section IV. — 2. ^
Technology and Engineering.

Peters,

Altona.

R. Clausius,

Bonn.

Otto Struve,

Pulkowa.

Sir Wm. Thomson

Glasgow.

Class II. — Natural and j

Section I. — 8.

Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of
the Globe.

Barrande, Prague.

Charles Darwin, Beckenham.

H. W. Dove, Berlin.

James Prescott Joule, Manchester.

AV. H. Miller, Cambridge.

C. F. Rammelsberg, BerUn.

A. C. Ramsay, London.

Sir Edward Sabine, London.

Physiological Sciences.

25.

Section II.

— 6.

Botany.

George Bentham,

London

Decaisne,

Paris.

Alphonse de CandoUe,

•Geneva.

Elias Fries,

Upsal.

Oswald Heer,

Zurich.

Joseph Daltou Hooker,

London

342

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

Section TIT. — S.

Zoology and Pliysiolorjij.

T. L. W. Bischoff, Munich.
Milno-Edwards, Paris.

Albrecht Kiilliker, "Wiirzburg.
Rudolph Leuckart, Leipzig.
Richard Owen, London.

C. Th. Von Siebold, Munich.

J. P. Steenstrup,
Valentin.

Copenhagen.
Berne.

Section IV. — 3.
Medicine and Surgery.
Sir James Paget, London.

Rokitansky,
Virchow,

Vienna.
Berlin.

Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 22.

Section I. — 4.
Philosophy and Jurisprudence.

T. C. Bluntschli,
Sumner Maine,
James INIartineau,
Sclopis di Salerano,

Heidelberg.
London.
London.
Turin.

Section II. — 6.

Philology and Archaeology.

Pascual de Gayangos, Madrid.
Benjamin Jowett, Oxford.
Sir n. C. Rawlinson, London.
Lepsius, Berlin.

Max Miiller, Oxford.

F. Ritschl, Leijjzig.

Section III. — 9.

Political Economy and History.

Ernst Cui'tius, Berhn.
W. Ewart Gladstone, London.

Charles Merivale, Oxford.

F. A. A. Mignet, Paris.

Mommsen, Berlin.

Mark Pattison, Oxford.

Von Ranke, Berlin.

A. P. Stanley, London.

Thiers, Paris.

Section IV. — 3.

Literature and the Fine Arts.

Gerome, Paris.

Alfred Tennyson, Isle of Wight.

VioUet-Le-Duc,

Paris.

INDEX TO YOL. lY.

Abronia Cnix-Maltse, 253.

cycloptera, 253.

niicrantha, 253.
Acanthophora Delilei, 237.

luuscoides, 237.
Acerates, 66, 72.

angustifolia, 72.

auiiculata, 72.

lanuginosa, 73. ,

longifolia, 73.

paniculata, 66.

tomentosa, 73.

viridiflora, 73.
Acid, Diamido-sulphobenzide-di-
carbonic, 205.

Parabro m alph atoluylic , 223 .
Air, Effect of Temperature on Vis-
cosity of, 41.
Alga, Xew, of California, 245.
Algpe, on some new to the United

States, 235.
Amarantus albus, 274.

blitoides, 273.

Blitum, 273.

firabriatus, 274.

Greggii, 274.

obovatus, 275.

Palmeri, 274.

Torreyi, 274.

AVrigbtii, 275.
Amblogyne, 274.
Ammonic parabromalphatoluate,

224.
Amphidium molybdoplaciim, 182.
Amphiroa Californica, 238.

cuspidata. 239.

debilis, 239.

fragilissima, 239.

nodulosa, 239.

Orbigniana, 238.

Amphiroa Triliulus, 239.

tuberculosa, 239.

vertebralis, 239.
Amsonia brevifolia, 64.

longifiora, 64.

Palmeri, 64.

tomentosa, 64.
Anautherix, 66.

connivens, 66.

decumbens, 66.

paniculatus, 66.

viridis, 66.
Angelica leporina, 252.
Antigeny, or Sexual Dimorphism,

in Butterflies, 150.
Antirrhinimi chytrospermum, 81.

cyathiferum, 81.
Appropriations, 279, 283.
Arctomecon, Character of, 52.
Arctostaphylos Clevelandi, 61.
A]-gentic parabromalphatoluate,

224.
Arsenite of Copper, Experiments

upon, 11.
Asclepias, 65.

anioena, 67.

amplexicaulis, 67.

angustifolia, 70, 71, 72.

arenaria, 68.

brachystephaija, 68.

cinerea, 72.

Cornuti, 67.

Coulteri, 71.

cryptoceras, 67.

Curassavica, 66.

debilis, 70.

Douglasii, 67.

eriocarpa, 68.

erosa, (iS.

fascicularis, 71.

Feayi, 72.

Fremonti, 68.

344

INDEX.

t..

Asclepias galioides, 71.
glaucescens, 67.
Hallii, 69.
humistrata, 67.
iucarnata, 67.
involucrata, 69.
Jamesii, 68.
lanceolata, 66.
leucophylla, 68.
Lin aria, 71.
linearis, 70, 71.
Lindheimeri, 72.
linifolia, 70.
longicornu, 72.
macrophylla, 71.
macro tis, 69.
Meadii, 67.
Mexicana, 71.
Michauxii, 72.
nivea, 68, 70.
niimmularia, 67.
Nuttalliana, 69.

nyctaginifolia, 69.

obovata, 69.

obtusifolia, 67.

ovalifolia, 69.

parviflora, 70.

paupercula, 66.

perennis, 70.

phytolaccoides, 68.

purpurascens, 67.

quadrifolia, 70.

quinquedentata, 71.

rubra, 67.

speciosa, 67.

stenophylla, 72.

snbulata, 70.

Sullivan tii, 67.

Syriaca, 67.

tomentosa, 68.

tuberosa, 66, 72.

variegata, 68, 69.

verticillata, 71.

vestita, 68.

virgata, 70, 71.

viridis, 66.

viridula, 72.
Asclepiodora, 66.

viridis, 66.
Astragalus collinus, 51.
flavus, 54.
Haydenianus, 56.
humillimus, 57.
Newberryi, 55.
* Pattersoni, 55.

\ subcompressus, 56.

Astragalus tricarinatus, 56.

Wardi, 55.
Atriplex decumbens, 275.

B.

Benzyl Compounds, Researches on

the Substituted, 209.
Benzylbromides, on Certain Sub-
stituted, 211.

Metabrombenzylbromide ,214.

Orthobrombenzylbromide, 215.

Parabrombenzyibromide, 211.

Paraclilorbeuzylbromide, 218.

Paraiodbenzylbromide, 219.
Biatora carnulenta, 179.

caulophylla, 178.

glauconigrans, 179.

livido-nigricans, 180.

peliaspis, 179.

peliaspistes, 179.

petri, 179.
Bigelovia Vaseyi, 58.
Biographical notices: —

Karl Ernst Von Baer, 331.

Alexander Braun, 325.

Alexis Caswell, 307.

Charles Davies, 320.

Charles Henry Davis, 313.

Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg,

327.

Nicholas St. John Green, 389.
Wilhelm Friedrich Benedict

Hofmeister, 328.
Christian Jassen, 329.
Fielding Bradfort Meek, 321.
Johann Christian Poggendorff,

330.
William Augustus Stearns,

291.
Emory Washburn, 300.
Edward Wigglesworth, 303.
Charles Wilkes, 323.
Botany, Contributions to, 51, 159,

246.
Brickellia Greenei, 58^
Browallia Texana, 16^5.
Buellia parasema, 185.

radiata, 173.
Butterflies, Sexual Dimorphism m,
150.

Callithamnion arbuscula, 244.
Dasyoides, 244.

INDEX.

345

Callithamnion efflorescens, 245.

heteromorplium, 245.

Lejolisea, 244.

Pikeanum, 244.

ptilophora, 244.
Canbya and Arctomecon, 51.
Canbya Candida, 51.
Canotia, 159, 160.
Centrostegia, 269.

leptoceras, 269.

Thiu-beri, 269.
Chantransia efflorescens, 245.
Chlorpea Austin?e, 83.
Choudi-us alfinis, 242.

canaliculatus, 242.
Chorizantfie, Revision of, 269.

brevicornn, 272.

Bl•e^Yel•i, 270.

Califoniica, 269.

commissuralis, 269.

corrugata, 273.

diffusa, 270.

Douglasii, 270.

fimbriata, 271.

laciuiata, 171.

leptoceras, 269.

membranacea, 270.

Palmeri, 271.

Parryi, 271

perfoliata, 269.

polygonoides, 273.

procumbens, 271, 272.

pungens, 270.

rigida, 273.

staticoides, 271, 272.

stellulata, 270.

Thurberi, 269.

uniaristata, 272.

valida, 271.

"Watsoni, 273.

Wheeleri, 272.

Xanti, 272.
Chrysymeuia acanthoclada, 238.

ramosissima, 238.
Chthamalia, 74.

biflora, 78.

pubiflora, 77.
Claytonia bulbifera, 54.
Clethra. 61.

Committees, 281, 285, 287.
Communications from Messrs.

A. G. Bell, 1, 283. 285.

T. M. Brewer, 285

J. H. Billiard, 282.

J. P. Cooke, Jr., 113, 124,282,
287, 288.

Communications from Messrs.

D. C. Eaton, 245.

W. G. Faiiow, 235, 287, 288.

W. Gibbs, 288.

A. Gray, 51, 159, 282, 283, 287,

288.
W. Harkness, 186, 286.
H. B. Hill, 26, 282, 287.

E. R. Hills, 85.

S. W. Holman, 41, 282.

T. S. Hunt, 288.

C. L. Jackson, 209, 211, 282,

286, 287, 288.
O. R. Jackson, 36, 282.
W. Lowerv, 221, 282, 287.
C. F. Mabery, 288.
W. H. Melville, 228, 282.
A. Michael, 205, 288.

A. J. H. Xorton, 285.
T. H. Norton, 205, 288.
E. C. Pickering, 284, 286.

B. Peirce, 286, 287.

B. O. Peirce, Jr., 143,287.

C. S. Peirce, 283.
J. AV. Powell, 285.
W. A. Rogers, 283.

S. H. Scudder, 1.50, 284, 286.

S. P. Sharpies, 11, 98, 284.

A. L. Thomsen, 282.

L. Trouvelot, 284.

J. Trowbridge, 131, 285, 286,
288.

E. Tuckerman, 166.

L. Waldo, 284.

S. Watson, 246, 288.

W. Watson, 282.

J. D. Whitnev, 284.

Dr. Williams!; 285.

C. A. Young, 286.
Copper Acetate, Action of Arsenic
Trioxide on, 85.

Arsenite of, 11.
Corollina pistillaris, 238.
Corallorhiza Bigelovii, 275.

Macraei, 276.

striata, 276.
Criioria purpurea, 240.
Criioriella armorica, 240.
Cryptonemia dichotoma, 242.

obovata, 242.
Cryptosiphonia Woodii, 241.
Cupric Parabromalphatoluate, 225.
Cynanchum Carolinense, 76.

discolor, 76.

hirtiim, 76.

obliquum, 76.

/

346

INDEX.

D.

Dasya Callithamnion, 235.

lophoclados, 236.

subsecunda, 235.

ti'ichoclados, 236.

Delessevia Woodii, 238.

Diamido-siilphobeiizide-dicarbonic

Acid, 205.
Dimorphism, Sexual, in Butter-
flies, 150.

E.

Echidiocarya, 163.

Arizonica, 164.

Californica, 164.
Echiiiospermum, 163.

Greeuei, 163.
Elaterium Bigelovii, 252.

minimum, 252.
Electro-motive forces of Batteries,

Xew Method of Comparing,

137.
Epilobium jucnndum, 57.
Erioderme velliq'erum, 168.
Eriogonum, Revision of, 254.

Abertianum, 258.

acaule, 2-57.

affine, 264.

alatum, 254.

androsaceum, 256.

angulosum, 262.

annuum, 262.

atrorubens, 261.

Baileyi, 268.

brachyiwdum, 259.

brevicaule, 266.

cfespitosum, 256.

cernuum, 259.

chrysocephalum, 263.

ciliatum, 261.

cinereum, 265.

compositum, 257.

corymbosum, 265,

dasyanthemum, 268.

deflexum, 259.

dichotomum, 263.

divaricatum, 262.

Douglasii, 256.

elatum, 264.

ellipticum, 257.

elongatum, 267.

ericajfolium, 265.

Eriogonum, fasciculatum, 265.
fiavmu, 255.
glandulosum, 261.
Gordoni, 261.
gracile, 268.
Greenei, 83, 263.
Greggii, 262.
Heermanni, 267.
heracleoides, 2.57.
hieracifolium, 254.
hirtiflorum, 259.
incanum, 256.
inflatum, 261.
intricatum, 269.
Jamesii, 255.
Kelloggii, 256.
Kennedy!, 263.
Kingii, 263, 264.
lachnogynum, 258.
latifolium, 264.
Lemmoni, 266.
Lobbii, 257.
loncho])hy]lum, 266.
longifolium, 255.
marifolium, 256.
Mohavense, 266.
microthecnm, 265.
multiceps, 264.
multiflorum, 262.
niveum, 263.
nudum, 264.
nutans, 259.
oblongifolium, 264.
ovalifolium, 262.
Palmeri, 267.
Parryi, 259.
parvifo]iunr, 265.
pauciflorum, 263.
pharnaceoides, 258.
I'lumatella, 269.
polyanthum, 257.
polycladon, 268.
proliferum, 263.
pusillum, 260.
pyrolfefolium, 256.
racemosum, 267.
reniforme, 260
rotundifolium, 260.
salsuginosum, 258.
saxatile, 267.
scalare, 261.
spathulatum, 264.
sphaeroceplialum, 257.
spergulinum, 258.
stellatura, 257.
strictum, 263, 267.

INDEX.

347

Eriogonum, siibreniforme, 260.

tenelluni, 2i)\.

Thomasii, 2()().

Thompsona!, 265.

Tlmrberi, 260.

thvinoides, 256.

toiuentosuin, 255.

Torreyauuin, 257.

trichopodum, 260.

triste, 254.

truncatuiu, 266.

unibellatiun, 257.

iindulatuiu, 255.

ursiiiiuii, 256.

villiflorum, 258.

vimineum, 268.

virgatum, 268.

Watsoni, 259.

Wrightii, 266.
Evitrichium holoi)terum, 81.

setosum, SO.
Erythvocystis Grevillei, 238.
Erythroniiim grandiflorum, 278.

purpurascens, 277.
Ethers of Uric Acid, on the, 26.
Eucheuma acauthocladum, 238.

Farlowia compressa, 241.

crassa, 241.
Fellows, Associate, List of, 339.
Fellows deceased : —

Alexis Caswell, 285.

Charles Davies, 283.

C. H. Davis, 286.

Nicholas St. John Green, 283.

F. B. Meek, 286.

William A. Stearns, 283.

Edward Wigglesworth, 283.

Charles AVilkes, 286.
Fellows elected : —

Henry Larcora Abbott, 280,
283.

Alexander Graham Bell, 286,
287.

Jeremiah Lewis Diman, 286,
287.

William Ferrel, 286, 287.

Richard Saltonstall Greenough,
280.

Thomas Hill, 280.

Nathaniel Holmes, 280.

Bennett Hubbard Xash, 280.

George ^Nlarv Searle, 280, 283.

William Edward Story, 280.

Fellpws, List of, 336.

Filtering, Reverse, the Process and

its Application, 121.
Fluorides of ^langanese, Contribu-
tions towards the History of,
228.
Foreign Honorary Members de-
ceased: —
Karl Ernst Von Baer, 286.
Alexander Brann, 286.
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg,

283, 286.
Wilhelm Hofmeister, 286.
Christian Lassen, 279, 286.
J. C. Poggendorf, 286.
Foreign Honorary ^Members elect-
ed:—
Ernst Cnrtius, 280, 283.
Fran9ois August Alexis Mig-

net, 280, 283.
James Paget, 285, 287.
JNIark Pattison, 280, 283.
Henrv Creswick Rawlinson,

280, 283.
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, 280,

283.
Alfred Tennyson, 280,284.
Eugene Emmanuel Violet-Le-
Duc, 280, 283.
Foreign Honorary Members, List of,

341.
Forestiera acuminata, 63.

Xeomexicana, 63.
Fraxinus Greggii, 83.
Schiedeana, 63.

Gaillardia spathulata, 59.
Galax aphylla, 62.
Galaxaura lapidescens, 240.
Galium Brandegei, 58.
Galvanic Batteries, New Method of
comparing the Electro-mo-
tive forces of, 137.

New Method of ^Measuring the
Resistance of, 137, 140.
Gilia brevicula, 79.

csespitosa, 80.

Haydeni, 79.

Parryse, 76.
Gomphocarpus, 66, 73.

cordifolius,'73.

purpurascens, 66.

tomentosus, 73.

J

348

INDEX.

Gonolobiis, 74, 75.

Baldwiuianus, 76, 77.

biflorus, 78.

Carolinensis, 76, 77.

cjmanchoides, 78.

granulatus, 75, 76.

hastulatus, 78.

hirsutus, 76, 77.

la?vis, 75.

macrophyllus, 75, 76, 77.

Nuttallii, 76.

obliquus, 76.

parvifolhis, 77, 78.

parvifloi'iis, 79.

pi'oductus, 78.

prostratus, 77, 79.

pubiflorus, 77.

reticulatus, 75.

sagittifolius, 77.

suberosus, 75.

tilifefolius, 76.

viridiflorus, 76.
Grateloupia Cutlerite, 243.

Gibbesii, 243.
Griffithsia Bornetiana, 243.

corallina, 242.

globifeva, 243.

opuntioides, 243.
Gruvelia pusilla, 81.
Gymnadeuia longispica, 277,
Gymnogongrus GrifRthsiae, 242.

leptopiayllus, 242.

linearis, 242.

tenuis, 242.
Gymnolomia Porteri, 59.
Gyrophora mammulata, 167.

H.

Habenaria Cooperi, 276.

fcetida, 277.

gracilis, 277.

pedicellata, 276.

Schischmareffiaua, 277.

sparsiflora, 276.

Thiirberi, 276.

Unalashcensis, 277.
Halymenia decipiens, 243.

ligulata, 243.
Harpagonella Palmeri, 164.
Heat, Determination of the Law of
Propagation in the Interior
of a Solid Body, 143.
Hemizonia Streetsii, 162.
Holacautha Emovyi, 161.

Horizontal Photoheliograph, The-
ory of the, 186.

Hulsea Parry i, 59.

Hydrophylhim appendiculatum, 62.

Hydric Sulphide, on a New Mode of
manipulating, 113.

Isopyrum stipitatum, 54.

K.

Kallymenia Californica, 241.
Kerguelen Lichens, 181.
Kceberlinia spinosa, 161.

Lachnostoma, 74.

hastulatum, 78.

parviflorum, 79.

prostratum, 79.

tigrinum, 74.
Laurencia Brongniartii, 237.

gemmifera, 237.

intricata, 237.

spectabilis, 237.

tuberculosa, 237.
Lavatera insularis, 249.

venosa, 249.
Lecanora ambigens, 176.

dentilabra, 173.

dichroa, 183.

Franciscana, 173.

gelida, 184.

glaucovirens, 172.

Kerguelensis, 184.

orosthea, 173.

semitensis, 172.
Lecidea cyrtidia, 181.

mamillana, 180.

psephota, 181.

rubina, 178.

tessellina, 181.

thamnina, 178.
Lemmonia, 162.

Californica, 162.
Lepidium dictyotum, 54.
Leptogium livale, 170.

terrenum, 184.
Leptogiossis, 164.

Coulteri, 165.

Texana, 164.
Lespedeza angustifolia, 57.

capitata, 57.

INDEX.

349

Lespedeza hirta, 57.

leptostacliya, 57.
Liagora Cayohuesonica, 240.

farioiiicolor, 240.
Lichens, Kerguelen, 181.

Observation on Xortli Ameri-
can and other, 166.
Lithothamnion fasciculatum, 239.

polymorphum, 239.
Lithothrix Aspergilhim, 236.
Lobelia Feayana, 60.

Ludoviciana, 60.
Lomentaria saccata, 238.
Lupinus Arizonicus, 250.

concinnus, 250.

micranthus, 250.

trifidus, 250.
Lychnis, Revision of, 246.

affinis, 247.

Ajanensis, 247.

alpina, 246.

apetala, 247, 248.

Californica, 248.

Drummondii, 248.

elata, 249.

Kingii, 247.

montana, 247.

nuda, 248.

Parryi, 248.

triflora, 247.
Lycium gracilipes, 81.
Lysimachia angustifolia, 63.

heterophylla, 63.

hybrida, 63.

lanceolata, 63.

longifolia, 63.

quadriflora, 63.

radicans, 63.
Lythrum alatum, 251.

breviflorum, 251.

M.

Malvastrum Palmeri, 250.

Manganese, the Fkiorides of, Con-
tributions towards the his-
toi7,_228.

iMarah Biinima, 2.52.

]\Ielinia angustifolia, 70.

Melobesia amplexifrons, 239.
Lenormandi, 239.
Lejolisii, 239.

Melotliria pendula, 2.52.

Members, Foreign Honorary, See
Foreign Honorary Members.

Mentzelia hirsutissima, 252.

tricuspis, 252.
Metastehna angustifolium, 73.

Blodgetti, 73.

parviflorum, 74.
Methyllantoin, 31.
Methylparaban, 35.
Methyluric Acid, 27.

oxydation with nitric acid, 33.

on some of the salts of, 36.

dibaric methylurate, 37.

dipotassic methylurate, 37.

disodic methylurate, 39.

monobaric methylurate, 39.

monocalcic methylurate, 40.

monopotassic methylurate, 37.

monosodic methylurate, 38.
Milk Analyses, 98.
Mimulus Palmeri, 82.
Mirabilis Greenei, 253.
Monardella Palmeri, 82.

N.

Nasturtium trachycarpum, 54.
Nemacladus longifolius, 60.
Nemalion Andersonii, 240.

virens, 240.
Nemastoma Californicum, 243.
Neuropogon melaxanthus, 183.

Taylori, 183.
Nierembergia viseosa, 165.
Nitophyllum areolatum, 238.

laceratum, 238.

latissimum, 238.

multilobum, 238.

spectabile, 238, 245.

violaceum, 238.

O.

Observationes Lichenologicse, 166.
Officers elected, 281.
Q^^nothera Palmeri, 251.

triloba, 251.
Omphalaria Kansana, 170.
Orthocarpus lasiorhynchus, 82.
Orthosia acuminata, 79.

oblongata, 79.
Oxytheca inei-mis, 273.

tribolata, 83.

P.

Palafoxia Feaja, 59.
Pannaria glaucella, 183.

350

INDEX.

Pannaria placodiopsis, 183.

Sonomensis, 169.

stenophylla, 169.

symptychia, 168.

Taylori, 183.
Parabronibeiizyl Compounds, on,
221.

Parabromalphatoluylic Acid,
223.

Parabrombenzylacetate, 222.

Parabrombenzylalcphol, 221.

Parabrombenzylcyanide, 222.

Pai'abrombenzylsulphocyanate,
227.

Triparabrombenzylamine, 22.5.
Parnielia fegialita, 166.

coufluens, 166.
Pectocarya pusilla, 81.

setosa, 81.
Pentstenion coman-heniis, 81.

strictus, 82.

Wardi, 82.
Pertusavia albinea, 177.

ambi,g:ens, 176.

colobina, 17.5.

eviglypta, 177.

flavicunda, 176.

thamnoplaca, 175.

velata, 176.
Petrocelis cruenta, 239.
Peyssonnelia atro-purpurea, 239.

Dubyi, 239.

inibi'icata, 240.

rubra, 239.
Phacelia grisea, 80.
Philibertia cynanchoides, 64.

elegans, 64.

linearis, 64.

Torreyi, 64.

undulata, 65.

viminalis, 64.
Photoheliogi*aph, Theory of the

Horizontal, 186.
Phyllophora Clevelandii, 242.
Physcia obscura, 167.

picta, 166.
Pilopliorus acicularis, 177.
Placodium atroalbura, 172.

bicolor, 184.

ferrugineum, 171.

fen'uginosum, 171.

galactophylluni, 171.
Plants, Description of Xew Species,

&c., 246.
Platanthera fcptida, 277.

gracilis, 277.

Plantanthera striata, 277.
Plocamiuni violaceum, 240.
Podostigma, 65.
Polyotus angustifolius, 72.
Polysiphonia dictyurus, 237.

pecten- Veneris, 237.
Polysiphonia pennata, 237.

secunda, 236.

senticulosa, 236.

thyrsigera, 237.

vei-ticiHata, 237.
Prionotis Andersoniana, 2r42.

Clevelandii, 242.
Proceedings, 279.
Psoralea Calif ornica, 251.
Ptycanthera acuminata, 79.

oblongata, 79.
Pyrola, 61'.
Pyxine, 166.

coccinea, 167.

Cocoes, 166.

picta, 166.

retirugella, 166.

R.

Reverse Filtering, Process and Ap-
plication of, 124.
Reyesia, 165.

Rhabdonia ramosissima, 238.
Rhododendron Chapmanii, 61.

punctatum, 61.
Riceardia INIontagnei, 237.
Rinodina mamillana, 174.

milliaria, 175.

ochrotis, 174.

radiata, 173.

thysanota, 174.
Rudbeckia Porteri, 59.
Rumex longifolius, 254.

occidentalis, 2.53.
Rumford Committee, Appropria-
. tions, 279, 283.

Monument, 286, 287.
Rumford's Works, 279, 283.

S.

Sarcophyllis Californica, 241.

eduiis, 241.
Sarcostemnia Brownii, 65.

clausum, 65.

crassifolium, 65.

cynanchoides, 61.

elegans, 64.

INDEX.

351

Sarcostemina hctei'ophyllum, Gi.

iindulatum, 65.
Saxifraua elirysautha, 83.

Hirculu.s, 84.

serpvllifolia, 84.
Scheele's Green, its Composition,

11.
Schizonotus, 06.

puipurascens, 66.
SchizyniPnia cocciiiea, 243.
Schweiufurt Green, Composition

of, 85.
Sexual Diniorphism in Butterflies,

150.
Silene Drummondii, 248.
SisjTinchium anceps, 277.

belluni, 277.

Bernuidianum, 277.

minus, 277.

mucronatum, 277.
Solar Parallax, Application of
Horizontal Photoheliooraph
to Determination of, 186.
Solidago sparsifl<')ra, 58.
Sounds, produced electrically, 1, 5.
Spiranthes Unalaschcensis, 277.
Squamaria lateritia, 184.
Stachys Rothrockii, 82.
Steironenia, 62.

ciliatum, 63.

florida, 63.

heteropliylla, 63.

lanceolatum, 63.

lonffifolium, 63.

radicans, 63.

revolutum, 63.
Stereocaulon cereolinum, 178.
Sticta IlalUi, 168.

Sympetaleia, 161.

aurea, 161.
Synalissa melamhola, 170.

vii'idi-rufa, 170.

Tfenioma Clevelandii, 236.

macrourum, 236.

perpusillum, 236.
Telephone, Researches in, 1.
Tetradymia comosa, 60.
Thamnosma montana, 160.
Thelotrema Californicura, 177.
Thelypodium Cooperi, 246.
Transits of Venus, Determination
of Solar Parallax by, 186.

u.

Umbilicaria Caroliniana, 167.

dictyiza, 167.

mammulata, 167.
Urceolina Kergueliensis, 184.
Uric Acid, on the Ethers of, 26.
Usnea Taylori, 183.

sulphurea, 183.

Vincetoxicum acanthocarpos, 77.

gonocarpos, 76.
Viscosity of Air, Effect of Tempera-
ture on, 41.
Vortex Rings in Liquids, 131.

Cambridge: Presa of Jolin Wilson & Son.

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