PROCEEDINGS

AMERICAN ACADEMY

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

NEW SERIES.
Vol. VI.

WHOLE SERIES.
Vol. XIV.

FROM MAY, 1878, TO MAY, 1879.
SELECTED FROM THE RECORDS.

BOSTON:
PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON.

1879.

xd' d 3

CONTENTS.

PAGE

I. On the Young Stages of Bony Fishes. By Alexander

Agassiz 1

II. Experiments upon Piezometers used in Hydraulic Invesliga-

lions. By Hiram F. Mills, Civil Engineer ... 26

III. Researches on the Substituted Benzyl Compounds. Fourth

Paper. By C. Loring Jackson and Alfred W. Field 54

IV. The Development of Lepidosteus. By Alexander Agas-

siz 65

V. Researches in Telephony. By Professor Dolbear . . 77

VI. On Certain Remarkable Groups in the Lower Spectrum. By

Professor S. P. Langley 92

VII. On the Temperature of the Sun. By Professor S. P.

Langley 106

VIII. On the Heat Produced by the Rapid Magnetization and De-
magnetization of the Magnetic Metals. By John Trow-
bridge, S.D., and Walter N. Hill, S.B 114

IX. Methods of Measuring Electric Currents of Great Strength ;
together with a Comparison of the Wilde, the Gramme,
and the Siemens Machines. By John Trowbridge . 122

X. Descriptions of some New Species of North American Mosses.

By Leo Lesquereux and ThOmas P. James . . . 133

XI. Distributions of Heat in the Spectra of various sources of Ra-
diation. By Wm. W. Jacques, Ph. D 142

XII, On the Limits of Accuracy in Measurements with the Micro-
scope. By Professor Edward W. Morley . . . 164

IV CONTENTS.

PAGE

XIII. On the Limits of Accuracy in Measurements with the Tele-

scope and the Microscope. By Pkofessor William

A. Rogers 168

XIV. Preliminary Report on the Echini of the Exploring Ex-

pedition of H. M. S. " Challenger," Sir C. Wyville
Thomson, Chief of Civilian Staff. By Alexander
Agassiz 190

XV. Contributions to American Botany. By Sereno Watson.

1. Revision of the North American Liliaceaz 213

2. Descriptions of some New Species of North American

Plants 288

XVI. A Neiv Receiving Telephone. By Professor A. E. Dol-

bear 304

XVII. Researches on the Substituted Benzyl Compounds. Fifth

Paper. By C. Loring Jackson and J. Fleming White 306

Proceedings 321

Memoirs: —

Jacob Bigelow ( 332

Hon. Caleb Cushing, LL.D. .....' 342

Silas Durkee, M.D 343

John Barnard Swett Jackson . . ' . • .' 344

John Clarke Lee 352

John Mudge Merrick, S.B 353

Benjamin Franklin Thomas 354

William Cullen Bryant 355

Joseph Henry 356

Stephen Thayer Olney 367

George B. Wood 368

Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl 369

Karl Freiherr Von Rokitanski 370

List of the Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members . . 373

Index ■ 381

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY

OF

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

VOL. XIV.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY.

I.

ON THE YOUNG STAGES OF BONY FISHES.
By Alexander Agassiz.

Presented May 28, 1878.

II. Development of the Flounders.

A young Flounder, immediately after its escape from the egg, pre-
sents no special points of difference from the embryos of other bony
fishes, in a similar stage of growth. There are, however, in the earlier
stages also many points in common, to which but little attention
has been paid, thus far ; and the study of these characters presents,
from an embryological point of view, many features of special and
also of more general interest. As I have already treated of the de-
velopment of the tail and head (in Part I. of these Studies),* the
gradual passage from a leptocardial tail, such as we find in PI. III. fig.
1, to a so-called homocercal tail (PI. IV. fig. 5), I will not refer to this
again, beyond calling attention to the peculiar physiognomy of these
young bony fishes, while in the stages (PI. HI. figs. 3—5, and PL IV.
fig. 1) during which the heterocercal tail is so prominent a feature, and
before the fins characteristic of the osseous fishes have become wholly
or partially differentiated from the primitive embryonic fin-fold, which
extends from the base of the head, and runs more or less parallel with
the dorsal chord, round the anal extremity, back toward the anterior

* Proceedings Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, xiii. 117. Boston, 1877.
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 1

Z PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

part to the anal opening. Their general resemblance, at this time, to
the Ganoid types of older periods, and especially to the Amias of the
present day, cannot be too strongly insisted upon. In the Flounders,
there is usually but a single dorsal and anal fin, formed from the
original embryonic fin-fold. I will only notice, in a general way, the
separation of the anal and dorsal from the caudal, by the earlier ap-
pearance of the permanent fin-rays ; and the more rapid growth of the
caudal, during the time when, in the dorsal and anal fin, the em-
bryonic fin-rays, which disappear with the growth of the permanent
ones, are still the most prominent feature. Little by little, however,
with the increase in depth of dorsal and anal (PL IV. figs. 2, 3, 4, 5),
the separation between these and the base of the caudal becomes more
abruj3t ; and this, accompanied by the gradual shrinking of the rem-
nant of the embryonic fin-fold at the base of the caudal both above
and below, soon brings the relations of the three principal fins of the
Flounders to the proportions they bear in the adult (PI. IV. fig. 5). In
another species (PL IX.), I shall describe the gradual development of
the anterior dorsal out of the primitive embryonic fin-fold. In the
bony fishes, neither the development of the ventrals nor the pectorals
has yet been traced from a lateral embryonic fin-fold ; but, in sharks
and skates, the case is different. (See J. "Wyinan,* in his development
of Raja.)

We may perhaps find hereafter, in the development of such forms as
Lumpus, Liparis, and the like, a nearer approach to the Selachian mode
of development of the paired fin-rays. In those of the bony fishes
the development of which I have had an opportunity of following, the
pectorals are well developed ; early assuming, even while in the egg,
the Ganoid (Crossopterygian) type, to which I have already alluded in
the first part of this paper.f In some of the earlier stages, the lat-
eral embryonic fold, from which the pectorals are formed, can be dis-
tinctly traced, — though never assuming the great prominence which
it has in the dorsal or anal embryonic folds, the paired fins early con-
cealing the lateral folds ; while it is the reverse with the dorsal and
anal folds, from which the dorsal and anal fins are developed late.

The ventrals, on the contrary (PL VI. fig. 5, PL VII. fig. 4, PL IX.
fig. 6), make their appearance very much later, and, in our Flounders, at

* "Wtmajt, Jeffries. Observations on the Development of Raja Batis,
in Mem. Am. Acad. Boston, 1864. And also Balfour, F. M. Elasmobranch
Fishes.

+ Agassiz, Alexander. On the Young Stages of Osseous Fishes. Proc.
Am. Acad. xiii. Boston, 1877.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 3

first as a mere swelling of the median line, behind the hyoid bone ; this
(PL IV. figs. 3-5) grows quite rapidly ; the permanent fin-rays at
once make their appearance, — the anterior ones (the outer) first ; and
there is nothing special to note in the further development of the ven-
trals, which soon resemble, on a small scale, the ventrals of the adult.
The ventrals possess, at no time, embryonic fin-rays, like those of the
dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, formed from the longitudinal embryonic
fin-fold. In the pectorals, embryonic fin-rays also precede the forma-
tion of the permanent rays ; but in many bony fishes (PI. VI. fig. 5,
PI. X. fig. 1), these permanent rays appear very early, — before those
of other paired or unpaired fins, — the Crossopterygian stage being
passed while still in the egg. ■

A striking characteristic of the young of all bony fishes is the
extraordinary development of the pigment cells (chromatophores and
chromatoblasts), and the great changes they undergo during the
growth of the embryo. Pouchet* has more recently called attention
to the wide-spread existence of these pigment spots, so well known to
all students of Invertebrates. He studied them especially among the
Fishes, in connection with the atrophism of the color on the blind sides
of Flounders ; pointing most plainly to the partial atrophy of the
great sympathetic nerve, effected during the passage of the eye from
the right to the left, or vice versa, as the cause. The power of the
nervous system over the complicated system of pigment spots, which
produces eventually the coloring of the adult fish, is of course much
more readily traced in the younger stages, while the individual cells
are still isolated, and before their anastomoses have become so com-
plicated that it is well-nigh impossible, even in quite young specimens,
to follow the changes resulting from any special nervous excitement.
Conrpare, for instance, the simple chromatic system of cells of PI.
II. figs. 1-4, with the more and more complex anastomosing branches
of PL III. figs. 5 and PL IV. figs. 1-5. This is still better seen, perhaps,
if we compare PL VI. figs. 1-3 (young Flounders, just hatched from
the egg, and a couple of days old) with PL VI. figs. 5-7, showing the
gradual passage of the few, large, well-individualized chromatic cells of
PL VI. fig. 3, into the innumerable system of small cells, closely
packed and crowded in spots, so as to form the special design charac-
teristic of this species. f

* Pouchet, G. Des Changements de Coloration sous l'lnfluence des Nerfs.
Archives de Physiologie et d'Anatomie. 1876.

t Pouchet has succeeded in producing a white side in trouts, by destroying
the eye of that side. Rev. Scient. xiii. 1877.

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The young Flounder has already attained a considerable size, before
any signs appear of the change in the position of the eye on the left
side (see PI. III. figs. 3-5 and PI. IV. fig. 1), and before the young fish
shows the least tendency to favor one side over the other. Not until
the young fish is fully three-eighths of an inch in length can the first
slight difference be perceived in the position of the two eyes (when
seen from above), the left eye being somewhat in advance of the
other. In this species, the Flounder eventually lies down on the left
side, which becomes colorless. In order to prevent repetitions, we shall
call this the case of a right Flounder (dextral), — that is, of a Flounder
colorless on the left side, and where the left eye has passed over to the
right side, — calling the sides, at the same time, either blind or white,
and the opposite ocular or colored.

Plates III. and IV. show very well the changes of form through
which the young dextral Flounder passes before it finally assumes
the appearance of the adult, and habitually rests with its colorless side
upon the ground. All young Flounders, even long after they have all
the characteristics of the adult, very frequently swim vertically for quite
a length of time, or else swim near the surface, with the undulating
movement they have when swimming over the bottom, their heads well
raised, and bodies carried flat, parallel to the surface. Even quite old
Flounders sometimes are caught swimming near the top of the water.
Almost all the stages figured in Plates III. and IV. were caught near
the surface, swimming vertically, like any other young bony fishes ; but
this they do only when they come up to feed, while the water is very
smooth, about ten in the morning, on very bright sunny days, when they
may be seen eagerly devouring swarms of embryo Crustaceans, of all
orders. The young of other fishes seem to share this habit ; for of the
latter I have examined no less than twenty-five species, caught at va-
rious times with a hand-net, swimming near the surface of the water,
on bright sunny days, when not a ripple ruffled the sea. "With the
least movement, all the more delicate of these embryos vanish ; leav-
ing only the older and more vigorous, which in their turn disappear,
and seek shelter in deeper water. Only when the young fishes are
old enough to be recognized as the young of their tribes, do they ven-
ture to join them in their ordinary haunts.

PI. V. figs. 7-11, PI. VI., and PI. VII., on the other hand, give us in
general the changes of form a young sinistral Flounder undergoes
from the time it leaves the egg until it assumes the characteristics
of the adult. The explanation of the plate will give all the necessary
details of the changes, which are mere repetitions of those described

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 5

in Pis. III. and IV. ; with the exception, of course, that the blind,
colorless side is now found on the right side of the fish, the left side
being the chromatic side. This species, as compared with the dex-
tral species, is remarkable for the greater development of the pig-
ment cells, figured on Pis. III. and IV. The young Flounder (PI.
VI. fig. 7), when not more than three-fourths inches long, is already
quite opaque, the whole colored side being thickly covered with minute
pigment cells : they extend also upon the dorsal and anal, in irregular
blotches, forming only in later stages the patterns which characterize
some of the species among our Flounders. It is not uncommon for a
peculiar pattern to appear quite early (see Pis. VII. and IX.).

In the present species, the pigments of the dorsal and anal do not
appear before the stage figured on PI. VI. fig. 5.

As will be seen, on an examination of the figures of PI. VI., the
earlier stages (Figs. 1-5) are readily recognized by the total absence
of pigment cells in the extremity of the caudal. This feature still
persists, in quite well-advanced individuals (PI. VI. figs. 6, 7, 8).
The tail, in this species, passes rapidly through the heterocercal stages,
and does not present the striking external resemblance to that of
Ganoids, so characteristic of the species figured in Pis. III. and IV.

On PI. V., additional details have been given of the mode of trans-
fer of the eye from the one side to the other, — either the right eye to
the left side, or vice versa, — which, with the figures of the embryos,
on Pis. III., IV., VI., will show very clearly how the transfer is
accomplished, in the ordinary case of a dextral or sinistral Flounder.

While still in the egg (PI. V. fig. 6), and for some time after hatch-
ing (PI. V. figs. 1, 2, 7, PI. III., PL IV. fig. 1, PI. VI. figs. 1-4), the
eyes of the two sides are placed symmetrically on each side of the
longitudinal axis. The first change — and the process is identical,
whether we take a right or a left Flounder — is the slight advance
towards the snout (PI. V. fig. 3) of the eye about to be transferred ;
so that the transverse axis, passing through the pupil of the eyes, no
longer makes a right angle with the longitudinal axis. This move-
ment of translation is soon followed by a slight movement of rota-
tion ; so that, when the young fish is seen in profile, the eyes of the
two sides no longer appear in the same plane, — that on the blind side
being now slightly above and in advance of that on the colored side
(PI. IV. fig. 2, PI. V. fig. 5, PI. VI. fig. 5, PI. IX. fig. 7). With
increasing age, the eye on the blind side rises higher and higher to-
wards the median longitudinal line of the head ; a larger and larger
part of this eye becoming visible from the colored side, where the

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

embryo is seen in profile (see PI. IV. figs. 3-5, PL VI. figs. 6, 7, PI. V.
figs. 8-12, PI. VII. fig. 5), until the eye of the blind side has, for all
practical purposes, passed over to the colored side (PI. V. figs. 4, 11).

The rapidity and extent of this translation and rotation of the eye
from the blind to the colored side can be best seen on comparing the
profiles of the heads (PI. V. figs. 5, 10) of a dextral and a sinistral
Flounder with the profiles seen from the colored sides, before the eyes
have begun their movement (PI. I., PI. VI. fig. 6, PI. VII. fig. 5).

As the dorsal, little by little, with advancing age, extends along the
head towards the nostrils, it soon, in old specimens, finds its way behind
the eye which has come from the blind side (compare the position of
the anterior part of the dorsal, in PI. VI. figs. 5 and 7, in PI. IV. figs.
2 and 5, and PI. VIII. fig. 3). This continued advance of the dorsal
anteriorly, after the eye has passed to the colored side, naturally gave
rise to a great many theories respecting the passage of the eye through
the head, under the anterior part of the dorsal fin ; and many natu-
ralists, after an examination of the twisted facial part of the skull on
the adult, have attempted most ingenious explanations of the mode by
which the eye reached its ultimate position.

The facts contained in this paper leave no doubt that, at any rate, in
the majority of the Flounders of our coast (I have traced the devel-
opment of eight species), the transfer of the eye from the blind side
to the color side occurs very early in life, while all the facial bones
of the skull are still cartilaginous, and that long before their ossifica-
tion the eye has been transferred, by a combined process of translation
and rotation, to the colored side. Let x, y, z be rectangular axes ;
and, if we call the longitudinal axis of the body twisting x, the trans-
verse axis at the extremity of which the eyes are placed in the plane
xy, the first change taking place is that x is no longer at right angles
with y, though the eyes are still in plane xy. The next change is
that the plane in which the eyes are now placed (x'y1) makes an angle
with the xy ; cutting 2 at a slight distance above the origin of the co-
ordinate axes, the eye of the colored side forming the apex of the angle.
This angle gradually increases, until it passes beyond the plane yz,
when the eye from the blind side has reached the colored side.

The subsequent modifications of the frontal bone, owing to the
aberrant position of the eye from the colorless side, are interesting on
account of their connection with abnormal anatomical features found
in the Flounders ; but they explain in no wise the mode in which the
transfer of the eyes has taken place, this being anterior to any essen-
tial changes in the frontal bone. In early life, the strong muscles which

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 7

control the motion of the eyeball in the young Flounder maintain also
a very powerful strain upon the frontal bone while still cartilaginous
and readily flexible, and no doubt help to twist it in accordance with
the gradual change in the position of the eyes.

While the observations of Malm on the young stages of Flounders
tended to show the improbability of the eye passing through the skull
from the blind side to the binocular, the observations of Steenstrup on
the genus Plagusia, seemed, for that genus, at any rate, to show clearly
that the eye did pass through the tissues of the head, during its transfer
from the blind to the binocular side. But neither Malm nor Steenstrup,
nor subsequently Schiodte, actually traced the changes undergone dur-
ing the process. Steenstrup's specimens were alcoholic ; and, although
his theory was substantiated by observations on a number of in-
termediate stages of the passage of the eye through the tissue, yet,
on the other hand, the observations of Malm, making it probable
that the eye merely went round the head, in a manner not yet
explained, were equally precise. I had myself traced quite a number
of Flounders, in all of which the eye was transferred in accordance
with the process described in the commencement of this paper, and
figured on Pis. III.- VIII., — a process completely in accordance with
the suppositions of Malm, and in direct contradiction to the theory of
Steenstrup. In the late summer of 1875, however, I traced to my
satisfaction the development of a very transparent Flounder (PI. X.
fig. 1), — so transparent, indeed, as to rival the most watery of Jelly
Fishes. When placed in a flat glass dish, it could only be distinguished
by allowing the light to strike it in certain directions : otherwise, all
that was visible were the two apparently disembodied bright emerald
eyes, moving more or less actively.

In this Flounder (PI. X. fig. 1), already of a considerable size, —
over an inch in length, — the position of the eyes was perfectly sym-
metrical. They were placed also at considerable distance from the
anterior extremity of the snout ; so that, judging from the size of the
fish and the position of the eyes, as well as from the extension of the
dorsal almost to the nostrils, I inferred that I had a new Flounder, in
which the eyes would probably always remain more or less symmetri-
cal, and in which the transfer of the eye from one side to the other
was replaced by the exceeding transparency of the body, allowing
either eye, owing to the great range of motion of the eyes both in
a vertical and horizontal direction, — a feature characteristic of all
Flounders, — to be really useful on both sides of the body. A
Flounder can move his pupil vertically and horizontally through an

8 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

angle of at least one hundred and eighty degrees. Thus, our trans-
parent Flounder, which I did not at first recognize as the Plagusia of
Steenstrup, could readily, by looking obliquely, see with great distinct-
ness, through the transparent tissues, what was passing on the opposite
side of the body.

I made all prepai'ations to watch the changes in this interesting
fish, should any such take place ; and, a couple of days afterwards, I
noticed the first change in the position of the eye (PI. X. fig. 3) of
the right side. No less than fifteen of these transparent Flounders
were caught at the surface, with the hand-net, at the mouth of the
harbor of Newport, close to the shore, on a very quiet and brilliant
morning. They were then swimming vertically, and rushing violently
after the minute Entomostraca swarming on the surface ; but, as
soon as they were confined in shallow glass jars, they turned on the
right side, where they would often remain immovable on the bottom
for hours. They were rapid in their movements when disturbed ;
frequently jumping out of the water and over the sides of the
dishes, to a considerable distance. Though they appear so delicate,
they do not seem to suffer, any more than other Flounders, from their
momentary stay on dry land. When swimming vertically, they usually
move obliquely, the tail kept much lower than the head ; and, when
seen endways, are more or less curved, owing to the extreme tenuity
of their body (PL X. fig. 2).

During the change of the eye from the blind to the binocular side
of the body, the outline of the young fish becomes more rounded
anteriorly ; and the minute, dotlike yellow and black pigment spots,
hardly perceptible in Fig. 1, PI. X., form somewhat more prominent
patches on the sides of the body, and radiating lines parallel to the
fin-rays on the dorsal and anal fins (PI. X. fig. 11).

The right eye (PI. X. fig. 3) could, when the fish was in profile, be
seen through the head slightly in advance, and somewhat above the left
eye ; the right eye in that position, owing to the great transparency of
the body, being quite as useful as if it had been placed on the left side.
In the following stages, the right eye rises gradually more and more
above the left eye, in a somewhat oblique direction towards the fifth or
sixth anterior ray of the dorsal, until the fifth or sixth day, when the
right eye can be seen entirely clear of the left eye, well above it (PI. X.
fig. 4). Owing to the great size of the orbit, the left eye, when seen from
the left side (PL X. fig. 3), sometimes appears shot a little behind the
right, especially after the motion of rotation has commenced ; for we
find that in this Flounder, as well as in the others, the transfer of the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. \)

eye from the right side to the left takes place by means of a movement
of translation, accompanied and supplemented by a movement of rota-
tion over the frontal bone. But, in this case, very special conditions
attend the transfer, which, at first sight, seem to make the passage of
the eyes of this species an exceptional one. I think we can easily
show that the present mode of transfer does not differ so radically as
would at first seem from the conditions described in the other species,
in the beginning of this paper. When the right eye of the young
Flounder has reached the frontal bone, and approaches the base of the
dorsa1, we find, on turning the fish on his left side, that the right eye
is no longer on the outer surface of the right side. It no longer occu-
pies, as in the earliest stages, a huge orbit, capable of extensive move-
ments in all directions ; but unlike the left eye, which has retained all
its former powers of locomotion, as well as its original place, it has
gradually sunk deep into the tissues of the base of the dorsal fin,
between it and the frontal, — having sunk, indeed, to such an extent
that the huge orbit, so characteristic of all Flounders, has gradually
become reduced to a mere circular opening. Through this opening,
the eye now communicates with the exterior ; while, from its posi-
tion above the frontal (PI. X. fig. 4), it has, when the pupil turns to
the opposite direction, a perfectly unobstructed vision through the
transparent left side of the body. Little by little, the opening on the
right becomes smaller and smaller ; and as, at the same time, the eye
pushes its way deeper into the tissues, an additional opening is now
formed on the left side (PL X. fig. 7), through which the right eye
can now communicate directly with the left exterior on the left side
of the body. Thus, in the stage intermediate between PI. X. fig. 4
and PI. X. fig. 8, we find no less than three orbital openings : one
large one, — the original one of the left eye ; a smaller one, on the
left side also, the new orbit formed for the right eye, as it has
pushed its way through the tissues of the base of the dorsal fin ; and
a small orbit on the right side, the remnant of the original right
orbit of the right eye, which, before the right eye has completely
passed over to the left side, becomes entirely closed (PI. X. fig. 8).
With the continued sinking of the right eye, the gradual resorption
of the tissues, and the closing up of the old orbit, as the eye works its
way across the head, we eventually get the right eye entirely over to the
left side. It has now, by a movement of translation and of rotation,
penetrated through the tissues between the base of the dorsal fin
and the frontal bone ; having apparently passed through the head, as
was suggested to Steenstrup, by his examination of the alcoholic speci-

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

mens which furnished him the materials for his paper on Plagusia.
The present transparent species evidently belonged to this genus (Pla-
gusia) ; and I had thus succeeded in actually tracing, in one and the
same individual, the passage of the right eye to the left side through
the head.

If we now compare this method of transfer of the eye through the
head with the transfer previously described round the frontal bone on
the exterior of the head, we can readily see that the difference is not
as great as it would appear at first sight. Were we to imagine this
species of Plagusia with a dorsal, stopping in the anterior median line
behind the posterior edge of the eyes, the transfer would then take
place exactly as in the case of the common Flounders. The right
eye would travel round the frontal, without having to sink into the
tissues ; and, if subsequently to the transfer of the right eye to the
binocular side, the anterior portion of the dorsal were to extend in
advance of the anterior edge of the eyes to the intermaxillary, we
should then obtain a result identical with that described before, and
one which actually occurs in precisely this manner as we have seen
in a number of Flounders ; and the mere resorption of the tissues
at the base of the anterior part of the dorsal, while interesting as a
short-cut to an end, is not of so great physiological value, or so im-
portant as a difference in the method of the transfer of the eye, as
appears on a first examination.

Owing to the transparency of this Plagusia, several interesting struc-
tural details could readily be followed, which only tedious manipulation
would have demonstrated in the other more opaque species, of which
the development is here given. Among these were the great length of
the optic nerve, which allows, as it were, sufficient slack to be taken in
during the transfer of the eye from the right to the left side (PL X. figs.
4, 8, 9), so as apparently not to interfere in any way with the sight of
the right eye ; also, the immense accumulation of muscular bands
forming the sheath of the orbits of the eyes, and providing for the
great variety and range in the movements of the eyeball and lids (PI.
X. figs. 3, 4, 5, 8, 9) ; also the direct and very active circulation taking
place to and from the heart with the cavity of the orbit of the eyes.
(See PI. X. fig. 9, where the direction of the arrows shows the
course of this current.) The presence of this circulation of a so-
called ocular heart can be readily traced in the adult of our Halibut.

The Flounders have thus far only been found in the most recent
geological deposits : they seem to belong peculiarly to the present
period. It is certainly remarkable that no Flounders should have

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 11

been discovered among the true bony fishes, which date back as far as
the Jurassic Period. To whatever cause we may ascribe the peculiar
development of the Flounders, it seems to have been inactive during
the periods immediately preceding our own ; and, in the absence of
any plausible explanation of their appearance and development during
the present period, we must look to some exceedingly subtle agency,
of which we have at present no conception. The causes usually as-
signed for the development of fishes with a binocular side are all
unsatisfactory ; and all are invalidated by the fact that similar condi-
tions constantly fail to produce like results. The Flounders are usually
said, for instance, to rest on one side, because the great width of the
body makes it the most natural position ; but there are many other
fishes of far greater width which always swim vertically, and never
show any tendency to assume the pleuronect mode of locomotion. In
fact, the great development of the dorsal and ventral fins gives to
Flounders special advantages over other fishes for maintaining a ver-
tical position. The young Flounder also shows a tendency thus to
rest on one side, at a time when the young fish is much like any other
fish, long before the habit could be of any special benefit or use.

The absence of a swimming-bladder has also been assigned as a prin-
cipal cause of the peculiar mode of locomotion among Flounders.
But there is one of our Flounders in which a swimming-bladder is
already well developed in the young fish ; and this does not prevent
that particular species from adopting, as early as the others, the
Flounder mode of locomotion.

The only other cause we can assign is that broad fishes, like the
Flounders, find it of course much easier to pursue their prey, if,
while swimming close to the bottom, they are protected from detec-
tion by a complicated system of pigment cells, for producing col-
ors or patterns within certain limits, so as to resemble sand, mud, or
gravel. This would gradually lead to the exclusive use of one side
(should the fish lie on either side), and would result in the atrophy of the
eye, unless the fish were able to transfer his eye to the other side, and
thus retain it ; when, as a secondary cause from this, the atrophy of
the pigment cells of one side would follow. If this, however, is the
natural explanation, why do not we find Flounders in almost all fami-
lies of fishes, — at least, among the broad forms of the group, — and
why were they not as common in earlier times as at the present day ?
"We have also to face a very interesting point of heredity. It would
certainly seem far simpler for the Flounders to hand down, from gen-
eration to generation, the two eyes on one side of the body, and

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

further to hatch their young, as other fishes do, with the characters
of the adult ; instead of leaving for a future period (and a period of
great mortality among them) the development of the transfer of the
eyes to the right or left, — thus transmitting merely the tendency, and
not the thiug itself, as we find to be the case in Acalephs (Hybocodon),
in the Tunicates, Salpae, in the Gasteropods, in the Polyzoa, &c. Yet
this tendency is very well defined ; for we rarely meet with dextral
forms when the Flounder is sinistral, or vice versa ; and I have, in
our common Flounders, met with no instances of reversal in the course
of the development. In Plagusia only did I notice such a reversal,
where there was an attempt made in many cases — seven out of fif-
teen cases — by the young fish to force the left eye to pass to the
right side by lying down on the left, but in no case did this prove suc-
cessful ; and, after a while, the young fish showed traces of brain dis-
ease, and soon died, usually before the process of transfer of the
eye had made much progress, — showing that a violation of the nor-
mal mode of transfer cannot readily be made with impunity. This
may be the explanation of the rarity of such abnormal cases in the
whole family.

The attempts which I made, both in Plagusia and several of the
other species of Flounders, to prevent the transfer of the eye by
placing the glass dish at a height over a table, and thus allowing the
light to come from below, as well as from all other sides, failed in
arresting the transfer. This experiment, likewise, produced no effect
in retaining the pigment spots of the blind side longer than in sj>eci-
mens struck by the light only normally, from above.

The habits of young Flounders differ greatly from those of the
adult : while the latter are generally more or less sluggish, the young
Flounders, when measuring less than a couple of inches in length, are
remarkably active, bounding through the water, as it were, and, if
disturbed, frequently jumping out of the flat dishes in which I kept
them. When this happened, falling from the table to the floor, they
often remained a considerable time out of water, without appearing to
suffer from their exposure, on being put back into water.

Giard has, in the Rev. des Scienc. Nat. for September, 1877, sug-
gested that the fundamental cause of asymmetry in the animal king-
dom was due to a difference in the strength of the organs of sense ;
and he has given, in support of this view, some most ingenious
speculations on the asymmetry of Ascidians, of which the Tadpole
was transparent, while opaque Tadpoles belonged to symmetrical
types ; the position of asymmetrical Ascidians being determined by

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 13

that of the organs of sense of the embryos. "We might add here,
in favor of this view, the asymmetricals of many Acalephs (Hyboco-
don), in which the disproportion of one of the organs of sense (tenta-
cles) is very great. He further calls attention to the faets that, in
Pteropods, it is the organs of sense which first show asymmetry, and
suggests that cyclopism has been an indirect cause of restoration of
symmetry; though this point does not seem well taken, — judging, at
least, by what we know of the development of cyclopism among
Crustacea. At any rate, the action of light upon organs of sense,
which in all embryos are developed out of all proportion to their ulti-
mate conditions, must remain an all-important element in its effect
upon the nervous system. In embryos so transparent as many young
fishes, which seem to be nothing but eyes, brain, and notochord, the
action of light must be infinitely more potent upon the nervous system
than it can possibly be in older stages, when the muscular system has
obtained a so much greater preponderance. The sensitiveness of young
fishes to the slightest disturbance of the water, either as a shock or
from light, is exceedingly acute ; while, when older, they are appar-
ently insensible to the same causes.

I have nothing to add to the explanation of the mechanism of color-
ation given by Pouchet in his admirable memoir on the change of
coloration, to which I have already referred. A recapitulation of the
important points may, however, help the reader not familiar with his
memoir to understand the changes taking place during the develop-
ment of our young Flounders. In the coloration of fishes, we must
distinguish colors due to interference of light produced by the presence
of thin plates, and those due to anatomical elements frequently highly
colored, and endowed with sarcodic movements capable of marked
changes of form, under special influences, so as to present the shape
of extended dendritic surfaces or minute spherical masses through
which the pigment is distributed. The changes of coloration due to
thin plates are, of course, exceedingly variable, the tints following each
other with great rapidity, according to the angle at which we view them.
Such lamellar coloration is common among insects, Crustacea, and also
in some families of fishes. Among the most beautiful examples are those
of the dolphin ( Goryphcena) and of Saphirina ; while the second class
of colors — those due to the movements of the anatomical elements —
are directly connected with the impressions of color received by the eye,
and brought about by the reflex action of the nervous system. That
this is the case, the rapid change of coloration produced by placing
Flounders upon differently colored bottoms sufficiently proves. This

14 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

has, of course, a direct bearing upon the question of mimicry ; but it
must be frankly stated that, as far as the causes of coloration among ani-
mals have been studied, it is difficult to see how natural selection can
have been a factor in producing permanent mimicry ; while the rapid-
ity with which many fishes adapt themselves to the color of the bottom
upon which they live enables them undoubtedly to produce a protective
coloration, which is of advantage to them ; and constant habit may
develop unequally the capacity of producing certain tints, or patterns
even, which in their turn may be transmitted, and thus readily account
for the lighter coloring of Flounders living upon sandy bottoms, as com-
pared with those living upon rocky bottoms covered with dark algae.
Yet place the latter upon a light ground and the former upon a dark
ground, and they will very soon adopt the proper coloration of their
bottom, showing they have not lost their power of changing. As for
many of the patterns of coloration of birds and in insects, produced
by physical causes, it seems quite impossible to look upon them as the
fortuitous product of the action of light, or to regard it as an efficient
cause of protective mimicry.

The pigment cells appear early in the egg. In some of the fishes, we
have even two color elements in the older stages, immediately before
the young fish is hatched, — viz., the black and yellow ; but, in the
majority of cases, the black alone is present, the yellow element ap-
pearing subsequently, and, last of all, the red. The experiments made
by Pouchet on pigment elements show that the blue pigments are
probably only a dimorphic condition of the red pigments. This
would give a ready explanation why Lobsters turn red when cooked,
and of the blue Lobsters which are occasionally caught. The same
may also be said of green. Violet pigment, which is found in some
Crustacea, gives special reactions.

The anatomical elements containing the pigment are greatly changed
during growth. The examination of the pigment spots of the young-
est fish on any of the Plates here given with more advanced stages
shows how great is the capacity for expansion in the black pigment ele-
ments, which from mere dots have almost become special organs capable
of great expansion and contraction. Pouchet calls the pigment ele-
ments chromatoblasts in their embryonic condition, to distinguish them
from the chromatophores into which they eventually develop. In
addition to the chromatoblasts and chromatophores, Pouchet has also
called attention to a third set of bodies, which he calls iridocytes. These
are found in Fishes, Reptiles, Mollusks : they are situated near the
surface of the integument, and produce the phenomena of iridescence

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 15

of coerulescence by interference of light (as shown by Briicke), of
solid particles more or less analogous to excessively thin laminae. By
simple combinations of the action of the red, yellow, and black chro-
matophores with the iridocytes are obtained all the colors which we can
produce in Fishes, Reptiles, Crustacea, Mollusks, &c. ; these colors re-
sulting mainly from the expansion near the surface, or retraction into
an inferior layer of the black chromatophore, which, thus mixed with
the yellow and red, or with the iridocytes, at greater or less depths,
suffice to produce all the variations of coloring of our young Flounders.
An examination of Plate VIII., showing the changes of coloring pro-
duced upon young Flounders when placed upon differently colored
bottoms, will readily show the process by which the different colora-
tions are produced.

In the Flounders, after the eyes have passed to one side, the
connection between the impression produced on the retina and the
blind side becomes less and less distinct, until eventually a complete
paralysis of the nerves affecting the chromatophores takes place ; and
little by little the blind side thus becomes white with advancing age.

The pigment cells are of three colors, — black, yellow, and red (PL
VIII. fig. 6) : the black expand nearest the surface, the yellow and
red varying greatly in their position, according to the species. The
black cells are all more or less dendritic when expanded, concentrating
to a mere dot when wholly contracted. The proper mixture of the
three colors in various degrees of expansion or contraction, combined
with the suitable pattern of position, enables the Flounders to imitate
so admirably the general effect of the ground upon which they are
accustomed to feed, be it either sandy, gravelly, or muddy. So true is
this, that often only a most practised eye could detect them, as, with
the head slightly raised, the eyes starting out of their sockets far above
the surface of the head, they turn actively in all directions, seeking for
prey, or trying to escape the notice of their enemies. The rapidity
with which they produce this change of color is quite striking ; and,
although it was well known that many fishes had the power to change
gradually the tint of the body, it had not been noticed that it could be
effected rapidly, and apparently at will, before it was recognized
by Pouchet. I have not unfrequently removed the jar containing a
young Flounder (PI. VIII. fig. 2) from a surface imitating a sandy
bottom to one of a dark chocolate color, and in less than ten minutes I
have seen the black pigments obtain such a preponderance (PI. VIII.
fig. 1) that it would hardly have been possible to recognize in the dark,
almost black fish the young Flounder, whose yellowish-gray speckled

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

hue had so well simulated sand, a few moments before. On removing
him to a gravelly bottom, the spots of the side quickly became promi-
nent (PL VIII. fig. 3). During all this time, the pigments of the
blind side showed no trace of any sensitiveness ; while, if these ex-
periments are made when the eyes are still on both sides, the pigments
of the two sides change at the same time in a corresponding manner.

It is well known that Squids and Cuttle Fish, provided as they are
with exceedingly sensitive chromatic cells, are also able to imitate, for
their protection and disguise, the coloring of the ground upon which
they happen to live. But, in Cephalopods, the change of color of these
chromatophores is more intimately connected with the nervous sys-
tem, and appears far more sensitive and less subject to control than
among fishes. In Cephalopods, the mere act of moving the mantle, of
breathing, or of forcing the water through the siphon, seems sufficient
to produce a change of tint ; and a sudden disturbance is as likely to
bring about a detrimental as a beneficial change of color.*

Among Fishes, Reptiles, and other Vertebrates, as well as among Ce-
phalopods, and the mass of Mollusks, Crustacea, Annellids, Echinoderms,
&c, in which we find dermal pigment cells, we can readily imagine how
the effect of environments might, by reflex action, bring about a
resemblance to surrounding coloring, as has been described by Pouchet
and by Bert, thus producing general effects in the pigment cells,
which would assimilate within certain limits with the surrounding
tone. In all these cases, the explanation based upon mimicry as bene-
ficial presents little difficulty ; and we might suppose that by the laws
of heredity those colors alone which had been stimulated by continued
action through many generations would be transmitted. Thus Flounders,
for instance, living on sandy bottom, in which the grayish tint imitating
sand had been most constantly produced by the action of the proper pig-

* See the papers on the chromatophores of Cephalopods, by Huhrecht,
Niederland. Archiv f. Zool., II. No. 3, p. 8, Mai, 1875, in which he makes a most
interesting comparison of the phenomena of chromatophores and protoplasmic
action. Also an important paper by Dr. Hagen, in the American Naturalist,
vol. vi., July, 1872, on mimicry in the color of insects. The general results of
Dr. Hagen's study of the phenomena of color in insects agree, in the main, with
the results obtained by Pouchet from the study of Fishes, Crustacea, and Mol-
lusks ; both Pouchet and Hagen recognizing the presence of colors due to
action of light, and the presence of colors due to pigments, the hypodermal and
dermal layers. Judging from the interesting discussions brought out by the
papers of Weismann, of Wallace, and others, on the causes of color in the animal
kingdom, we are, however, only on the threshold of a most interesting and
novel field of inquiry.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 17

ment cells, would naturally transmit to their progeny in the greatest
quantity only such pigment as would most easily reproduce the imita-
tion of sand, while the same might he true of the Flounders living
on muddy or gravelly bottoms. Something analogous exists in the
common Echini, where dark-green and violet pigment spots closely
imitate dark granitic rocks covered with seaweeds ; or in the imitation
of sand by the grayish-green tint of Mellita and the yellow tint of Am-
phidetus, &c. : yet the whole theory of mimicry, even in these cases,
as a means of protection, is again overthrown by the mass of Clypeas-
troids, Spatangoids, Echinoids, whose dark coloring, but for their habit
of burrowing in the sand in which they live, would make them most
prominent objects. We next have the legions of Ctenophorse, Jelly
Fishes, and of other pelagic animals (especially the embryos) so trans-
parent as to be scarcely distinguishable from the water in which they
live, many of them are reduced to the merest film. Have they all,
little by little, assumed their transparency, in order to escape their
enemies ? Then why do they swarm in such quantities that their numbers
counteract the very object of their transparency ? It is common along
the seashore, at proper times of tide and wind, to find long lines where
all these delicate and transparent animals are accumulated on purpose as
it were to provide the food needed by their enemies, who are at hand
playing sad havoc among them. Many of the embryos of our com-
mon marine animals are gregarious for a short period of their life ; for
instance, the young of the majority of our Crabs and Shrimps, of many
Gasteropods, Annellids, and Radiates, just at the time when they are
most delicate, and least capable of escaping the attacks of their enemies.
At the time of hatching of the young Prawns (Palcemonetes vulgaris),
and of the young of our Cancer, sea perch may be seen devouring them
by the wholesale while they are swarming close to the shore. Thus,
numberless young are destroyed in spite of their transparency, and the
same holds good for a host of other embryos.

In the Flounders, we seem to have fair evidence that they are able
to produce certain effects in consequence of impressions received upon
the retina, and that the changes taking place on the chromatic side of
the body are probably due to the capacity of the fish to distinguish cer-
tain colors from others. But more accurate experiments than I have
yet made are necessary to enable us to decide whether the sense of
color is developed so early in the Vertebrate series, or whether we have
simply a set of reflex actions. It certainly seems, from a physiological
point of view, very hazardous to infer — as has been frequently done
on philological grounds — the gradual development of the sense of
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 2

18 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

color in early races of mankind, from the color descriptions of Homer
and early Greek writers. It is not an uncommon thing to find chil-
dren of the lower classes unable to give specific names to the different
colors ; but, if I am not mistaken, they can always distinguish the
primary colors without difficulty, though not able to name them. Cer-
tainly, the facility for painting and coloring noticeable in the pottery of
the uncivilized races of the world seems unfavorable to this theory.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

The Plates accompanying this paper are a fair sample of the results to he
ohtained from the transfer of original drawings by the Heliotype process. The
drawings are quite acceptable reproductions of the originals ; and this method of
illustrating papers on Natural History will prove very useful in many cases.
The method described by the younger Sars for obtaining transfers from original
drawings is somewhat cumbersome, requiring a great deal of care and a num-
ber of processes. The present method simply requires for the naturalist that
he should put on thin Bristol board the plate he desires to have transferred, of
the size he wishes, and arranged as he desires ; the only requisite being that
the figures be all drawn with a pen and with a special ink. He may then be
assured that he will get a plate nearly as clear as his original ; and several
transfers being made from the original, — say three or four, — a large number
of clear copies can be struck off without reducing the distinction of the im-
pressions, as is invariably the case in all lithographic processes. The delay
incident to all lithographic processes requiring a special artist are done away
with, and the author has only himself to blame for errors. This method seems
to give better results than that employed by Sars. Compare his plates of
Brisinga with those of the present paper. The cost of the Heliotype method is
moderate ; the impression on paper, and whole manipulation, after the drawing is
supplied to the patentees of the process, being considerably less than the cost
of printing and paper from an ordinary lithographic stone.

Plates III., IV., V., figs. 1-5, illustrate the development of a dextral Flounder,
in which the eye passes from the left side to the right side.

Plate V., figs. 6-13, Plate VI., illustrate the development of a sinistral
Flounder, in which the eye passes from the right side to the left.

Plate VII. illustrates the development of a sinistral Flounder, in which the
eye passes from the right to the left side long before the dorsal, anal, or caudal
fins have lost their embryonic character.

Plate VIII. illustrates the changes of color produced in the young Flounders
by placing them on differently colored ground.

Plate IX. shows the development of a sinistral Flounder, in which the ante-
rior part of the dorsal becomes to some extent an anterior dorsal.

Plate X. illustrates the passage of the eye through the integuments between
the base of the anterior part of the dorsal and the frontal bone.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 19

PLATE in.

Pleuronectes Americanus Walb.

Platessa plana Storer PI. XXX. fig. 2.

Fig. 1. Young, about 4mm long a few days after hatching. Seen from the left
side. The eyes are symmetrically placed at the extremities of an
axis at right angles to the longitudinal axis. The pectorals are well
developed, the embryonic fin extends unbroken from the base of
the brain to the anus, the ventral portion is somewhat broader.
The eyes are of a light bright-green, and there are faint yellow
patches on the lower sides of notochord along the muscular bands.

„ 2. Somewhat older than fig. 1. The tail has become slightly hetero-
cercal, and the embryo is much less transparent than in the previous
stage. The muscular tissue above and below the notochord is of
a light-brown color, with yellow patches near the black pigment
spots. One or two very indistinct tail-rays have begun to form.

„ 3. In this stage, the principal changes are confined to the increased num-
ber of tail fin-rays, and to the segmentation of the vertebral column
sending out its dorsal and ventral cartilaginous apophyses. The
pigment spots of the embryonic fin-fold (fig. 1), as well as of other
parts of the body, seem to become more prominent, when increased
activity in the formation of new tissues takes place. See the pig-
ment spots in the tail of this figure.

„ 4. A somewhat more advanced stage, in which the dorsal and ventral
embryonic fold has become tolerably separated from the tail-fin.
At the base of the dorsal and ventral folds, the basal fin-rays are
well developed, but as yet we find no trace of the fin-rays proper.

„ 5. In this stage, the tail-fin is in great part separated from the embryonic
fin-fold, which shows here and there traces of the formation of the
fin-rays proper ; but in other respects it differs from the preceding
stage mainly in the greater number of pigment spot patches, in
the greater development of the muscular bands, and of the dorsal
and ventral apophyses of the vertebral column. The eyes are as
yet symmetrical. The length of this embryo is about that of the
preceding stage (fig. 4).

PLATE IV.

Pleuronectes Americanus Walb.

Pig. 1. We now come to a series of stages in which the body becomes broader
in proportion to the length, and in which the dorsal and anal fins
are all gradually isolated from the caudal. In this stage, the fin-
rays extend nearly to the edge of the dorsal and anal, the muscu-
lar bands are much wider, and there is a slight asymmetry in the
position of the left eye, which has moved well forward towards
the top of the snout ; while in the preceding stages the left barely

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

extended to point of a vertical passing through the lower extremity
of the upper jaw. The patches of color which are to be even-
tually characteristic of the species first make their appearance in
this stage.
Fig. 2. Somewhat more advanced than fig. 1. The left eye, when seen from
the right side, projects slightly in advance of the frontal. The
dorsal and anal fin-rays are well developed, but still united to the
caudal. The tail has become rounded. The patches of coloring are
defined. Kudimentary ventral fins have appeared. There are as
yet no hard rays in the pectorals.

„ 3. In this stage, the left eye has moved more towards the crest of the
snout, the dorsal and anal fins are disconnected from the caudal,
and the ventrals are larger than in the preceding stage.

„ 4. More than half the left eye is seen above the frontal ridge ; the dorsal
and anal still more disconnected from the caudal than in the pre-
ceding stage; the ventrals larger, and the pattern of coloration
quite marked by prominent pigment cells.

„ 6. In this stage, the left eye has fully passed to the right side, the dorsal fin,
extending to the upper edge of the orbit, having gradually extended
in that direction from stages represented in PI. IV. figs. 2, 3, 4.
The pattern of coloration of the body and of the fins is like that
of the adult, but, of course, more indistinct. The dorsal and anal
fins are now completely isolated from the caudal fin : they have
both fin-rays fully developed, and have greatly increased in breadth
since the last stages figured.

PLATE V.

Figs. 1-5. — Pleuronectes Americanus Walb.

Fig. 1. Head of a young specimen, about in condition of PI. III. fig. 1. Seen
from above, to show the symmetrical portion of the eyes.

„ 2. Head of another specimen, about in the same stage as in fig. 1. Seen
from below.

„ 3. Head of a young specimen somewhat more advanced, in which the
left eye has changed its position somewhat, and has advanced
towards the snout ; showing the effect, when seen from above, of
the first movement of translation of the eye of the left side.

„ 4. Head of young Flounder, intermediate between figs. 4 and 5, PI. III.,
to show the transfer of the left eye above the ridge of the frontal
bone.

„ 5. The head of a young Flounder, nearly in the same condition as fig. 4.
Seen from the left side, showing the position of the eye during the
transfer while projecting above the frontal bone.

Figs. 6-13. — Pseudorhombus maculatus Stein.

Fig. 6. Head of young specimen still in the egg. Seen from above. The eyes
symmetrically placed at extremity of a transverse axis at right
angles to the longitudinal axis of the Flounder.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 21

Fig. 7. Head of same species, a couple of days after hatching, before any
movement of translation or of rotation of either eye has com-
menced. The two eyes symmetrically placed at the extremities of
a transverse axis at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the
Flounder.

„ 8. Shows the position of the eyes of the young Flounder from the left
side, where the right eye projects beyond the ridge of the frontal
bone.

„ 9. Shows the position of the right eye, seen from the right side, at about
the time the lower edge of the orbit has reached the summit of the
edge of the frontal bone.

„ 10-13. Show in regular succession the gradual passage of the eye from
the stage of fig. 9 until it has reached, in fig. 13, the position it re-
tains on the adult entirely on the left side of the body ; the space
between the eyes separated by the frontal ridge becoming less in
each specimen with advancing age.

PLATE VI.

PSEUDORHOMBUS MELAHOGASTER STEIN. MASS. FlSH Rep. 1872, p. 47.

Platessa oblonga Storer PL XXXI. fig. 2.

Fig. 1. Young specimen, just hatched from the egg. The yolk mass project-
ing below the outline of the lower surface ; the dorsal embryonic
fold much wider than the anal embryonic fin ; the pigment spots
are confined to the dorsal edge of the brain, and to the muscular
band above the notochord.

„ 2. Embryo two days old. The yolk mass projects but little beyond the
line of the lower surface. Large prominent pigment spots extend
over the whole body, with the exception of a small portion of the
tail, which is left bare from the earliest stages (fig. 1), and remains
bare for some time yet, thus giving an excellent specific distinction
for readily distinguishing the young of this species from other
species of embryos about in the same stages. The snout has become
more pointed than in the preceding stage, the dorsal embryonic
fold has lost much of its width, and in consequence the young fish
resembles a tadpole much less than in the preceding stage.

„ 3. Represents the same embryo on the fifth day after hatching. The prin-
cipal changes consist in the form of the head, the prolongation
of the lower jaw well in advance of the upper one, the presence
of large pectorals, the increase of the stomach, and a very slight
tendency to heterocercality in the tail.

„ 4. Somewhat older embryo. The stomach and alimentary canal have
greatly increased in size, the air-bladder has become prominent,
the body has greatly increased in width, the tail is decidedly more
heterocercal than in the previous stage figured, and the right eye
shows a slight tendency to move upward and forward towards the
anterior edge of the snout.

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Fig. 5. In this stage, considerably larger than the previous one, the change in
the outline of the young fish is considerable. The dorsal is highest
at its anterior extremity, the caudal is well separated from the
dorsal and anal fins, in all the fin-rays are fully formed, the profile
of the head is more blunt, and the whole body thickly covered with
dark pigment cells.

„ 6. The differences of this stage from the younger one (fig. 5) consist
mainly in the greater width of anterior part of the body ; the dis-
tinct pattern of coloration ; the increase in width of the dorsal and
anal fins, and their disconnection from the caudal, which has be-
come elongated and rounded at the extremity ; the presence of
small ventrals ; and the transfer of the right eye forward and up-
ward, so that one half is visible above the frontal from the left
side.

„ 7. Is a young Flounder, taken late in the season, but slightly larger than
fig. 6, in which, however, the right eye has passed well over to the
left side. The dorsal has extended towards the posterior edge of the
right eye, its anterior edge projecting over the eye. The pattern
of coloration is similar, in a general way, to that of the adult, and
extends into the base of the broad dorsal and anal fins. The ven-
trals are larger than in fig. 1. The Flounder in this stage and the
preceding stages (figs. 4, 5) habitually rests on the right side, but
as yet none of these young fishes show any difference in the color-
ation of the right from the left ; the former being still quite as
brilliant as the latter in the oldest stage here figured (fig. 6).

PLATE VII.
Rhombus maculatus Mitch.

Pleuronectes maculatus Storer PI. XXXI. fig. 4.

Fig. 1. Young ^specimen, with rudimentary air-bladder, few pigment spots,
measuring 5mm in length.

„ 2. Somewhat more advanced than fig. 1. The pigment spots greatly de-
veloped, but the embryonic dorsal and anal fins show scarcely any
advance.

„ 3. The body has become somewhat broader, the tail far more heterocercal,
and rudimentary fin-rays appear both in the dorsal and anal fins.
Patches of coloring indicating the future pattern are well defined.

„ 4. Somewhat more advanced, but slightly longer, than fig. 3. The base of
the fin-rays of the dorsal and anal are well developed. The body,
with the exception of a bare space of the tail and adjoining part of
the body, is of a uniform grayish-brown color, with patches of yel-
low, and black longitudinal lines along the upper and lower edges of
the notochord, and the base of the dorsal and anal fin-rays, as well
as following the muscular bands along the ventral edge. The upper
and posterior edge of the stomach is covered by intensely black
pigment spots closely crowded together.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 23

Fig. 5. Slightly older than the preceding stage. The eye, from the right side,
projects ahove the line of the snout; the coloring much as in
fig. 4. The anal, dorsal, and caudal fins are, however, more
advanced.

PLATE VIII.

Rhombus maculatus Mitch.

Fig. 1. Young sinistral Flounder, natural size, showing the color assumed when
the fish is placed upon a dark mud-colored ground.

„ 2. The same fish, somewhat enlarged, showing the coloring assumed
when placed upon a yellowish sandy soil.

„ 3. Another specimen of the same species, somewhat younger than the
preceding stages, showing the coloring assumed when placed upon
a mottled ground (partly gravel, partly sand) somewhat darker than
the yellowish sandy soil.

„ 4. Black pigment spots forming the blotches along the lines of the rays
of the dorsal, when fully expanded.

„ 5. Another portion of the dorsal, showing the spots when contracted.

„ 6. A portion of the pigment spots of the colored side, showing the red,
the yellow, and the black pigment spots when fully expanded, the
darker tints between the colored pigments representing the masses
of iridocytes.

PLATE IX.

PSEUDORHOMBUS OBLONGUS STEIN.

Platessa quadrocellata Storer PI. XXXI. fig. 3.

Fig. 1. Egg of Flounder, showing the symmetrical head of embryo.
„ 2. Head of young Flounder, the fourth day after hatching. Seen from

above.
„ 3. Head of fig. 4. Seen from below.
„ 4. Young Flounder. Seen in profile. Quite transparent. Remarkable for

the great development of the dorsal embryonic fin, 6.5mm in length.
„ 5. Somewhat older than fig. 3. First trace of heterocercal tail.
„ 6. Older than fig. 4. The anterior part of the dorsal is developed before

the rest, forming a sort of anterior dorsal. The eyes are still

symmetrical.
„ 7. Young Flounder, quite well advanced. The fins are all differentiated.

The right eye has, however, moved, thus far, but little forward and

upward.

PLATE X.

Plagusia Sp.

Fig. 1. Young Plagusia, slightly over an inch long. Seen in profile. The eyes
of the two sides are equally distant from the snout : they are placed
symmetrically with reference to a longitudinal axis, and a plane

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

passing through the transverse axis. This specimen is perfectly
transparent, — fully as transparent as the most delicate Hydroid
Medusa. The action of the heart, the course of the vessels, can be
readily followed, as well as the other structural details, which are
usually only visible after dissection. The dorsal fin projects far
down the frontal ridge to the nostrils, well in advance of the eyes.
Fig. 2. Young Plagusia (fig. 1). Seen with head on.

„ 3. Shows the relative position of the eyes after the first movements of
translation and of rotation have become visible by the slight advance
and rising of the eye of the right side. Seen from the left side.

„ 4. Somewhat more advanced than fig. 2. Seen from the right side. The
outline of left eye can be traced through the tissues of the head.

„ 5. Head, seen from the left side. The right eye has moved upwards suffi-
ciently to be seen through the tissues of the head, clear above the
left eye. We find in this stage the first trace of the opening of
the eye on the left. The eye, when turned in the socket, can look
through the tissues at the base of the dorsal; and, when thus
turned, to see through the left, is nearly as sensitive to approach-
ing objects as the left eye. When looking at the same fish for the
other side (the right), we find that the eye has deeply sunk in the
tissues between the frontal bone and base of dorsal fin, and that,
while sinking and pushing its way to the opposite side, the tissues
of the right side have gradually united and narrowed the former
large circular orbit to a mere small elliptical opening.

„ 6. The eye of the right side, as turned to the right ; the new orbit ap-
pearing on the upper edge of the eyeball.

„ 7. The same eye with the ball turned toward the left, showing the com-
mencement of the new orbit forming as a small circular opening
on the left side of the fish. The old orbit of the right side being
now reduced to a minimum, the fish now having two orbits on the
left side and one on the right. The orbit of the right being re-
duced to a small aperture, and disappearing in a subsequent stage
(fig. 9), while the new orbit of the right eye on the left side is as
yet much smaller than the corresponding orbit of the left eye.

„ 8. Head seen from the right side, showing the small size of the old orbit
of the right eye after it has forced its way partly across the head.

„ 9. The right eye has now passed entirely round the frontal bone, and is
held in its hollow curve, and has at same time forced its way through
the tissues so far that the original orbit of the right side has
become closed, and the new orbit for the right eye on the left side
has become nearly as large as the orbit of the left eye.

„ 10. In this stage, the eye from the right side is now completely trans-
ferred to the left, and no difference is apparent between the orbits.
In this and all preceding stages, the great length of the two optic
nerves is readily seen ; and we thus understand the possibility of so
extensive a movement of either eye without interfering with the
visual function. The slack of the optic nerves being only taken
in for the eye which happens to be transferred in any genus of
Flounder.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 25

There is in Flounders a most active circulation going directly
from the heart to the orbits and hack again : this is well shown in
this figure by the direction of the arrows along the vessels leading
towards the orbits and back again to the heart.
Fig. 11. Is a young Plagusia, after the transfer of the eye, nearly three inches
long, showing even at this stage but a slight accumulation of pig-
ment spots along the dorsal and anal fins parallel to the line of the
spines. A few yellowish and black pigment spots have also ac-
cumulated on the left side, but the young fish has as yet lost but
little of its transparency.

What eventually becomes of this species I am not able to say,
and it is not improbable that this species is identical with that
described by Steenstrup, and it may also be the young of the
Plagusia found on the Atlantic coast of the Southern States.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

II.

EXPERIMENTS UPON PIEZOMETERS USED IN
HYDRAULIC INVESTIGATIONS.

By Hiram F. Mills, Civil Engineer.

Presented April 10, 1878.

In making experiments upon water flowing in pipes and in open con-
duits, it is most convenient to measure its pressure against the side of
the' pipe or conduit, and its depth in the conduit, by means of small
tubes extending through the side, normal to its surface, and communi-
cating with vertical columns of water, contained in glass tubes or in
small reservoirs.

Such columns of water, used to measure pressure, are called
piezometers.

The question has arisen : Do they indicate the actual pressure
against the side of the pipe, of the water when in motion, or do they
indicate the actual height of the surface of the moving water in the
conduit ?

M. Darcy, in his great work * on the movement of water in pipes,
says (page 217) : " Indeed, manometers do not indicate the entire head
of a conduit at the points where they are adjusted, but this head
diminished by a certain height, the diminution being due to the velocity
of the fluid at the base of the piezometers : the water, by its cohesion,
acts upon the manometric column, whose height it lowers."

Again, he says : " When one of the manometers was placed upon
the cylindrical reservoir, where the velocity of the fluid was very slight
relatively to that of the water in the pipe, we see that in like circum-
stances the lowering by suction of the manometer upon the reservoir
should be less than the lowering by suction of the manometer upon the
pipe. . . . There was then a rectification to be made, but I have not
at this time the means of making it. In the experiments relative to
open canals, with which I am now occupied, I shall seek to determine

* Recherches Experimentales relatives au Mouvement de l'Eau dans les
Tuyaux. Par Henry Darcy, Inspecteur-Ge'neral des Ponts et Chausse'es. Paris,
1857.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 27

the law followed by these lowerings, according to the diameter of the
orifice in communication with a current, and according to the velocity
of the latter."

In the published records of the experiments relative to open canals,*
the results here anticipated are not included, and we are not informed
of the later conclusions of this able engineer.

In the performance of my duties as engineer of the Essex Com-
pany, — a company controlling the water power of the Merrimack
River at Lawrence, Mass., — it has become important to interpret
with accuracy the indications of piezometers, and to determine the
circumstances affecting their reliability. To this end, a long series of
experiments has been made upon piezometers, having orifices of com-
munication of varying size and form, and through a wide range of
velocities. The results of these experiments are regarded as of impor-
tance to investigators in hydraulics, and are, through the liberality of
the officers of the Essex Company, now presented for their use.

It is well known from the experiments of Venturi f that within a
short distance from the entrance of a pipe — a distance limited by the
influence of the contraction at the entrance — piezometers indicate a
pressure varying with their position, and widely different from that
which obtains after the section influenced by contraction is passed.
These phenomena are readily explained without attributing any dis-
crepancy between the pressure upon the sides of the pipe and the
indications of the piezometer. It is now, however, only necessary to
consider that portion of the pipe or conduit in which uniform motion
is established ; that is, a portion in which the particles of water move
parallel with the sides of the pipe with a velocity neither increasing
nor decreasing.

Uniform motion then existing, the prominent facts to be determined
are whether the height of the piezometric column is lowered by the
cohesion of the water acting at the base of the piezometer or not ;
and whether or not the height of the column of still water indicates
with accuracy the height of the surface of the adjacent mass of moving
water in an open conduit.

* Recherches Hydrauliques, entreprises par M. H. Darcy, Inspecteur-General
des Fonts et Chaussees : continuees par M. H. Bazin, Ingenieur des Ponts et
Chaussees. Premiere Partie : Recherches Experimentales sur l'Ecoulement de
l'Eau dans les Canaux de'couverts. Paris, 1865.

t Tracts on Hydraulics. Edited by Thomas Tredgold, C. E. II. Venturi's
Experiments on the Motion of Fluids. Second Edition. London, 1836, page
136 et seq.

28 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

For determining these facts, the apparatus represented upon plates
No. 1 and No. 2 was constructed. It consisted of a straight trough
thirty feet long, of uniform section, one foot deep and three-tenths of
a foot wide inside, receiving water at A from a chamber four feet
wide. At a distance of six-tenths of a foot up stream from the
entrance was a gate B, which, being opened, connected the chamber
with a penstock four feet wide, six feet high, and two hundred feet
long, bringing water from the Essex Company's south canal. The
down-stream side of the chamber A was built up to the height required
during the several experiments ; and its upper edge used as the crest
of a regulating waste weir, over which water continually flowed into
the waste trough C, which conducted it outside of the measuring basin.

The experimenting trough discharged its water at D into the swing-
ing conductors, supported by the pivot a, which conveyed it by the
branch E directly down into the measuring basin G, or by the branch
F into the river, as the partition b was raised above or lowered below
the stream.

The measuring basin G, 15.93 ft. wide, and 36.55 ft. long, and about
8 ft. deep, built of timber and planks on a firm foundation, was buried
in earth nearly to its full depth, except on the river side, which was
held from being pressed outward by a strong truss ; and except at
the observer's house H, where the heights of water in the basin were
observed.

The area of the measuring basin, within the range of filling during
the experiments, which was between 4.5 ft. and 6.5 ft. above the bot-
tom, was, deduction being made for all supporting timbers for the
upper works, found to be 570 square feet.

The depths of water in the measuring basin were measured by
means of a hook gauge in the box c, which was in free communication
with different parts of the basin by three pipes, 0.083 ft. in diameter.

The hook gauge used is described and illustrated in " Lowell
Hydraulic Experiments," * page 18.

Water was drawn from the measuring basin through the waste
gate d.

The experimental trough was at first placed level, having firm bear-
ings about ten feet apart. The upper end was connected with the
chamber A with a lining of rubber, making a water-tight joint, which
continued water-tight when the other end of trough was lowered

* Lowell Hydraulic Experiments. By James B. Francis, C. E., &c. Third
Edition. New York : D. Van Nostrand. 1871.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

29

through its successive steps to increase the velocity of the water
passing through it.

Starting four feet from the entrance, cross bars of wood 0.9 ft. long,
0.1 ft. wide, and 0.15 ft. deep, were screwed to the top of the trough at
intervals of just 2.5 ft., the top of the trough being let up into them
0.05 ft.

The up-stream top edge of each cross bar was taken as a station, and
these were numbered from 1 to 1 1, beginning with the up-stream cross bar.

Under the projecting ends of the cross bars were attached, to the
outer surface of the two-inch planks which made the sides of the
trough, tin boxes about 0.9 ft. long, 0.5 ft. wide, and 0.9 ft. high, hav-
ing blocks of wood fastened within some of them, as shown upon the
plates, to reduce the free surface area of water which they would con-
tain. These boxes, serving as reservoirs, and called still-boxes, were
put in communication with the interior of the trough by passages hav-
ing orifices of various forms and dimensions, and being variously dis-
posed, as expressed in the following table : —

Number

of
Station.

Side

of

Trough.

Form

of
Orifice.

Distance
of centre
up stream
from
Station.

Distance
of centre

above
bottom of

Trough.

Diameter

or

Dimensions

of

Orifice.

Angle of passage

with
inside of Trough.

Material
border-
ing
Orifice.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

2
2

West.
East.

Circle.

0.045
0.062

0.333
0.333

0.043
0.043

48° up stream.
48° down stream.

Brass.

3
3

West.
East.

Circle.

0.057
0.054

0.421
0.497

0.052
0.086

90°
90°

Iron.
>i

4
4
4
4

West.
East.

Circle.

0.059
0.058

0.249
0.422
0.249
0.411

0.010
0.083
0.042
0.021

90°
90°
90°
90°

Wood.
?»

5
5

West.
East.

Rectangle.
>i

0.052
0.052

0.505
0.500

4

0.084 wide.
0.337 high.
0.021 wide.
0.336 high.

90°
90°

Wood.
u

6
6

West.
East.

Circle.
i>

0.054
0.083

0.333
0.333

0.021
0.021

30° up stream.
30° down stream.

Brass.

7

7

West.
East.

Ellipse.

0.050
0.053

0.417
0.420

0.030 long.
0.021 high.
0.030 long.
0.021 high.

45° up stream.
45° down stream.

Wood.
ii

8
8

West.
East.

Circle.
ii

0.052
0.052
0.052
0.052

0.255
0.420
0.333
0.502

0.021
0.042
0.010
0.083

90°
90°
90°
90°

Wood.

9
9

West.
East.

Square.
Rectangle.

0.053
0.053

0.500
0.336

0.167

0.334 long.
0.083 high.

90°

90°

Wood.

10
10

West.
East.

Ellipse.
it

0.053
0.054

0.334
0.334

0.042 long.
0.021 high.
0.042 long.
0.021 high.

30° down stream.
30° up stream.

Brass.
»i

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The water flowed toward the north. Distances indicating position
of orifices were measured when the trough was level.

The trough with its appurtenances heing in place, the whole was
covered with a house about eight feet wide and ten feet high, having
windows at the top.

The comparative heights of the water surface in the stream and in
the reservoirs adjacent were now to be determined. The first step
was to measure the heights of three points at each station — one over
the middle of the stream, and one over each of the still-boxes — above
a surface of still water. This was done by the aid of three kinds of
instruments. The first kind, by which any change in height of the
water surface was noted, consisted of a plate of brass placed horizon-
tally, through which projected vertically upward fifty-one steel nee-
dles in two rows. The first needle being finished with its point just
0.1 ft. above the bottom of the plate, and the fifty-first having its point
0.11 ft. above the same surface, the intermediate points being sepa-
rated by equal spaces, were finished to be in the same inclined plane
with the extremities ; hence each point was 0.0002 ft. higher than the
next lower.

Six other needles, rising above these in another row, indicated the
position of the points reading two-thousandths.

The second kind of instrument consisted of a rod having a scale
divided into hundredths of a foot, sliding along a short standard hav-
ing a stationary vernier reading to thousandths, by which distances of
two ten-thousandths of a foot could be readily distinguished. The rods
were held in a vertical position by fitting into frames above each point
of observation. They were terminated at the lower end by a long finely
pointed needle, which was brought in contact with the water surface.

The third kind of instrument consisted of a vertical micrometer
screw, piercing a horizontal iron plate which made a part of its nut,
and whose under surface was kept level by a level bulb upon its upper
surface. The screw was terminated below with a finely pointed nee-
dle, and above, near the head, was supplied with an index, whose
position was read upon a circular scale made upon the top of the nut,
in which one ten-thousandth of a foot was indicated by the space of
about one one-hundredth of a foot.

After determining by these instruments the actual heights above a
datum plane of all of the points where observations were to be taken,
the same instruments were used upon the same points for determining
the heights of the water surfaces, when water was flowing through
the trough.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 31

During experiments with mean velocities less than three feet per
second, the trough was maintained in its level position, and the height
of surface and velocity were regulated by screwing a steel plate to the
lower end of the trough at the proper height, thus discharging the
water over a weir. With greater velocities, the plate was removed,
and the trough was more or less inclined.

During experiments, the measurement of the quantity of water
flowing through the trough was continuous, interrupted only by draw-
ing water from the measuring basin.

Generally there were as many as four observers, with their instru-
ments, making simultaneous observations at as many stations, with
assistants to record their reading.

Upon experimenting with velocities greater than three feet per
second, the disturbance at the entrance was found to continue past
Station No. 1, consequently all the observations at this station are
omitted.

At stations numbered from two to ten inclusive, 5925 observations
were made upon the height of the different water surfaces, with veloci-
ties in the trough from about 0.6 ft. to about 9 ft. per second. These
observations have been divided into 518 experiments, giving a series
of heights in each still-box above the surface of the stream at the
respective stations. These experiments have been grouped, by put-
ting together those at each station in which the mean velocity and
depth of water in the trough were nearly constant, and taking the
mean of the heights of the water in each still-box above the surface
of the stream. These mean results for each velocity, together with
the depth of water, the number of observations, and number of experi-
ments included in each result, are given in the following tables, and
are followed by columns of corrected results, which are described in
the headings : —

32

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

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34

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

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38 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The following notes were made at Station No. 4, when the mean
velocity of the stream was eight feet per second : —

10h 9'. There is a depression in surface of stream about 0.5 ft. below Sta.

No. 3 ; and a swell at 0.85 ft. above Sta. No. 4. Distance from

swell to depression, 1.15 ft.
11'. Depression 0.3 ft. below Sta. No. 4, and swell 1.3 ft. below Sta. No. 4.

Distance, 1 ft.
12'. I should judge that the swell above Sta. No. 4 is about 0.02 ft. above

the line connecting the depressions.

The depression and swell move longitudinally, frequently about

one-half a foot, and more rarely to the extent of replacing each

other.
22'. There is continual change in height of surface, but noticeable fluctu-
ations come as often as three-quarters of a second, and from 0.01 ft.

to 0.02 ft. in height.
34'. There is a swaying of the highest part of the stream from side to side ;

generally from within a tenth of a foot from one side to a tenth of

a foot from the other, but occasionally running nearer the side.
30'. There are times when the surface is quite even from side to side,

and again it will vary as much as 0.02 ft.
3S7. A swell longitudinally follows this fluctuation from side to side, but

is not a swell the full width of the stream.
39'. The swell seems to be a twisting of the thread of the current from

one side of the trough to the other.
4F. In the cross section there is a rise of the surface on each side, and a

rise of the thread of the stream tor a width of about 0.00 ft., and

a depression each side of this.

Immediately after the ahove observations, the following were made
at Station No. 8, in the midst of the series of eleven experiments,
having a mean velocity of 8.39 ft. per second.

10h 46'. The longitudinal distances between the swells and depressions are

greater near Sta. No. 8 than at Sta. No. 4, but are less definite.

The variation in height is at times as much as 0.02 ft.
52'. The surface of the stream is much more even here than at Sta. No. 4.

There is no marked rise near the middle of the stream, but there

is a swaying of the highest part of the stream from side to side

about 0.01 ft.
64'. The line of air-bubbles is nearly obliterated, varying to 0.04 ft. each

side of the middle, but most of the time remaining on the east side

of the middle.

Orifices in the Plane of Side. Passages normal.

The results obtained with orifices whose edges do not vary percep-
tibly from the plane of the side of the trough, with passages normal to
this plane will first be considered. Such are found on both sides at
Station No. 4, on both sides at Station No. 8, and on the east side at
Station No. 9.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

39

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feg

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Combining the results obtained at these orifices, grouping those
made at the same time or under like circumstances, and giving to
each a weight proportioned to the number of observations from which
it is obtained, we have the general results contained in the foregoing
table.

These average heights are represented in Fig. 1, Plate No. 3. In
this Plate and in Plate No. 4, the horizontal lines represent the sur-
face of the stream ; the ordinates are the heights expressed in full
scale or in actual distances above and below this surface ; and the
abscissas are mean velocities, in which one foot per second is expressed
by one twenty-fourth of a foot.

Taking a general view of these average heights, we find five results
are positive and six are negative ; and the general average height of
all, or the sum of the products of each height multiplied by its num-
ber of observations, divided by the whole number of observations,
gives for the 1440 observations, the height of the surface of water in
the still-boxes, 0.0007 ft. above that of the surface of the middle of
the stream.

Examining more in detail, we find that, with mean velocities up to
four feet per second, the heights of the surfaces in the still-boxes and
those at the middle of the stream coincide, within the practicable
limits of measurement. With velocities from five feet to nearly nine
feet per second, the heights of surfaces in the still-boxes are both
above and below those of the middle of the stream by measurable
quantities.

If we now assume, for the purpose of comparison, that, if there is
any real difference in these heights dependent upon the velocity, it
will vary with the square of the velocity ; and assuming also that the
incessant fluctuations of the surface of the stream vary in height with
the square of the velocity of the stream, it will be found by plotting
these heights with their respective velocities, and giving to each a
weight corresponding with the number of observations made in deter-
mining it, that they will be represented by a line expressing the
height of the surface of the still-boxes above that of the stream by
0.000035 of the square of the velocities of the stream ; or a little
more than two-tenths of one per cent of the heads which would pro-
duce these velocities, and but twelve per cent of the extent of the
incessant fluctuations in height of the surface of the stream.

This result proves that, with these orifices cut with care in pine
planks, having their passages at right angles with the side of the
trough, and having their edges so nearly in the plane of the side of

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 41

the trough that careful observation detected no variation therefrom,
and having areas in circular form from 0.0003 sq. ft. to 0.0054 sq. ft.,
and one rectangular area having a height of 0.083 ft. and a length of
0.33-1 ft., there was no lowering of the piezometric column by cohe-
sion of the water acting at its base ; and shows that the height of the
piezometric column was in excess of that of the stream by an amount
extremely small, but with large velocities it was within the practicable
limits of observation.

Orifices slightly inclined. Passages normal.

Before concluding the result just obtained to be a general truth, it
is important to learn in what manner it will be affected by slight
modifications of the conditions under which it was obtained. These
are fortunately presented, probably through unequal swelling of the
wood, in the orifices on each side at Station No. 5, and at the west
orifice at Station No. 9.

After the experiments were made, those with high velocities being
recently completed, these orifices were found to be in the following
condition : —

At Station No. 5, the orifice upon the west side being a rectangle
0.337 ft. high and 0.084 ft. wide, horizontally, had its top, bottom,
and down-stream edges well in the plane of the side of the trough ;
but the up-stream edge, being in this plane at the top and bottom,
receded from it 0.0008 ft. at its mid height. The orifice upon the
east side, being a rectangle 0.336 ft. high and 0.021 ft. wide, horizon-
tally, was in the condition that the plane of the side of the trough for
half a foot up stream from the orifice continued across it would cut
into the down-stream side of the orifice about 0.0002 ft. back from its
edge, for about two-thirds of the lower part of its height.

It is probable that these variations from a plane increased during
the three months in which the experiments were made, in which case
the condition presented is not applicable to the earlier experiments
with small velocities.

At Station No. 9, the orifice in the west side was cut 0.168 ft. high
and 0.250 ft. long, and then filled for the up stream one-third of its
length by a block, leaving a square orifice. At the end of experi-
ments, the edges of the original orifice were found to be in the plane
of the side of the trough, and the up-stream and top edges of the block
were also in this plane ; but the lower down-stream corner of the
block, and consequently the lower end of the up-stream edge of the
orifice, projected into the trough 0.0015 ft.

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

With these three orifices, the horizontal elements of the surfaces,
bounded by their edges, vary from being parallel with the axis of the
stream to a maximum deviation therefrom of 0° 33' in each of the ori-
fices at Station No. 5, and of 0° 31' at Station No. 9.

The direction of the deviation of the surfaces being such that at
Station No. 5 the particles of water in passing would impinge upon it,
and at Station No. 9 they would withdraw from it.

The effect of these slight deviations is presented in the following
table, and in Fig. No. 2 of Plate No. 3 : —

Station No. 5. West Side.

Station No.

5. East Side.

Mean

Mean

velocity

Mean heights of the

velocity

Mean heigh!

S of the

of

surface in still-box

of

surface ins

ill-box

water

above that at the

water

above that

at the

passing

middle of the

passing

middle of the

the

stream.

the

sti-ean

.

Station.

Station.

U

Heights.

U

Heights.

No. of

0.0002 U1

No. of

0.00032 U2

Ft. per
second.

Feet.

Obs.

Ft. per
second.

Feet.

Obs.

0.63

— 0.0005

30

0.0001

0.63

— 0.0010

30

0.0001

1.05

— 0.0001

44

0.0002

1.05

_ 0 i H m I.",

44

0.0003

1.79

0.0000

66

0.0000

1.79

+ 0.0018

67

0.0010

2.88

— 0.0005

01

0.0017

2.88

+ 0.0011

61

0.0027

5.46

+ 0.0102

28

0.0060

5.46

+ 0.0109

29

0.0095

6.10

+ 0.0029

6

0.0074

6.10

+ 0.0052

6

0.0119

7.05

-f- 0.0078

12

0.0099

7.05

+ 0.0117

13

0.0159

7.97

+ 0.01- -.7

17

0.0127

7.97

+ 0.0230

18

0.0203

8.55

+ 0.0196

12

0.0150

8.55

+ 0.0292

13

0.0240

Station No. 9. If". *

t Side.

0.64

— 0.0003

51

0.00008 U*

0.0000

1.09

0.0000

52

0.0001

1.86

—0.0005

53

0.0003

3.31

— 0.0023

57

0.0009

5.79

—0.0005

2:1

0.0027

6.14

— 0 0007

23

0.0030

8.44

— 0.0067

17

0.0057

8.88

— 0.0053

8

0.0063

From these results, we see that, where the surface included by the
edges of the orifice is turned, even very slightly, so that the particles
of water flowing parallel with the axis of the stream strike into it,
the surface of water in the piezometer stands higher than the surface

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 43

of the stream ; and, when turned so that the particles of water with-
draw from it, the surface of the piezometer stands lower than the sur-
face of the stream. Assuming that the variation is as the square of
the mean velocity of the stream, the excess in height of the piezo-
metric surface at the west box of Station No. 5 may be expressed
approximately by heights equal to 0.0002 U'2, in which U stands for
the mean velocity of the stream at the station ; and the excess in
height at the east box of Station No. 5 may be expressed approxi-
mately by heights equal to 0.00032 U2 ; and the depression at Station
No. 9 may in like manner be expressed by 0.00008 U'2.

Orifices parallel. Passages inclined.

At Stations No. 7 and No. 10, the planes of the edges of the ori-
fices were, within the limits of careful observation, either in the plane
of the sides of the trough, as at Station No. 7, or parallel with this
plane, and within 0.0004 ft. from it, as at Station No. 10; but at
these stations the passages from the orifices, beginning at the plane of
their edges, were not normal to this plane, but made therewith an
acute horizontal angle.

At Station No. 7, on the west side, the angle was 45° up stream,
and on the east side was 45° down stream. At Station No. 10, on
the west side, the angle was 30° down stream, and on the east side
was 30° up stream.

At Station No. 7, the orifices were made by boring through the
sides of the trough, at the proper angle, holes 0.021 ft. in diameter ;
and, though cut with great care, it was found at the end of the experi-
ments that the acute edge of each was slightly ragged, but no projec-
tion into the trough was perceptible.

At Station No. 10, the orifices were made with the same sized hole
in plates of brass, carefully finished, and set into the sides of the
trough flush ; but the swelling of the wood in the thickness of the
plate, which was 0.01 ft., caused it to project 0.0003 ft. or 0.0004 ft.
beyond the surface of the plates all around. The plates were 0.083 ft.
high and 0.125 ft. long.

The results given in the tables for these stations are represented in
Fig. No. 3, Plate No. 3.

Here we see that on the east side at Station No. 7, and on the
west side at Station No. 10, in which cases the particles of water
turning 45° and 30° respectively from their course would flow
directly through the passage into the piezometric reservoirs, the sur-
faces of the reservoirs stand higher than the surface of the stream,

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and these heights may be expressed approximately at Station No. 7
by 0.0002 U\ and at Station No. 10 by 0.0005 U\

On the other hand, on the west side at Station No. 7 and east side
at Station No. 10, where the passages go out up stream, the surface
of the piezometric reservoir at Station No. 7 stands lower than
the surface of the stream by amounts expressed approximately by
0.00025 U'\ While at Station No. 10, the surface in the reservoir is
slightly above and below that of the stream, in no case more than
0.004 ft., and the mean result for all of the velocities is very nearly
zero.

If there were any lowering of the piezometer by the action of
cohesion at its base, it would follow that with orifices having passages
so very favorable to drawing water from the reservoir, as in the two
cases just considered, the lowering would be much greater than the
raising above the stream in the two previous cases; but the lowering
being really less than the raising tends to the conclusion that there is
no lowering due to cohesion at the orifice.

The raising of the piezometric column three per cent of the head
that would produce the velocity of the stream, and the lowering of
one and one-half per cent of the same head by the difference in direc-
tion of the passage, without any perceptible variation of the plane of
the orifice from that of the side, indicate that, either from impercep-
tible variations in the plane of the orifice, or from sinuosity of cur-
rent, such inclined passages are not to be relied upon for accurate
results.

Orifices projecting into the Stream. Passages inclined.

At Station No. 2, a hole was bored through each side of the trough,
making with the inner face a horizontal angle of 48°, up stream on
the west side and down stream on the east side. Into these holes
were fitted brass pipes, 0.049 ft. in diameter outside, and 0.043 ft. in
diameter inside, having the inner ends finished smooth with square
edges. These pipes projected into the trough, so that the intersec-
tion of the plane of the end of each with the plane of the side of
the trough was very nearly a tangent to the outer circumference of
the end.

The distance from the plane of the side to the point of the outer
circumference of the end farthest removed was 0.033 ft., and to the
corresponding point of the inner circumference was 0.031 ft.

At Station No. 6 were .other projections into the trough. Two
brass castings were made, each consisting of a plate 0.083 ft. high,

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 45

0.125 ft. long, and 0.010 ft. thick, having near the middle of one side a
projection of about 0.02 ft., through which was drilled, lengthwise of
the plate at an angle of 30° with its face, a hole 0.02 1 ft. in diameter.
The end of the hole was finished at right angles with its axis, having
the circumference very nearly tangent to the surface of the plate ;
and, the edge of the orifice being as thin as practicable, the outside of
the projection was finished, making its elements diverge 10° from the
axis of the hole, and its point farthest removed from the plane of the
plate was 0.02 ft. therefrom.

When in position in the trough, the face of the plate was in the
plane of the side ; and a horizontal section through the axis shows the
inside of the hole, making an angle of 30°, and the outside of the pro-
jection one of 20° with the side. The orifice faced down stream on
the west side and up stream on the east side. During experiments,
the plates did not vary more than 0.0002 ft. and 0.0003 ft. from the
plane of the side of the trough.

A short time before the experiments were completed, an instrument
with projections, designed to be miniature models of those at Station
No. 6, was set into the west side of the trough, 0.84 ft. up stream from
Station No. 6, and 0.25 ft. above the bottom.

This instrument consisted of a circular plate of brass 0.147 ft. in
diameter and 0.042 ft. thick, having a hole through its centre 0.013 ft.
in diameter, normal to its face, with square edges well in the plane of
its face. At 0.04 ft. above and below the central hole were two
others, 0.005 ft. in diameter, drilled in horizontal planes through pro-
jections upon the face from opposite sides of the vertical through their
centres ; the hole above the centre making an angle of 30° with the
face down stream, and that below making the same angle up stream.

The orifices were finished with thin edges, in planes normal to the
axes, and were very nearly tangent to the face of the instrument, from
which the entire projection was 0.005 ft. The elements of the out-
side surfaces were made to diverge 10° from the axes.

When in place in the trough, the face of the instrument was not
more than 0.0002 ft from the plane of the side. Short brass tubes
were screwed into the back of the instrument and connected with
vertical glass tubes placed against a scale upon which the heights of
water surfaces were read.

46

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The results obtained at Stations No. 2 and No. 6 and with the
instrument just described are given in the following table : —

Mean

velocity

of stream

passing

the
orifice.

Number
of obser-
vations.

Height of the surface in the

still-boxes above that of the

middle of the stream.

At the WTest
Still-box.

At the East
Still-box.

U.

Ft. per sc

Feet.

Feet.

At Station No. 2.

+ 0.0030
+ 0 0100
+ 0.0223
+ 0.0664
+ 0.2469

+ 0 3410

— 0.0063 U*

+ 0.0086 U2

0.64
1.03
1.74
2.70
5.23
6.25
6.39
7.39
8.18

60

148

108

119

56

34

18

19

24

— 0.0025

— 0 0063

— 0.0201

— 0.11112

— 0.1885

— 0.2719

— 0.3043

— 0.4227

— 0.0026

— 0.0067

— 0.0191

— 0 0459

— 0.1723

— 0.2401

— 0.3440

— 0.4215

+ 0.0035
+ 0.0091
+ 0.0260
+ 0.0627
+ 0.2352

+ 0.3511

At Station No. 6.

+ 0.0018
+ 0.0083
+ 0.0259
+ 0.0296

+ 0.0418
+ 0.0650
+ 0.0722
+ 0.2433
+ 0.2688
+ 0.3465

— 0.0033 U"

+ 0.0074 U2

0.65
1.06
1.82

1.89
2.32
2.68
301
5.63
6.08
7.11
754
8.13
8.21
8.59

180
58

102
36
36
18

131
44
30
11
42
12
84
11

— 0.0022

— 0.0044

— 0 0TJ7

— o.oni

— 0.0178

— 0 0170

— 0.0326

— 0.1102

— 0 1303

— 0.1760*

— 0.2141

— 0.2155

— 0.2482

— 0.0014

— 0.0037

— 0.0109

— 0.0129

— 0.0178

— 0ir_>:;7

— 0.02! t9

— 0.1046

— 0.1220

— 0.1876

— 0.2181

— 0.2224

— 0 2435

+ 0.0031
+ 0.0081
+ 0 0245
+ 0.0264
+ 0.0398
+ 0.0536
+ 0.0670
+ 0.2346
+ 0.2736
+ 0.3741

At Side Instrument above Station No 6.

— 0.0025 U*

+ 0.0046 U2

7.27
7.38
8.12

33

40

138

Height of water above that of
central glass tube.

In down-stream
Tube.

In up-stream
Tube.

Feet.

Feet.

— 0.1294

— 0.1334

— 0.1635

+ 0.2370
+ 0.2369
+ 0.3109

— 0.1321

— 0.1361

— 0.1646

+ 0.2429
+ 0.2505
+ 0.3033

* Air drew into West tube at times.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 47

These results are also represented graphically upon Plate No. 4,
where it will be seen they may be expressed with a good degree
of approximation in terms of the mean velocity of the stream, as
follows : —

At Station No. 2.

West side — 0.0063 U2

East side + 0.0086 U2

At Station No. 6.

West side — 0.0033 U2

East side + 0.0074 U2

At Side Instrument near Station No. 6.
Down-stream Tube .... — 0.0025 U2
Up-stream Tube + 0.0046 U2

In these results, we see that with the orifice inclined down stream
the lowering of the reservoir below the surface of the stream is less
in amount than the raising of the reservoir above the surface of the
stream where the orifice is inclined up stream at the same angle ; the
former being in the three cases seventy-three, forty-four, and fifty-
four per cent of the latter.

Orifices parallel. Passages normal. Tubes projecting.

At Station No. 3, holes were bored at right angles with the plane
of the side, and into these were fitted iron pipes. On the west side,
the pipe being 0.0G8 ft. in diameter outside, and 0.052 ft. in diameter
inside, had a well finished end parallel with the plane of the side,
with square edges. On the east side, the pipe was 0.109 ft. in diameter
outside and 0.08G ft. in diameter inside, with end designed to be
finished like that upon the west side ; but it was not done with care,
and the up-stream edge was, at the close of the experiments, found to
project 0.0009 ft. farther into the stream than the down-stream edge,
and the top edge to project 0.0003 ft. more than the bottom edge.

At first, both pipes were kept flush with, or without any projection
beyond the plane of the side, and afterward were pushed out into the
stream, as indicated in the table giving a summary of results at
this station.

With velocities from 0.64 ft. to 2.77 ft. per sec, the westerly pipe
being flush with the side, the average height in the reservoir is the
same as that at the middle of the stream, within the practicable limits
of measurement.

The same result obtains upon the east side up to velocities exceed-

4» PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ing 6 ft. per sec. "With velocities between seven and' one half feet
and eight and one half feet per sec, the average height in the reservoir
was greater than that at the middle of the stream by 0.0108 ft.

But, immediately upon projecting one of the pipes into the stream,
a marked change is observed : the surface in the reservoir is imme-
diately lowered ; with a velocity of 2.77 ft. per sec, the westerly pipe
being flush with the side, the surface in the reservoir was 0.0011 ft.
higher than that in the stream, but, upon projecting this pipe 0.013 ft.
into the stream, the surface in the reservoir immediately lowered to
0.0259 ft. below that of the stream; the mean velocity continuing
2.80 ft. per sec. With the same projection of 0.013 ft., with veloci-
ties from 2.09 ft. to 8.35 ft. per sec, the lowering of the surface of
the reservoir below that of the stream increased from 0.0187 ft. to
0.2196 ft. in a series expressed approximately by heights equal to
0.0033 U% as shown in Fig. No. 4, Plate No. 3.

Increasing the jirojection to 0.055 ft., the mean velocity being
7.95 ft. per sec, the lowering of the reservoir was 0.4392 ft., or
0.00G9 U'1 ; and it would probably have been more, but at this height
the surface of the reservoir was drawn below the top of the pipe, even
to its centre, and air was drawn into the stream.

The form of the stream of air at the orifice revealed to the eye the
cause of the lowering in the reservoir. It was evident that the par-
ticles of water striking the up-stream side of the pipe were deviated in
part nearly at a right angle toward the middle of the stream, and
their course again bent down stream, forming a path approximating
a quadrant of an ellipse whose conjugate axis lay in the end of the
pipe parallel with the axis of the stream.

Upon withdrawing the pipe and reducing the projection to 0.007 ft.,
the lowering in the reservoir is expressed by 0.0011 W1.

At the east side, with the pipe so placed that its most projecting
point was in the plane of the side of the trough, and with a mean
velocity of stream of 7.95 ft. per sec, the surface of water in the
reservoir was 0.0009 ft. above that of the stream ; but, upon projecting
the pipe 0.008 ft., the surface in the reservoir was lowered to 0.1080 ft.
below that of the stream, the mean velocity continuing 7.98 ft. per
sec. This lowering may be expressed by 0.0017 U2.

Upon projecting this pipe 0.012 ft., the lowering, with a mean
velocity of 7.86 ft. per sec, amounted to 0.1797 ft., or 0.0029 XJ-.

If we knew the actual distribution of velocities throughout the
stream, it would be interesting to trace the relation of the lowering of
the reservoir and the velocity of the stream just at the end of the pipe.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

49

With our present knowledge, this cannot be done with accuracy ; but
from observations, which I will not describe, I am able to present an
approximate result which will serve to illustrate one principle.

Taking, for example, the conditions when the mean velocity of the
stream is 8 ft. per sec, I construct the following table : —

Distance
from side
of trough.

Approxi-
mate
velocity at
the distance
given.

Head that
would pro-
duce this
approxi-
mate
velocity.

Lowering of
reservoir

below

surface of

stream.

Lowering of
reservoir
divided by

head

producing

approximate

velocity.

Velocity

due
lowering.

Velocity due
lowering
divided by

approximate
velocity.

Feet.

Ft. per sec.

Feet.

Feet.

Ft. per sec.

0.007
0.008
0.012
0.013
0.055

5.6
5.8
6.2
6.3
8.0

0.488
0.523
0.598
0.617
0.995

0.070
0.109
0.186
0.211
0.442

0.14
0.21
0.31
0.34
0.44

2.12
2.65
3.46
3.68
5.33

0.38
0.46
0.56
0.58
0.67

Recurring to the observations when the westerly tube projected
0.055 ft. and the paths of some of the particles were found to deviate
about ninety degrees, and, passing through a quadrant of an ellipse,
again resume a direction parallel with their former course, it would be
reasonable to conclude that, with a projection of a few thousandths of
a foot, the deviation of the paths would be less than ninety degrees,
and the curve would be flattened, and become more like a segment
taken nearer the transverse axis. In this case, the lowering of the
reservoir would not bear a constant relation to the head which would
produce the velocity existing at the end of the pipe, but would be a
fraction of this head, increasing with the distance from the side, rapidly
at first, and then slower, until reaching a limit would remain constant.
This conclusion is confirmed by the results of the table, in which with
distances from 0.007 ft. to 0.055 ft., the velocity due a height equal to
the lowering of the reservoir increases from 0.38 to 0.67 of the veloc-
ity at the end of the pipe, and this increase is in a rapidly decreasing
series.

I have reason to conclude, from experiments made elsewhere, that
the lowering of the reservoir depends also upon the thickness of the
end of the pipe ; for I found by projecting a pipe 0.02 ft. in diameter,
having very little thickness at the end, into water flowing in an iron
pipe one foot in diameter, with a mean velocity of 9 ft. per sec, a
lowering of the piezometric column greater than that above given ;
namely, for the same distances from the side, the velocity due a
height equal to the lowering was from seventy to ninety one-hundredths
vol. xiv. (n. 8. VI.) 4

50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of the velocity with which the water approached the end of the pipe,
and at greater distances the velocity due the lowering increased until
it exceeded the velocity of the approaching water.

Conclusions.

From the 6000 and more observations made at this trough upon
the various forms and kinds of orifices, I reach the following general
conclusions : —

The first group of experiments shows that with orifices whose
edges are in the plane of the side of the conduit, with passages normal
to this plane, the surface of water in the piezometers does not stand
below the surface of the stream.

On the contrary, the general results at the orifices of this kind
indicate, for the higher velocities, an excess of height in the piezometer
expressed by 0.000035 U\

This is but twelve per cent of the incessant fluctuation of the sur-
face ; but, though a very small quantity, it is, with the higher velocities
experimented upon, a measurable one, and its cause is to be sought.

Experiments at Station No. 6 and those with the instrument having
projections of 0.005 ft. show that the height above the surface of
the stream to which water in the piezometer is forced is greater when
the orifice is turned toward the current than the height below the
surface to which it is drawn when the orifice is turned so that the
stream draws away from it ; in these cases nearly twice as great,
the angle with the plane of the side and the amount of projection
being the same when facing with or against the current. The obser-
vations at Station No. 5 and on the west side at Station No. 9 give
a similar result.

The edges of the orifices of the first group of experiments which
were, within the limits of careful observation, in the plane of the side
of the trough, were of course not perfectly in this plane ; the proba-
bilities are that they deviated as much from this plane upon the
down-stream side as upon the up-stream side, in which case it follows
from the experiments just cited that the effect of these imperfections
would give an average height of the piezometers greater than the
height of the stream. If the comparative value of the excess of and
diminution in height of the experiments cited be applied to these
results, the average height of piezometers for velocities above 5 ft.
per sec. will be reduced to the average height of the stream, within
the practicable limits of measurement. This result indicates, with a
nearness of approximation unusual in hydraulic investigations, that

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 51

with the plane of the orifice accurately in the plane of the side of the
conduit the piezometer will indicate the true height of the surface of
the stream.

The second group of experiments shows that, with extremely slight
variations of the plane of the orifice from the plane of the side, the
piezometer indicates a greater height or a less height than the surface
of the stream, according as these variations cause the stream to strike
into or draw away from the plane of the orifice ; and, in connection
with the experiments at Station No. 6 and elsewhere upon definitely
formed projections, they lead quite definitely to the conclusion that
with an orifice whose edges are in the plane of the side, and passage
normal thereto, the piezometric column will stand neither above nor
below the surface of the stream, but will indicate the true height of
this surface.

The third group of experiments in which the plane of the orifice was
in, or nearly in, the plane of the side, but the passage from it turned
sharply up stream or sharply down stream, shows that, with such ar-
rangement, variations from the plane of the side which would escape
careful observation, or slight inclinations of the current, may lead to
variations of considerable magnitude in height of the piezometric
column above or below that of the surface of the stream, consequently
such arrangements are not to be relied upon.

The fourth group of experiments in which the orifice projects into
the stream, and the plane of its edges makes a large horizontal angle
with the plane of the side, either up stream or down stream, shows that
with the same angle and the same projection into the stream the
piezometric column connected with the orifice facing up stream stands
above the surface of the stream by a much greater amount than the
piezometric column connected with the orifice facing down stream
stands below the same surface ; the latter height being, in the
examples before us, from forty-four to seventy-three per cent of
the former.

The fifth group of experiments in which pipes at right angles with
the current project into the stream, the end of the pipe having square
edges, shows that with such an arrangement the piezometric column
stands lower than the surface of the stream.

This follows from the fact made evident that the particles of water
which woidd pass where the pipe is are deviated from their course, a
part of them moving lengthwise of the pipe, and, being projected in a
curve around its end, cause the pressure into the end of the pipe to be
diminished below that of the normal pressure upon the sides of the

52 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

trough, by an amount which is a varying fraction of the pressure
which would produce the velocity with which the water approaches
the pipe.

This fraction increases with the projection from the side, from zero
to forty -four one-hundredths, in the experiments in this trough ; and
in the experiments alluded to in a closed conduit uuder pressure, with
a smaller pipe having a thin end, it increased more rapidly with the
same distances from the side, and with greater distances increased
until the lowering exceeded the height which would produce the
velocity of the approaching water.

The lowering of the piezometric column under circumstances like
these just presented confirmed Dubuat* in his conclusion that water
in motion pressed upon the sides of a conduit with a pressure less
than that due its depth, by the whole amount of pressure that would
produce its mean velocity, which conclusion Navier f controverted,
but which has been presented in works upon hydraulics quite gener-
ally until the publication of the results of M. Darcy, which in general
confirmed the position of Navier, but left in doubt the indications of
the piezometer ; but the experiments now presented show that with
currents flowing parallel with the side of a straight conduit, with orifices
having edges in the plane of the side and with passages normal thereto,
there is no lowering of the piezometric column, but that it indicates the
true height of the surface of the water in the conduit when in motion,
as well as when at rest. And we have a reliable datum plane, to
which observations in hydraulics may be referred.

Note. Upon the Limits of Accuracy that may be obtained with
Piezometers.

The experiments of the first group were united, because from careful
observation, made before any results were computed, the planes of the
orifices were regarded as satisfactorily in the plane of the side. No
deviation therefrom was perceptible in the light in which they could
be seen that enabled me to say they inclined one way or the other.
This light was good upon the side of the straight edge presented to
the eye ; but, looking down into the trough, no light could be seen be-
yond, and very slight variations could not be detected there, which could
be seen if the bearing surfaces were between the eye and the light.

* Principes d'Hydraulique. Par M. Dubuat. Paris, 1816. Art. 439 and 453.
t Architecture Hydraulique. Par Belidor. Paris, 1819. Page 342.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 53

It may be that variations of 0.0002 ft. were overlooked, though such
were detected at Station No. 5.

To obtain as definite an idea as we may of the precision necessary
to obtain accurate results with a piezometer, let the results obtained
at the several orifices of the first group be worked up separately.
The heights of the piezometers above and below the surface of the
stream will be expressed approximately as follows : —

Station No. 4. West side, — 0.00004 U2 East side, — 0.00006 U2
Station No. 8. West side, -t- 0.00022 U2 East side, + 0.00006 U2 ,
Station No. 9. East side, •+- 0.00002 U2

Applying as well as we may the results obtained in the second group
of experiments, and assuming the variation in height to be propor-
tional to the angle of inclination with the plane of the side, of the
horizontal elements of the surface bounded by the edge of the orifice,
it will be seen that an extreme variation from the plane of the side
in the length of any of the longer of these elements of 0.0004 ft.,
0.0002 ft., 0.0003 ft., 0.0002 ft., and 0.0002 ft., respectively at the
several orifices, in the order in which they have been named, will
account for the several variations in the height of the piezometric
columns above or below the surface of the stream ; and a less varia-
tion from the plane of the side, in the length of any of the shorter
horizontal elements of the circular orifices, would serve to account
for them.

It will be observed that the heights by the piezometer whose orifice
was 0.334 ft. long horizontally indicated more nearly than those with
smaller orifices the actual height of the stream.

From these results, it is evident that it is entirely within the
practicable limits of construction to make piezometers that will indi-
cate the true height of the stream, within the practicable limits of
observation.

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

III.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF
HARVARD COLLEGE.

RESEARCHES ON THE SUBSTITUTED BENZYL COM-
POUNDS.

By C. Loring Jackson and Alfred W. Field.

FOURTH PAPER.

PARACHLORBENZYL COMPOUNDS.

Presented December 12th, 1877.

Parachlorbenzylchloride, C(iJIiClCJI2CL In beginning these re-
searches, we had no idea that it would be necessary to investigate this
substance, as, since its discovery by Beilstein and Geitner,* it had been
prepared and studied by a great number of chemists, and had served
as the starting-point for the preparation of all the parachlorbenzyl
compounds known. But, on looking into the subject more carefully,
we found that it had been made invariably from the product of the
chloriring of toluol in the cold, which Hubner and Majertf have
proved, by their work on the sulpho-acids, is a mixture of ortho and
parachlortoluol ; while, more recently, Oscar Emmerling $ has shown
that the product from oxidizing it with potassic permanganate contains
more ortho than parachlorbenzoic acid. The parachlorbenzylchloride
of previous chemists, therefore, must have been contaminated with a
larger or smaller amount of the ortho compound, which escaped detec-
tion, because the method used by them to test the purity of their
preparations consisted in oxidizing with potassic dichromate and sul-
phuric acid, and, as this destroys the ortho modification completely, a
pure parachlorbenzoic acid was the only product. This oversight is
not surprising when it is borne in mind that the more important of

* Beilstein and Geitner, Zeitschr. der Chem., 1866, p. 307 ; also p. 17.
t Hubner and Majert, Ber. D. Ch. G. vi. p. 790.
J 0. Emmerling, Ber. D. Ch. G. viii. p. 880.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 55

these papers appeared in 1866, when the nature of aromatic isomeres
was very imperfectly understood.

For the reason given above, we determined to prepare the para-
chlorbenzylchloride from perfectly pure parachlortoluol, and hoped
that it might be a solid, instead of the oily liquid described by our
predecessors ; indeed, it seemed hard to believe that it could be a
liquid, as the parachlortoluol melts at 6£° (Hiibner and Majert), and
we had already found that the introduction of bromine into the side-
chain raised the melting-point to 48 1°.

Preparation. Parachlortoluol was made from pure paratoluidine
by treatment with hydrochloric acid and potassic nitrite, according to
a modification of the method of Hiibner and Majert, * described in
connection with parachlorbenzylbromide in the first paper f of this
series. The 31 grs. that we obtained distilled over completely be-
tween 160° and 161°, and froze between 4° and 5° in white plates
looking exactly like parabromtoluol, which melted from 7° to 7|-°.
These results agree essentially with those of Hiibner and Majert,*
who found the boiling-point 160|°, the freezing-point a little above
0°, and the melting-point 6|-°. To convert this into parachlorbenzyl-
chloride, a stream of chlorine was passed into it while it stood in a
paraffine-bath heated to 166°: when the increase in weight showed
that somewhat more than the calculated amount of chlorine had been
taken up (the 27 grs. of parachlortoluol used had become 35 grs.
instead of 34.3 grs.), the chlorine was stopped, and the product put
in a freezing mixture of ice and salt, where it partially solidified in
white needles, which were drained on the filter-pump, and recrystal-
lized from alcohol. The yield was very small, and all attempts to
get more from the mother-liquors were fruitless. The following
analyses of the substance dried in vacuo show that it is the expected
parachlorbenzylchloride.

0.6760 gr. of substance gave 1.2930 gr. of C02 and 0.2458 gr. of
H204

0.2755 of substance gave, by Klobukowski's § modification of Emil
Kopp's method, 0.4946 gr. AgCl.

* Hiibner and Majert, Ber. D. Ch. G. vi. p. 794.

t These Proceedings, XII. (n. s. IV.) p. 218.

\ Combustion of these parachlorbenzyl compounds with plumbic chromate
alone was found to yield good results much more easily than the more usual
method of combustion in a stream of oxygen, and therefore was used in the
analysis of all these substances.

§ Klobukowski, Ber. Dt. C. G. 10, p. 290.

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Calculated for C7H6C12.

Found.

Carbon

52.17

52.17

Hydrogen

3.73

4.04

Chlorine

44.10

44.41

100.00 100.62

Properties. White lustrous prisms or needles, often more than 3 cm.
long, with an agreeable aromatic odor and most violent action on the
mucous membrane and tenderer parts of the skin ; nielting-point, 29° ;
so volatile that a crystal exposed to the air disappears in a few hours ;
sublimes even at ordinary temperatures in needles ; it is very little, if
at all, soluble in water, but readily in warm, less so in cold, alcohol,
very easily in ether, benzole, carbonic disulphide, and glacial acetic
acid. That it is a chlorbenzyl compound was proved by boiling it
for some time with water, in a flask with a return-cooler, when the
parachlorbenzylalcohol and hydrochloric acid were formed. Boiled
with a solution of potassic permanganate, it was easily oxidized, giving
an acid which melts between 233° and 235° (O. Emmerling gives 234°
as the melting-point of parachlorbenzoic acid) ; this acid boiled with
water, in which the orthochlorbenzoic acid is much more soluble than
the para, gave a solution which deposited crystals melting also at
233°-235°: as potassic permanganate oxidizes instead of destroying
the ortho compounds, this proves that our parachlorbenzylchloride is
perfectly free from isomeric impurities.

Having thus proved that the parachlorbenzylchloride used as a
starting-point for the preparation of derivatives by Beilstein, Kuhl-
berg, Neuhof, and others, really did contain the ortho compound, as
we had previously inferred, we next proceeded to make some of
these derivatives, and redetermine their properties. In this work,
the more easily purified parachlorbenzylbromide was used instead of
the chloride.

Parachlorbenzylalcohol, G^H^CIGH^OH, was made by boiling the
bromide (or chloride) with water in a flask with a return-cooler. The
formation of hydrobromic (or hydrochloric) acid by this reaction was
proved by testing the water, which had become acid, with argentic
oxide, when argentic bromide (or chloride) was formed, and the acid
reaction disappeared. The alcohol was made also from the acetate
by boiling with water : sealing with aqueous ammonia, as recom-
mended by Beilstein and Kuhlberg, being found in this case un-
necessary : it was purified by crystallization from boiling water, dried
in vacuo, and analyzed.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 57

0.4517 gr. of substance gave 0.9754 gr. C02 and 0.2175 gr. H20.
Calculated for C7H6C10H. Found.

Carbon 58.94 58.89

Hydrogen 4.91 5.34

Properties. Beautiful pointed white ribbons usually one or two
inches long, with a brilliant pearly lustre and characteristic smell, but
no action on the mucous membrane or tenderer parts of the skin ;
melting-point, 70 £° ; sublimes very easily in white needles, and can be
purified in this way ; evaporates slowly on exposure to the air, and
distils in a current of steam ; slightly soluble in cold, much more so
in hot water, very easily in alcohol, ether, benzole, carbonic disulphide,
and glacial acetic acid. It is oxidized by a mixture of potassic dichro-
mate and dilute sulphuric acid, giving parachlorbenzoic acid ; melting-
point, 233° (234° O. Emmerling).

The chlorbenzylalcohol obtained by Beilstein and Kuhlberg * differs
from the above only in melting at 66°.

Parachlorbenzylcyanide. The product of the reaction of alcoholic
parachlorbenzylbromide and potassic cyanide, when precipitated by
water, was a yellow oil, which showed no signs of solidifying in a
mixture of ice and salt : after standing in an open watch-glass for
three or more weeks, however, it did deposit crystals when put in a
freezing-mixture, but in such small quantity that it was impossible to
purify them thoroughly ; and it did not seem worth while to spend
the large amount of time and material necessary to get enough of
them for complete study. The crystals, after sucking out the oil with
filter-paper, proved to be good-sized colorless prisms ; and, as one
specimen of a twinned form like a quatrefoil was observed, there can
be no doubt that the substance is analogous to the parabrombenzyl-
cyanide : f its melting point is 29° ; and it is easily soluble in alcohol
and ether, being left on evaporation of the solvent as an oil which
crystallizes when stirred.

The yellow oil from which the crystals were obtained has also the
nitrile smell, and is converted, by heating to 100° in a sealed tube
with hydrochloric acid, into parachloralphatoluylic acid : it must there-
fore be either the same substance as the crystals, prevented from
solidifying by a small quantity of impurity, or the crystals may be a
polymeric form of the oil. The cyanide was mentioned by Neuhof %

* Beilstein and Kuhlberg, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 147, p. 339.
t These Proceedings, XII. (n. s. IV.) p. 222.
t Neuhof, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 147, p. 347.

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

as a dark oil, made by heating chlorbenzylchloride to 120°-130° in a
sealed tube with potassic cyanide and alcohol ; but no attempt was
made to purify or analyze it. This heating in a sealed tube to 120°—
130° is, as seen from the above, unnecessary.

Parachloralphatoluylic Acid, C6JIiClCIf9COOIT, made by heating
the nitrile to 100° in a sealed tube with fuming hydrochloric acid, or
by boiling it with dilute sulphuric acid in a flask with a return-cooler,
was purified by solution in ammonic hydrate, precipitation with sul-
phuric acid, and recrystallizing from boiling water. Its composition
was established by an analysis of the silver salt.

Properties. White needles, often two centimetres long, sometimes
thick and pointed, with a pleasant smell ; melting-point, 103^°-104° ;
sublimes easily in little plates, and can be distilled, although not
quickly, in a current of steam ; somewhat soluble in cold, much more
so in hot water, freely in alcohol, ether, benzole, carbonic disulphide,
and glacial acetic acid. Aqueous ammonia dissolves it readily, but the
ammonic salt is decomposed, at least in part, by evaporation the acid
being set free.

A chloralphatoluylic acid has been already described as the para
compound by Neuhof,* who made it, however, from chlorbenzylchloride;
the melting-point was 60°, and it separated from its salts as an oil
which soon solidified, otherwise it resembled our acid, except that it
seems to have been much more soluble in water. Later, Radziszew-
ski f made a similar acid, melting at 68° by chloriring alphatoluylic
acid.

Argentic Parachloralphatoluylate, C^H^WH.^COOAg, fell as a
white, curdy precipitate, upon adding argentic nitrate to a neutral
solution of the ammonic salt of the acid. It was washed with water,
dried at 100°, and analyzed.

0.3410 gr. of substance gave, precipitated from a nitric acid solution,
with hydrochloric acid, 0.1788 gr. of AgCl.

Calculated for C8H6C102Ag. Found.

Silver 38.91 39.44

Properties. A white, curdy mass, consisting of clumps of silky
microscopic needles, which blackens rapidly in direct sunlight, but
only very slowly in diffused daylight ; very slightly soluble in boil-
ing water, almost insoluble in cold, freely soluble in dilute nitric acid
and ammonic hydrate.

* Neuhof, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 147, p. 347.
t Radziszewski, Ber. D. Ch. G. ii. p. 207.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 59

Neuhof obtained a similar salt, but describes it as more soluble in
water than ours.

We did not succeed in getting a pure, well-defined calcic salt, al-
though we tried to do so several times. By adding lime-water to the
acid till the reaction was alkaline, removing the excess of lime by
carbonic dioxide, and allowing the solution to evaporate spontaneously,
arborescent groups of white needles were obtained. These lost 9.84
per cent when dried at 100° ; 2 molecules of crystal water would
give 8.68 per cent; 2\ molecules, 10.61 per cent; the loss, there-
fore, does not correspond to any probable amount of water of crys-
tallization, and it seemed likely that something beside water was given
off, as there was a slight sublimate on the upper watch-glass, and the
substance had become somewhat brown, with a semifused look very
unlike its original appearance. It, however, contained 10.36 per cent
of calcium, and may therefore have been the anhydrous salt which
needs 10.55 per cent. Other experiments under different conditions
gave no better results, and we therefore decided that the salt was not
important enough to repay a thorough study, which would use up a
great deal of time.

The baric salt was even less well defined than the calcic: it was
prepared in the same way, and appeared on evaporation of its solution
over sulphuric acid as a colorless varnish, part of which changed on
stirring into a radiated crystalline mass. This became white and
opaque when treated with cold water, and when boiled with water
gave an acid reaction and the smell of the acid. If the solution was
evaporated on the water-bath instead of over sulphuric acid, a sticky
gum was left. Neuhof's baric salt was similar to ours, and gave him
an amount of barium corresponding to an acid salt. His calcic salt,
on the other hand, contained one molecule of water, which it lost
at 100°.

A solution of the acid in ammonic hydrate, from which the excess
of ammonia has been driven off on the water-bath, gives reactions
with salts of the various metals similar to those of the corresponding
brom-acid.* The bluish-green flocks with cupric sulphate, yellowish-
brown with ferric chloride, and white with plumbic acetate or mercurous
nitrate are especially characteristic.

Parachlorbenzylsulphocyanate, OeHi CI GHt SCN, made by boiling the
bromide with an alcoholic solution of potassic sulphocyanate, was
purified by freezing with snow and salt, sucking out the oil with filter-

* These Proceedings, XII. (n. s. IV.) p. 225.

60

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

paper, and recrystallization from alcohol with the help of a freezing-
mixture. It was dried in vacuo and analyzed.
0.1569 grs. substance gave 0.1985 grs. BaS04.

Calculated for C^CISCN. Found.

Sulphur 17.43 17.38

Properties. White, flattened needles, often over an inch long, with
a strong, disagreeable smell; melting-point, 17°; does not distil with
steam, but seems to be slowly decomposed by it, a few brown drops
with a smell like that of benzaldehyd passing over ; mixes with alco-
hol, ether, benzole, carbonic disulphide, and glacial acetic acid, but not
with water.

This substance has not been made heretofore : it resembles the cor-
responding bromine compound very closely in every thing but melting-
point.

Parachlorbenztlamines.

These substances have been studied already by Berlin, * who pre-
pared them by heating the chlorbenzylchloride with alcoholic ammonia
for one week in the steam-bath. The product was worked up by a
needlessly complex process, consisting, when stripped of its unneces-
sary steps, in separating one portion of the bases by conversion into
their chlorides and crystallizing from alcohol, while in the remainder
the tertiary amine was destroyed by distillation with bromine and
water, and the bromides of the remaining amines separated by crys-
tallization. The properties of the tertiary and primary amines, as
described by him, are in no way peculiar ; but he obtained four iso-
meric forms of the secondary amine, which were themselves undis-
tinguishable yellow oils, but differed in the melting-points of their
salts, as shown in the following table : —

Name of Salt.

Melting Points.

a

P

7

d

Chloride ....
Bromide ....
Iodide ....
Nitrate ....

288°-289°
283°-290°

225°-228°

224°

215°
204°-205°

218°-220°
210°-212°

187°

193°

221°-222°
198°-199°
216°-218°
177°-179°

These salts also differed in solubility, the a modification being the
least, the 5 the most soluble : they were separated by crystallization

* Berlin, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 151, p. 137.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 61

of the bromides from water. These observations rendered a repetition
of Berlin's work very interesting ; but we did not follow the process
given by him, as we have found a much more easy and simple method
for the separation of the bases. Alcoholic ammonia acted very
quickly, even in the cold, on parachlorbenzylbromide : the product
from this or from the action in a sealed tube at 100° consisted of crystals
either of the bromide of the tertiary amine or of the base itself, and of
an alcoholic solution, which, filtered off and evaporated on the steam-
bath, yielded the bromides of ammonium and of the primary and
secondary amines with some free tertiary amine. This residue, after
washing with water to remove the bromides of ammonium and the
primary amine, was repeatedly crystallized from hot alcohol, until it
was divided into slightly soluble scales of secondary bromide and
needles of the free tertiary amine readily soluble in boiling alcohol.

Triparachlorbenzylamine, (C6JIiClCIl2)3]!i, was freed from a trace
of bromide by crystallizing from ether, dried in vacuo, and analyzed.

0.7096 grs. of substance gave 1.6780 grs. C02, and 0.3300 grs.

H20.

Calculated for (CjHgCl^N. Found.

Carbon 64.78 64.49

Hydrogen 4.61 5.16

Properties. Bunches of white needles, when crystallized from al-
cohol ; from ether it separates as an oil, which solidifies after some
time in flattened prisms ; it is also deposited from the action of cold
alcoholic ammonia on parachlorbenzylbromide in short, thick, well-
formed crystals, with rhombic faces ; melting-point, 78^° ; insoluble
in water, very slightly soluble in cold, freely in hot alcohol, and in
ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide, less so in glacial acetic acid.

The chloride was obtained in an impure state when an alcoholic
solution of the base was heated with strong hydrochloric acid ; after
standing 24 hours, the solution was allowed to evaporate spontaneously,
when balls of radiated needles were left which melted at about 196°,
were soluble in alcohol, ether, and glacial acetic acid, slightly in water,
and insoluble, or nearly so, in carbonic disulphide and benzole ; the
alcoholic solution left a viscous mass, which changed into needles
slowly. After drying in vacuo, it lost, in the steam-bath, an amount
equal to less than one molecule of water ; but its melting-point was
unaltered, and, as it yielded crystals of the free amine on repeated
treatment with alcohol, it does not follow that the loss was nothing
but water. We could find no satisfactory method of purifying this,
or of making a purer substance. The bromide obtained in the prepa-

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ration of the amines crystallizes in scales like those of the bromide
of the secondary amine soon to be described, but less soluble in
alcohol.

Triparachlorbenzylamine Chlorplatinate, \_(C6Hi ClCff.7)3NH].,Pt Cl6,
was made by adding aqueous platinic chloride to an ethereal solution
of the base, and washing with water, alcohol, and ether ; dried at 100°,
it gave the following results on analysis : —

I. 0.2380 grs. substance gave 0.0405 grs. platinum.

II. 0.2796 grs. substance gave 0.0471 grs. platinum.

Found.
Calculated for [(C7H6Cl)3NH]2PtCl6. I. H.

Platinum 16.54 17.01 16.84

Properties. Pale orange microscopic irregular plates, almost insol-
uble in water, alcohol, and ether.

It is worthy of especial note that Berlin's tertiary chlorbenzylamine
melted at 88°-89°, as this is the only case in which we have found
the melting-point of the pure substance lower than that of the impure.
His chloride melting-point, 170°-175°, crystallized in well-formed
rhombohedra with two molecules of water, which it lost in vacuo.
Our (impure) salt differed from his not only in appearance and melt-
ing-point, but also in losing nothing in vacuo ; and we have never
observed any rhombohedra like those described by him, although we
have tried very often and under various conditions to obtain them.

Diparachlorbenzylamine, {C^H^WH^^NH. The bromide of this
base, separated from the other amines as described above, and purified
by repeated boiling with alcohol, was decomposed with aqueous sodic
hydrate ; the oil thus obtained solidified on stirring, especially if it
was touched with a crystal of the substance.

Properties. White radiating bladed crystals ; melting-point, 29° ;
insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and glacial acetic acid, freely
soluble in ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide.

The chloride fell as a white precipitate on adding hydrochloric acid
to an alcoholic solution of the base ; microscopic rhombic and pris-
matic plates apparently monoclinic, slightly soluble in water, alcohol,
and glacial acetic acid, insoluble in ether and carbonic disulphide ;
melting-point, 288°.

Diparachlorbenzylamine Chlorplatinate, [( C6IIi ClCH.^^NH^Pt Cl6,
made by adding aqueous platinic chloride to the alcoholic solution of
the base, and purified by washing with water, was dried at 100°, and
analyzed.

0.2389 grs. substance gave 0.0496 grs. platinum.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 63

Calculated for [(C7H6Cl)2NH2].2PtCl6. Found.

Platinum 20.90 20.76

Properties. Pale yellow scales (deeper in color than the corre-
sponding salt of the tertiary amine), slightly soluble in boiling water,
almost insoluble in cold water and alcohol.

The bromide of the base was obtained during the preparation of
the amines in white scales very slightly soluble in water or alcohol,
insoluble in ether, easily decomposed by aqueous sodic hydrate, and
melting with decomposition between 280° and 290°.

The salts just described are identical with those of the a modifica-
tion of Berlin's secondary chlorbenzylamine ; and, as we could find no
trace of any other modifications, there can be but little doubt that
the /3, }', and 8 forms of Berlin consisted of mixtures of para- and ortho-
compounds, in varying proportions, and this view is still further sup-
ported by the fact that the melting-points of these so-called isomeres
are very near together, those of the chlorides in fact all lying within
ten degrees.

Monoparachlorbenzylamine, G^H^GIGH^NH^ precipitated from the
aqueous solution of its bromide with sodic hydrate and distilled with
steam forms a colorless oil nearly, if not completely, insoluble in
water, but soluble in ether ; on exposure to the air it is converted,
almost at once, into a white soluble crystalline carbonate ; if therefore
care is not taken to exclude carbonic anhydride, small quantities of
the amine seem to dissolve easily in water.

The carbonate was made by exposing the free base to carbonic
anhydride or even to the air, and was always left when an ether
extract containing the base was allowed to evaporate spontaneously.
Crystallized from water, it forms white plates often of considerable
size, from alcohol needles; melting-point, 114°-115°; it dissolves
slowly in cold, quickly and freely in hot water and alcohol ; sodic
hydrate sets free the oily amine.

The chloride made by dissolving the carbonate in hydrochloric acid
crystallizes in long, narrow white plates, soluble in water and alcohol,
sparingly soluble in glacial acetic acid, and essentially insoluble in
ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide; melting-point, 239°-241°.

Monoparachlorbenzylamine Ghlorplatinate, ( G^HJJlGH^NH^^tGl^
made by mixing a solution of the chloride of the base with platinic
chloride, purified by washing with a mixture of alcohol and ether,
and dried at 100°, gave the following result: —

0.3067 grs. substance gave 0.0866 grs. platinum.

64

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Platinum

Calculated for (C7H6ClNH8)2PtCl6. Pound.
28.39 28.23

Properties. Bright yellow branching plates or needles, arranged in
round woolly groups when crystallized from water, in which and alco-
hol it is decidedly soluble.

The bromide of the base formed in the preparation of the amines
resembles the chloride in appearance and solubility, but is somewhat
less soluble in cold water, and melts with decomposition between
225° and 230°.

The foregoing results differ from those obtained by Berlin only in
the melting-point of the chloride, which he found 197°; he gives no
melting-points for the carbonate and bromide.

To make it easier to compare the new melting-points with those in
use heretofore, we have collected them in the following table ; the
second column of which gives the melting-points of the pure sub-
stances made by us, and the third the melting-points determined by
the chemists mentioned in the fourth column.

Name of Substance.

True
Melting-point

Old

Melting-point

Authority for
Old Melting-point.

Parachlorbenzylchloride . .
Parachlorbenzylbromide . .
Paracblorbenzylalcohol . .
Parachlorbenzylcyanide . .
Paraehloralphatoiuylic Acid

Parachlorbenzylsulphocyanate
Primary Amine ....

,, „ Chloride .

,, ,, Bromide .

„ ,, Carbonate

Secondary Amine. . . .

„ „ Chloride

„ ,, Bromide

Tertiary Amine ....

,, ,, Chloride .

29°
48J°
70J°
29J ( ?)
103i-104o

17°

Liquid.

239°-241°

225°-230°

114°-1150

29°

288°

1>(I -."Ml-1

78*°
196° (?)

Liquid.

66°

Liquid.

60°

68°

Liquid.
197°

Liquid.
288D-289°
283°-290°

KK Kit

170°-175°

Beilstein and Geitner.

Beilstein and Kuhlberg.

Neubof.

Nenhof.

Radziszewski.

Berlin.

Berlin.

The revision of the parachlorbenzyl compounds will be continued
in this laboratory ; in fact, the aldehyde and some of the sulpho-
derivatives have been already made and partially studied by Mr. J.
Fleming "White, whose work will form the subject of a later paper
of this series.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 65

IV.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEPIDOSTEUS.
By Alexander Agassiz.

Presented Oct. 8, 1878.

PART I.

It has been my good fortune this spring to succeed in hatching
Lepidosteus from the egg, and in raising the young until they showed
externally, at least, the principal structural features of the adult.

Like many other American naturalists, I had for many years been
on the lookout for the breeding-places of our Lepidosteus and Amia ;
but although it was generally known that dui'ing the last part of May
they appeared in large numbers in the Potomac, as well as in many
Western rivers, and also in parts of the great lakes, no one had been
fortunate enough to catch these fish while spawning. It was there-
fore with great expectations that I sent Mr. S. W. Garman to Ogdens-
burgh, N. Y., when Mr. S. S. Blodgett informed me that the garpike
usually appeared on the 20th of May for the purpose of spawning.
Mr. Blodgett did all in his power to make the expedition a success ;
and he has not only my thanks, but will have those of all naturalists,
for the aid he has given so effectually in obtaining this ichthyological
prize.

The following notes by Mr. Garman describe the method of
spawning : —

" Black Lake is well stocked with bill fish. When they appear,
they are said to come in countless numbers. This is only for a few
days in the spring, in the spawning season, between the loth of May
and the 8th of June. During the balance of the season, they are
seldom seen. They remain in the deeper parts of the lake, away from
the shore, and, probably, are more or less nocturnal in habits. Out
of season, an occasional one is caught on a hook baited with a minnow.
Commencing with the 20th of April, until the 14th of May we were
unable to find the fish, or to find persons who had seen them during
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 5

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

this time. Then a fisherman reported having seen one rise to the
surface. Later, others were seen. On the afternoon of the 18th,
a few were found on the points, depositing the spawn. The tempera-
ture at the time was 68° — 69° on the shoals, while out in the lake
the mercury stood at 62° — 63°. The 'points' on which the eggs
were laid were of naked granite, which had been broken by the frost
and heat into angular blocks of three to eight inches in diameter.
The blocks were tumbled upon each other like loose heaps of brick-
bats, and upon and between them the eggs were dropped. The points
are the extremities of small capes that make out into the lake. The
eggs were laid in water varying in depth from two to fourteen inches.
At the time of approaching the shoals, the fish might be seen to rise
quite often to the surface to take air. This they did by thrusting the
bill out of the water as far as the corners of the mouth, which was
then opened widely and closed with a snap. After taking the air,
they seemed more able to remain at the surface. Out in the lake
they are very timid, but once buried upon the shoals they become
quite reckless as to what is going on about them. A few moments
after being driven off, one or more of the males would return as if
scouting. If frightened, he would retire for some time ; then another
scout would appear. If all promised well, the females, with the at-
tendant males, would come back. Each female was accompanied by
from one to four males. Most often a male rested against each side,
with their bills reaching up toward the back of her head. Closely
crowded together, the little party would pass back and forth over the
rocky bed they had selected, sometimes passing the same spot half a
dozen times without dropping an egg, then suddenly would indulge in
an orgasm ; and, lashing and plashing the water in all directions with
their convulsive movements, would scatter at the same instant the
eggs and the sperm. This ended, another season of moving slowly
back and forth was observed, to be in turn followed by another of
excitement. The eggs were excessively sticky. To whatever they
happened to touch they stuck, and so tenaciously that it was next to
impossible to release them without tearing away a portion of their
envelopes. It is doubtful whether the eggs would hatch if removed.
As far as could be seen at the time, upon or under the rocks to which
the eggs were fastened, there was an utter absence of any thing that
might serve as food for the young fishes.

"Other fishes, bull heads, &c, are said to follow the bill fish to eat
the spawn. It may be so. It was not verified. Certainly the points
under observation were unmolested. During the afternoon of the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 67

18 th of May, a few eggs were scattered on several of the beds. On
the 19th, there were more. With the spear and the snare, several
dozens of both sexes of the fish were taken. Taking one out did not
seem greatly to startle the others. They returned very soon. The
males are much smaller than the average size of the females ; and,
judging from those taken, would seem to have as adults greater uni-
formity in size. The largest taken was a female, of four feet one
inch and a half in length. Others of two feet six inches contained
ripe ova. With the 19th of May, all disappeared, and for a time —
the weather meanwhile being cold and stormy — there were no signs
of their continued existence to be met with. Nearly two weeks later,
on the 31st of May, as stated by Mr. Henry J. Perry, they again
came up, not in small detachments on scattered points as before, but
in multitudes, on every shoal at all according with their ideas of
spawning-beds. They remained but two days. During the summer it
happens now and then that one is seen to come up for his mouthful
of air ; beyond this there will be nothing to suggest the ravenous
masses hidden by the darkness of the waters."

To Mr. Garman I am greatly indebted for the care with which he
transported a quantity of garpike eggs contained in two pails which
had to be carried by hand from Ogdensburgh to Cambridge, and for
the arrangements made with Mr. Perry for collecting a series of eggs
and of young fishes in all stages from the time of spawning until the
end of July.

The present paper is, of course, merely a preliminary account, and
I hope to give on another occasion a full description of the early
stages of the egg, as well as a more detailed description of the
changes the young undergo. Of the eggs brought to Cambridge, only
thirty hatched. In my anxiety lest this attempt should fail, I did not
dare to examine any of the fresh eggs; and from an external exam-
ination little or nothing of the early stages of segmentation and of
the development could be traced on account of the opacity of the
envelope of the egg. Not one of the eggs artificially fecundated was
hatched, and only a few of those laid on the angular blocks (men-
tioned by Mr. Garman) lived to complete their development. The
eggs were all attacked by mould, and decomposed rapidly in spite of
the most watchful care. The few which did hatch, however, fully
rewarded my efforts and fulfilled my anticipations. The young fish
were quite hardy and flourished admirably. Of the thirty hatched in
the latter part of May, no less than twenty-eight lived till the middle
of July. They were exceedingly hardy, and, had it been possible to

68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

feed them on minute fresh-water Entomostraca, I have no doubt they
would have continued in excellent condition. During the whole time
of the resorption of the yolk-bag, not a single individual was lost.
It was only subsequently, when they had been fed for a while on liver,
that they showed symptoms of poor condition ; and finally they re-
fused to eat it and languished for a few days, although at first they
had eaten it apparently with great relish.

The eggs were laid on the 20th of May ; when they reached Cam-
bridge, they were still semi-transparent, the yellowish-green sticky
outer envelope measuring about 5mm in diameter ; the yolk- mass, of a
whitish-blue color, was 3mm. In their general appearance, the eggs
resembled those of toads. They were attached to the stones just as
they dropped from the females, in groups irregularly arranged or
isolated.

On the 28th of May, the first young Lepidosteus was hatched
(Plate I. fig. 1). The young fish possessed a gigantic yolk-bag, and
the posterior part of the body presented nothing specially different
from the general appearance of a Teleostean embryo, with the excep-
tion of the great size of the chorda. The anterior part, however,
was most remarkable ; and at first, on seeing the head of this young
Lepidosteus, with its huge mouth cavity extending nearly to the gill-
opening, and surmounted by a hoof-shaped depression edged with
a row of protuberances acting as suckers (Plate I. fig. 3), I could not
help comparing this remarkable structure, so utterly unlike any thing
in Fishes or Ganoids, to the Cyclostomes, with which it has a striking
analogy. This organ is also used by Lepidosteus as a sucker, and the
moment the young fish is hatched he attaches himself to the sides of
the dish, and there remains hanging immovable ; so firmly attached,
indeed, that it requires considerable commotion in the water to make
him loose his hold. Aerating the water by pouring it from a height
did not always produce sufficient disturbance to loosen the young
fishes. The eye, in this stage, is rather less advanced than in corre-
sponding stages in bony fishes ; the brain is also comparatively smaller,
the otolith ellipsoidal, placed obliquely in the rear above the gill-open-
ing. This is at first a mere small elliptical opening, which subse-
quently becomes heart-shaped (Plate I. fig. 11) with the development
of the gill-arches, one of which is formed by the anterior part of the
gill-opening, while two smaller ones are formed behind it (Plate I.
fig. G) much as in Sharks, except that we have a gill-cover in Lepi-
dosteus as in bony fishes, which completely hides the gill-arches from
view, when seen in profile. It is only when seen obliquely from

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 69

above that the gills can be seen behind the operculum, or when they
are separated from the body in breathing (Plate II. fig. 16). Usually
the gill-cover is pressed closely against the sides of the body, but in
breathing an opening is seen (Plate IV. fig. 37) through which water
is constantly passing, a strong current being made by the rapid mo-
tion of the pectorals, against the base of which the extremity of the
gill-cover is closely pressed (Plate IV. fig. 42). The large yolk-bag
is opaque, of a bluish-gray color. The body of the young Lepidos-
teus is quite colorless and transparent. The embryonic fin is narrow,
the dorsal part commencing above the posterior end of the yolk-bag ;
the tail is slightly rounded, the anal opening nearer the extremity of
the tail than the bag. The intestine is narrow, and the embryonic fin
extending from the vent to the yolk-bag is quite narrow. In a some-
what more advanced stage (Plate I. fig. 3), — hatched a few hours
earlier, — the upper edge of the yolk-bag is covered with black pig-
ment cells, and minute black pigment cells appear on the surface of
the alimentary canal. There are no traces of embryonic fin-rays either
in this stage or the one preceding ; the structure of the embryonic fin
is as in bony fishes — previous to the appearance of these embryonic
fin-rays — finely granular. Seen in profile, the yolk-bag is ovoid ;
as seen from above, it is flattened (Plate I. fig. 1), rectangular in
front, with rounded corners, tapering to a rounded point towards the
posterior extremity, with re-entering sides (PL I. fig. 7).

The head seen from above is rounded anteriorly, fringed by the row of
suckers which form a connected, thickened margin ; the eyes scarcely
project beyond the general outline of the head ; the gill-covers are small
lobes immediately behind the eyes. The brain occupies but a com-
paratively small part of the head; the olfactory lobes are greatly
developed, and elongated much as in Sharks and Skates, the posterior
extremity of the brain rising obliquely towards the back and leaving
a considerable distance between the base of the brain and the
termination of the chorda, which ends between the otoliths (Plate I.
figs. 6-11).

The second day after hatching, we can detect (Plate I. fig. 11)
the first trace of an upward curve to the extremity of the tail. Up
to this time, the chorda is straight, as is the embryo of any newly
hatched bony fish ; the yolk-bag has also greatly decreased in size ;
the head makes a less sharp angle with the longitudinal axis ; the
snout formed by the sucking-disk projects well beyond the outline of
the opening of the mouth ; the gill-opening is heart-shaped, and the
heart can distinctly be seen to beat at the junction of the yolk-bag

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

with the lower part of the mouth cavity ; the embryonic fin has broad-
ened, and extends further along the back towards the head ; the mus-
cular bands surrounding the chorda are far better defined, and a few
black pigment spots have also made their appearance at the base of
the anal fin ; the eye has become more distinct, and the nostrils are
seen as elliptical pits close to the eye as in the earlier stage.

On the third day, the young Lepidosteus, when seen in profile, has a
triangular yolk-bag (Plate II. fig. 13), greatly reduced in size from the
previous stage ; the whole body is covered with minute black pigment
cells, more numerous towards the head and along the dorsal side ; the
gill-covers are now large rectangular fiaps (see also Plate II. fig. 12),
and we find in this stage the first trace of the pectorals. These appear
at first at a distance from the body on the upper surface of the yolk-
bag (Plate II. fig. 12) as slight curlings of what we may call a lateral
fold, indicated by a spiral line on the upper part of the yolk-bag.
Seen in profile (Plate II. fig. 13), they stand up vertically, forming-
slight protuberances above the general surface of the yolk-bag. The
eyes are more prominent ; the whole snout has become more elon-
gated than in previous stages ; and the sucking-disk is more prominent
than in younger stages, — the individual suckers projecting frequently
far beyond the general outline of the edge of the sucker, when the
young fish holds to any surface to which it may firmly have attached
itself. The outline of the tail, or of the embryonic fins, has not
altered from the preceding stage.

The young Garpikes would find it most inconvenient to move
about with the huge yolk-bag with which they are provided ; and
although when disturbed they are powerful swimmers, propelling
themselves much after the manner of tadpoles, by vigorous strokes of
the tail, yet they remain until much later in life nearly constantly
attached to the sides or bottom of the jars in which they are kept ;
and, if disturbed, will, after swimming round rapidly a few mo-
ments, hasten to attach themselves again to some suitable surface,
where they remain hanging motionless during the greater part of the
time till the yolk-bag has been completely resorbed. Their hold on
the sides of the jar was so strong that they would remain suspended
after the water had been lowered below the level to which they were
attached.

Two days later, the yolk-bag has become still further reduced, espe-
cially under the gill-covers (Plate II. fig. 14) ; the trend of the head
also makes a larger angle with the axis ; the eyes have become more
prominent; the gill-covers have greatly lengthened (Plate II. fig. 15),

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 71

and the pectorals have increased in size. The whole body is more
thickly covered by black pigment cells : they are most numerous
near the region of the head, along the dorsal line, and over the intes-
tines and the upper part of the yolk-bag, making a strong contrast to
its yellowish-gray color underneath. The curvature of the tail has
increased, and four patches of pigment spots have appeared (Plate II.
fig. 14). These are the first traces of the permanent fins, — the dorsal,
the caudal, and anal, — the last spot on the dorsal side of the tail
forming the spot of the temporary caudal lobe. The gill-arches in
this stage (Plate II. fig. 16) are thin, short, club-shaped appendages,
seen on certain portions behind the gill-covers.

The great development taken by the sucking-disk is best shown in
a view from the lower side. The cavity of the mouth is seen (Plate
II. fig. 17) to occupy the greater part of the lower side, between the
sucker and the base of the yolk-bag, where the heart is placed. Five
or six days afterwards, the cavity of the mouth has become reduced to
a small (Plate II. fig. 18) trapezoidal opening; the gill-covers nearly
meet on the lower side, near the median line ; and in this stage the
individual suckers of the sucking-disk are capable of great expansion,
projecting, after the young fish has remained attached for a time, far
beyond the general outline of the anterior part of the head. When
seen in profile (Plate III. fig. 19), the outline of the head has assumed
a most peculiar appearance, having certainly no resemblance whatever
to the shape of the head in the adult. The yolk-bag has become much
reduced in size ; the pectorals have now assumed the characteristic
Crossopterygian features ; the eye is quite prominent ; the lower jaw
projects slightly beyond the former level of the mouth cavity ; and
there is also a short upper jaw, terminating in the huge swollen snout,
covered with warts, forming the powerful sucking-disk. The gill-
cover is still more elongated than in previous stages, and there are
short branches to the primary gill-arches. The whole body is now
thickly covered with black pigment cells. These cells are, however,
still most numerous above the eye, toward the dorsal region, along
the upper part of the yolk-bag, where they are so closely packed as
to form a dense black band, which is continued on the lower side of
the chorda to the extremity of the tail. The black spots of the primary
fins have expanded to form definitely shaped patches indicating the
growth of the permanent fins, of which they are the rudiments. The
extremity of the tail has a more marked heterocercal character, and
both above and below the tail carries a large white patch completely
surrounded by the darker pigment-cells. The fleshy lobe of the pec-

72 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

torals is bluish, as well as the outer edge of the gill-cover. "We find
also in this stage the first trace of the brilliant white pigment-spots
which become the enamelled lines and spots so characteristic of some-
what older stages. In these young, they are found mainly ou the sides
of the gill-cover and along the line of the chorda on the anterior part
of the body.

The next changes are mainly in the lengthening of the snout ; the
increase in length both of the lower and upper jaw (Plate III. fig.
23) ; the concentration of the suckers of the sucking-disk (Plate III.
figs. 22, 24) ; and the adoption of the general coloring of somewhat
older fish. The lobe of the pectoral has become specially prominent
(Plate III. fig. 21), and the outline of the fins is now indicated by a
fine milky granulation. Seen from above (Plate III. fig. 20), the
gill-cover is seen to leave a large circular opening leading to the gill-
arches, into which a current of water is constantly passing, by the
lateral expansion and contraction of the gill-cover; the outer ex-
tremity of the gill-cover covers the base of the pectorals (Plate III.
fig. 26). In a somewhat older stage, the snout has become more
elongated (Plate III. fig. 29), the suckers more concentrated, and the
disproportionate size of the terminal sucking-disk is reduced ; the
head, when seen from above, becoming slightly elongated and
pointed.

In the next stage, when the young Lepidosteus is a little over three
weeks old (Plate III. fig. 30), the young has assumed a more fish-like
form ; the sucking snout is now reduced to a swelling of the extremity
of the elongated upper jaw ; the lower jaw has also greatly lengthened;
the fleshy part of the pectoral has developed out of proportion to the
base ; the yolk-bag has disappeared ; the gill-cover extends, when
pressed against the sides (Plate III. fig. 31), well up along the base
of the pectorals ; they are now kept in constant rapid motion, so that
the fleshy edge is invisible, and the vibration seems almost involun-
tary, producing a constant current round the opening leading into the
cavity of the gills. The latter are seen now to branch quite exten-
sively. The extremity of the tail also has the same rapid vibratile
motion which characterizes the pectorals. Professor Agassiz had
already noticed this rapid involuntary movement in the temporary
caudal lobe of a young Lepidosteus about eight inches in length.

In the stages intervening between Plate III. fig. 19, and Plate III.
fig. 30, the young Lepidosteus frequently swim about, and become
readily separated from their point of attachment. In the stage of
Plate III. fig. 30, they remain often perfectly quiet, close to the sur-

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 73

face of the water ; but, when disturbed, move very rapidly about
through the water. In this stage, we can notice the first trace of the
ventrals, at the anterior part of the ventral embryonic fold. They
appear first as minute swellings on each side of this fold, and they con-
sist of a central shaft with a fleshy fringe like the pectorals. Seen
from above (Plate III. fig. 32), the head has become elongated, the
sucking-disk is reduced to a single row of small suckers, and we now
begin to see what becomes of this organ. The fleshy globular termi-
nation of the upper jaw of the adult Lepidosteus is the remnant of
this embryonic sucking-disk. The coloring of the young fish is be-
coming more and more like that of the adult ; the dorsal region is
mottled with broad irregular patches of brown ; a strong black line
extends from behind the eye, on the lower side of the median line, to
the extremity of the tail. The young already have also the peculiar
habit of the adult of coming to the surface to swallow air. When they
go through the process under water of discharging air again, they open
their jaws wide, and spread their gill-cover, and swallow as if they
were choking, making violent efforts, until a minute bubble of air has
become liberated, when they remain quiet again. The resemblance to
a Sturgeon in the general appearance of this stage of the young Lepi-
dosteus (Plate III. fig. 30) is quite marked.

The growth of the young Lepidosteus is very rapid. Hatched the
28 th of May, they had on the 14th of June attained a length of three-
quarters of an inch (Plate III. fig. 33). The snout has become greatly
elongated ; and the upper jaw shows plainly that the sucking-disk is
to become the fleshy accretion at the extremity of the snout. The
embryonic fin-fold has become slightly indented, indicating the posi-
tions of the future dorsal and anal fins. The ventrals have increased
somewhat in size. In this stage, we see the first trace of the permanent
fin-rays, of the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins. There are also most
delicate embryonic fin-rays, just as we find them in bony fishes at cor-
responding stages. The fringe of the pectorals is incessantly in rapid
vibration, as well as the tip of the tail, except when the fish is at rest
near the surface of the water. The tail does not necessarily vibrate
with the pectorals : either may be in motion without affecting the other.
The teeth make their appearance in this stage, and there are a few
fin-rays in the fringe of the pectorals.

Seen from above, the pectorals are usually carried at right angles
to the body when in rapid motion (Plate IV. fig. 34). Our young
Lepidosteus has now reached a stage (Plate IV. fig. 36) very similar
to that first described by Professor Wilder. The head, when seen from

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

above, shows the sucking-disks reduced to a couple of rows of inde-
pendent suckers, but the young Lepidosteus no longer attach them-
selves by it. They have assumed the habits of the adult, rising
slowly near the surface, where they frequently remain almost motion-
less for a long time, merely keeping the pectorals and the tip of the
tail in rapid vibration. When they wish to swim about, they strike
out vigorously with their tail-fin laterally.

When in a natural attitude, they float with the body curved, the
back behind the head flush with the surface, the head nearly hori-
zontal, and the tail curved down (Plate IV. fig. 39, Plate V.).

By the 22d of June, the anterior part of the head had elongated,
and the indentations of the embryonic fin-fold marking the future fins
are deeper ; but the embryonic caudal is still by far the more promi-
nent of the two caudals, although the fin-rays of the permanent caudal
are well laid out, and its position has become more terminal than in
previous stages (Plate IV. fig. 38).

The external changes undergone by the young Lepidosteus, until
the last one of them hatched at Cambridge died, were limited, in
the anterior part of the body, to the gi-eater elongation of the jaws ; the
increase in size and number of the teeth (Plate IV. fig. 41) ;
the growth of ventrals, which resemble in their structure that of the
pectorals (Plate IV. fig. 41a); and, in the posterior part of the body,
to the better definition of the shape and position of the dorsal, anal,
and caudal, as well as the great apparent increase in the length of the
temporary caudal filament, from the gradual resorption of the poste-
rior embryonic fin-fold. The head of the young Lepidosteus now
shows no further trace of the sucking-disk beyond the fleshy swollen
termination of the upper jaw.

There are in this stage five gill-arches carrying short lateral
branches (Plate IV. fig. 43). Seen from below, the gill-covers
unite on the median line, immediately at the base of the lower jaw.

The largest specimen grew to a length of \§ of an inch, and its
coloring (Plate V.) did not differ from that of larger young specimens
denoted by Professor Agassiz, which had already attained a length of
eight inches.

In conclusion, we may say, as a result of the above observations on
the external development of the Lepidosteus, that, notwithstanding its
similarity to Sturgeons in certain stages of its growth, notwithstanding
its affinity with Sharks and Skates, by the formation of the pectorals
from a lateral fold, as well as by the mode of growth of the gill-
opening and the gill-arches, the Lepidosteus i3, spite of all this, not

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

75

so far removed from the bony fishes as has been supposed. On the
contrary, it approaches them not only by the development of the gen-
eral features characterizing the posterior extremity, by the mode of
formation of the unpaired fins from the embryonic fin-fold, by the
mode of formation of the fin-rays, and also by that of the ventrals.
The pigment cells, so well developed in their young stages, before
the appearance of scales, are similar to those of bony fishes, with the
exception that we have in addition, in early stages, cells of a white
silvery lustre, which are undoubtedly the first trace of the enamel to
form the armor of the " Garpike."

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Young Lepidosteus just escaped from the egg, measuring 8mm- in
length.

2. Tail of specimen slightly older.

3. Tail of specimen somewhat older than fig. 2.

4. Head of young Lepidosteus just hatched, showing the mouth cavity
and the disk.

4a. The same, seen somewhat more in profile.

5. Another specimen, with the head thrown back, looking into the mouth
cavity.

6. Head seen in profile, showing the gill-arches, the heart, the auditory
capsule, and the muscular segment covering the chorda.

7. In stage of fig. 1 (hatched the same day), seen from above.

8. Head of specimen somewhat older than fig. 7.

9. Gill-arches of specimen in stage of fig. 7.

10. Shows position of heart in middle of anterior part of the yolk-bag.

11. Young Lepidosteus at the end of the first day.

PLATE II.

12. Young Lepidosteus, seen from above, three days old.

13. Same, seen in profile.

14. Profile of young on the fifth day after hatching.

15. Same as fig. 14, seen from above.

16. Gill-openings of same specimen.

17. Same age as fig. 14, seen from the lower side.

18. Anterior part of young Lepidosteus, ten days old, seen from below.

76 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

PLATE III.

Fig. 19. Profile of young specimen eleven days old.
„ 20. Head of same, seen from above.
„ 21. Magnified pectoral of same.
„ 22. End-view of sucking-disk of same.
„ 23. Profile of head of specimen somewhat more advanced.
„ 24. Profile of sucking-disk of another specimen about in the same stage of

development.
„ 25. Tail of specimen of same age as fig. 19, but somewhat more advanced.
„ 26. Gill-opening of same, seen from above.
Figs. 27, 28. Profiles to show protuberances of sucking-disk of head in different

degrees of expansion, one day older than preceding stage.
Fig. 29. Profile of head of specimen thirteen days old.
„ 30. Profile of young Lepidosteus 20mm- long, nineteen days old.
„ 31. Head of same, seen from above.
„ 32. Tail of specimen seventeen days old, but evidently more advanced

than the preceding figure (30).
„ 33. Head of same (fig. 32), seen in profile. The young specimen measured
20um in length.

PLATE IV.

Fig. 34. Young Lepidosteus, twenty days old, slightly larger than the stage of

the previous day, seen from above.
„ 35. Tail of same, seen in profile.

„ 36. Profile of young, 21mm in length, twenty-four days old.
„ 37. Head of same, seen from above.
„ 38. Young, seen in profile, twenty-five days old.
„ 38a. Profile of tail of same, showing commencement of fin-rays of caudal,

anal, and dorsal fins.
„ 39. Natural attitude of young Lepidosteus, thirty days old, seen in profile,

^f of an inch long.
„ 40. Tail of young Lepidosteus, thirty -eight days old, of about the same

length as the specimen of fig. 39.
„ 40a. Pectoral of same.
„ 41. Profile of jaws of same.
„ 41a. Commencement of ventrals of same.
„ 42. Head of same, seen from above.
„ 43. Gills of same, in profile.
„ 44. Gills and gill-arches, seen from below.

PLATE V.

Natural attitude of young Lepidosteus (early part of July) after it has assumed
to a great measure the coloring of much older specimens. This specimen
measured about an inch in length.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 77

V.

EESEARCHES IN TELEPHONY.
By Professor Dolbear.

Presented Nov. 13, 1878.

I began my experiments in Telephony in August, 1876, my first
attempts being with a Helmholtz interruptor, using forks whose vibra-
tions were 64, 128, and 256 per second respectively. For a receiver
a coil of wire about a small rod of iron, as in Page's experiment in
1837, in which he used an automatic interruptor. I also used several
forms and sizes of electro-magnets as receivers.

With all of these arrangements the reproduction of the sound was
well marked. The next step was to cause the vibrations produced by
the voice to make and break the circuit in a manner analogous to that
of the vibrating forks. To this end a platinum wire was made fast
to the end of an opeidoscope tube having a membrane of stretched
rubber over the end. The wire was bent at right angles at the middle
of the membrane, and projected about half an inch from it. This wire
was coupled in circuit with the instruments mentioned above as re-
ceivers, and the tube being placed at the mouth while the tip of the
wire on the membrane dipped into mercury, also into water acidulated,
some of the sounds were very audible ; but it was necessary to make
the membrane vibrate with amplitude enough to break completely the
circuit, or no sound whatever could be heard. From this I concluded that
the difference of resistance interposed by the vibrations was not great
enough. I therefore sought for some means to increase the difference,
and made for that purpose a small cone of iron, which was soldered to
the wire upon the opeidoscope tube, for the reason that, when the cone
was plunged into the mercury, a slight motion of the membrane would
materially vary the cross-section immersed and consequently the inter-
posed resistance. With this arrangement no better results were ob-
tained, as it was found that the mercury bounded away from the cone
when the latter was vibrating. I therefore sought for other means for
varying the current strength.

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

One is necessarily shut up to the two only possible ways of varying
the current ; namely, varying the resistance, or varying the electro-
motive force. I had tried the first with no satisfactory results, and
then attempted the second.

In the spring of 1864, while a student in the Ohio Wesleyan Uni-
versity at Delaware, Ohio, I was employed to make a large electro-
magnet and a large permanent magnet for illustrative purposes at the
University. While engaged in making these, I devised a magneto-
electric telegraph, in which the currents were to be generated by a
permanent magnet thrust into a coil or hollow helix ; and these cur-
rents were to reproduce like motions upon a permanent magnet at the
other end of the line. The device was not dissimilar to the one made
by Gauss and Weber of Gottingen, in 1833 ; but I knew nothing of
their work at that time.

In 1873 I observed a deflection of a galvanometer needle, when the
stem of a vibrating tuning-fork was held upon the face of a thermopile.
The tuning-fork used was a rather large one, giving Eh of about 78
vibrations per second ; the prongs had been made magnetic for other
experiments, and the inductive effects of the movements of these poles
upon the face of the pile was also noted. The following is the record
from my note-book, and dated Aug. 15, 1873 : —

" Noticed the effect of the vibrating fork, which was also a per-
manent magnet, upon the current, when one face of the pile was
heated. If the fork was moved no faster than the galvanometer
needle would vibrate, once in about 4 seconds, the needle would be set
swinging. If the fork vibrates its natural rate, 78 per second, the
needle couldn't move, as the current was changed faster than the
needle could move."

This was a vibratory current in a closed circuit originated by sound
vibrations.

I understood this to be simply a particular case of magnetic induc-
tion that was familiar enough to every one who was acquainted with
Faraday's work ; the former experiment I described at the Portland
meeting of the A. A. A. S., in 1873, as I thought it to be new. With
this experiment, and my invention of 1864, I was prepared with all
that was necessary for the plan for a speaking telephone, which was
matured and bears the date of Sept. 20, 1876.

" Let a coil of wire be about the pole of a permanent magnet, and
the terminals be attached to a galvanometer ; then, when a piece of
iron approaches the magnet, a current is induced. Suppose that the
wires connect with another coil about a permanent magnet ; then the

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 79

current will affect a piece of iron in front of the poles in the same way
as the first is affected. In this way a telephone may be constructed.
By making a sound to vibrate a piece of sheet iron in front of one
magnet, the ear applied to the other magnet should hear the kind of
sound made at the first."

Within a few days of that time, I began the construction of a pair
of such instruments, entrusting them to Mr. A. Stetson, a teacher at
Rockland, who came to Tufts College on Saturdays to work in the
Physical Laboratory. The first ones attempted were begun with a
pair of straight-bar permanent magnets belonging to the College ; they
were 8 or 9 inches long and about half an inch in diameter. The
helix was wound directly upon the magnets, while the vibrating arma-
ture was glued to an opeidoscope membrane. The first one made I
have now, just as it was used at that time ; the membrane was made
of sheet rubber, and was two and three-eighth inches in diameter.
The iron armature glued to it was an inch and a half long by three
quarters of an inch broad, rectangular in outline.

Mr. Stetson was employed to make a pair of instruments, in which
no battery was to be used, and both instruments were to be alike.
Before they were completed, he stopped coming to the College for
several weeks, and they were consequently delayed in a manner that
they would not have been if I had thought of the very great value
of the invention.

I was extremely busy with my college work and also in getting a
book through the press, and couldn't attend to it very well myself.
About the first of October, the plan of using an armature of iron glued
to a membrane was changed to one where the armature was to cover
the entire end of the tube and be screwed to it. This was done for
two reasons ; one being that the armature could not be brought close to
the magnet without its adhering to it, and, second, that the vibrations
of the voice-sounds could be easily felt when talking against a large
piece of rigid paper or piece of board, from which it was inferred that
the vibrations of an iron armature would be sufficient to induce the
requisite currents. Mr. Stetson started a pair upon this plan at once,
but, as I said before, he failed to complete them, as he did not come to
College Hill from about the fourteenth of October till some time in De-
cember. Early in December, one evening, I took one of the incomplete
telephones and endeavored to measure the resistance through which
such an induced current would be manifest by means of a Thomson
galvanometer and a set of Resistance Coils, and found I could readily
get a deflection with an inserted resistance of fifteen thousand ohms, —

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the linear limit of my Rheostat, which I reckoned equal to nine hundred
miles of ordinary telegraph wire. Up to this time I had thought of the
invention solely in its scientific relations, and was not pursuing that as
I ought to, as I knew that Prof. Bell had pre-empted the ground.
Indeed, I was waiting for an opportunity to see him to tell him to use
the permanent magnet, as every account of his work said he was using
a battery ; but when the great value of the invention was shown to
me, and I learned that Prof. Bell patented his work as soon as pos-
sible, I concluded to try to profit by it myself. I therefore began at
once upon a pair of instruments to that especial end, but before I had
time to complete them I heard that the device had already been pat-
ented ; so I ceased my hurry ujjon them. Indeed, I didn't finish them
for some weeks. In these instruments the magnets were of half-inch
round steel, and the bobbins were taken from some old telegraph instru-
ments that I found at Hall's on Bromfield St., as they just suited my
purpose. I have these instruments now, and they are very fair tele-
phones, and will do good work.

I next had a pair made in much better shape, and used them in
several public exhibitions during the spring and summer of 1877.
Upon these instruments I had a flaring horn mouth-piece. At one
time I took them to the railroad between Elm St. station and North
Avenue station, attached the terminals to the two lines of rails at either
end, and was able to converse over the rails in that way. This was on
the seventeenth of July, 1877. In the attempts to improve the telephone
a great many hundred experiments have been tried, and among them
not a few devices that have since been patented by other parties.
Among the first of these was the using of a magnet upon each side of
the plate ; this was done as early as March, 1877, and that device was
exhibited at a public exhibition that I gave of the invention early in
April of that year, at Tufts College.

In April, I fixed several sets of magnets and bobbins to act upon one
plate. The results were no better than when only a single pair was
used. In my instruments made in February the magnets were com-
pound horse-shoe magnets, such as could be bought in the stores ; and
such an arrangement I have uniformly found to be the best for loud-
ness of sounds.

My next improvement consisted of placing a cushion of felt under
the vibrating plate ; this has been adopted in the making of telephones,
as it prevents the too rapid diffusion of the vibrations from contact, and
also acts as a damper to absorb the sympathetic vibrations of the plate.

Next it occurred to me that, if the armature of an ordinary sounder,

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 81

or relay, could be made to vibrate by sound-vibrations, the corre-
sponding armature of another like instrument in the circuit should
respond to the induced current. The armature of an ordinary sounder
was first screwed down pretty near to the poles of the magnet, and
then the thread from a common string telephone was tied to it, so that
the sounds produced in the string telephone should be conveyed by
the string to the armature, and thus make it to vibrate. This arrange-
ment was coupled up in electric circuit with a telephone of ordinary
pattern, and tried between two distant rooms in a building, with success.
Afterwards two like sounders were thus coupled up, and talking was
carried on over a circuit nearly half a mile long, using only the
sounders with the thread telephone tied to each. The sounders had a
resistance of only two or three ohms apiece. Then two relays were tried
in like manner, each relay having nearly a hundred ohms resistance,
with better results than before. At one time the thread telephone
attachment was dispensed with, and the vocal sounds were produced
in a small tube held immediately in front of the relay armatures both
at sending and receiving instruments. In this way it was easy to hear
musical sounds, such as a tune sung ; and sentences, if at all familiar,
were recognized without much difficulty. But this was of course
working under a great disadvantage. I therefore devised a mouth-piece
for the armature, and afterwards changed the form of the armature
itself, so that it would be adapted to both functions, — that of an ordinary
sounder and of a speaking telephone. With such an instrument as I
exhibit here, I have worked successfully over the line between Milford,
N. H., and Boston, — a distance of fifty miles.

From the first I had interpreted the action of the telephone to be
due solely to the ordinary vibrations of the plate being performed in
a magnetic field, and varying that field of magnetism. When an ordi-
nary tuning-fork is struck, its vibrations may not only be heard but
felt, and also seen ; but directly the amplitude decreases, so that it
cannot be seen to vibrate, but it can be both felt and heard : but long
after it cannot be felt it may still be heard. But no one is at liberty to
say that, because the sound only can be heard, the vibrations of the fork
differ in any thing than amplitude from those at first seen ; and it
is admitted generally that such vibrations would be competent to pro-
duce such sonorous results as are observed. Nevertheless, there
have been several investigators who have stated it as their opinion
that the sounds of the telephone were due to some new kind
of molecular motion, which was different from an ordinary sound-
vibration. To test this view, I constructed a telephone having a mem-
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 6

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

brane of paper carrying a small electro-magnet, with its poles facing
the poles of the large inducing magnet. As this has its polarity
determined by induction, and the strength of it varying with the dis-
tance apart of these facing poles, it is evident that any articulate re-
sults obtained under these conditions must be due to the ordinary
vibrations to and fro of the disk and magnet upon it. The results
with this arrangement were excellent ; the articulation was not only
good, but it was as loud as in any telephone now in the market.
Especially good was it when the electro-magnet was separated from
the large magnet by a rather thin piece of rubber, allowing of motion
in a longitudinal direction, but not in any other. This I take to be
demonstrative evidence that the explanation given above of the tele-
phonic action is true. Diaphragms of other materials were tried,
such as wood, zinc, brass, mica, and so on, — a great number. All will
work ; and paper was found to give the best results, probably because
it has rigidity and elasticity enough, while the mass is small, and hence
more easily moved by aerial vibrations.

At one time, early in October, it occurred to me to try for a receiver
the iron pole of one of the permanent magnets, with its bobbin on of
course. That is to say, the permanent magnet was removed, the
other conditions remaining as before. With this I was able both to
send and receive. Then the iron core was removed, and in its place
an ordinary wood-screw an inch and a quarter long was put through
the bobbin and screwed into a piece of board three or four inches
square, the head of the screw towards the plate. With this arrange-
ment I was still able to receive or send, using the circuit between the
College and my house, nearly half a mile long. Now every wood-
screw is made slightly magnetic by the process of making the screw,
but most wood-screws have but a slight polarity ; that used in this
experiment was only sufficient to move slightly three or four iron
filing bits. Again, experiments were tried with magnets of various
forms, — magnets with chambered poles, with poles cut radially, with
poles bent at right angles, with wire of various sizes, from No. 22 to
No. 37, with the result that No. 28 or 30 seemed preferable for nearly
every purpose. The finer wire not only offers so much greater
resistance, but in the summer-time it is liable to be injured by light-
ning. I have had several fine- wire telephones that were injured by
the induced current from a flash of lightning a considerable distance
away. My line runs for thirty or forty rods under the Somerville
fire-alarm wires, and hence would be affected by the inductive action
upon them ; but between the college building and my house, there is

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 83

constantly a current in one way down the hill, and the sputtering of
the telephone is sometimes so great, when every thing is quiet out of
doors, as to attract attention anywhere in the room. I have several
times observed the effect of a thunder-storm upon the line. Generally
it happens that before the shower there is nothing to be heard, even
though the lightning is only three or four miles away ; but while
the shower is overhead, the discharges are sometimes so loud from
the telephone as to be heard upstairs in my house. And after the
shower has passed a long way off, so far that the thunder cannot be
heard at all, every flash has a response in my telephone.

A close wound spiral of steel wire was made fast by one end to the
middle of the vibrating plate, and the other end to a post seven or
eight inches back of it. Within this helix a permanent magnet was
so placed as not to touch the coil in any place. It was reasoned that
this arrangement should also give sonorous results, as the vibrations of
the plate would move the spirals of the coil to and fro across the
magnetic field, and thus give rise to corresponding currents in the cir-
cuit. This was found to be true ; but the results were unsatisfactory,
and nothing articulate was heard from it, though some other sounds
were. This was also tried by incorporating a battery in the circuit,
but with no different results.

A great many experiments were also tried with the view of finding
whether the passage of a sound -vibration through an electric con-
ductor would in any way affect the current, to break it up into cor-
responding pulsations. To this end, batteries of varying elements and
strength were coupled to my line, and vibrations set up in the line-wire
in various ways, such as by striking, by drawing a resined bow across
it, by tying the string telephone to it and making sounds of varying
pitch : in none of these was there any observed effects.

Another variation in this experiment was to let a person take the
two terminals in a circuit including a battery and a receiving telephone,
and, while thus being a part of the circuit, singing and talking in the
endeavor to discover if such agitation from sounds as can plainly be
felt by one would produce any undulations in the circuit. No such
effects were noted.

Three telephones were included in one circuit ; two of them close
together, the third at a distance. Sounds were produced in the two ad-
jacent ones. It was thought to be possible that the electric waves might
neutralize each other if they were sent in opposite directions, if the
two had the same intensity, thus furnishing a means of measuring the
intensity of sounds ; but no such interfering results were noticed.

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Nevertheless, it would appear to be theoretically true that such inter-
ference should take place under appropriate conditions.

Very many other changes were rung upon the conditions for getting
articulate sounds, such as enlarging the bobbins, placing them on
both sides of the plate : in one case one was made for a core three inches
in diameter, and was used as a tube through which to speak. In
another case the bobbin was wound about a pint cup, and a large com-
pound magnet weighing about twenty pounds was placed with one
pole close to the bottom of the cup. This made a fair speaking tele-
phone, both as sender and receiver.

Telephones with oval diaphragms, square diaphragms very small
and very large, a foot or more in diameter, were made ; diaphragm
fastened to large resonant surfaces, fastened to the edge, to the middle,
to both edge and middle, with magnet fastened to one edge of dia-
phragm, and the free end of the magnet opposite the middle of it, and
so on, — all of these except the largest making good speaking tele-
phones ; and these largest when mounted concentrically, leaving a free
edge five or six inches all round, make excellent calls, as they may be
struck with a billet of wood, which starts a current that can be felt in
an ordinary receiving telephone, and heard plainly thirty or forty feet
away from one. A good many forms of calls were invented, one of
them being the so-called " Devil's Fiddle : " a catgut string fastened to
the middle of the disk is pulled through a bit of leather with resin on
it. The sound of such a device is familiar to every one. I have heard
it from a receiving telephone in another room, with the door closed
between. Also a tuning-fork call, in which a rather large tuning-fork
is made to vibrate and then held so that the vibrations of one leg
strike against the telephone plate. This was used as early as January,
1877. Another call consists of a hammer resting lightly upon the
plate of the telephone, which will be thrown over by a strong call, and
thus ring a bell, or set off an alarm. This can be done with the voice.
To measure the amplitude of vibration of such a telephone plate, I
had one mounted with a system of levers, one of them carrying a small
mirror that reflected a beam of light across the room, when I got a
displacement of as much as two feet for some sounds.

So far the experiments have been with the magneto-telephone, where
the principle depends upon the varying electro-motive force originat-
ing in a magnetic field. But I turned my attention to the other
method of varying the current, — namely, by varying the resistance, —
and accomplished it in several ways.

First, by making a single battery-cell a sender. If a cell be coupled

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 85

up with an ordinary receiver, and one strike with a pencil or snap with
thumb and finger one of the elements, the snap will be heard at the
telephone. Also if a tuning-fork be held while vibrating upon one
of the elements, the sound will be plainly heard. I constructed a
single cell of copper-zinc with soldered terminals, the metals being
separated by a small piece of rubber tube bent so as to make a cell to
hold a dilute solution of sulphuric acid: the metals were about six
inches square. With this alone as a sender, when coupled with an ordi-
nary receiver, all sorts of sounds were transmitted, tuning-forks, sing-
ing and talking. This was then reduced in size to about that of a
watch ; the articulation was good, but it has never been very loud. It
is better when the tank is filled with water, and a battery current of
five or six elements inserted in the circuit.

Second, the Reiss transmitter was modified into the form exhibited,
making the plate one terminal and the other a needle-point which
could be nicely adjusted by a screw. With this device in a circuit
with a battery of any sort, very strong sounds would make and break
the circuit, and reproduce the pitch of the sound with great loudness.
When the talking was gentle the articulation was very good: one
was able to make out every word spoken. When a drop of water
was placed between the plate and point, and a weak battery was used,
the articulation was excellent; but when a great resistance would
permit the use of a strong battery, so as to get a spark of considerable
electro-motive force, it became possible to speak and be heard at some
distance from the receiving telephone. During a trial of this instru-
ment between Boston and New York last winter, ordinary talking in
Boston was heard distinctly in New York, by one who was ten feet
distant from the receiving instrument there.

At this time a battery of 100, 125, and 150 gravity cells were used,
the best results being obtained with the largest battery. The expla-
nation doubtless is that the air acts as the variable resistant, the vibra-
tions of the plate interposing a greater and less distance between it
and the point, the electro-motive force being sufficient at all times
to bridge the space. This is the more probable as I have found with
the same instrument, and with a greater separation of the plate from
the point. If a source of so-called static electricity, as with a Holtz
machine, be employed in place of a battery, talking is plainly heard, as
I have repeatedly verified over my line.

In place of the point, surfaces of variable dimensions, of various
materials, and under many conditions, were tried ; surfaces of iron, lead,
copper, silver, carbon, in sizes varying from a point up to more than

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

an inch square, and being in direct contact, or separated by water
acidulated ; solutions of various sorts, such as nitrate of silver, sulphate
of copper, and so on, — all of them being available for the purpose, all
of them enabling one to talk and be understood, when an ordinary
telephone was used as a receiver. Still further modifications were
tried, in which a short wire made fast to the middle of the vibrating
plate was covered with a thin coat of wax, except the square end ;
this placed opposite to another end of wire, and both incased in a
small rubber tube filled with mercury. Thus the approach and reces-
sion of the points caused by the vibrations of the plate would increase
and decrease the resistance in the mercury, while the latter was pre-
vented from bounding away by the pressure of the tube.

In another, a strip of tin was soldered to the plate and bent at right
angles so as to project outwards, and the end cut to a point with
about ninety degrees included angle ; this point rested upon another
similar one by light contact, and the current was varied by the amount
of surface in contact. The surfaces were also amalgamated and
then tried.

Pieces of wood were also screwed to the plate, and then it was satu-
rated with water, with acids, with metallic salts, and with precipitated
silver ; and in all these ways it was found possible to vary the current
sufficient to reproduce sounds, and with almost all of them words were
reproduced ; that is to say, they were speaking telephones.

All of the above work was done previous to January 1, 1878.

Since then, the chief work has been done with the modification of
the transmitter, in which the plate vibrated directly against a point ;
and the results have been of such a character that I have given a name
to the special form, calling it an Electrophone, — a name which I
think to be more appropriate even for the common telephone than the
name it bears, inasmuch as it is a real conversion of electric energy
into sound-vibrations that is effected.

A series of experiments was undertaken to determine if possible
the best size for such an instrument, the thickness of the plate, battery
power needed, and so on ; and to this end I had made an instrument
which would admit of the use of a plate varying in size from an inch
or less, up to one three inches and a quarter in diameter. I also had a
micrometer screw attachment, by which the advancement or recession
to the ten thousandth of an inch could be made. Then plates of iron,
steel, copper, brass, zinc, lead, tin, plumbago, and graphite were tried,
each of a differing size and thickness. With several of these some
most excellent results were obtained; for instance, with a plate about

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 87

two inches in diameter and one fiftieth of an inch thick, one was able
to make himself plainly heard, the articulation being unmistakable
anywhere in a room sixteen feet square, while persons thirty or forty
feet away would know that one was talking : this over a line about half
a mile long and ten gravity cells in circuit. With a stick of graphite
the results were about the same. In this case the plate touched upon
the slightly rounded surface of a stick half an inch square. Of course
singing and strong vocal sounds could be heard very much further :
they have been heard fifty feet away from the house by persons in
passing carriages. The difficulty has been, and yet remains, to main-
tain the right pressure of contact. If it be a little too great, the talking
sinks to the delicacy of the ordinary telephone ; if it be too little, it
breaks up so as to give but little except the pitch of the voice ; and
with the micrometer screw it was not possible to do any better than
with an ordinary one. If some device can be invented to keep that
uniform, the whole problem of the loud-sounding telephone is solved.
A mechanical fixture is all that is needed.

Of all the contrivances tried, the simplest in every way is the fol-
lowing sender : An ordinary tin fruit-can, with one end removed, had
one terminal from a battery soldered to it ; the other terminal held
in the hand so that the circuit was complete when the end of a finger
was pressed against the bottom of the can. If, now, one shall talk
into the open end of the can, the vibrations of the bottom are suffi-
cient to vary the resistance there enough to render it audible in any
ordinary telephone. The resistance of the hand is very great, — 2000
or 3000 ohms ; this may be lessened somewhat by wetting the hand,
and this improves the effect. In like manner, one may fasten the
second terminal of a battery to a stick of gas-carbon, two or three
inches long, and, holding the tip of it at an acute angle with the bottom
of the can, make himself understood by talking into it.

Most of these investigations have been mechanically carried out by
Mr. H. C. Buck, to whose skill and ingenuity I am under many obli-
gations ; I have also received considerable assistance of like sort from
Mr. W. L. Hooper. To both of them I would express my gratitude
for their interest and fidelity.

It was remarked upon a previous page, that one is limited to but
two methods in the making of a speaking telephone. This will be-
come evident at once upon the consideration of Ohms's law. All
forms of electric telephones depend for their action upon variable
electric currents, and hence must conform to the general law of cur-
rents. This law is, that the current varies as the electro-motive force

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

divided by the resistance, and, where proper units are taken, it may
be represented thus : —

C= -^, where G is the current, E the electro-motive force, and

R the resistance in the circuit. Now electro-motive force depends
upon the origin of the electricity. When batteries are used as the
source of electricity, the electro-motive force may be modified by
coupling cells in series or sets ; but if a single cell be used, its electro-
motive force is a constant quantity which depends upon the chemical
relations of the substances employed. To modify electro-motive force
from batteries is entirely impracticable. Not so, however, the elec-
tricity derived from magneto-electric machines. Here the velocity
of the armature modifies the electro-motive force. The mechanical
motion of an armature in a magnetic field re-acts upon the magnet in
such a way as to develop a current with electro-motive force propor-
tional to its velocity ; the essential thing being the motion of an
inductive substance like iron or steel. Seeing that a piece of iron
may be made to move rapidly by sound-vibrations, it is plain that
such vibrations in a magnetic field will originate currents of electricity
with a great electro-motive force ; for the rapidity of the vibration of
the plate for ordinary speech will be for a man's voice in the neigh-
borhood of 125 per second for the fundamental sound, to say nothing
of the overtones. Professor Bell started with the right principle,
and, however faulty his first instrument was, it involved the generic
idea, as the subsequent development so fully corroborates. Now
there are two distinct methods by which the vibratory currents may
be set up ; namely, by electro-magnets and by permanent magnets.
"With the first, the action of the armature in the origination of the
currents is part of the time to send a wave in the same direction as
the current already in the line, and a part of the time to send one in
the opposite direction ; in other words, it will alternately increase and
decrease the current on the line, and this not only by its inductive
action upon the magnet, but by its inductive action upon the current
circulating in the bobbin, whereas with the permanent magnet there
is the inductive action of the armature upon the magnet and coils,
while the only electricity in the circuit originates in the coils. The
former method originated with Professor Bell, the latter with myself.
Some there are who think the two to be identical. I think they
hardly can be identical ; for in the case of an electro-magnet, when
induction is thus utilized, there is not only magnetic induction upon
the magnetic core, but there is also electric induction, — that is, indue-

OF ABTS AND SCIENCES. 89

tion upon the current within the coils, — whereas with permanent
magnets there is only the first magnetic induction.

Improvements in this direction can hardly be expected, further than
to utilize fully the currents which we already get ; and these, I am
sure, are not fully utilized. For it is not an uncommon experience
with my instruments, that the vibrations are strong enough to be very
perceptible by the hand upon the instrument ; and thus it appears to
be like a tuning-fork held in the hand : when struck, the sound is not
given out to the air, but is smothered as it were in the hand ; but,
unlike the fork, it will not be perceptibly louder when placed upon a
large resonant surface. It is not improbable that much of this spent
energy manifests itself as heat in the plate ; but I have not yet
investigated this.

There is no third method of varying these primal conditions. These
two methods cover the ground of varying the current by means of a
change in the electro-motive force.

With the other term, resistance, the case is very different. A
change in resistance may be effected by lengthening the conductor,
by changing its cross section, by interposing various substances having
different conductivities, by varying the density of a loose-grained con-
ductor, and in other ways, each one of the methods mentioned being
capable of application in very many different ways. Hence, tele-
phones constructed upon the plan of varying the resistance have been
invented in great variety, and by many different persons. Histori-
cally, Page, of Salem, stands first ; his automatic interruptor being
still employed for many purposes, and, when used as he used it in
connection with an electro-magnet as a receiver, it was a genuine
telephone. This was in 1837. Next, Reiss, of Germany, varied the
resistance by platinum terminals when contact pressure was variable ;
this was in 1861. It would seem that if Reiss had tried an ordinary
relay, or some such instrument for a receiver, in place of the one
which he did use, he would have had then a good speaking telephone.
What was lacking then, was an armature to his receiving magnet.
Gray, of Chicago, in February, 1876, used water for the same purpose.
In August, same year, I varied the cross section in mercury with the
iron cone. In January, 1877, Edison adopted carbon in the form of
lamp-black between a vibrating plate and a stiff backing. In Decem-
ber, 1877, I varied the contact pressure between the battery elements,
and still later Hughes used free carbon saturated with mercury,
and called his instrument a Microphone. The so-called microphone
does not differ in any essential thing from the other telephones
which have been in use for a good while. The name microphone

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

is a misnomer, for it does not magnify weak sounds ; it simply
reproduces them close to the ear. When it is said that a fly can be
heard to walk, the function of distance is left out of the account.
One cannot hear a fly walk at the distance of three or four feet ; but
if one can get a fly to walk upon his ear, or upon a plate, like a tele-
phone plate held at his ear, he will find that he can hear the fly walk ;
and the only reason he doesn't hear it walk under ordinary circum-
stances is because the fly is too distant. One cannot hear a man walk
a mile away, but a telephone will enable him to hear him walk ; but
one ought not to say that the sound is magnified. The function of a
telescope is to make distant objects appear to be nearer ; the function
of a microscope to make minute objects appear larger. Under no
circumstances can a microphone make a walking fly to be heard by
one holding a telephone at arm's length from his ear ; its function is,
therefore, to reproduce distant sounds close to the ear, and it is there-
fore simply a telephone. Neither does its action require us to modify
in the least the general statements concerning sound-vibrations in a
body. Whenever there are two surfaces in contact, and one of them
is subject to sound-vibrations, the pressure at the two surfaces must
vary with the phase of the vibration, and a current of electricity must
vary with such pressure. This is strictly in accordance with Ohms's
law, and with experience.

If one may borrow from Natural History a terminology appli-
cable to these cases, it may be said that there are two genera of
telephones, — the electro-motive and the variable-resistant. These
two differ from each other in every essential j>articular. Of the first
there are two species ; the electro-magnetic, and the magneto-electric.
Of the second there are very many species already, and it is evident
that there may be many more.

The synoptical table appended shows at a glance the relations
specified above : —

Genera. Species.

o^-S a

•2 a 3 *

8lto&

■ o 2

la

s§

' Permanent Magnets, varying a current already

on the line Dolbear, Aug., 1873

Electro Magnets, varying a current already

on the line Bell, Spring, 1876

Permanent Magnets, originating the only cur-
rent on the line . . . . Dolbear, Sept., 1876

Automatically Page, 1837

Platinum Contact, varying pressure . . . Keiss, 1861

Water, „ space .... Gray, Feb., 1876

Iron Cone in Mercury, „ cross-section . Dolbear, Aug., 1876

I Carbon, „ pressure . . . Edison, Jan., 1877

Battery Elements, „ „ ... Dolbear, Dee., 1877

Carbon-Microphone, „ „ ... Hughes, Spring, 1878

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 91

Thus it is seen that the two different methods of producing speak-
ing telephones are as unlike each other as a battery is unlike a mag-
neto-electric machine, which, though they have the same function, — -
namely, to produce electricity, — there is nothing else that is common
They may be compared for efficiency, not for involved principles.

Suggested Uses.

I see no reason why the variability of conductivity due to pressure,
as in the case of carbon is so marked, might not be used in many places
where now are such instruments as thermometers and barometers.
Thus the expansion and contraction of an ordinary copper rod, or,
better still perhaps, a thin copper tube, might be made to act upon a
piece of carbon in circuit with a constant battery, and the galva-
nometer needle would constantly indicate the temperature if properly
calibrated.

In like manner, the varying pressure of the atmosphere could be
made to be much more apparent than now. Perhaps a wind-gauge
would also be possible. Especially would it be possible to measure
the depth of water by its pressure upon a carbon disk when sunk into
the water. Here it would be necessary to have a double-line wire
through which the circuit could be maintained during the whole time
of the descent ; that is to say, the length of wire in the circuit would
need to be constant. If the temperature of the water be known, as
it generally is, the depth would be easily read off from the galva-
nometer.

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Investigations on Light and Heat, made and published wholly or in part with
appropriation from the Rumeobd Fund.

VI.

ON CERTAIN REMARKABLE GROUPS IN THE
LOWER SPECTRUM.

By Professor S. P. Langley.

Presented Oct. 7, 1878.

In first studying the diffraction spectrum for the purpose of learning
more of the laws governing the selective absorption of the sun's
radiant energy, both near its surface and in our own atmosphere, I
was much struck, as others have doubtless been, with the remarkable
band of lines on the less refrangible side of B. Seen under great
dispersion, they were quite unlike any thing I had before observed in
the spectrum, while the best maps, I found, gave no adequate idea
of their curious structure which possessed to me an unexanqjled formal
regularity. After more study of this portion, I commenced critically
to examine the A group, which is nearly the last extremity of the
visual spectrum toward the red, and which is so overwhelmed in the
diffuse light from brighter portions, that few have, I believe, ever
seen it in any detail. I now found another subject of surprise, in the
extraordinary resemblance which this group bore to the B group ;
a resemblance which could not be the result of accident, but which
has never been, so far as I can learn, publicly noticed, and of which
no published map, I have seen, gives any idea.

It is, of course, known to professional students that in this region
such a structure and general resemblance exist ; but as I believe that,
without special precautions, its extraordinary completeness cannot be
made out, it is possible that a very careful drawing, founded wholly
on micrometric measurement, of what has never been fully delineated
will present some novelty even to the spectroscopist who may not
have made this region a special study. To others I may recall —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 93

what any one who has only the slightest acquaintance with the
appearance of the whole visible spectrum must have noticed — the
entirely casual way in which the lines, all along from red to violet,
are juxtaposed. There is no more apparent order in their arrange-
ment than in that of undergrowth in a primitive forest, or of any
other disposition of natural objects which we assign to chance. But,
if in walking through such a forest, we came to an open space in
which the trees were planted two and two, with the most formal regu-
larity, we should hardly doubt that something else than chance had
been at work. If we measured the distances and found that these
pairs had been set out with such precision that our best instruments
could detect no difference between them ; if we further found that
the spaces between the pairs were themselves not casual, but ar-
ranged with exactness in a certain progression, — if we found all
this, we should certainly, in the use of ordinary language, say that
here Nature had given place to art. If, further on, we saw a second
arrangement like the first, which resembled it closer the more we
examined, we should find our conclusion for design, if possible,
strengthened. It will be seen, I think, that precisely this abrupt
transition from confusion to order and symmetry exists in the spec-
trum, as well as in the singular duplication of the design. What might
be called the result of intelligence, if observed in another field of
Nature, we must here call conclusive evidence of the existence of law.
No accident, but some still hidden law, has regulated, I do not doubt,
the curious relations now exhibited. Perhaps, with regard to them,
we may be standing ourselves in the same position as those few did
who were enabled to contemplate the Fraunhofer lines in the first
years of their discovery, and recognize that, though we cannot find
their meaning, it promises to be worth knowing.

I had at first meant to present to you some attempts of my own
toward a solution. Afterward, considering how little I knew, it
seemed to me better to offer nothing in the way of hypothesis now,
but for the present to limit myself to furnishing facts, necessary in
the creation of any future theory, in the shape of the results of exact
measurement. These are given in the accompanying pages, and give
sufficiently exact data, I hope, for determining the laws of the numeri-
cal harmonies here so plainly latent.

The best drawings of the A lines I have seen are those recently
given by Professor C. Piazzi Smythe, Astronomer Royal for Scot-
land. They were obtained in June, 1877, at Lisbon, whither Professor
Smythe made a special voyage to obtain a high sun and clear sky. I

94 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

reproduce an exact copy of these with those of Kirchoff. It must,
however, be remembered that Kirchoff's and Srnythe's drawings, made
with prisms, will present a slightly different collocation from those
made with a grating. I give also both Kirchoff's and Angstrom's
drawings of B, that it may be seen how far justice has been done
heretofore to this interesting region in the best maps. In my own,
every line is given from repeated micrometric measurement. I have
only given part of the A group, therefore, which extends much fur-
ther, but in so faint a light that I have not felt sure of my measures
beyond A12. The relative intensities only are the result of estimate.
The scale is double Angstrom's. I have made as yet no studies below
the A group, but have discovered an unnoticed analogous group more
refrangible than B, which appears in the air-spectrum, and which I
do not give, as all these studies belong exclusively to the high sun.
From the successive appearances of these three groups, however, I
have drawn the inference that the spectrum below A, if ever rendered
visible, will probably present a strikingly different type from that
above B.

As Captain Abney has lately succeeded in photographing as low
as A or lower, it may be proper for me to observe that the general
character of the observations here given in detail was, with drawings
of A and B, briefly presented by me to the notice of the National
Academy, in Washington, in 1877. I have executed this work with
apparatus partly due to the Rumford fund, and therefore have delayed
a full presentation till I could ask to be allowed the honor of sub-
mitting it to the American Academy.

I have been assisted in these measurements by Mr. R. F. Hall and
Mr. F. W. Very.

The spectroscope with which these observations have been made
is provided with two telescopes of 1.66 inch aperture and of 20.01
inches focal length, which are fixed in the walls of the cylindrical
chamber containing the diffraction grating. The angle between the
optical axes of the telescopes is fixed here, and it amounts to about
61° 16'. The grating is fastened to a revolving plate. A filar microm-
eter is attached to the observing telescope. The diffraction grating
used is of speculum metal, and is one of the largest made by Mr.
Rutherfurd, the actual size of the ruled portion being 1.75 inch square,
containing 17,296 lines to the linear inch.

The object of these measurements was to obtain the relative dis-
tances between the lines, rather than their absolute wave-length. The
distances of the several components from the first line of each group

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 95

have been measured with the micrometer. Then, the first line of the
group being assigned the value of zero, and the distance from this
line to the one numbered 12 being called unity, the relative distances
of the intermediate lines are expressed in decimal fractions, which
are multiplied by the difference in wave-length of the limiting lines,
and the products added to the wave-length of the more refrangible
one, which is distinguished in each case by a subscript zero attached
to its cognominal letter. It is evident that for these small angles,
the largest of which does not exceed 30', the sine differs so inappreci-
ably from the arc, that the readings of the micrometer may be con-
verted directly into angular measure. The difference between the
wave-lengths of the limiting lines of the group has been taken from
Angstrom's measurements in the case of the large B group. The
line called A12 in this paper was not measured by Angstrom. Its
wave-length has been approximately determined by the following
method : —

The centre of the comb being midway between two known lines of
the spectrum, the difference of micrometer readings for these lines
was observed. Let the angular distance between them be 2x. Then
from the general formula nSX = sin i -\- sin r, where S= 681 lines
to the millimeter, and n is 1, we have —

1 X 681 X *i = — sin i -f- sin (V — x) )

1X681XI = - sin i + sin (r + x) J als0 r + * = 61° 16'

Measures taken without disturbance of the micrometer focus
gave —

rev.

Angstrom (6561.8) C to Angstrom (6716.4) = 14.942

(6716.4) „ „ (6866.8) B0 = 14.490

„ (6866.8) B0 „ „ (6927.8) B12 = 6.087

A0 „ „ A12 = 7.727

Substituting these numbers in the appropriate equations, and solving,
we have —

m.m.

C 681 X 0.000 6561.8 = .44686 = — sin ix -f- sin (r, — xx).
(6716.4) 681 X 0.000 6716.4 = .45739 =— sin ix -f sin fo + arj.
ix = 15° 24' 02" rx = 46° 51' 58"

rev. rev.

whence 2xa = 51' 57" = 14.942 .% 1. = 3' 28".6.

96 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

We have again —

m.m.

(6716.4) 681 X 0.000 6716.4 = .45739 = — sin ts + sin (r2 — x.2).
B0 681 X 0.000 6866.8 = .46763 = — sin ia -j- sin (ra -f x2).
ia = 15° 02' 30" r2 = 46° 13' 27"

rev. rev.

whence 2x2 = 50' 54" = 14.490 ,\ 1. = 3' 30".8.

The mean of these values, 3' 29".7 is taken as the value of one
revolution of the micrometer head in arc, at the time the above

rev.

measures were made on BX2 and Aw and B0 to Bi2 = 6.087 = 21' 16".4,

rev.

A0 to A12 = 7.727 = 27' 00".4.

For B0, ® 681 X 6866.8 = .46763 = — sin i-\- sin (r — 10'38".2)

„ B12, (3) 681 X I B12 = = — sin i + sin (r -|- 10' 38".2)

© i-\-r =61° 16' t = 14° 47' 38"

Substituting in (|) the values of % and r found by ©, we have

m.m.

X Bl2 = 0.000 6928.0. The value of the corresponding line in

m.m.

Angstrom is 0.000 6927.8.

The result of this example showing a sufficiently near approach to
accuracy for our purpose, the same method was used for determining
the wave-length of Ai2, starting with the known value of A0. Measure-
ments at this part of the spectrum are more difficult than in the
more brightly illuminated portion. Three attempts, on as many
different days, gave —

m.m.

X A12 = 0.000 7678.4
0.000 7677.8
0.000 7679.4

The mean of these = 0.000 7678.5 was taken as the value of
XA,r

The stray light of higher refrangibility and greater illuminating
power than the red, and which is reflected from the lens, overpowers
the red to such an extent that some means of removing it is necessary.
For this purpose, a small direct-vision prism, placed over the slit,
allowing only the red to pass, seems best ; but red glasses have been
found to answer nearly as well.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

97

The following are the unreduced micrometric measurements of the
lines in the A group.

The numbers in each column are the original micrometric readings,
which were taken consecutively without disturbance of the instrument.
The different series were taken at various dates.

Begin- A
aing of^O

5.991

6.104

1.308

1.340

1.780

End A
of ^0

8.295

8.352

2.843

2.880

A

8.750

8.899

3.219

3.214

5.822

4.456

9.121
9.459

9.192
9.595

3.337
3.608

3.452
3.700

5.505
5.144

( 4.759
\ 4.900
I 5.102
} 5.254

A,

9.880

9.981

3.921

4.012

4.739

( 5.431
\ 5.652
j 5.887
) 6.090

A

10.349

10.415

4.219

4.276

4.312

A

10.776

10.827

4.537

4.538

3.900

6.350
) 6.523

A,

11.284

11.323

4.861

4.848

3.425

( 6.798
\ 6.980 '

A

11.815

11.809

5.197

5.212

2.962

7.307
\ 7.478

A

12.327

12.341

5.522

5.569

2.421

I 7.787
) 7.964

^10

12.913

12.948

5.901

5.930

1.894

] 8.327
1 8.528

Ax

13.495

13.490

6.238

6.282

1.393

j 8.891
\ 9.046

A-2

14.071
14.604

14.090
14.682

6.700

6.650

0.747
0.180

( 9.424

\ 9.587

VOL. XIV. (N.S. VI.)

98

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The following are the remainders left after subtracting the microm-
eter reading of the line called A0 from the readings of the other lines
in the A group.

CD CO CO CO

O O 1-1

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Then follow the quotients obtained by dividing each of the numbers
in the preceding table by the difference between the micrometer
readings of A0 and An.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

99

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100

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The last line gives the values of the members of the A group in
wave-length.

The following are micrometric measures of the very close lines
(17 in number) composing the BQ band.

They have been distinguished by small letters of the alphabet
(a to q).

B0 group.

a

0.897

0.876

0.298

0.296

b

0.023

0.906

0.320

0.319

c

0.990

0.976

0.365

0.382

d

1.042

1.019

0.412

0.400

e

1.082

1.070

0.471

0.465

f

1.171

1.168

0.548

0.560

9

1.263

1.260

0.069

0.648

h

1.309

L.303

0.690

0.700

i

1.399

1.387

0.779

0.780

J

1.444

1.423

0.834

0.825

k

1.540

1.518

0.926

0.920

I

1.628

1.607

1.008

1.000

m

1.709

1.710

1.115

1.103

n

1.825

1.826

1.222

1.217

0

1.923

1.908

1.301

1.306

P

2.043

2.040

1.425

1.438

9

2.156

2.146

1.543

1.536

B, ...

1.910

1.909

B12 . . .

6.403

6.385

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

101

The following are the unreduced measurements of the principal
lines in the B group: —

B0 a

BB\q

B2

Bs

B,

Bs

B6

B,

Ba

Bio
Bn

B\2

Sharp line,
Centre faint pair,

Delicate pair, < !„:

Faint line,
Faint line,
Very faint line,
Strong line,
Strong line,
End of group,

16.379

15.131

14.749

( 14.559 )

\ 14.468 J

I 14.243 |

\ 14.139 (

( 13.896 i

\ 13.818 J

' 13.549 i

13.454 |

13.162 )

13.067 |

< 12.741 (

\ 12.652 |

12.322

12.216

11.849

11.760

11.725

11.404

11.315

10.909

10.836

10.292

9.890
9.451
9.307
9.253
9.049
8.883
8.735
8.516
7.600
7.141

3.949

3.953

5.198

5.200

5.575

5.554

5.818

5.807

6.134

6.125

6.440

6.444

6.807

6.815

7.187

7.190

7.595

7.598

8.044

8.038

8.490

8.478

8.961

8.957

9.439

9.440

10.013

10.032

6.537

8.172

8.367

8.440

8.662

8.758

8.997

9.100

9.369

9.455

9.746

9.854

10.164

10.265

10.584

10.650

11.076
11.150

11.522
11.628
12.012
12.100
12.624

6.529

8.168

8.340

8.436

8.666

8.764

8.997

9.117

9.350

9.450

9.711

9.820

10.150

10.228

10.559

10.664

11.065
11.140

11.528
11.596
12.010
12.085
12.616

The following are the remainders left after subtracting the microm-
eter reading of the line called B0 from the readings of the other
lines in the Ba band : —

102

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

oa

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OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

103

Below are the numbers obtained by subtracting the reading of B0
from that of the other lines in the B group : —

ca

nq

oq

^5"

Bq

aj

50 CO O CD

co eo eo eo

CM

02

01

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nq

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Bq

oq

BQ

O ~* H

CO CO CO CO

104

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The measured intervals between the components of pairs, treated
in the same way, become —

i-0

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The first line in the following table gives the value of the compo-
nents of the B group on the scale B0 to B12 = 1. The difference of
wave-length corresponding to this interval is 61 tenth meters, and
the numbers in the second line are obtained by multiplying those in
the first by 61.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

105

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106 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Investigations on Light and Heat, made and published wholly or in part with
appropriation from the Rumford Fund.

VII.

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN.
By Professor S. P. Langley.

Presented Oct. 9, 1878.

It is known to all that there is a problem of the highest interest in
solar physics at present waiting solution : I mean that of the temper-
ature of the sun ; and, so far as the whole radiant energy is inferable
from the rate of emission of heat, the problem is one the theoretical
solution of which is evidently dependent on our knowledge of the
laws of cooling.

Every operation of Nature, whether in the organic or inorganic
kingdom, is accompanied by the emission or absorption of heat ;
and, considering that, whether the subject of observation be the germi-
nation of a seed, the heat of a stove, or the outflow from the sun upon
the planetary system, we want to know the rate of the deperdition of
energy, one might certainly suppose that no physical law would have
been better ascertained ; but we are here, however (at least in regard
to high temperatures), in a state of nearly complete ignorance, and
know almost literally nothing about what so intimately concerns
us. This is a reproach to modern physics, which has probably made
no real advance here since Newton. To justify this language, I
remark that, in the case of the solar temperature, the amount of heat
the sun sends us is scarcely in question, as we are all substantially
agreed on the way to measure this and on the results of measurement.
The latest of these give, it is true, larger values than those of Pouil-
let, which were about 1.75 calories per centimeter per minute instead
of 2.50 ; but these considerable variations are so trifling compared
with those in the deductions made from them, that we may still say
there is substantial agreement as to data. From like data, then, Sir
John Herschel concludes that the temperature of the solar surface is
over 5,000,000° centigrade ; Mr. Ericsson, whose labors on this
point deserve wider recognition, is confident that the temperature is

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 107

not materially different from 4,000,000° Fahrenheit ; Father Secchi,
in his latest research, makes it 133,000° C. ; Sir Wm. Thompson and
others estimate 30,000 to 60,000° C.

These extremely gross discrepancies having drawn general atten-
tion, many distinguished French physicists have lately reinvestigated
the subject, and, using Dulong's and Petit's formula, have after most
elaborate research arrived at the nearly unanimous conclusion that
the temperature of the solar surface is altogether lower than any of
these, — is in any case not more than 2000 to 2500° C, but is more
probably below than above the temperatures which are reached in our
furnaces, and in fact is probably less than that of melting platinum.

It is here to be borne in mind that we really know nothing about
the absolute emissive capacity of the solar surface, and that to sim-
plify the problem, when we speak of the sun's being at a lower tem-
perature than that of a certain lamp-black surface or hot platinum or
steel, it is assumed for the purpose of comparison, by myself as well
as by the above-named investigators, that both the solar and terrestrial
sources of heat have the same emissive capacity. The temperature
thus defined has been called the " effective " temperature.

M. Violle, one of the most distinguished students of the subject,
whose experiments bear evidence of intelligent care, found by obser-
vations at Grenoble, in March, 1874, that, with an emissive power
thus defined, the temperature of the solar surface was 1230° C* In
a subsequent memoir, he finds for the same the rather higher value
of 1354° C.f After allowing for absorption in our atmosphere, it
remains true that the temperature is then much below that of melting
platinum, and this seems to be confirmed by his later results, which
give about 1550° C. as the highest "effective" temperature.

All these and other observations involve the use of the empirical
formula, well known as that of Dulong and Petit, which has replaced
the earlier and simpler one of Newton.

Now, whatever be the apparent presumption of opposing my opin-
ion to that of so many conscientious and recent investigators, I feel
there is something yet to be said; and the present paper is an account
of experiments of a special character, undertaken at the expense of
the Rumford fund, not with the hope of at once solving so arduous
a problem, but with the wish, in this confusion of opinion, to contrib-
ute one or two incontrovertible facts as material towards the con-

* Comptes Rendus, vol. lxxviii. p. 1425.
t C R. vol. lxxviii. p. 1816.

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

struction of future theory. I hope to show convincingly that the sun's
" effective " temperature is at any rate far above that of any ordinarily
attained in the arts (very much above that of melting platinum for
instance), and incidentally that the law of Dulong and Petit is untrust-
worthy precisely where we need to apply it.

If we have no formula by which to infer the temperature of the
sun, there remains the comparison of its radiation with that of a ter-
restrial source of high known temperature. Thus the late Father
Secchi has measured the radiation from the electric arc, and M. Violle
that from a Siemens-Martin's furnace ; but, by comparing these only with
others made at other times on the sun, discrepant results appear also.
Were we, however, to compare the sun directly with a terrestrial
source of high temperature, and bringing them face to face find one
giving more heat than the other, there could (with equal emissive
powers) be no question but that the body radiating more heat was
also the higher in temperature. Strange to say, this simple test has
never, that I know, been applied to this problem* until in the experi-
ments I am about to describe.

We have in the arts one process which gives what we want ready
to hand in the production of a vertically disposed surface of several
square feet of a liquid metal, hotter than melted platinum itself. I
refer to the Bessemer process now in use in several places in this
country, among others at the Edgar Thompson steel-works about
twelve miles from Pittsburg. I have received every j>ossible assist-
ance from the managers of this great establishment, and owe my
acknowledgments here for their kindness.

As the Bessemer process may be as vaguely known to some as it
was till lately to me, I will first briefly describe so much of it as con-
cerns the present purpose.

An enormous egg-shaped vessel called the " Converter," capable of
holding 30,000 to 40,000 pounds of melted metal, is swung on trun-
nions so that it can be raised by an engine to a vertical position, or
lowered so as to pour its contents into a caldron. First, the empty
" converter " is inclined, and into its mouth is poured about 15,000
pounds of fluid pig-iron, whose temperature as it flows in from an
adjacent furnace, where it has previously been melted, is about 1400° C.
Then the " converter " is lifted to an erect position, and an air-blast
from a powerful blowing-engine is forced up through its liquid con-

* Experiments with the lime and electric lights made for other purposes are
not here in question.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 109

tents. In the 15,000 pounds of impure iron there are ordinarily
found about 230 pounds of silicon and 540 of carbon ; and as each
pound of carbon gives 8000 calories, and each pound of silicon 1 2,000
to 14,000, in connection with the air-blast's unlimited supply of
oxygen, the temperature of the already molten metal rapidly rises
under this enormous inflow of several million calories of heat. After
the blast has continued eighteen to twenty minutes, the temperature
of the contents is from 1800° to 2000° C, or higher than that of
melted platinum, taking the lowest estimate ; and now the " converter "
is again lowered, and about 1500 pounds more of melted iron added.
The temperature here perhaps falls slightly, but its effect may be
judged by any one who sees this second lot of iron poured in. Melted
iron by itself, every one knows, seems dazzlingly bright ; but as this
streams into the open mouth, the interior is so much brighter still,
that the stream is deep-brown by comparison, presenting a contrast
like that of dark coffee poured into a white cup. The contents are
now no longer iron, but liquid steel ready for pouring into the caldron ;
and, looking from in front into the inclined vessel, we see the almost
blindingly bright interior dripping with the drainage of the metal
running down its sides, so that the circular mouth, which is twenty-four
inches in diameter, presents the effect of a disk of molten metal of
that size, were it possible to maintain such a disk in a vertical position.
In addition, we have the actual stream of falling metal which continues
nearly a minute, and presents an area of some square feet. The
shower of scintillations from this liquid cataract of what seems at first
" sun-like " brilliancy, and the immense area whence such intense
heat and light are for a brief time radiated, make the spectacle a most
striking one.

Platinum dipped in the steel as it pours from the lip melts away ;
and not to rely on this evidence, which might be alleged to be due to
an alloying rather than a true melting, I procured some platinum wire
which Mr. Preusser, the chemist of the works, stretched at my request
across the open mouth of the "converter" when in an erect position.
The platinum, here several yards above the metal, was melted by the
blast which came from it.

Heat Comparisons.

After many visits to the works, much trouble and repeated failures
due to the difficulties of working in such novel circumstances, I secured
a series of trustworthy measures, in May last, both of heat and light.

110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

I describe my apparatus here in principle, not in detail ; and I omit
many preliminary experiments, as well as some minute corrections
applied for small instrumental errors, giving my results in general
terms. One difficulty attending a simultaneous comparison was to
obtain a station looking into the "converter" at the time it was in-
clined and pouring, and yet necessarily outside the building in the
sun-light. To do this, I stood in a window (whence the sash had been
removed) of the west wall, sixty-one feet from the " converter " mouth.
A platform was erected here for my apparatus, part of which was
clamped to the wall itself ; but though this was the best point of
observation, the noise, the shower of sparks driven over the instru-
ments from within by the blast at each " pour," and the rain of wet
soot without which fell thick at times on apparatus and observer
from the combined steam and smoke of adjacent chimneys, made the
task of observation another thing from what it is in the quiet of a
physical cabinet.

From this window-station, a porte-lumiere reflected the sun's rays,
so that traced through the dusty air the beam was seen to enter the
" converter " mouth, or fall on the stream which ran from it. Jn the
path of this beam was a cylinder, containing within a double enclosure
an Elliott thermopile of forty small elements, similar to that I had used
for some years on the sun, and surrounded by all the precautions
against air-currents and extraneous influences taught me by experi-
ence. The pile exposed both faces at once, one to the furnace, the
other to the reflected sunbeam ; and a Thompson reflecting galvanom-
eter read by an assistant, and placed at a considerable distance from
any moving iron, gave prompt evidence as to which face was hotter.

The angular area, subtended at the pile by the fluid metal, was
always many times that subtended by the sun's disk, and there was no '
lens or medium of any kind (except air) between the " converter " mouth
and the pile. Supposing, then, the metal to have only presented a
disk equal in angular diameter to that of the sun, if the needle re-
mained stationary, it is plain that each was sending an equal amount
of heat, and that any square foot of the solar surface was radiating
at least as much heat as a square foot of the metal ; for it is obvious
that the distances of the two sources have nothing to do with this
effect under the given conditions.

The metal area, however, being many times that of the sun, the
latter still over-balanced the metal ; showing that the sun was actually
very much the hotter. Accordingly, there was interposed between
the porte-lumiere and the pile a telescope which diffused the sun-light

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Ill

over an image of any given diameter. As the solar light entered
only through a diaphragm of known dimensions, it was easy to say
how much the sun's heat was weakened to balance that from the
metal. It must be borne in mind, however, that there was no account
taken of the loss of solar heat by reflection and absorption in the
lenses, by reflection from the mirror, and more than all by the fre-
quent clouds of smoke and steam, while the furnace heat suffered no
diminution whatever. Further, every other condition of the experi-
ment was designedly such as to weigh in favor of the furnace and
against the sun's heat. The value found for the latter, then, is a
minimum value. I should perhaps have remarked that experiments
had shown that the trifling heat from objects near the melted metal
might be neglected. That from the atmosphere about the sun was
also insignificant. Except, then, for the diminution of solar heat by
absorption, reflection, and so on, our method is equivalent to bringing a
specimen piece from the sun's surface (if I may so express myself) face to
face with one from the furnace, placing our thermopile mid-way be-
tween them, and determining how much we have to diminish the size of
the former to make its heat-radiation no more than equal the latter's.
The result of these experiments was that the minimum value we
can assign to the solar radiation is eighty-seven times that from an
equal area of the pouring metal. This, it will be remembered, is not
an actual but a minimum value. The true value may be indefinitely
greater.

Part Second.

Photometric Comparisons.

Of the complex radiations from any source of high temperature, a
part is interpreted by the pile as heat, a part by the eye as light ; but
as the temperature is raised, it is now well known that the waves of
shorter length increase in amplitude much faster than the longer ones.
If the temperature of the sun, then, be much greater than that of the
furnace, we shall have a quite independent proof of the fact in a
photometric comparison, which, we can safely pronounce a priori,
will then give a very much greater ratio of sunlight to furnace-light
than that of sun-heat to furnace-heat. To make this comparison, a
photometer box, about 8 inches in square section and GG inches in
length, is placed so that its central axis lies as before in the path of
the reflected beam from the mirror to the furnace. Two similar

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

telescopes of 1.66 inch aperture and 20.01 inches focus, having their
objectives outside the extremities of the box and their optical axes in
the path of the beam, project, by their eye-pieces, images of the sun
and of the pouring metal on the two sides of a Bunsen disk, whose
normal position is in the centre of the box. Both images are viewed
simultaneously by mirrors attached to the disk, which is movable
along a graduated scale. (I here omit certain small corrections
applied in practice, and describe the use of the instrument in brief
terms.) We do not now need to consider the relative angular areas
of the sun and furnace, for so long as both are of appreciable size the
images of both falling on the screen, when nearly midway between
the two telescopes, will be sensibly proportioned in brightness to the
absolute intensities of the sun-light and furnace-light. We do in
fact, however, at the outset find the sunlight so immensely brighter
that no direct comparison is possible. We then diminish the aperture
of the solar telescope (which we will call A), till it has a small known
ratio to that of the furnace telescope (which we will call B). In
practice Bwas always left with the full aperture of 1.66 inch diameter,

while that of A was 0.192. Were the original sources of equal inten-

(0 192 \ -
TftMi) — 0.013 -f- or a

little over one one-hundredth of the other. But it was surprising to
see that the image from A was even now incomparably stronger than
that formed either by the flame from the blast at its brightest, or by
the pouring metal. Under these circumstances, the Bunsen disk was
moved from its central position toward B, thus approaching the apex
of one light cone and withdrawing from the other, so as to diminish
the sunlight still further in an exactly determinable ratio. The low-
est value obtained in a series of accordant measures gave intensity of
sunlight over (5300) five thousand and three hundred times that from
the metal ; and this value is, I think, considerably below the truth.

It results from these experiments : (1) That direct observation dis-
proves the statement that the sun's effective temperature does not
exceed 1500° C. It is demonstrably over 1800° C, and may for any
thing here shown to the contrary be indefinitely greater.

(2) The solar heat-radiation, so far from being comparable to fur-
nace heat, is at a minimum something like 100 times that from melted
platinum, area for area, and probably much greater.

(3) The solar-light radiation (which offers a more trustworthy
indication of the total difference between the sum of all degrees of
radiant energy than the heat) is over 5300 times that from a tem-
perature above that of melted platinum.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 113

(4) Since all the above results are simple statements of the facts
of experiment, and are independent of formulas, we conclude that the
formula of Dulong and Petit (which from well-conducted experiments,
like those of M. Violle, deduces conclusions which trial disproves)
must be itself wrong. Further, since this formula contains no term
depending on the wave-length, it takes no account of the difference
here proved to exist between the relative quantities of heat and light
radiation from sources of high temperature, and is thus found espe-
cially untrustworthy at those temperatures at which it has been most
frequently applied.

I do not yet venture an opinion of my own on the real temperature
of the sua, further than that I think it much higher than has been of
late believed.

The preceding observations and inferences all seem to point to the
use of the highest attainable terrestrial temperatures (e. g. that of
the electric light) in comparisons (and the consequent least depend-
ance on formulas) as the safest line for future investigation.

vol. xiv. (n. s. VI.)

114 PKOCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Investigations on Light and Heat, made and published wholly or in part with
appropriation from the Rumfokd Fund.

VIII.

ON THE HEAT PRODUCED BY THE RAPID MAGNETI-
ZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION OF THE
MAGNETIC METALS.

By Joh*n Trowbridge, S.D.,

Harvard University.

AND

Walter N. Hill, S.B., Harvard University,

U. S. Torpedo Station, Newport, R.I.
Presented, Dec. 11, 1878.

The fact that iron and steel become heated when rapidly magnetized
and demagnetized, has long been known. It is, perhaps, one of the
most significant facts in the subject of magnetism ; for it is an out-
ward manifestation of the inner work that is done among the mole-
cules when they are endowed and then suddenly deprived of the state
which we call magnetism. It gives color to the theory that each par-
ticle of iron is given a polarity, and also is twisted or strained in its
bed, or caused to vibrate ; and brings the subject of the magnetic state
of metals into the domain of mechanics, instead of relegating it to the
theory of fluids. "When we magnetize a bar of steel, the magnet with
which we magnetize is not sensibly altered, — it has the same strength
as before, — while the piece of steel has been endowed with a new
property. How is the doctrine of the conservation of force satisfied ?
The resulting magnetic state in the piece of steel is not the equivalent
of the mechanical motion which the hand gives to the stroking mag-
net ; for it is not necessary to move the magnet. The piece of steel
can be left in contact with the poles of the magnetizing magnet. "We
are forced to conclude that the particles of the steel have been forced
into a state of strain, in which the mechanical properties, such as elas-
ticity and viscosity, are involved ; and, when we deprive a piece of steel
of this mechanical condition, we heat it, just as we can heat a rod of
glass or of steel, by stroking it with a cloth covered with resin, and
thereby setting it into longitudinal vibration. The rod of glass or steel
gives forth a musical note when thus set into longitudinal vibration.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 115

The rod of iron or steel, also, when rapidly magnetized and demagnet-
ized, gives forth a musical note.

Owing to the great kindness of Mr. Joseph Wharton, of Philadel-
phia, who had provided us with fine specimens of nickel and cobalt bars
of his manufacture, and to the courtesy of the officers of the United
States Torpedo Station at Newport in allowing us the use of a Wilde's
alternating dynamo-electric engine, we were enabled to make the
following experiments upon the rapid magnetization and demagnetiza-
tion of the magnetic metals, iron, steel, cobalt, and nickel.

To measure the strength of the current produced by the dynamo-
electric machine, we made use of an electrodynamometer similar to
that described in Maxwell's " Electricity " which was constructed on the
Helmholtz Gaugain princijile both in the fixed and movable coils, and
had a resistance of 58.93 of an ohm. The movable coil was suspended
from a graduated circle, which read, by means of verniers, to one min-
ute. This circle, however, was only used as a check upon the read-
ings given by a mirror placed upon the movable coils. The telescope
and scale were placed seven feet from the mirror. The electrodyna-
mometer was provided with a shunt of one tenth of an ohm, made out
of broad ribbons of German silver, the resistance of which did not
alter perceptibly during our experiments. Three coarse wire coils of

resistances

ABC

.362 .316 .323

were provided with glass tubes filled with water, which were carefully
placed so as not to conduct heat from the coils surrounding them.
The bars of cobalt, nickel, iron, and steel, were all of the same size,

viz. : —

length, 15.15 cm. diameter, 1.25 cm.

Three thermometers, made by Geissler of Bonn, were used, and their
readings were subsequently carefully compared with those of a standard
Centigrade thermometer, the graduation of which had a probable error
of one hundredth of a degree. For this thermometer we were indebted
to Professor H. B. Hill, Harvard University. The coils and the ther-
mometers were used in alternation ; and the experiments were com-
bined so as to give as many experimental equations as were possible in
the short time to which the experiments were necessarily limited on
account of the rapid heating of the circuit, and also of the rapid rise
of temperature of the water in which the magnetic metals were
immersed.

116

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The order of the experiment was as follows : —

A

o

B

-o

c

-o

In A, B, and C, were placed glass tubes which contained equal vol-
umes of water. Each tube was provided with a thermometer, which
was designated by a number engraved upon it. In A, no metals were
placed ; and the thermometer in this tube consequently gave the change
of temperature which resulted from the heating of the coils by the
passage of the electric current. Subsequently, we devised an arrange-
ment shown in the accompanying figure. Fig. 1 is a section. The
vessel was made of tin with a cylindrical hole in which was placed the

c

- ■ -

\ (

7

IB

i b

ww

s\

l j

glass tube ; and the space b, Fig. 1, around it, was packed with infu-
sorial earth. A current of water entered at C, Fig. 1, and passed out
at D. A represents a section of the coil. This arrangement, however,
was not used ; for we found that, by limiting the exjjeriments to a
short time, no appreciable error resulted from the heating of the coils
themselves. Our object was only to observe the rise of temperature
in a given time, that of one minute. In the following table, the
temperature readings in Centigrade degrees are given from the tubes
placed in the coils A, B, and C. At the head of the columns B and C
are placed the names of the metals employed. The temperatures were
taken before and after the experiments.

1)

Water.
A

Cobalt.
B

Iron.
C

c

Before.

0

After.

Diff.

C

Before.

After.

Diff.

C

Before.

°

After.

Diff.

16.33

16.33

0

16.61

22.97

6.36

16.56

23.40

6.84

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

117

Resistance of the circuit, 2.64 ohms.

Current in Vebers, before metals were placed in coils . . 23.57
after „ „ . . 19.20

Difference 4.37

Mechanical equivalent = 5144.2 metre grammes.

No. of reversals of magnetization per minute .... 5844

(2)

Water.

Cobalt.

Nickel.

c

Before.

0
After.

Diff.

C

Before.

0
After.

Diff.

C

Before.

After.

Diff.

16.14

17.04

.90

16.56

23.45

6.89

16.61

21.08

4.47

Resistance of circuit, 2.64 ohms.

Current in Vebers, before metals were placed in coils . . 24.54
„ after „ „ . . 21.34

Difference 3.20

Mechanical equivalent = 2758.5 metre grammes.
No. of reversals of magnetization per minute

5904

(3)

Water.

Iron.

c

Before.

After.

Difference.

C

Before.

°

After.

Difference.

16.14

17.04

.90

18.51

26.35

7.84

Resistance of circuit, 2.64 ohms.

Current in Vebers, before metals were placed in coils . . 24.544
„ after „ „ . . 21.715

Difference 28.29

Mechanical equivalent == 2112. metre grammes.

No. of reversals of magnetization per minute 5700

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

(4) Water. Cobalt.

c

Before.

°

After.

Difference.

C

Before.

After.

Difference.

16.33

18.51

2.18

18.51

26.35

7.84

Resistance of circuit, 2.64 ohms.

Current in Vebers, before metal was placed in coil .
„ alter „ ,, .

Difference

23.97
21.715

Mechanical equivalent = 1363.1 metre grammes.
No. of reversals of magnetization per minute . .

2.255

5880

(5)

Water.

Nickel.

Steel.

c

Before.

After.

Diff.

C
• Before.

°
After.

Diff.

C

Before.

After.

Diff.

16.14

16.80

.66

16.86

21.60

4.74

17.04

28.02

10.98

Resistance of circuit, 2.64 ohms.

Current in Vebers, before metals were placed in coils . . 24.355
after „ „ . . 20.208

Difference 4.147

Mechanical equivalent = 4528.3 metre grammes.

No. of reversals of magnetization per minute 5784

Practically, the same result was given when a bar of steel was sub-
stituted for the iron.

(6)

Water.

Nickel.

c

Before.

o

After.

Difference.

C

Before.

After.

Difference.

16.80

19.22

2.42

16.56

21.79

5.23

Resistance of circuit, 2.64 ohms.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

119

Current in Vebers, before metals were placed in coils . . 24.1G9
after „ „ . . 22.848

Difference 8.321

5808

Mechanical equivalent = 455.2 metre grammes.
No. of reversals of magnetization per minute . .

The following table exhibits the work done, expressed in metre
grammes, in magnetizing and demagnetizing equal volumes of the
metals in one minute : —

Metals.

Metre grammes.

No. of reversals in one
minute.

Cobalt ....

2112.
1363.1

455.2
5144.2
2758.5
4528.3

5,700
5,880
5,808
5,844
5,904
5,784

Nickel ....

Cobalt and Iron
Cobalt and Nickel
Nickel and Steel

The electrical measurements contained in the above tables consisted
in deducing the current in Vebers from the deflections of the mova-
ble coil of the electrodynamometer, which was placed in the magnetic
meridian. The expression for the current is

c

■V

Gg

tan d

Where F is directive force of bifilar suspension.

G and g constants of fixed and movable coils.

F
In the instrument used, the value of — was 10.4

The resistance of the circuit was measured as accurately as possible.
The variations in the current were undoubtedly due to the heating of
the machine itself. It was to be regretted that we were not enabled
to measure the resistance of the circuit more accurately. This was
impossible, under the conditions of the experiments. The mechanical
equivalent of the current consumed in heating the metals was deduced
from the expression

W— work = C2fit.

The current 1 Veber in a conductor of resistance one ohm =

711771 lllQTt

1.000000 X 106 -r- • Which reduced to the unit of work is equal

sec2

1.000000 X 106

to

9800 X 10«

= 102. metre grammes.

120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The analyses of the cobalt and nickel were as follows : —

Nickel 1. 3.1328 grammes gave 0.0115 gramme Fe203.

0.0115 gramme Fe2Os = .00805- Fe = 0.256 %.

Nickel 2. 4.3002 grammes gave 0.0178 gramme Fe203.

0.0178 gramme Fe203 = 0.01246 Fe = 0.289 %.

Cobalt 1. 4.2264 grammes gave 0.0492 gramme Fe203.

0.0492 gramme Fe203 = 0.03444 gramme Fe2 = 0.814 %.

Cobalt 2. 4.5606 grammes gave 0.0358 gramme Fe203.

0.0358 gramme Fe208 = 0.02506 gramme Fe = 0.55 %.

Cobalt 3. 3.3940 grammes gave 0.1091 gramme Ni 0.

0.1091 gramme Ni O = 0.08571 gramme Ni = 2.52 %.

The weight of bar of cobalt was 1 63 grammes approximate.
„ „ nickel „ 159 grammes approximate.

The bars of nickel, cobalt, iron, and steel, all emitted loud musi-
cal notes while in the process of being maguetized and demagnetized,
the note emitted by the iron being the loudest. These notes could
easily be heard two hundred feet away from the bars.

Among the papers published on the magnetic metals is one by
Professor Barrett of the Royal Cullege of Science, Dublin, which is
entitled " The Molecular Changes that accompany the Magnetization
of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt." After giving a resume of what has
been written on this subject, the author remarks : " Nickel is invaria-
bly ranked above cobalt in the scale of magnetic metals, Faraday and
others placing it next to soft iron. But the bar of nickel I have used,
when submitted to the same magnetizing current as the cobalt bar,
exhibits far less portative force than the cobalt. It is remarkable that
the iron impurity contained in the cobalt is able to produce so power-
ful an influence. The nickel, like other specimens I have met with,
has a very slight retentive power when magnetized ; whereas, the cobalt
has a high degree of coercive force."

It appears from our result that it is not the iron in the cobalt
which produces the high amount of molecular heating noticed by us ;
for the chemical analyses showed an amount of iron which would be
inappreciable in the electrodynamic experiments.

The following table, for which we are indebted to a paper by Pro-
fessor W. F. Barrett, published in the London " Philosophical Maga-
zine," 1873, Vol. XLVI. page 478, exhibits the relationship of the
magnetic metals : —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

121

Sub-
stance.

Den-
sity.
Wa-
ter
= 1.

Atomic
Weight
H = 1.

Specific

Heat.

Water

= 1.

Atomic
Heat.

Dilatation

Conductibility

Tenacity

and
Melting
Point.

by

Heat.

by
Strain.

for
heat.
Silver.

= 1.

for
sound.
Air =1.

Iron . .
Nickel
Cobalt

7.8
8.3
8.5

56.0

58.5
58.5

0.1138
0.1091
0.1070

6.38
6.33
6.26

.0926
.0899
.0981

.0387
.0394
.0436

.168
.131
.172

15.3
14.9
14.2

Very high.

Our results show that in regard to molecular heating, so to speak, by
magnetizing and demagnetizing, cobalt stands very close to iron, while
nickel is far removed from it.

Eecapitulation.

1. It appears from the preceding experiment that the rapid magneti-
zation and demagnetization of iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, is accom-
panied' by a marked rise in temperature.

2. Under the same conditions, this rise in temperature is greatest for
iron and least for nickel.

3. The rise in temperature of cobalt in some cases may be as much as
that of an equal volume of iron.

4. The rise in temperature of the magnetic metals submitted to this
process is accompanied by a marked increase of work done by the
electrical circuit, which can be readily measured by an electrodyna-
mometer.

5. The magnetic metals submitted to the above process severally
emit loud musical notes, which rank in the following order : iron,
cobalt, and nickel.

122 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Investigations on Light and Heat, made and published wholly or in part with
appropriation from the Rumfoed Fund.

IX.

METHODS OF MEASURING ELECTRIC CURRENTS OF GREAT
STRENGTH; TOGETHER WITH A COMPARISON OF THE
WILDE, THE GRAMME, AND THE SIEMEN'S MACHINES.

By John Trowbridge, Harvard University.
Presented, Oct. 9th, 1878.

The measurement of electric currents of great strength can be classed
under four heads: No. 1. The Galvanometric Method. No. 2. The
Electrometer Method. No. 3. The Heat Method. No. 4. The Elec-
trodynamometer Method.

No. 1. The Galvanometric Method.

With a galvanometer of small resistance and of large radius, it is
necessary to bring the deflection to the neighborhood of 45° by means
of a shunt of very small resistance. The errors increase when the
deflections exceed 45° in a divided circuit, and, by the use of a shunt
of small resistance, any error in the measurement of this small resis-
tance multiplies the whole observation by this error.

By the use of a cosine galvanometer which I devised in 1871, and
published in the " American Journal for Science" for that year, the use
of shunts can be modified ; but there are difficulties from the dip of the
needle and from want of accuracy in graduations of the circle which
measures the deflection of the moving coil from the vertical plane.

In practice, it is very inconvenient to find a suitable shunt which
will answer for a wide range of experiments, and different shunts have
to be used. Moreover, the heating of the shunt multiplies the obser-
vations by an error. In short, by the use of a shunt method, we
measure a large quantity by observations upon a hundredth or a thou-
sandth part of itself, and proceed from a small quantity to a large one
which is a fundamentally defective method.

No. 2. The Electrometer Method.
By means of a suitable electrometer, the difference of potential of
two points in a closed circuit can be measured ; and, from this, the elec-
tromotive force in volts can be estimated. The difficulty of dealing

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 123

with static electricity in electrical measurements is well known. Leak-
age, want of constancy of charge in the electrometer, nay, impossi-
bility of maintaining a charge in certain localities, limit the use of
this method, even if the results obtained were not approximate.

No. 3. Heat Method.

By the use of the law that the heat developed in a circuit is ex-
pressed by H = C2Rt, where C is current in Vebers, R = resistance,
t = time, we can deduce G by measuring the rise of temperature of
a given volume of water. Measurements of temperature are especially
fraught with difficulties on account of conduction, radiation, and errors
of thermometers, beside consuming time in waiting for the proper con-
ditions for a given experiment.

No. 4. 77ie Electro dynamometer Method.

The principle of Webers' electrodynamometer is well known. The
electric current passes down one wire of the bifilar suspension of a
movable coil and up the other, and then through fixed coils surround-
ing the movable coil. Maxwell, in his " Electricity and Magnetism,"
Vol. II. p. 332, remarks : " Webers' form of the electrodynamometer,
in which one coil is suspended within another, and is acted on by a
couple tending to turn it about a vertical axis, is probably the best
fitted for absolute measurements." With powerful currents, however,
it is necessary to shunt this instrument, and the errors inherent in this
method are introduced. Even with moderate currents, the directive
force of the bifilar suspension is changed by the elongation of the
wire from a rise in temperature. If we keep within the point at
which the wires are elongated, the deflections are slight and subject to
error of observation.

In working with dynamo-electric machines, it is important that we
should avoid the method of shunts ; for the entire resistance of the cir-
cuit is generally of the same order of magnitude as the shunts employed.
It is necessary that we measure the whole strength of the current
directly at the same time that we measure the work consumed in driv-
ing the dynamo-electric machine, the velocity of the machine, and the
resistance of the circuit. It is also important to eliminate local attrac-
tions. The time consumed in measuring the current strength should
be small.

The instrument described in this paper fulfilled the conditions
prescribed.

Fig. 1 shows the general aspect of the apparatus. The large fixed
coils were made of copper bands, 35 mm. broad and 1 mm. thick.

124

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Fig. 1.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

125

/

Fig. 2.

126 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

There were twelve coils, six on each side of the movable coil which is
shown with its suspension between them. The large coils were insu-
lated from each other by vulcanite washers, and held together by brass
rivets which were insulated by vulcanite cylinders. The coils were
placed at a distance apart equal to their thickness, and thus allowed
currents of air to pass freely between them. This arrangement is
shown at I, Fig. 2. The bifilar suspension is connected with a gradu-
ated circle which read by means of verniers to one minute. The tan-
gent and clamping screws of the torsion head are not shown in the
figure. The general arrangement was similar to that used by Mr.
Latimer Clark, and figured in Maxwell's " Electricity," with the
exception that the graduation was not upon a cylinder, but was on a
plane, and the graduated circle was such as is used on spectrometers.
The torsion head admitted of vertical adjustment by means of the hol-
low cylinders at its points of sivpport, in addition to the vertical adjust-
ment of the pulley by means of which the tension upon the suspending
threads was equalized. In the ordinary form of electrodynamometer,
the current passes down one suspending wire and up the other. In
my dynamometer, this is not the case, as is shown in Fig. 2. There-
fore, the suspension can be made of strands of silk or any suitable
material, according to the sensitiveness desired. In the actual use
of the instrument with powerful current, it was found necessary to
use steel wire in order to increase the directive force, so great were
the deflections.

The movable parts are best shown in Fig. 2. The construction of
the central coil is shown at D. The water enters at a, passes out at
a after cooling the hollow chamber B, which admits of adjustment,
and then flows by rubber tubing toy*; and, after cooling the mercury
cup E, flows out through f. G is the water-chamber which answers
to B. At n, below the mirror m, is a bar upon which are hung cylin-
drical weights to determine the moment of inertion to alter the sensi-
tiveness. Only one coil and a half are shown in the figure. The
electric current enters at H, passes through the mercury cup to E, then
to C, and thence by the hollow cup to O, and then around the outer
coils.

A telescope with scale was employed to read the deflections ; but it
was found better, in practice, to use the graduated circle of the torsion
head and bring the movable coil back to zero. In this case, we have
from the theory of the electrodynamometer : —

c'2 = yj^ sin d;

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 127

and the effect of the earth and local attraction are eliminated. By
this method of observation, no telescope and scale are needed. It is
only necessary to bring the point of the bar which passes through the
movable coil to a fixed point. The mercury iu the pivot cups serves
to dampen the vibrations of the movable part of the apparatus ; and
it was found that readings could be taken quicker than by galvano-
metric methods.

Theory of Instrument.
("Maxwell's Electricity," Vol. II. page 329.)

™ F tan 0.

G1 =■

Gg cos /3.
Where

G = current.

F = directive force.

G and g =■ constants of fixed and movable coils.

8 = angle of coil with magnetic meridian.

If the torsion head of the instrument can be adjusted so that the
deflection is zero, and d = — 8

F

we have G2 = — sin 8.

The value of F was determined by several methods. Since

Ft2 = n2A,

where t is time of vibration,
and A = moment of inertia,

it is necessary to determine both the time of swing and the inertia.
The times of swinging were obtained by means of a chronograph upon
which seconds were recorded by the side of the records produced by
breaking an electric circuit at the instant the movable coil passed the
middle of its vibrations. The moment of inertia was first determined
experimentally by adding known cylindrical weights, and determining
the new time of vibration.
We thus have

-4-*((l + «,tl._-|i)

and k = w ( I'2 -f- -- )

where k = moment of inertia of added cylindrical weights ; w =
weight of cylinders in milligrammes ; I = distance of point of suspen-

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

sion of cylinders from axis ; r = radius of cylinders ; and w, mass of
moving parts before w was added. The dimensions being in milli-
metres.

From these expressions, we obtain

TT2k

The constants G and g were calculated from the actual measure-
ments of the coils, which could be made with great accuracy, since all
the parts were large.

The constants were as follows : —

mean radius r = 153.3 mm.
Gg = 1631.45

^ = 656.626.

The constant was also determined by the running the same current
through the electrodynamometer and a tangent galvanometer of one
turn of copper wire, whose radius was r and whose constant was

equal to - — •

2/17T

T . . ~2 r*T2 . ia F . ,F r*T* tan20

In this case Cz = , ., „ tan*1 a = ^- sm qp, and tt- = . „ , • - — ,

4«-ir- h,fj x (jg in'Tr* sin <£'

where T= horizontal form of earth's magnetism.
r = radius of galvanometer coil.
6 = deflection of galvanometer,
qp = deflection of electrodynamometer.

The result obtained in this way closely agreed with that obtained by
the previous method.

No difficulty was experienced from the heating produced by currents
of even eighty vebers, when the current was allowed to run for a long
period through the instrument; as long as the stream of water was
maintained around the mercury cups, even a small immersion of the
points of the axis of the movable part of the instrument did not result
in heating. By this instrument, therefore, the whole current could be
measured without shunting. At first, the metal pivots which dipped
into the mercury were tipped with aluminum ; but, when a strong cur-
rent passed through them, the mercury was disturbed by an apparent
ebullition, and the mercury speedily was covered with a black deposit.
It was found that copper points would answer perfectly well. Dis-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 129

tilled mercury was used in all cases : it answered the double purpose
of conducting the current and bringing the vibrations quickly to rest.

Through the courtesy of Captain Breese, U. S. N., in charge of the
U. S. Torpedo Station at Newport, R. L, who obtained permission
for me to use the dynamo-electric engines at that place, I was enabled
to make a series of measurements with the dynamometer described
above.

The resistances used consisted of large bands of german silver, each
in the neighborhood of tXq of an ohm resistance. The foot-pounds
of work consumed were measured by a Batchelder's dynamometer,*
which is fully described in Dingler's " Polytechnic Journal," 1844,
Vol. II. This dynamometer is not suitable for the measurement of
small or great horse-power ; but it answered very well in the limits of
velocities and horse-powers to which I confined myself. An accurate
measure of the work consumed in running a dynamo-electric machine
upon a closed circuit would require the use of gearing instead of belt-
ing ; for it is difficult to estimate the slip of the belting. On account
of the error introduced from this latter-mentioned clause, I have given
the whole work required to run each machine on a closed circuit.
The slip on an open circuit would be small, but on a closed circuit
might be very large. The machines were run under the same condi-
tions of shafting and pulleys. It was estimated that the Siemens
required 0.031 horse-power on an open circuit, and the Gramme
0.206 to 0.328 horse-power. The term efficiency denotes the ratio of
the equivalent in metre grammes of the current produced to the metre
grammes consumed in running the dynamo-electric machine. Since
one veber through one ohm

105

the work w = C2Et = (10 ~2)2 X 107 = 103 = 1000 units of work,
and dividing by the unit employed we have

equivalent of 1 Veber =102 metre grammes,
one foot-pound =138 metre grammes.

* Eor which I am indebted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 9

130

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Wilde Machine (large size).

Resistance of

Current in Ve-

Speed of machine

Metre grammes

Equivalent of
current in metre
grammes per sec.

circuit in ohms.

bers per sec.

per rmn.

consumed per sec.

.594

62.33

548

350.658

235.480

.733

61.76

508

392.403

285.293

.857

43.82

532

283.107

167.907

.907

60.25

500

453.123

335-966

1.039

39.28

520

298.356

163.682

1.120

43.44

548

343.827

215.660

1.241

50.43

504

542.685

322.047

1.453

44.94

520

553.311

309.658

1.503

47.51

536

638.765

366.910

2.305

32.86

528

643.632

253.968

The measurements with the Wilde machine were made with an elec-
trodynamometer similar to that described in Maxwell's " Electricity and
Magnetism." It was constructed on the Helmholtz Gaugain principle,
and had a resistance of 58.9 ohms. A shunt of .1 ohm had to be
employed, and the instrument was also coupled in multiple arc to
avoid the lengthening of the bifilar suspension.

Gramme Machine (large size).

Resistance of cir-
cuit in ohms.

Current in
Vebera per sec.

No. of revolu-
tions of arma-
ture per min.

Metre grammes
consumed per sec.

Equivalent of
current in metre
grammes per sec.

.675
.760
.781

86.0
75.6
75.6

432
462
452

589.743
534.336
607.200

509.418
442.211
455.377

Siemens Machine (large size).

Resistance of cir-
cuit in ohms.

Current in
Vebers per sec.

No. of revolu-
tions of arma-
ture per min.

Metre grammes
consumed per sec.

Equivalent of
current in metre
grammes per sec.

.973
1.055
1.066

79.8
68.8
66.0

264.
294.5

325.

831.105
743.820
839.454

632.255

509.569

. 472.805

I add a few data in regard to the dimensions of these machines,
which are partly taken from the reports of the Secretary of the Navy
for 1877, and partly from the Station records which were generously
placed at my disposal.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 131

The Gramme Machine. — This machine weighs about 2,700 pounds,
stands 30" high, is 40" long and 34" wide. It is driven by a pulley
15" in diameter. The armature moves with very little friction. The
field of force coils are flat, and there are four of these, each about 10"
long, 3-f" deep, and 22" wide. The armature resistance is 0.129 ohms,
the field resistance 0.212 ohms; thus making .341 ohms for the total
internal resistance. The total weight of wire in the machine is 483
pounds ; or the weight of wire is nearly 18 per cent of the total
weight of the machine.

Siemens Machine, or Heffner von Altenek Machine, built by the
Siemens Bros. This machine is 61" in length, 28" in breadth, and
12" in height. The armature is nearly 34" long, and 9^" external
diameter. It is formed by winding 98 pounds of two insulated wires
longitudinally, and in eight divisions, around a thin and hollow brass
cylinder. Within this hollow cylinder is a hollow stationary cylinder
of cast iron, supported by bearings that pass through the brass cylin-
der. The commutator has eight divisions, which are eight sector-
shaped sheets of brass insulated from, but attached to, the face of a
plate which is outside of one of the bearings of the brass cylinder.
Two collectors or brushes trail upon and press against these sectors :
these brushes have a bearing so extensive as to short circuit or bridge
over the edge of two sectors. The spark of the commutator is quite
insignificant. This machine differs from all others in this respect : the
armature simply moves a wire through a field of force, and not a soft
iron core covered with wire. The resistance of the entire circuit, field
of force, connected for conductivity, is .586 ohms. The normal veloc-
ity of machine is from 370 to 380 revolutions per minute.

Wilde Machine. — " This resembles, in some respect, the Hjorth
machine of 1855, with the permanent magnet omitted. It has two
armature circuits : one with current uniform in direction for the pur-
pose of maintaining the magnetism of the field ; and the other for pro-
ducing the electric light. The current from this last circuit is a to
and fro current, without commutator.

" The armature wire weighs 28 pounds, and is divided into two cir-
cuits ; about 7 pounds of it having a resistance of .454 ohms furnishes
the current which maintains the field. The remainder, 21 pounds,
having a resistance of .074 ohms, maintains the to and fro current.
About 325 pounds of wire are distributed in 24 coils to make up the
electro-magnetic field which has a resistance of 2.83 ohms. These coils
are 10|" in length and 3£" in external diameter, having soft round
cores 2" in diameter. There are 24 armature cores and coils, one half

132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

on each side of a central cast-iron wheel li" thick. The central diam-
eter of this wheel is 18" nearly. The whole weight of wire in this
machine is nearly 354 pounds." The normal velocity of machine is
about 600 revolutions. A greater rate of speed would have increased,
to a certain extent, the currents produced by the Siemens and the
Gramme machines : on the other hand, more horse-power would have
been necessary to attain this increased speed. The Wilde machine
requires more horse-power to run it, as the resistance of the outside
circuit increases. This is due to the construction of the machine, and
is not the case with the Siemens and the Gramme machine. A cer-
tain proportion between the resistance of the machine and that of the
outside circuit is undoubtedly best for greatest efficiency of dynamo-
electric machines ; and a certain velocity is necessary to attain the
greatest efficiency.

From my experiments, I should class the machines as follows : —

Gramme,
Siemens,
Wilde.

Theoretically, the Siemens machine should give the best results. At
the time of my experiments, the Siemens machine suffered the disad-
vantage of being run at a less rate of speed than the other machines.

I hope to pursue these tests under conditions resulting from higher
speed. Generally speaking, that machine is the best which gives the
greatest efficiency at low rates of speed ; for the necessity of high
speed introduces much that is detrimental to the locality of the machine
and to the machine itself. At the present time, alternating machines
are coming into notice again, in connection with electric lighting;
and a suitable electrodynamorneter is desirable in the measurement of
the current produced by these machines. The instrument which I
have tested above seems to fulfil the proper conditions.

My thanks are due to the officers of the station for their generous
assistance and free disposal of the resources of their electrical depart-
ment.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 133

X.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEW SPECIES OF NORTH
AMERICAN MOSSES.

By Leo Lesquereux and Thomas P. James.
(With a Supplement by W. P. Schimper.)

Presented February 12th, 1879.

The new species of mosses here described have been received by us
from various sources since the death of Mr. Sullivant and the publi-
cation of the SujDplement to the Icones Muscorum. On a recent
visit by Mr. James to Europe, he took with him not only specimens
of these species, but also of many of those recently described as new
in the scientific periodicals of this country, for the purpose of criti-
cally re-examining the whole in co-operation with Professor W. P.
Schimper, of Strasburg. This justly celebrated bryologist has cor-
dially given his assistance in this review, and therefore secured to
the description of our species a higher degree of authority. Our
grateful acknowledgments are most cordially offered to him for this
service, and also for the communication of the descriptions of some
new species of American mosses prepared by himself on specimens
derived from the rich and mixed materials of the well-known col-
lections of Drummond.

Sphagnum Garberi. Planta magnitudine et habitu inter Sphag-
num molle et Sphagnum squarrosum, var. squarrulosum, ludens, viridis.
Caulis mollissimus : indusium corticale e stratis 3 cellularum laxarum
compositum ; cylindrum internum e cellulis extus minutis intus majo-
ribus leptodermicis omnibus hyalinis compositum.

Folia caulina mediocriter magna deltoideo-ovata, apice subcucullata
et subintegra, ad angulos appendiculata integra ; cellulis omnibus hya-
linis majoribus, versus marginem vix angustatis, basin versus parce
fibrosis nee porosis, ad apicem fibrosis et pertusis. Ramuli patentes
breves vix incurvati squarroso-foliosi, penduli parum elongati imbri-
cato-foliosi. Folia ramulorum patentium e basi concava imbricante
patula valde concava, apice truncato dentata, haud marginata, cellulis

134 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

majoribus valde fibrosis, cellulis chlorophyllosis perangustis paulum
versus dorsum dispositis omnino vel fere obvelatis poris nurnerosis.

Flores dioici. Perichastium haud vaginans ; folia ascendeudo
majora, subremota, subfalcata, secuuda, elongato-lanceolata, valde con-
cava, pallide viridia, mollia, laxe cellulosa, limbo latiusculo e cellulis
angustis elongatis formato, cellulis hyalinis basilaribus maximis siue
fibris et poris, superioribus fibrosis et parcius porosis ; apice augusto
eroso.

Capsulse in eodem capitulo complures pseudopodio elongato albi-
cante suffultae parvulas, rufo-brannea?. Sporaa luteae magnse.

Hab. Florida (Garber).

In the disposition of the branches, the color of the plant, the serni-
squarrose greenish leaves, and the general facies, this species is similar
to S. humile, Schimp., as described and figured in Sullivant's Icones,
p. 5, tab. 3. Its size is a little smaller, and the capsules longer pedi-
celled and also smaller. This difference is marked, and renders the
species recognizable at first sight. The absence of pores in the
areolae, and the immarginate branch leaves, truncate-dentate at the
apex, are also characters which separate this species from S. humile
and related congeners.

Arciudium LONGiFOLimi. Differt ab Archidio altemifolio planta
tenuiore ; foliis angustioribus, longioribus, anguste e lanceolato subula-
tis ; costa superiorum in subulam laeveru excedente. Antheridia 2 in
foliorum perichsetialium axillis.

Hab. Florida {Garber).

The longer narrow leaves give this moss an aspect far different
from that of A, altemifolium, with which it is distantly comparable.
The capsule and its spores have the same character.

Bruchia flexuosa, Schwaagr. Caulis semiuncialis et longior
pertenuis. Folia inferiora remota, parvula, media sensim longiora,
anguste lanceolato-subulata, e basi erecta patula ; summa in comam
suberectam conferta, e basi ovato-oblonga concava anguste lanceolato-
subulata, summo ajnce leviter serrata ; costa tenui cum vel sub apice
evanida ; rete basilare laxiusculum hexagono-rectangulum superius
angustum.

Flos bisexualis. Capsula in pedicello longiore leniter curvato ob-
longa, longicolla (collo sporangio sequali) in rostellam producta.

Hab. On moist exposed grounds in the Southern States.

Bruchia Sullivanti, Austin. Caulis perbrevis. Folia suberecta,
media e basi brevi-ovata, anguste lanceolata, summa e basi longiore

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 135

peranguste lanceolato-subulata ; costa in foliis mediis sat valida, in
summis ad basin concavani pertenui; reti densiore; foliis omnibus
solidioribus.

Flores monoid, 6 gemrniformes. Capsula brevius pedicellata brevior.

B. flexuosa, Sullivant, Icones Muscomm, p. 22, tab. 13.

Hab. On clayey soil, common.

Bruchia nigricans is separated by Austin on account of a difference
in the color, larger spores, and longer pedicel. The specimens of the
Musci Exsiccati were collected on the top of Eaccoon Mountain, in a
narrow swampy dej^ression, which was filled with typical B. Sullivanti,
as distributed in the Musci Exsiccati under the name of B. flexuosa.
In the centre of the moister portion of this area, the moss was covered
with confervoidal filaments, which blackened the plants and so decom-
posed them that none of all the specimens obtained are entire. We
consider therefore this form, upon which B. nigricans is based, as only
a casual variety.

Bruchia brevicollis. Differt a Bruchia Sullivanti planta mi-
nore graciliore ; foliis pro ratione longioribus, supra basin ad apicem
angustioribus, longe subulatis, subula tota e costa dilatata constituta ;
calyptra majore infra sporangium producta ; collo multo breviore
angustiore ; pedicello recto ; sporis majoribus.

Hab. With B. Sullivanti in South Carolina {RaveneV).

This species and Bruchia Sullivanti, Austin, are generally found
together, and are separated from B. flexuosa, Schwaegr., especially by
the monoecious inflorescence, the shorter pedicel of the capsule, and
the minute spores. The author of B. flexuosa had not mentioned the
inflorescence. The monoecious character of B. Sullivanti was first
recognized by Sullivant, in his specification, and afterwards confirmed
by James, while B. flexuosa is bisexual.

Weisia longiseta. Planta? magnitudine et habitu illis Weisice
viridulce similes.

Folia e basi concava oblonga pallida longe lineali-lanceolata, valde
concava et margine inflexo subtubulosa, acute apiculata, viridia ; costa
valida ad apicem producta ; reti superiore perangusto chlorophylloso,
basilari laxo omniuo hyalino.

Flores dioici ; masculi in eadem planta complures hie illic aggregati
gemrniformes, polyphylli ; antheridia sat numerosa, paraphysata.

Capsula in pedicello longo subunciali pertenui subflexuoso lutescente
subcernua, ovata, minuta, ferruginea, sicca deoperculata sub ore leniter
constricta, longitudinaliter 8-sulcata ; peristomii dentes majusculi, per-

136 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

fecti lineali-lanceolati, seu in linea divisurali usque infra medium lacu-
nosi seu bifidi et regulariter bicrures, subramuloso-papillosi, siccitate
patentes. Sporse majusculae ferrugineae.

Hab. On the ground at Enterprise, Florida (W. L. Foster).

The pale green color of the plants, the long slender yellowish and
often twisted pedicel, the curved capsule, and the large perfect teeth
of the peristome give to this species the appearance of a Dicranum.
It cannot be taken for a variety of Weisia viridula, Brid.

Weisia "Wolfii. Differt a W. longiseta foliis angustioribus pro
ratione longioribus, parte superiore fere exacte tubulosis, humiditate
arcuato-recurvis ; capsula in pedicello breviore longiore oblongo-cylin-
drica, sicca subcyliudrica, hand sulcata nee sub ore coarctata ; peristo-
mii dentibus truncatis.

Flores dioici, ut in W. longiseta ; operculum subulirostrum.

Hab. On the ground ut Canton, Illinois {J. Wolf).

A good species, related to IT. mucronulata, Schimp., in the shape of
its leaves. The capsule is small, rather ovate than cylindrical, the
operculum long-beaked, and the pedicel flexuose or sometimes gen-
iculate.

Ptychomitrium (Xotarisia) pygjoeum. Planta porpusilla, dense
foliosa, olivaceo-viridis. Folia humida patentia, sicca subcirrhata.
solidiuscula, e basi ovali pallida linealia, mutica obscure viridia, medio-
criter concava, lavia ; costa sat longe sub apice evanida ; reticulum
partis superioris chlorophyllo obscuratum perangustum, basilare hya-
linum areolis hexagono-rectangulis achlorophyllosis.

Flores monoici ; masculi in eadem planta complures, secus fem-
ineum vel versus basin dispositi, gemmiformes, fuscescentes ; anthe-
ridiis parvulis eparaphysatis.

Fructus : calyptra magna usque ad capsula? basin producta, fusca ;
capsula in pedicello brevi rufo ovalis, collo tertiam partem sporangii
aequante instructa ; operculum in rostrum subulatum subrectum pro-
ductum ; annulus latus ; peristomii dentes 16 subaequales, basi per
paria confluentes, hie illic tota longitudine connati, lineali-subulati
papillosi, articulationibus parum distihetis rufi.

Hab. Near the Neosho River, Kansas, and at Bolivar, Missouri
(E. Ball).

This species, the smallest of the genus, is distinguished by its minute
size, the structure of its leaves, — areolation obscure in the upper por-
tion and hyaline-hexagonal at the base, — and the marked neck of
the capsule, extending one third its length.

OF AETS AND SCIENCES. 137

Fissidens Garberi. Planta minutula gregaria obliquata corticola.
Folia 4-8 juga, leniter decurva, subelongato-oblonga, superiora quad-
ruplo longiora quam lata, auricula medium circa folium attingente, ala
dorsali instructa, lata, versus basin sensim angustata ; lamina verticalis
parte folii auriculata paululum latior, apice mutica, rarius breviter
acuminata, margine papillis in quacunque cellula marginali binatis
miimtissime crenulata, foliorum vaginulaa circumsitorum marginibus
auriculae e medio ad basin limbo e cellulis majusculis hexagono-rec-
tangulis bi-triseriatis instructis ; rete totius folii caeterum minutum
hexagono-rotundatum distinctum.

Flos terminalis bisexualis.

Capsula in pedicello assurgente longitudinem planta? sequante erecta
vel suberecta ovalis, pallide fuscescens, ore rubro mollis ; peristomii
perfect! dentes e basi integra dense trabeculata rufa bicrures, cruribus
lutescentibus ; operculum magnum rostratum.

Hab. On tbe bark of trees, Florida (Garber).

The plants are mostly simple, rarely dichotomous. This species
in the shape of its leaves resembles F. obtusifolius, Wils., but it is
smaller, the capsule narrower, the operculum beaked, and the areola-
tion rather quadrate than angular-rounded. No. 19 of Wright's
second collection of Cuban Mosses in Sullivant's Herbarium includes
many specimens (which had been examined and figured, but not
named) that correspond with this species, though varying in size,
and found on sticks, bark, and stones, as well as on the ground. As
other Cuban mosses occur in Florida, it is not remarkable that this
species also should have been collected in both localities.

Fissidens Floridanus. Planta semiuncialis et subuncialis e basi
parce ramosa, inferne fusca, superne laste viridis.

Folia e caulis basi ascendendo majora, dense conferta, superiora
lineam fere longa cultriformia, auricula sat longe supra medium pro-
ducta, apice subtiliter suberoso-denticulata, caeterum integra, limbo lati-
usculo pallido circumducta; costa sat valida paulum sub apice evanida;
reticulo minuto, hexagono, in lamina verticali basi et limbo exceptis
angustiore et minus distincto quam in auriculas alis, lamina dorsali ad
folii basin subito fere abrupta, sicca cirrhato-incurva.

Flores monoici ; mascidi in ramulis lateralibus longiusculis termi-
nales ; feminei axillares ad medium caulem dispositi.

Fructus in ramulo perichostiali perbrevi basi radicante ex eodem
caule solitarius, rarius binatus ; folia perichaitialia caulinis pallidiora
laxius texta, auricula latiore dorso usque ad medium anguste alata,

138 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

subito in laminam verticalem brevem exeuntia ; capsula in pedicello
semiunciali vel paulo longiore valido rubello cernua, ovali-oblonga ;
operculo magno longirostro.

Hab. Florida (Garber).

In facies, color, and in the size of the plants, this species is like
the small forms of F. osmundoides, Hedw., to which it is also related
by its monoecious terminal inflorescence. The leaves have about the
same form ; but they are denticulate at the apex, have a reticulation
of minute hexagonal areola?, and the lamina is surrounded with a
large pellucid border. The capsule is also longer, subcylindrical,
and curved.

Cryph^ea pendula. Plantae graciliores laxe pendulae atro-fuscre
superne tantum virentes. Caulis primarius vix ullus brevissimus ;
rami secundarii filiformes, simplices, medio crassiores, apice tantum
divisi ; ramis capillaribus, vel duobus simplicibus elongatis vel plurimis
brevibus, flagellatim dispositis.

Folia siccitate imbricata apicem versus aperta, madefacta squarrosa
patentia, ovata, longius acuminata, dense areolata ; cellulis apicalibus
minutis ovato-angulatis haud vel vix prominulis ; alaribus transverse
elongatis quadrangularibus seriatim distincte dispositis ; costa sub
medio abrupte dissoluta (piandoque basi furcata brevi. Pericluetialia
late ovata, sub apice rotundata, breve acuminata, costa valida vel in
vel sub apice evanida.

Inflorescentia generis.

Capsula ovata, brevissime pedicellata, immersa ; peristomii duplicis
dentibus lineali-lanceolatis ; ciliis filiformibus albidis ; annulo compo-
site ; operculo conico-obtusiusculo ; calyptra conica integerrima.

Hab. Florida {J. D. Smith).

The dark color of the plants, the long flexuous slender filiform
stems, rarely simple, generally forking above the middle or divided
in tufts of flabellate capillary short branches, the form and disposition
of the longer leaves open or recurved at the top, the areolation, the
straight conical operculum, and the entire calyptra are the essential
characters which separate this species from Cryphcea glomerata, to
which it is closely related.

Hypnum "Watsoni. Caulis erectus sat regulariter pinnato-ramu
losus, ramulis approximatis.

Folia hamulato-secunda, parvula, breviuscula, e basi lata ovato-ob-
longa concava lanceolata et recurva plus minus longe anguste acumi-
nata et subulata, margine integro prasprimis versus apicem reflexo,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 139

basi obsolete bicostata ; reticulum pertenue areolis perangustatis bre-
viter vermiculatis in toto folio suba^qualibus.

Flores dioici; perichretium in ramulo perichoetiali perbrevi haud
radicante longum vaginans ; folia perichastialia interna elongato-lan-
ceolata, subulato-acuminata, apice denticulata, tenuissima, pallida,
longitudinaliter plicata, plicis angustis, reticulo laxiore tenuissimo.

Capsula leniter cernua, elongato-subcylindrica, sicca arcuata sub ore
leniter constricta ; operculum oblique rostratum, rostro mutico.

Color totius plantae lutescens et fuscescens. Habitus et modus
crescendi H. Bambergeri.

Hypnum imponens, James in Bot. King Exp. 410.

Hab. On rocks, Bear River Canon, Uinta Mountains, Utab ( Watson,
no. 1474).

Tbis species is comparable at first sigbt to some of tbe varieties of
H. uncinatum, but is different from this and related congeners in its
inflorescence, form, areolation of leaves, &c.

Hypnum Alaskanum. Differt ab H. Schreberi proximo gracilitate
plantos densius et regulariter pinnate ; foliis caulinis minoribus solidi-
oribus, apice minus late rotundatis, margine remote serratis ; reticulo
validiore, areolis totius folii vermicularibus et prreprimis superioribus
angustioribus et brevioribus ; prsesentia paraphylliis multifidis.

Hab. On tbe ground in Alaska ( W. H. Dall).

Distinguished from H. Schreberi by its densely pinnated form ex-
tending the whole length of the stem, also by its broader and slightly
serrated leaves and dark color.

The following descriptions, with remarks on some new American
species, have been communicated by Professor Schimper : —

Ephemerum spinulosum, Schimp. Differt a E. crassinervio, foliis
angustioribus mollissimis versus basin ecostatis, parte superiore costa
instructis lata laxe texta in aristam longam mollem circa circum
hyalino-spinulosam excurrente ; capsular membrana laxius texta.

Hab. Moist clayey grounds and on river-banks.

Schwaegrichen's Phascum crassinervium is a Pennsylvania moss,
and the same as Ephemerum crassinervium of Sullivant's Icones, but
not identical with E. crassinervium, Bryol. Eur., which is Phascum
stenophyllum, Voit (E. stenophyllum, Schimper, Synopsis, second
edition). [There is great difficulty in separating these forms, which
are often found together, and so closely allied by intermediate vari-
ation that it is scarcely possible to decide which of these species is
represented by the specimens. Considering merely the variations in

140 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the leaves, a number of species could be described from single speci-
mens taken separately for examination. L. & J.]

Ststegium erythrostegitjm:, Br. & Sch. Caulescens, parce
ramosum. Folia kuniida patula, sicca cirrhoso-tortilia, e basi ovali
anguste lanceolata, concava, margine infiexa, solide costata ; peri-
chagtialia longiora, angustius acuminata.

Flores monoici ; masculus in innovationibus terminalis, tandem
pseudo-lateralis, gemmiformis, pentaphyllus, antheridiis brevipedicel-
latis, paraphysibus circiter 10 brevioribus.

Capsula immersa, in planta sicca emersa, ovalis ; operculo persis-
tente conico rufulo ; pedicello capsulam requante pallido recto exsic-
catione nonnunquam curvulo.

Phascum crispmu, var. rostellatum, Hooker & Wilson in Drum-
mond's Musci Americani (Southern States), no. 10.

Hab. Near New Orleans.

Orthotrichoi brachytrichum, Schimp. Humile caespitulosum,
coespituli pallescente-virides, aetate fusco-luteo variegati. Planta vix
semiuncialis, ramosa, tenella.

Folia ex ovato et oblongo lanceolata, superiora elongato-linealia,
apiculata, lutescente-viridia, acute carinata, margine subrevoluto-reflexa,
minutissime papillosa, areolis partis superioris parvulis rotundatis,
basilaribus rectangulis hyalinis ; costa angusta sub apice evanida.

Flores monoici ; masculi in ramulis propriis ut in Orth. pallente, in
eodem ramulo complures geuimiformes ; antheridia 8-10 eparaphysata
vel paraphysibus singulis.

Fructus : calyptra pallide straminea apice pilis paucis brevibus
instructa. Capsula in pedicello vaginulam cylindricam nudam tubo
longo auctam asquante supra folia perichaetialia erecta, paulum emer-
gens, unacum collo longiusculo subcylindrico-oblonga, lutescens, striis
luteis siccitate costas efformantibus ; operculum sulphureum convexum
apiculatum ; peristomii dentes 8, parvi, bigeminati, integri, areolis
magnis punctulatis ; cilia 8, dentibus aequilonga, laevia ; membrana
capsularis tenuis, laxe texta, reti subrectangulo tenui in striis paulum
crassiore, stomatibus perpaucis magnis emersis.

0. obtusifolium, Drummond's Musci Americani (Northern States),
no. 157.

Hab. On trees, from Upper Canada to the Rocky Mountains.

Plagiothecium pseudo-Silesiacum, Schimp. Monoicum. Rami
subcomplanato-foliosi, foliis anticis adpressis lateralibus et posticis
patentibus confertis ovatis tenui-acuminatis serratis ecostatis angus-

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 141

tissime rhomboideo-areolatis, perichastialibus imbricatis ovato-lanceo-
latis. Capsula in pedicello recto subunciali obliqua vel iuclinata,
ovali-oblonga, leptoderma, pallide badia, siccitate longitudinaliter
sulcata ; annulo duplici revolubili ; operculo late conico brevi.

Hypnum Silesiacum, Hooker & Wilson in Drurnmond's Musci
Americani (Southern States), no. 111.

Hab. Near St. Louis.

142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Investigations ON Light and Heat, made and published wholly or in part with
appropriation from the Rumford Fund.

XI.

DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT IN THE SPECTRA OF
VARIOUS SOURCES OF RADIATION.

By Wm. W. Jacques, Ph.D.,

Fellow of the Johns Hopkins University.
Presented April 9, 1879.

The following research has had for its object a study of the distri-
bution of heat in the spectra of a variety of substances, each heated
to various temperatures.

Experiments upon the distribution of heat in the sun's spectrum
have already been made by a large number of experimenters, and a
few have measured the heat from some terrestrial sources. The former
class have failed to give us much scientific information, both because
we know so little about our source of radiation, and because we are
so little able to estimate the absorbing effect of our atmosphere upon
the rays that are given out. The latter class have been too limited,
and they are too little comparable with each other. In all of them
there may be detected very considerable errors. In fact, the experi-
ments that have thus far been made have hardly more than served to
guide us in selecting the best methods and apparatus for further
research, and to point out the more important sources of error.

In this research the author has made use of such results as the vari-
ous experimenters upon the distribution of heat in the spectrum, from
the time of Sir W. Herschel down to the present day, have obtained ;
and, profiting by them, has attempted to advance the method one step
further, and to determine some relations between the quantitative
structure of various substances and the distribution of energy in
their spectra, as well as the effects of varying temperature, of lique-
faction, and of chemical change of a source of radiation, upon the
kind of rays it gives out.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 143

The experiments have included a measurement of the distribution
of heat in the spectrum of a platinum wire, heated to various meas-
ured temperatures between a low red and a full white heat, which re-
sulted in the discovery that platinum gives a spectrum in which the
relative distribution of energy is nearly the same for all temperatures
between these limits.

That is, if we represent the intensities of heat at different parts of
the spectrum by ordinates, the curve joining these will have nearly the
same geometrical form, and the same position of the maximum, for all
temperatures of the wire between these limits. The curve of distribu-
tion was then determined at a low red heat, at a bright red, and at
a white heat for the black oxide of copper (CuO), the black oxide
of iron (Fe804), the red oxide of iron (Fe.208), the green oxide of
chromium (Cr203), and the white oxide of aluminium (A1203).

It was found that for each substance the geometrical form of the
curve was nearly independent of the temperature, but that it varied
somewhat with the different substances.

A relation between the molecular weights of these substances and
the forms of the curves, and also a relation between the colors of the
bodies at the ordinary temperatures and the radiations emitted when
heated, appeared in a study of their curves. The effect of the passage
from the solid to the liquid state was studied in the case of CuO,
and it was found that the geometrical form of the curve remained the
same.

The present paper contains a review of the more important ex-
periments that have been made upon this subject, and to these there is
added an account of the author's own experiments.

HISTORICAL.

Previous to the time of Sir Wm. Herschel there had been no really
scientific study of the distribution of heat in the spectrum.

As the results of three very limited and inaccurate series of experi-
ments, by Landriani,* Rochon,f and Senebier,i it was supposed that the
sun's rays of light were accompanied by rays of heat, which were in
general stronger for rays of low than for those of high refrangibility,
but which reached their maximum somewhere in the yellow or orange
rays.

* Ann. der Physik, x.

t Eecueil <Ie Mem. sur la Mec. et Physique, 1783.

J Mem. Pkysico-chemiques, ii. 74.

144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

In 1800 Sir Wm, Herschel published in the Philosophical Trans-
actions a series of experiments on this subject, which were, without
doubt, as accurate as the means at his command would allow, and
which later experiments have amply confirmed.

He allowed the spectrum formed by the passage of the sun's rays
through a glass prism to fall upon a screen, in which there was a slit,
which could be moved to different parts of the spectrum. Behind
this slit he placed a very sensitive thermometer, and, moving the slit
through the spectrum, found that, after successive exposures of ten
minutes each, it rose in the violet l°.l ; in the green, 1°.8 ; in the
red, 3°. 8. Moving the slit still farther and beyond the limits of the
luminous spectrum, he found that on the very border of luminosity
the thermometer stood at 3°.6, and even at a distance of five centi-
meters from this point the reading was 1°.7. In the ultra-violet
there was no effect.

The field having thus been opened, various experimenters took up
the subject, in order to find the form of the curve of distribution, and
the position of maximum heating effect.

Leslie,* in repeating Herschel's experiments with what he claimed
to be a delicate differential thermometer, found, as the experimenters
previous to Herschel had, that the maximum was within the luminous
spectrum, and, in a somewhat severe criticism of Herschel's work, at-
tributed his results to the heating of the inclined plane on which the
thermometers were placed.

Mickle,f in experimenting on the subject, found that the prism
itself became somewhat heated, and concluded that Herschel's appar-
ently anomalous results were due to radiations from the prism.

Englefield^: found, as Herschel had done, that the maximum was in
the ultra-red.

An accurate series of experiments carried out by Wiinsch,§ and a
perhaps still more praiseworthy series, which tended only to confirm
the first, made by Seebeck,|| showed that the form of the curve and
the position of the maximum was largely dependent upon the material
of the prism used, and that Herschel's results were, for the kind of
glass used, entirely correct.

In 1833 Melloni H published in the Ann. de Chimie et de Physique
the results of a very accurate and extended series of experiments on

* Nich. Journ., iv. t Phil. Mag., lxv.

$ Journ. Roy. Inst, 1802. § Gehler's Journ., vi.

|] Abhandl. d. Berl. Akad., 1819. 1" Ann. de Chimie, liii.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 145

the radiation of heat, in which his measurements were made with the
thermopile instead of mercury thermometers.

These researches included a study, made with this instrument, of the
distribution of heat in the spectrum. He found, as Wunsch and
Seebeck had done, that the distribution of heat was dependent upon
the material of the prism used, and that the reason why different
substances gave different spectra was because each possessed an ab-
sorptive power for certain of the heat rays. The selective absorption
of some substances gave rise to sinuosities in the curve of distribution.

There was one substance, however, that he found to be transparent
for all rays, both of light and heat. This was rock-salt. Fluor-spar
he found to be the nearest to approach it in diathermacy. Resuming
the study of the spectrum with prisms of rock-salt and the thermopile,
he found the maximum to be at a distance beyond the red equal to
the distance of the yellow from the same.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1840, Sir John Herschel
published the results of a series of measurements of the distribution
of heat in the spectrum, made by exposing to its rays a thin black-
ened paper, which had been covered with some easily evaporated
liquid. The points of greatest intensity of heat showed themselves
by the greatest evaporation of the liquid. His results were, in gen-
eral, similar to those previously obtained, but, in addition, he claimed
to have discovered lines of discontinuity, similar to the Fraunhofer
lines of the luminous spectrum.

Melloni, in the Comptes Rendus * for the same year, criticises the
results obtained by Herschel, and says that they cannot be regarded
as an accurate measurement of the distribution of heat, because the
blackened paper would not absorb all the rays in the same proportion,
and because its conductibility would extend the evaporation at points
of great to those of low intensity. The lines of discontinuity he
claims to have discovered himself, and to have explained by the selec-
tive absorption of the prism.

In 1858 a research upon the distribution of heat in the sun's
spectrum was made by J. Miiller.f He used prisms of rock-salt and
of glass for obtaining the spectra, and a carefully constructed ther-
mopile and galvanometer for estimating the temperatures. His
experiments included a study of the effects of interposing various
colored solutions in the paths of the rays, and, later, studies of the
effects of using different prisms. With regard to the position of the

* T. xi. t Pogg. Ann., cv.

vol. xiv. (n. s. vi ) 10

146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

maximum, his conclusions were substantially the same as those of
Melloni.

In addition, he made some estimates of the wave-lengths of the
dark parts of the spectrum by means of an empirical formula, derived
from measurements in the luminous spectrum. As a result of these
calculations, he found the wave-length of the limit of the dark spec-
trum to be 0.00183mm\ He admits, however, that this value is very
inexact, and we shall see further on that it can hardly be considered
an approximation, both because the method is so crude, and because
the limit of the spectrum cannot be fixed.

Dissatisfied with his results, he experimented upon the spectrum
from a diffraction grating, in which the elongation of the spectrum is
proportional to the wave-length.

Similar experiments had already been made by Draper,* who
stated as the result of his observations that the distribution of heat
corresponded to the distribution of light and reached its maximum in
the yellow.

Draper's experiments were made with somewhat crude and not very
delicate apparatus, and Miiller, in repeating them with a much more
sensitive thermopile, found, as Draper had done, that the maximum of
the diffraction spectrum fell in the yellow, but he did not find the in-
tensities of heat proportional to the light.

The curve of distribution which he obtained rose very steeply from
the violet to the yellow, and then fell gradually and became insensible
at a point distant from the red equal to three and one half times the
length of the luminous spectrum.

The reason of the non-coincidence of intensity of the luminous
and thermal spectra had been sought by Mellonif (who thought it was
due to a coloration of the crystalline lens), and by Brucke,$ Cima,
Tyndall, and Jansen.

But the most complete research seems to have been carried out by
Franz,§ who published an article upon the diathermacy of the media
of the eye in 1862. In these experiments, he interposed the various
media of the eye, placed between plates of rock-salt, in the path of the
rays, which were afterward dispersed by a rock-sal t prism, and found
that the humors of the eye all absorb the ultra-red rays very largely,
and the luminous rays to a much smaller extent.

He also showed, by measuring the distribution of heat in the sun's

* Phil. Mag., 1857, xiii. 153. t Pogg. Ann., lvi.

t Pogg. Ann., lxv. and lxix. § Pogg. Ann., cxv.

OP AETS AND SCIENCES. 147

spectrum on days of different degrees of clearness, and at different
seasons of the year, that the watery vapor absorbed the non-luminous
rays so largely, and in so different a proportion to the absorption of
the luminous rays, that on two days in August, only nine days apart, the
non-luminous spectrum extended, in one case, only as far beyond the
red as the green was on the other side, and, in the other, a distance
equal to the luminous spectrum. He concluded, from his observa-
tions, that it is not possible to make quantitative studies, if the sun be
used as a source of light, nor if the eye be used in measurements.

Knoblauch* published in 1863 the results of a series of experi-
ments upon the transmission of radiant heat through rock-salt, in
which he studied the effects upon the distribution of heat in the
spectrum. He concluded from his experiments, that prisms of chemi-
cally pure rock-salt allowed rays of heat of all kinds to pass through
in equal proportions ; that the maximum of the solar spectrum found
by such a prisni fell outside the red, and that the distribution of heat
for the luminous part of the spectrum is the same for prisms of rock-
salt and of glass.

Cloudy rock-salt, however, he found, interrupted rays from the sun
more than from an Argand burner, and rays from this burner more
than from a source heated to 100° C. ; and also that, chemically or
mechanically impure rock-salt diffused the light and exercised a selec-
tive absorption. He obtained, also, many other results, which are not,
however, of special interest here.

The next experimenter in this field was Desaines,t who used, as a
source of heat, pieces of lime and platinum heated to incandescence in
a lamp. The prism used was of rock-salt. He found that the
maximum was beyond the red rays, and that water absorbed the
ultra-red. Comparing the spectrum from platinum with that from
the sun, he found that, while the maximum for platinum was l.°15
from the line of no dispersion, for the sun it was 0.°46 at 8 a.m., and
0.°51 at noon.

Lamanskyl explored the sun's spectrum with a very narrow ther-
mopile, and found in the ultra-red spectrum places of low heat, which
he says are similar to the Fraunhofer lines of the luminous spectrum.
But these, as we have seen, had already been noticed by Herschel,
and were attributed by Melloni to the absorption of the prism.

Lamansky, however, finds that, so long as the sun is used as a source
of heat, these lines appear the same for a prism of bisulphide of car-

* Pogg. Ann., cxx. t Comptes Rendus, Ixx.

J Pogg. Ann., cxlvi.

148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

bon as for one of rock-salt, and that when the calcium light was sub-
stituted for the sun they entirely disappeared. These lines, he found,
were in groups, each of which was quite broad. The index of refrac-
tion of the farthest group he estimated at 1.5274.

There are two other series of experiments, brief notices of which
seem to be necessary for the completion of the history of the subject.
That of Tyndall* on the distribution of heat in the spectrum of the
electric light ; and that of Draper,! in which he compares the heat of
equivalent parts of the spectrum.

The experiments of Professor Tyndall were made with exception-
ally fine apparatus, and undoubtedly represent the distribution from
the electric light with considerable accuracy. The curve he obtains is
somewhat symmetrical about its point of maximum, and this maxi-
mum is found at a distance beyond the red about equal to the dis-
tance on the other side of the green. The total length of the invisible
spectrum measured was about twice that of the visible. The ordinates
near this point of maximum he found to be very much greater, com-
pared with those of the luminous spectrum, than those found by
other experimenters. He also experimented upon the effect of intro-
ducing water and various other media in the path of the rays, with
results essentially similar to those we have already seen.

Professor Draper, in his paper, calls attention to the fact, that in
the prismatic spectrum the length of any part is not, as in the diffrac-
tion spectrum, proportional to the differences in wave-length of its
extremes, but is more and more condensed as we go from the violet to
the red.

He supposes this to be the reason of the apparent increase of ther-
mal effect, and shows, by an extended series of experiments, that the
amount of heat between the A line, for which A = 7604, and the point
for which A = 5768, when converged by a concave mirror upon a
thermopile, had nearly the same heating effect as the portion between
A = 5768 and the H2 line, for which A = 3933 ; A = 5768 being the
mean of the other two wave-lengths, and called by him the optical
centre.

From this, he says, " it necessarily follows that in the spectrum any
two equivalent series of undulations will have the same heating power,
no matter what their actual wave-length may be." A conclusion,
however, which we shall see is by no means correct.

* Phil. Trans., 1866. j Am. Jour. Sci., 1872.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 149

In the above historical sketch I have tried to represent, as fairly as
possible, what has been done in the way of measuring the distribution
of heat in the spectrum. Some of the results are undoubtedly quite
wrong, and nearly all of them contain very considerable errors ; but
the experiment is a delicate one, and the results are peculiarly liable
to modification from disturbing causes. The results often vary very
widely, even when obtained by eminent observers and with excellent
apparatus ; the reason being that the unknown conditions of the
problem have been so different.

Though so large a number of researches have been undertaken,
they have all been entirely qualitative. The source of radiation, the
dispersing medium, and the means of measuring the heat in the spec-
trum, have been varied, and the qualitative effects noticed.

The following research has been undertaken with a view to deter-
mining the quantitative relations that may exist between the nature
and the ternj)erature of the source of radiation, on the one hand, and
the geometrical form of the curve of distribution, on the other. A
long and laborious series of preliminary experiments was made, in
addition to a study of those of other experimenters, in order to deter-
mine the nature and magnitude of the disturbing causes. A few
of these may, perhaps, be best referred to here, but the larger num-
ber will appear in an examination of the apparatus, in which the
preventive means also af)pear.

The first difficulty is, of course, the absorption exercised by the
rock-salt lens and prism. Although chemically pure and perfectly
cloudless rock-salt has so little selective absorption as to make it an
unimportant factor in these researches, the slightest deposition of
moisture, or the slightest cloudiness of the material, will exercise a
very decided influence. A deposition of moisture, not noticeable to
the eye, may form a slight coating of brine that will quite materially
alter the form of the curve.

This was a serious cause of error in my preliminary experiments,
and undoubtedly has considerably interfered with other experiment-
ers' results. To prevent this, cloudless rock-salt was chosen in the
first place, and carefully polished with oxide of tin and alcohol before
using. It was afterwards always kept in a perfectly dry atmosphere,
secured by means described later.

The selective absorption of the thermopile was guarded against by
covering the face with carefully deposited camphor-black, — the select-
ive absorption of which must be too small to enter as a factor here, —

150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and using the same coating through all the experiments ; so that such
error as may have been introduced only entered in its differences.

The superposition upon the spectrum of the reflection from the
back of the prism causes a considerable error. This was cut off by a
screen of card-board.

There is another source of error, pointed out to me by Dr. Hastings,
which fortunately was sufficiently small to be neglected here, but
which may prove to be of considerable magnitude in differently
arranged or in more delicate experiments.

If the prism be, as is usually the case, and as was the case in these
experiments, one having equal angles, the part of the ray interiorly
reflected from the second surface upon which the light strikes will be
reflected again from the back and from the first side of the prism, and
when it comes out of the prism will form an undispersed image super-
imposed upon the spectrum.

If the two angles at the back of the prism be denoted by y3 and y,
we have as follows :

Deviation after first interior reflection = 0 = tt — 2 i
" " second " " = 0, = tc — 2 i,

" " third « " =6u — -ir — 2ill

Total deviation = A = 2(9 = 37r — 2 2*

Suppose i = s- — /3 -\- 6,

then %, = 2 /3 — | — 0,

and iu = y — 2 0 + \ + 6

A = 2tt — 2 (/? — y) — 2 6.

Suppose ft = y, and 0 = 0, then A = 2 ir, that is, an image of the
slit is formed on the screen at a point where the ray has minimum
deviation.

For a ray of different refrangibility

= f- {/3 = y} ±e>

and

A = 2 77 qp 2 6.

Hence an image formed by two refractions and three internal reflec-
tions is undispersed.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 151

If the index of refraction = n = 1.54, from Fresnel's formulae, we
have the intensity of the image about ^-J^ of the whole prismatic
image.

If now the area of the curve be greatly larger than the width of the
thermopile slit X maximum ordinate, this superimposed image may be
a considerable cause of error.

The measured spectrum extended over about 140mm-, but the
ordinates were comparatively very small, excepting over about 50mm- ;
so that the curve may be considered very nearly equivalent to a trian-
gle, with altitude h (maximum ordinate), base 50mm-, and the area

The width of the slit was about 5mm-, and we have 5 hmm- to com-
pare with 25 hmm-, or a quotient of £ which is contained in the -gfo
T^ times, i. e. there would be an error of about lef0.

This, however, is within the limits of probable error, and as the
image always fell near the maximum ordinate, it was never noticed in
the experiments. Besides these causes of error there was, at first,
trouble on account of diffuse radiation from the source, heating, and
consequent radiation from the prism, radiation from surrounding
objects, change of temperature of pile, variations of temperature of
the source due to air currents, heating of bodies near the source,
moisture of the air, and many disturbances of the galvanometer used
with the pile, due to change of sensitiveness of the needles and to
changes in the earth's magnetism. But these and other errors have
been avoided in the apparatus to be described.

The source of radiation was a strip of heavy platinum foil, about
15mm- long and lmm- wide, heated by a current of electricity. The ex-
periments on the radiation from platinum were made from this wire
direct, and those from the various other substances by coating the foil
with the substances to be experimented upon ; the heat generated
by the current in the foil being sufficient to raise the substance to
incandescence. The radiations from this wire were focused by means
of a rock-salt lens, and dispersed by a rock-salt prism. A delicate
thermopile was moved through the spectrum thus formed.

On the long table in the centre of the plate was a wooden box
about seven feet long, and of the shape shown in the figure. This
was intended to shield the experiment from outside radiations, and,
besides being closed, was wrapped with woollen cloths during an
experiment.

At S was placed the platinum wire, which was mounted between
two brass rods, W (Fig. 2). These rods were themselves mounted

152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

in a vulcanite frame, and were connected, one with the battery direct
and the other through the tangent galvanometer G, and the variable
resistance R ; c was merely a commutator for reversing the current
through the galvanometer; w' w' (Fig. 1) are two exceedingly fine
platinum wires welded to the main wire, about 8mm- apart, and con-
nected with a second galvanometer, G'. The object of these was to
shunt off a small portion of the current, which, being compared with
the main current, gave a method of determining the temperature of
the large wire : this method will be further described.

The vulcanite frame was enclosed in a box of polished tin, shaped
as shown in the figure. This peculiar shape was intended to reflect
such rays as did not fall directly upon the lens to one side, and finally
to the back, where they were absorbed by the V shaped partition,
behind which was a compartment filled with water.

The current for heating the wire came by means of the wires to,
from a battery of thirty-two Bunsen cells, placed in the room below.
It was measured by the galvanometer, G, placed on a stone pier, and
its strength regulated by a mercury resistance, R.

The part of the current shunted off by the wires w' w' was meas-
ured by a delicate galvanometer, G', also placed on a stone pier. In
this circuit there was a resistance of 1,000 ohms t, and a commutator c'
for reversing the current through the galvanometer.

The rays that were given out by s passed through an opening,
which could be closed, if desired, by the door of double tin, a, fell
upon the rock-salt lens L and the rock-salt prism P, and produced a
spectrum at v b r about 15cm- long. The lens and prism were both
of perfectly transparent cloudless rock-salt. The lens was mounted
in a double tube of brass, for focusing, the distance S L being about
14 inches.

The prism was set on a plane surface, so as to be easily rotated or
moved in any direction. It was set at its angle of minimum deviation
by means of the reflection from the back, which, moving through twice
the angle that the prism was moved, and over an arc whose radius was
the distance from the prism to the pile, some four feet, furnished an
excellent method of setting at the angle of minimum deviation for
any part of the spectrum. After setting, this reflection was cut off by
means of a little screen placed at the corner of the prism.

The thermopile T was covered with camphor lamp-black, and envel-
oped, with the exception of the slit, by a double casing of tin. The
back part of this wras filled with water to absorb the extra rays, and to
keep that face of the pile at a constant temperature. This screen,

OP AKTS AND SCIENCES. 153

with the enveloped pile, was fixed to a slide, b d', so that it could be
moved through the spectrum ; the position of the pile being read off
on a scale at d'. The tin case and pile also had a vertical motion, so
that it could be raised and replaced by a simple slit, which was directly
under the face of the pile. This slit was used in reducing the spec-
trum to that of the sun, by a method to be presently described.

Of course the heat radiated by the wire is very feeble, particularly
after being dispersed by the prism, and we know that even the spec-
trum of the sun is not easy to measure. The ordinary short-coil
Thomson galvanometer, when used with the pile, gave scarcely any
deflection, even at the point of maximum heating effect of the spec-
trum, and in the luminous spectrum it gave no deflection at all.

Accordingly the Thomson galvanometer was modified as follows.
The brass rod and magnet were removed, a hole made in the top,
and a glass tube, about 25cm- long, placed over this. Inside this was
suspended an exceedingly fine silk thread, to the bottom of which was
suspended the needle. It was necessary to form a suspension of this
length, in order to eliminate the viscosity, which, even in a needle as
delicate as the one used, was quite noticeable. The needle was made
of eight small bars, about 8mra- long, lmm- wide, and lmm- thick, placed
four in the centre of the coil, and the other four, with poles reversed,
below the coils. They were as nearly as possible in the same plane,
and the system was found, when adjusted, to be so nearly astatic as to
swing in fifteen seconds. The slight adjustment that was necessary
was made by means of a small magnet, arranged so as to move in any
plane, and placed at the side of the galvanometer at m.

This galvanometer was placed on a stone shelf at G", and its
deflections read off by means of a scale and a spot of light at d. C"
was a commutator for reversing the current through the galvanometer.
This galvanometer was, of course, exceedingly delicate ; the passing
of a finger by the pile was enough to throw the spot of light off the
scale. It was exceedingly sensitive to changes in the earth's magnet-
ism, so much so that on many days no observations could be taken at
all. This, however', was avoided in general by reading on both sides
of the 0 point of the scale, and by making the observations late in
the evening, when the magnetic disturbances were at a minimum. Its
sensitiveness, however, enabled the observer to detect the radiations
of the violet part of the spectrum when the wire was heated to a
white heat.

One great advantage of using so slight heating effects of the pile,
and determining these by a low-resistance galvanometer, is that we

154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

are much more certain that the galvanometer deflections are propor-
tional to the heating effects.

Of course special precautions had to be taken to keep the lens and
prism entirely free from moisture, a thin coating of which, such as
would be deposited from the open air, would entirely vitiate the
results. This was done by making the box one large desiccator, the
bottom being covered completely with lead pans filled with pumice-
stone and sulphuric acid, pans of these being clustered everywhere
about the lens and prism. The lens and prism have now remained
several months in the box with hardly an appreciable change.

Determination of Temperature.

I have described briefly the method of determining the temperature
of the source of heat, but it still remains to describe the process more
in detail, and to give the theory of the method. It was my intention,
in beginning the experiments, to determine the temperature by meas-
uring the variation of resistance of a platinum wire ; but this particular
arrangement of the apparatus was suggested to me by Professor
Rowland.

We have seen that the current from the battery comes through the
wire, which was rather a strip of platinum foil, then through the
tangent galvanometer G, where it may be accurately measured, and
then through the resistance R, where its strength is regulated. By
setting up the cells, so that the internal resistance of the batten was
very small, a constant current was easily obtained.

The two fine shuuting-wires w1 w' took off an exceedingly small
portion of this current, which was measured by the sensitive sine gal-
vanometer G'. The theory of the method is as follows.

Let C = whole current from battery ; G, the current through the
platinum wire ; G", the current through the shunt. Let E, E1, E"
be the corresponding electro-motive forces, and R, R', R" the cor-
responding resistances.

Then O = G— G" E = E" = G" R"

-r,. E> C" R" C"R"
and R'z=^z= C_CII— -Q-

(since G" is very small).

In general, for any value of the resistance of the platinum-wire,
j-, kh sin UR" _ ., , , , „ , . .

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 155

Let Rt be the resistance at some known temperature tt, and Vt and Ui
the known corresponding deflections of the galvanometers, then

R> = kKH^v! = R« 0 + at> + bt' + &C")
For any resistance Ru, we write in the same way :

Ru =

h h sin U„ R"

KUtenV,, = Bo C1 +«*« + H/" + &c-)

From these two equations, by proportion,

or simply,
1 + atu + fc//« + &c. = j^^g (1 .+ « «, + J 1/ + &c.)

If now we know the values of t, and - — ~ for any one case, and

' sin (// J

the coefficients a and b, we may, by simply reading Utl and Vn for

any other current, determine the temperature from this equation.

As, for example, to determine tu we have merely to substitute the
readings of the galvanometers Uu and Vu and solve relatively to tn.

The coefficients a and b have already been determined by Benoist,*
viz.,

a = .002445 b = .000000572

To determine U, and V, for some temperature t„ the wire was sub-
merged in water at that temperature. This, of course, had to be
repeated every time the wire was changed for a new one.

As may be seen upon examination, the theory of the method has
nothing objectionable in it, and its practical accuracy depends upon
the determination of the coefficients a and b. These were carefully
determined by Benoist up to 860° C. For temperatures very much
beyond this, as between 1,000 and 2,000 degrees, there is a liability to
some error. But it is easily seen that the method is vastly superior
to that of determining the temperature by the method of expansion.

Reduction to Sun's Spectrum and Determination of Wave- Lengths.

The image of the spectrum, as formed in the plane of the face of
the pile, could be measured only in terms of divisions of the arbitrary
scale attached to the slide on which the pile was placed. In order to
determine the wave-lengths of the different parts of the spectrum for

* Phil. Mag., April, 1876.

156 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

which the thermal intensities were measured, it was compared with the
sun's spectrum by the following method. The pile was made to slide
up vertically so as to be replaced by the slit beneath it. This slit
could then be moved to different parts of the spectrum, and its posi-
tion read off on the same arbitrary scale as the thermopile. In fact,
the readings for the two would be identical. Behind this slit was
placed the slit of a single prism spectroscope, having a third tube and
a photographed scale. As the pile was moved to different parts of
the luminous spectrum an image of the slit beneath it was formed on
the scale of the small spectroscope and its position could be read off in
terms of the arbitrary scale.

A table was then formed containing in one column the readings of
the thermopile scale, and in the second the corresponding readings of
the spectroscope scale. Then the spectroscope was turned toward the
sun and the positions of the principal Fraunhofer lines read off in
terms of its scale. These readings formed a third column, and it
was easy, by proper interpolation, to determine the position of these
Fraunhofer lines in terms of the thermopile scale.

It now remained to determine the wave-lengths of these lines. This
has already been done with great accuracy by Professor Powell,* and
accordingly his values for these lines were made use of. The wave-
lengths of the non-luminous portion were determined by means of
empirical equations based on observations made in the luminous por
tion of the spectrum. Any considerable extension was, of course,
accompanied with great error.

Some experiments with a diffraction grating are contemplated,
and, if successful, will greatly help in determining the wave-lengths
of the various parts of the curves here given. It must be remem-
bered, however, that these experiments are principally of value in
their relation to each other, and that the absolute determination
of wave-length is therefore of only secondary importance.

Experiments with Platinum.

These experiments consisted of ten final and many other prelimi-
nary series of measurements of the distribution of heat in the spectrum
of a platinum wire when heated to various measured temperatures
between a low red and the point of fusion.

The method of experimenting was as follows. The vulcanite
frame, containing the wire with its shunt, was first submerged in water
of a known temperature, a faint current sent through it, and readings

* Pogg. Ann., lxix.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 157

taken of the tangent and the sine galvanometers ; this last being very
sensitive, and the instrument used for measuring the small shunted
current. This process was necessary every time a new wire was
put in the frame, in order to obtain a constant that entered into the
formula for determining the temperature. It was found necessary to
change the radiating wire a great many times during the experiment,
because of fusion by too strong a current.

The above process being completed, the vulcanite frame was set in
position in the box, and a strong current sent through the wire so as
to make a brilliant luminous spectrum. The pile was then raised so
as to be replaced by the slit, the small spectroscope placed behind
this, and an exploration of the luminous spectrum made.

The pile was then lowered into position, the box carefully closed
and covered with cloths, and left for several hours with the current
cut off, so that everything in the interior might come to the same
temperature. An even temperature being secured, sufficient current
was sent through the wire to bring it to a low red heat, and the ther-
mopile was moved step by step through the entire spectrum, and then
back again ; readings of the galvanometer being taken on both sides
of the 0 at each step. The order of exploring the spectrum was some-
times reversed, sometimes the observations were begun at the middle
and alternated, first to the right and then to the left, until the extremes
were reached, and sometimes the order was from the extremes towards
the middle. The method was thus varied in order to eliminate any
possible error. The exciting current was kept constant during these
measurements by means of the mercury resistance, and readings taken
of both the tangent and sine galvanometers on both sides of the 0.

This series being completed, the temperature was varied and the
experiment repeated ; and so on for any number of temperatures, each
series occupying from two to four hours' time. The results of the
ten series are given in Table I., and are graphically represented by the
curves of Plate II. These curves are each the mean of several
observations, and are sometimes filled out in part from different series,
all being reduced, of course, to the same ordinates and abscissas.
Each curve has been constructed by plotting all the observations upon
which it is founded, and drawing a mean curve through them. The
number of series of measurements that entered into these curves was
fifty-two.

The table shows the co-ordinates of the points of these mean curves.
"With each is given the temperature, and probable error of determina-
tion of a point near the B line. The points near the maximum were,
of course, determined with far greater accuracy.

158

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The experiment is one containing so many errors that it could not
be expected that the experimental curves would be very accurate ;
but the large number of experiments made, on the other hand, give
the mean curve probably with considerable accuracy.

An inspection of Plate II. shows us at once the important fact,
that, though the temperature varies very considerably, the geometrical
form remains very nearly, if not exactly, the same.

Of course it is quite possible that further and more delicate experi-
ments may show slight variations in the form of this curve.

In fact, it is well known from the experiments of a large number of
experimenters, and, indeed, from the change of color of the light as
the temperature of a source of radiation is raised, that the geometrical
form of the curve cannot be entirely independent of the temperature.

But such phenomena might easily be caused by variations too
delicate to be detected by the thermopile.

TABLE I.

Oct. 8.

Nov. 7.

Sept. 27.

Oct. 9.

Oct. 8.

Nov. 7.

Nov. 6.

Sept.28.

Oct. 8.

Nov. 7.

5

I11

to
£ II

I II

o O

eg ■

8 II

1 ii

1 II

to

c °

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o ■

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00 II

„ -ti
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S II

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Eh ft

H ft

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b< ft

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EHft

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2

.06

.14

.IS

.24

.30

.34

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.07

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.22

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.38

.40

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.06

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61

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3.26

2.57

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2.60

1.60

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1.72

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1.53

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91

.28

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1.92

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10

.16

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.09

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11

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B line 11.15

D line 12.45

E line 14.35

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

159

Experiments with Black Oxide of Copper (CuO).

The experiments with platinum having shown the curve of radiation
to be independent of the temperature, it became desirable to see how
it might be affected by using different substances as sources of radia-
tion, and whether it is also true of other substances, that the form of
the curve is independent of the temperature. Accordingly, the spectra
iromjive different substances, varying widely in physical and chemical
properties, have been measured, each at several different temperatures.
The first of these was the black oxide of copper, CuO.

In order to obtain a long and narrow radiating source of this sub-
stance, the platinum wire was coated with a saturated solution of the
nitrate of copper, applied by means of a camel's-hair brush, and then
a current sent through the wire. The red fumes of nitric peroxide
were driven off, leaving a coating of the black oxide, which became
incandescent on further heating. Quite a thick coating was applied in
order to make sure that the radiation came from the oxide, and not
from the platinum.

These curves, the results of eighteen series of measurements, are
given in Plate III. and Table II.

TABLE II.

Red.

Bright
Red.

White.

Red.

Bright
Red.

White.

2

.09

.22

.47

9

1.31

3.26

6.81

2*

.10

.23

94

1.00

2.61

5.19

3

.12

.24

.50

10

.83

2.09

4.07

34

.12

.28

.55

10i

.68

1.61

3.27

4

.16

.32

.65

11

.52

1.23

2.49

H

.20

.40

.80

114

.41

.97

1.98

5

.24

.50

.96

12

.31

.67

1.45

6*

.34

.69

1.28

12J

.24

.55

1.17

6

.40

.83

2.62

13

.16

.44

.90

^

.51

1.01

2.02

134

.09

.33

.76

7

.66

1.37

2.73

14

.06

.26

.62

74

.82

1.87

3.74

14*

.08

.2:]

.51

8

.98

2.51

5.00

15

.08

.19

.42

84

1.20

3.20

6.29

15|

.09

.18

.39

B line 11.15

D line 12.45

E line 14.35

The lower curve represents the distribution at a low red heat, the
second at a low white, and the third at a full white heat. In this last
curve the radiating substance had melted and formed a black viscous

160

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

fluid, which still clung to the wire. It will be seen that the geomet-
rical form of the curve is the same for all of the temperatures, and
even when the substance has been converted into the liquid state.
These curves are the graphically constructed means of the experi-
mental curves, as in Plate II.

TABLE III.

A1203

Cr203

CuO.

Fe304

Pt.

p. e. = .06

p. e. = .07

p. e. = .05

p. e. = .07

p. e. = .04

2

.05

.35

.43

.37

.47

' 2*

.37

.45

.40

3

.07

.42

.49

.46

.52

■H

.47

.55

.49

4

.09

.52

.64

.56

.74

4*

.65

.80

.62

5

.14

1.00

.99

.75

1.05

5*

1.28

.90

6

.37

1.49

1.(34

1.12

1.98

0*

.82

2.52

2.10

1.57

7

1.76

4.44

2.75

2.31

4.48

n

3.1:3

5.7:}

3 75

3.95

6.50

8

6.79

6.97

5.00

5.94

6.64

8*

6.24

6.25

6.58

6.58

9

2.38

4.66

6.50

4.47

3.06

9*

.87

2.85

5.21

1.95

10

.59

1.55

4.11

1.40

1.89

10*

.94

3.31

1.06

n

.40

.78

2.51

.75

1.00

Hi

.65

2.01

.60

12

.32

.58

1.49

.48

.61

12*

.54

1.21

.42

13

.25

.50

.96

.39

.35

13*

.46

.82

.34

14

.16

.41

.us

.31

.26

14*

.37

.58

.30

15

.12

.34

.49

.30

.20

15*

.30

.46

.30

B line 11.23

D line 12.45

E line 13.86

The mean of the eighteen series of experiments is given also in
Plate IV. and Table III. ; all, of course, being reduced to the same
value of the maximum ordinate. In fact, all of the curves of this
plate are reduced in this way for convenience of comparison of their
forms ; their absolute size being unimportant, as no measurements of
temperature were made except in the case of platinum. The curves
are, of course, all reduced to the same sun spectrum, so that any of
their parts are strictly comparable.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 161

Experiments with Black Oxide of Iron (Fe304).

The wire was next coated with the black oxide of iron, which,
though resembling in color the oxide of copper, is very different from
it in chemical composition.

A solution of sulphate was applied with a brush, the volatile
products being driven off by heating, and a coating of the Fe304
formed.

It was found that the form of the curve did not appear to vary
with the temperature, and the mean of four careful series is given in
Plate IV. and Table III., together with the probable error of deter-
mination of a point at the B line.

Experiments with Green Oxide of Chromium (Cr203).

The green oxide of chromium was prepared by coating the wire
with chromic acid, and heating ; the water was thus driven off and the
higher oxides formed.

The resultant curve is shown in Plate IV. and in the accompanying
table.

Experiments with White Oxide of Aluminium (A1203).

The wire was coated by applying a solution of ammonia alum,
which, upon heating, was changed to A1203, the other products being
volatile. The substance thus formed was hard, vitreous, and pure
white.

Nine series of experiments were made at several different tempera-
tures to see that the form of the curve was the same. The mean
result is given in Table III. and Plate IV.

It now remains to see what conclusions may be drawn from a study
of these curves, and a comparison of them with each other.

The curves for platinum show very plainly, and those for the other
substances confirm the conclusion, that the geometrical form is nearly
independent of the temperature.

The study of the radiation from copper oxide enables us to extend
this conclusion to the liquid state, so that we may conclude in general
that the distribution of heat in the spectrum of a solid or liquid source
of radiation is nearly independent of the temperature of the source.

Of course this conclusion can only be accepted within the limits
that the accuracy of the experiments prescribes, and it must be
admitted that further researches of greater delicacy may reveal slight
variations in the form of the curve.
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 11

162

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

In comparing the spectra of the different bodies with each other, we
wish to study the distribution of heat, and not the relative- total
emission. Accordingly, the curves of Plate IV. are all reduced to
approximately the same size. An examination of this plate indicates
a relation which further study may show to be of considerable impor-
tance, though the experiments thus far give hardly more than a hint
of what the relation ia.

If we regard each curve as an irregular triangle, and, starting from
each of the augles, draw lines of symmetry toward the opposite sides,
the point of intersection of these lines, or, if they do not intersect in a
single point, the centre of the small triangle of intersection, may be
regarded as a centre of area.

The wave-lengths of these several centres of area are found to be
related to the molecular weights of the radiating substances.

They are not in exactly the same proportion, but, at least, they are
in the same order, so that the greater molecular weights have the
greater wave-length, and large or small intervals in one quantity are
represented by large or small intervals in the other.

These results appear in Table V., in which the first column gives
the substances, the second the molecular weights, and the third the
wave-lengths of the centres of area. In the fourth column are given
the abscissas of the point in the arbitrary scale adopted in the plates.

TABLE V.

Substances.

Molecular
Weights.

Wave-Lengths
of Centres.

Positions of
Centres.

CuO

AL08

Cr,f>3

Fe,U3

Pt

Fe304

79.4
102.8
152.4
160.0
197.4
232.0

.00096""°-
.00107"""-
.00124mm-
.00126—-
.00137mm-
.00145°""-

9.05
8.50
8.10
8.09
8.04
7.95

It would be useless to attempt the formation of an empirical equa-
tion connecting these quantities, as the experiments so far made are
not sufficiently accurate to warrant it. In fact, in single observations
the centres of area near together are sometimes reversed in order.
Still, the mean curves point out a relation, which could hardly be
accidental for all of the six substances.

The curves are all of so nearly the same form that the distances
between even the extreme geometrical centres is not very great, and

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 163

thus exceedingly delicate experiments will be necessary to determine
the exact relation. Still the intervals are very much larger than the
probable error of the determination of a point, so that we may feel
assured of the discovery of a relation which further experiments will
perhaps determine quantitatively. And we must remember, as in the
other experiments, that these measurements are very small and diffi-
cult to make ; and the relation here indicated may prove, upon exten-
sive examination, to have little or no scientific value. Further and
more delicate experiments upon this point are, however, contemplated.

There is another relation between the curves of Plate IV. that is of
considerable interest in its bearing on the theory of exchanges. If
we compare first the curve of the black substance CuO and the white
substance A1203, we find the part of the former that corresponds to
the luminous spectrum very much fuller than that of the latter ; that
is, the substance that absorbs nearly all the light rays at the ordinary
temperature emits these rays most copiously when heated.

The green oxide of chromium, which is intermediate in color, and
absorbs all but the green rays at the ordinary temperature, is also
intermediate in its curve and emits least of all the green rays when
heated. So the red oxide of iron is intermediate between the black
and the green. But the curves also show us that we are not war-
ranted in extending conclusions, drawn from observations of the
luminous spectrum, to other parts.

In concluding this paper there is a strong temptation to speculate
upon the meaning of the results obtained. That the geometrical form
of the curve should be so nearly the same at all temperatures, and of
the same general form for all substances, is a fact that probably must
have an important physical interpretation. Does not the similarity of
the curves for different substances show a similarity of movement of
the ultimate components of the several substances, and so point to a
similarity of ultimate composition of all matter, the slight differences
in the grouping of these parts giving rise to the comparatively slight
variations from the same form ? Certainly this is not proof, but is it
not evidence ? And is it not probable that the superposition upon the
radiations from the ultimate atoms, of the radiations from the group-
ings of these atoms, should cause the curve, as a whole, to move
slightly to a shorter or longer wave-length, as the weight of a group
is lighter or heavier ? But I am aware that such speculations are
founded on too insufficient data, and I offer these results merely as
an experimental contribution to the science of radiant energy.

164 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XII.

ON THE LIMITS OF ACCURACY IN MEASUREMENTS
WITH THE MICROSCOPE.

By Professok Edward W. Morley, of Western Reserve College.

Presented Oct. 9, 1878.

The following measurements of rulings on glass, by Mr. Rogers, were
made with an objective of two tenths of an inch focus, and a cobweb
micrometer. For a description of the ruled plates the reader is re-
ferred to page 178 of the present volume of the Proceedings. Light
was thrown on the rulings by reflection from clouds : care was taken to
have the light as uniform as possible. Such care is necessary in mak-
ing accurate measurements with a lens of short focus. The screw for
fine adjustment was permitted to be moved only through half a revo-
lution during the measurements. The same parts of the micrometer
screw were used throughout the measurements of a band. The image
of the line ruled on the plate consists of a bright central line, with a
darker line on each side ; the wires of the micrometer were placed on
this central brighter line, and so near its apparent left-hand limit that
the bright line included between the dark wire and the dark border of
the image of the ruled line was the minimum visible quantity, and
was the same for both wires. Care was taken not to look at the index
of the micrometer until the coincidence of the wires was finally estab-
lished ; and also to move the wires a considerable quantity before
making a second measurement, except in perhaps five cases on the
third plate. In two cases the coincidence thus finally established was
re-examined after the reading had been taken, on account of divergence
from a previous result, and in one of these the coincidence was found
to be imperfect. With this exception, the figures given are absolutely
the whole of the measurements on the rulings.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 165

Two bands on the first plate, and one each on the second and third
plates, were measured twice. The probable difference of two measure-
ments of the same interval was found to be one three hundred and
fifty -nine thousandth of an inch ; from which the probable error of
a single measurement may be presumed to be about two millionths of
an inch. It happened that thirty-five of the differences between two
measurements of the same space were less than the probable difference
as computed by the usual formula, and thirty-five were greater.

The measurements on the third plate were more difficult than the
other, partly because the lines were too fine for the easiest work, and
partly on account of fatigue. They are, therefore, less satisfactory
than the measurements on the other plates. The outer lines of some
bands on the second plate were also troublesome, and the results for
two or three not so good as for other spaces.

Mr. Rogers made measurements of the same plates, which he
prepared for publication without knowing my results, but after the
original micrometer readings of my measurements had passed beyond
my control. Of his measurements I know nothing at the time of
writing the following tabular results. By concert with him, my re-
sults are tabulated in the form adopted by him, for ease of compari-
son. My numbers for the spaces measured increase in the direction
of the arrows on the ruled plates, if I have made no mistake, and also
my numbers of the bands. The numbers of the plates are those
written on them by Mr. Rogers. In the third plate I measured only
spaces composed of five of the spaces of one twenty-four hundredth of
an inch as ruled ; the difficulty of the measurement of so faint lines,
as well as the fear of incurring a return of a certain slight difficulty
with one of my eyes, from which recovery was not then complete, led
me thus to abridge this part of the work. It is to be regretted that
this plate was not taken in hand earlier.

The figures in the columns of individual and accumulated errors
represent millionths of an inch composed of twenty-four revolutions
of the screw of Mr. Rogers's ruling engine. But in the case of the
fourth plate they represent hundred-thousandths of a millimetre of a
similar standard.

166

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

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168 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XIII.

ON THE LIMITS OF ACCURACY IN MEASUREMENTS
WITH THE TELESCOPE AND THE MICROSCOPE.

By Professor William A. Rogers.

Presented Oct. 9, 1878.

It is often desirable in astronomical observations to assign to a
given result the degree of precision which the observations will
justify. Usually the limit of precision is defined either by the proba-
ble error of a single observation, or of the mean of a given number of
observations.
Let

x = any given numerical value.
n = the number of values of x.

v = the difference between each value of x and the
arithmetical mean of all the values,
[v] = the sum of the separate residuals, without regard
to sign.
r = the probable error of a single value.
r0 = the probable error of the arithmetical mean.

We shall then have, —

r = .6745y/S
Or, according to Peters, —

(«)

r = .8453 -
rn = .8453

tfm (m — 1)

(*)

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

169

As an illustration, we assume the following values of x, without
defining their signification : —

X

V

V V

II

ii

ii

61.70

+ .05

+ .02

61.50

+ .25

+ .06

60.90

+ .85

+ .72

61.70

+ .05

+ .02

61.30

+ .45

+ .20

61.20

+ .55

+ .30

60.80

+ .95

+ .90

61.90

— .15

+ .02

61.60

+ -15

+ .03

61.50

+ .25

+ .06

62.80

— 1.05

+ 1.10

62.70

— .95

+ .90

60.80

+ .95

+ .90

61.30

+ .45

+ .20

63.00

— 1.25

+ 1.56

61.10

+ .65

-+- .42

63.90

— 2.15

+ 4.62

Mean, 61.75

.585"

From equations (a) we have, —

,=±.C745v/If =

"•=±-67*5VS=±-142"

And from equations (b), —
r

.8453 X 11.15 __ , 571/

^17 X 16
±.8453XU:15=±J39//
17 v/16

If we reject the last value of x, viz. 63".90, we have : —

From («), — //

r = ± .474

r0 = ± .119
From (b), —

r = ± -491

r0 = ± .123

Let us now inquire wha. interpretation can be safely given to these

170 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

values of r and r0, and what conclusions can be drawn therefrom con-
cerning the precision of x.

First, it will be seen that the two formulas do not give pre-
cisely the same results, and the relation between the results is changed
by rejecting one apparently discordant observation. The difference
is, however, insignificant when compared with the actual error of
observation. In general, the agreement will be more perfect the
greater the number of values of x.

Second, it is obvious that if for x we write, a;±a constant, the
values of v will not be thereby changed ; hence the values of r and r0
will give no indication whatever with reference to the existence of any
constant error involved in the values of x.

Admitting, then, that there is no constant error in the given series,
what degree of precision can be assigned to any single value of x, and
to the mean value 61".75 ?

It would hardly seem necessary to call attention to the erroneous
assumption that, since the value of r is ± .57", therefore no single
value can be greater than 62".32, nor less than 61".18; or that since
r0 is ± .14", therefore the value 61".75 is true within this limit. The
refutation of the first assumption is made sufficiently easy by an ex-
amination of the separate values of x, but it is not quite so easy to
show the fallacy of the second.

Notwithstanding the absurdity of attempting to assign to the arith-
metical mean the degree of precision indicated by the value of r0,
observers of limited experiences are continually found doing this, and
the writer recalls two instances in which professional astronomers have
committed themselves to the same fallacy.

In general, it is entirely unsafe to draw conclusions with respect to
the degree of precision to be attached to the arithmetical mean from
the magnitude of the probable error, until the signification of the
values from which it is derived is defined.

If the values of x are found by successive readings of the four
microscopes of a meridian circle for the same position of the telescope,
the sejiarate values are simple functions of the quantity required, and
involve only the accidental errors of the observer, either in making
the bisections of the divisions of the circle, or in reading the index
of the micrometer screws. In this case the probable error of the
mean is a tolerably accurate indication of the degree of precision
which may be attached to it.

But the values of x given, represent the observed index errors of
the meridian circle of Harvard College Observatory, as derived from

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 171

separate fundamental stars, observed January 5, 1872. They are
given on page xxiii., Vol. X., of the Annals of the Observatory. Here
a: is a complex function. It involves not only the error of reading the
microscopes, but several other classes of errors. They may be enu-
merated as follows : —

Errors depend- r (a) Error of reading microscopes,
ing on the -j
observer. I (^) Error of bisection of the star observed, or its equivalent.

' (c) Errors of graduation of the circle, both accidental and sys-
tematic.
Errors depend- (d) Error depending on the micrometer screws of microscopes,
ing on the , (e) Error due to the flexure of the instrument,
instrument. (/) Error due to an imperfect figure of the pivots.

(g) Error resulting from a change in the position of the in-
strument during the observations.

Errors inde-
pendent of

(h) Error resulting from an erroneous place of the funda-
mental star observed.

the observer -| (t) Error depending on the state of the atmosphere, including
and of the the constant of refraction, imperfect thermometers, ba-

instrument. [ rometers, &c.

In this case, then, one must place quite a different interpretation
upon the probable error of the mean value. In fact, the only safe
interpretation that can be given to it, is the one which regards it as a
means of comparing observations made by different observers under
nearly the same conditions and in the same manner.

This subject may be considered in another way. It is a property
of the arithmetical mean that it makes the sum of the squares of the
residuals a minimum. The solution of a greater number of equations
than the unknown quantities which they contain, by the process of
least squares, rests upon the same basis ; viz. that such values must
be given to the unknown quantities as will, when substituted in the
original equations, make the sum of the squares of the residuals a
minimum. Theoretically, any unknown quantity may be made equal
to a constant plus the sum of all the corrections which make up this
quantity. We may always have

X= C + Aa + Bb+Cc + Dd, &c.

The only limit to the number of terms is the one which requires
that the coefficients A, B, C, I), &c. shall be known. The solution of
a series of equations of this form will give the most probable values of
the constant C, and of the unknown quantities a, b, c, d, &c, provided

172 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

a; is a simple function ; but if x is a complex function the solution will
no longer give the true values of the separate unknown quantities,
though it may yield such values as will give the most probable sum of
A a, Bb, G c, Dd, &c, with respect to their effect upon x.

Let us take, as an illustration, the ordinary equation for the reduc-
tion of transit observations. The fundamental equation may be put
under the following variety of forms : —

(a) Q = &T+[T-K.A.]+Aa

(b) =&T+lr-R.A.:]-\-Aa-!rBb

(c) =AT + [T-R.A.:]+Aa-\-Bb + Cc

(d) =AT + [T0-R.A.:]-\-rh-\-Aa + Bb-\-Cc

(e) =AT + lT0-R.AJ] + Th-{-Aa-\-Bb + Cc-\-Dd

(/) =AT + [r0-R.A.0]-f^e-f Th + Aa+ Bb+Cc -\-Dd
(g) =AT + [T0-R.A.0:]-\-Be + th + Aa + Bb + Cc+Dd-\-C

If the level b and the collimation c are obtained independently of
the observations by direct measures, then, neglecting the small terms
which follow, for any time, T, and with the given right ascension,
R. A., the only unknown quantities in equation (a) are the clock
error AT and the azimuth term A a. A solution of a series of
equations of this form will give the most probable individual values
of a and AT.

If the level term B b is unknown, the general equation takes the
form (b). Notwithstanding the fact that the equation is somewhat
more complex in its structure, the solution by least squares will give
the most probable individual values of a and b, if the stars are selected
with reference to a proper distribution of positive and negative values
for A and B.

If the collimation term C c is unknown, the equation takes the form
(c). Here a solution by least squares will not give the most probable
individual values of a, b, and c, unless the observations are arranged
with proper reference both to the magnitude and the sign of A, B,
and G. Even when these precautions are observed, the value of c from
the solution will rarely agree exactly with the value obtained from
reversal or from collimators.

If, for any star, the observed time T is written TQ -\- r h, the term
T h being the hourly rate of the clock multiplied by the interval t
between T and T0, the equation takes the form (d). We now intro-
duce an unknown quantity depending on another instrument, viz. the
clock.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 173

"We may still further introduce the term D c?,, representing the diur-
nal aberration, giving the form (e), and by substituting R. A.0 -}- E e
for R. A. where E e represents a term depending on 2 D , we get
the form (/).

Finally, if we represent by the constant 0 the personal equation
between bright and faint wires, bright and faint stars, &c, we have
the form (g).

Of course it is wholly absurd to introduce the terms D d, E e, and
C as unknown quantities, and these forms are given only to show that
one must exercise sound judgment in the formation of the equations
in order that the solution by least squares shall give correct results.
It is useless to expect that the solution will separate errors which
appertain to different instruments. For example, in form (g) it would
seem hardly necessary to say that the solution will entirely fail in
assigning to the telescope the correct values of a, b, and c ; to the clock,
the true values of AT and x h, to yield the physical constant which
enters into the diurnal aberration, and the coefficient which results
from the variable motion of the moon ; and to refer to the observer the
constant which involves the various forms of personal equation. Yet,
according to the common acceptation of the theory, this form of
the equation is allowable, since all the unknown quantities have
known coefficients.

Again, as soon as the equation involves unknown quantities which
pertain to different instruments, it becomes so complex in its character
that we can no longer assume that even the sum of the terms which
affect AT is the most probable value that can be found, for in so
doing we assume that AT is a constant, whereas the solution requires
it to be a variable.

Let us now inquire how far these views are confirmed by the facts
of observation.

In my own case, the probable error of a single reading of four
microscopes of the meridian circle is ±-094". If, therefore, as many
as 10 observations are obtained, the probable error of the mean will
be not far from ±.03". The probable error of a single difference
between myself and my assistant, Mr. Joseph F. MacCormick, is for
a single reading of four microscopes 4-.125".

The probable error of a single complete observation in declination
is, in my own case, about ±-36", and of the mean of 10 observations
is 4-.ll/7. The probable error of a single complete observation in
right ascension is, for an equational star, ±.0269- and for the mean of
10 observations ±.0088-.

174

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

If, therefore, the probahle error can be taken as a measure of the
accuracy of the observations, there ought to be no difficulty in obtain-
ing, from a moderate number of observations, the right ascension
within .029- and the declination within 0".2. Yet it is doubtful, after
continuous observations in all parts of the world for more than a cen-
tury, if there is a single star in the heavens whose absolute co-
ordinates are known within these limits. In 1866 the illustrious
Argelander proposed a list of stars for simultaneous observation by
different observers, for the purpose of investigating the systematic
differences which he found to exist in all modern catalogues. This
scheme was carried out only to a limited extent. But in 1878 the
fortunate requirements of a special problem secured data which will
go far towards the establishment of the existence of these errors, even
with the present methods of refinement in observation, if indeed
they do not for the present reveal their cause.

During that year Mr. David Gill, recently appointed Director of the
Cape of Good Hope Ohservatory, solicited the co-operation of astron-
omers in determining the co-ordinates of 28 stars, which he used in
his heliometer observations of the planet Mars for obtaining the solar
parallax. The observatories named below made the observations
required, which were forwarded to Mr. Gill upon the completion of
the reductions. The results are published in Vol. XXXIX., page 99,
of the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

In the following table are given the differences between the least
and the greatest results for each star, both in right ascension and in
declination.

Star.

A<*

AS

Star.

Act

AS

Star.

Aa

AS

8.

//

s.

//

s.

//

1

0.189

1.45

10

0.460

2.84

19

0.242

3.14

2

.169

2.04

11

.287

1.77

20

.333

2.70

3

.377

2.63

12

.077

1.74

21

.220

2.16

4

.098

2.57

13

.350

1.80

22

.283

2.31

5

.224

2.04

14

.263

2.34

23

.260

1.77

6

.166

1.86

15

.270

1.80

24

.203

2.78

7

.lit:;

3.47

16

.183

1.86

25

.219

1.62

8

.190

1.93

17

.225

3.47

26

.207

2.06

9

.300

3.15

18

.287

1.37

27
28

.298
.204

2.57
2.47

Even after the observations were reduced to a homogeneous system,
Mr. Gill finds the following outstanding errors : —

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

175

Authority.

An

A5

Authority.

A a

AS

s.

//

s.

//

Konigsberg,

-+•.005

—0.71

Leiden,

—.053

—0.19

Melbourne,

+.026

—0.49

Paris,

+.055

+0.01

Pulkowa,

+.005

+0.36

Washington,

—.120

+0.78

Leipzig,

+.049

+0.40

Harvard College,

—.072

+0.09

Greenwich,

+.009

—0.56

Cordoba,

—.032

—0.20

Berlin,

+.044

+0.67

Oxford,

+.076

+0.21

These systematic discordances, especially in right ascension, are so
alarmingly large that, unless they can be reconciled, the heliometer ob-
servations are comparatively worthless. Mr. Gill, therefore, proposed
a second list of 12 stars, one half comparatively bright and the other
half faint. The observations of these stars are now completed, but
the only series yet at hand, are those of Konigsberg and Harvard
College. Here the discordance is very large, and varies with the mag-
nitude of the star observed. Professor Pickering, the Director of
Harvard College Observatory, early in this investigation, proposed
the artificial reduction of the magnitude of the bright stars by holding
circular diaphragms of varying diameters in front of the object-glass
of the telescope. By alternating between bright and faint images of
the same star, on different groups of the transit threads, the personal
equation between bright and faint stars can be found. This plan was
followed in the investigation at Harvard College Observatory, at
Leiden, and probably at some other observatories. At Harvard Col-
lege Observatory, also, a sensible difference was found between results
obtained with bright and faint fields of the telescope, this difference
varying with the magnitude of the star.

A similar investigation is now being made in another class of obser-
vations, viz. the measurement of the position angle and distance of
double stars with the filar-micrometer. The range of systematic dis-
cordances between the measures of different observers is of course here
far less than will always be found in the determination of position in
space, for such observations are entirely relative in their character ; but
the outstanding errors are still so large as to demand a special in-
vestigation. Even with observers of skill and long experience, such
as Struve, Hall, Dembowski, Burnham, and Stone, there are residual
errors in the measurements of the same components far exceeding the
limits indicated by the magnitude of the probable error of any single
observer.

Finally, it is even an open question whether any real advance has

176 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

been made in the absolute precision of observations with the telescope
for the last forty years, if we except the tentative investigations of the
last five or six years. Argelander's Abo Catalogue of 1830, and
the Pulkowa Catalogue of 1845, are as yet pre-eminent for that kind
of accuracy which answers to the crucial test of agreement with
future observations. After a lapse of nearly fifty years, Argelander's
positions of the thirty-six stars known as the " Maskelyne funda-
mental stars " are at least as near the truth as the mean of the obser-
vations of these stars made during the last ten years.

The great need of instrumental astronomy is a rigid investigation
of all the classes of error to which observations are now subject, not
simply for any one observer, but for all the principal observers of the
world, and upon a common plan. If some competent and recognized
authority, like the Astronomischen Gesellschaft, would arrange a
scheme of observations having this object in view, and take measures
to secure the co-operation of all the principal observatories in this
work, it would seem that the foundation for a real advance might be
made in the precision with which observations can be made.

In the investigation which follows I have endeavored to ascertain
the limits of accuracy in measurements with the microscope by a
process similar to that by which observers with the telescope are now
seeking to reach the ultimate limit of precision. The remarks already
made with regard to the degree of reliability to be attached to con-
clusions drawn from the maguitude of the probable errors of observa-
tion apply with equal force to measures made under the microscope.
Neither the probable error of a single observation nor the probable
error of the mean of a given number of observations furnishes a safe
criterion by which the real measure of accuracy may be estimated.
For example, with the comparator for short lengths described in the
April number of the American Quarterly Microscopical Journal, it
is the experience of the writer that, in an unlimited number of
repetitions of measures of the same space, the pointer will in every
case fall upon the same tenth of a division of the index of the screw.
Hence, if the readings are taken to tenths only, the resulting probable
error will always be zero, without regard to the value of one division.
In this particular instrument the value of one tenth of one division is
one eighty-thousandth of an inch, but the probable error would still
remain zero if the readings were carried to tenths of one division only
for any change whatever in the pitch of the screw, and consequently
for any reduction in the value of one division, provided the pointer
always falls within this tenth.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 177

The probable error of a single measure with the comparator for
short lengths is about two millionths of an inch. If the probable
error can be taken as a measure of precision, it ought not to be diffi-
cult to measure one millionth of an inch with entire certainty by
repeating the measures a sufficient number of times.

Let us see if this theoretical accuracy is attainable. Before pro-
ceeding to the discussion, it may be worth while to say that a sharp
distinction must be drawn between absolute accuracy and a superficial
appearance of accuracy. If I determine the value of a centimeter
within one ten-thousandth of its whole length, I can use the equivalent
expression, one millionth of a meter ; but it does not follow that I can
measure a meter within this limit. I say that a given space, cor-
responding to one thousandth of an inch, requires a correction of one
millionth of an inch ; but it makes a wide difference whether I
ascertain this fact by direct measurement, or whether I get it by divid-
ing the correction for an entire inch by one thousand. Extending the
number of figures in the quotient does not give a corresponding in-
crease of accuracy. The index of the screw of my dividing engine can
be set to correspond to a motion of one billionth of an inch with
entire certainty as far as the mechanical indication of this degree of
accuracy is concerned; yet previous to May, 1877, the actual errors of
a given ruled plate amounted, under certain conditions, to as much as
one seven-thousandth of an inch. Even now, after four epochs of
improvement, I can hardly say of a given space that it is certainly true
within one eighty-thousandth of an inch until a careful investigation
has been made with the comparator. Again, it does not follow that,
because the spaces of a closely ruled band of lines, like Nobert's bands,
appear to be equal under an objective of high power, they are there-
fore to be taken as the measure of the real accuracy of the gradua-
tions. It is far more difficult to subdivide an inch into one hundred
equal parts, than to make a further subdivision of one of these parts.
As I shall presently show, almost all of the errors of a given gradua-
tion are periodic in their character, but the increments proceed by
such minute variations in the case of closely ruled bands that they can
only be detected when their sum amounts to an appreciable quantity
Thus, if the accumulated error of a screw having a pitch of one in
twenty amounts to one two-thousandth of an inch for half a revolution
of the index, the average periodic error for each two-thousandth of
an inch will be one hundred-thousandth of an inch. It will thus be
seen that, for even the first of Nobert's bands, which are about ten
thousand to the inch, the systematic error for any single space is inap-

vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 12

178 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

preciable. But even in this case, only ten increments are required in
order to produce an error of measurable magnitude.

A simple and direct way to determine the degree of precision with
which measures under the microscope may be made, is to compare
measurements of the same space made by different observers and
under different conditions. I may get results which show an agree-
ment inter se quite within the limits of the accuracy required, but
which are yet wide of the truth. But if another equally skilful
observer obtains substantially the same results from a series of meas-
urements made under entirely different conditions, the inference of
their general correctness may be drawn with tolerable safety.

In carrying forward this investigation I was fortunate in securing
the co-operation of Professor Edward W. Morley, of Hudson, Ohio,
whose paper will be found on page 16-4 of this volume of the Proceed-
ings.

The rulings selected for joint measurement, are described as fol-
lows : —

Plate I. consists of eight bands. The first three bands are composed
of twenty-six lines each. The distance between the lines is ^|<y of
an inch. The remaining five bands are composed of twenty-one lines
each, the distance between the lines being ^-J^ of an inch. All the
rulings of this plate involve the periodic errors which belong to the rul-
ing screw.

Plate II. consists of three bands of very heavy lines, each band
being composed of twenty-six lines. The interval between the lines
is the same as in the corresponding three bands of Plate I. The
lines are filled with graphite and are mounted in balsam. In this plate
the errors ivhich are a function of one revolution of the screw were
corrected during the process of ruling.

Plate III. consists of 101 lines, separated by an interval of -%£$-$
of an inch, and freed as nearly as possible from errors of all kinds.

Plate IV. consists of 21 lines, separated by an interval of Ts\jmm',
corrected for systematic errors.

The results given in the following tables under the head " Corr."
represent the corrections which must be applied to each space of a
given band in order to make it equal to a mean of all the spaces.
They are expressed in millionths of an inch, except in Plate IV., in
which the unit is one hundred-thousandth of a millimeter. The results
given under the head 2 represent the accumulated errors reckoned
from the first line of each band. In Plate I. the values given were
formed by successive additions of the individual errors. In Plates II.,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 179

III., and IV., the values in column 2 were obtained by measuring the
accumulated errors directly with the comparator for short lengths, and
the individual errors were found by successive subtractions.

The first band of Plate I. was measured with great care with a
filar-micrometer made by Powell and Leland, with a glass eye-piece
micrometer, with a comparator screw by Merz of Munich, and with
the Clark screw mentioned above. The results from the Clark screw
are somewhat discordant, as they were obtained before the instrument
was fairly completed. They are, however, taken into account on the
principle adopted of including every measure taken. The values of
Plate III. were found by taking the mean of the accumulated errors
of each successive group of five spaces, measured directly with the
Clark comparator for short lengths. The separate results given
under the first and fourth bands of Plate I. are given for the purpose
of deducing the probable error of observation. They are not simple
repetitions of measures made at one time. Each column refers to a
different date. As the different sets of measures were only brought
together from the note-books after all the work was done, I had no
previous knowledge of the degree of agreement to be expected from
separate measures of the same space. In fact, the comparison was
made for the first time, soon after receiving the results communicated
by Professor Morley.

180

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

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OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

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+ I I I I I I I I I + + + + + + + + + +

NlOCCrt©HNNiOOC5MHt-OOfflM0ClH
NOaMOCOONHOOOiOOJOO^n
HHH(NNININHHHH

+ 1 I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I

+ I I I I I I I I I + + + + + + + + + +

+ + I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I +

t-H THOlMCOWm^H <M T-1 0>I CO CN 'M <M

+ I I I I I I I I I + + + + + + + + + +

+ +i i i 1177117771 1 i i i +

!DOtDfflON00HC0HWOC0O'*OO«5H0i

+ I I I I I I I II I +++++++++

H + | | I I I | I I I + + + + + + + + + +

• ^NOOMrHt^HMMNCDaHXIMOOfflOtO
" + I I I I I I I I I I + + + + + + + + +

+ I I I I I I I I I + + + + + + + + + +

OlOrt0SU5^OiO'M0SOH'iiT)(0JINl»O00T(IINei5H
N •* t- Q IM O '/. - M "1 ~T :OHSC'f HOStD^M
l-HHNlNfl(MfllNPiHHH

I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I +

+ 1

i-iec
+ I

>M H ?1 M 71 ?1 M M H HJl«N^INNNlMH

I I I I I I I I I I I I + + + + + + + + + + +

OH9CWM»WO})COB8)*MOMOHb-iaH»t»H
HHHH-M^N^IT-I^HHHH

+ 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

[_, " > i — ' ^-* >j^ ■*■•! .#•* 'j^ '»* V»^« 1 1 I 1 f— > J-i \»N V»~i ' > '*"* '■*>* 'J^ V,^ ■* ■»

8 + I I I I I I I I I I I I + + + + + + + + + + + +

182

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

PLATE II.

PLATE III.

TLATE IV.

Band I.

Band II.

Band III.

Band I.

Band I.

— 1 mm.

— iTO

Corr.

2

Corr.

2

Corr.

2

Corr.

2

Corr.

2

1

+ 2

+ 2

— 6

— 6

— 3

— 3

+3

+3

+10

+10

2

— 4

— 2

— 1

— 7

+ 8

+ 5

+0

+3

—11

— 1

o

— 4

— 6

— 1

— 8

+ 3

+ 8

+0

+3

+ 0

— 1

4

+ 3

— 3

+ 4

— 4

—15

— 7

—4

—1

— 7

— 8

5

+ 3

+ o

— 6

—10

+21

+14

+3

+2

+ 2

— 6

6

— 6

— 6

+ 1

— 9

+ 8

+22

—5

—3

+ 1

— 5

7

— 6

—12

+ o

— 9

—22

+ 0

—1

—4

+ 3

— 2

8

—10

—22

— 8

—17

+ 9

+ 9

—2

—6

+ 2

— 0

9

+ o

—22

— 2

—19

— 7

+ 2

-1

—7

+ 2

+ 2

10

+ 1

—21

— 8

—27

— G

— 4

+0

—7

+ 5

+ 7

11

— 2

—23

— 5

—32

+ 9

+ 5

+0

—7

— 2

+ 5

12

— 8

—31

+ 3

—29

— 1

+ 4

+1

—6

+ 2

+ 7

13

+ 8

—23

+15

—14

— 6

— 2

+1

—5

+ 14

+21

14

+ 2

—21

— 5

—19

— 1

— 3

+1

—4

—17

+ 4

15

+ o

—21

— 6

—25

+ 1

— 2

+5

+ 1

— 2

+ 2

16

+ 6

—15

+ 6

—19

+ 6

+ 4

+2

+.-;

— 1

+ 1

17

+ 9

— 6

— 2

—21

— 8

— 4

—6

—3

+ 0

+ 1

18

— 9

—15

+ 4

—17

+ 6

+ 2

+6

+3

+ 8

+ 8

19

+ 5

—10

+12

— 5

+ 1

+ 3

—1

+2

+ 0

+ 8

20

+10

+ 0

4- 4

— 1

+ 2

+ 5

+1

+3

—10

— 2

21

+ o

+ o

— 4

— 5

+12

+17

22

+ 0

+ 0

— 1

— 6

— 5

+ 12

23

+ 0

+ 0

— 4

—10

— 6

+ 6

24

+ 2

+ 2

— 2

—12

— 8

— 2

25

— 2

+ 0

+12

+ 0

+ o

— 2

From a comparison of the separate values obtained by myself and
by Professor Morley, the following conclusions are drawn : —

(a) By comparing the separate values of Bands I. and IV. of
Plate I., obtained with the eye-piece micrometer, with the corre-
sponding mean values, the average probable error of the measure of
a single space is found to be 19 ten-million ths of an inch, the great-
est deviation from the mean in 15G measures being 8 millionths of
an inch.

(b) Comparing with the mean value, the separate results obtained
with the eye-piece micrometer, the Merz screw, and the filar microm-
eter, from the first and fourth bands of Plate I. we find the follow-
ing average deviations : —

For the eye-piece micrometer, 17 ten-million ths of an inch.
For the Merz screw, 25 ten-millionths of an inch.

For the filar micrometer, 18 ten-millionths of an inch.

(c) Comparing the measures of the separate spaces made by Pro-
fessor Morley with my own, made in the first band of Plate I. with

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES.

183

the eye-piece micrometer, the Merz screw, and the filar-micrometer,
and in the remaining bands of this plate with the eye-piece microme-
ter only, we find the following deviations expressed in millionths of
an inch : —

Number of millionths, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Number of cases of agreement, 16 30 39 24 15 17 13 8 2 3 4 2 2

The mean deviation is 34 ten-millionths of an inch.

(d) Comparing the accumulated errors of the middle point obtained
by Professor Morley and by myself, we have : —

Plate I.

Plate II.

Plate III.

Band.

Rogers.

Morley.

R. — M

1

—197

—174

—23

2

—232

—218

—14

3

—230

—204

—26

4

—181

—177

— 4

5

—219

—211

— 8

6

—199

—199

+ o

7

—224

—233

+ 9

8

—213

—237

+24

1

— 23

— 19

— 4

2

— 14

— 53

+39

3

— 2

— 23

+21

+ 31

—38

The numerical value of the average deviation is therefore 17 mil-
lionths of an inch. It is to be noted, however, that only the bands of
Plate I. are strictly comparable, since these only were obtained in the
same way, viz. by successive additions. The values for Plates II.
and III., it will be remembered, were obtained in my own case by
direct measurement, in which the degree of accuracy may be taken as
nearly equal to that of the measure of any individual space, while
those of Professor Morley were obtained by direct addition, in which
case an error at any point is carried through the whole of the remain-
ing series.

(e) In explanation of the disagreement in the maximum values of
the accumulated errors, even in the bands of Plate I., which were
ruled at the same time, it is to be said that the graduation was done
before I had learned the necessity of dispensing with oil or grease as

184 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

a lubricant. Without doubt, a part of the discordance is due to errors
of measurement, but recent experience has convinced me that, when
oil is used as a lubricant, every precision-screw has a variable periodic
error, depending on the position of the nut in the line of its motion,
especially when there is a decided change of temperature. It is suffi-
cient to say here, that, since adopting a substitute for oil, the errors of
the screw have remained practically constant.

(/) It will be seen from simple inspection that nearly all of the
errors under discussion are periodic in their character. This may be
shown conclusively in the following way : —

If we have a series of errors depending on one revolution of the
screw, which are strictly periodic in their character, and from which
all accidental errors are excluded, the given series can be represented
exactly by a series of equations of the form, —

n = -\- a sin x -J- b cos x -\- a' sin 2 x -J- V cos 2 x, &c. ;

in which

n represents any given value of the series ;

x is an aliquot part of one revolution of the screw ;

a, b, a', b\ are unknown coefficients.

If, therefore, an expression of this form is found which will repre-
sent all the given errors of a series, it may be safely affirmed that the
errors themselves are entirely periodic in their character.

Making n equal, successively, to the mean of the values of the in-
dividual errors of spaces 1, 2, 3, &c. of the first three bands of Plate I.,
we have a series of equations whose solution by least squares will give
the normal equation,

n = — 26.6 sin x -\- 5.9 cos x — 0.1 sin 2 x -)- 0.8 cos 2 x.

In like manner we get from the mean of the separate values of
Bands IV., V., VI., VII., VIII. of the same plate,

n = — 29.1 sin x -\- 9.9 cos x — 2.0 sin 2 x -J- 1.3 cos 2 x.

Substituting in these equations the known values of x, we get
values of n which are directly comparable with the observed values
given in the tables. The observed and the couqiuted values are given
in the following table, as well as the deviations of both the individual
and the accumulated errors from the computed values.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

185

Plate ]

[. — Bands I., II., III.

Plate I.— Bauds IV., V., VI

, VII., VIII.

Individual Errors.

Accumulated Errors.

Individual Errors.

Accumulated Errors.

§1

-3 8

p 3

A

>
U
<t>

o

•a

"3

a

o
O

A

<D 3

O >

O c8

A

t3

>
u
<o

CO

O

3

o

A

— 1

+ 0

—1

— 1 ■

+- 0 — 1

+ 7

+ 1

+6

+ 7

+ 1 +6

— 9

— 8

—1

— 10 -

-8—2

—11

— 9

—2

— 4

— 8+4

—18

—14

—4

— 28 -

- 22 —6

—16

—18

+2

— 20

— 26 +6

— 19

—19

+0

— 47 -

- 41 —6

—26

—26

+0

— 47

— 52 +5

—23

—24

+1

— 70 -

- 65 —5

—34

—31

—3

— 81

— 83 +2

—27

—28

+1

— 97 -

- 93 —4

—35

—33

—2

—116

—116 +0

—25

—28

+8

—122 -

-121 —1

—30

—32

+2

—147

—148 +1

—25

—27

+2

—147 -

-148 +1

—27

—28

+1

—174

—176 +2

—27

—25

2

—174 -

-173 —1

—21

—21

+0

—195

—196 +1

—21

—21

+0

—195 -

-194 —1

—13

—11

—2

—208

—207 —1

—16

—15

—1

—211 -

-209 —2

+ 2

+ 0

+2

—207

—207 +0

— 8

— 8

+0

—219 -

-217 —2

+12

+ 9

+3

—195

—198 +3

— 1

— 2

+1

—220 -

-219 —1

+23

+18

+5

—172

—180 +8

+ 4

+ 6

—2

—216 -

-213 —3

+26

+27

— 1

—146

—153 +7

+12

+12

+0

—204 -

-201 —3

+29

+31

—2

—118

—122 +4

+19

+16

+3

—185 -

-185 +0

+31

+33

2

— 87

— 89 +2

+24

+22

+2

—161 -

-163 +2

+29

+32

— 3

— 58

— 57 —1

+22

+24

—2

—139 -

-139 +0

+26

+27

— 1

— 33

— 30 —3

+23

+26

—3

—116 -

-113 —3

+22

+20

+2

— 11

— 10 —1

+25

+26

—1

— 91 -

-87—4

+11

+11

+0

+ 0

+ 1 -1

+24

+26

—2

— 67 -

- 61 —6

+23

+22

+1

— 44 -

- 39 —5

+20

+18

+2

— 24 -

- 21 —3

+20

+14

+6

— 4 -

-7+3

+ 4

+ 7

—3

+0 + 0+0

Finally, we have a severe test in the agreement of the values of n
computed for parts of the revolution which were not observed. In
order to adapt the equations, for example, to successive ten degrees of
revolution, the coefficients of the first equation must be multiplied by
•jJj?:j — .694, and those of the second equation must be multiplied by
^-a = .556. We shall then have : —

(1) n = — 18.5 sin a; -J- 4.1 cos a; — 0.1 sin 2 x -J- 0.6 cos 2x;

(2) n = — 16.2 sin x -j- 5.4 cos x — 1.1 sin 2 x -J- 0.7 cos 2 x.

Substituting x = 0°, 10°, 20°, &c. in these equations, and com-
paring the results, we have the following discordances expressed in
millionths of an inch : —

Number of millionths, 0 12 3 4

Number of cases, 5 7 17 3 4

186 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The average deviation is 19 teii-millionths of an inch, and there are
only 7 cases in which the disagreement exceeds 2 million ths of an
inch.

(g) The relative advantages of the eye-piece micrometer, the filar
micrometer, and the screw comparator, for narrow intervals, are nearly
equal, as will be' seen from the following comparison of the individual
values derived by each method of observation, with the normal values
found from the equation

n = — 23.8 sin x -f- 5.4 cos x — 0.1 sin 2 a; -J- 1.0 cos x,

which represents the mean curve for the first band of Plate I.

Number of millionths, 012 3 456789 10

Eye-piece micrometer, 78350101000
Filar-micrometer, 42352151200

Merz screw, 42425222011

Number of
cases,

(h) It appears from this investigation that it is possible to reduce
the errors of a precision-screw for short intervals to about one hun-
dred-thousandth of an inch by applying the corrections derived from
the equation which represents the periodic errors. Since the rejection
of oil as a lubricant, the errors have been considerably reduced.

(i) In a meridian circle having a diameter of 30 inches, one second
of arc is equal to .0000727 of an inch. It appears, therefore, from
this investigation, that, even if the attached microscopes have the same
power as those used in this investigation, the ultimate limit of accuracy
in the matter of bisection and reading only, must be at least 0."05.
But the microscopes of the meridian circle of Harvard College Obser-
vatory magnify only 51 diameters, while the magnifying powers used in
this series of measures were 194, 290, 560, and 870. Moreover, this
limit has reference only to repeated readings of the microscopes for
the same position of the instrument. It has, therefore, only a relative
value. When, in addition to the errors of simple pointing and reading,
we take into account the accidental and the systematic errors of di-
vision in the graduated circles and the outstanding errors always found
in measures of large arcs of a circle, the present limit of precision can-
not fall much below 0."2.

Since the completion of this investigation a further opportunity of
comparing the results of measures of the same intervals by different
observers has occurred. Through the kindness of Professor George
F. Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania, I obtained the loan of a

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 187

ruled plate from the precision-screw of Mr. L. M. Rutherfurd. This
plate is marked "-gVtf rev." It consists of 11 lines, covering a space
as nearly equal to one millimeter as the even notches of the index
of the screw will give this value. A transverse line subdivides the
vertical lines. The lines are apparently filled with graphite, and
they are protected by a coating of transparent varnish.

I first measured the ten spaces of this plate in May, 1878. The
plate was then sent to Professor Morley. After its return, and before
comparing the results already obtained, it was again measured. In
April and May, 1879, still another series of measures was made. The
plate was then placed in the hands of Mr. J. R. Edmands, who is a
skilful and careful observer with the microscope.

The measures made by Professor Morley and myself were of the
separate spaces, and the accumulated errors were found by successive
additions. Mr. Edmands made some measures in this way, but he
also measured the distance of the successive lines from each of the
end lines. The differences between the errors of the adjacent lines
were then compared with the direct measures of the spaces, while the
sums of the errors of the spaces were compared with the errors of the
individual lines. The values given by him were obtained by giving
to each determination its proper relative weight.

In accordance with the prearranged plan of observation, each ob-
server remained in ignorance of the results obtained by the other
observers until the work of measurement was completed. The fol-
lowing are the values of the corrections required to reduce each space
of this particular millimeter to the mean of all the spaces. They are
expressed in millionths of a centimeter.

188

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

INDIVIDUAL EKKOES,

Spaces.

EOGERS.

May, 1878.

MORLEY.

Rogers.
October and
November,
1878.

Rogers.
April and
May, l!>79.

Edmands.

Mean
Values.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

—36
—14

— 6

— 4

— 7
—28
+ 0
+ 8
+35
+52

— 8

—12
—10

— 1

— 1

— 4

— 1

— 3
+ 3
+35

—37
—11
—18

— 2

— 3
—23
+ 2
+ 4
+33
+55

—16
—19
—27
+11

— 1

— 4

— 1
+ 2
+13
+42

—14
—16
—16
+ 2

— 3

— 3

— 1

— 3
+10
+44

—22
—14
—15
+ 1
— 3
—12

+ o

+ 2
+19
+46

ACCUMULATED ERRORS.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

—36

—50
—56
—00
—67
—95
—95
—87
—52
— 0

— 8
—20
—30
—31
—32
—36
—37
—40
—37

— 2

—37
—48
—66
—68
—71
— !>4
—92
—88
—55
— 0

—16
—35
—62
—51
—52
—56
—57
—55
—42
— 0

—14
—30
—46
—44
—47
—50
—51
—54
—44
— 0

22

—37
—51
—51
—54
—66
—66
—65
—46
— 0

It is somewhat doubtful whether the mean values given, represent
the actual errors of the spaces. There are some indications that a
shrinkage of the film of varnish has occurred since it was first applied,
and this action may have produced some effect upon the graphite with
which the lines are filled. Although graphite is an impalpable pow-
der, I have seen many instances in which it has been lifted in mass
from the filled lines and thrown a distance as great as one thousandth
of an inch without breaking the continuity of the particles. This
action seems to take place only when the lines and the filling are pro-
tected by a thin cover-glass, closely cemented to the slip on which the
lines are ruled. Sometimes an explosion seems to take place, scat-
tering the graphite in all directions, leaving it in curves having nearly
a uniform shape. I have never been fortunate in seeing this action,
but in the case of one ruled plate an actual observation limits the time
within which the explosion must have occurred to about ten days.
In this case the lines remained perfect for about four months after

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 189

they were ruled and filled, but between the 1st and the 10th of
April of the present year nearly one half of the powder was com-
pletely removed from the lines.

It is possible also, that some of the discordances are due to the fact
that the measures were not all made along the same horizontal line.
My earlier measures were made along a line just above the transverse
line, while the later ones were made along a line a little below the
transverse line. My observations of April and May of the present
year, and those made by Mr. Edmands, ought to be comparable, since
they were made at nearly the same time and along the same line.
The greatest disagreement is in the third space ; and that the dis-
cordance is not an accidental one is shown by the fact that all my
observations agree in giving — 27, while all of his agree in giving
— 16. But, admitting that the discordances are all due to errors of
observation, it will be seen that the average deviation from the mean
is only 6 millionths of a centimeter.

190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XIV.

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE ECHINI OF THE
EXPLORING EXPEDITION OF H. M. S. "CHAL-
LENGER," SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON CHIEF OF
CIVILIAN STAFF.

By Alexander Agassiz.

[PUBLISHED BY PERMISSION OF THE LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY.]

Presented May 14, 1879.

It was not my intention to publish a preliminary notice of the Echini
collected by the Challenger. I hoped to be able to issue the de-
scriptions of the species with my final report on the group. I am
compelled, however, for the sake of retaining for the material of the
Challenger expedition the priority of discovery, to notice briefly the
magnificent collection of Sea-urchins intrusted to my care by Sir
Wyville Thomson. The two expeditions of the U. S. Coast Sur-
vey steamer Blake, in which I was allowed, by the Superintendent
of the Coast Survey, to carry on very extensive dredging operations
in the Straits of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern part of
the Caribbean Sea, have brought together extensive deep-sea col-
lections, second only to those of the Challenger. In most of the
groups, judging from my recollection of the Challenger collections
when I had the privilege of examining them at Edinburgh, I should
say that the collections made on the Blake not only include dupli-
cates of the species of the Challenger, but numerous representatives
of the princijjal families collected by that expedition. I wish, of
course, as far as possible, to guard against any anticipation of the
results to be drawn from the older collections of the Challenger.
With the exception of certain Pourtalesite, of which I obtained only
a few perfect specimens on the Blake, (although numerous frag-
ments were constantly brought up by the trawl from depths of be-
tween 1,000 and 2,000 fathoms,) the Echini collected by the Blake
represent some of the most interesting forms obtained by the Chal-
lenger, and often complement more or less imperfect Challenger

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 191

material. I shall, of course, not hesitate, in my final report on the
Challenger Echini, to avail myself of this additional material. It is
quite important, both from a systematic point of view and for deter-
mining more accurately the bathymetrical range of the greater num-
ber of the Challenger Echini, showing, as it does, that many species
thus far considered as deep-sea species approach very nearly the
hundred-fathom line.

Among the Cidarid^e, in addition to the new species of genera
well known before, the most interesting form is a fine species of
Porocidaris,n.. sp. (P. elegans,A. Ag.). Large and valuable material
was also collected for the study of Goniocidaris canaliculata, A. Ag.,
including its earliest stages, and many varieties, as well as a most ex-
tensive series of Goniocidaris tubaria, showing a range in the varia-
tion of the spines unknown in any other species of the genus.

A new species of Salenia (S. hastigera, A. Ag.), the third now
known, was also discovered. Of this many specimens were collected.

Among the Arbaciad^e I note a species of Porocidaris (P. prio-
nigera, A. Ag.), and a large series of Coelopleurns Maillardi. This
has enabled me to make a careful study of this interesting genus.

In the family of DiADEMATiDiE, a new genus allied to Astropyga,
Micropyga (M. tuberculatum, A. Ag.), and two species of a genus
closely allied to Trichodiadema, Aspidodiadema (A. tonsum, A. Ag.,
and A. microtubercidatum, A. Ag.), have been collected.

Among the Echinothuri^e a number of new species were
dredged, both of Asthenosoma and of Phormosoma, in addition to the
species already described by Sir "Wyville Thomson in the " Echini of
the Porcupine," the " Depths of the Sea," and the " Voyage of the
Challenger." They are A. pellucida, A. Ag., A. Grubei, A. Ag.,
A. tessellata, A. Ag., A. coriacea, A. Ag., P. lucidenta, A. Ag., and
P. tenuis, A. Ag. Several small specimens of these genera were also
collected, but it will be impossible to do more than refer them tem-
porarily to existing species, as the material is hardly sufficient for
exact determination. I hope, however, by making use of the many
young Echinothuriae collected by the Blake for comparison, to deter-
mine them more satisfactorily.

Among the Echinometrad^e nothing of importance was collected.

Among the Temnopleurid^e excellent series of the species of Sal-
macis and of Temnopleurus were obtained ; a new species of Trigono-
cidaris (T. monolini, A. Ag.), a Cottaldia (C. Forbesiana, A. Ag.),
hitherto only known from the Chalk, and an exquisite genus, Prio-
nechinus (P. sagittiger, A. Ag.), allied to Salmacis and Podocidaris.

192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The most interesting feature of the Echinid^e proper was the oc-
currence of several northern forms, E. acutus, E. elegans, and E.
norvegicus, in deep water in the tropics.

Not a single new species of Clypeastroid was found, and the number
of specimens even was quite small. They do not play any important
part in shaping the character of the fauna of deep water, and are,
perhaps, the most strictly littoral group of Echini, indicative, at least
in the present epoch, of comparatively shallow water, inside of the
hundred-fathom line, and probably giving us a good guide as to the
depth of the sea and the nature of the bottom of the cretaceous and
tertiary shores, where they occur in such large numbers.

A recent species of Catopygus ( C. recens, A. Ag.) is interesting as
adding another of the cretaceous forms to those still found living.

By far the most interesting group of Echini collected by the Chal-
lenger is the group of Pourtalesle. They were known before only
from a couple of genera and a few species collected in the expeditions
of the Coast Survey and by the Porcupine. The old material was
very limited ; the present material is, in some cases, abundant, and has
enabled me to study the affinities of this remarkable group ; j>assing
on the one side from Pourtalesia proper to such groups as Aerope,
W. Th., and Aceste, W. Th., with the gigantic suckers of their petaloid
ambulacra, and on the other, through genera with short anal snouts, as
Cionobrissus, A. Ag., and Spatagocystis, A. Ag., to Eckinocrepis,
A. Ag., and Calymne, W. Th., in which the resemblance to Infulaster
gradually fades, and such genera as Urechinus, A. Ag., and Genico-
patagus, A. Ag., appear, reminding us of Holaster, while Cystechinus
recalls Ananchytes proper with many features of Micraster.

Of Pourtalesia, no less than six species are found in the collection,
five of which were not among the earlier deep-sea Pourtalesia.
(They are P. hispida, A. Ag., P. laguncula, A. Ag., P. rosea, A. Ag.,
P. ceratopyga, A. Ag., and P. carinata, A. Ag.)

Of Cionobrissus (C. revinctus, A. Ag.), Spatagocystis (S. Ghal-
lengeri, A. Ag.), Eckinocrepis (E. cuneata, A. Ag.), Genicopatagus
(G. affinis, A. Ag.), and Urechinus (U. naresianus, A. Ag.), only
one species of each genus was brought home. An additional species
of Homolampas (H.fulva) shows that the species of this genus grow
to a very considerable size.

A number of specimens of Paleopneustes (P. Murrayi, A. Ag.)
were collected near Kagosima, which it may be necessary to place in
a separate sub-genus. There are peculiarities in the marginal fascioles
and their development, the value of which can only be determined by

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 193

comparison with a more extensive series of younger stages. Fortu-
nately there are quite a number of the young of Paleopneustes in the
Blake collections.

In Cystechinus there are three species : C. Wyvillii, A. Ag., and
C clypeatus, A. Ag., the test of which is quite stout, while in G. vesica,
A. Ag., the test is reduced to a mere film, so that even in alcohol
the shape of this Sea-urchin reminds one of the crown of an old felt
hat which has seen its best days.

The test of all the Pourtalesi^: is quite delicate, the amount of
limestone being, at the great depths where they occur, reduced to a
minimum, and yet at the greatest depth at which these delicate Echini
are found they are associated with Ophiurans which are by no means
wanting in limestone.

Among the Euspatangina, Spatangus purpureus occurs in the
tropics at a depth of 400 fathoms, and Echinocardium australe is
found littoral and at the great depth of 2,675 fathoms. With the
exception of a new Spatangoid allied to Maretia, Argopatagus vitreus,
A. Ag., nothing demanding special notice was obtained.

Among the Brissina two species of Hemiaster allied to the creta-
ceous H. prunella were obtained (H. gibbosus, A. Ag., and H.
zonatus, A. Ag.) ; also an extensive series of Hemiaster cavernosus,
A. Ag., plainly showing that the several species thus far recognized,
H. antarctica, H. Philippii, and H. cordatus, are only the different
stages of growth of the males and females of Philippi's original
T. cavernosus. In addition to Periaster limicola, A. Ag., which is inad-
vertently described from the Echini of the first Blake expedition, a
new species of Rhinobrissus (R. hemiasteroides, A. Ag.) and two new
species of Schizaster (S. claudicans, A. Ag., and S. japo?iicus, A. Ag.)
close the list of this extraordinary collection.

I can give no better idea of the value of this collection than by
stating that there are in the accompanying list not less than forty-four
new species. At the time the " Revision of the Echini " was pub-
lished, which included the large number of unknown forms collected
by Mr. Pourtales in the Straits of Florida, there were not many more
than two hundred species of Echini known, and since that time less
than fifty species have been added to the list.

With regard to the geographical distribution of the deep-water
species, the North Atlantic is in striking contrast with the North
Pacific and the Southern Ocean. The Pacific is remarkable for its
numerous species of littoral Cidaridae, which are few in number in
the Atlantic ; of Dorocidaris and of Porocidaris, there is one Atlantic
vol. xiv. (n. s. vj.) 13

194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

and one Pacific species of each. Goniocidaris is a Pacific genus, with
the exception of Goniocidaris canaliculata, which is the characteristic
species of the great ocean belt uniting the extreme Southern Atlantic
and the Southern Indian Ocean. Salenia, Podocidaris, Coelopleurus,
and Aspidodiadema each have one Atlantic and one Pacific species.
The Northern Pacific, however, is characterized by the greater num-
ber of Echinothurice ; the Atlantic collection of the Challenger con-
taining only two species of the family, while there are no less than
ten or eleven in the Pacific. Trigonocidaris has an Atlantic and a
Pacific species. Several of the Echini proper, well known from the
Northern European seas, extend far into the South Atlantic, as
E. acutus, E. elegans, and E. norvegicus, the latter being even found in
the Pacific, while the representatives of their species found along the
southern extremity of South America, E. magellanicus and E. marga-
ritaceus, extend far into the Southern Indian Ocean towards the
Kerguelen and Heard Islands.

Of the Clypeastroids, Echinocyamus pusillus appears to be the only
species having a wide geographical range and a great bathymetrical
distribution ; it extends from the Northern European seas to the
South Atlantic.

The new species of Catopygus is a tropical Pacific species, as well
as Paheotropus.

The species of Pourtalesia proper thus far known were, of course,
Atlantic. The Challenger discovered two species in the Pacific ; but
by far the greater number of the species of this family were found in
the Southern Indian Ocean in the track from the Cape of Good
Hope to the Kerguelen Islands, and thence to Australia: three
species of Pourtalesia proper (P. hispida, P. phyale, P. carinata),
Spatagocystis Challengeri, Echinocrepis cuneata, Genicopatagus qffinis,
and Urechinns nauresianus, as well as the three species of Cystechinus
(C. vesica, C. clypeatus, and C. Wyvillii). Of these one extends into
the South Atlantic, C. clypeatus, the other into the South Pacific.

Aceste and Aerope are Pacific genera, and Calymne is an Atlantic
genus. Ilomolampas and Paleopneustes each have an Atlantic and a
Pacific species.

Of the Spatangina proper, nearly all are littoral Pacific species,
with the exception of Argopatagus vitreus and the deep-water
South Pacific Echinocardium australe. E. Jlavescens is also found
reaching far into the Southern Indian Ocean. Of the northern
species of Spatangus, S. purpureus extends well south in the North
Atlantic and S. Baschi reaches as far as the Cape of Good Hope.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 195

The most common species of the Brissina is Hemiaster cavernosus,
which occurs in large number in moderately deep water at the
Kerguelen Islands, the southern extremity of South America. Hemi-
aster gibbosus is a Pacific species, of which H. zonatus is the Atlantic
representative. The northern Brissopsis lyrifera and Schizaster
fragUis are found in the South Indian Ocean. The Pacific Schi-
zasteridse were S. claudicans, S. ventricosus, and S. japonicus, while
S. Philippii ranged from the southern extremity of South America
through the South Pacific to the Southern Indian Ocean.

The following are the main points of the bathymetrical distribution
of the Echini of the Challenger expedition.

Among the Cidarid^e, Cidaris proper, Phyllacanthtcs, Stephano-
cidaris, and Goniocidaris are littoral, and extend but little beyond the
100-fathom line; though G. canaliculata has been found to 1,700
fathoms.

Dorocidaris extends to a depth of 600 fathoms, while Porocidaris
was not found in less than 400 fathoms, and extended to a depth of
nearly 2,000 fathoms.

The Salenid^e extend from the 100-fathom line to 1,850 fathoms.

In the Arbaciad^e the species of Arbacia proper are littoral, and
are found to a depth of 150 fathoms ; from 80 to somewhat over 100
fathoms extends Ccelopleurus, while the species of Podocidaris are
the deep-water forms of this family, with a range of from 400 fathoms
to nearly 1,100.

Among the Diademetidje, Diadema and Echinothrix are strictly
littoral, while Astropyga and the new genus Micropyga, closely allied
to it, occur quite frequently from 75 fathoms to 250 fathoms, and
even occasionally to a depth of 600. The genus Aspidodiadema com-
mences at a depth of 100 fathoms, takes a greater development at
about 600 to 700 fathoms, and has been found at a depth of over
2,200 fathoms. This genus, with the species of Asthenosoma and
Phormosoma, are the deep-water types of the family, and of the
Echinothurue, for although one of the species of Asthenosoma
occurs in ten fathoms, the larger number of the species of the genus
are not found in less than 100 fathoms, the greater number occurring
in 200 to 300 fathoms and extending to 2,600 fathoms. The species
of Phormosoma collected by the Challenger are found mainly in
from 250 to 1,000 fathoms, being still common from 1,000 to 2,000
fathoms, and found as deep as 2,750 fathoms.

The Echinometrad^e are all shallow-water species, no species
extending beyond the 100-fathom line.

196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Of the Temnopleurid.e, Prionechinus, Cottaldia, and Trigonoci-
daris alone are deep-water species. Cottaldia occurring about 300
fathoms, Trigonocidaris from 500 to 1,000 fathoms, while Prionechi-
nus ranges from 700 to nearly 1,100 fathoms. "With the exception of
Temnopleurus Regnaudi, A. Ag., which was found by the Challenger
down to a depth of 275 fathoms, none of the other species of Temno-
pleurus, nor of those of Microcyphus, Salmacis, Mespilia, Ambly-
pneustes, or Holopneustes, reached beyond the 1 00-fathom line, and by
far the greater number of the species do not extend beyond the
40-fathom line.

Among the Triplechinid^e, Toxopneustes, Hipponoe, and Evechi-
nus are littoral.

In the genus Echinus proper, while a few of the species appear to
be strictly littoral, we find several having a most extended bathy-
metrical range from strictly littoral to 1,600 fathoms, several northern
species appearing in deep water in the tropics.

Among the Clypeastroids, with the exception of the Fibularina
and of one species of Peronella, all the genera are littoral, Echinanthus
alone extending to a depth of 120 fathoms, while no species of Mel-
lita, Encope, Echinodiscus, Astriclypeus, Laganum, or Clypeaster was
found beyond 70 fathoms.

The small number of Clypeastroids dredged by the " Challenger " is
very striking, jilainly showing that of this group the Echinanthid^e
are eminently littoral, though in the Fibularina the species of Echi-
nocyamus extend to 400 fathoms and those of Fibularia to 950
fathoms. One species of Peronella extended to 300 fathoms.

My own experience while dredging in the Blake corresponds with
this. Although working in the region where the littoral species of
the group are very numerous, we collected but few species of Scutel-
lidce or of Echinanthidce, even while dredging near the 100-fathom line.
The same is true of the former expeditions sent out by the Coast
Survey.

Of the Nucleolime, the genera Echinolampus and Catopygus
were limited to the region of 120 fathoms.

We now come to a strictly deep-water family, the Pourtalesi.e,
as we may for the present call the group to which Pourtalesia, Palceo-
tropus, Aerope, Aceste, Calymne, and the like, belong. No species of
the group has as yet been found in less than 375 fathoms ; at this
depth they occur rarely. They have been found more commonly at
from 600 to 700 fathoms ; they seem to take their greatest develop-
ment at from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms, and they are not uncommon

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 197

down to the depth of 2,300 to 2,900 fathoms ; the genera Palceotropus
and Cionobrissus being limited to a less depth than 1,000 fathoms,
while Aerope, Calymne, and two or three species of Pourtalesia, are
found within these limits, but also extend to the greatest depth at
which any Echini have been found, viz. 2,900 fathoms.

The genera Spatagocystis, Echinocrepis, Genicopatagus, Ur echinus,
and Cystechinus, range mainly between 1,300 and 2,000 fathoms,
one of the species of the latter genus extending to 2,225 fathoms,
while Aceste has only been found in 2,600 fathoms thus far.

Paleopneustes occurs in the neighborhood of 300 to 400 fathoms,
and Homolampas is found at a depth of 400 fathoms and over.

Among the Spatangina, the northern Spatangus purpureus is
found in the tropics at a depth of 450 fathoms. Eupatagus , Lovenia,
Breynia, and Maretia planulata are strictly littoral, not extending
beyond a depth of 28 fathoms. Maretia alta has been found to ex-
tend to a depth of 800 fathoms ; and the species of Echinocardium,
like those of Brissopsis, although littoral, yet extend to great depth,
one species, Echinocardium Jlavescens, to 150 fathoms, while E.
australe has come up from no less than 2,675 fathoms. The only
species of the genus Argopatagus was found at a depth of 800
fathoms.

Among the Brissina, Rhinobrissus, Periaster, Metalia, and some
species of Schizaster, are either littoral or do not extend to the 100-
fathom line, or but little beyond it. The species of Schizaster, how-
ever, reach a considerable depth ; in one case 1,375 fathoms, in another
800, and in a third 345 fathoms. The species of Hemiaster, also, greatly
vary in their bathymetrical range, the two species most closely allied
to the cretaceous Hemiaster prunella extending from 340 to 800 fath-
oms, while Hemiaster cavernosus ranges from 15 to 400 fathoms. In
Brissopsis lyrifera the bathymetrical range extends from 15 to 1,100
fathoms. The Mediterranean Brissus unicolor extends to a depth of
450 fathoms.

Dorocidaris bracteata, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This species is closely allied to Dorocidaris papillata. It is charac-
terized by the small papilla? covering the abactinal area, the small
size of the mammary boss of the primary tubercles, and the greater
distance between the primary tubercles compared with the Atlantic
species, D. papillata. The primary radioles are fluted, with a more or
less serrated edge. The ambulacral system is also relatively much

198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

narrower in this species than in the Atlantic species. — Amboyna,
100 fathoms, 15 fathoms.*

Porocidaris elegans, A. Ag., nov. sp.

The principal differences between this species and P. purpurata
consist in the shape of the primary radioles. These are more uniform
in shape, some of them three times in length the diameter of the test,
with a comparatively short collar above the milled ring ; the length of
this collar is often half the length of the spine in P. purpurata. The
abactinal system of this species is remarkable for the great size of
the genital openings, placed entirely within the genital plates, and not
extending, as in P. purpurata, into the apical plates of the interambu-
lacral area. — Station 214, 500 fathoms ; Station 164, off New South
Wales, 950 fathoms, 410 fathoms.

Goniocidaris florigera, A. Ag., nov. sp.

In no species of the genus is there so great a difference between
the spines of different parts of the test, or of different individuals,
varying from short cupuliform or even spines terminating with radiat-
ing spokes, to long cylindrical radioles thickly covered with spines
irregularly arranged, or to gradually tapering spines with delicate ser-
rations and spines quite regularly placed. The ornamentation of the
test is limited to small, deep pits at the angles in the median line of the
interambulacral plates, with a sharjD bare line indicating the sutures
also at the junction of coronal plates with the poriferous zone. The
lower part of the ambulacral plates is covered by minute granules,
leaving the upper part of the plate bare ; median ambulacral space
wider than poriferous zone, coronal plates high, mammary boss small,
scrobicular area deep, not confluent, completely separated by interven-
ing secondary tubercles. Ocular plates heart-shaped, genital plates
hexagonal, both covered by coarse granulation ; papilla? sharp and
slender ; ten large anal plates, with smaller ones in centre ; genital
opening large, placed towards the centre of the plate. — Ki Islands,
129 fathoms ; Station 204, 100 fathoms.

Salenia hastigera, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Differs from Salenia varispina by the closer and uniform granula-
tion covering the abactinal system and the relatively smaller anal

* Only the principal localities are given, showing the bathymetrical and geo-
graphical range.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 199

system. The spines are much longer also, nearly four times the
diameter of test, varying but little in shape ; they taper gradually and
are covered from tip to base with numerous small spines closely
packed in regular rings round the shaft. The number of primary
plates is smaller both in the ambulacral and interambulacral areas,
the three largest tubercles of the interambulacral area occupying
in this species the same relative space of the test occupied by five in
Salenia varispina. The large ambulacral tubercles of the actinal
region so characteristic of the latter species are not found in S. has-
(igera, the actinal tubercles are but slightly larger than the other
ambulacral tubercles. — Station 195, 1,425 fathoms; Station 170,
630 fathoms; Station 335, 1,425 fathoms; off Cebu, 100 fathoms.

Podoeidaris prionigera, A. Ag.

This species is readily distinguished from its "West Indian congener
by the greater length of the spines ; they are more regularly tapering,
flattened, with very prominent serrations of the two edges. — Station
218, 1,070 fathoms ; Station 205, 1,050 fathoms.

Aspidodiadema, A. Ag., nov. gen.

This genus is intermediate between the Cidaridoe proper and the
Diadematidae. It has, like the latter, a thin test with the spines
characteristic of that family. It has, like Centrostephanus, buccal
plates. But the primary tubercles are few in number, as in the
Cidaridas, occupying with the scrobicular area and accompanying
secondary spines nearly the wtiole of the interambulacral plate. The
most characteristic feature of the genus is the ambulacral system.
The plates, of a nearly uniform size, are small, forming, as in Cidari-
dae, a narrow ambulacral system. The abactinal system consists of a
narrow ring of ocular and genital plates placed side by side surround-
ing a large anal system. Two species were collected by the Challenger.

Aspidodiadema tonsum, A. Ag., nov. sp., in which the anal sys-
tem is protected by five large plates, occupying the greater part of
the space enclosed by the genital and ocular ring, and in which the
actinal ambulacral tubercles form a double row of tubercles much
larger than those of the abactinal region of the ambulacral space,
which extends nearly to the middle of the test. — Station 170, Ker-
madec Islands, 630 fathoms ; off Cebu, 100 fathoms ; Station 122,
356 fathoms ; off Macio, 1,700 fathoms.

The second species is Aspidodiadema microtuberculatum, A. Ag.,
nov. sp. It can be at once distinguished from its congener by the

200 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

larger number of plates protecting the anal and actinal systems, and
also by the uniform size of the tubercles of the median ambulacral
space along its whole length. The primary spines of this species are
stouter and comparatively shorter than those of A. tonsum, some of
which are nearly three times the length of the test ; the number of
primary plates is less in this species than in the preceding one. —
Station 298, 2,225 fathoms ; Station 134, 2,025 fathoms.

Micropyga, A. Ag., nov. gen.

Allied to Astropyga, it has, like it, a flat test, short spines, but a
more compact abactinal system, a small actinostome with deep inden-
tations for the passage of the gills, and primary tuberculation extending
both in ambulacral and interambulacral areas to the abactinal system.

Micropyga tubercidata, A. Ag., nov. sp.

The spines of the abactinal surface are pointed, while on the acti-
nal surface, where the primary tubercles form a closely-packed pave-
ment both in the ambulacral and interambulacral areas, the primary
spines are club-shaped, and the secondary spines alone are pointed. —
Off Cebu, 100 fathoms.

Asthenosoma pellucida, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This species, judging from alcoholic specimens, was probably of
light green or yellowish color; it is readily distinguished from A. hys-
trix, its nearest allied species, by the narrow ambulacral zone and the
very regular arrangement of the secondary tubercles in a horizontal
row occupying the centre of each primary plate. — Off Cebu, 100
fathoms ; Station 192, 129 fathoms.

Asthenosoma Grubei, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This species is closely allied to Asthenosema varium of Grube,
and these two species may perhaps properly form a separate section
of the genus, while such species as A. pellucida, A. hystrix, and A. fenes-
trata would form a second subgenus. The material collected by the
Challenger is scarcely sufficient to determine this. From the large
number of specimens of the genus collected by the Blake, I hope to be
able to determine, before the final report is published, the range of
variation in one or two of the species. The test of this species is
quite tough, the primary plates extremely narrow in both areas, well
covered by primary tubercles arranged in one row ; these are larger on
the actinal surface and separated by few smaller secondary tubercles

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 201

rathei irregularly placed. On the actinal membrane the tubercles of
both areas are identical in size, forming regular concentric rings
broken by the bare spaces in the median areas round the actinostome.
The spines of the actinal surface are more or less trumpet-shaped at
the "extremity, with well-worn tips ; those of the abactinal region are
pointed and generally covered by a loose muscular sheath extending
beyond the end of the spine, forming a series of swellings, from four
to six, around the sharp cylindrical spine which it encloses. — Zam-
boanga, 10 fathoms.

Asthenosoma coriacea, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Distinguished from the preceding by its broader primary plates and
by having similar spines on both the actinal and abactinal surfaces.
The primary tubercles are few in number, limited mainly to the prox-
imity of the edge of the test, both on the actinal and abactinal sides.
One principal row extends to the abactinal area on the edge of the
interambulacral plates of the abactinal side, and one on the actinal side.
The remainder of the interambulacral plates are closely covered by
small secondary tubercles or miliaries. In the ambulacral area the
large primary tubercles extend only over a few plates on each side of
the middle of the test. — Station 204, 100 fathoms ; Station 173, 310
fathoms ; Tongatabu ; Station 299, 2,160 fathoms.

Asthenosoma tessellata, A. Ag., nov. sp.

The specimen on which this species is established may prove to be
only a younger stage of the preceding. It presents, however, such
^striking features in the extremely regular arrangement of its plates,
both on the actinal and abactinal sides, and their uniform size both in
the ambulacral and interambulacral areas, that for the present it may
be convenient to distinguish this species from A. coriacea until we
know something more of the changes this group of Echini undergo
during growth.

The same remarks apply to a number of small Asthenosoma?
and Phorrnosomae which, unfortunately, coming from many different
localities, I am unable, on account of the great differences they show
from the fully-grown forms, to associate them at present with any of
the species here described. — Station 200, 250 fathoms.

Phormosoma luculenta, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This species is readily distinguished from the others of the genus
by the greater solidity of the test, its pinkish or violet color seen

202 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

from the abactinal side, and the few long, large, dark violet primary
spines of this surface, with similarly colored short, fine secondary and
miliary spines standing out in bold contrast to the light test, and by the
large size of the anal system and of the genital openings on the actinal
side. The primary tubercles of the actinal side carry large spines
tipped with white cup-shaped appendages, performing for this group
the same functions as a similar tip on the spines of the actinal side
of the Arbaciadre. The secondary and miliary spines similar to those of
the abactinal side. One specimen in the collection differs from the
majority of the others in having the test and spine of a uniform
yellowish-pink color. Station 200, 255 fathoms; Station 205, 1,050
fathoms ; Station 332, 245 fathoms.

Phormosoma tenuis, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Closely allied to Phormosoma uranus, W. Th., from which it dif-
fers mainly in having larger and more numerous primary tubercles,
especially on the actinal side, while on the abactinal side the small
number of miliaries occurring in this species give it a very different
facies. The coronal plates are more numerous in P. uranus than in
specimens of the same size of this species, and the abactinal system is
also proportionally smaller in P. tenuis, and the anal system made up
of larger plates. — Station 274, 2,750 fathoms ; Station 237, 1,875
fathoms.

Prionechinus sagittiger, A. Ag., nov. gen. & sp.

The apical system of this genus is similar to that of Salmacidae.
Single row of plates of pores on each side of median ambulacral line.
Actinal membrane covered by plates. Spines serrated, somewhat flat-
tened, radically different from those of any other genus of Triplechinidse.
As is well known, the serrations of the spines of young Echini proper
disappear with age, and it is only among the Cidaridre, Salenidae, and
the like, that we find spines greatly differing in allied genera or spe-
cies, the spines of the Echinidoe proper being remarkable for their
uniformity. Unfortunately only indifferently preserved specimens of
this interesting genus were collected, and they are probably not fully
grown, as the large anal system is still covered by a few large plates,
as in all young Echini. Genital plates of uniform size ; ocular plates
notched in apex, excluded from anal system. — Station 164, 950
fathoms ; Station 218, 1,070 fathoms.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 203

Cottaldia Forbesiana, A. Ag., nov. sp.

There is only a single specimen of this interesting species (probably
not full grown). It is closely allied to the tertiary Psammechinus
monilis ; pores are arranged in simple vertical rows, much as in Temne-
chinus. The spines similar to those of Salmacitlae ; large abactinal
system of Temnopleurus, without, however, any trace of the indentations
and pits of the Salmacidoe and Temnopleuridag. Actinostome sunken,
actinal membrane covered with ten large plates, spine white or a yel-
lowish orange, primary tubercles of the same size in both areas, form-
ing a very marked vertical row in the ambulacral area ; secondaries
forming indistinct horizontal rows near the ambitus, genital opening
small, sharply cut ; genital plates crowded with secondaries, anal sys-
tem covered by few plates. — Station 173, 315 fathoms.

Trigonocidaris monolini, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This species is readily distinguished from T. albida by the structure
of its actinal membrane and the striking ornamentation of the genital
ring, and the relatively smaller number of primary coronal plates and
coarser pitted reticulation, both in the ambulacral and interambulacral
areas. The ten buccal plates occupy nearly the whole of the distal
edge of the actinal ring, while in T. albida they are small and the
actinal membrane is crowded by imbricating plates. A prominent
ridge extends round the edge of tbe ocular plates and across the ad-
joining genital plates, forming a pentagon with rounded angles round
the anal system ; two or three prominent secondary tubercles are
placed in the middle of the genital plates. No similar ornamentation
in found in T. albida. — Station 170, 520 fathoms.

Echinus horridus, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Fragments and imperfect specimens of a large conical Echinus were
collected in the Straits of Magellan which cannot be referred to any
of the species already known from that locality. It seems to be read-
ily characterized by its narrow poriferous zone. One principal row
of primary tubercles in the interambulacral space, with secondaries in
irregular diverging lines from it ; the spines are remarkable for their
length, even comparatively much longer than in some specimens of
E. acutus; abactinal system very compact; large genital plates, small
ocular plates. Actinostome small, not as large as abactinal system ;
color of test reddish brown when dry, spines darker color. — Off Tom
Bay ; Station 308, 175 fathoms.

204 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Catopygus recens, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Only denuded tests of this Bpecies were collected. Apex anterior
and corresponding with apical system. Prominent rounded keel at ex-
tremity of anal groove, sloping towards the actinostome, three genital
poj'es, abactinal system indistinct, odd anterior and anterior pair of
ambulacra of equal length, longer than posterior ones ; tubercles form
ing uniform granulation over the test, phyllodes and bourrelets well
marked. Test gibbous in median odd posterior interambulacral space
between apical system and anal opening, also in the centre of the
plates of the lateral posterior interambulacra, the swelling of this por-
tion of the test becoming more prominent on the actinal side ; actinos-
tome sunken, upper edge of anal opening flush with the test, the
posterior edge at the bottom of the anal groove. Ambulacral plates
of nearly uniform size along sides of the test, becoming gradually nar-
rower towards actinostome. — Station 192, 129 fathoms.

Palceotropus Loveni, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Differs from the West Indian P. Josepkince in being more elongate,
in having its greatest breadth near the posterior extremity ; apical
system, on the contrary, nearer the anterior extremity. It has also a
larger subanal fasciole ; the anus is placed on the upper plane of the
truncated posterior end ; its greatest diameter is horizontal, the pos-
terior part of the actinal plastron forms a rounded keel. — Station
210, 375 fathoms.

Pourtalesia hispida, A. Ag., nov. sp.

The species of Pourtalesia proper are readily separated into two
groups from the character of the test, the one containing such rectan-
gular forms, or more or less bottle-shaped forms, as two of the species
of Pourtalesia previously known (P. miranda, P. phiale), with the
additional species discovered by the Challenger (P. laguncida, P. his-
pida), and such forms as P. ceratopyga and P. rosea, which are more
or less triangular in outline when seen from above, their broad anterior
extremity sloping gradually towards the anal end, while the rectangu-
lar forms, such as P. hispida, P. carinata, P. Jeffreysi, are interme-
diate between the two groups, having something of the rounded test
of the former group, and the flattened actinal side with the more solid
test of the last. The present species, P. hispida, differs from its
nearest ally, P. Jeffreysi, in having a shorter anal snout, a more flat-
tened actinal surface, a smaller actinal plastron, and a smaller number

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 205

of larger primary tubercles arranged in horizontal rows across the
primary plates. Its outline is more rectangular anteriorly, and more
nearly vertically truncated. — Station 147, 1,600 fathoms; Station
156, 1,975 fathoms.

Pourtalesia laguncula, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This is very closely allied to P. miranda ; it is, however, more
bottle-shaped, comparatively broader at the anterior extremity, shorter,
with a wide anal snout and a more vertically truncated anterior ex-
tremity ; shorter actinal plastron, with broad fasciole round the anal
snout. This fasciole I did not detect in P. miranda, and as the unique
specimen is at present in the hands of Professor Loven I am unable to
give its position in that species. — Station 191, 800 fathoms ; Station
168, 1,100 fathoms; Station 232, 344 fathoms; Station, 244,2,900
fathoms.

Pourtalesia carinata, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This is a large species with a comparatively stout test, quite gibbous,
apex posterior, with its greatest breadth near the posterior extremity ;
largest primary spines on median interambulacral line of abactinal side
of test in the anterior and in the odd interambulacra ; rest of test
quite thickly covered with small secondary spines, increasing in size
towards the ambitus ; on the actinal side the plastron carries still
larger primary spines closely packed on the ridge of the actinal
keel. — Station 299, 2,160 fathoms ; Station 157, 1,950 fathoms.

Pourtalesia ceratopyga, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Test seen from above, triangular, with rounded apex formed by
anal snout and base with rounded corners and re-entering centre, as
well as re-entering sides. Seen in profile, the outline is rectangular,
with the anal snout projecting from the posterior extremity like a
knob. The actinal side is nearly flat, the abactinal outline somewhat
rounded posteriorly (apex posterior), while abactinal system is placed
nearer the anterior extremity, which also rounds off gradually. Seen
endwise, the outline is triangular, with rounded corners ; actinal groove
less pronounced than in the species of the P. miranda type. The test
is thickly covered by tubercles of nearly uniform size, irregularly
arranged, carrying short slender spines ; they are larger and carry
longer spines along the abactinal keel and on the sides of the actinal
groove. The color of the test, which is quite solid, is deep violet. —
Station 298, 2,225 fathoms.

206 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Pourtalesia rosea, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Fragments only of this species were collected. It is, however, well
characterized by the peculiar shape of the anal snout, which is later-
ally compressed, truncated posteriorly. From the few fragments of
the test found they must belong to a large species closely allied to P.
ceratopyga. — Station 272, 2,600 fathoms.

Cionobrissus revinctus, A. Ag., nov. gen. & sp.

This genus is interesting, pointing as it does to the affinity of the
Pourtalesise and Brissina. It resembles Brissopsis somewhat, has
like it a peripetalous fasciole and petaloid ambulacra, and also pos-
sesses a well-marked subanal fasciole surrounding what corresponds to
a rudimentary anal snout, somewhat like the beak of Echinocardium.
The large tubercles within the peripetalous fasciole recall Macro-
pneustes, and the groove at the end of which is placed the actinos-
tome, with the rounded actinal surface with its keeled actinal plastron,
remind us somewhat of the Pourtalesiae. The spines of the test are
pretty uniform in size, with the exception of the larger ones within
the peripetalous fascioles. — Station 191, 800 fathoms.

Echinocrepis cuneata, A. Ag., nov. gen. & sp.

This genus has, like Pourtalesia, a deeply-sunken actinal groove
and simple ambulacral pores piercing the test. It has, like the species
of the group to which P. ceratopyga belongs, a triangular outline when
seen from above, with re-entering base and sides and somewhat angu-
lar rounded corners, but has no anal snout ; anal system placed on the
actinal side. Seen in profile, the apex is anterior, corresponding with
the abactinal system. The test is uniformly covered with small tuber-
cles carrying small slender spines, with the exception of a few larger
tubercles near the abactinal area in the interambulacral spaces, along
the actinal keel and the anterior interambulacral spaces of the actinal
side, and round the anal system. Seen endwise, the outline is that of
a truncated cone. The color of the test is violet brown. — Station
147, 1,600 fathoms.

Spatagocystis Challengeri, A. Ag., nov. gen. & sp.

The new genera Spatagocystis, Cystechinus, Urechinus, and Geni-
copatagus are among the most interesting Ecbini ever discovered, on
account of their decided affinities to the strange group of Pourtalesiae,

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 207

as well as their similarity, in many respects, to such cretaceous forms
as Holaster, Cardiaster, and Ananchytes. j

The present genus has a thin test, an outline from above resembling
Holaster, but when seen in profile a well-developed actinal anal snout
shows its affinity to the Pourtalesiee. Seen in profile, the outline is
regularly arched until it reaches the posterior extremity, which is
pointed, projecting above the anal snout. This genus has a short but
deeply sunken actinal groove and a small anal pouch. The color of
the test of this species is pinkish, sparsely covered on the abactinal
side by slender sharp spines of a uniform length. On the actinal side
the spines are larger. — Station 157, 1,950 fathoms; Station 147,
1,600 fathoms.

Urechinus naresianus, A. Ag., nov. gen. & sp.

Urechinus and Cystechinus have not the sunken actinal groove
which characterizes the Pourtalesias. In these genera the actinos-
tome is more or less central, and does not differ materially in its
structure or position from that of the more normal Spatangoids. The
structure of the ambulacra, however, is, as in Pourtalesias and the
other deep-water forms allied to them, quite different from that of the
Spatangoids, with which externally they present many points of re-
semblance. Urechinus in outline and general appearance resembles,
at first glance, Neolampas, but in the structure of the test it is more
closely allied to Cystechinus, having like it a nearly flat actinostome
and large ambulacral plates. The anal system alone recalls Neolampas
by its position in a shallow groove placed above the ambitus. The
young specimens differ but little from the older stages, the interambu-
lacral projection over the anal system alone is not quite so prominent,
and the actinostome less sunken. The number of primary tubercles
in younger stages is limited to one for each plate, only becoming
more numerous in older specimens when the whole test is thickly
covered with fine slendar miliary and secondary spines. The spines
are yellowish white, the test of a reddish brown color or pinkish color.
The lower surface of the test closely tuberculated. — Station 147,
1,600 fathoms; Station 146, 1,375 fathoms; Station 158, 1,800
fathoms.

Cystechinus, A. Ag., nov. gen.

This genus has the general appearance of Ananchytes, with the
simple ambulacral system of the Pourtalesias ; actinostome much less
labiate than in that group of Spatangoids. This genus and Urechi-

208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEEICAN ACADEMY

nus, as well as Homolampas and Palaeotropus, with the actinostome
nearly in one plane, form a ready transition to the actinostome of the
Nucleolidse and Echinolampadae by the additional development of the
interambulacral tubercles in immediate proximity to the actinostome
and their crowding together to form bourrelets more or less prominent,
and thus pass into such types as Neolampas, which have the simple
ambulacra of this group, with the actinostome of the Echinolampadaa
proper.

Cystechinus Wyvillii, A. Ag., nov. sp.

The outline of test seen from above is nearly elliptical, slightly
broader anteriorly across the actinostome. Seen endwise, the outline
is conical, with rounded apex and sides gradually rounding to ambitus.
Actinal surface flat, slightly sunken actinostome, anal system near pos-
terior edge on actinal side. Seen in profile, the outline is also conical,
with rounded apex placed slightly posteriorly (apex and apical system
coincide). The test slopes, with slightly re-entering sides towards
the anterior and posterior extremities, passing into ambitus with a
rather abruptly rounded outline near edge of test. The whole test is
covered with short, sharp spines, carried by the few large tubercles
arranged on the primary plates. Ridges radiating from the centre of
each plate give to the side of the test, when denuded, a peculiarly
ornate appearance. The color of the test is violet, spines of same
color, darker. 'Test quite thin and very variable in outline according
to age. Young specimens are quite flat. — Station 14G, 1,375 fathoms;
Station 147, 1,600 fathoms; Station 158, 1,800 fathoms.

Cystechinus clypeatus, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Judging from the fragments of the test of this species, it must have
grown to a very large size, probably five or six inches in diameter.
It differs from the preceding species in having a much shorter test ;
the arrangement of the plates of the anal system is quite different in
this and the preceding species. In C. clypeatus, although the speci-
mens are larger, there are fewer plates covering the anal system than
in C. Wyvillii; in this species the genital plates are also much larger
in proportion. Judging from a fragment of the actinostome, the
actinal surface was more closely covered with primary tubercles than
in the preceding species. — Station 133, 1,900 fathoms ; Station 205,
1,050 fathoms.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 209

Oystechinus vesica, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This species is at once distinguished from its congeners by the flex-
ible nature of the test. This is so thin that its mere weight out of
alcohol is sufficient to change the shape of the test, which has, T^hen
seen in profile, much the appearance of an old felt hat. The outline
of the flat actinal surface is regularly elliptical. The anal system is
placed just beyond the edge of the ambitus ; the whole actinal surface
is more thickly covered by large primary tubercles than the abactinal
part of the test, where they are more distant ; the spines are short,
slender, sharp ; the color in alcohol is greenish brown. The most
prominent character of this species is the large size of the plates of
ambulacral area, resembling, in this respect, more Galerites than Anan-
chytes. — Station 153, 1,675 fathoms; Station 298, 2,225 fathoms.

Homolampas fulva, A. Ag., nov. sp.

The species on which this genus was originally established was quite
small ; it is therefore difficult to compare the two. Outline, seen from
above, is slightly heart-shaped, greatest width near anterior extremity
across abactinal system ; anterior ambulacrum broadly re-entering anal
extremity deeply indented. A few large tubercles in interambulacral
spaces carry long curved spines ; rest of test on abactinal side carries
short slender spines of uniform length, closely crowded together ; on
actinal side, posterior ambulacral areas bare ; actinal plastron and
lateral interambulacral spaces paved with large tubercles regularly
arranged and carrying moderately long curved spines ; subanal fasciole
broad, pentagonal in outline. Seen in profile, test slopes regularly
from apex, the short side anteriorly, the long side towards anal ex-
tremity, which is anteriorly truncated ; color in alcohol, yellowish. —
Station 271, 2,475 fathoms.

Argopatagus vitreus, A. Ag., nov. gen. & sp.

This genus is allied to Homolampas. It has, like it, a subanal fas-
ciole, but no lateral fasciole, a more labiate actinostome. The abac-
tinal surface is covered by distant primary tubercles of uniform size
both in ambulacral and interambulacral areas. They are more nu-
merous, but smaller, on the actinal surface.

In this species the apex and apical system are posterior, the outline

from above is elliptical, slightly re-entering anteriorly. The test is

quite low ; actinal surface flat, regularly arching from apex to anterior

and posterior extremities. The plates of the ambulacral and inter-

vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 14

210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

avnbulacral areas of the abactinal side are of very uniform size, those
of the bivium being, however, somewhat larger than those of the
trivium. Station 191, 800 fathoms.

Paleopneustes Murrayi, A. Ag., nov. sp.

A number of large reddish-brown specimens were collected, unfor-
tunately all nearly of the same size, so that I am unable to determine
if the presence of a more or less well defined lateral fasciole is a suffi-
cient reason for separating this species from the typical Paleopneustes,
in which this fasciole either does not exist, or only in a very rudimen-
tary condition. This species is at once separated from the West
Indian species by the lesser height of the test, the smaller actinal
plastron, the far greater length of the petaloid ambulacra, the propor-
tionally larger primary tubercles on the abactinal side of the test, and
the shorter truncated plane of the posterior extremity in which the
anal system is placed. — Station 232, 345 fathoms.

Geulcopatagus affinis, A. Ag., nov. gen. & sp.

This genus has striking affinities with Holaster, Toxaster, and Car-
diaster. The lateral ambulacra and the odd ambulacrum have an
identical structure, as in Toxaster, the ambulacra are slightly sunken,
the double pores giving the ambulacra above the ambitus a slight
petaloid appearance, much as in Paleopneustes. Seen in profile, the
test is hemispherical, with prominently labiate actinostome and a fiat
actinal surface. The primary tubercles occupy the central part of the
plates on the abactinal side of the test. On the actinal side the pri-
mary tubercles are large and prominent in the interambulacral areas.
The ambulacral plates carry but a few secondary tubercles. The
anal system is placed half-way between the ambitus and the abactinal
system. The color of the test varies from pinkish to yellowish green. —
Station 157, 1,950 fathoms.

Hemiaster gibbosus, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Seen in profile, the anal extremity is nearly vertically truncated, the
apex is close to the posterior edge, thence the test slopes gradually to
the anterior extremity, somewhat beyond the apical system, this is also
vertically truncated and rounded, the actinal line is quite flat. Seen
from above, the outline is elliptical, widest at posterior extremity.
Test covered with tubercles of uniform size and equally distributed
over the plates, except in the lateral posterior interambulacra, where
the plates are comparatively bare, as well as on the actinal surface,

OP AETS AND SCIENCES. 211

where the tubercles are larger and on the actinal plastron and interam-
bulacral spaces ; peripetalous fasciole broad pentagonal in outline ; anal
system quite small ; anal groove shallow. — Station 232, 345 fathoms ;
Station 191, 800 fathoms.

Tlemiaster zonatus, A. Ag., nov. sp.
The specimens of Hemiaster collected by the Challenger in the
vicinity of the locality from which Loven's H. expergitus was obtained
cannot be referred to it at present, although the differences between
them may be due merely to age. In this species the spines are uni-
formly distributed over the whole abactinal surface of the test, the
anal groove is deeper than in the preceding species, and the peripeta-
lous fasciole is also broader. This species is more globular in shape,
and closely allied to the cretaceous H. 'prunella. — Station 126, 750
fathoms.

Rhinobrissus hemiasteroides, A. Ag., nov. sp.

This is a much smaller species than the one which I figured in the
Revision of the Echini, and it is referred to the genus with some doubt,
as this species presents characters which remind us strongly of Metalia
(the peripetalous fasciole) and of Brissopsis (anal fasciole), and even of
Brissus proper. It has, like Rhinobrissus, the odd ambulacrum flush
with the test, as well as the remarkably broad actinal ambulacral areas
round the actinostome, and the great length of the spines in the lateral
posterior interambulacra on the actinal side. It has, however, the
lateral petals much as in Metalia proper, as well as its subanal fas-
ciole, without the large anal branch so jirominent in Rhinobrissus.
The apex corresponds, also, as in Metalia, with the abactinal system,
and is nearer the anterior extremity, which is posterior in Rhino-
brissus. The spines of the abactinal surface are short, of uniform
size, whitish color in alcohol. — Tahiti Harbor, 20 fathoms.

Schizaster claudicans, A. Ag., nov. sp.
This pretty little Schizaster is readily distinguished from its con-
geners by its high posterior extremity, nearly vertical, the sharp nar-
row clean-cut lateral fasciole, and the deeply sunken ambulacral petals
fringed by an indistinct peripetalous fasciole. It has a narrow actinal
plastron ; anal opening placed immediately under the abactinal edge
of the posterior interambulacral keel. Abactinal surface covered by
close uniform tuberculation above the ambitus ; odd anterior ambu-
lacral petal shorter than the anterior pair of petals. — Station 192,
129 fathoms.

212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Schizaster japonicus, A. Ag., nov. sp.

Differs from S. ventricosus in having the posterior ambulacra pro-
portionally longer, and forming a more acute angle with the longitudi-
nal axis. It has a very distinct lateral and subanal fasciole ; keel of
median posterior interambulacral space forming a high crest at that
extremity of the test, while S. ventricosus is remarkable for its com-
paratively flattened and rounded posterior extremity ; ambulacra also
more deeply sunken, much as in S. canaliferus and S. Philippii.
These characters are early developed, and can serve, even in quite small
specimens, readily to distinguish the two species. — Off Yokohama,
8-50 fathoms.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 213

XV.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO AMERICAN BOTANY.

By Sereno Watson.

Presented May 14, 1879.

I. Revision of the North American Liliacece.

The order Liliacece, as outlined by Dr. Gray in the last edition of his
Manual (1867), and as now generally understood by botanists, pre-
sents such a diversity in its characters and their combinations that it is
by no means easy to satisfactorily group the genera according to their
affinities, or to arrange them in any seemingly natural sequence or
sequences. The difficulty is not much diminished, but rather increased,
when the question is confined to the genera of a limited geographical
area ; hence, in the following attempt at a classification of the fifty
genera that are found in North America, their relations to the rest of
the order have been in some measure taken into account.

If the character of a baccate as distinguished from a capsular fruit
be considered a subordinate one (as seems to be necessary), a division
of the genera may be made into three series or suborders, which,
notwithstanding exceptions, are on the whole pretty clearly defined.
The first and largest of these is prominently distinguished by its
scarious floral bracts, persistent nerved perianth, perigynous stamens
with introrse anthers, an undivided persistent style, and a loculicidal
fruit (if capsular). This includes much the larger portion of the
genera which have usually been considered as belonging to the capsu-
lar Liliacece, as well as most of the Asparaginece. Both of the other
divisions have the stamens hypogynous or nearly so, with more or
less extrorse anthers, and the floral bracts are more or less foliaceous
or are wanting. Both also always have distinct perianth-segments
and unjointed pedicels. But one has a nerveless deciduous perianth,
the styles (when present) more or less united, and the fruit a loculi-
cidal capsule or a berry ; to this belong the Liliece or Tulipece proper,
the Uvulariece and the Trilliece, as here defined, and a few other

214 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

genera. The other division, corresponding nearly to the old order
Melanthacece, has distinct styles and a septicidal capsule conjoined
with a persistent nerved perianth.

The subdivision into tribes is here based upon the characters of the
inflorescence, and such others as can be used without separating evi-
dently allied genera, to avoid which it is sometimes found necessary to
lay little stress either upon the degree of union of the segments of
the perianth or upon root-characters. The grade of the tribes is
equalized so far as possible by reducing the less positively marked
groups to the rank of subtribes, though some isolated genera are
still left, which refused to be so degraded. As respects the citation of
authorities under the specific descriptions, only the more important
synonyms and figures are usually referred to. Much indebtedness is
acknowledged to the recent revisions of various portions of the order
by Mr. J. G. Baker of Kew, although his conclusions are not in every
case adopted. It is a source of regret that his last paper upon the
" Colchicacece " has not yet been issued, and that the present article,
which has been delayed for some time with the hope of benefiting by
it, must be completed without such assistance.

SERIES I. Floral bracts present and more or less scarious. Perianth per-
sistent ; segments 1-several-nerved. Stamens perigynous ; anthers introrse.
Style undivided, persistent. Capsule loculicidally dehiscent Seeds more or
less turgid, ascending, with close black testa. Leaves with approximate longi-
tudinal nerves and transverse veinlets. Pedicels often jointed.

Exceptions. Style and perianth deciduous in Odoniostomum. Style deciduous
in Chlorofjalum and Hesperaloe; sometimes wanting and capsule sometimes
baccate or septicidal in Yucca. Fruit baccate or indehiscent, with light-colored
seeds, in Conrallariece. and Nolinece. Seeds dark brown in Odoniostomum; hori-
zontally flattened in Ilesperocallis and Yuccece.

Subseries I. Inflorescence umbellate, upon a naked scape arising from a
corm or bulb ; sessile upon a short rootstock in Leucocrinum.

Tribe I. Allieae. Bracts (usually 2) broad and spathaceous : capsule more
or less deeply lobed, the filiform style jointed upon the axis : seetls one to sev-
eral in each cell, angular or subovate : perianth cleft nearly to the base ; seg-
ments 1-nerved : pedicels not jointed : bulb mostly tunicated.

1. Allium. Flowers deep rose-color to white. Capsule subglobose
or obovate, deeply lobed and often crested : base of the style en-
closed between the lobes and jointed upon the short axis : cells
1-2-ovuled at the base. Filaments usually dilated at base.
Bracts 2 to 4. Leaves one to several. Scape from a tunicated
bulb (sometimes rhizomatous) or rarely a coated corm. Taste
and odor strongly alliaceous. — In our species the sheaths of the

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 215

leaves rarely extend at all above ground, the bracts are never
elongated, and the filaments are without cusps or teeth, the bases
united into an adnate disk (except in A. tricoccum).

2. Nothoscordum. Flowers greenish or yellowish white. Cap-

sule oblong-obovate, somewhat lobed, obtuse, with the style ob-
scurely jointed on the summit ; cells several-ovuled. Filaments
filiform, distinct, adnate at base. Bracts 2. Leaves several.
Bulb tunicated : not alliaceous.

Tribe II. Milleae. Bracts several, not spathaceous, distinct : capsule not
lobed (or slightly so), acute, and beaked by the mostly stout (at length split-
ting) style : seeds few to several in each cell, angular : perianth-segments more
or less united or distinct, 1-nerved or rarely closely 2-3-nerved : scape from a
membranous- or fibrous-coated corm.

* Perianth parted to the base or nearly so ; segments spreading, closely
2-3-nerved : stamens in one row at the base ; anthers versatile : capsule obovate
or subglobose, sessile or nearly so ; cells several-seeded.

3. Muilla. Flowers greenish-white. Filaments filiform, naked,

adnate at base. Pedicels not jointed. Leaves several.

4. Bloomeria. Flowers yellow, on jointed pedicels. Filaments

elongated, free, surrounded at base by a somewhat cup-shaped
and winged appendage. Leaf solitary.

* * Perianth evidently gamophyllous, with the stamens on the throat.
■t- Perianth funnel- form ; segments 1-nerved »( very rarely 2-3-nerved in
Brodicea) : pedicels jointed (except in Androstephium) .

5. Brodicea. Perianth more or less narrowly funnel-form, not con-

tracted at the throat, nor saccate or but very slightly so at base,
blue-purple or white or yellow. Stamens 6, in one or two rows
with winged or naked filaments, or 3 and alternate with as many
staminodia. Capsule ovate to oblong.

6. Stropholirion. Flowers rose-colored, the short broadly turbinate

tube 6-saccate, contracted at the throat, about equalling the
spreading limb. Stamens 3, alternate with 3 ligulate staminodia ;
filaments winged ; anthers basifixed. Capside nearly sessile, ovate,
acuminate.

7. Brevoortia. Perianth-tube broad, 6-saccate at base, deep scarlet,

several times longer than the short erect or reflexed yellowish limb.
Stamens 3, alternate with 3 broad truncate staminodia ; anthers
basifixed, nearly sessile. Capsule long-stipitate, ovate, acuminate.

8. Androstephium. Flowers pale lilac, the cylindrical tube about

equalling or shorter than the somewhat spreading limb. Sta-
mens 6, in one row ; the filaments united to form an erect tubular

216 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

crown, with bifid lobes alternate with the oblong versatile anthers.
Capsule sessile, subglobose-triquetrous. Seeds large.

*- ■*- Perianth salver-form ; segments 3-nerved : pedicels not jointed.

9. Milla. Flowers white, greenish outside with stout green midveins,

the tube narrowly turbinate. Stamens nearly sessile, in one row,
naked : authers basifixed. Capsule sessile, oblong-obovate.

Tktbe III. Leucocrineae. Acaulescent ; flowers on subterranean pedicels
in a sessile umbel, with elongated linear bracts, from a short rootstock : peri-
anth salver-form, with linear tube and several-nerved segments : stamens in
one row near the throat ; anthers basifixed : capsule sessile, triangular-obovate ;
seeds obovate, angled, several in each cell.

10. Leucocrinum. Flowers white, very fragrant. Filaments fili-
form ; anthers linear. Style slender and elongated, tubular,
dilated at the summit. Leaves narrowly linear, surrounded at
base by scarious bracts. Floral bracts sheathing the pedicels.

Subseries II. Inflorescence racemose or paniculate.

Tribe IV. Phalangieae. Flowers mostly small, with distinct segments, on
jointed naked pedicels with small bracts, in simple or usually paniculate racemes :
stem somewhat leafy or naked, from a tunicated bulb or rootstock or fleshy-
fibrous root : anthers versatile.

* Capsule obovate or oblong : seeds angled, several in each cell : flowers
rather large, racemose on a naked scape from a tunicated bulb.

11. Camassia. Floweft blue (rarely white), slightly gibbous; seg-
ments 3— 7-nerved, spreading. Base of the style persistent.
Seeds black and shining. Raceme open. Leaves linear, flat.

* * Capsule oblong; cells several-seeded: seeds angular and somewhat flat-
tened: pedicels (usually fascicled) jointed near the middle : root fleshy-fibrous.

12. Hesperanthes. Flowers yellow or yellowish; segments spread-
ing from the base, 3-5-nerved in the middle, twice longer than the
stamens, at length twisted over the ovary. Filaments muricate,
longer than the anthers. Style elongated and very slender,
becoming declinate. Leaves narrowly linear and grass-like, sur-
rounded at base by the fibrous remnants of older ones. — Anthe-
ricum, subgen. Hesperanthes, Baker, Jouru. Linn. Soc. 15. 317.

* * * Capsule triangular-obovate, 3-lobed ; cells (2-ovuled) 1-2-seeded : seeds
obovate: pedicels (mostly solitary) jointed at the summit: stem from a tuni-
cated bulb or rootstock. — Subtribe Chlorogale^;.

13. Schcenolirion. Flowers yellow or whitish, in loose simple or
sparingly panicled racemes, the perianth not scarious nor becom-
ing connivent or twisted over the ovary ; segments distinctly

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 217

3-5-nerved, exceeding the stamens. Style short. Capsule de
pressed globose, deeply-lobed. Seeds subglobose, shining. Stem
naked, scaly and thickened at base, from a thick rootstock.
Leaves rather rigid, few-nerved, very narrow, flat. Pedicels
slender, exceeding the flowers and bracts. Atlantic States.

14. Hastingsia. Flowers white or greenish, in densely many-
flowered sparingly panicled racemes, the perianth lax and scari-
ous ; segments closely 3- (apparently 1-) nerved, equalling the
stamens. Style short. Ovary oblong-ovate, not deeply lobed.
Stem naked or sparingly leafy, from a tunicated bulb. Leaves
broader and more fleshy. Pedicels stout, much shorter than the
flower and bract. California.

15. Chlorogalum. Flowers white or pinkish, in loose paniculate
racemes ; perianth at length twisted over the ovary ; segments
distinctly 3-nerved. Style long, deciduous. Seeds blackish,
somewhat rugose. Bulbs with membranous or densely fibrous
coats. Leaves with undulate margins. California.

Tribe V. Odontostomeae. Flowers small, on solitary bracteolate not
jointed pedicels in an open panicle ; the stem leafy at base, from a fibrous-
coated conn : perianth salver-form, deciduous : stamens on the throat ; anthers
subglobose, basifixed, dehiscent at the summit : style deciduous.

16. Odontostomum. Flowers yellowish, the cylindrical 12-nerved
tube about equalling the at length reflexed 5-nerved segments.
Stamens very short, alternating with as many small linear stami-
nodia. Capsule triangular-obovate, 3-lobed ; cells (2-ovuled)
1 -seeded. Seeds obovate, with dark brown testa. California.

Tribe VI. Convallarieae. Flowers on jointed pedicels in terminal racemes
or racemose panicles or in axillary fascicles, upon leafy simple stems (or a
naked scape in Convallaria) from creeping rootstocks : perianth G-cleft or of
4 or 6 distinct 1-nerved small glandless segments : style short, usually some-
what persistent ; stigma slightly lobed : fruit a globose berry : seeds 1 to several
in each cell, ascending or horizontal, subglobose, with close thin testa. Stem
naked below (scarious-sheathed at base) : leaves cordate to lanceolate.

* Perianth gamophyllous, campanulate or cylindrical, at length deciduous.

17. Convallaria. Acaulescent. Flowers white, campanulate, cleft
to the middle, on recurved pedicels with small lanceolate bracts,
in a simple one-sided raceme upon a slender curved scape. Sta-
mens near the base ; anthers ovate-oblong, sub-basifixed. Style
stout, persistent ; stigma triangular : ovules 2 or 3 pairs in each
cell. Berries red, usually 6-seeded. Leaves 2 or 3, the long
petioles convolute and stem-like.

218 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

18. Polygonatum. Flowers white or greenish, cylindric, 6-lobed at
the summit, on mostly naked pedicels in axillary pedunculate
fascicles (sometimes solitary). Stamens on the tube ; anthers
linear-oblong, versatile. Style slender, deciduous ; stigma ob-
scurely 3-lobed. Ovules 1 to 3 pairs in each cell. Berry blue or
black ; cells 1-2-seeded. Stem erect or curved ; leaves sessile or
nearly so ; bracts caducous, minute.

* * Perianth-segments distinct, small, spreading, persistent.

19. Smilacina. Flowers white, trimerous, solitary (in our species),

with minute scarious bracts, in a racemose panicle or simple ra-
ceme on an erect leafy stem. Stamens at the base ; filaments
subulate ; anthers short-oblong, versatile. Style short, thick, per-
sistent ; stigma 3-lobed. Ovules a pair in each cell. Berry
red or blue-black, 1-3-seecled. Leaves mostly sessile.

20. Maianthemum. Flowers white, dimerous, solitary or fascicled,
in a simple raceme upon a low 2-3-leaved stem. Filaments fili-
form. Berry red. Leaves ovate- to lanceolate-cordate, mostly
petiolate. Otherwise as Smilacina.

Tribe VII. Nolineae. Flowers very small, whitish, polygamo-dicecious,
on short jointed solitary or fascicled pedicels, in a simple or compound panicle
on a leafy stem from a thick woody caudex or rootstock : perianth campanu-
late ; segments 1-nerved : anthers ovate-cordate, versatile : stigmas very short,
distinct, sessile or on a short style : ovules b", in pairs at the base of the ovary :
fruit dry and thin, indehiscent or bursting irregularly, 1-3-celled, 1-3-seeded :
seed subglobose, with thin light-colored testa : leaves numerous, crowded,
narrowly linear, elongated, rigid, striate, with rough or armed margins.

21. Nolina. Flowers polygamo-dioecious in a loosely racemose
simple or compound panicle ; segments oblong- ovate, usually
acutish. Stamens included. Stigmas sessile or nearly so. Fruit
rounded, deeply triquetrous, thin-membranous, 3-celled, 1-3-
seeded, bursting irregularly. Seeds ovate to globose. Leaves
unarmed. Naked caudex slender with a dilated base, or very
short or wanting. Fertile flowers mostly solitary and on longer
pedicels than the staminate.

22. Dasylirion. Flowers dioecious in dense racemes forming a nar-
row compound panicle, the tall leafy flowering stem terminating
a stout naked cylindrical caudex. Perianth-segments oblong-
obovate, obtuse. Stamens exserted. Style short. Fruit trian-
gular and 3-winged, 1-celled, 1-seeded, coriaceous and indehiscent.
Seed obtusely triangular. Leaves usually armed with hooked
spines. Staminate flowers nearly sessile.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 219

Tribe VIII. Hemerocallideae. Flowers large, on naked jointed pedicels
with conspicuous bracts, simply racemose upon a leafy stem from a tunicated bulb
(or fleshy-fibrous roots) : perianth funnel-form, 6-cleft : stamens on the throat ;
anthers versatile : seeds (in our genus) horizontal, flattened, numerous, black.

23. Hesperocallis. Perianth white, cleft to below the middle ;
segments several-nerved. Anthers linear. Capsule ovate-oblong,
deeply lobed. Raceme few-flowered, the stout pedicels jointed at
the summit.

Tribe IX. Yucceae. Flowers racemose-paniculate upon a stout leafy or
leafy-bracteate stem from a stout caudex or thick and often branching rootstock ;
segments distinct : anthers versatile, sagittate : seeds numerous, in 2 rows in
each cell, horizontal, flattened, black. Leaves numerous and crowded, linear,
thick and more or less rigid : pedicels jointed at the summit.

24. Hesperaloe. Perianth narrowly cylindric, reddish; segments
linear, about 7-nerved. Filaments subulate-filiform, smooth ;
anthers linear-oblong. Style filiform, deciduous ; stigma small,
capitate. Capsule loculicidal, 3-celled. Caudex very short,
sending up a slender sparingly bracteate flowering stem : leaves
linear, deeply channelled, with filiferous margins : flowers fas-
cicled, erect.

25. Yucca. Perianth campanulate, white or whitish ; segments
ovate-lanceolate, many-nerved. Filaments clavate, often papil-
lose ; anthers small. Style stout and persistent (or none) ; the
emarginate stigmas more or less connate into a stigmatic tube.
Fruit baccate, or capsular and septicidal or loculicidal, incom-
pletely 6-celled. Rarely acaulescent, usually with a stout woody
caudex, often tall and tree-like : leaves linear-lanceolate, spines-
cent at apex : flowers usually solitary and nodding.

SERIES II. Floral bracts none or foliaceous. Perianth deciduous ; segments
distinct, net-veined. Stamens hypogynous, or at the very base ; anthers more
or less extrorse. Styles united at least at base, deciduous. Fruit loculici-
dally dehiscent or berry-like. Seeds turgid, with thin close brown testa. Flowers
mostly large and showy, solitary or racemose or pseud-umbellate. Pedicels not
jointed. Leaves with anastomosing veinlets.

Exceptions. Perianth persistent in Lloydia and Trillium ; segments several-
nerved in Lloydia, Clintonia, Medeola, and Scoliopus. Anthers usually introrse in
Trillium. Style persistent in Lloydia ; stigmas sessile and persistent in Calo-
chortus, Scoliopus, and Trillium. Capsule mostly septicidal in Calockortus. Seeds
flat and horizontal in most Liliece ; crustaceous in Clintonia. Leaves with trans-
verse veinlets in Lloydia (?), Calockortus, Scoliopus, and most TJvulariea..

Tribe X. Lilieae. Flowers terminal or axdlary or subumbellate, upon a
more or less leafy stem from a bulb or coated corm, campanulate or funnel-
form ; segments usually nearly equal and similar, bearing a nectary or gland :
capsule many-seeded : seeds horizontal or ascending.

220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

* Stem simple, strict, leafy, from a scaly bulb : floral bracts leaf-like : anthers
versatile : styles elongated : capsule not triquetrous : seeds flat, horizontal.

26. Lilidm. Perianth-segments oblanceolate, more or less spreading
or recurved, often dotted or spotted ; nectary a linear groove.
Anthers distinctly versatile. Style undivided. Bulb-scales lan-
ceolate.

27. Fritillaria. Perianth-segments broader and concave, often
mottled; nectary a shallow pit. Anthers more obscurely versa-
tile. Styles united to the middle or throughout. Bulb-scales
mostly short, very thick.

* * Stem simple, low, lax, from an oblong membranous-coated corm, bearing
a pair of dilated leaves, without floral bracts : anthers basifixed : styles elon-
gated : capsule triangular or triquetrous : seeds ascending, turgid, brownish.

28. Erythronium. Perianth-segments oblanceolate, strongly revo-
lute, mostly callous-toothed at base each side of the grooved
nectary. Styles usually distinct above. Seeds obovoid, angled,
the testa loose and rugose at top.

* * * Stem simple, dwarf, from a small tunicated bulb : leaves linear, with-
out veinlets : perianth persistent, the equal segments 3-nerved, with a naked
obscure gland at base : anthers very small, basifixed : style slender, undivided,
persistent : capsule triquetrous : seeds horizontal, flat. — Subtribe Lloydie^e.

29. Lloydia. Perianth small, spreading, white with purplish veins
and base. Stem slender, leafy, usually 1-flowered ; the bulb
upon an oblique rhizome, covered by the persistent scarious bases
of the nearly filiform leaves. Arctic or alpine.

* * * * Stem usually branched, from a coated corm, sparingly leafy : leaves
with transverse veinlets : perianth of unequal segments, the outer smaller, some-
what greenish and sepaloid, the inner dilated and mostly with pitted and bearded
or crested glands : anthers basifixed : stigmas sessile, distinct, recurved, per-
sistent : capsule usually deeply triquetrous, mostly septicidal : seeds ascending,
with light-colored spongy testa, rarely flat and horizontal. — Subtribe Calo-

CHORTEjE.

30. Calochortus. Flowers mostly large and showy, broadly cam-
panulate. Stem usually lax or flexuous, from a membranous- or
rarely fibrous-coated corm.

Tribe XI. Uvularieae. Flowers terminal or pseud-axillary, solitary or
subumbellate, with naked pedicels on leafy branching stems (or in CRntonia on
a scape-like peduncle) from a short or creeping rootstock : perianth narrowly
campanulate ; segments oblanceolate, with a nectariferous groove at the
narrow subgibbous base : anthers linear : styles linear, more or less united,
stigmatic down the inside : fruit a loculicidal or tardily dehiscent capsule, or
berry -like : seeds pendulous: stems scaly-bracted below: leaves dilated, with
numerous nerves and transverse veinlets (reticulated in Prosartes).

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 221

31. Uvularia. Flowers few (1 to 3), solitary, terminating the stem
or leafy branches, pendulous, yellow ; segments acuminate, ob-
tusely gibbous and with a callus or ridge each side of the deep
nectary. Anther-cells adnate to the prolonged connective. Styles
united to the middle. Capsule coriaceous, depressed obovate,
obtusely 3-lobed, loculicidal at the summit. Seeds 1 or 2 in
each cell, globose, brown, half covered by a thin white aril.
Stem terete, from a short rootstock with fleshy-fibrous roots.
Leaves perfoliate, smooth on the margin.

32. Oakesia. Flowers few, solitary, on short pedicels opposite the
leaves, pendulous, yellow ; segments obtuse or acutish, carinately
gibbous and without callosities. Stamens and styles as in the
last. Capsule membranous, elliptical, acutish at each end or
shortly stipitate, triquetrous and acutely winged, very tardily
dehiscent. Seeds 1 to 3 in each cell, globose, brown, with a
very tumid spongy brown rhaphe. Stem acutely angled, from
a slender creeping rootstock. Leaves sessile, clasping, with
scabrous margins.

33. Streptopus. Flowers more numerous, apparently axillary,
the pedicel often geniculate upon a peduncle (a second or third
pedicel and flower sometimes developed), pendulous, greenish-
white or purplish ; segments acuminate, recurved above. An-
thers sagittate, on short deltoid or subulate filaments, acute or
setaceously acuminate. Styles united. Fruit a reddish sub-
globose slightly 3-lobed berry. Seeds few to many in each cell,
oblong, longitudinally striate, light-colored. Leaves clasping.

34. Prosartes. Flowers in fascicles (1-6-flowered) terminating the
branches, white or greenish, suberect or pendulous ; segments
acute or acuminate. Anthers on slender filaments, oblong,
obtuse, dehiscing laterally. Styles united. Ovules 1 to 3 pairs
in each cell. Fruit a somewhat fleshy obtusely lobed reddish
berry. Seeds subglobose to oblong, with very thin close light-
colored testa. Leaves with reticulated veinlets.

35. Clintonia. Flowers solitary or umbellate upon a naked scape-
like peduncle, white, greenish, or rose-colored, erect or nodding ;
segments obtuse or acutish. Anthers on slender filaments, ob-
long to linear, dehiscing laterally. Ovary 2-3-celled : styles
united ; stigma 2-3-lobed (ovary 2-celled and stigma only slightly
2-lobed in our species). Fruit a thin slightly lobed ovoid blue
berry. Seeds smooth, brownish, crustaceous. Root-stock slender,
creeping : leaves radical, large, oblanceolate, sheathing, ciliate.

222 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Tribe XII. Trillieee. Flowers terminal, on solitary or umbellate naked
pedicels subtended by a pair or whorl of leaves upon an otherwise naked stem
(a second whorl in Medeola), from a thick or tuberous rootstock. Perianth
spreading, the segments mostly dissimilar in the two series, the outer often
herbaceous, without glands. Stigmas sessile or nearly so, linear, channelled,
persistent (except in Medeola). Fruit dry or berry-like. Seeds horizontal or
ascending. Leaves broadly ovate to oblanceolate, mostly net-veined.

* Flowers umbellate; segments dissimilar, all petaloid, several-nerved,
deciduous: stamens 3; anthers attached above the base : stigmas persistent:
fruit dry, 1-celled with parietal placentae, many-seeded. Nearly acaulescent;
leaves a radical pair, with numerous parallel nerves and transverse veinlets.
— Subtribe Scohope^;.

36. Scoliopus. Flowers purplish, on slender flexuous pedicels ;
outer segments lanceolate, inner narrowly linear. Anthers ob-
long ; filaments short, filiform-subulate. Style short ; stigmas
recurved. Fruit thin-membranous, bursting irregularly, trique-
trous, oblong, acute at each end, placentiferous at the angles.
Seeds oblong, striate longitudinally, with light-colored testa, dark
chalaza and crested rhaphe. Rootstock short with numerous
fleshy-fibrous roots : whole plant brown-punctate, glabrous.

* * Flowers umbellate ; segments similar, several-nerved, deciduous :
anthers attached above the base : stigmas (3 or 4) sessile, deciduous : fruit a
few-seeded berry: stem slender, bearing two distant whorls of 3-nerved net-
veined leaves. — Subtribe Medeole^e.

37. Medeola. Flowers greenish-white, on recurved pedicels ; seg-
ments oblong, obtuse, recurved. Anthers oblong ; filaments
filiform. Stigmas elongated, divaricate. Berry subglobose, pur-
ple. Seeds roundish. Rootstock tuberous with slender rootlets.

* * * Flowers solitary ; outer segments herbaceous ; inner petaloid, net-
veined, marcescent : anthers adnate, usually introrse : stigmas sessile, per-
sistent : fruit a many-seeded berry : stem with a single whorl of 3-5-nerved
net-veined leaves.

38. Trillium. Flowers white to purple, sessile or pedicellate ; seg-
ments ovate to linear-lanceolate, more or less spreading or
recurved, the outer smaller. Anthers linear ; filaments linear-
subulate. Stigmas linear or subulate, usually recurved above.
Fruit reddish, ovate or subglobose, 3-lobed or more often 6-angled
or -winged, occasionally 1-celled with parietal placentae. Seeds
ovate, scarcely striate, with thick rhaphe.

SERIES III. Perianth persistent ; segments distinct, 1-several-nerved. Sta-
mens at the base of the perianth ; anthers extrorse, versatile, small, distinctly
2-celled except in Veratrece. Styles or sessile stigmas distinct. Capsule
septicidal, triquetrous. Seeds ascending, with loose testa or more or less

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 223

appendaged, not black. Inflorescence a simple raceme or panicle ; pedicels
solitary, not jointed, with green or greenish or rarely scarious bracts, or naked.
Leaves with transverse veinlets, except in Heioniece.

Exceptions. Anthers introrse in Tqfieldiece; filaments adnate in Mdanthium.
Style none or undivided in Narthecium. Capsule loculicidal in Narlhecium and
Xerophjllum. Seeds horizontal in Toficldia and Pleea.

Tribe XIII. Veratreae. Perianth-segments several-nerved, often adnate
to the base of the ovary. Anthers cordate or reniform, dehiscent by a con-
tinuous slit and peltate after opening: stigmas terminal: capsule membranous,
3-beaked by the short persistent styles : seeds with thin loose testa, not caudate
or appendaged : stem usually leafy, from a tunicated bulb or thick rootstock :
leaves not rigid.

* Flowers usually polygamous : cells of the usually ovate-oblong capsule
not divaricately divergent above, dehiscent to the base : seeds several (4 to
many) in each cell, not turgid, oblong to linear, angled, or flattened and
margined.

■t- Inflorescence pubescent, racemose-paniculate, usually staminate below :
seeds flat, whitish, mostly broadly margined: stems tall and leafy, from a
thick rootstock with fleshy-fibrous roots : leaves linear-oblanceolate to sub-
orbicular.

39. Melanthium. Flowers cream-color or greenish, rotate, shorter
than the slender spreading pedicels ; segments orbicular to ob-
lanceolate, conspicuously biglandular or glandless, the filaments
adnate to the narrow claw ; perianth free from the ovate-oblong
capsule.

40. Veratrum. Flowers cream-color, greenish, or purple, more or
less spreading, usually exceeding the short stouter pedicels ;
perianth slightly adnate to the ovary ; segments oblanceolate to
rhombic-ovate, glandless or rather obscurely glandular. Leaves
strongly nerved and more or less plicate.

-i- ■*- Inflorescence glabrous : flowers perfect or polygamous : seeds linear to
narrowly oblong, angled or slightly margined, more or less brown : root bulbous
(except in one species of Zygadenus) : leaves linear.

41. Stenanthium. Flowers white, greenish, or purple, nodding or
subsessile in usually paniculate racemes. Perianth adnate to the
base of the ovary ; segments lanceolate, acuminate, without
glands. Seeds 4 in each cell, angled or somewhat flattened.

42. Zygadenus. Flowers white or greenish, erect, in paniculate or
simple racemes. Perianth often adnate at base ; segments oblong-
lanceolate to ovate, mostly glandular and usually somewhat
narrowed at base. Seeds angled, rarely at all margined.

43. Schcenocaulon. Flowers small, mostly green, nearly sessile
in a simple many-flowered spike-like raceme (usually sterile

224 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

above), upon a naked scape. Perianth free ; segments linear or
linear-oblong, obtuse, without glands and nearly nerveless.
Stamens long-exserted. Seeds brown, angled. Leaves elongated,
dry and grass-like. Bracts very small, ovate, membranous.
Bulb-coats becoming black and fibrous.

* * Flowers perfect : capsule short, the 1-2-seeded cells widely divergent
above and dehiscent only at the summit : seeds ovate, with a (fleshy ?) reddish-
brown coat. Bulbous.

44. Amianthium. Glabrous. Flowers white, much shorter than
the pedicels, in a dense many-flowered simple raceme on a
sparingly leafy stem. Perianth free ; segments ovate-oblong,
obtuse, glandless. Leaves linear, obtuse.

Tribe XIV. Helonieee. Inflorescence a simple raceme, without bracts,
on a leafy stem from a thick tuberous rootstock ; glabrous. Flowers perfect
or dioecious, glandless. Styles linear, stigmatic down the inside, deciduous.
Capsule membranous, obovate to oblong, ventrally dehiscent at the summit of
the abruptly divergent cells. Seeds numerous, linear, ascending from near the
base, appendaged or winged at each end. Leaves oblanceolate, thin ; veinlets
anastomosing.

45. Helonias. Flowers perfect, in a short dense raceme, purple or
greenish ; segments spatulate-oblong, several-nerved, shorter than
the slender filaments. Capsule broadly obovate, deeply 3-lobed,
the summit much depressed. Seeds narrowly linear with a short
white appendage at each end. Stem scaly-bracteate.

46. CuAMiELiRiUM. Flowers dioecious, in slender elongated racemes,
white : segments narrowly linear-spatulate, 1-nerved, equalling
the stamens, which are shorter and abortive in the pistillate flowers.
Capsule oblong, slightly depressed and shortly lobed at the sum-
mit. Seeds flattened, margined, and winged at each end. Stem
very leafy.

Tribe XV. Tofieldieae. Flowers perfect, on bracteolate pedicels, in a
simple raceme on an equitant-leafy stem from a creeping rootstock. Perianth-
segments narrow, without glands. Stamens 9 to 12 in Pleea ; anthers introrse,
short, ovate to linear. Styles distinct and persistent, or none ; stigmas ter-
minal. Capsule dehiscing to the base, loculicidal in Narthecium. Seeds nu-
merous, small, mostly appendaged or caudate, brown. Leaves distichously
equitant, much shorter than the stems.

47. Tofieldia. Flowers white or greenish, subtended by very small
bracts and involucrate with 3 scarious verticillate and more or
less united bractlets ; perianth-segments oblong or obovate, 3-
nerved, equalling the stamens. Anthers round-cordate, nearly
basifixed ; filaments narrowly subulate, naked. Styles short.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 225

Capsule ovate to obovate, 3-beaked. Seeds horizontal, unap-
pendaged or more or less caudate at the outer end.

48. Pleea. Flowers few, greenish-white turning brown. Pedicels
solitary in the axils of large foliaceous sheathing bracts, bibrac-
teolate in the middle. Perianth-segments lanceolate, 1-nerved.
Stamens 9 ("6 to 12"), in pairs on the outer sepals, included;
filaments subulate, naked ; anthers oblong-linear, sagittate.
Styles short. Capsule coriaceous, ovate, 3-beaked. Seeds hori-
zontal, linear, attenuate at base, caudate above.

49. Narthecium. Flowers yellowish-green, the solitary pedicels
subtended by a lanceolate bract and bearing a small linear
bractlet. Perianth-segments linear-lanceolate, obscurely 3-nerved.
Stamens included ; filaments subulate, woolly ; anthers linear-
oblong. Style none ; the slightly lobed stigma sessile upon the
attenuated apex of the ovary. Capsule narrowly oblong, mem-
branous, attenuate upward, splitting loculicidally into 3 valves.
Seeds ascending from near the base of the axis, linear, with a
long straight tail at each end.

Tribe XVI. Xerophylleee. Flowers perfect, on naked pedicels in a sim-
ple bracteate raceme, on a very leafy stem from a thick tuberous rootstock.
Glands none. Styles linear, stigmatic down the inside, persistent. Capsule
ovate, chartaceous, loculicidally dehiscent to the base, and sometimes septicidal.
Seeds 2 to 4 in each cell, ascending, with loose thin testa, not appendaged or
scarcely so. Leaves very narrow, dry, striate and rough-edged.

50. Xerophyllum. Flowers white, on long spreading pedicels
(erect in fruit), in a subpyramidal many-flowered raceme ; seg-
ments ovate to oblong, 5-7 -nerved. Styles reflexed or recoiled.
Seeds oblong, somewhat angled, light-colored. Cauline leaves
numerous, setaceous from a broader base. Bracts linear,
elongated.

In addition to the above, other genera are represented by the fol-
lowing species that have become more or less widely naturalized in
some sections of the Atlantic States : —

Ornithogalum umbellatum, Linn. The Star of Bethlehem ; in

moist meadows.
Mcscari botryoides, Mill. The Grape-Hyacinth ; road-sides and

copses.
Hemerocallis fulva, Linn. The Day-Lily ; road-sides.
Asparagus officinalis, Linn. Garden Asparagus : sea-coast and

copses.
VOL. xiv. (n. s. VI.) 15

226 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

1. ALLIUM, Linn.

§ 1. Bulbs cespitose, narrowly oblong and crowning a more or less persistent
rhizome ; coats membranous, without peculiar reticulation : spathe mostly
2-valved : scape terete.

# Leaves (2 or 3) elliptic-lanceolate : ovules solitary.

1. A. tbicoccum, Ait. Bulb-coats fleshy-membranous, the outer
becoming fibrous : scape 4 to 1 2 inches high : flowers greenish white,
on short suberect pedicels ; segments two or three lines long, the outer
channelled, the inner flat: stamens short, hypogynous, with nearly
distinct subulate filaments : capsule deeply lobed, not crested. — A.
triflorum, Raf. New England to Wisconsin, and south to North
Carolina and Kentucky.

* * Leaves (several) linear : ovules a single pair.
■*- Leaves terete, hollow.

2. A. Schcenoprasum, Linn. Scape stout : umbel subcapitals :
flowers rose-color ; segments 4 or 5 lines long, acuminate : stamens in-
cluded : capsule not crested. — A. campanuleeflorum, Geyer. From
Canada (New Brunswick) and the Great Lakes to the Columbia and
Peace Rivers and N. Alaska ; Europe and N. Asia.

+- -»- Leaves flat or channelled.

3. A. CEFvNUUM, Roth. Outer bulb-coats sometimes finely fibrous :
scapes slender, £ to 2 feet high : leaves 1 to 4 lines broad : umbel
open, nodding : flowers numerous, on very slender pedicels, rose-
colored or white ; segments 2 or 3 lines long, broad and acutish :
stamens and style exserted : capsule crested. — From the Alleghany
Mountains to British Columbia, Oregon, Utah, New Mexico and
Texas.

4. A. validum, "Watson. Scape very stout, 1 to 2\ feet high,
from a stout rhizome : leaves 2 to 8 lines broad : umbel often slight ly
nodding, with 2 to 4 bracts, densely many-flowered ; pedicels short :
flowers rose-colored or nearly white ; segments 3 or 4 lines long,
narrowly acuminate : stamens and style usually slightly exserted :
capsule not crested, subglobose. — King's Rep. 5. 350. Oregon to N.
California and N. Nevada.

5. A. brevistylum, Watson, 1. c. Scape 1 to 1\ feet high, from
a stout rhizome : leaves 2 to 4 lines wide : spathe 1-valved : umbel
erect, few-flowered ; pedicels 6 to 1 2 lines long : flowers deep rose-
color ; segments 4 or 5 lines long, narrow, long-acuminate, nearly
twice longer than the stamens and style: capsule not crested. —
Northwestern Wyoming to S. Utah.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 227

6. A. rLEMATOCHiTON". Bulb-coats deep red : scape a foot high or
less: leaves about a line wide : umbel erect or nearly so, few -many-
flowered ; pedicels short : flowers 3 or 4 lines long, deep rose-color,
especially on the midveins of the ovate-lanceolate acute segments : sta-
mens and style included ; filaments very slender : ovary truncate, with
very short rounded crests ; capsule obovate. — California (San Luis
Obispo to Ojai ; n. 462, Brewer).

§ 2. Bulbs globose to ovate, mostly solitary, not rhizomatous ; coats fibrous
or membranous : leaves narrowly linear, flat or channelled : scape terete or
nearly so.

* Bulb-coats more or less fibrous : leaves several.
h- Capsule not crested : spathe usually 3-valved.

7. A. Canadense, Kalin. Bulb-coats somewhat fibrous : scape a
foot high or more : umbel mostly bulbiferous (often with 2 or 3 flow-
ers) : flowers on slender pedicels (6 to 10 lines long), white or pinkish,
3 lines long ; segments narrowly lanceolate, obtusish, equalling or
somewhat exceeding the stamens : filaments slightly broader below. —
A. longicaule, Hornem. ? From Canada to Florida and Texas.

8. A. mdtabile, Michx. Like the last : bulbs densely and coarsely
fibrous-coated : scape a foot or two high : umbel few -many-flowered,
rarely or never bulbiferous : flowers white to rose-color, 2 to 4 lines
long ; segments thin and lax in fruit, ovate- to narrowly lanceolate,
obtusish or acute, a third longer than the stamens. — A. Mobilense and
Drummondii, Regel, Monogr. All. 112 and 121. A. reticulatum, var.y,
"Watson, King's Rep. 5. 486. From North Carolina and Florida to
Arkansas and New Mexico.

9. A. Nuttallii. Bulb usually smaller, very fibrous : scape low
(4 to 6 inches high) : pedicels shorter (4 to 6 lines) and usually rather
stouter : perianth-segments usually broader (3 lines long), acute or acu-
minate, rose-colored or white, rather rigid in fruit. — A. mutabile, /?,
Watson. From Kansas and Colorado to Texas, New Mexico and
Eastern Arizona (n. 3219, Berland. ; n. 528, Lindh. ; n. 847, Fendl.;
n. 195, Hall & Harbour ; n. 647, Hall ; n. 197, 237, Rothrock).

•»- +- Capsule crested : spathe usually 2-valved.

10. A. reticulatum, Fraser. Scape 3 to 8 inches high: pedicels
usually short (2 to 6 lines long) : otherwise closely resembling
A. mutabile. — Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 184, t. 195. A. stellatutn,
var., Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 1840. A. angulosum, Pursh. From the
Saskatchewan to New Mexico and N. Arizona.

11. A. Geyeri. Taller and stouter (a foot high) : pedicels 6 to
12 lines long : flowers rose-colored, 4 lines long, the segments broad,

228 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

acute oi" acuminate, strongly nerved and rigid in fruit. — A. reticulatum,
var. /3, Watson, King's Rep. 5. 486. Idaho to "Washington Territory
and Oregon (n. 226, Geyer ; n. 546, Hall & Harbour ; n. 386, Howell ;
Spalding; Wyeth).

* * Bulb-coats not fibrous; some of the outer membranous coats in most
species marked by a more or less distinct peculiar reticulate venation :
leaves several (2 to 4), shorter than or about equalling the scape: spathe
2-valved, except in n. 21 : stamens and style exserted only in n. 20 and 21.

-»- Ovary not crested or obscurely 8-crested : perianth-segments not serrulate.

++ Scape usually tall (a foot high or more).

12. A. scaposum, Benth. Outer bulb-scales dark, with coarse

more or less regular vertically oblong rectilinear reticulation : umbel

loose, rather few-flowered: perianth-segments white with red midvein,

lanceolate, acuminate, 3 or 4 lines long. — Watson, King's Rep. 5. 487,

t. 38, f. 10, 11. W. Texas to S. Arizona and Mexico. This is probably

identical with the older A. Kunthii, Don (Schcenoprasum lineare,

HBK.)

++ ++ Scape low.

13. A. Douglasii, Hook. Reticulation of bulb-coats not detected :
scape 8 or 10 inches high : flowers pale rose-color, 3 or 4 lines long ;
segments lanceolate, acuminate, scarcely exceeding the stamens and
style : ovary not at all crested. — Oregon (" Blue Mountains, subalpine
hill near Kettle Falls," Douglas). A very obscure species, not iden-
tified in recent collections. The figure and description in Hook. Fl.
Bor.-Am. refer, with the exception of the scape and the details of the
flower, to his var. (3, i. e. to A. Tolmiei, Baker.

14. A. madidum. Bulbs white, bulbiferous at base, without re-
ticulation : leaves 2, thick and channelled, 1 ^ to 3 lines broad : scape
stout, angled, 4 to 8 inches high : flowers usually many, on pedicels
4 to 6 lines long, white or nearly so, 4 lines long ; segments ovate-
oblong, acute, a little exceeding the stamens : cells of the ovary with
two fleshy ridges at the summit. — Union County, Oregon ; W. C.
Cusick, n. 382. In small streams or wet places in high ground.

15. A. Cusickii. Reticulation of bulb-coats not detected : leaves
2, flat, somewhat falcate, 3 lines wide : scape 3 or 4 inches high :
flowers rather numerous, on pedicels 6 to 8 lines long, nearly white,
4 or 5 lines long ; segments lanceolate, broadly acuminate, nearly
twice longer than the stamens and style : ovary-cells shortly apicu-
late. — Union County, Oregon; W. C. Cusick, n. 179.

16. A. collinum, Dougl. in herb. Known to me only from scanty
flowers from Kew Herb. Perianth-segments ovate-lanceolate, acute,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 229

4 lines long, twice longer than the slender stamens and style : capsule
very obscurely ridged toward the summit. — " Abundant on the Blue
Mountains," Oregon.

17. A. scilloides, Dougl. in herb. An equally obscure species.
Perianth-segments oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, 3 lines long, a half
longer than the stamens : ovary not at all crested. — " Priest's
Rapids, Columbia River."

■*-•*- Ovary rather obscurely crested : scapes low (4 to 10 inches): perianth-
segments (at least the inner ones) serrulate.

18. A. acuminatum, Hook. Outer bulb-coats with a distinct
coarse quadrate to hexagonal reticulation: pedicels (12 to 30) 6 to 12
lines long : flowers deep rose-color, 4 to 7 lines long ; segments lance-
olate, with acuminate recurved tips, rigid in fruit, a third longer than
the stamens, the inner ones undulate-serrulate : filaments slightly
dilated below. — Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 184, t. 196; Watson, King's Rep.
5. 352, t. 37, f. 6. A. Murrayanum, Regel, Gartenfl. 23. 200, t. 770.
From Washington Territory to Northern California, Nevada and
Utah. A. Elwesii, Regel, PI. Nov. fasc. 5. 50, is probably a form
of this species with more obtuse perianth-segments.

19. A. Bolandeki. Bulb or coated corm propagating by one or
two very short lateral offshoots, the coats with a delicate close undu-
late-serrate reticulation: pedicels 5 to 15: flowers rose-colored or
pinkish, 4 or 5 lines long, the segments very narrowly acuminate,
nearly straight, twice longer than the stamens and style, the inner
ones strongly serrulate : filaments narrowly filiform, adnate to the
middle. — Humboldt County, California (n. 6556, Bolander ; n. 1011,
Kellogg & Harford ; Rattan).

■*—*—*- Ovary distinctly 6-crested (obscurely so in n. 27, 28) : perianth-seg-
ments not serrulate, mostly rose-colored.
■*+ Scapes often rather tall.

20. A. stellatum, Fraser. Outer bulb-coats reddish, with a very
close linear longitudinal reticulation: scape 6 to 18 inches high:
umbel few-many-flowered; pedicels 4 to 9 lines long: perianth-seg-
ments 2 or 3 lines long, broad, acute : stamens and style exserted :
capsule prominently crested. — Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1576; Hook. Fl.
Bor.-Am. 2. 184, t. 194. From the Saskatchewan to Wyoming.

21. A. Sanbornii, Wood. Outer bulb-scales white, some with a
very minute irregular reticulation : scape usually a foot or two high :
spathe 4-valved : umbel usually densely many-flowered, the pedicels
3 to 8 lines long : perianth-segments 24 or 3 lines long, ovate-lanceo-

230 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

late, thin and lax in fruit : stamens and style exserted : capsule very
thin. — Proc. Philad. Acad. 1868, 171 ; Watson, 1. c. 486, t. 37, f. 7.
Sierra Nevada (Yuba to Mariposa Counties).

22. A. attenuifolium, Kellogg. Reticulation delicate, horizon-
tally sinuate or serrate, the vertical lines also minutely sinuous :
leaves channelled: scape slender (6 to 15 inches high), leafy below:
spathe-valves short and abruptly acute: umbel usually dense: perianth-
segments 3 or 4 lines long, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, lax and
thin in fruit, white or nearly so. — Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 110, f. 34;
Watson, 1. c, t. 37, f. 8, 9. A. reticidatum, Benth. PI. Hartw. 339.
A. amplectens, Torrey, Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 148. A. occidentale, Gray,
Proc. Amer. Acad. 7. 390. Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges, from
Mariposa County and San Francisco to Oregon.

-w- ++ Scapes low : flowers rose-colored.
= Filaments more or less deltoid above the united discoid adnate base.

23. A. serratum, Watson. Resembling A. acuminatum ; bulb-coats
readily fissile along the lines of the fine distinct horizontally serrate
reticulation : leaves very narrow : spathe-valves narrowly acuminate :
perianth-segments 4 to 6 lines long, deep rose-color, broadly ovate-
lanceolate, acute or somewhat acuminate, nearly straight and rather
rigid, the inner very rarely serrulate: filaments all with a narrowly
deltoid base above the very short disk : crests very narrow, central. —
King's Rep. 5. 487, t. 37, f. 4, 5 (reticulation). Coast Ranges (San
Diego to Marin County) and foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada.

24. A. bisceptrum, Watson. Bulbs light-colored ; reticulation
indistinct, somewhat quadrilateral, the cells under a strong power
showing an exceedingly sinuous outline especially on the vertical
lines : leaves often 2 or 3 lines broad : scapes frequently in pairs :
flowers few to many, rose-color, 3 or 4 lines long ; segments oblong-
lanceolate, acuminate, slightly exceeding the stamens : the alternate
filaments with a broad deltoid adnate base : crests thin, conspicuous. —
King's Rep. t. 37, f. 1-3 (the figure of the flower faulty as respects
the base of the filaments). Sierra Nevada (Mono Lake and north-
ward) and mountains eastward to Utah.

25. A. Palmeri, Watson. Habit of the last : bulb-coats with a
distinct somewhat quadilateral reticulation, the outline of the cells
very minutely sinuous : scape always solitary : perianth-segments
3 to 5 lines long, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate : filaments and crests
nearly as in the last. — King's Rep. 5. 487, t. 37, f. 10, 11. S. Utah
to E. Arizona and New Mexico.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 231

26. A. Bigelovii, Watson. Bulb-coats very dark ; reticulation
distinct, of nearly regular vertically oblong cells : scape 3 to 6 inches
high : flowers rather few, on stout pedicels 4 to 8 lines long, tinged
with deep rose-color ; segments oblong-lanceolate, acute, 4 to 6 lines
long : filaments all with a rather narrowly deltoid base : crests con-
spicuous. — King's Rep. 5. 487, t. 38, f. 8, 9. Arizona (n. 532,
Palmer) and New Mexico.

27. A. lac UNO sum. Bulb-coats light-colored, thick and distinctly
pitted by the quadrate or transversely oblong reticulation, the outlines
very minutely sinuous : scape 3 to 6 inches high : flowers usually few
(5 to 20), on pedicels 3 to 5 lines long ; segments 3 or 4 lines long,
oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, a little longer than the filaments, which
are all narrowly deltoid at base : cells of the ovary with an obtuse
thickened ridge toward the top on each side. — Coast Ranges (Santa
Clara County, on Mariposa Peak ; n. 1284, Brewer).

28. A. Nevii. Bulb-coats white or reddish, thin, with compressed
transversely oblong reticulation (as in A. tribracteatum), the cell-
outline not at all sinuous : scape slender, 6 or 8 inches high : pedicels
rather few, slender, 4 to 6 lines long : perianth-segments light rose-
color, lanceolate, acuminate, 3 lines long, scarcely exceeding the sta-
mens and style : cells of the ovary with a thick short crest on each
side near the summit. — Oregon (Hood River; Rev. R. D. Nevius).

= = Filaments filiform above the obscurely and obtusely lobed disk.

29. A. campanulatum. Bulb-coats not known: scape 4 to 6
inches high : umbel somewhat nodding, many-flowered, the slender
pedicels 4 to 15 lines long : flowers somewhat campanulate, the
segments broadly ovate-lanceolate, acute or abruptly and shortly
acuminate, 4 lines long, a third longer than the very slender stamens
and style: capsule prominently crested. — Sierra Nevada (Mariposa
to Plumas Counties ; n. 4943, Bolander ; Mrs. M. E. P. Ames).

30. A. Bidwellle. Reticulation of bulb-coats not known : scape
2 or 3 inches high : umbel rather few-flowered, the pedicels a half-
inch long: perianth-segments narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, 21 or 3
lines long, scarcely exceeding the stamens and style : crests con-
spicuous.— Sierra Nevada (above Chico, Mrs. J. Bidwell, May, 1878).
* * * Bulb-coats not fibrous : leaf solitary, narrowly linear or filiform, equal-
ling or somewhat exceeding the low scape (2 to 5 inches) : capsule promi-
nently 6-crested : stamens and style included.

t- Stigma 3-cleft with linear lobes : leaf revolute-filiform : scape very slender.

31. A. Parryi. Bulb-coats reddish-brown, without reticulation:
scape 3 to 6 inches high : spathe-valves 2 or 3, abruptly setaceous-

232 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY .

acuminate: pedicels (12 to 30) 4 to 8 lines long: perianth-segments
rose-colored, lanceolate, acuminate, 3 or 4 lines long, a third "longer
than the stamens : crests emarginate or erose. — Coast Ranges (San
Bernardino County, Dr. C. C. Parry, n. 390, 1876).

32. A. fimbriatum. Bulb unknown : scape 3 inches high : pedicels
3 or 4 lines long : flowers deep rose-color, 5 lines long ; segments
lanceolate, acuminate, nearly a half longer than the stamens and style :
crests fimbriate. — S.. California (on the Mohave River; Dr. E.
Palmer, 1876).

■*- +- Stigma entire : leaf flat : scape stout, 1 to 3 inches high.

33. A. cristatum. Bulb-coats brownish, some with very faint
quadrangnlar reticulation : spathe-valves more acuminate : pedicels
3 or 4 lines long : perianth light rose-color, 5 lines long ; segments
lanceolate, acuminate, nearly twice longer than the stamens and style :
crests very long, acute, somewhat glandular-toothed. — S.Utah (St.
George ; Dr. E. Palmer, n. 454, 1877).

34. A. Nevadense, Watson. Bulb-coats light-colored, with evident
close very much distorted reticulation : spathe-valves acuminate : pedi-
cels half an inch long : perianth white or pinkish, 4 lines long ; segments
lanceolate, acute or shortly acuminate, little exceeding the stamens
and style : crests acutish or obliquely truncate, entire or nearly so. —
King's Rep. 5. 351, t. 38, f. 1-3. N. Nevada to S. Utah.

35. A. atrorubens, Watson. Reticulation of bulb-coats not de-
tected : pedicels 5 to 7 lines long : spathe-valves 3, long-acuminate :
perianth reddish-purple, 5 or 6 lines long; segments lanceolate, acu-
minate, little exceeding the very slender and slightly united stamens :
crests acute, laciniately toothed. — King's Rep. 5. 352, t. 38, f. 4, 5.

* * * * Leaves 1 to several, linear, greatly exceeding the very short scape :
capsule not crested, or very obscurely so.

36. A. tribracteatum, Torrey. Bulb-coats thin, with distinct
compressed transversely oblong reticulation : leaves 3 or 4 inches
long, ^ to 3 lines broad : scape an inch or two high : spathe-valves
3, long-acuminate : pedicels slender, 2 or 3 hues long : perianth
pinkish with dark midveins, 3 lines long ; segments narrowly oblong-
lanceolate, acutish, not gibbous at base, a little longer than the stamens.
— Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 148; Watson, 1. c. 353, t. 38, f. 6, 7. Sierra
Nevada, to 10,000 feet altitude (Mono to Nevada Counties ; n. 1799,
Brewer).

37. A. parvum, Kellogg. Resembling the last: bulb-coats with-
out reticulation : scape scarcely rising above ground : spathe-valves 2,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 233

short, abruptly acute : pedicels stouter : perianth-segments more ob-
tuse, broader, 3 or 4 lines long. — Proc. Calif. Acad. 3. 54, f. 13.
A. tribracteatum, var. Andersoni, Watson, 1. c. 353. East base of
Sierra Nevada (Carson City to Plumas County).

38. A. macrum. Bulb-coats without reticuJation : leaves more
distinctly sheathing : scape an inch or two high : spathe-valves 2,
abruptly acute : umbel more spreading ; pedicels slender, 2 or 3 lines
long : perianth white or pinkish, 2 or 3 lines long ; segments narrowly
lanceolate, acuminate, scarcely exceeding the stamens and style : cells
of the ovary bordered above by a thick obtuse ridge. — Union County,
Oregon, on rocky hills ; W. C. Cusick, n. 40, 1877.

§ 3. Bulbs ovate, not rhizomatous, the membranous coats mostly without
reticulation : leaves 2, broadly linear, flat and falcate, thick : scape stout,
much compressed and 2-winged, low and mostly shorter than the leaves.
* Spathe 2-valved : stamens included : ovary mostly crested.

39. A. falcifolium, Hook. & Arn. Scape 2 or 3 inches high:
flowers rose-colored, 4 to 6 lines long ; segments lanceolate, attenuate
and spreading above, minutely glandular-serrate, nearly twice longer
than the stamens and style : capsule acute with 3 short narrow central
crests. — Bot. Beechey, 400 ; Watson, 1. c. 488, t. 36, f. 7, 8. Coast
Ranges (Sonoma to Humboldt Counties).

40. A. Breweri. Flowers deep rose-color, 5 or 6 lines long ; seg-
ments lanceolate, acute, nearly erect, not serrulate, a third longer
than the stamens and style : ovary and capsule with a thick slightly
lobed crest at the apex of each cell. — Summit of Mount Diablo,
California ; n. 1060, Brewer.

41. A. anceps, Kellogg. Bulb-coats sometimes with minute trans-
versely oblong reticulation : pedicels very slender, 6 to 9 lines long :
flowers nearly white with purplish midveins, 3 or 4 lines long ; seg-
ments very narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, lax, scarcely gibbous at
base, little exceeding the stamens and style : capsule-cells with two
broad obtuse crests. — Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 109, f. 32; Watson,
1. c. 352, t. 36, f. 4-6 (faulty in showing the capsule without crests).
East base of the Sierra Nevada (Carson City to Modoc County) ;
Oregon (Columbia Valley; J. Howell).

42. A. pleianthum. Scape 4 or 5 inches high : flowers numerous,
apparently white, 4 or 5 lines long, on rather stout pedicels 6 to 10
lines long ; segments lanceolate, acuminate, gibbous at base, nearly
twice longer than the stamens : ovary and capsule prominently
6-crested. — Blue Mountains, Oregon (John Day Valley), and S.
Idaho ; Rev. R. D. Nevius.

234 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

43. A. Tolmiei, Baker. Scape 2 to 4 inches high : pedicels (20 to
30) slender, 4 to 6 lines long : flowers light rose-color with darker
midvein, 4 lines long; segments lanceolate, acute, gibbous at base,
a half longer than the stamens : ovary very obscurely crested. —
Bot. Mag. under t. 6227. A. Douglasii, var. ft, Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am.
2. 185, & t. 197 mainly. A. tribracteatum, Watson, 1. c. 353, in part.
S. Idaho (Snake County, Tolmie) and Utah (Parley's Park in the
Wahsatch Mountains, Watson).

44. A. Lemmoni. Scape 6 inches high : leaves less falcate : flowers
rather numerous, pale rose-color without darker midveins, 4 lines long,
on pedicels 6 to 8 lines long ; segments ovate-lanceolate, acuminate,
gibbous, a little longer than the stamens : ovary-cells with a broad
obscure crest on each side. — Sierra Nevada (Sierra County, J. G.
Lemmon, 1874).

* * Spathe 3-5-valved : stamens exserted : ovary not crested.

45. A. platycaule. Scape 3 to 5 inches high and 2 to 4 lines
broad: leaves 6 to 12 lines broad: spathe-valves acuminate: pedicels
very numerous, an inch long or less : flowers rose-colored, 4 to 7 lines
long ; segments lanceolate, very narrowly long-acuminate. — A. anceps,
Baker, Bot. Mag. t. 6227. Sierra Nevada (high valleys, Placer to
Plumas Counties).

§ 4. Bulb an ovate coated corm, propagating by an offshoot from the lower
part of the tali terete scape: leaves several, narrow, flat: spathe 2-valved:
capsule not crested.

46. A. UN1FOLIUM, Kellogg. Bulb deep-seated, white, the some-
what chartaceous coat with a close contorted reticulation : scape
stout, a foot or two high: flowers (10 to 30) bright rose-color, 5 to 7
lines long, on pedicels an inch long or more ; segments ovate-lanceolate,
acute or subacuniinate, exceeding the stamens and style. — Proc. Calif.
Acad. 2. 112, f. 35; Watson, 1. c. 486, t. 36, f. 9, 10; Baker, Bot.
Mag. t. 6320. Coast Ranges (Mendocino County to San Diego).

Introduced Species, etc.

A. vineale, Linn., is frequent in the Atlantic States, and is often
mistaken for A. Ganadense. It may be readily known by its leafy
stem, terete leaves, and cuspidate filaments.

A. Carolinianum, Red., is referred by Regel to A. blandum, prob-
ably correctly. It is not known in America.

A. Macnabianum, Regel (Gartenfl. 1874, 264, t. 770, fig. 2, 3),
cultivated from bulbs probably collected in Oregon, cannot be identi-
fied from the description in Regel's Monographia Alliorum.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 235

A. glandulosum, Link & Otto, is a species of Central and
Northern Mexico, with dark purple flowers on slender pedicels ; ovary
acutish, but not crested ; bulbs small, globose, the white coats without
reticulation, propagating by a scaly offshoot from the base. The
material at hand is too scanty for a satisfactory definition of the few
doubtful Mexican species.

2. NOTHOSCORDUM, Kunth.

1. N. striatum, Kunth. Bulb small, often bulbiferous at base :
leaves a line or two broad : scape a foot high or often much less :
flowers few, 4 to 6 lines long, on slender pedicels : capsule 2 lines
long. — Baker, Saund. Ref. Bot. t. 304. Orniihogalum bivalve, Linn. ?
Allium ornithogaloides, Walt. A. striatum, Jacq. Icon. t. 366 ; Sims,
Bot. Mag. t. 1035 and 1524. A. ochroleucum, Nutt. Fl. Ark. 156.
Pseudoscordum striatum, Torr. & Gray, Pacif. R. Rep. 2. 176. Vir-
ginia to Nebraska and southward to Florida, New Mexico and Mex-
ico. The synonymy of the genus is much confused.

3. MUILLA.

1. M. maritima. Corm small, with fibro-membranous coats:
leaves scabrous, a line wide or less : scape scabrous, very slender, 2 to
6 inches high or rarely more, with 4 to 6 linear bracts : pedicels (5 to
15) an inch long or less : perianth subrotate, the segments 2 or 3 lines
long : anthers very small : capsule 3 lines long, with usually 3 seeds
(10 ovules) in each cell. — Hesperoscordium (?) maritimum, Torr.
Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 148. Allium, Benth. PI. Hartw. 339 ; Regel ;
Wood ; etc. Milla, Watson, King's Rep. 5. 354. Nothoscordum,
Hook. f. Bot. Mag. under t. 5896. California (Marin County to
Monterey) and W. Nevada, in saline localities.

4. BLOOMERIA, Kellogg.

1. B. atjrea, Kell. Corm small, at length fibrous-coated : leaves
3 to 6 lines broad: scape scabrous, 6 to 18 inches high : flowers
numerous, on slender pedicels, subrotate, the segments 4 to 6 lines
long : appendages of the filaments nearly a line long, with a terminal
cusp of variable length, minutely papillose. — Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 11.
Allium croceum, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 218. Nothoscordum au-
reum, Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 5896. S. California (Monterey to San
Diego Counties).

236 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

5. BRODI^A, Smith.

* Stamens in one row on the throat ; anthers basifixed : purplish perianth mostly
broadly funnel-form, the tube shorter than the limb. — § Eubrodi^a.

h- Stamens 3, opposite to the inner segments and alternate with as many
staminodia : segments 2 or 3 times longer than the tube.

++ Pedicels (usually few) more or less elongated.

1. B. grandiflora, Smith. Leaves a line broad, subterete : scape
4 to 10 inches high : flowers an inch long : staminodia entire, obtuse,
about equalling the linear anthers : filaments 1^ lines long or more :
capsule oblong, narrowed at base, attenuate above ; cells 6-8-seeded :
seeds a line long. — Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1183 ; Hook. Bot. Mag. t.
2877 ; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 11. 376, in part. Hookera corona ria,
Salisb. Parad. t. 98. From the Mohave River to British Columbia.

Var. (?) major, Benth. Leaves flattened, 1 to 3 lines broad :
scape stouter, a foot or two high, often scabrous : pedicels more nu-
merous (6 to 20) and longer (1 to 4 inches): capsules usually with a
broader base, and seeds 2 lines long. — PL Hartw. 339. B. Calif or-
nica, Lindl. Trans. Hort. Soc. 4. 84, fig.

2. B. minor. Scape very slender, 3 to 6 inches high : flowers a
half to one inch long : staminodia broad and usually emarginate, longer
than the oblong anthers : capsule obovate, acute, 3 lines long ; cells
3-seeded. — B. grandiflora, var. minor, Benth. PI. Hartw. 340. Cali-
fornia to Oregon.

3. B. terrestris, Kellogg. Leaves nearly terete : scape very
short: pedicels very slender, 3 or 4 inches long: flowers 8 to 10 lines
long : staminodia emarginate, yellow, exceeding the oblong sagittate
anthers : capsule acute at base, a half-inch long ; cells G-8-seeded. —
Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 6. B. grandiflora, var. macropoda, Torr. Pacif . R.
Rep. 4. 149. B. Torreyi, Wood, Proc. Philad. Acad. 1868, 172.
Monterey to Mendocino County.

■m- ++ Flowers subcapitate.

4. B. congesta, Smith. Corm often deep-seated: scape 2 to 4
feet high, smooth : umbel often produced into a short dense raceme :
flowers about 9 lines long: staminodia deeply cleft, exceeding the
nearly sessile emarginate anthers : capsule ovate : seeds usually soli-
tary, 2 lines long. — Trans. Linn. Soc. 10. 3, t. 1. Dichelostemma,
Kunth, Enum. 4. 470. San Francisco to Washington Territory.

5. B. multiflora, Benth. Corm less deeply seated : scape 1 or 2
feet high, somewhat scabrous : umbel not produced : staminodia broad,
entire, obtuse, about equalling the anthers : seeds several in each cell :

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 237

otherwise as the last. — PI. Hartw. 339 ; Hook, f . Bot. Mag. t. 5989.
B. parviflora, Torr. & Gray, Pacif. R. Rep. 2. 125. B. grandiflora,
var. brachypoda, Torr., same, 4. 149. Sacramento Valley to Oregon
and in the Sierra Nevada.

•<- i- Stamens 6, those opposite the inner perianth-segments with their short
filaments conspicuously wing-appendaged : segments little longer than the
tube : flowers subcapitate.

6. B. capitata, Benth. Scape usually 1 or 2 feet high: flowers
6 to 10 lines long: outer filaments dilated at base; inner anthers
linear, little shorter than the oblong-lanceolate wings : capsule ovate,
3 lines long; cells several-seeded. — PI. Hartw. 339. Hookera pid-
chella, Salisb. Parad. t. 117? Dichelostemma capitata, Wood, I.e.
173. Milla capitata, Baker, 1. c. 381. California to Utah.

* * Stamens in 2 rows (except in n. 8), with more or less distinctly versatile
anthers and naked filaments : capsule stipitate : perianth-segments equalling
or shorter than the mostly narrow tube. — § Seubertia.

-t- Perianth broadly funnel-form : flowers subcapitate.

7. B. Douglasit. Scape 1 or 2 feet high : flowers few or many,
blue, 8 to 12 lines long: anthers a line long, the lower on the throat,
the upper on the inner perianth-segments ; filaments short. — Triteleia
grandiflora, Lindl. ; Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 186, t. 198, B. Brodicea
grandiflora, Torr. in Stansb. Rep. 397. Milla grandiflora, Baker,
1. c. Washington Territory and Oregon to Wyoming and Utah.

■*- >t- Perianth more or less attenuate at base : umbel open.
++ Flowers blue or purplish ; rarely white.

8. B. Bridgesii. Scape a foot high or more; flowers 12 to 15
lines long, the very narrow tube exceeding the segments : filaments
deltoid, in one row on the throat ; anthers linear, 2 lines long : capsule
ovate, shorter than the stipe, beaked by the very slender style : seeds
2 or 3 in each cell. — Central California (foothills of the Sierra Neva-
da; Bridges, n. 338 ; and others).

9. B. laxa. Scapes 6 inches to 2 feet high, smooth or scabrous :
flowers few to many, 12 to 20 lines long, the very narrow tube equal-
ling or exceeding the segments : filaments very slender, short or elon-
gated, the upper on the throat opposite the inner segments : capsule
oblong, long-stipitate ; style rather short : seeds several. — Triteleia
laxa, Benth. Trans. Hort. Soc. 1. 413, t. 15, f. 2 ; Lindl. Bot. Reg.
t. 1685. Seubertia, Kunth. Milla, Baker. Coast Ranges, from San
Francisco to Humboldt County.

10. B. peduncularis. Scape 1 or 2 feet high, smooth: flowers
smaller (6 to 9 lines long), on very slender pedicels, the segments a

238 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

little longer than the turbinate tube : lower anthers sessile, the upper
on short filaments : capsule on a stipe 1 or 2 lines long. — Triteleia,
Lindl. Bot. Reg. under t. 1685. Milla, Baker. Coast Ranges of
Central California.

■w ** Flowers yellow, with brown nerves.

11. B. crocea. Leaves 2 to 6 lines broad: scape a foot high or
more, smooth : bracts linear, elongated : flowers 7 to 9 lines long, on
pedicels 2 inches long or less, the segments a little exceeding the tur-
binate tube : anthers small (a line long), on short slightly dilated fila-
ments : ovary pubescent on the angles : capsule obovate, abruptly
narrowed above, shortly stipitate ; cells 4-seeded. — Seubertia, "Wood,
1. c. 171. Milla, Baker. Siskiyou County.

12. B. gracilis. Leaf solitary, 1 to 3 lines broad : scape 2 to 4
inches high, purplish, scabrous: bracts short, lanceolate: flowers 5 to
7 lines long, on pedicels 6 to 12 lines long, the segments about equal-
ling the narrow tube : anthers very small, on very slender elongated
filaments : capsule ovate-oblong, attenuate above, on a slender stipe ;
cells 2-seeded. — On Spanish Peak, Plumas County ; collected by
Mrs. R. M. Austin.

* * * Stamens in one row, with deltoid or wing-dilated filaments and versatile
anthers : capsule stipitate : perianth-segments twice longer than the turbi-
nate tube. — § Callipkora. [See p. 301.]

13. B. ixioides. Scape 3 inches to 2 feet high, usually scabrous:
flowers few to many, on pedicels 1 to 4 inches long, yellow more or
less tinged with purple or nearly white (the brown midvein often double
or triple), 5 to 10 lines long: filaments winged their whole length,
bicuspidate above ; anthers small : capsule ovate-oblong ; stijje 2 or 3
lines long. — Ornithogalum ixioides, Ait. f. Hort. Kew. 2. 257. Cal-

liprora lutea, Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1590; Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 3588.

Themis ixioides, Salisb. Calliprora aurantea, Kellogg, Proc. Calif.
Acad. 2. 20. Milla ixioides, Baker. From Santa Barbara to Oregon.

14. B. lactea. Scape usually 1 or 2 feet high, smooth or scabrous :
flowers few to many, on slender pedicels 2 inches long or less, white
with green midvein or sometimes purplish, 4 or 5 lines long : filaments
deltoid, a line long ; anthers small : capsule subglobose ; stipe a line
or two long. — B. grandiflora, Pursh. Hesperoscordum lacteum and
hyacinthinum, Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1639. Allium lacteum, Benth.
PI. Hartw. 339. H. Lewisii, Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 185, t. 198.

Veatchia crysfallina, Kellogg, 1. c. 2. 11. Milla hyacinthina, Baker.
Allium Tilingi, Regel, All. Monogr. 124. Coast Ranges and Sierra
Nevada from Monterey to British Columbia.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 239

Var. lilacina. A stout form, with large flowers, from white
becoming more or less tinged with lilac. — Mendocino and Humboldt
Counties.

6. STROPHOLIRION, Torr.

1. S. Californicum, Torr. Scape lax or often twining, 2 to 12
feet long, scabrous : pedicels (15 to 30) an inch long or less : flowers
5 or 6 lines long, with oblong-lanceolate segments : anthers equalling
the narrrow emarginate white staminodia and the lanceolate acute
wings of the filaments (2 lines long) : capsule shorter than the perianth.
— Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 149, t. 23. Rupalleya volubilis, Moriere, Bull. Soc.
Norm. 8. 313, t. Dichelostemma Californica, Wood, Proc. Acad.
Philad. 1868, 173. Brodicea volubilis, Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 11.
177; Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 6123. Foothills of the Sierra Nevada
(Mariposa County and northward).

7. BREVOORTIA, Wood.

1. B. coccinea. Scape erect, 1 to 3 feet high, with reddish bracts :
pedicels (6 to 15) an inch long or less : flowers 12 to 16 lines long,
with ovate segments 2 or 3 lines in length : anthers equalling the
limb ; staminodia a half shorter, yellow : capsule as long as the peri-
anth, on a stipe 2 or 3 lines long. — B. Ida-Maia, Wood, Proc.
Acad. Philad. 1867, 82. Brodicea coccinea, Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad.
7. 389 ; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 11. 378 ; Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 5857.
N. California (Humboldt to Shasta Counties).

8. ANDROSTEPHIUM, Torr.

1. A. violaceum, Torr. Scape 2 to 6 inches high : flowers 8 to
12 lines long or more, usually exceeding the stout pedicels; tube
nearly as long as the limb : crown scarcely shorter than the limb, the
lobes exceeding the anthers. — Bot. Mex. Bound. 218. Milla ccerulea,
Scheele, Linnasa, 25. 260. W. Kansas to Texas.

2. A. breviflorum, Watson. Scape usually stouter, 3 to 12
inches high : flowers half an inch long, mostly shorter than the pedi-
cels, and the tube much shorter than the limb : lobes of the crown
shorter than the anthers. — Amer. Naturalist, 7. 303. S. Utah to
S. Yj. California.

The Mexican genus Bessera, of a single species (B. elegans,
Schult.), is closely allied to Androstephium ; flowers bright scarlet, the
more spreading segments closely 3-nerved ; the elongated filaments
and style exserted.

240 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

9. MILLA, Cat.

1. M. biflora, Cav. Corm small, membranous-coated : leaves
subterete, very rough : scape smooth, 2 to 12 inches high, bearing 1 to
5 nearly equal elongated pedicels (3 to 6 inches long) : perianth 1 ^ to

2 inches long, the broadly oblong-lanceolate segments (the inner nar-
rower) about twice longer than the tube. — Icon. 2. 76, t. 196 ; Lindl.
Bot. Reg. t. 1555. Diphalangium graminifolium, Schauer, Linnsea,
19. 702. From S. Arizona and New Mexico to Central Mexico.

10. LEUCOCRINUM, Nutt.

1. L. montantjm, Nutt. Leaves several, rather thick, 1 to 3 lines
broad: flowers (4 to 8) on pedicels \ to \\ inches long, the very
slender tube an inch or two long : capsule truncate, 3 or 4 lines long,
with 4 to 6 seeds in each cell. — Gray, Ann. N. Y. Lye. 4. 110;
Watson, King's Rep. 5. 349, t. 36, f. 1-3. Weldenia, Endl. Gen. PL
1358. Colorado to N. California, in sandy valleys.

The Mexican Weldenia Candida is known only from the de-
scription and figure by Schult. f. (in Regensb. Flora (1829), 12. 1, t. 1,
and Syst. 7. 1136), based upon a single imperfect specimen collected by
Karwinsky in the mountains near Toluca ("Nevada de Toluca"). It
is represented as differing from Leucocrinum mainly in its broader
and short leaves, perianth-segments only three, and anthers extrorse.

11. CAMASSIA, Lindl.

1. C. esculenta, Lindl. Scape stout, a foot or two high: leaves

3 to 8 lines broad : pedicels rather stout, mostly shorter than the
usually dark -blue flowers: perianth-segments 7 to 15 lines long,
scarcely exceeding the style, a little longer .than the stamens : anthers
a line or two long: ovules 16 to 18 in each cell: capsule oblong-
obovate, somewhat narrowed at base, rather obtusely angled, 6 to 12
lines long. — Bot. Reg. t. 1486; Fl. Serres, t. 275; Baker, Jo urn.
Linn. Soc. 13. 256. Plialangium Quamash, Pursh. Scilla esculenta,
var., Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 2774, the white-flowered form, which is also
Chlorogalum LeicktUnii, Baker, Gard. Chron. 1874, 689, and Ca-
massia esculenta, var. Leichtlinii, Baker, Bot. Mag. t. 6287. British
Columbia to California and Utah.

2. C. Fraseri, Torr. Pedicels more slender and often exceeding
the smaller (4 to 7 lines long) light-blue flowers : ovules 6 to 9 in
each cell : capsule very broadly triangular-globose, acutely angled, 3

OP AKTS AND SCIENCES. 241

or 4 lines long. — Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 147 (and 2. 176); Baker, 1. c.
Phalangium escidentum, Nutt. in Fras. Cat. 1813. Scilla esculenta,
Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1574. Anthericum esculentum, Schultes. Lemotrys
hyacinthina, Raf. Scilla Fraseri, Gray. From Pennsylvania to
Iowa and Texas.

Var. angusta, Torr. 1. c. Very slender and the leaves narrow
(3 or 4 lines broad) : flowers still smaller, 3 or 4 lines long. — Scilla
angusta, Engelm. & Gray, PI. Lindli. 29. Louisiana and Arkansas to
Texas.

12. HESPERANTHES.

1. H. Torreyi. Roots thick, cylindrical : stem slender, 1 to 3
feet high, naked or with 1 or 2 setaceous leaves ; radical leaves several,
elongated, smooth, a line or two wide : raceme simple or branched,
loosely flowered ; pedicels half an inch long or less : flowers yellow
with brownish nerves, 5 or 6 lines long: filaments slightly roughened:
capsule 6 lines long, the cells 12-16-seeded. — Echeandia ternijlora,
var. (?) angustifolia, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 219. Anthericum
Torreyi, Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 15. 317. Echeandia ternijlora,
Rothr. in Wheel. Rep. 6. 269. W. Texas to Arizona.

Mexican Species.

2. H. leptophylla. Roots elongated, thickened below : stem
slender, a foot high or more : leaves numerous, short and very narrow,
scabrous on the margin : flowers yellowish, 5 lines long ; filaments
very rough : capsule shorter. — Echeandia leptophylla, Benth. PI.
Hartw. 25. Anthericum, Baker, 1. c.

3. H. stenocarpa. Stem rather stout, a foot high or more,
simple or strictly branched, with 2 or 3 broad leaves : radical leaves
several, elongated, smooth, 3 or 4 lines broad : flowers 6 to 8 lines
long, on stout erect pedicels : filaments coarsely muricate : capsule
6 lines long, the cells 30-40-seeded. — Anthericum stenocarpum,
Baker, 1. c.

4. H. scabrella. Roots thickened, an inch long: stem 6 to 12
inches high, simple or scarcely branched, puberulent or glabrous, few-
flowered : leaves short, glabrous except the scabrous-ciliolate margin,
3 or 4 lines broad : flowers 6 lines long, on stout erect pedicels : fila-
ments slightly muricate : capsule 5 lines long, the cells about 12-seeded.
— Phalangium scabrellum, Benth. PI. Hartw. 293. Anthericum,
Baker, 1. c. The other species described by Mr. Baker {Anthericum

Jlavescens, Schult., and A. Skinneri, Baker), I have not seen.
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 16

'^1^ PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

EcnnA ni'ia, < >ri., ii .1 rery similar Mexican genus, distinguished
l>v linear anthers Longer than the short filaments and oonnivenl
over the ovary. Mr. Baker reoognizos one rather variable spooies,
B5, n i; \ n i "i; \, Ort.i w 1 1 irl i has nol been oolieoted within the United
Stati

i;. 8CHCENOLIRION, Torr.

1. s. orooi ^'M. Gray. Sinn \<w slender, a fool high; racome
simplo, shorl ( I to ' Inches): braots ovate, mostly obtuse, purplish;
flowers yellow tinged with red ; segments narrow, 2 J to 8 lines long:
seed noarh ' lines long. -Amer. Naturalist, 10. I !7. Phalangium

rrofcuin, MicllX. \ nllnri i-iuii rnu-riuu : 1 1 1 < I \ ultull iniiinii , Schult. I'.

S\ i , i,ii. Ambloatitna oroota, and Oxytria crocaa, Raf, l''l.
Tellur. 26. Ovnithogcdutn (?) orootum and N^uttnllutnHtnt Kunth,
l'',iiiiui. 1. 871. < Georgia to Florida.

2, 8. I'i\\mm. Gray, 1. o. Resembling the last, bul flowers
• ■I, mi ii white: braots narrower, aoutish: seed o line long. Orni-
thogalum Ttxanum, Schoelo, Linnnoa, 28. I 16. S, ftfichaitxii, Torr.
Bot. Mex. Bound. " 10, ezol. syn. and desor. Texas and Louisiana.

8 s Kt i i<> i in, Poay. Stem Btouter, I feel high, less thickened

al bo ■ . i " ii ii ill \ i' iled, beci ng ' to I Inohes long; braots

aoute or acuminate: flowers wind', with o\ :il ■> nerved segments, 2 <>r
.'l lines long capsule coriaceous, aud seed nearh 2 inns long,
Gray, I. o. Omithogcdum croo9umt Elliott. Amblostima albijlora and
latifolia (i ), Raf I o. S, ilfichauxii, Torr. 1. <■., mainly. Anthericwn
croceum, Bakor, Journ. Linn. Sue. 15 "'«. Geoririu :mi>1 Florida.

i i HASTINGSIA.

i. II. \in\. Sinn 2 or ',; feel high, often stout; leaves 2 to ,;
lines broad: raceme simple or sparingly branched, densely many*
flowered (often :i fool long): pedicels :i line long or less: braots
narrowly acuminate: flowers 2 or 8 lines long, often tinged with green
or pink. • Schcenolirion <t//nu», Durand, Journ. Acad. Philad.
L08 1 ( Iraj . Amor. Naturalist, L0. 652. Northern California (Plumas
to Humboldt Counties and northward).

15. CHLOROGALUM, Kunth.

♦ Perlnnth-sogmcnti narrowly llgulate, spreading widelj from the bass In
iiu' open Rower pedicels nearlj equalling the Rowers.
1. ('. pomeridianum, Kunth. Hull) large, thiokh coated with
.•our brown fibres: stem •■mil spreading panicle l to 8 feel bigh:

OK 4BTS AND SCIENCES. 248

leaves 1 to i'1 lines broad : flowers white, purple-veined, s to 10 line
long, mi spreading pedicels 2 to '.• lines long: capsule 8 lines long. —
Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound, t. •'><»; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soo. 18. 291.
Inthmcum, Ker, Bot. Reg. t. 56 I. Scilla, DC; Red. Lil. t. 421.
Phalangium, Don, Sweet's Fl. Gard. 2 ser. t. 881. Ornithogalum
divaricatum, Lindl. Bot. Reg. 28, t, 28. 0. divaricatum, Kunth.
California (valleys and foothills, from the Upper ^Sacramento to Tuol-
umne ( lounty and Santa Barbara i

* * Perianth-segments oblong-oblanceolate, spreading from above the base:
pedicels very short,

2. C. pabviplorxjm. Bulb smaller (an inch thick), with darfc
membranous coats: stem 2 or 8 feet high, with slender divaricate
branches: leaves grass-like (2 or 8 lines broad): pedicels rarely a
Inn- or two long, mostly shorter than the bracts: Sowers pinkish,
8 or I lines long: ovary broad and obtuse: capsule smaller (scarcely
2 lines in diameter). — S.California (Cajon Valley, near San Diego;
1). Cleveland, 1877).

8. C. an(!iisiii'((i,iiim, Kellogg. Resembling the last: flowers
white with yellowish-green lines,.'! to 6 lines long, narrow at base;
the ovary being oblong-ovate, acutish above, and shortly stipitate.
— Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 105, flg. 80. California (Shasta County,
Kellogg; near JTuba, A. \V I).

L6. ODONTOSTOMUM, Ton-.

1, O. Hartwegi, Ton-. Siem .i. foot or two high, branching from
die ground: corm deep-seated, an inch in diameter: leaves rather
short, flat or somewhat undulate, I to 6 lines wide : racemes loosely
many-flowered; bracts and bractlets very aarrow: pedicels usually

Very slender :in<l exceeding the hr.'iets: Mowers I to 6 lines long;

segments of the limb oblong: style equalling the tube: capsule nearly
2 lines long. — Bot INIox. Bound. 150, t. 24; Baker, Journ. Linn.
Soe. ii. 486. Foothills of the Sierra Nevada (Butte to Amador
( lounties).

17. CONVALLARIA, Linn.

1. C. ma.iaus, Linn. Leaves broadly elliptic to oblanceolate,
exceeding the angular scape : perianth 8 lines long and nearly as
broad: berry 8 or l lines in diameter. — Alleghanies (Virginia to
S. Carolina) ; apparently identical with the plant of Europe and Asia
(or lobes narrower and more acute?).

244 PEOCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

18. POLYGONATUM, Tourn.

1. P. biflorum, Ell. Stem slender, usually declinate, 1| to 3
feet high : leaves ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, mostly narrow at
base, 2 to 4 inches long, pubescent beneath : pedicels jointed at or
very near the base of the flower, 3 to 6 lines long, naked : flowers
1 or 2 (rarely 3) at each axil, 4 to 6 lines long. — Convallaria hi flora,
Walt. C. pubescens, Willd. Hort. Berol. t. 45. C. canaliculata, Muhl. ;
Willd. 1. c. P. angustifolium, canaliculatum, pubescens, multiflorum
and hirtum, Pursh. Canada (New Brunswick to Winnipeg Valley) to
Florida ; wooded hillsides.

2. P. giganteum, Dietr. Glabrous throughout : stem somewhat
curved, 2 to 7 feet high : leaves broadly ovate to lanceolate, usually
clasping by a broad base, 3 to 8 inches long : pedicels jointed below
(J to 1 line or more) the base of the flower, \ to 3 inches long in-
cluding the common peduncle, frequently with narrow bracts : flowers
1 to 10 or more, 5 to 9 lines long. — Otto, Gartenz. 1835, 222. Con-
vallaria commutata, Schult. Syst. 7. 1671. P. commutatum and P.
parviflorum, Dietr. 1. c. P. latifolium, var. commutatum, Baker,
Journ. Linn. Soc. 14. 555, chiefly. New England to Lake Win-
nipeg and the Upper Missouri, and from Virginia to New Mexico ;
meadows and river-banks. Neither P. latifolium nor P. multiflorum
is American, though the latter is frequent in cultivation ; both have
the pedicel jointed at the base of the flower.

19. SMILAC1NA, Desf.

* Flowers on very short pedicels in a terminal racemose panicle : stamens
exceeding the small (a line long) oblong-lanceolate segments : ovules col-
lateral.

1. S. racemosa, Desf. More or less pubescent: rootstock stout :
stem 1 to 3 feet high, somewhat flexuous : leaves oblong-lanceolate,
mostly narrowly acuminate, abruptly short-petioled : style very short :
berry reddish, purple-dotted, 3 lines broad, usually 1 -seeded: seed
whitish, 2 lines in diameter. — Ann. Mus. Par. 9. 51 ; Torr. Fl. N.
York, 2. 298, t. 130. Convallaria racemosa, Linn.; Sims, Bot. Mag.
t. 899. Tovaria, Necker ; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14. 570. Poly-
gonastrum, Moench. Maianthemum, Link. S. ciliata, Desf. 1. c, t. 9.
New Brunswick to Winnipeg Valley, south to S. Carolina and
Arkansas.

2. S. amplexicaulis, Nutt. Similar : leaves ovate to lanceolate,
rarely at all acuminate, mostly sessile and clasping at base : style

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 245

longer, nearly equalling the ovary : seed smaller. — Journ. Philad.
Acad. 7. 58. S. racemosa, var. amplexicaulis, Watson, King's Rep.
5. 345. Tovaria racemosa, Baker, 1. c. in part. British Columbia to
California (Monterey) and east to Wyoming and New Mexico.

* * Flowers larger, on solitary pedicels in a simple few-flowered open raceme :

stamens included : ovules not collateral.

-t- Leaves (7 to 12) sessile : raceme sessile or nearly so : berry blue-black.

3. S. stellata, Desf. 1. c. Glabrous or pubescent: stem a foot
high or less : leaves lanceolate, acutish, sessile and closely clasping, usu-
ally ascending and folded : raceme about an inch long : perianth-seg-
ments 2 or 3 lines long, exceeding the pedicels : berry 3 lines broad :
seeds brown. — Convallaria stellata, Linn.; Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 1043.
Tovaria, Necker ; Baker, 1. c. 565. Maianthemum, Link. Asteran-
themum vulgare, Kunth. Labrador to E. Oregon and N. E. California,
south to Pennsylvania, Iowa and New Mexico: the Norway plant
appears to be the same.

4. S. sessilifolia, Nutt. in herb. Rootstock slender : stem a foot
or two high : leaves lanceolate, acuminate, sessile, usually fiat and
spreading, somewhat puberulent : raceme larger, the pedicels 2 to 7
lines long: flowers often larger: berry 3 to 5 lines in diameter. —
Tovaria sessilifolia, Baker, 1. c. 566. California (Monterey) to British
Columbia and east to the Wahsatch ; has been usually referred to
S. stellata.

t- +- Leaves (2 to 4) sheathing the low stem : raceme pedunculate : berry red.

5. S. trifolia, Desf. 1. c. Glabrous, 2 to 6 inches high : leaves
oblong, narrowed below, acute : pedicels exceeding the flowers, which
are \\ lines long : berry 2 to 3 lines in diameter. — Convallaria trifolia,
Linn. ; Gmel. Fl. Sib. 1. 36, t. 6. Tovaria, Necker ; Baker, 1. c. 565.
Maianthemum, Raf. Asteranthemum, Kunth. Labrador to New
England, Michigan and the Saskatchewan ; also in E. Siberia.

Species of Mexico, fyc.
* Flowers solitary, paniculate : stamens included.

6. S. paniculata, Mart. & Gal. Leaves 7 to 9, broadly lanceo-
late : flowers large, on elongated pedicels in a dense compound corymb.
— Central Mexico and Guatemala.

7. S. thyrsoidea (Tovaria, Baker). Leaves 10 to 15, lanceolate,
often nari-ow, long-acuminate : flowers smaller, on short pedicels in a
large open spreading panicle. — Central Mexico.

8. S. nervulosa (Tovaria, Baker). Leaves 5 or 6 : panicle

246 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

oblong, small, with few divaricate branches : flowers small (2 lines
broad), on very short pedicels: style very short. — Jalapa.

9. S. laxiflora (Tovaria, Baker). Leaves 6 to 9 : panicle del-
toid, with ascending branches : flowers twice larger, on pedicels 3 to
6 lines long : style as long as the ovary. — Guatemala.

* * Flowers mostly fascicled in a simple raceme.

10. S. scilloides, Mart. & Gal. Leaves 6 or 8, narrowly oblong :
raceme straight : flowers small : style as long as the ovary. — Central
Mexico.

11. S. flexuosa, Bertol. Leaves 10 or 12, oblong to ovate:
raceme very flexuous : flowers large : style twice longer than the
ovary. — Guatemala.

20. MAIANTHEMUM, Weber.

1. M. Canadense, Desf. Pubescent or glabrous, 3 to 5 inches
high : leaves lanceolate to ovate, cordate at base with a narrow sinus,
sessile or very shortly petioled : perianth-segments a line long : style
slender, as long as the ovary: berry 1£ to 2 lines in diameter : seeds
light-colored, scarcely over a line thick. — Ann. Mus. Par. 9. 52;
DC. in Red. Lil. t. 216, f. 1. Smilacina Canadensis, Pursh ; Bart.
Fl. N. Am. t. 70. Convallaria Canadensis, Poir. Smilacina bifolia,
var. Canadensis, Gray. Labrador to the Saskatchewan, south to
Iowa, Illinois and N. Carolina.

2. M. bifolium, DC. Low and slender, somewhat pubescent :
leaves ovate-cordate with a broad sinus, the lower rather abruptly
acute and with a petiole |- to an inch long, the upper more attenuate
and petiole shorter : style long and slender : berry 2 lines in diameter,
1-2-seeded: seed brown, a line thick. — Var. (?) dilatatum, Wood.
Stouter (6 to 12 inches high), glabrous: leaves broader, the lower
subreniform-cordate with j:>etioles often 2 inches long or more : flowers
rather larger : style shorter, stout : berry larger, 2-4-seeded : -seed
brownish, lh lines thick. — Proc. Philad. Acad. 1868, 174. Smilacina
dilatatum, Nutt. in herb. California (Marin County) to Alaska.
Apparently connected with the typical form by var. Kamschaticum
of Eastern Siberia, with slender style. The present form seems to
recur also in Japan.

21. NOLINA, Michx.
* Fruit somewhat inflated, the cells not burst by the ripening seed.
1. N. Georgiana, Michx. Stem slender from a thick rhizome,
1 to 3 feet high, including the simple sparingly branched panicle :

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 247

leaves flat, shorter than the stem, about a line wide, the cauline small
and subfilit'orm : bracts subtending the branches of the panicle very
small : fruit obcordate in outline, 3 lines long, on a pedicel 4 lines
long. — Fl. 1. 208; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 13. 292. Phalangium
virgatum, Poir. in Lam. Diet. 5. 246. S. Carolina to Florida
(Tampa Bay and St. Augustine). Specimens from the last locality
have thicker fruit, only 2 lines long, on very short pedicels.

2. N. Lindheimeriana. Stem stout, 2 to 6 feet high, from a very
short caudex : leaves flat and thin, 2 to 4 lines broad below, 1 to 3
feet long, strongly serrulate ; the cauline 6 inches long : panicle simple
or sometimes compound, the bracts not conspicuous : fruit very thin,
emarginate at both ends (more deeply above), wider than long (5 lines
broad), on pedicels about 4 lines long. — Dasylirion Lindheimerianum,
Scheele, Linnasa, 25. 262. D. tenuifolium, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound.
215. Beaucarnea Lindheimeriana, Baker, Trim. Journ. Bot. 10. 328.
Texas.

3. N. microcarpa. Stem stout, 6 feet high, from a short caudex :
leaves concavo-convex, rather thick and somewhat carinate, 4 to 6
lines broad, very strongly serrulate, fibro-lacerate at the apex : panicle
narrow, branched at base ; branches slender, a foot long, with ascend-
ing branchlets (2 or 3 inches long) ; bracts small : fruit as in the last
but smaller (3 lines broad), on very slender pedicels 2 or 3 lines long:
stigmas very short, sessile. — Dasylirion erumpens, Rothr. in Wheeler's
Rep. 6. 272. S. Arizona (Rock Canon; Rothrock, n. 278). Re-
sembling N. erumpens: only immature fruit known.

4. N. Bigelovii. " Scape 3 feet high " : leaves flat, nearly an
inch wide above the broad deltoid base, not carinate, 3 or 4 feet long,
the margin roughish : panicle compound ; branchlets slender, an inch
or two long : fruit very thin, 4 or 5 lines in diameter, emarginate
at both ends, on very slender pedicels 2 to 4 lines long : seed ovate-
oblong, 2 lines long, whitish, slightly reticulated. — Dasylirion Bige-
lovii, Torr. Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 151. Beaucarnea Bigelovii, Baker, 1. c.
326. W. Arizona. The plant found by Schott in Sonora, referred
to this species in Bot. Mex. Bound. 216, is probably distinct, but has
not been seen for comparison.

5. N. Parryi. Resembling the last : caudex 3 to 6 feet high :
leaves thicker and somewhat concave above, especially toward the
stout apex, very strongly serrulate on the margin : branchlets of the
panicle and the pedicels stouter : fruit 6 lines in diameter : seed sub-
globose, the very thin testa finely and irregularly wrinkled. — Cali-
fornia (western border of San Bernardino Desert; Parry, 1876).

248 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

* * Seed bursting the cell before maturity and remaining exposed.

6. N. Texana. Stems very short, a foot or two high including
the panicle, several from a very short caudex : leaves covering the
ground, a line or two broad, concavo-convex below, triangular toward
the apex, 2 to 4 feet long, roughish on the margins : panicle com-
pound, the main bracts large and foliaceous with dilated bases : capsules
2-3 lines broad before rupture, on pedicels 2 or 3 lines long : seed
globose, nearly smooth, 2 lines in diameter. — Texas (Austin to the
Nueces; n. 550, 712, Lindheimer; n. 692, Wright; n. 635, Hall).
Flowering in March ; in fruit in May. Referred to the Mexican Beaa-
carnea Hartwegiana by Baker, 1. c.

7. N. erumpens. Stem 2 to 5 feet high, somewhat rough-
scabrous : leaves thick, concavo-convex and somewhat carinate, half
an inch broad above the base, 2 or 3 feet long, very strongly serrulate :
panicle compound, with large dilated bracts ; partial panicles pyramidal,
6 inches long, with the lower subdivaricate branchlets 2 or 3 inches
long : stigmas linear, distinct, sessile : pedicels 2 lines long or less. —
Dasylirion erumpens, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 216. Beaucarnea,
Baker, 1. c. 326. Western Texas (between the Rio Pecos and the
Rio Grande).

8. N. Palmeri. Stem glabrous : leaves probably flat and broad,
very strongly serrulate : panicle compound, 3 feet long and narrow,
the partial panicles only 3 inches long or less, and the branchlets an
inch long ; bracts similar : stigmas upon a short style : fruit 2 lines
broad before rupture, on pedicels 2 lines long: seeds globose, with
minutely wrinkled testa. — Lower California (Tantillas Mountains ;
Palmer, 1875).

9. N. humilis. Stems stout, very short (a foot high or less, including
the panicle), clustered, from a subterranean rootstock : leaves 2 feet
long, 2 to 4 lines broad at base, becoming very narrow, more or less
channelled above and usually carinate beneath, triangular toward the
apex, very rough on the margin : panicle 4 to 6 inches long, with
simple suberect branches, dense: flowers large, the segments \\ lines
long : capsule equalling the pedicel, 3 lines long before rupture, thin-
membranous : seed obovate, 3 lines long, with a white smooth thick
and subcrustaceous testa. — Among rocks, San Luis Mountains,
Mexico; Parry & Palmer (n. 874, 875).

The remaining Mexican species of Beaucarnea, described by Mr.
Baker, 1. c, are doubtless all to be referred to this genus, but are very
imperfectly known.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 249

22. DASYLIRION, Zucc.

1. D. Texanum, Scheele. Caudex 2 to 5 feet high, bearing a
dense rosette of leaves and a flowering stem 8 or 10 feet long : leaves
light-green, 3 or 4 feet long, 4 or 5 lines broad below and attenuate
upward, splitting into coarse fibres at the apex, the serrulate margin
armed with hooked teeth a line long and 3 to 6 lines apart ; the dilated
base narrowed gradually into the leaf, entire : panicle 2 or 3 feet long,
very narrow ; the partial panicles erect or suberect and about 3 inches
long, equalling the broad subtending bracts ; racemes an inch or two
long, ascending : floral bractlets broadly ovate, acute, lacerately toothed,
about a line long : perianth a line long : fruit 3 to 3£ lines long, on
pedicels a line long, broadly elliptical, the rather narrow wings con-
tinued above and adnate to the style (or attenuate apex of the body) its
whole length : seed (immature) 1^ lines long, acute at both ends. — ■
Linnsea, 23. 140. D. graminifolium, Baker, Trim. Journ. Bot. 10.
297, mainly. W. Texas and Eastern New Mexico.

2. D. Wheeleri, Watson. Similar in size (12 to 14 feet high)
and habit : leaves 7 to 9 lines broad, with brown-tipped teeth : racemes
longer (2 to 4 inches), flexuous and usually pendent : fruit narrowly
obcordate, 4 lines long, on pedicels a line or two long, the wings adnate
only to the base of the style and prolonged above it in divergent ob-
tuse lobes a line long: seed 2 lines long, acutish. — Rothrock, Wheeler's
Rep. 6. 379. D. graminifolium, Rothr. 1. c. 6. 272. S. Arizona

, (Bisckoff; Rothrock, n. 329, 655) and southwestern New Mexico
(Emory).

Mexican Species.

• 3. D. Berlandieri. Only the fruiting panicle known. Racemes
stout, spreading, 2 inches long : floral bracts equalling or exceeding the
pedicels, 2 or 3 lines long, broadly lanceolate, acute, nearly entire :
perianth-segments 2 to 2 \ lines long : fruit very broadly winged (sub-
orbicular) ; summits of the wings broad and divergent, the free por-
tion of the style and the stigmas a line long. — N. E. Mexico (Nuevo
Leon, Berlandier, n. 3218).

4. D. graminifolium, Zucc. Resembling D. Texanum ; base of
the somewhat shorter glaucous leaves abruptly contracted and spine-
toothed above : staminate spikes thicker : body of the fruit less
attenuate above and wings free from the style. — Collected in flower
and fruit by Parry & Palmer (n. 876) in the mountains near San
Luis Potosi.

250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

5. D. acrotrichum, Zucc. Described as resembling the last, with
panicle narrower and the floral bractlets entire. Fruit not known. —
Baker, 1. c.

6. D. serratifolium, Zucc. A similar species, imperfectly known ;
leaves not breaking up into fibres at the end. — Baker, 1. c. 298.

7. D. laxiflortjm, Baker, 1. c. 299. Leaves also not fibre-tipped :
panicle ovate-thyrsoid. Female flowers and fruit unknown.

8. D. quadrangulatum. Caudex 3 feet high : leaves drooping,
dark green, 2 feet long or more, 2 or 3 lines broad at base, soon nar-
rower and quadrangular (nearly square in section), unarmed, scabrous :
scape about 5 feet high; inflorescence narrow : flowers 11 lines long,
on very short pedicels : fruit 3 \ to 5 lines long, the broad wings pro-
duced upward to the summit of the slender style : stigma-lobes spread-
ing : seed 2 lines long. — Sierra Nola, Tamaulipas ; Dr. E. Palmer,
1878: a very peculiar species.

23. HESPEROCALLIS, Gray.

1. II. undulata, Gray. Bulb large: stem stout, leafy, a foot or
two high, 5-8-flowered : leaves linear, fleshy, carinate, 3 to 6 lines
wide, the margin undulate: flowers \\ to 2 inches long, on short pedi-
cels ; segments 5-7-nerved : style exserted, the capsule acute with its
persistent base, sessile, a half-inch long: seeds thin, 2£ to 3 lines
broad. — Proc. Am. Acad. 7. 390; Baker, Trim. Journ. Bot. 11.
359. Colorado Desert.

24. HESPERALOE, Engelm.

1. H. YUCCiEFOLiA, Engelm. Stem 2 to 4 feet high, sparingly
branched : leaves a foot or two long, 3 or 4 lines broad, recurved,
long-attenuate: bracts broad and acuminate, rather large: pedicels
cymose-fascicled, 4 to 18 lines long: flowers a half to an inch long,
with erect segments : stamens somewhat shorter ; anthers small (a line
long) : style equalling the perianth, at length exserted, 2 or 3 or more
times longer than the ovary : capsule ovate, acute, an inch long. —
King's Rep. 5. 497. Yucca (?) parviflora, Ton*. Bot. Mex. Bound.
221. Aloe yucccefolia, Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 7. 390. W. Texas
(from Frio County to mouth of the Pecos). A second species from
the same region ha^ been proposed (If. Engelmanni, Krauskopf), but
is imperfectly known, perhaps to be distinguished by its more slender
and flexuous branches and smaller bracts, its twice longer anthers, and
the stouter included style scarcely longer than the ovary.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 251

25. YUCCA, Linn.

# Filaments obtuse, papillose ; anthers cordate-sagittate : ovary narrowly ob-
long : stigmas more or less distinct, papillose. — § Euyucca, Engelm.
■*- Fruit baccate, pendulous : seeds thick, rugose, not margined, with lobed or
ruminated albumen. Mostly arborescent, with sessile panicle.
++ Leaves serrulate.

1. Y. aloifolia, Linn. Cauclex 6 to 12 feet high, simple or spar-
ingly branched : leaves thick, very rigid, tipped with a stout brown
spine, 1 to 2 feet long or more, by an inch or two wide : panicle with
rather small triangular bracts, smooth : flowers 1£ inches long; seg-
ments ovate : stigmas sessile, short and thick, straight : fruit 6-sided,
3 or 4 inches long, acutish : seeds 3 lines broad, half as thick. —
Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1700 ; Engelm. Trans. St. Louis Acad. 3. 34. T.
Draconis, Linn. ; Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1894 ; with longer and softer
leaves. Y. conspicua, Haw., branching from the base, with softer
green-pointed leaves. Coast region, from North Carolina to Ala-
bama. The varieties are only known in foreign gardens, under
various names.

Dr. Engelmann describes two other species, — Y. Yucatana, from
Yucatan, 20 feet high, branching from the base : leaves slightly rough
on the margin, a foot long or more : panicle densely villous, with lan-
ceolate bracts : perianth-segments ovate-lanceolate : stamens much
shorter than the ovary, — and Y. Guatemalensis, Baker (Saund.
Ref. Bot. t. 313), from Mexico and Guatemala, with scarcely pun-
gent and slightly serrulate leaves 2\ or 3 feet long, flowers 3 inches
long with lanceolate segments, and a short thick ovary with deeply
2-lobed spreading stigmas.

■h- ++ Margin of the leaf entire (often serrulate when young or sparingly fila-
mentose when old).

2. Y. gloriosa, Linn. Caudex 4 to 6 feet high or less, simple or
sparingly branched : leaves straight and rigid, pungent, often folded,
2 to 2£ feet long, roughish on the back : panicle pedunculate, smooth
or pubescent, 2 to 4 feet long, with broad lanceolate bracts : flowers
cream-white, often greenish or reddish ; segments ovate, acute, 1^-
inches long or more : stamens as long as the ovary : stigmas rather
slender, at length divergent. — Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1260 ; Engelm. 1. c.
38. T. acuminata, Sweet, Fl. Gard. t. 195. T. recurvifolia, Salisb.
Parad. t. 31. Sea-coast, North Carolina to Florida; in cultivation
under numerous names and in several forms (Baker, Saund. Ref. Bot.
t. 316-321 ; Carr. Rev. Hort. t. 89, 104).

252 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

3. Y. canaliculata, Hook. Caudex 6 to 25 feet high, branching
at top : leaves very long (2 \ to 4| feet by 2 or 3 inches wide), straight
and very rigid, deeply channelled, rough on the back : panicle subses-
sile, ovate, 2 to 4 feet long, densely flowered, nearly glabrous, with
large ovate or broadly lanceolate bracts : flowers cream-white ; seg-
ments ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, \\ to 2\ inches
long : filaments scarcely papillose, nearly equalling the pistil : style
slender ; stigmas narrow, deeply 2-lobed : fruit subcylindric, strongly
beaked, 3 or 4 inches long: seeds 3 to 3£ lines broad. — Bot. Mag.
t. 5201. T. Treculiana, Carr. Rev. Hort. 7. 280 (name only); Engelm.
1. c. 41. T. longifolia, Engelm. ; Buckley, Proc. Philad. Acad. 1862, 8.
Texas to Northern Mexico.

*+++++ Leaves coarsely filaraentose on the margin.

4. Y. baccata, Torr. Caudex short or none : leaves very thick and
rigid, 1^ to 3 feet long by an inch or two wide, channelled or concave,
rough especially on the back, tipped by a very stout brown spine :
panicle pedunculate, usually glabrous, with ovate-lanceolate or ovate
bracts : perianth-segments narrow, 2£ to 3 inches long : stamens
equalling the ovary: .^tyle more or less elongated, slender: fruit
oval or cylindric, 3 to 5 inches long, dark purple, often long-beaked :
seeds 4 to 8 lines broad, a line thick or more. — Bot. Mex. Bound.
221 : Engelm. 1. c. 44: 111. Hort. 3 ser. t. 115. S. Colorado and W.
Texas to S. California and Northern Mexico.

Var. australis, Engelm. 1. c. Caudex taller (often 10 to 50 feet),
branching : leaves thinner and smoother, with finer fibres : flowers
smaller (H inches long), with ovate segments and short style. — The
more southern Mexican form.

5. Y. Schottii, Engelm. 1. c. 46. Caudex 2 to 5 feet high, branched
from the base : leaves straight, rigid, about 9 inches long by 6 or 8
lines wide, concave, somewhat pungent, smooth, with very slender
straight marginal threads : panicle loosely flowered, with flexuous
peduncle and branches, and large lanceolate bracts : flowers rather
small : style and stigmas short : fruit ovate, 2 inches long, shortly
beaked. — S. Arizona.

-t- h- Fruit becoming dry and spongy, indehiscent, erect : seeds thickish, smooth
and scarcely margined, with entire albumen. Tall and branching, with
sessile panicles and serrulate leaves.

6. Y. brevifolia, Engelm. Caudex 15 to 30 feet high : leaves
3 to 8 inches long by as many lines wide, very rough and rigid, atten-
uate to a stout spine, nearly flat above : panicle pyramidal, with white

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 253

ovate to lanceolate bracts : flowers crowded, erect on very short pedi-
cels, fetid, greenish white; segments narrowly lanceolate, 1^ to 2
inches long : stamens half the length of the ovary : stigmas short,
sessile : fruit ovate, 2 or 3 inches long. — King's Rep. 5. 496, and 1. c.
47. T. Draconis, var. (?) arborescens, Torr. Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 147.
Southeastern California to S. Utah.

h_ ^ ^_ Fruit capsular, septicidal and at length loculicidal at top, erect : seeds
thin, smooth, broadly margined, with entire albumen. Caudex none or
short, the panicle upon a tall scape.

++ Leaves serrulate.

7. Y. rupicola, Scheele. Acaulescent: leaves a foot or two long
by an inch or two wide, rigid, erect and pungent, smooth, deep green,
mostly oblique and undulate or twisted, with coarse reddish serratures :
scape 4 to 7 feet high, with long and narrow bract-like leaves : panicle
pyramidal, few-flowered ; bracts small : flowers greenish white ; seg-
ments ovate, sharply acuminate, \\ to 3 inches long: stamens straight,
equalling the ovary : style slender : capsule 6-sided, acute or beaked,
2 or 2\ inches long: seeds 34 to 4 lines broad. — Linnrea, 23. 143;
Engelm. 1. c. 48. T. lutescens, Carr. Western Texas.

Var. rigida, Engelm. 1. c. Leaves pale and glaucous, not twisted,
carinate and often rough on the back, 8 to 12 inches long by 3 to 6
lines wide: capsule and seeds smaller. — Eastern New Mexico and
Northern Mexico.

++ ++ Margin of the leaves filamentose.

8. Y. angustifolia, Pursh. Leaves straight, very stiff and
pointed, usually 1 to 3 feet long by 3 to 6 lines wide, smooth : raceme
usually simple, nearly sessile, 1 to 4 feet long : flowers greenish white
or tinged with brown ; segments broadly ovate, an inch or two long :
stigmas green, shorter than the ovary : capsule 6-sided, 3 inches long,
half as wide : seeds broadly margined, 5 or 6 lines broad. — Sims, Bot.
Mag. t. 2236 ; Engelm. 1. c. 50. Dakota to New Mexico.

Var. elata, Engelm. 1. c. Caudex 3 to 5 feet high, with numerous
glaucescent sometimes entire leaves ^ to 1| feet long: panicle oblong
or lanceolate, 3 or 4 feet long, as long as the peduncle : flowers white,
with narrower segments. — T. constricta, Buckl. Proc. Philad. Acad.
1862, 8 ? W. Texas to Utah and Northern Mexico. Various culti-
vated forms are probably referable to this (Baker, Gard. Chron.
1870, 1088).

Var. mollis, Engelm. ]. c. Acaulescent: leaves softer and less
pungent, broadest (5 to 8 lines) in the middle : raceme or panicle \ to

254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

1 foot long, on a peduncle 2 or 3 feet high : flowers greenish : capsule
shorter (2 inches long) : seeds more narrowly margined. — Y. stricta,
Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 2222. Arkansas to Louisiana and Texas.

9. Y. filamentosa, Linn. Caudex a foot high or less : leaves
numerous, rather rigid, straight, with short point, rough on the back,
1| to 2 feet long by 12 to 18 lines wide (sometimes oblanceolate or
spatulate and obtuse, 2 or 3 inches wide, concave) : panicle pyramidal,
densely flowered, glabrous, on a stout scape 4 to 9 feet high ; bracts
of the scape short, oblique, spatulate : flowers greenish white, 1 to 1 h
inches long : stamens equalling the pistil : stigmas pale, elongated, at
length recurved : capsule cuspidate, 1 ^ inches long : seeds 3 lines
broad. — Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 900 ; Baker, Saund. Ref. Bot. t. 324,
325 ; Engelm. 1. c. 51. Y. concava, Haw. J", glaucescens, Haw. ;
Sweet, Fl. Gard. t. 53. Near the coast, from Maryland to Florida
and Louisiana.

Var. flaccida, Engelm. 1. c. Mostly stemless : leaves soft and
flaccid, thin and flat, with a weak point and usually numerous very
slender threads : panicle contracted, pubescent, as long as the scape :
stigmas shorter, attenuate, connivent; capsule angled, 2\ inches long:
seeds 4 or 5 lines broad. — Y. flaccida, Haw. ; Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1. 1895 ;
Baker, 1. c, t. 323. Y. puberula, Haw. ; Sweet, Fl. Gard. t. 21 ; Baker,
1. c, t. 322. Y. glauca, Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 2662 ; Baker, 1. c, t. 315.
Y. exigua, Baker, 1. c, t. 314.

Var. (?) bracteata, Engelm. 1. c. Leaves rather rigid, roughish,
with a slender sharp point : bracts of the scape larger and foliaceous,
tapering upward: panicle contracted, half as long as the scape, rough
or pubescent : stamens half as long as the pistil. — Coast of S.
Carolina.

Var. (?) laevigata, Engelm. 1. c. Leaves fewer, smooth, rigid and
pungent, very long (2| to 3£ feet long by 10 to 15 lines wide), soon
decumbent: scape 8 or 10 feet high, with lanceolate bracts, much
longer than the pyramidal smoothish panicle : stigmas distinct to the
base, deeply 2-lobed, erect. — S. Carolina to Florida.

* * Filaments acute, glabrous, erect : anthers broadly cordate, didymous : ovary
obovate ; stigma capitate-peltate, hairy-papillose : capsule loculicidal : seeds
thin, smooth, with entire albumen. — § Hesperotucca, Engelm.

10. Y. "Whipplei, Torr. Caudex none or very short: leaves rigid,
serrulate, smooth, carinate, nearly flat but concave toward the apex
and attenuate to a stout brown spine, 10 to 20 inches long by 4 to 7
lines broad : scape 4 to 1 2 feet high, with imbricated sheathing bracts :
panicle narrow and spike-like, dense, smooth : flowers greenish white,

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 255

subrotate ; segments oblong-lanceolate, 1 or 2 inches long : style short,
conical ; stigma green, slightly 3-lobed : capsule globose-ovate, an inch
or two long : seeds 3 or 4 lines broad. — Bot. Mex. Bound. 222 ;
Engelm. 1. c. 54. Y. aloifolia, Torrey, Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 147. San
Francisco to Sau Diego and Arizona. Y. graminifolia, Wood (Proc.
Acad. Philad. 1868, 167), appears to be a variety with longer and
narrower leaves (20 inches long by 3 lines wide), laxer and more
channelled, revolute toward the apex and tipped by a more slender
spine.

26. LILIUM, Tourn.

* Perianth-segments unguiculate.

■*- Flowers erect, usually solitary ; segments abruptly narrowed to the claw,
coarsely spotted on the lower half : leaves linear-lanceolate : bulbs not
rhizomatous. Atlantic States.

1. L. Philadelphicuji, Linn. Bulb small, of thick fleshy jointed
scales : leaves whorled or scattered : perianth-segments reddish-orange,
acute, spreading, 2 to 4 inches long. — Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 519 ; Ker,
Bot. Reg. t. 594 ; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14. 235 ; Babbage, Gar-
den, 11. 135, fig. (bulb) ; Elwes, Monogr. Lil. t. 10. L. a?idinum,
Nutt. Fras. Cat. L. umbellatum, Pursh. Canada to the Saskatchewan
and south to N. Carolina and Colorado.

2. L. Catesb^i, Walt. Bulb-scales thin, narrow and leaf-bear-
ing : leaves scattered : perianth-segments scarlet with yellow base,
long-acuminate, undulate, recurved above, 3 to 5 inches long, the
claw very narrow. — Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 259 ; Sweet, Fl. Gard.
2 ser. t. 185 ; Baker, 1. c. 240 ; Babbage, 1. c, fig. (bulb) ; Elwes, 1. c,
t. 28. L. speclabile, Salisb. Stirp. Rar. t. 5. N. Carolina to Florida,
in pine-barrens.

-•- +- Flowers horizontal or ascending, usually several ; segments narrowing
gradually into the claw, spotless or finely dotted : leaves oblanceolate or
linear-lanceolate : bulbs somewhat rhizomatous. Pacific Coast.

3. L. Washingtonianum, Kellogg. Bulbs large ; scales not
jointed: leaves oblanceolate, more or less verticillate: flowers horizontal,
white becoming purplish, very fragrant ; segments 3 or 4 inches long,
not recurved : anthers 5 or 6 lines long : capsule obovate, truncate.
— Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 13; Wood, Proc. Philad. Acad. 1868, 166;
Baker, Gard. Chron. 1871,709, f. 142, and 1. c. 232; Regel, Gartenfl.
t. 710; Fl. Serres, t. 1795; Babbage, 1. c, fig. (bulb). Oregon and
southward in the Sierra Nevada ; Cuyumaca Mountains.

256

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

4. L. rubescens. Similar, but bulbs small (2 inches in diameter) :
flowers erect or ascending, with revolute segments, usually 1| or 2
inches long, sometimes more, pale lilac or nearly white, becoming
rose^uqsle : anthers 2 or 3 Hues long. — L. Washingtonianum, var.
parpureum, Masters, Gard. Chron. 2. 2. 822, f. 67 ; Baker, 1. c. 233.
California (Coast Range, Marin to Humboldt Counties).

5. L. Parryi, Watson. Bulb small, with jointed scales : leaves
linear-oblanceolate, usually scattered : flowers horizontal, pale yellow ;
segments about 3 inches long, with spreading or recurved tips : capsule
narrowly oblong. — Proc. Davenport Acad. 2. 188, t. 5, G. Cali-
fornia (San Gorgonio Pass, San Bernardino County).

* * Segments oblanceolate, yellow or orange, coarsely spotted with brown.
Flowers erect or horizontal, small.
++ Species of Atlantic States. [See page 301.]

6. L. Grayi. Leaves lanceolate, 2 inches long or less, in whorls
of 4 to 8, not acuminate : flowers 1£ to 2\ inches long, horizontal,
often solitary ; segments spreading but not recurved, apparently deep
reddish-orange, covered throughout with purplish spots. — Summit of
Roan Mountain (Gray, 1840) and Peaks of Otter (A. H. Curtiss,
July, 1871). The specimens are scanty, but appear very distinct.

++ ++ Californian species.

7. L. parvum, Kellogg. Bulb rhizomatous, of small narrow jointed
scales : leaves mostly verticillate, acute or acuminate : flowers few to
very many, suberect, 1 to 1}2 inches long, yellow or orange, rather
finely dotted except on the reddish spreading or recurved tips : anthers
a line or two long: capsule subglobose, truncate, 6 to 9 lines long.
— Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 179, f. 12; Regel, Gartenfl. 1872, t. 725;
Elwes, Monogr. t. 24. L. Canadense, var. Walker i, Wood, 1. c. 166,
and var. parvum, Baker ; Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 6146 ; Babbage, 1. c.
156, tig. (bulb). In the Sierra Nevada to Oregon.

8. L. maritimum, Kellogg. Bulb small, conical : stem rather low :
leaves usually scattered, narrow, often obtuse : flowers solitary or few,
horizontal, 1^ to 2 inches long, deep reddish- orange, spotted below ;
segments recurved above : style and stamens short ; anthers 2 lines
long: capsule "long and narrow." — Proc. Calif. Acad. 6, 140. L.
Canadense, var. parvijlorum, Bolander, same, 5. 206. Swamps, Marin
to Humboldt Counties.

-t- -t- Flowers nodding, large.
++ Species of the Atlantic States.

9. L. Canadense, Linn. Tall, rhizomatous : leaves usually ver-
ticillate, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, acuminate, scabrous on the

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 257

veins beneath : flowers yellow, spotted below, the segments spreading
and somewhat recurved above : capsule oblong-obovate. — Ker, Bot.
Mag. t. 800, 858; Fl. Serres, t. 1174; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14.
240, excl. vars. ; Babbage, 1. c. 156, fig. (bulb). L. pendtdifiorum,
DC. ; Red. Lil.t. 105. L. pardalinum, var. Bourgcei, Baker, 1. c. 242.
Canada (N. Brunswick to Rainy River) to Georgia.

10. L. superbum, Linn. Like the last, but the perianth-segments
spreading from the base and strongly revolute : leaves often scattered,
smooth: capsule somewhat broader. — Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 936; Fl.
Serres, t. 1014; Baker, 1. c. 242, excl. vars.; Elwes, 1. c, t. 21.
Canada (N. Brunswick to W. Ontario) and southward.

Var. Caroliniantjm, Chapm. Low : flowers few (1 to 3). —
Baker, 1. c. L. Carolinianum, Michx. ; Ker, Bot. Reg. t. 580 ; Sims,
Bot. Mag. t. 2280 ; Elwes, 1. c, t. 28. L. Michauxii, Poir. Suppl. 3.
457. L. autumnale, Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 335.

++ ++ Pacific Coast : flowers few to many, with revolute segments.

11. L. Columbianum, Hanson. Bulb small, not rhizomatous, the
scales not jointed : leaves usually in whorls of 5 to 9 or more, 2 to 4
inches long, flat and smooth: flowers bright reddish-orange, with
strongly revolute segments, l1 to 2 inches long: stamens short; an-
thers 2 or 3 lines long : capsule oblong, an inch long, acutely 6-angled.
— Baker, 1. c. 243 ; Babbage, 1. c, fig. (bulb) ; Elwes. Monog. t. 32. L.
Canadense, var. parviflorum, Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 181, and var.
minus, Wood, 1. c. 166. L. lucidam, Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad. 6.
144. L. Humboldtii, var., Babbage, 1. c. From British Columbia to
Northern California in the Sierra Nevada.

12. L. Humboldtii, Roezl & Leicht. Bulb as in the last, but
large: leaves in whorls of 10 to 20, undulate, somewhat scabrous:
flowers reddish-orange, 3 or 4 inches long; segments strongly revolute,
the outer abruptly narrowed to a short broad claw : anthers 4 to 8
lines long : capsule large, obovoid, acutely 6-angled. — Regel, Gar-
tenfl. 1872, t. 724; Fl. Serres, t. 1973; Baker, 1. c. 244; Elwes, 1. c,
t. 31. L. Canadense, var. puberulum, Torr. Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 146, and
var. Humboldtii, Baker, Gard. Chron. 1871, 1165. L. Bloomerianum,
Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad. 4. 160, and 5. 88, f. 4 (var. ocellatum).
In the dry higher foothills of the Sierra Nevada (Butte County and
southward) and Coast Ranges from Santa Barbara to San Diego.

13. L. pardalinum, Kellogg. Rhizome thick and branching;
scales jointed below : leaves flat, smooth, narrowly lanceolate to
linear, the middle in whorls of 9 to 15 : flowers bright orange-red,

vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 17

258

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

lighter yellow in the centre, 2 or 3 inches long ; segments strongly
revolute : anthers 4 or 5 lines long : capsule narrowly oblong, 1 ^
inches long or more. — Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 12; Baker, 1. c. 242;
Elwes, 1. c, t. 26. L. Californicum, Lindl. ; Florist, 1873, t. 33.
L. superbum, var. pardalinum, Baker, Journ. Hort. Soc. 1873, 45.
L. Canadense, var. pardalinum and var. Californicum, Bolander, Proc.
Calif. Acacl. 5. 206. Coast Eanges and foothills of the Sierra Nevada
(in wet places) from Central California northward.

Var. angustifolia, Kellogg. The form with narrow scattered
leaves. — L. Roezli, Kegel, Gartenfl. 1870, t. 667; Baker, Journ.
Linn. Soc. 14. 243. L. Canadense, var. Hartivegi, Baker, Gard.
Chron. 1871, 1165.

27. FRITILLARIA, Linn.

* Styles distinct to the middle ; stigmas linear.

-•- Capsule rather obtusely angled: flowers mostly large (an inch long) : bulb-
scales 3 or 4 lines long. — § Liliorhiza, Baker.

1. F. RECURVA, Benth. Bulb-scales numerous and thick: leaves
linear-lanceolate, mostly in two whorls near the middle of the stem :
flowers 1 to 7, tinged or blotched with light purple or scarlet, 12 to
18 lines long; segments narrowly oblanceolate with recurved tips:
stamens a little shorter, equalling the very slender style. — PL
Hartw. 340; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14. 272, and Bot. Mag. t.
6264 (poor). Sierra Nevada (Placer County to Oregon).

2. F. liliacea, Lindl. Bulb-scales few, very thick : leaves ob-
lanceolate to linear, approximate or whorled near the base : flowers 1
to 5, greenish white (not blotched), 8 to 12 lines long; segments
oblanceolate, spreading : anthers shorter (1 to 1 \ lines) : style stout.
— Baker, 1. c. 273. F. alba, Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad. 1. 46. Lilio-
rhiza lanceolata, Kellogg, 1. c. 2. 46, f. 1 ; Kegel, Gartenfl. 1872,
t. 715. Lower Sacramento Valley; stamens much shorter than the
styles, as in all the following species.

3. F. biflora., Lindl. Usually low : bulb-scales few, ovoid, often
tipped with a small scarious blade : leaves narrowly lanceolate to
oblong-lanceolate, few, scattered or somewhat whorled near the base :
flowers 1 to 3, dai'k brownish or greenish purple ; segments oblanceo-
late, widely spreading : style stout : capsule broadly obovoid. — Baker,
1. c. F. Kamschatcensis, auth. F. lanceolata, Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound,
t. 61. F. Grayana, Reich, f. & Baker, Trim. Journ. Bot. 1878,
262. Coast Ranges, from Mendocino County to San Diego.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 259

4. F. Kamschatcensis, Ker. Resembling the last, but usually-
taller, with more numerous leaves on the upper portion of the stem :
capsule broadly oblong-ovate. — Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 181, t. 193,
A; Baker, 1. c. 273. Liliam, Linn. L. quadrifoliatum, E. Meyer,
Rel. Hrenk. 2. 126. L. affine, Schult. Syst. 7. 40, in part. Alaska
and E. Siberia.

■*- -i- Capsule acutely angled or winged : bulb-scales thick, about half an inch

long. — § Goniocarpa, Baker.

++ Flowers usually large : leaves lanceolate to linear-lanceolate.

5. F. lanceolata, Pursh. Leaves in 1 to 3 whorls above the
middle of the stem : flowers 1 or 2, brownish purple mottled with
greenish yellow ; segments narrowly oblanceolate : stamens 6 or 8
lines long. — Hook. 1. c* t. 193, B; Baker, 1. c. 271. British Co-
lumbia to Mendocino County ; the following varieties in Central Cali-
fornia (Coast Ranges and foothills of the Sierra Nevada).

Var. floribunda, Benth. Flowers 4 to 8 or rarely fewer, lighter
colored (greenish yellow blotched with purple) ; segments 4 to 6 lines
broad, strongly arched with broad nectaries, acute: lower pedicels an
inch long or more. — PI. Hartw. 338. F. mutica, Lindl. F. viridia,
Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad- 2. 9. Liliorhiza viridia, Kellogg, 1. c.
2. 48.

Var. gracilis. Flowers smaller than the last, with narrow and
more acuminate segments : stamens short and anthers often small. —
F. lanceolata, var. (?), Benth, 1. c. 340 (n. 2005, Hartw.; n. 350,
Bridges ; n. 3969, Bolander).

++ ++ Flowers smaller : leaves linear.

6. F. parviplora, Torr. Leaves mostly whorled : flowers 3 to
20, on short strongly recurved pedicels, yellowish tinged with purple ;
segments less arched, with shallow nectaries. — Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 146 ;
Baker, 1. c. 272. F. midtijiora, Kellogg, 1. c. 1. 57 ? Sierra Nevada
(Calaveras County).

7. F. atropurpurea, Nutt. Usually low and more slender:
leaves scattered or somewhat whorled : flowers 1 to 6, dull purple
with more or less of yellowish green, on slender pedicels. — Journ.
Acad. Philad. 7. 54 ; Baker, 1. c. Sierra Nevada (Placer County to
the Columbia) and east to Utah and Wyoming.

* * Styles connate to the summit; stigma 3-lobed : capsule obtusely angled :
flowers not mottled, with obscure nectaries : leaves narrow or linear, scat-
tered or somewhat whorled. — § Amblikion, Baker.

8. F. pluriflora, Torr. Bulb-scales a half to one inch long :
stem usually tall, 4-1 2-flowered : leaves 8 to 15: flowers reddish

260

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

purple, 9 to 12 lines long, on long pedicels. — Benth. PI. Hartw. 338 ;
Baker, 1. c. 270. Sierra Nevada (Butte and Placer Counties).

9. F. pudica, Spreng. Bulb-scales very small and rounded : stem
low, usually 1-3-flowered : leaves 3 to 8 : flowers yellow or orange,
tinged outside with purple, 5 to 9 lines long. — Baker, I.e. 267.
Lilium (?) pudicum, Pursh, Fl. 228, t. 8. Amblirion pudicum, Raf. ;
Torr. Stansb. Rep. 396, t. 9. Theresia pudica, Klatt, Hamb. Gart.
16. 439. Northern Sierra Nevada to British Columbia, and east to
Utah and Montana.

28. ERYTHRONIUM, Linn.

* Flowers solitary: capsule obovate : often propagating by offshoots or

runners.

1. E. American™, Smith. Offshoots arising from the base of
the bulb: leaves oblong-lanceolate, mottled and dotted: flower light
yellow, often dotted at base, 10 to 20 lines long: style club-shaped
and stigmas coherent : capsule 6 lines long. — Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1113 ;
Bigel. Med. Bot. 3. 151, t. 58; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14. 298.'
E. dens-canis, var., Linn. E. Carolinianum, Walt. E. lanceolatum,
Pursh. E. angustatum and flavum, Raf. E. bracteatum, Boott. E.
NuttaUianum, Schult. ; Regel, Gartenfl. 1871, t. 695. Canada (New
Brunswick to W. Ontario) to Florida and Arkansas.

2. E. albtdum, Nutt. Like the last, but leaves usually narrower
and not mottled nor dotted: flowers bluish-white ; segments not toothed
at base : style more slender, the stigmas somewhat spreading. — Gen.
1. 223 ; Baker, I.e. 298. New York and Pennsylvania to Minnesota
and Texas.

3. E. propullans, Gray. Offshoot arising from the stem near
the middle : leaves smaller and more acuminate : flowers bright rose-
color, yellowish at base, 6 lines long : style slender ; stigmas coherent.
— Amer. Naturalist, 5. 298, f. 74 ; Baker, 1. c. 299. Minnesota.

* * Flowers one to several : capsule oblong : new corms sessile at the base

of the old.

4. E. grandiflorum, Pursh. Corm often 2 inches long, narrow :
leaves not mottled, opposite : flowers solitary or racemose (1 to 6),
yellow or cream-colored with a more or less orange base, 1 or 2
inches long: filaments slender: stigmas at length spreading: ovary
and capsule (an inch long or more) narrowly oblong. — Lindl. Bot.
Reg. t. 1786; Regel, Gartenfl. 1876, t. 874, f. 6; Baker, 1. c. 297.
Oregon and Washington Territory. The following varieties need
farther investigation.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 261

Var. (?) albiflorum, Hook. Flowers large, white with yellow
and orange base: leaves mottled. — Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 182; Regel,
Gartenfl. 1874, t. 767, f. 1-4. E. giganteum, Lindl. 1. c. ? ; Hook.
Bot. Mag. t. 5714. E. grandijlorum, Van Houtte, Fl. Serres, t.
2117. Washington Territory.

Var. (?) minor, Morren. Flowers small (an inch long), bright
yellow. — Belg. Hort. 26. 109, t. 6. Utah and Colorado.

Var. (?) Smithii, Hook. Flowers large, tinged with purple or
rose-color : filaments often dilated : ovary broader and more obtuse.
— Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 182. E. revohitum, Smith, Rees' Cyc. Van-
couver Island; Mendocino County, California (n. 4709, Bolander).

5. E. Hartwegi. Bulb small : leaves usually more or less
separated, apparently mottled, often rather small: flowers solitary, or
2 or 3 in a sessile umbel, light yellow and orange, 1 or 2 inches long,
the segments spreading or scarcely recurved : filaments usually short,
slender ; anthers 2 to 4 lines long : ovary ovate-oblong. — E. grandi-
Jlorum, Benth. PI. Hartw. 339. Sierra Nevada (Placer to Plumas

Counties).

6. E. PURPURASCENS, Watson. Bulb an inch or two long : leaves
undulate, often large : flowers usually 4 to 8 in a pedunculate sub-
umbellate raceme, light yellow tinged with purple, deep orange at base,
9 to 12 lines long : pedicels very unequal: anthers a line or two long:
style clavate : capsule narrow, about an inch long. — Proc. Amer.
Acad. 12. 277. E. grandijlorum, var. midtiflorum, Torr. Pacif. R.
Rep. 4. 146, and var. multiscapidea, Wood, Proc. Philad. Acad. 1868,
166. Fritillaria multiscapidea, Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad. 1. 46.
E. revolutum, Baker, Gard. Chron. 1876, 138, seems to be only a very
slender 1 -flowered form of this species. Sierra Nevada (Placer to
Plumas Counties).

29. LLOYDIA, Salisb.

1. L. serotina, Reichenb. Stem 2 to 6 inches high, equalling the
leaves : flowers erect, usually solitary ; perianth-segments oblanceolate,
obtuse, obscurely pitted at base, 4 or 5 lines long, exceeding the sta-
mens and style : capsule obovate, obtusely angled, 4 lines long : seeds
chestnut-colored. — Ornithogalum Iracteatum, Torrey, Ann. Lye.
N. Y. 2. 251. Cronyxium serotinum and Fenelonia bracteata, Raf.
Alpine and arctic regions of the northern hemisphere ; Alaska and
Arctic Coast, Rocky Mountains of Colorado to 38° lat., and on the
Clover Mouutains, Nevada.

262 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

30. CALOCHORTUS, Pursh.

* Inner perianth-segments (petals) strongly arched and broadly pitted, the
gland usually with a transverse scale or fringe; outer segments (sepals)
naked, rarely spotted : capsule more or less broadly elliptical, obtuse or
acute, deeply triquetrous with thin acute or winged lobes, septicidal: seeds
mostly brownish with close pitted testa : flowers or fruit more or less nod-
ding, and stem usually lax. — § Eccalychortus.
-i- Flowers subglobose, nodding : stem usually tall and branching.

1. C. albus, Dougl. Stem 1 to 3 feet high: flowers white with
purplish base : petals acutish, an inch long, bearded and ciliate :
gland lunate, with four transverse imbricate fringed scales : capsule
short-beaked, an inch or two long, half as wide. — Maund, Bot. t. 98 ;
Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14. 304. Cyclobothra alba, Benth. Trans.
Hort. Soc. 1. 413, t. 14, f. 3; Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1661 ; Fl. Serres,
t. 1171. C. panicidata, Lindl. California (Los Angeles to Sonoma
County and foothills of the Sierra Nevada).

2. C. pdlchellus, Dougl. Stem usually a foot high or more :
flowers yellow or orange : petals ciliate and bearded with glandular-
tipped hairs, deeply pitted, the gland covered by the reflexed stiff
hairs of its upper margin : anthers obtuse : capsule obtuse, an inch
long or more. — Baker, 1. c. 303. Cyclobothra pulchella, Benth. 1. c,
t. 14, f. 1 ; Lindl. 1. c, t. 1662 ; Regel, Gartenfl. t. 802. California
(Monterey to Mendocino County).

h- 4- Flowers campanulate, erect when open ; pedicels becoming recurved :

stem mostly low and flowers often subumbelhite.

++ Flowers yellow.

3. C. Benthami, Baker, 1. c. 304. Resembling the last : stem low
and leaves narrow: flowers nearly erect: petals a half-inch long,
mostly obtuse, often deep brown at base, with shallower pit : anthers
acute: capsule 6 to 9 lines long. — Cyclobothra elegans, var. lutea,
Benth. PI. Hartw. 338. California (in the Sierra Nevada, Mariposa
to Butte Counties).

++ ++ Flowers white or light lilac.
= Petals covered with hairs and mostly ciliate.

4. C. Maweanus, Leichtlin. Low, usually branched ; bracts an
inch long or more : petals white, purplish at the broad base, 6 to 8
lines long, somewhat pitted, the gland covered by a broad transverse
semicircular scale: anthers lanceolate, acuminate: capsule oblong-
elliptic, acutish. — C. elegans of California, mainly ; Hook. f. Bot.
Mag. t. 5976 ; Baker, 1. c. 305. California (Coast Ranges, from San
Francisco to Humboldt County, and near Chico).

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 263

5. C. CERULEUS. Low, umbellately 2-5-flowered ; pedicels very
slender : bracts smaller :. petals 6 or 7 lines long, lilac dotted and
lined with blue, with narrower claw, and the gland covered by an
appressed fringed scale : anthers oblong, obtuse : capsule orbicular or
nearly so, obtuse, 6 lines long. — Cyclobothra elegans, var., Benth. PL
Hartw. 338. G. ccerulea, Kellogg. 7. roc. Calif. Acad. 2. 4. C. glaucus,
Regel, Act. Hort. Petrop. 3. 285 ? California (in the Sierra Nevada,
Placer to Plumas Counties ; Hartweg, n. 1988 ; etc.).

6. C. elegans, Pursh. Similar in habit : petals greenish white,
purplish at base, bearded but not ciliate or only sparingly so, the
lunate gland covered by a very narrow and deeply fringed scale :
anthers long-acuminate : capsule as in the last. — Dougl. Hort. Trans.
7. 278, t. 9, f. B. Cyclobothra, Lindl. Oregon and Idaho.

Var. nanus, Wood. Subalpine, dwarf and very slender : petals
narrow and often acute or acuminate, more hairy and ciliate. — Proc.
Philad. Acad. 1868, 168. C. Lyallii, Baker, 1. c. 305. Siskiyou
Mountains, California ; Mount Hood, Oregon, and northward to
British Columbia.

7. C. Tolmiei, Hook. & Arn. Stouter and taller (a foot high),
usually branched : petals 9 to 15 lines long, tinged or marked with
lilac, covered and fringed with purple and white hairs ; gland with-
out scale, bordered above by a dense fringe of reflexed hairs : anthers
lanceolate, acuminate, 2 or 3 lines long : capsule broadly elliptic,
acutish at each end, 10 to 15 lines long. — Bot. Beechey, 398. C.
elegans, var., Baker, 1. c. 305. Oregon to base of Mount Shasta.

8. C. APicuLATUS, Baker, 1. c. 305. A similar species, but still
taller and stouter, with an umbel of larger straw-colored flowers. —
Northern Idaho.

= = Petals hairy only toward the base or wholly naked.

9. C. nudus. Low: leaf solitary, 3 to 10 lines broad : bracts small
(rarely an inch long) : flowers 1 to 6, in a single umbel : petals 4 to
10 lines long, white or pale lilac, without hairs, denticulate; gland
with a broad transverse appressed scale : anthers linear-oblong (2 or 3
lines long), obtuse : capsule oblong, acute at each end, 8 or 10 lines
long : seeds yellowish, papillose, with a white vesicle at base. —
C. elegans, var. subcalvatus, Baker, 1. c. 305. California (in the Sierra
Nevada, Yosemite Valley to Plumas County ; n. 1986, Hartweg).

10. C. lilacinus, Kellogg. Stem bulbiferous near the base, with
broad leaves and long conspicuous bracts: flowers 4 to 10, on long
pedicels in 1 to 3 umbels, or subumbellate : petals pale lilac with

264

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

purplish claw, 6 to 12 lines long, somewhat hairy below the middle;
gland ciliate-margined and with a narrow scale: anthers oblong (1 to
l1 lines long), obtuse: capsule elliptical, obtuse at each end, an inch
long. — Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 5 ; Baker, 1. c. 306. G. umbellatus,
Wood, 1. c. 168. C. uniflorus, Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 5804. California
(Coast Ranges, San Francisco to the Geysers).

11. C. uniflorus, Hook. & Arn. Stem very short, bulbiferous,
1-2-flowered: bracts elongated: petals lilac with purplish claw, the
lower half hairy above the small purple densely hairy gland : anthers
obtuse, 2 lines long : capsule unknown. — Bot. Beechey, 398, t. 94 ;
Baker, 1. c. 306. Gyclobothra, Kunth. California (Coast llanges,
Monterey to Sonoma County).

* * Flowers open-campanulate, with usually densely hairy glands (without
scales, except in n. 12) ; sepals often hairy or subglandular within: capsule
(except in n. 12, 13) narrowly oblong and thick-lobed, acute, septicidal :
seed-testa white, loose and spongy, minutely tessellated : pedicels stout, erect,
and stems usually stouter and more strict. — § Mariposa, Wood.
•*- Capsule as in § Eucalychortus : flowers large, lilac.

12. C. Greenei. Stem stout, branching, 2-5-flowered, a foot high
or more: leaf an inch broad: bracts elongated: sepals with a yellow-
ish hairy spot ; petals lilac, barred below with yellow and more or
less of purple, and loosely covered with long hairs, rarely at all ciliate :
gland deep, densely villous with long hairs above a broad transverse
laciniate scale : anthers broad, acute or obtuse, 3 to 6 lines long : cap-
sule an inch long, narrowed to a stout beak. — Siskiyou County,
California (Rev. E. L. Greene) ; Multnomah County, Oregon (T. J.
Howell).

13. C. nitidus, Dougl. Stem umbellately 1-3-flowered, shortly
bracteate in the middle : leaf narrow : sepals naked ; petals cream-
colored with a lilac spot in the centre, sparingly hairy below ; gland
shallow, narrowly oval, densely covered with tangled yellow hairs,
without scale : anthers acute, 2£ to 4 lines long : capsule round to
broadly elliptical, 9 lines long, with short stout beak. — Hort. Trans.
7. 277, t. 9, f. A; Baker, 1. c. 307. Gyclobothra, Kunth. G eury-
carpus, Watson, King's Rep. 5. 348. Oregon to N. E. Nevada.

-•- -t- Capsule narrowly oblong, with thick obtusely angled lobes.
++ Flowers yellow or orange, more or less marked with brown or purple.

14. C. Weedii, Wood. Corm fibrous-coated: stem leafy, 1-3-
flowered : leaves convolute : sepals with a slightly hairy brown spot ;
petals deep yellow, dotted and often margined with purple, covered
with slender hairs and ciliate, an inch long or more ; gland small,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 265

densely hairy : anthers acute, 4 to 6 lines long. — Proc. Philad. Acad.
1868, 169. G. luteus, var. Weedii, Baker, 1. c. 309. G. citrinus,
Baker, Bot. Mag. t. 6200. California (Coast Ranges, San Diego
County and northward).

Var. purpdrascens. Petals purple or blotched with purple ;
gland somewhat larger. — Santa Barbara and Cajon Pass.

15. C. Kennedyi, Porter. Stem 2-4-flowered, usually stout:
sepals broad, with a purple spot; petals reddish-orange, not ciliate
nor hairy, or only slightly so upon a broad deep-purple spot surround-
ing the densely hairy gland : anthers 4 lines long, on very short fila-
ments. — Coulter's Bot. Gazette, 2. 79. Southern California (Fort
Tejon to Providence Mountains).

16. C. luteus, Dougl. Stem bulbiferous near the base, 1-6-flow-
ered : leaves usually very narrow : sepals . narrowly lanceolate, with a
brown spot; petals an inch or two long, yellow to deep orange, lined
with brownish purple especially on the middle third where it is usually
slightly hairy ; claw purplish ; gland round or somewhat lunate,
densely covered with ascending hairs : anthers yellow, obtuse, 2\ to 5
lines long: capsule 1 to 1£ inches long. — Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1567;
Fl. Serres, t. 104, f. 2 ; Baker, 1. c. 309. California (San Diego to
Mendocino County and foothills of the Sierra Nevada). Frequent
and very variable in color and markings, perhaps running into
G. venastus.

Var. citrinus. The whole petal deep or lemon yellow, with a
central circular or transverse brown spot. — G. venustus, var. citrinus,
Baker, 1. c.

Var. oculatus. Petals white, lilac or yellowish, with a similar
dark central spot ; gland usually narrowly lunate.

17. C. clavatus. Distinct from the rest of the group in the
strongly clavate hairs which cover the lower half of the petal : petals
yellow tinged or lined with brown ; gland deep, circular : anthers pur-
ple, obtuse, 4 or 5 lines long. — California (San Luis Obispo; J. G.
Lemmon, 1878).

18. C. aureus, "Watson. Very low : petals without hairs, yellow
with a narrow crescent of purple bordering the rounded gland, which
is densely covered with reflexed hairs. — Amer. Naturalist, 7. 303 ;
Baker, 1. c. 305. S. Utah.

++ ++ Flowers white or lilac.

19. C. venustus, Benth. Resembling C. luteus: petals white or
pale lilac, with a more or less conspicuous reddish spot at top, a brown-
ish yellow-bordered centre, and a brownish base ; gland large, oblong,

266

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

usually densely hairy and surrounded by scattered hairs : capsule 1 to
2\ inches long. — Hort. Trans. 1. 412, t. 15, f. 3 ; Lindl. Bot. Reg.
t, 1G69 ; Fl. Serres, t. 104, f. 3 ; Kegel, Gartenn. t. 865 ; Baker, 1. c.
310. California (from Alameda County southward); frequent and
very variable.

Var. purpurascens. Petals deep lilac or purplish, with similar
markings.

20. C. splendens, Dougl. Like the last, but the petals clear lilac,
paler below (the claw somewhat darker), with scattered white hairs
below the middle, and with or without a round densely hairy gland :
anthers purple, obtuse or acute, 3 to 6 lines long. — Benth. 1. a, t. 15,
f. 1 ; Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1676; Baker, 1. c. 309. California (Mon-
terey to San Diego).

21. C. flexuosus, Watson, 1. c. Stem stout, more or less flexuous,
branching, not bulbifcrous : sepals shorter, obtusish ; petals as in the
last, usually slightly hairy or dotted around the brown or orange
gland: anthers obtuse, 1£ to 3 lines long: capsule oblong, an inch
long. — Baker, 1. c. 306. S. Utah.

22. C. Palmeui. Stem very slender, lax and flexuous, a foot or
two high, 1-7-flowered, bulbiferous near the base : sepals with nar-
rowly acuminate recurved tips, spotted; petals 6 to 12 lines long,
white (or yellowish below) with a brownish claw, and with scattered
hairs around the ill-defined broad densely hairy gland : anthers obtuse,
3 lines long : capsule very narrow, an inch long or more. — California
(near the Mohave River; n. 527, Palmer, 1876).

23. C. macrocarpus, Dougl. Stem erect and rigid, with 3 to 5
narrow short cauline leaves, 1- (rarely 2-) flowered : sepals acuminate,
with sometimes a hairy spot ; petals acute, H to 2 inches long, purple-
lilac, paler at base, with a greenish midvein, and somewhat villous
above the oblong densely hairy gland : anthers acutish, 4 to 6 lines
long. — Hort. Trans. 7. 275, t. 8 ; Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1152; Baker,
1. c. 309. Washington Territory and Idaho to N. California. Pecu-
liar in its habit.

24. C. Nuttallii, Torr. & Gray. Stem slender, bulbiferous at
base, with a single narrow cauline leaf (rarely 2 or 3), umbellately
1-5-flowered : sepals ovate-lanceolate, often with a dark or hairy spot ;
petals an inch or two long, white tinged with greenish yellow or lilac,
with a purplish spot or band above the yellow base, and hairy around
the circular or oblong gland : anthers obtuse, sagittate, 3 or 4 lines
long. — Pacif. R. Rep. 2. 124 ; Baker, 1. c. 306, excl. syn. Fritillaria
alba, Nutt. Gen. 1. 222 ; Baker, 1. c. 271. Amblirion album, Sweet,

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 267

G. luteus, Nutt. Journ. Acad. Philad. 7. 53. C. Leichtlinii, Hook. f.
Bot. Mag. t. 5862 ; Baker, 1. c. 310. California (Sierra Nevada, often
dwarf and alpine) to Dakota, Colorado and New Mexico. A variable
species, and of the widest range.

25. C. Gunnisoni, Watson. Resembling the last, but with acu-
minate anthers and a broad transverse gland : petals light lilac, yel-
lowish-green below the middle, banded and lined with purple. —
King's Rep. 5. 348 ; Baker, 1. c. 310. Rocky Mountains, from Wy-
oming to New Mexico.

* * * Flowers open-campanulate, the glands naked or less densely hairy ; sepals
more or less pitted : capsule linear, acute, septieidal : upper leaves usually
bulbiferous in the axils. Mexican. — § Ctclobothra, Baker. ( Cyclo-
bothra, Sweet.)

h- Stem 1-2-flowered, leafy : leaves dilated at base : flowers and fruit nodding :
petals oblong-lanceolate.

26. C Hartwegi, Benth. Stem stout, a foot high or less : leaves
narrow, elongated : sepals nearly equalling the petals, purplish with
a darker spot at base ; petals purplish with darker veins, and with
long hairs on the margin and midvein, 18 lines long by 6 wide ; gland
dark, naked : anthers obtuse, 3 or 4 lines long, on elongated filaments :
capsule with thin acutely angled lobes, 1 \ inches long. — PL Hartw.
26 ; Baker, 1. c. 307. Cyclobothra, Kunth. Aguas Calientes (n. 230,
Hartweg).

27. C. Bonplandianus, Schult. f. Similar, but the cauline leaves
short and acuminate-lanceolate : sepals shorter than the petals, yellow-
ish with a purple pit ; petals purple, tinged with yellow, somewhat
hairy and ciliate with short stiff hairs, 14 to 16 lines long ; gland dark,
naked. — Sysfc. Veg. 7. 1532. Cyclobothra purpurea, Sweet, Fl.
Gard. 2 ser. t. 20. C. purpureus, Baker, 1. c. 308, with syn., in part.
Michoacan to Oaxaca.

28. C. fuscus, Schult. f. Corm fibrous-coated : flower smaller,
erect or somewhat nodding : sepals slightly hairy within ; petals
5 or 6 lines long by 21 broad, naked excepting a dense cluster of
yellow hairs on each side of the gland. — Syst. 7. 1534. "Aris-
mendi " (Karwinsky). Probably a good species, judging from the
description.

29. C. spatulatus. Resembling C. Bonplandianus : flowers
purple ; sepals and petals spatulate, with a dark hairy roundish
gland at the summit of the narrow naked claw; petals 9 or 10
lines long, ciliate and covered with long scattered hairs. — Oaxaca
(Ghiesbreght) .

268

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

«- *- Stem usually branching, often tall: leaves narrowly linear, narrow at
base: flowers small, nodding or erect, the pedicels erect in fruit: petals
oblong-obovate, cuneate or rhombic.

30. C. flavus, Schult. f. Conn fibrous-coated: flowers yellow-
petals and sepals acute, rhombic-oblong, with a dark somewhat hairy
gland ; petals hairy and usually denticulate, 8 to 12 lines long : anthers
H or 2 lines long, shorter than the filaments : capsule 1 to 2 inches
long. — Baker, 1. c. 308, with syn. Guanajuato to Oaxaca.

31. C. Ghiesbreghtii. Flowers erect, white tinged with lilac
the sepals darkest: sepals and petals (6 to 8 lines long) with a some-
what hairy gland near the base; petals cuneate-obovate, obtuse, hairy
below the middle: anthers 1* lines long, little shorter than the
filaments: capsule 1£ to 2 inches long. — Chiapas (n. 104, 661
Ghiesbreght).

* * * * Flowers unknown : capsule narrowly oblong, obtuse, loculicidally
dehiscent at the summit : seed flat and horizontal in one row in each cell
with close white testa. '

32. C. Catalog. Stem 2 feet high, branching, from a small
oblong-ovate conn: leaves and bracts very narrowly linear: ovary
winged : capsule triangular, an inch or two long by 4 or 5 lines wide,
very obtuse: seeds thin and very numerous, 2 lines in diameter; testa
minutely pitted. — Santa Catalina Island (Paul Schumacher, June,
1878). «

31. UVULARIA, Linn.

1. IT. perfoliata, Linn. Glaucous throughout: stem J to U
feet high, with 1 to 3 leaves below the fork: leaves glabrous, glau-
cous beneath, oblong- to ovate-lanceolate, acute: perianth-segments
8 to 16 hues long, granular-pubescent within: stamens shorter than
the styles, the tip of the connective acuminate: ovary somewhat
triquetrous; capsule broader than high, the cells with two prominent
acute ridges and horn -like projections. — Smith, Exot. Bot. 1. 97, t. 49.
Canada to Florida and Mississippi.

2. U. graxdiflora, Smith. Yellowish-green, not glaucous : stem
naked or with a single leaf below the fork : leaves whitish-pubescent
beneath, usually somewhat acuminate: perianth-segments smooth
within or nearly so, 12 to 18 lines long: stamens exceeding the
styles, obtusely tipped: ovary obtusely triangular; capsule obtusely
lobed.-Exot. Bot. 1. 99, t. 51 ; Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1112. Canada to
Iowa and south to Georgia. U. flava, Smith (1. c, t. 50), appears
to differ only m its brighter yellow flowers.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 269

32. OAKESIA.

1. 0. sessilifolia. Stem a foot high or less, naked or with a
single leaf below the fork, glabrous : leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute
at each end, minutely scabrous on the margin, pale, glaucous beneath :
flowers 7 to 12 lines long, smooth within: anthers obtuse, shorter
than the style: capsule stipitate, 10 lines long. — Uvularia sessilifolia,
Linn. ; Smith, Exot. Bot. 1. 101, t. 52 ; Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 1402 ; Lodd.
Bot. Cab. t. 1262. U. Floridana, Chapm. Flora, 487. Canada
(New Brunswick, Quebec) to Florida and Arkansas.

2. O. puberula. Branches usually somewhat scabrous : leaves
firmer and darker green, ovate to lanceolate, mostly rounded at base,
very rough on the margin: capsule sessile or nearly so, 10 to 12 lines
long, brown-dotted. — Uvularia puberula, Michx. ; Lodd. Bot. Cab.
t. 1260; Sweet, Fl. Gard. 2 ser. t. 21. Virginia to South Carolina.

33. STREPTOPUS, Michx.

1. S. amplexifolius, DC. Glabrous throughout, glaucous, 2 or 3
feet high : leaves cordate at base, the margin rarely slightly scabrous :
flowers greenish-white, 4 to 6 lines long : anthers cuspidate with a
single slender awn : stigma scarcely lobed : berry thin-coated ; cells
10-14-seeded. — Uvularia amplexifolia, Linn. ; Hornem. Fl. Dan.
t. 1515. S. distortus, Michx. S. arnplexicaulis, ~Poh\; Baker, Journ.
Linn. Soc. 14. 591. Alaska to N. California and across the continent,
ranging south to New Mexico and Pennsylvania ; also in temperate
Europe and Asia.

2. S. roseus, Michx. Lower and somewhat pubescent : leaves less
cordate or only clasping, scabrous-ciliate : pedicels often all sessile
(i. e. not geniculate upon a peduncle) : flowers rose-purple, 3 or 4
lines long : anthers bicuspidate : stigma 3-cleft : berry with a rather
thicker coat, the cells 6-8-seeded. — Fl. 1. 201, t. 18 ; Lodd. Bot. Cab.
t. 1603; Baker, 1. c. 592. Uvularia rosea, Pers. ; Ker, Bot. Mag.
t. 1489. Htkorima rosea, Raf. Alaska to Oregon and Canada (Lab-
rador) and south to Georgia. Eschscholtz's specimens collected at
Sitka and referred to Kruhsea Tilingii, Regel (Smilacina streptopoides,
Ledeb.), belong to this species. On the other hand, the S. roseus of
"Wright's collection in Ochotsk Sea is the same as Tiling's plant (from
the same locality) upon which Kruhsea was founded, but is properly
a Streptopus (i. e. S. Ajanensis, Tiling).

3. S. brevipes, Baker, 1. c. Glabrous thi-oughout, very low and
with very slender creeping rootstock : leaves not at all cordate nor

270

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ciliate : fruit on pedicels 3 or 4 lines long, the cells 2-8-seeded. —
Cascade Mountains, Washington Territory (Lyall) ; known only in
fruit. Perhaps a reduced form of the last.

34. PROSARTES, D. Don.

* Stigma 3-cleft : leaves rarely cordate at base.

•t- Perianth very broad and gibbously truncate at base.

1. P. Menziesii, Don. More or less woolly -pubescent : leaves
ovate to ovate-lanceolate, narrowly acuminate or the lowest acute,
often resinous-dotted: perianth-segments nearly erect, acute, 6 to 11
lines long : stamens a third shorter : style usually somewhat woolly :
ovary nearly glabrous : capsule oblong-obovate, attenuate to a short
subvillous beak; cells 1-2-seeded. — Linn. Trans. 18. 533; Baker,
Journ. Linn. Soc. 14. 587. Uvularia Smithii, Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am.
2. 174, t. 189. California (Mendocino County) to British Columbia.

-i- -i- Perianth narrower and more cuneate at base.

2. P. lanuginosa, Don, 1. c. "Woolly-pubescent : leaves oblong-
lanceolate, narrowly acuminate : perianth-segments greenish, linear-
lanceolate, acuminate, spreading, 6 or 7 lines long: stamens a third
shorter : style and narrow ovary glabrous : capsule oblong-ovate,
obtusish or with a very short stout beak, glabrous ; cells 1-2-seeded.

— Baker, 1. c. 586, excl. vars. Streplopus, Micbx. Uvularia, Pers. ;
Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1490. Western New York to Georgia and
Tennessee.

3. P. maculata, Gray. Pubescent: leaves oblong-lanceolate,
acuminate: perianth-segments yellowish white, with purple dots, very
narrow at base, lanceolate above and acute, 8 to 1 0 lines long, scarcely
exceeding the stamens : style glabrous : ovary ovate, villous, with a
single pair of ovules in each cell. — Amer. Journ. Sci. 2 ser. 47. 201.
Streptopus maculatus, Buckley, same, 45. 170. Mountains of Ten-
nessee and North Carolina.

4. P. trachycarpa, Watson. More or less pubescent : leaves
ovate to oblong-lanceolate, acute or rarely acuminate : perianth-seg-
ments whitish, slightly spreading, narrowly oblanceolate, acute, 4 to
6 lines long, about equalling the stamens: ovary broad : fruit broadly
obovate, obtuse and rather deeply lobed, papillose ; cells 2-6-seeded.

— King's Rep. 5. 344 ; Baker, 1. c. Saskatchewan to N. Idaho,
Utah and Colorado.

* * Stigma entire : leaves mostly cordate-clasping.

5. P. Hookeri, Torr. More or less rough-pubescent with short

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 271

usually spreading hairs : leaves ovate or sometimes oblong, acute or
shortly acuminate : perianth usually rather broad at base, spreading ;
segments acute, 5 or 6 lines long, about equalling the stamens : ovary
narrow, more or less pubescent ; style glabrous : fruit obovate, obtuse ;
cells usually 2-seeded. — Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 144. P. lanuginosa, var.
Hookeri, Baker, 1. c. California (Coast Ranges, Marin County to
Santa Cruz).

6. P. trachyandra, Torr. 1. c. Resembling the last: leaves less
deeply cordate, the upper ones often not at all so, and broader toward
the apex : stamens a third shorter than the perianth ; anthers minutely
hispid : ovary glabrous : fruit glabrous, with a short stout beak. — P.
lanuginosa, var. trachyandra, Baker, 1. c. California (Sierra Nevada,
from Tuolumne to Plumas County).

7. P. Oregana. More or less woolly-pubescent : leaves ovate to
oblong-lanceolate, long-acuminate : perianth-segments spreading, acute,
narrowed below, very distinctly net-veined, 5 to 7 lines long, equalling
or shorter than the stamens : fruit ovate, acutish, somewhat pubes-
cent ; cells 1-2-seeded. — Uvularia lanuginosa, var. major, Hook. Fl.
Bor.-Am. 2. 174. Oregon and Idaho to British Columbia.

35. CLINTONIA, Raf.

* Ovules a single pair in each cell : flowers small, umbellate.

1. C. umbellata, Torr. Inflorescence villous-pubescent or gla-
brous: flowers 10 to 20 or more, suberect on slender pedicels, white
with often a green or purplish spot at the tips ; segments broadly
spatulate, 3 or 4 lines long, about equalling the stamens : style slender :
fruit small. — Fl. N. York, 2. 301; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14.
584. Convallaria umbellulata, Michx. Smilacina umbellata, Desf.
Ann. Mus. 9. 53, t. 8. S. borealis, Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1155. Con-
vallaria umbellata, Poir. Maianthemum, Link. C. multiflora, Beck.
New York to Georgia in the Alleghanies.

* * Ovules several pairs in each cell : flowers larger.
■t- Flowers umbellate.

2. C. borealis, Raf. Inflorescence woolly-pubescent or glabrate :
flowers (3 to 6) nodding, greenish yellow ; segments oblanceolate, 6
to 8 lines long : filaments pubescent or glabrous : style stout : fruit 3 or
4 lines in diameter ; cells 6-8-seeded. — Baker, 1. c. Draccena borea-
lis, Ait. Hort. Kew, 1. 454, t. 5 ; Andr. Bot. Rep. t. 206. Smilacina
borealis, Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1403. Labrador to Winnipeg Valley,
south to N. Carolina.

272

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

3. C. Andrewsiana, Torr. Scape a foot or two high, usually
with a foliaceous bract and one or more few-flowered lateral fascicles :
inflorescence more or less pubescent ; terminal umbel many-flowered ;
pedicels slender : flowers suberect, deep rose-color ; segments oblanceo-
late, gibbous at base, 4 to 7 lines long, exceeding the stamens and
style : filaments pubescent: fruit 4 or 5 lines long ; cells 8-10-seeded.
— Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 150; Baker, 1. c. California (Coast Ranges,
Humboldt County to Santa Cruz).

-»- -»- Flower solitary.

4. C. tjniflora, Kunth. More or less villous-pubescent through-
out : scape mostly shorter than the leaves, usually with a very small
bract: flower (rarely 2) white, pubescent, suberect; segments broadly
oblanceolate, 9 to 12 lines long, exceeding the stamens: filaments
pubescent: fruit 4 to G lines long; cells 6-1 0-seeded. — Baker, 1. c.
Smilaciiia uniflora, Menz. ; Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 1 75, t. 190. Cali-
fornia (Calaveras and Humboldt Counties) to British Columbia.

3G. SCOLIOPUS, Torr.

1. S. Bigelovii, Torr. Leaves oval-elliptic to narrowly oblan-
ceolate, 4 to 15 inches long, sessile or narrowed at base : pedicels (3
to 12) 3 to 8 inches long: outer perianth-segments several-nerved,
the inner 3-nerved, 7 to 9 lines long: ovary linear-oblong; stigmas 2
lines long: capsule light-colored, 9 to 14 lines long, beaked by the
stout style (2 or 3 lines long) : seeds 1 to H Hues long. — Pacif. R.
Rep. 4. 14.5, t. 22. California (Coast Ranges, Marin to Humboldt
County).

2. S. Hallii. Leaves smaller (3 to 5 inches long), somewhat
petioled : pedicels very slender, 2 inches long or less : ovary broader ;
style more slender and stigmas only a line long : capsule brown-purple,
5 lines long : rootstock and roots more slender. — S. Bigelovii, Gray,
Proc. Amer. Acad. 8. 404. Oregon (Cascade Mountains, Hall).
Flower unknown.

37. MEDEOLA, Gronov.
1. M. Virginiana, Linn. Stem a foot or two high, floccose-
woolly becoming glabrate : leaves oblong-lanceolate or uppermost
ovate, acuminate, 5 to 9 in the lower whorl, 2 to 4 in the upper,
nearly sessile : pedicels (3 to 10) slender, an inch long or less : peri-
anth-segments 3 or 4 lines long, exceeding the stamens, shorter than
the purple stigmas: berry 2 or 3 lines in diameter; cells usually

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 273

l-seeded. — Lam. 111. t. 266, f. 2; Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1316 ; Meehan,
Nat. Fl. 2. 157, t. 40. Gyromia Virginica, Nutt. Canada to Florida
and Arkansas.

38. TRILLIUM, Linn.

* Ovary and fruit 6-angled and more or less winged. (Mature fruit very im-
perfectly known.)

-i- Flowers sessile : the broad connective produced beyond the anther-cells.

1. T. sessile, Linn. Leaves sessile, broadly ovate or rhomboidal,
acute, somewhat cuneate or sometimes broadly rounded at base, l1 to
5 inches long : sepals spreading : petals narrowly lanceolate to ob-
lanceolate, acute or acutish, \ to 3 inches long, brown-purple or rarely
greenish-white : stamens erect, usually exceeding the stout suberect
stigmas; filaments \\ lines long or less. — Curt. Bot. Mag. t. 40;
Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 875; Fl. Serres, t. 2311. T. viride, Beck.
T. discolor (?), Chapman, Flora, 478. Pennsylvania to Wisconsin,
south to Florida and Alabama.

Var. Wrayi. Petals spatulate, obtuse, greenish, an inch long. —
T. discolor, Wray ; Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 3097. Georgia.

Var. Nuttallii. Upper stem and nerves of the leaves beneath
rough-pubescent : petals linear-lanceolate, purplish-green with brown
base, 2 inches long. — T. viridescens, Nutt. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.
2. 5. 155. Arkansas.

Var. Californicum. Stouter: leaves broadly rhombic-ovate, 3
to 6 inches long : petals oblanceolate to rhombic-obovate, 1 to 4 inches
long, purple or rose-color or white : anthers 6 to 9 lines long, usually
considerably exceeding the stigmas. — Vars. giganteum and chlorope-
talum, Torr. in Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 151. California (San Luis Obispo
northward) to Oregon.

Var. angustipetalum, Torr. 1. c. Similar, but the leaves some-
what petiolate ; petals narrowly oblanceolate to linear. — Var. gigan-
teum, Hook. & Arn. Bot. Beechey, 402. California to Oregon ; less
frequent.

2. T. recurvatum, Beck. Leaves petioled, ovate to ovate-oblong,
usually acute at both ends : sepals reflexed : petals oblong-lanceolate,
narrowed to a claw at base, 9 to 18 lines long, brown-purple : stamens
incurved, much exceeding the stigmas ; filaments 2 or 3 lines long. —
Am. Journ. Sci. 11. 178. T. unguiculatum, Nutt. 1. c. Wisconsin to
Indiana and Arkansas.

Var. (?) lanceolatttm. Leaves sessile, more narrowly lanceolate :
sepals less strictly reflexed ; petals more narrowly lanceolate or nearly
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 18

274

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

linear, with longer claws : filaments longer. — T. lanceolatum, Boykin
in herb. Torr. Georgia and Alabama.

3. T. petiolatum, Pursh. Stem very short, scarcely exserted
from the basal sheaths : leaves ovate-elliptic to reniform, 3 to 5 inches
long, with petioles as long or longer: sepals erect; petals purple,
narrowly oblanceolate, an inch or two long : stamens with short
filaments, exceeding the slender stigmas. — Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2.
180, t. 192. Idaho, Oregon and Washington Territory.

-•- -t- Flowers pedicellate : connective not produced.

++ Pedicel longer than the flower : filament shorter than the anther : leaves
sessile or nearly so.

4. T. erectum, Linn. Leaves very broadly rhombic, 2\ to 6
inches wide, shortly acuminate : pedicel usually more or less inclined
or declinate: petals ovate to lanceolate, 9 to 18 lines long, brown-
purple or often white or greenish or pinkish: stamens equalling or
exceeding the stout distinct spreading or recurved stigmas. — Curt.
Bot. Mag. t. 470, 1027, 3250; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 1838, 1850. T.
rhomboideum, Michx., excl. var. grandiflorum. T. foetidum, Salisb.
Parad. t. 35. T. pendulum, Willd. Hort. Berol. t. 35 ; Regel, Gar-
tenfl. t. 656. T. purpureum, Kinn. From Canada (Nova Scotia to
Winnipeg Valley) to N. Carolina, Tennessee and Missouri. It is
probably T. obovatum, Pursh, as respects his Canadian plant, and it
is apparently also the plant of E. Siberia. The Japanese form is
distinguished by a somewhat produced connective and very short
stigmas.

5. T. grandiflorum, Salisb. Leaves less broadly rhombic-ovate,
1 \ to 3 or 4 inches wide : pedicel erect or ascending : petals oblanceo-
late, often broadly so, H to 2\ inches long, white turning rose-color or
marked more or less with green : stamens with slender filaments and
anthers, exceeding the very slender erect or suberect and somewhat
coherent stigmas. — Parad. t. 1; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 1349; Regel,
Gartenfl. t. 575. T. rhomboideum, var. grandiflorum, Michx. T.
erythrocarpum, Curt. Bot. Mag. t. 855. Vermont to N. Carolina,
west to Wisconsin and Kentucky. Sports occur with petiolate leaves
or naked stems.

6. T. ovatum, Pursh. Closely resembling the last ; petals lanceo-
late or more narrowly oblanceolate ; stigmas somewhat stouter and
more recurved. — T. obovatum, Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 180. T. Cali-
fornicum, Kellogg, Proc. Calif. Acad. 2. 50, f. 2. From British

Columbia southward in the Coast Ranges to Santa Cruz, California.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 275

♦+ ++ Pedicel short : filament slender, about equalling the anther.
= Pedicel recurved or strongly declinate.

7. T. cernuum, Linn. Leaves sessile or nearly so, very broadly
rhombic-ovate, 2 to 4 inches broad : petals white, ovate-lanceolate,
6 to 12 lines long: stamens with short anthers, shorter than the stout
recurved distinct stigmas : fruit ovate, 3-beaked. — Curt. Bot. Mag.
t. 954. British America (Newfoundland to Mackenzie River) to
Georgia.

8. T. stylosum, Nutt. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute at each end
and shortly petiolate, 2 to 4 inches long : petals rose-colored, oblong,
acute, strongly curved and undulate, 9 lines to 2 inches long : stamens
much exceeding the slender somewhat united stigmas : fruit oblong,
with a stout beak. — T. nervosum and Catesbcei, Ell. N. Carolina to
Florida.

= = Pedicel erect. (Doubtful species.)

9. T. pusillum, Michx. Stem 6 to 8 inches high : leaves sessile,
lanceolate or oblong, obtuse, 1^ to 2 inches long: petals lanceolate,
acutish, pale flesh-color, 8 to 10 lines long : sepals obtuse : stigmas
slender, united below. — Chapm. Flora, 478. Pine-barrens of North
and South Carolina. The description of T. Texanum, Buckl. (Proc.
Acad. Philad. 1860, 443), from N. E. Texas, is essentially the same.
Both plants are known only from the descriptions.

* * Ovary and fruit 3-lobed or angled, not winged : flowers pedicelled : leaves
petiolate : the slender filaments about equalling the anthers.

10. T. nivale, Riddell. Low : leaves ovate to lanceolate, obtuse,
an inch or two long : pedicel erect or declined, short : petals oblong or
oblanceolate, obtuse or acutish, 6 to 15 lines long, white : stamens
usually shorter than the long slender stigmas : fruit depressed globose,
with 3 rounded lobes, 3 or 4 lines long. — Syn. Fl. W. States, 93.
Western Pennsylvania to Kentucky, Iowa and Wisconsin.

1 1. T. ervthrocarptjm, Michx. Leaves ovate, acute or acuminate,
2 to 6 inches long: pedicel erect or inclined, often exceeding the
flower : petals oblanceolate, often broad, acute or acuminate, wavy,
white with purplish base, an inch long : stamens about equalling the
very slender stigmas : ovary 3-angled : fruit broad-ovate, obtuse,
7 to 9 lines long. — Sweet, Fl. Gard. t. 212 ; Lodd. Bot. Cab. 1. 1232 ;
Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 3002. T. undulatum, Willd. T. pictum, Pursh.
New Brunswick to Wisconsin and Georgia, on high mountains or in
cold damp woods.

276

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

39. MELANTHIUM, Linn.

* Perianth-segments with a conspicuous double gland at the summit of the

claw.

1. M. Virginicum, Linn. Stem 3 to 5 feet high, leafy, rather
slender: leaves linear, 4 to 10 lines wide, only the lowest sheathing:
perianth-segments flat, ovate to oblong or slightly hastate, 2-i- to 4
lines long: capsule ovate, half an inch long: seeds 10 in each cell,
2 or 3 lines long. — M. Virginicum and monoicum, Walt. M.polyga-
mum, Desrouss. Leimanthium Virginicum, Willd. Helonias, Sims,
Bot. Mag. t. 985. Veratrum, Ait. f. Zygadenus, Endl. M. biglandu-
losum, Bertol. Bot. Misc. 10. 34. From Canada to Carolina and
Texas.

2. M. latifolium, Desrouss. Leaves more oblanceolate, often
2 inches broad : perianth-segments undulate, 2 or 3 lines long, the
very narrow claw nearly equalling the orbicular or ovate blade :
capsule 6 to 8 lines long ; styles more slender : seeds 4 to 8 in each
cell, 3 or 4 lines long. — Lam. Diet. 4. 25. 31. hybridum, Walt. ?
M. racemosum, Michx. Leimanthium hybridum, Schult. f. Zygadenus
hybridus, Endl. Connecticut to South Carolina. The identity of
Walter's M. hybridum is doubtful.

* * Gland wanting : perianth-segments oblanceolate.

3. M. parviflouum. Stem rather slender, 2 to 5 feet high,
sparingly leafy: leaves oval to oblanceolate (2 to 4 inches wide), on
long petioles, only the lowest sheathing : perianth-segments oblanceo-
late or spatulate, 2 or 3 lines long, attenuate at base : stamens very
short : capsule half an inch long ; seeds 4 to G in each cell, 4 lines
long. — Veratrum parvijlorum, Michx.; Gray, Manual, 525. Leiman-
thium monoicum, Gray, Melanth. 116. Zygadenus monozcus, Kunth.
Alleghanies (Virginia to S. Carolina).

40. VERATRUM, Tourn.

* Stem slender, sparingly leafy ; leaves oblanceolate, only the lowest sheathing :
flowers greenish purple ; segments entire : ovary tomentose, soon glabrate :
capsule ovate, acute, the cells few-seeded.

1. V. Woodii, Robbins. Stem slender, 2 to 5 feet high, sparingly
leafy : leaves oblanceolate, 1 or 2 inches broad or more, on long petioles :
panicle very narrow : pedicels 2 lines long or less, somewhat longer in
fruit : perianth-segments nearly glabrous, oblanceolate, 3 or 4 lines long :
stamens a little shorter, reddish : capsule a half -inch long. — Wood,
Class-Book, 2 ed. 557 ; Gray, Manual, 526. Indiana to Missouri.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 277

2. V. intermedium, Chapman. Apparently very similar to the
last : leaves narrower : panicle more open and slender : pedicels
slender, 3 or 4 lines long, about equalling the flowers : perianth
pubescent : fruit unknown. — Flora, 489. Middle Florida.

* * Stem stout, very leafy, the leaves broad-elliptical and sheathing : flowers

yellowish-green or whitish, the segments serrulate or entire : ovary gla-
brous: capsule oblong-ovate, acute, many-seeded.

3. V. viride, Ait. Stem 2 to 7 feet high : leaves acute, the upper-
most lanceolate and acuminate : branches of the simple panicle slender
and more or less drooping : bracts foliaceous, lanceolate, usually nearly
equalling the flowers : perianth greenish, adnate to the attenuate base
of the capsule ; segments oblanceolate, ciliate-serrulate, 4 to 6 lines
long : stamens 2 or 3 lines long : capsule an inch long. — Bigel. Med.
Bot. 2. 121, t. 33. Melanthium braeteolare, Desr. Helonias viride,
Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1096. V. parvijlorum, Bong. V. Eschscholtzii,
Gray. Georgia to Canada, and thence to Washington Territory and
Alaska.

4. V. Californicum, Durand. Similar : upper leaves lanceolate,
but rarely acuminate : branches of the sometimes compound panicle
ascending: bracts ovate-lanceolate, submembranous, usually little ex-
ceeding the pedicels : perianth-segments broader, obtuse, whitish with
greener base, often denticulate above, 3 to 8 lines long, slightly adnate
to the capsule : stamens 3 to 5 lines long : capsule an inch long or
more. — Journ. Philad. Acad. 3. 1 03. V. album, auth. Colorado and
Wyoming to N. California and Oregon.

* * * Stem stout and leafy ; leaves oblong to lanceolate, mostly sheathing :

perianth-segments fimbriate, somewhat biglandular : capsule obovate,
obtuse, few-seeded.

5. V. fimbriatum, Gray. Leaves narrowed at base, 6 to 18
inches long by 2 to 6 wide or more, acute or acuminate : branches of
the panicle spreading : bracts ovate : perianth-segments rhombic-ovate,
3 to 5 lines long : capsule depressed and somewhat emarginate, 4 lines
long: seeds oblong, scarcely winged. — Proc. Amer. Acad. 7.391.
California (Mendocino County).

41. STENANTHIUM, Gray.

1. S. angustifolitjm, Gray. Stem leafy, 3 or 4 feet high,
very slender : leaves 2 or 3 lines broad : panicle elongated, nearly
simple, very open ; branches slender and flexuous : flowers polygamous
or subdicecious, nearly sessile or the fertile on short pedicels ; peri-

278

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

anth-segments spreading, linear-lanceolate, 2 or 3 lines long: capsule
strongly reflexed, narrowly oblong-ovate, 3| lines long including the
turbinate base, with spreading beaks : seeds angled, not margined, 2
to 2i lines long. — Am. Journ. Sci. 42. 46, and Manual, 525. Helonias
graminea, Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 1599. Veratrum angustifolium, Pursh ;
Gray, Rev. Melanth. 120. Xerophyllum gramineum, Nutt. Gen. 1.
235. Alleghanies, from Virginia to S. Carolina.

2. S. robustum. Resembling the last : stem stout, leafy, 3 to 5
feet high, erect: leaves 4 to 10 lines broad: panicle or raceme often
2 feet long, frequently compound with numerous slender branches :
perianth-segments 3 or 4 lines long, white or green: capsule erect,
ovate, 4 lines long, with recurved beaks : seeds (immature) somewhat
longer. — Pennsylvania to Ohio, Tennessee and South Carolina. It
has been ordinarily included in the last.

3. S. Occident ale, Gray. Stem slender, a foot or two high,
sparingly leafy: leaves linear to oblanceolate (3 to 12 lines wide):
raceme simple or branched at base : flowers all perfect, campanulate,
greenish-purple, 4 to 7 lines long, about equalling the pedicels ; seg-
ments linear-lanceolate, with recurved tips : capsules at length erect,
6 to 8 lines long, attenuate into the elongated slender styles : seeds
linear, flat and winged, 3 or 4 lines long. — Proc. Amer. Acad. 8.
405. Oregon to British Columbia. A Mexican species, S. frigi-
ddji, Kunth ( Veratrum, Cham. & Schlecht.), tall, with large purple
flowers and conspicuous bracts, seems rightly referred to this genus.

42. ZYGADENUS, Michx.

* Glands 2, orbicular, above the broad claw : root rhizomatous : flowers

perfect.

1. Z. glaberrimus, Michx. Stem 2 to 4 feet high, leafy : leaves
2 to 6 lines broad : panicle broad, with ovate greenish bracts : peri-
anth adnate to the base of the ovary : segments 6 lines long, oblong-
lanceolate ; glands conspicuous : seeds linear, scarcely margined, 2 J
lines long. — Fl. 1. 214, t. 22. Helonias bracteata, Sims, Bot. Mag.
t. 1703 ; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 1330. Helonias glaberrima, Link. Vir-
ginia to Florida and Alabama.

* * Gland covering more or less of the base of the perianth-segments : bulb

ovate; coats membranous.
-t- Flowers rather large, mostly perfect.

2. Z. elegans, Pursh. Stem J to 3 feet high : leaves glaucous,
2 to 6 lines broad : raceme simple or sparingly branched below, often

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 279

few-flowered : bracts ovate-lanceolate, usually purplish : perianth
adnate at base ; segments broad, greenish, 4 or 5 lines long, the inner
abruptly contracted to a broad claw ; gland obcordate : styles about 2
lines long or more : seeds oblong, angular, not margined, 2 lines long.
— Helonias glaberrima, Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1680. Z. glaucus, Nutt. ;
Lindl. Bot. Reg. 24, t. 67. Z. chloranthus, Richards. Z. commutatus,
Schult. Anticlea glauca, Kunth. From Canada (New Brunswick)
and Illinois to Oregon and Behring Straits ; southward in the moun-
tains to New Mexico and Nevada.

3. Z. Fremontii, Torr. Very similar, but less glaucous : leaves
an inch broad or less : bracts mostly green : perianth free from the
ovary, 3 to 7 lines long ; gland irregular and notched on its upper
margin: styles short (about 1 line long): capsule longer (6 to 12
lines): seeds shorter. — Pacif. R. Rep. 7. 20 (as Z. Douglasii).
Anticlea Fremontii, Torr. in same, 4. 144. California (Coast Ranges,
San Diego to Humboldt County).

4. Z. Nuttallii, Gray. Stem stout, 2 feet high: leaves 3 to
8 lines broad : racemes simple or rarely panicled, rather densely
flowered, with narrow membranous bracts : perianth free from the
ovary ; segments 3 to 5 lines long, not unguiculate, with an ill-defined
gland at base : stamens free : capsule half an inch long : seeds large
(3 lines long), usually flattened. — Manual, 525. Amianthium
Nuttallii, Gray, Rev. Melanth. 123, excl. var. f$. Amiantanthus
Nuttallii, Kunth. Texas to Colorado.

-t- -i- Flowers smaller, polygamous.

5. Z. venenosus. Stem slender, \ to 2 feet high : leaves rarely
over 2 or 3 lines broad, scabrous, the cauline not sheathing : raceme
simple, short, with narrow scarious bracts : perianth free from the
ovary ; segments triangular-ovate to elliptical, obtuse or rarely acutish,

2 or 3 lines long, all abruptly contracted to a short glandular claw,
the blade rounded or subcordate at base ; gland extending slightly
above the claw with a well-defined irregular margin : stamens some-
what adnate to the claw : pedicels suberect in fruit : capsule 4 to 6
lines long: seeds \\ to 1\ lines long. — California (Monterey and
Mariposa Counties) to British Columbia and east to Utah and Idaho.
Bulb poisonous. The Coast Range form is usually stouter, with a
larger occasionally compound raceme. Hitherto referred to the last
species.

6. Z. paniculatus, Watson. Very similar : usually stout : leaves

3 to 8 lines broad, usually all sheathing : raceme compound : perianth-

280

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

gland less

segments deltoid, acute or acuminate, with a short claw,
definitely margined, often reaching nearly to the middle of' the blade.
fruiting pedicels spreading: capsule i to 1 inch long: seeds 3 to 5
lines long. — King's Rep. 5. 344. Amianthium Nuttallii, var. /?,
Gray, Rev. Melanth. 121. Helonias paniculata, Nutt. Journ. Philad.'
Acad. 7. 57. California (east slope of Sierra Nevada) and Idaho to
Utah and the Sackatchewan.

* * * Gland obscure or almost wanting : perianth small, rotate or reflexed :
bulb narrow ; coats becoming fibrous.
7. Z. leimanthoides, Gray. Stem leafy, 1 to 4 feet high, from
a narrow oblong bulb: leaves 2 to 4 lines broad: racemes panicled,
rather dense and many-flowered: perianth-segments oblong, not
unguiculate, 2 lines long, adherent to the base of the ovary, white
becoming greenish or purplish : capsule 4 lines long, the cells slightly
divergent at top : seeds 4 in each cell, 3 lines long, somewhat mar-
gined below. — Manual, 525. Amianthium, Gray, Rev. Melanth. 1 25.
Amiantanthus, Kunth. New Jersey to Georgia.

8. Z. angustifolius. Resembling the last : leaves 2 or 3 lines
broad : raceme simple : perianth free from the ovary : capsule more ob-
long (5 lines long), the cells not at all divergent: seeds about 4 lines
long. — Helonias, Michx. Amianthium, Gray, 1. c. 124 ; Chapm. Flora,
490. Amiantanthus, Kunth. N. Carolina to Florida and Alabama. '
Two Mexican species are described, viz. : Z. volcanicus, Benth.
(PI. Hartw. 96), with elongated grass-like leaves, a rather tall slender
leafy stem, and flowers (3 lines long) on long divaricate pedicels in
open lax panicled racemes, the perianth adnate to the base of the
capsule ; and the quite doubtful Helonias virescens, HBK. (Anticlea
Mexicana, Kunth), described as low, with a very short somewhat
branched raceme of very small whitish flowers. But for the branch-
ing raceme it might be suspected of belonging to Schoznocaulon. The
Zygadenus Sibiricus, Gray (Anticlea, Kunth), should probably be
referred to Stenanthium, though the segments are glandular.

43. SCHCENOCAULON, Gray.

1. S. gracile, Gray. Scape very slender, 2 or 3 feet high : leaves
a line or two wide : flowers green, at length scattered in a spike 4 to
6 inches long; segments narrowly oblong, a line long or less: fila-
ments very slender : capsule nearly sessile, 4 lines long or more ;
cells about 7-seeded. — Rev. Melanth. 127. Helonias (?) dubia,
Michx. Southern Georgia to Florida.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 281

2. S. Drummondii, Gray. Stouter, 1 to 3 feet high : leaves 1 to

3 lines broad : flowers green, in a spike-like raceme 4 to 8 inches
long; segments narrowly oblong-lanceolate, 1^ lines long: filaments
stout, subclavate-filiform : fruiting pedicels a line long : capsule erect,
narrow, a half-inch long; cells 4-6-seeded. — Bot. Beechey, 388.
S. Texanum, Scheele, Linnrea, 25. 262. Texas.

Mexican Species.

3. S. caricifolium, Gray. Scape stout, a span high, much shorter
than the very narrow flexuous leaves : flowers green, in a raceme

2 inches long ; segments oblanceolate, 1 ^ lines long : filaments rather
slender : fruiting pedicels a line long : capsule ovate, a half-inch long :
seeds large, 2 in each cell. — Bot. Beechey, 388. Veratrum,
Schlecht. Ind. Sem. Hal. 1838 (Linnsea, Litt.-Ber. 1839, 100).
Coulter, n. 1568; Gregg, n. 214?

4. S. officinale, Gray, 1. c. Scape 2 to 4 feet high : leaves

4 to 6 lines broad: raceme dense, becoming 6 to 18 inches long:
flowers nearly white; segments 1£ lines long, narrowly oblong:
filaments stout : fruiting pedicels 2 lines long : capsule ovate-oblong ;
cells 2-4-seeded. — Veratrum, Schlecht. Helonias, Don. Asagrcea,
Lindl. Mexico to Venezuela. There appear to be some other un-
named species, allied to /S. Drummondii and caricifolium.

44. AMIANTHIUM, Gray.

1. A. musc^etoxicum, Gray. Stem l1 to 4 feet high: leaves
shorter, 3 to 15 lines broad: raceme oblong-pyramidal, 2 to 4 inches
long ; pedicels 4 to 8 lines long, with short ovate membranous bracts :
perianth-segments spreading, 2 lines long, equalling the slender fila-
ments : capsule broader above than long (scarcely 3 lines) : seeds
1 to l1 lines long. — Rev. Melanth. 122, with syn. 3felanthium,
"Walt. M. densum, Desr. ; Lam. 111. t. 269, f. 3. Helonias Icela,
Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 803, 1540; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 998. H erythro-
derma, Michx. New Jersey to Florida, Kentucky and Arkansas.

45. HELONIAS, Linn.

1. H. bull ata, Linn. Stem stout, 1 to 2 feet high, leafy and
sheathed with broad bracts at base, and with small submembranous
bracts above : leaves numerous, evergreen, 6 to 12 inches long : raceme
an inch or two (becoming 4 to 6 inches) long : perianth-segments

3 lines long, about equalling the pedicels and capsules : seeds 2 lines

282

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

long. — Curt. Bot. Mag. t. 747; Andr. Bot. Eep. t. 352; Lodd. Bot.
Cab. t. 961; Meehan, Nat. Fl. 1. 33, t. 9. H. latifolia, Michx.
N. Jersey to Virginia.

46. CHAM^LIRIUM, Willd.

1. C. Carolinianum, Willd. Stem 1 to 4 feet high : lower leaves
spatulate-oblanceolate, 2 to 6 inches long, the cauline narrower : ra-
ceme often a foot long or more ; the staminate with slender pedicels
1 to 3 lines long, the fruiting pedicels stouter and more scattered :
capsule 4 to 6 lines long: seed about 3 lines long. — Veratrum luteum,
Linn. Helonias pumila, Jacq. Icon. Rar. t. 253. H. lutea, Ait. f. ;
Ker, Bot. Mag. t. 1062. Helonias dioica, Pursh ; Gray, Rev. Melanth.
132, with syn. Chamcelirium luteum, Gray, Manual, 527. Canada
to Georgia, aud west to Nebraska and Arkansas.

I

47. TOFIELDIA, Huds.

* Glabrous ; infloresence centrifugal : pedicels mostly solitary : seeds not

appendaged.
-*- Dwarf, mostly arctic or alpine : raceme short, few-flowered.

1. T. palustris, Huds. Stem naked and scape-like, 2 to 6 inches
high : leaves I to H inches long by about a line broad : raceme subglo-
bose or from 6 to 12 lines long in fruit: pedicels minutely involucrate
at the very base, a line long in fruit: perianth-segments spatulate,
two thirds of a line long, shorter than the round-ovate capsule : seeds
oblong, quadrangular, \ line long. — T. borealis, Wahl. Narthecium
pusillum, Michx. Lake Superior, Rocky Mountains of British
America and to Greenland : Europe.

2. T. coccinea, Richards. Similar, but the stem (an inch or two
high) with usually two leaves : raceme subglobose, with very short
pedicels : involucre at the base of the flower : perianth-segments nar-
rower, often purplish, nearly equalling the purple capsule : seeds linear,
acute at each end, and slightly longer. — Hook. & Arn. Bot. Beechey,
130, t. 29bi8. Arctic America.

Var. major, Hook. Taller, with larger and looser raceme (a half-
inch long) ; the lower pedicels a line long or more, with nodding cap-
sules : seeds a little longer. — On Mackenzie's River.

-i- -i- Tall, with long many-flowered racemes.

3. T. glabra, Nutt. Stem 1 to 3 feet high, 2-3-leaved ; raceme 2 to
8 inches long : pedicels sometimes in pairs, about equalling the whitish
flowers (2 lines long), involucrate near the flower : perianth-segments

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 283

oblong-oblanceolate, equalling the oblong-ovate capsule : seeds linear.
— T. glaberrima, MacBride. N. and S. Carolina ; " Arkansas."

* * Stem and inflorescence pubescent : pedicels mostly fascicled : seeds more
or less caudate. — § Triantha, Nutt.

4. T. glutinosa, Willd. Glutinous-pubescent: stem slender, \ to
1^ feet high : leaves 2 or 3 lines broad : raceme short {\ to 2 inches) :
pedicels (2 lines long in fruit) bearing the scarcely lobed involucre
near the flower : perianth not becoming rigid : capsule thin and light-
colored, oblong, 2l2 lines long, shortly beaked : seeds minute, with close
brownish testa, and a contorted tail at each end. — Smith, Trans.
Linn. Soc. 12. 246, t. 8, f. 2 ; Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 179, t. 191.
Narthecium, Michx. Alaska to Oregon, Wyoming and Canada (to
New Brunswick), and in the Alleghanies to North Carolina.

5. T. ptjbens, Pers. Pubescence more scabrous : stem 1 to 3 feet
high : perianth becoming rigid about the firm dark-colored ovate and
long-beaked capsule : seeds larger (§ line long), with a short white
appendage at each end. — Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 3859. Melanthium
racemosum, Walt. M. aspericaule, Poir. Narthecium pubens, Michx.
Narthecium (?) scabrum, Raf. New Jersey to Florida and Alabama.

6. T. occidentalis. Stem (1 to 2 feet high) and pedicels below
the involucres viscid-pubescent : raceme an inch long, and pedicels
becoming 3 to 5 lines long : involucre 3-lobed nearly to the middle,
often reddish: perianth 2 J or 3 lines long: capsule thin, obovate,
3 or 4 lines long, long-beaked : seeds angular-ovate, with loose white
spongy testa, and a slender tail at the outer end nearly as long as the
body. — N. California (Mendocino County, n. 1022, Kell. & Harf.) to
Washington Territory (Cascade Mountains, Lyall).

48. PLEEA, Michx.

1. P. tenuifolia, Michx. Glabrous : stem a foot or two high :
leaves perennial, rather rigid, 1 to 1 \ lines wide, the cauline (2 or 3)
sheathing : raceme about 6-flowered, the pedicels (an inch long or
more) about equalling the conspicuous leafy bracts : perianth-segments
6 lines long, twice longer than the stamens and exceeding the cap-
sule : seeds a line long, shorter than the contorted tail. — Flora, 1.
245, t. 25 ; Sims, Bot. Mag. t. 1956. North Carolina to Florida.

49. NARTHECIUM, Moehr.

1. N. Americanum, Ker. Stem a foot high or more : leaves a line
wide, 7-9 -nerved : raceme dense, an inch or two long : perianth-

284

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

segments narrowly linear, 2 to 2| lines long, scarcely exceeding the
stamens: filaments covered nearly to the top with dense tangled
wool : capsule 5 lines long : seeds f line (or with the tails 3 to 4
lines) long. — Bot. Mag. t. 1505; Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. 15. 351.
JV. ossifragum, var. Americanum, Gray, Manual, 536. New Jersey.

2. N. Californicum, Baker, 1. c. Leaves usually 7-nerved, 1 1 lines
broad : raceme open, 3 to 5 inches long : perianth-segments linear-
lanceolate, 3 or 4 lines long, a third longer than the stamens : hairs
upon the filaments ascending: seeds more numerous (10 to 15 in each
cell), a line long (5 lines including the tails). — A7", ossifragum, var.
occidental, Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 7. 391. Northern California
(Mendocino and Sierra Counties).

50. XEROPHYLLUM, Michx.

1. X. SETiFOLior, Michx. Stem 1 to 4 feet high: leaves a line
broad or less : raceme becoming 6 inches long or more : perianth-
segments oblong-ovate, 3 lines long, exceeding the stamens : styles
longer than the ovary : capsule elliptic-oblong, obtuse, 2 lines long :
seeds 2 in each cell, not at all appendaged. — Helonias asphodeloides,
Linn. ; Curt. Bot. Mag. t. 748 ; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 394. X aspho-
deloides, Nutt. ; Gray, Manual, Cr2G. New Jersey to Georgia.

2. X. tenax, Nutt. Stem 2 to 5 feet high : leaves about 2 lines
broad, often 2 or 3 feet long: raceme becoming a foot or two dong,
with usually longer pedicels (mostly 1 to 2 inches) : perianth-
segments oblong, 4 or 5 lines long, scarcely equalling the stamens :
styles exceeding the ovary, 2 lines long: capsule broadly ovate, acute,
loculicidally 3-valved, nearly 3 lines long : seeds 2 to 4 in each cell,
narrowly oblong, 2 lines long, thinner and narrower at the upper end.

— Helonias tenax, Pursh, Fl. 1. 243, t. 9. X. setifolium, Lindl. Bot.
Reg. t. 1613. California (Monterey and Plumas Counties) to British
Columbia (Lyall).

3. X. Douglasii. Pedicels shorter (\ to l\ inches long) : flowers
smaller, the segments (2£ lines long) exceeding the stamens : styles a
line long : capsule cordate-ovate, 2 lines long, 6-valved, the abruptly
acute cells separating and then dehiscing : seeds shorter and broader.

— X. setifolium, var., Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 8. 405. Collected
by Douglas, probably in Oregon, and distributed with his specimens
of the last species. Also found by Hall (n. 533) near the Columbia
River, and by Hay den in the mountains of Montana on the head-
waters of the Yellowstone.

OF AETS AND SCIENCES. 285

Notes upon the Tribes, etc., — their Affinities and Geographical

Distribution.

The entire order of Liliacece includes about 180 genera and 1900
species, of which 50 genera and 235 species are found in the United
States and northward ; Mexico adds four genera and 40 species, and
South America 26 additional genera and 58 species. The total of
American representatives of the order is 80 genera and 333 species.
At least 60 of these genera are peculiar to America, while only eight
of the species are common to the Old and New World. The West
Indies and all of South America to the east of the Andes are almost
wholly destitute of species, the order being confined in that continent
mainly to the western slope of the Andes, from Peru to Patagonia.

Taking up the tribes in their sequence, the Alliece are represented
principally by a single genus, Allium, by far the largest and most
widely distributed of all the genera of the order. It numbers about
270 species, of which 220 are found in the northern temperate and
warm regions of the Old World. No species occur in Australia, and
probably none in tropical or Southern Africa. In the New World
are about 50 species, mostly in the western United States, a very few
Mexican, and a few in South America. Of the two other genera of
the tribe, both small, Nectaroscordium belongs to the Mediterranean
region, and Nothoscordum to the warmer portions of both western
continents. The subdivisions of Allium, as a whole, are not satis-
factorily defined, and a careful and thorough revision of this most
difficult genus is still greatly needed. Some of the Old World sec-
tions are not represented in America, and on the other hand several
of our western groups are peculiar. The eastern A. tricoccum also is
very distinct from all our other species, with apparently some near
allies in Europe and Asia.

The Gillesiece, a very remarkable tribe of Chilian plants, including
half a dozen mostly monotypical genera, appear to be most nearly
related to the Alliece.

The Millece are exclusively confined to the western portion of
North and South America, only Androstephium ranging so far east
as Kansas and Texas. The genus Milla must be limited to the one
species M. bijlora, all the South American species that have been
referred to it probably belonging to Leucocoryne, the southern coun-
terpart to the Californian Brodicea and numbering as many species.
The genus Muilla (the name an inversion of Allium) is formed for a
plant that has usually been placed with the Alliece, but which has not

286

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the characters of that tribe. In the Old World the only group cor-
responding to the Milleee is found in the Agapanthece of the Cape of
Good Hope.

The genus Leucocrinum and the little known Mexican Weldenia
form an anomalous tribe, which resembles, and not very remotely, the
Massoniece of the Cape.

The Hyacinthem and Scillece (hardly separable as tribes) are limited
almost entirely to Europe (with Western Asia) and Africa, two thirds
of the 365 species being African. A half-dozen species are found in
the East Indies, while in the New World these tribes are represented
in the northern continent only by the two species of Camassia, and in
Chili by a single species, referred to Ornithogalum, but probably dis-
tinct. As concerns these American species, the one character of a
scapose raceme should not separate them from the Phalangiece.

Of the other tribes (or subtribes) having a racemose-paniculate
inflorescence and capsular fruit, the Asphodelece alone (with 40 species)
are confined to the Mediterranean region and Western Asia, with a
single genus and species in China and Japan. The remainder, the
Phalangiece, Conantherece, Eriospermece, Chlorophytece and Ccesiece,
belong on the other hand as exclusively to Africa and Australia, but
are represented by a considerable number of small genera in the
western and warmer portions of North and South America. One
genus, Schamolirion, is peculiar to the Southern Atlantic and Gulf
States. The Californian species hitherto united with it is here sepa-
rated under a genus dedicated to Hon. S. Clinton Hastings of San
Francisco, whose active interest and generous liberality in behalf of the
" Botany of California" deserve at least this recognition. The chiefly
African genus Anthericum, as extended by Mr. Baker, is doubtless too
comprehensive, and the Mexican species referred by him to the sub-
genus Hesperanth.es seem to be sufficiently well characterized to form
a distinct genus. Several white-flowered species of Mexico and South
America are also referred by him to Anthericum ; the imperfect ma-
terial at hand does not authorize any other disposal of them, as is
moreover the case with the two South American species of Chloro-
phyton, a similar large African genus with a few representatives in
Australia and India. The Californian Odontostomum is very anom-
alous in its characters.

Of the baccato-capsular tribes, the Convallariece (50 species) belong
to the whole northern temperate zone, and especially to Asia, only
Smilacina extending southward into the tropics of America, In
Eastern Asia are also found the small allied groups Liriopece and

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 287

Aspidistrece. The Asparagineous tribes proper (with 180 species)
are not represented in America, but are peculiar to Africa (with the
Mediterranean region), Australia and Southern Asia, only such out-
lying genera as Astelia, Luzuriaga and Herreria occurring in South
America. The Nolinece may be considered as taking their place in
North America.

The Hemerocallidece (36 species), of the same Old World region as
the Asparaginece, are represented in America by the one species of
Hesperocallis in Arizona, which may be included in the tribe not-
withstanding the anomalous character of the seeds and root. The
TuccecB, of Mexico and the adjacent warm dry region of the United
States, in like manner replace the Aloinece and Sansevierece of Africa
and Southern Asia.

The Liliaceous tribes are in general very polymorphous in their
characters. The principal one, the Liliece (of 205 species), which is
peculiar to the northern temperate zone and with four of the seven
genera common to both continents, may be divided into nearly as
many subtribes as genera. Lloydia and Gagea, chiefly Asiatic, in
some respects resemble the Phalangiece, while Cdlochortus, of Califor-
nia and Mexico, and including several well-marked subgenera, is
differentiated even more widely in the direction of the Melanthacece.
In the southern hemisphere the only approach to this tribe is found
in the Philesiece of two monotypical genera in Chili and Patagonia.

The tribe Uvulariece, of a dozen small genera and about 40 species,
is more widely distributed in its types, inasmuch as besides the seven
genera of temperate North America and Asia (one species of Streptopus
ranging westward from America to Central Europe), Africa and S.
Asia have a representative in the genus Gloriosa, Australia in
Burchardia and its allies, and Chili in Callixene. The division of
Uvidaria itself, which seems to be required, affords an opportunity to
honor the memory of the lamented botanist, Mr. William Oakes,
whose persistent zeal in investigating the flora of the fields and
mountains of his native New England makes appropriate the union
of his name with one of the plants which he himself knew so well.

The Trilliece are a small tribe exclusively northern, the principal
genus Trillium American (with one species entering E. Asia) but
represented in Asia by two nearly allied genera, Paris and Trillidium,
of which the first also occurs in Europe. Less near are the two other
genera Medeola and Scoliopus, which occupy respectively the eastern
and western coasts of North America. The tribe has no counterpart
in the southern hemisphere.

288

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

The Melanthacea form the least of the three divisions of the order,
numbering 28 genera and only 112 species. The Colchicece belong
exclusively to Europe and the Mediterranean region. The Veratrece
are almost as exclusively North American, a few species occurring in
Eastern Asia and Veratrum extending into Europe. It is the only tribe
that in North America enters Mexico, and the only one that finds rep-
resentation in the southern hemisphere in the allied Anguillariece of
Africa and Australia. The Heloniece have two monotypical genera in
the Atlantic States, and three others (including Metanarthecium) in
Japan. The Tojieldiea, occupying the northern temperate zone, seem
to have a solitary representative (a species of Tofieldia) in the moun-
tains of Peru, while Hewardia of Australia is in some respects analo-
gous to Pleea of the Southern Atlantic States.

In general and in conclusion, this hasty and imperfect sketch of the
more prominent facts in respect to the distribution of the order, while
showing the evident connection of the northern floras of the continents,
also indicates a certain, though more distant, relationship (however it
may be accounted for) between the flora of Pacific America and that
of South Africa and of Australia.

II. Descriptions of some new Species of North American Plants.

Thalictroi toltcarpum. Rather stout, 2 or 3 feet high or
more, glabrous throughout : leaves with short petioles or the upper
sessile; leaflets variable, 3 to 12 lines long, the lobes acutish to
acuminate : panicle narrow, often small ; the staminate usually
crowded, with flowers on short pedicels: anthers linear, acute, on very
slender filaments : styles scarcely attenuate upward : fruit usually in
dense heads, compressed, broadly oblong-obovate or obovate, abruptly
acute, subreticulately 3-5-nerved, 2£ or 3 lines long: seed linear,
terete, nearly 2 lines long. — T. Fendleri, var. (?) polycarpum, Torr.
in Pacif. R. Rep. 4. 61, in part. T. Fendleri, Br.ew. & Wats. Bot.
Calif. 1. 4, mainly. Pacific Coast Ranges from Monterey (or Los
Angeles ?) to Oregon (Washington County, J. Howell) ; also in the
Sierra Nevada.— T. occidentale, Gray, is a similar species, with
more slender open panicles, the staminate very diffuse with slender
elongated pedicels; style attenuate; fruit usually few (1 to 6) in
each head, narrowly oblong (3 to 4 lines long) and attenuate at
each end ; seed nearly 3 lines long. It ranges from British Columbia
to W. Montana and N. E. California (Plumas County, Mrs. Austin).

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 289

The leaflets are somewhat larger, rarely with a slight minute puberu-
leuce beneath. — T. Fendleri, Gray, of the Rocky Mountains
(Colorado and Utah to New Mexico), is a rather low slender species,
glabrous or somewhat pubescent, with usually small leaflets (2 to 9
lines long) and an open spreading panicle ; anthers setosely acuminate ;
fruit slightly glandular-puberulent, oblong to ovate, acuminate, 2 or 3
lines long; seed broader and somewhat flattened, 1^ lines long.
T. Wrightii appears to be a form with fruit smaller than usual.

Ranunculus ambigens. In wet places, glabrous, the ascending
stems stout and elongated, often rooting at the lower joints : leaves
oblong- to linear-lanceolate, 2 to 5 inches long, acute, sparingly den-
ticulate, petiolate ; petiole margined, clasping : petals (2 lines long)
but little exceeding the sepals : carpels in small ovate heads, turgid,
rarely a line long, with a long straight narrowly subulate beak. —
R. alismcefoliiis, Benth. PI. Hartw. 295, as to the eastern plant, and
Gray, Manual, 41. From Maine to Illinois. — R. ALiSMiEFOLius,
Geyer, to which this has been referred, has an erect stem (a foot high
or more, the alpine form often dwarf) from a fleshy-fibrous root,
glabrous excepting the hairy basal sheaths ; leaves entire, the radical
on elongated petioles, the few cauline sessile or nearly so ; petals
larger (2 to G lines long) ; fruiting heads usually larger, the more
flattened carpels over a line long, with a short narrow beak. It is
found in the mountains from Colorado and Wyoming to California
and Oregon. The var. montanus of King's Rep. is the typical subal-
pine form as found by Geyer.

Dentaria Californica. Stem simple or branched, about six
inches high : leaves thick, 2 to 4 on the upper part of the stem, on
short petioles, ovate to round-reniform, cordate or sometimes cuneate
at base, obscurely sinuate-dentate or coarsely and sharply or lacini-
ately toothed, very rarely 3-lobed : petals rose-colored, 4 to 6 lines
long, more than twice longer than the purplish sepals : pedicels
spreading (3 to 9 lines long) : pod 12 to 18 lines long by a line wide,
attenuate into a very slender style (2 lines long or more), — or in Var.
pachystigma, the pod much stouter and broader, with a very short
stout style. — Mountains of Plumas County, California ; J. G. Lemmon,
Mrs. R. M. Austin, and Mrs. M. E. P. Ames. The root is a small
deep-seated tuber. Referred to in the Botany of California under
Cardamine paueisecta.

Draba Montana. Annual, hoary throughout with a rather dense
villous pubescence : stem stout, simple or branched, leafy, 3 to 10
inches high : leaves rosulate at base, lanceolate, obtusish, entire or

vol. xiv. (x. s. vi.) 19

290

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

sparingly toothed, 3 to 8 lines long : raceme many-flowered, elongated :
flowers yellow, becoming whitish, small: pods erect on the short
divaricate pedicels, elliptic-oblong, obtuse, pubescent, 4 lines long by
a line broad: style none. — Rocky Mountains of Colorado; South
Park, Wolf & Rothrock (n. 637) ; near Empire, E. L. Greene ; also
collected by Hall & Harbour. — D. stenoloba, Ledeb., is much
more slender and less pubescent (nearly glabrous above), with nar-
rower leaves, looser racemes, and narrower glabrous pods acutish at
each end. — D. nemorosa, Linn., to which both have usually been
referred and which is also frequent in the Rocky Mountains, is of lax
spreading habit, with the ovate-oblong to lanceolate leaves rarely
rosulate at base, pale yellow flowers, and the usually slightly pubes-
cent pods (2 to 4 lines long) much shorter than the slender pedicels.

Thelypodium ambiguum. A stout erect glabrous and glaucous
branching biennial, 3 to 5 feet high : leaves sessile, broadly auricled,
the lower oblanceolate, coarsely serrate, 6 to 8 inches long, the upper
ovate to lanceolate, acute, mostly entire : flowers reddish purple, on
spreading pedicels (3 or 4 lines long) in an open raceme ; petals with
an ovate-oblong blade and rather narrow claw, nearly twice longer
than the oblong obtuse purplish sepals (2 J lines long) : pod elongated,
narrow (3 inches long by less than a line broad), terete and subtoru-
lose, recurved-spreading ; stipe slender, nearly 2 lines long: stigma
sessile, capitate. — Northern Arizona, Dr. Newberry on Lieut. Ives's
Expedition (Streptanthus sagittatus of Ives's Report), and Dr. E.
Palmer in 1877 (n. 27). Also n. 109, Watson, from Regan's Valley,
N. Nevada, is apparently the same.

Viola cuneata. Glabrous: stem a span long, leafy, ascending
from a short rootstock : leaves rhombic-ovate, acute, attenuate at base
into a slender petiole, crenately toothed above : petals deep purple,
more or less bordered or blotched with white, beardless, 4 lines long ;
spur very short, yellowish : capsule glabrous. — Humboldt County,
California, on a high open ridge south of Trinity River ; V. Rattan,
June, 1878. Allied to V. ocellata and V. Hattii.

Silene Sargentii. Low and alpine (6 inches high), puberulent,
cespitose and many-stemmed, with the habit of dwarf forms of S.
Douglasii, to which it is allied : leaves linear, slightly oblanceolate,
1 to 2 inches long : flowers 3 to 6 : calyx 6 or 7 lines long, cylindrical,
with short teeth: petals about 10 lines long, the obovate bifid blade
with a small tooth on each side ; auricles broad, laciniately toothed ;
appendages large and broad, toothed : styles long-exserted : capsule
narrowly cylindrical, long-stipitate : seeds minutely tuberculate on the

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 291

back. — On Table Mountain of the Monitor Range, N. Nevada, at
10,000 feet altitude ; Prof. C. S. Sargent, 1878.

Silene Grayii. Low and alpine (3 to 6 inches high), cespitose,
grayish-puberulent : leaves oblanceolate, 6 to 8 lines long: flowers

2 or 3 : calyx broadly cylindric, with deep-rounded teeth, 5 or 6 lines
long : petals rose-color, 7 or 8 lines long, the broad blade bifid to the
middle with a prominent tooth on each side ; claw broad with narrow
entire auricles ; appendages broad, entire or nearly so : capsule short,
nearly sessile. — Mount Shasta, near snow; "VV. H. Brewer, 18G2
(n. 1373) ; Hooker & Gray, 1877 ; A. S. Packard, Jr., 1877.

Psoralea castorea. Stems very short from a tuberous root,
decumbent ; the whole plant covered with white straight closely
appressed rather rigid hairs : leaves digitately 3-5-foliolate, on stout
petioles 2 or 3 inches long ; leaflets cuneate-obovate, rounded or acutish
at the apex, less pubescent above, an inch long ; stipules ovate-
lanceolate, scarious, persistent : peduncles shorter than the petioles :
spike rather dense, about an inch long, with conspicuous foliaceous
bracts as long as the calyx (4 or 5 lines), spatulate and abruptly
acute : calyx-lobes linear, acuminate, nearly equalling the blue petals :
pod thin, lanceolate, 5 lines long : seed compressed, nearly 2 lines
long. — Near Beaver City, S. Utah, on sandy ridges ; Dr. E. Palmer
(n. 96, 1877). Belonging with the next to the P. esculenta group,
and distinctly marked by the large foliaceous bracts.

Psoralea mephitica. A similar species, softly pubescent through-
out and villous with more or less spreading hairs : leaflets 4 or 5,
obtuse or refuse : stipules broadly ovate : peduncles about equalling
the petioles : flowers on very short slender pedicels in a close raceme
an inch long : bracts mostly scarious, ovate, acuminate or acute, rather
shorter than the calyx (4 to 6 lines) : calyx-lobes linear to oblong-
lanceolate, lax, equalling the blue petals : pod small, somewhat
chartaceous, villous above. — Same locality ; Dr. E. Palmer (n. 97,
1877), who describes it as having the odor of the skunk.

Vicia Reverchoni. Annual, pubescent with spreading hairs, the
decumbent stem angled and narrowly winged, a foot high : leaflets

3 or 4 pairs on a broad rhachis, cuneate-oblong or the lower obovate,
rounded or truncate and mucronate at the summit, 4 to 7 lines long :
flowers solitary, small (3 lines long), light blue, the narrow acuminate
calyx-teeth about equalling the tube : pod pubescent, shortly pedicellate
on a peduncle an inch long or more, 10 to 15 lines long by 2 lines
broad, 10-15-seeded. — On sandy prairies near Dallas, Texas; J.
Eeverchon, April, 1877.

292

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Vicia Florid ana. Glabrous, with very slender elongated stems :
leaflets 2 or 3 pairs, oblong-elliptic, cuneate at base, rounded and
mucronate above, 5 to 10 lines long; stipules very small and narrow:
peduncle 1-6- (usually 1-2-) flowered, £ to 2 inches long: flowers
small and pale (3 lines long), on very short pedicels ; calyx-teeth
broad, much shorter than the campanulate tube: pod glabrous,
1-2-seeded, shortly stipitate, acuminate, | inch long by 2 lines broad
or more. — Florida, Buckley ; upper St. John's River, W. M. Canby ;
rich woods near Jacksonville, and shell-islands at mouth of St!
John's River, A. H. Curtiss. Apparently V. acutifolia var. 0, Torr. &
Gray, Flora, 1. 272; growing in large patches, and probably a
perennial.

Bolandra Oregana. Resembling B. California in habit, but
stouter (15 to 20 inches high) and more pubescent and glandular
especially above : leaves laciniately toothed and lobed : flowers larger,
the calyx-tube (about 3 lines long) equalling the teeth and a little
shorter than the deep purple petals : pedicels reflexed in fruit : beaks
of the ovary and capsule more attenuate: seeds dull, dark brown,
a third of a line long. — On wet rocky banks of the Willamette River,
near Oregon City, Oregon ; J. Howell, June, 1877.

Sullivantia Oregana. Stoloniferous, slender, with the habit of
S. Ohioensis, glandular above: leaves round-cordate, acutely and
rather laciniately toothed, an inch in diameter or less : petals obtuse,
oblong-obovate, a half longer than the sepals (1* lines long), some-
what eremite: seeds dark-brown and shining, narrowly winged, two
thirds of a line long. — Discovered by the same collector in the same
locality, and also on the rocky banks of the Columbia River.—
S. Ohioensis has oblanceolate acutish petals, and smaller light-brown
seeds with a thinner more distinct wing. It appears not to be
stoloniferous.

Cotyledon Palmeri. Caulescent: leaves not at all mealy or
glaucous, reddish, lanceolate and acuminate (narrowing from the base
to a very sharp point), 2 inches long by 8 or 0 lines wide at base, the
margin obtuse : stem a span long, red, with scattered broadly trian-
gular-ovate leaves, the lower more acuminate : inflorescence of a few
simple spreading secund racemes, somewhat glaucous : pedicels 3 to 6
lines long : calyx rather broad, with triangular-ovate sepals 2 lines
long: petals pale lemon-yellow, 5 or 6 lines long, scarcely carinate,
the midvein not glaucous : carpels 4 lines long, at length somewhat
spreading and with divergent styles. — San Simeon Bay, California ;
Dr. E. Palmer, 1877.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 293

Cotyledon Lingula. Much like the last : leaves oblong, acute,

2 or 3 inches long by an inch broad : stems 1 ^ to 2 feet long, the
branches of the cyme less spreading and short : pedicels very short
(a line or less) : sepals narrower and longer : carpels 3 lines long,
somewhat spreading, with straight styles. — From the same region
and collector. Described from living specimens, as also the last.

(Enothera ambigda. Annual, with a short leafy stem and send-
ing out naked horizontal branches from the base, the epidermis white
and smooth : leaves oblanceolate, sinuately toothed or nearly entire,

3 or 4 inches long, with short appressed pubescence, as also the in-
florescence : flowers nodding in the bud, white or cream-color becom-
ing purplish ; tips of the calyx free ; petals 9 to 15 lines long :
capsules linear, thickest toward the base, spreading or reflexed, an
inch long or more : seeds linear, smooth, a line long. — Near St.
George, S. Utah ; Dr. E. Palmer (n. 162, 1877) ; also Dr. Parry in
1874, distributed as CE. albicaulis, var. decumbens. It is closely allied
to that species, but Dr. Palmer's specimens show it to be clearly
distinct in habit, foliage and duration ; the seed is also longer and
narrower.

Ligusticum tenuifoltum. Stem slender, 12 to 18 inches high,
naked above the base or with a single sessile leaf, and bearing a single
naked umbel with rarely a lateral sterile one : leaves small (2 or 3
inches long), ternate and pinnately decompound, finely dissected with
laciniately divided leaflets, the ultimate segments linear, a line or two
long: rays few (7 to 11), an inch long or less : involucels of 1 or 2
narrowly linear bracts : fruit (scarcely mature) oblong, 2 lines long,
narrowly ribbed, with narrow disk and conical styliphore : seed con-
cavo-convex.— Mountains of Colorado ; Hall & Harbour (n. 216, in
part) ; "Wolf & Rothrock, n. 721. Leaves much more finely divided
even than in L. Jilicmum, and fruit very different.

Peucedandm Geyeri. Low and acaulescent or nearly so, gla-
brous ; root moniliform with 2 or 3 small globose tubers (a half-inch
thick or less) : leaves ternate-quinate, the leaflets linear, 4 to 9 lines
long : flowers white, in small unequal-rayed umbels : involucel of
several linear acuminate bracts : mature fruit unknown. — Collected
by Geyer (n. 458), and on the Clear Water, Idaho, by Rev. Mr.
Spalding, who gives the Indian name " Lakaptat." — P. farinosum,
Geyer, is a similar dwarf white-flowered species, having a solitary
small globose tuber with frequent clusters of fine rootlets over its
surface : fruit oblong-elliptic, 2 or 3 lines long, with numerous dorsal
vittae (3 or 4 in each interval) and 4 on the commissure. It ranges

294 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

from Wasington Territory to Idaho and N. California (Sierra County,
J. G. Lemmon) . There still remains some uncertainty respecting the
other tuberous-rooted species which yield the " Biscuit-root " of the
Indian tribes of Oregon. There seem to be two, both nearly acaules-
cent, with large somewhat fusiform tubers, linear leaflets, and white
flowers, — one described by Spalding as " the famous Biscuit-root or
' Kamshit ' (when dried, ' Kanash '), dug in large quantities in May,"
and the other somewhat taller, distinguished by him as " a large kind
of Kamshit, the root not as good " as the other. Ripe fruit is unknown ;
the immature ovary indicates an oblong fruit with strong dorsal ribs.

Asaruji Lemmoni. Slender, somewhat pubescent, with elongated
rootstocks : leaves cordate, rounded at the summit, thin and not mottled,
glabrous above or nearly so : flowers rather small and mostly glabrous,
with the short calyx-lobes (4 to 6 lines long) obtuse or only acute :
connective but slightly produced beyond the anther: seeds narrowly
ovate. — In the Sierra Nevada ; Plumas and Sierra Counties, Mrs.
R. M. Austin and J. G. Lemmon. Resembling A. caudatum of the
Coast Ranges ; distinguished especially by the more rounded leaves
and short calyx-lobes.

Abronia nana. Perennial, dwarf and cespitose, with a thick
branching caudex : stems very short and leafy : leaves ovate (a half-
inch long or less), rough-puberulent, with slender glandular-pubescent
petioles an inch long: peduncles 2 or 3 inches long, glandular-
pubescent : involucre of 4 or 5 ovate-oblong scarious bracts, reddish
at base, 4 or 5 lines long : flowers greenish, 6 or 7 lines long, the
reddish limb 4 lines broad : ovary turbinate, with 5 hollow wings :
fruit unknown. — Near Beaver City, S. Utah, in dry ravines among
junipers ; Dr. E. Palmer (n. 4041, 1877).

Polygonum (Duravia) Bidwellle. Low (2 to 4 inches
high) : leaves and bracts cuspidate, brownish : spikes short, dense :
stipules conspicuous, white, scarious and chaff-like, often exceeding
the bracts (2 lines long), 2-lobed, the lobes entire or slightly lacerate
at the summit : flowers pale rose-color, nearly a line long : akene
narrowly ovate, included ; the styles widely divergent. — Near Chico,
California; Mrs. John Bidwell, May, 1878. With the following
species allied to P. Californicum and confirming the section Duravia,
which is to be distinguished from Avicularia chiefly by the linear
3-nerved leaves and bracts, not jointed at the base, the solitary sessile
spicate flowers, and the persistent styles. The original characters of
the section as respects the fruit were drawn from immature specimens
and are erroneous, the akene not differing essentially from that of

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 295

Avicularia. All the species are low slender erect and branching
annuals. — P. Californicum, Meisn., is somewhat taller, with longer
naiTower and looser spikes, short sheathing deeply lacerate stipules,
shorter bracts scarcely equalling the slightly larger flowers, and a
longer akene with but slightly divergent styles.

Polygonum (Duravia) Greenei. Resembling P. Calif omicum,
with denser spikes, the bracts and wholly fimbriate stipules 2 lines
long : styles very short, somewhat spreading. — Plains of Shasta,
Rev. E. L. Greene, 1876 ; near Chico, Mrs. J. Bidwell, July, 1878.

Polygonum (Persicaria) Muhlenbergii. Perennial, in muddy
or dry jriaces, often 2 or 3 feet high, scabrous with short appressed or
glandular hairs, especially upon the leaves and upper stem : leaves
thin, rather broadly lanceolate, long-acuminate, usually rounded or
cordate at base, 4 to 7 inches long, on short stout petioles (\ to 1 inch
long) from near the base of the naked sheath : flowers and fruit nearly
as in P. amphibium, but spikes more elongated (1 to 3 inches long),
often in pairs. — New England to Texas and westward to Washington
Territory and N. California. P. amphibium, var. (?) Muhlenbergii,
Meisn. in DC. Prodr. 14, 116, and including most of the var. terrestre
of American botanists. Our subterrestrial form of P. amphibium
seems rarely if ever to correspond to the var. terrestre of Europe.

Eriogonum (Eueriogonum § Foliosa) puberulum. A low
annual, dichotomously branching from near the base, appressed silky-
puberulent throughout : leaves all radical, obovate, 3 or 4 lines broad :
bracts foliaceous, mostly ternate, narrowly oblong, 2 lines long or less :
involucres sessile in the forks, very small, 4-parted : flowers few,
glabrous, rose-colored, about f of a line long : sepals oblong. — On
Red Creek, S. Utah; Dr. E. Palmer (n. 429, 1877).

Eriogonum (Ganysma § Pedunculata) Hookeri. Glabrous,
a foot high or more ; stem slender, not branching near the base as do
the rest of the group : leaves densely floccose-tomentose both sides,
orbicular: involucres campanulate, sessile or nearly so, reflexed and
secund upon the branches : flowers pale yellow, the outer sepals
subreniform-cordate, a line long ; the inner oblong-ovate, half as long:
akene abruptly beaked, \ line long. — Wahsatch Mountains, American
Fork Canon (n. 1033 Watson, at least in part) ; W. Nevada, Hooker
& Gray, 1877. Referred in King's Rep. 5. 306 to E. deflexum, which
branches from the base, has more turbinate involucres, smaller flowers
with narrower rose-colored sepals, and a more attenuate akene.

Eriogonum insigne. Of the same group : becoming very stout
and 2 or 3 feet high, glabrous excepting the reniform-cordate densely

296

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

white-tomentose radical leaves (an inch or two in diameter) : involucres
in the forks and secund on the short branches, large for the section
(a line long or more), turbinate and somewhat angled, erect or nearly
so on pedicels 1 to 3 lines long : flowers glabrous, rose-colored, be-
coming nearly a line long, the sepals oblong-ovate, subcordate at base :
akene attenuate, § of a line long. — Near Red Creek, S. Utah ; Dr.
E. Palmer (n. 431, 1877).

Eriogonum (Oregonium § Cortmbosa) sulcatum. A woody
very diffusely and intricately branched floccose-tomentose perennial,
nearly glabrous above, the branches very strongly angled and sulcate :
leaves narrowly oblanceolate, thin and lax, an inch long or less, silky-
tomentose, less so above : bracts very small : involucres minute (h to
§ of a line long), sessile, glabrous. — Near St. George, S. Utah; Dr.
E. Palmer (n. 432, 1877). Allied to E. microthecum; very distinctly
marked by its angular branches.

HOLLISTEPJA ; new genus of Eriogonece. Involucre unilateral,
of 3 equal slightly united linear herbaceous (not cuspidate) bracts, soli-
tary and sessile in the axils, 2-nowered. Perianth turbinate, mem-
branous, 6-cleft to the middle, the slender segments not rigid nor
awned. Stamens 9, on the throat, included. Akene glabrous, tri-
angular above. Embryo curved, the slender radicle accumbent to
the orbicular cotyledons. — A small fragile leafy annual, diffusely
branched from the base, white-woolly throughout ; leaves apparently
all alternate and foliaceous, but these each with a very small stipule-
like pair at base, all cuspidate; flowers on short unequal pedicels,
with a minute scarious bractlet at base. — A single species ; the genus
dedicated to Col. W. H. Hollister, of Santa Barbara, upon whose
ranch it was found, and through whose aid and encouragement Mr.
J. G. Lemmon made the collection in which it was detected.

Hollisteria lanata. Decumbent or prostrate, covered with a
loose white woolly tomentum, which is less dense on the lower leaves :
leaves oblanceolate, attenuate at base, the lower 1 to 3 inches long, the
upper much shorter and narrowly ovate, aculeate-tipped ; the stipule-like
pair linear-subulate (1 to 3 lines long) : perianth very woolly exter-
nally, a line long, the linear-lanceolate segments green with a scarious
margin, the inner slightly shorter and broader: filaments filiform:
styles slender : akene black, ovate with a stout triangular beak. —
Near San Luis Obispo.

Su.eda intermedia. Perennial, the straight erect slender her-
baceous stems from a short woody base, 9 to 18 inches high, glabrous
or sometimes puberulent ; branchlets also slender, ascending*- leaves

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 297

very narrowly linear with a contracted base, acute, 6 to 10 lines long,
much shorter on the branches : fertile flowers very small, often solitary,
the deeply cleft calyx unappendaged : seed very small (^ of a line
broad), horizontal, not at all tuberculate under the microscope. —
Utah and Arizona; Dr. C. C. Parry (u. 218, S. Utah, 1874, and
n. 84, Central Utah, 1875) ; L. F. Ward, on Powell's Survey (n. 152
and 718, 1875) ; also Hooker & Gray, 1878. Somewhat resembling
S. suffrutescens, which is more shrubby and pubescent, with lax and
flexuous stems, stouter and obtuser leaves, calyx less deeply lobed,
and the usually vertical seed obscurely tuberculate.

Celtis brbvipes. A small tree (becoming 20 feet high and 18
inches in diameter), sparingly pubescent: leaves small (1 to 1£
inches long), entire, oblong-ovate, acuminate, rounded or cuneate at
base, rather thin, finely but conspicuously reticulated, roughish
above : fruit nearly 3 lines long, on slender pedicels about equalling
the very slender petioles (2 lines long). — Near Camp Grant, Ari-
zona; Dr. J. T. Rothrock (n. 367), on Lieut. Wheeler's Survey, 1874.

Croton (Drepadeniuh) tenuis. Perennial, woody at base, with
slender decumbent stems a foot or two high : leaves narrowly oblong,
a half to one inch long, with short petioles (1 to 4 lines) : staminate
flowers small and in small racemes : capsule 2 lines long : caruncle of
the seed prominent, with a broad appressed lobed base. — S. Cali-
fornia; Potrero, S. Diego County, D. Cleveland; Soda Lake, near
Fort Mohave, Cooper. — C. Californicus, Muell., differs in its less
slender habit and broader leaves with longer petioles, and especially
in its larger flowers and much larger capsules and seeds, the latter
with a small appressed caruncle. It differs also both in habit and
fruit from the allied C. Neo-Mexicanus of S. Utah and New Mexico,
and the Mexican G. gracilis.

Stillingia linearifolia. Perennial, branching from a woody
base, the herbaceous slender terete ascending stems a foot high or
more : leaves linear, entire or rarely slightly glandular-toothed, acute,
sessile, 6 to 12 lines long: spikes terminal, very slender and open,
1 to 1^ inches long, with very small ovate acute 1-flowered bracts,
minutely glandular on each side : staminate flowers with turbinate
calyx, diandrous : pistillate flowers 2 to 7, scattered, without calyx :
capsule 1\ lines long; horns of the gynophore rather thin, and cen-
tral column often persistent : seed broadly ovate, acute, a line long,
smooth, without caruncle. — S. California ; near Boundary Monu-
ment, San Diego, Dr. E. Palmer (n. 449, 1875) ; San Bernai'dino,
Parry & Lemmon (n. 376, 1876). Referable, with the following

298

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

species, to Mueller's Gymnostillingia, which may be considered a
section or subgenus, characterized by solitary staminate flowers, the
pistillate ones naked, and the seed without caruncle.

Stillingia paucidentata. Differing from the last in its stout
angled stems branching above ; leaves acuminate, an inch or two long,
with 2 or 3 setaceous teeth on each side near the base ; spikes stouter
and denser, the pistillate flowers more crowded ; capsule larger, with
more prominent gynophore, and the larger seed oblong-ovate, slightly
carunculate. — Colorado Valley, near mouth of Williams River ; Dr.
E. Palmer (n. 517, 1876).

Stillingia Torretana. A low glabrous annual (?), with angled
leafy stems : leaves oblong-obovate, cuneate at base, rounded above,
obscurely veined, acutely and sometimes doubly toothed, G to 10 lines
long, with minute fimbriate caducous stipules : spikes terminal, sessile,
short and slender : bracts very small, ovate, acute, 1 -flowered, with
nearly sessile disk-like glands : staminate calyx campanulate, diandrous,
the pistillate of 3 triangular sepals : capsule over 2 lines broad, with
stout gynophore: seeds oblong-ovoid, \\ lines long, smooth, with con-
spicuous prominent caruncle. — Valley of the Rio Grande, at Eagle
Pass ; Dr. Bigelow, 1852. Sapium annuum, var. dentatum, Torr. in
Bot. Mex. Bound. 201, and referred doubtfully by Mueller to Sebas-
tiana Treculiana. The latter, from the same region and mucli re-
sembling the present species, is distinct though doubtless a congener.
It is described as a perennial, 1 toll feet high, with a woody base.
Its leaves are oblanceolate, acutish, 10 to 15 lines long ; the capsule
somewhat smaller, with a short stout-horned gynophore and large
persistent central column; the seed smaller, subglobose, irregularly
tuberculate, and with much smaller caruncle.

Callitriche sepulta. Terrestrial, prostrate and rooting, with
numerous narrowly linear leaves 2 or 3 lines long : bracts none : fruit
broader than long, emarginate at each end, the thick carpels with
acute divergent margins, on stout pedicels a line or two long, soon
deflexed and buried in the soil : styles elongated, reflexed, soon
deciduous. — Oregon ; E. Hall (n. 459). Allied to C. deflexa,
A. Braun (C. Austini, Engelm.), and to C. Nuttallii, Torr., of which
the latter has the same habit of burying its fruit.

Ephedra Nevadensis. An erect shrub, 2 feet high or more,
with opposite erect or somewhat diffusely spreading branches ; bark
splitting and becoming white and shreddy or fibrous : scales opposite,
sheathing, with short acute lobes or somewhat elongated foliaceous
tips, usually 1 to 3 lines long, at length mostly deciduous : staminate

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 299

aments sessile or nearly so, of 4 to 6 pairs of connate bracts : fila-
ments long-exserted, united throughout or the anthers (4 to 8) shortly
stipitate : fertile flowers upon a scaly-bracted (rarely naked) peduncle
1 to G lines long ; bracts 4 or 5 pairs, round-ovate, connate : fruit
solitary or in pairs, 3 or rarely 4 lines long, exserted, acutish, smooth ;
micropyle a line long. — E. antisyphilitica, Watson, Bot. King. Exp.
328, t. 39. Throughout the interior from N. Nevada to the Colorado
Desert (Fort Mohave, Cooper), Northern Mexico (Gregg), and the
Rio Grande. The New Mexican form has more usually very short
peduncles and solitary fruit. Californian specimens collected at Fort
Tejon (n. 112, Xantus) and in the Santa Inez Mountains (n. 347,
Brewer), without flowers or fruit, are peculiar in having persistent
scales and may possibly prove distinct.

Ephedra1 Torreyana. Erect, 1 to 3 feet high or more, the
branches often somewhat flexuous, not spinose, usually ternate : scales
short (a line or two long), sheathing, ternate, with broad and acutish
or rarely narrow lobes, subpersistent, not becoming shreddy : staminate

1 The North American species of this genus may be defined as follows : —

* Scales 2-lobed and the branches (not spinose) opposite : bracts in pairs and evidently connate,

scarcely at all scarious : fruit solitary or in pairs, smooth.

1. E. antisyphilitica, C. A. Meyer. Stems mostly lax and slender, dedi-
cate and nearly prostrate or supported on shrubs or trees to a height of 8 or 10
feet ; bark not shreddy nor fibrous : scales distinct, subpersistent, very short and
triangular-ovate, or when young setaceously tipped and slightly sheathing (some-
times 2 lines long) : aments on short bracteate peduncles : filaments distinct
above the perianth : fertile flowers with 3 or 4 pairs of bracts : fruit 2i or 3
lines long: otherwise as the next, but micropyle slightly shorter. — W. Texas
and New Mexico (n. 320, 1590, Berlandier ; n. 673, 1881, Wright ; n. 225, 273,
428, Lindheimer), to Northern Mexico (n. 855, Parry & Palmer, 1878).

2. E. Nevadensis, Watson. See above.

* * Scales ternate and branches mostly in threes : bracts ternate, distinct or slightly connate,

those of the fertile flowers more or less conspicuously scarious and unguiculate : fruit solitary
or in threes.

3. E. trifurca, Torr. Erect, much branched, 2 to 6 feet high, the straight
rigid branches spinosely tipped : scales conspicuous, sheathing, 3 to 6 lines long,
sharply acuminate, persistent, becoming whitish and shreddy : staminate aments
on a very short peduncle, of 5 whorls of ovate bracts about equalling the
cuneate-oblong perianths : anthers (4 or 5) stipitate : fertile flowers nearly
sessile, 5 or 6 lines long, of numerous whorls (8 to 10) of very thin and scarious
entire round-cordate unguiculate bracts : fruit solitary, 6 lines long, 4-sided,
attenuate upward, smooth : micropyle 2£ lines long. — Arizona and New
Mexico ; Mohave Agency, Dr. E. Palmer (n. 523|, 1876) ; near El Paso, Dr.
Bigelow ; near Fronteras, Wright (n. 1884).

4. E. Torreyana, Watson ; and 5. E. Californica, Watson. See above.

300

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

aments nearly sessile, of 6 to 8 whorls of broad bracts; perianth
round-ovate, slightly exserted ; anthers 5 to 8, stipitate : fertile flowers
3 to 5 lines long, on a very short peduncle, of 5 or 6 whorls of thin
broadly dilated unguiculate more or less crenulate bracts : fruit solitary
or in threes, oblong-lanceolate, scabrous, 4 lines long or less : micro-
pyle a line or two long. — New Mexico to S. Utah; Fronteras
(n. 1883, Wright) ; El Paso (Bigelow; ; Santa Fe (n. 80, Rothrock) ;
S. Utah (n. 250, Parry, 1874).

Ephedra California. Stems ascending or decumbent, the
ternate branches not spinose: scales in threes, sheathing but soon
splitting to the base and recurved, 1| to 3 lines long, the oblong
acutish lobes long-persistent, becoming dark-colored : staminate aments
globose, sessile, of 4 whorls of nearly distinct bracts; perianth broad,
included; anthers 4 or 5, sessile: fertile flowers sessile, of 4 or 5
whorls of rather rigid scarious reniform-orbicular sessile bracts, the
upper with a broad and very short claw : fruit solitary, ovate, some-
what 4-angled, acutish, smooth, 3 to 3i lines long. — San Diego
County, California ; promontory near San Diego and Jamul Valley
Dr. E. Palmer (n. 364 and 365, 1875).

Cupressus Guadalupensis. A widely spreading tree, becoming
40 feet high or more, and 2 to 5 feet in diameter, with grayish-brown
bark cleaving off in thin plates and leaving the thin inner bark with
a smooth claret-red surface : branches drooping and branchlets very
slender: foliage glaucous-green, the acute or acutish leaves very
obscurely glandular on the back : cones globose, an inch or more in
diameter, of 6 or 8 very thick and strongly bossed scales: seeds
numerous, large (3 lines long or more). — On Guadalupe Island, off
the coast of Lower California; distributed as C. macrocarpa in
Dr. E. Palmer's collection from that island. In cultivation about
San Francisco, and likely to prove very valuable for ornamental
purposes.

Zephyranthes Treats. Bulb small (a half -inch in diameter) :
leaves thick, semi-terete with rounded margins, very narrow (rarely
1£ lines wide), deep green and not shining: scape 4 to 12 inches
high : spathe in the fresh flower closely sheathing the ovary and stout
peduncle: flower 3 inches long, white becoming pinkish; segments
obtusish: anthers short, Hto3 lines long: capsule broader than long
(5 or 6 lines), on a peduncle 3 to 9 lines long. — In wet or moist
places, Florida ; near Green Cove Springs, Mrs. Mary Treat; on the
St. John's River, near Jacksonville, Dr. E. Palmer and A. H. Curtiss.
Distributed as Amaryllis Atamasco in the collections of the latter. It

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 301

flowers in April and May. — Z. Atamasco, Herb., growing in the
same region and northward, but in drier localities and blooming
several weeks earlier, has thin channelled leaves with acute margins,
bright green and shining, 1£ to 2^ lines wide, a loose spathe, the
flower with a more slender tube and peduncle, rather broader and
more acute segments, and anthers 3 or 4 lines long. The most obvious
distinction is found in the foliage.

Hymenocallis Palmeri. Bulb small (4 or 5 lines thick), nar-
rowly oblong, with thick roots : leaves with short sheaths, very narrow,
a foot long by 3 lines wide or less : scape slender, 8 or 10 inches high,
1 -flowered : spathe-segments 3, narrowly linear : perianth-tube scarcely
dilated above, about equalling the narrow (a line wide) segments,
which are 31 or 4 inches long: crown tubular-funnelform, 15 lines
long, the border acuminately lobed between the stamens : filaments
a third shorter than the perianth ; anthers greenish : ovary oblong-
ovate, 9 lines long. — Biscayan Bay, Florida, Dr. E. Palmer (n. 554,
1874).

Hymenocallis humilis. Bulb twice larger, upon a thick root-
stock : leaves with broad sheathing bases, 4 to 6 inches long by 2 lines
broad : scape slender, scarcely equalling the leaves, 1 -flowered : spathe-
segments 3, greenish, narrowly linear : flowers greenish ; tube scarcely
dilated above, 15 lines long, shorter than the narrow segments (2
inches long) ; crown broadly funnelform, 8 lines long, truncate be-
tween the stamens : filaments a third shorter than the perianth and
style : anthers greenish : ovary narrowly oblong, 5 lines long, be-
coming an inch long in fruit. — Indian River, Florida ; Dr. E. Palmer
(n. 555, 1874). Though our species of this genus cannot be said to
be well known, yet it seems to be safe to propose the above as new
species, differing so markedly as they do from any previously described.
Of the species of Pancratium given in Chapman's Flora, there can be
little doubt that neither P. maritimum nor P. nutans will be found
within our limits. The original P. Carolinianum of Linnseus (founded
on Catesby's figure) was probably Hymenocallis rotata, and all later
figures and descriptions of " P. Carolinianum " were based upon the
foreign P. maritimum. It is probable that Pancratium, as now under-
stood, and Ismene are not represented in our flora.

Brodlea Howellii. Resembling large forms of B. lactea:
stem nearly 2 feet high: flowers larger (9 or 10 lines long and about
equalling the pedicels), purplish, turbinate-campanulate, the tube some-
what longer than the lobes : outer filaments short and deltoid ; the
inner longer, broadly winged the whole length, the wing truncate or

302 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

rounded above ; anthers 2 lines long : capsule long-stipitate, oblong,
attenuate upward ; cells about 6-seeded. — Klickitat County, Wash-
ington Territory ; Joseph Howell, June, 1879.

Lilium Grayi. See page 256. Since the preceding pages were
in type, flowering specimens of this species have come to hand,
collected (June 20) on the sides of Roan Mountain by Dr. Gray and
Prof. C. S. Sargent. These show a nearer approach in some respects
to L. Canadense, the leaves being narrower than in the original speci-
mens and the flowers (1 to 3) are somewhat nodding, but still less
decidedly pendent when open than is the usual habit of L. Canadense.
The flowers are smaller (1£ to 2 inches long), but broader at base,
the segments broader in proportion to the length and more abruptly con-
tracted into the terminal cusp, deeply colored and but slightly spread-
ing. The root is similar to that of L. Canadense and L. superbum.

Luzula Carolina. Very slightly villous : stem a foot high or
more, with broad flat leaves and a foliaceous bract exceeding the
diffuse and lax cyme : flowers solitary on slender pedicels : anthers
linear, about equalling the filaments : capsule with narrowly ovate
valves, l£ lines long, a little longer than the light-brown perianth :
seed brown, subglobose, with a narrow whitish somewhat wing-like
rhaphe. — On Grandfather Mountain in North Carolina; Gray and
Carey, July, 1841. Differing from L. pilosa in its smoothness, the
conspicuous bract, narrower capsule, and smaller seed without the
prominent terminal twisted appendage.

Luzula divaricata. Usually low (6 inches high or less), and
resembling L. spadicea, var. parvijlora, except that the cyme is
broadly diffuse with divaricately spreading branches and pedicels,
and the seed is light-colored with a small appendage at base. — In
the Sierra Nevada, mostly alpine, from above Mono Lake to Sierra
County; W. H. Brewer (n. 1794, 2069, 2334), Rev. E. L. Greene,
and J. G. Lemmon.

Juncus robustus. Terete scape and leaves 2 to 5 feet high, very
stout, rigid and pungent ; the sheathing bases narrowed gradually
above : lateral panicle compound with very unequal branches, erect
and strict, usually 3 to 6 inches long and about equalling the scape ;
spathes and bracts long-acuminate, equalling or exceeding the flowers :
clusters 2-4-flowered : outer perianth-segments broadly lanceolate,
acute, the inner obovate and deeply emarginate, a line long : capsule
subglobose, narrowed below, rounded at the summit, apiculate, brown,
nearly 2 lines long: seeds acute at each end or slightly caudate, very
finely ribbed, about a half-line long. — J. acutus, Engelm. Proc. St.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 303

Louis Acad. 2. 438. J. acutus, var. sphcerocarpus, Engelm. in
Wheeler's Rep. 6. 376. Southern California, frequent in marshes in
the Coast Ranges from San Francisco to San Diego. J. acutus of the
Old World has a shorter and more spreading panicle, shorter spathes
and bracts, a more triangular and more acute capsule, and usually
more distinctly caudate seeds : the sheaths at the base are also more
abruptly contracted. The tough scapes of the present species are split
by the Indians and used in binding together the material of their baskets.

Juncus (Articulati) Nevadensis. Scape very slender from a
slender horizontal rootstock, somewhat compressed, £ to 2 feet high :
leaves very narrow (rarely a line wide), sub terete ; ligules present:
spathe short and very narrow : heads small, few to rather many in a
short open panicle, frequently solitary : perianth-segments brownish,
lanceolate, acuminate, 2 lines long : stamens 6 ; anthers longer than
the filaments : stigmas long-exserted : capsule oblong, abruptly con-
tracted into the stout style, which nearly equals the perianth : seeds
minute, oblong, apiculate at each end. — J. phceocepkalus, var. gracilis,
Engelm. Proc. St. Louis Acad. 2. 473. Frequent in the Sierra
Nevada, from Kern County (Rothrock) to Oregon. Resembling
J. articulatus in habit, but much more slender ; distinguished from
J. phceocepkalus by its slender habit, subterete scape and leaves,
ligules, smaller heads, more abruptly acute capsule, and much smaller
and narrower seeds.

Phyllospadix Torreyi. Stem and leaves much elongated,
scarcely a line wide, the latter flat, faintly 1-nerved, with sheaths
2 to 10 inches long: spathes 2 to 6, near the summit of an elongated
peduncle, the dilated portion 1£ or 2 inches long, foliaceous above:
spadix enclosed, 1^ lines wide, with 15 to 20 ovate-oblong acute
appendages within the margin and above the attachment of the corre-
sponding ovaries, 2 \ to 3 lines long: ovaries cordate-sagittate, some-
what flattened dorsally and carinate, 2^ lines long ; stigmas half as
long : fruit unknown. — Collected by Dr. Torrey at Santa Barbara,
in flower. It is apparently the same that is described and figured by
Ruprecht under the name of P. Scouleri (Mem. Acad. Petersb. 7. 58,
t. 1 and 2, f. 5-16), from the mouth of Russian River, though repre-
sented with short peduncles, a single spathe and broader leaves.
P. Scouleri, Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2. 171, t. 186, may be distinguished
by its ovate-oblong ovaries, rounded at base ; its mature fruit is also
unknown.

304

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XVI.

A NEW RECEIVING TELEPHONE.

By Professor A. E. Dolbear.

Presented May 14, 1879.

There are two forms of receiving telephones in use, the more com-
mon being the magneto-telephone, the other a modification of the
motograph invented several years ago by Edison. In the latter a dia-
phragm is made to vibrate by the varying friction between a metallic
strip and a rotating cylinder of chalk that is saturated with some elec-
trolytic substance. When a current of electricity is passed between
these while the cylinder is rotated, the friction is found to be less as
the current is greater, and hence a current varying with the phase of
vibration of a sound-wave will give a like movement to a diaphragm
properly connected to the strip pressing upon the cylinder.

It has happened to me to discover another method entirely different
from either of these. Imagine a straight bar electro-magnet, two or
three inches long, so mounted that the core may be rotated on its axis,
the core to project half an inch beyond the bobbin on each end. Let
an armature be made of a U form, the ends of the U to lie upon the
projecting ends of the magnet. At the bend of the armature a short
rod connects it to the vibrating plate of any sort, mica, or paper, or
thin iron, mounted as in the ordinary way. Now, when a current of
electricity is made to traverse the coil, the core becomes a magnet and
the armature is attracted to it ; if the core be rotated, the adhesion of
the armature will carry the middle of the diaphragm towards the mag-
net, and if the current be stopped the elasticity of the plate will cause
it to return to its original place. A vibrating current will thus set up
corresponding vibrations in the diaphragm so long as the magnet
turns.

The principle involved here may be readily put to the test by taking
almost any form of an electro-magnet and coupling it in circuit with a

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 305

carbon transmitter or microphone. Tie to the thread from a common
string telephone a nail or a screw two or three inches long, and let the
latter hang over one pole of the magnet while the ear is applied to the
open end of the tube. Let one at the transmitter talk, or make musical
sounds, and they will be heard while the nail or screw is slowly dragged
over the pole. The motion necessary for this is very small, two inches
a minute being quite sufficient to produce the maximum effect with
a magnet half an inch in diameter. ^ --"

It is not essential, either, that the magnet should rotate, for if a
strip of paper is put between the magnet and the armature and slowly
pulled between them while the vibratory current passes, the sounds
will be heard as before. Also, the same is effected by letting the
armature project beyond the magnet, and rest upon a pulley of wood
or other substance, which may be rotated as in the other cases.

With the instrument I exhibit I have heard talking at the distance
of a foot from the ear, and musical sounds anywhere in a room thirty
feet square, using a single bichromate cell and an Edison transmitter,
the current being probably about one tenth of a Weber. I have
named this instrument the rotaphone.

vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 20

306

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

XVII.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF
HARVARD COLLEGE.

RESEARCHES ON THE SUBSTITUTED BENZYL COM-
POUNDS.

FIFTH PAPER.

PARACHLORBENZYL COMPOUNDS.

By C. Loring Jackson and J. Fleming White.

Presented March 12, 1879.

In the fourth paper of this series the necessity of a revision of all
the so-called parachlorbenzyl compounds was pointed out, and the
results were described, which had been obtained from the investigation
of some of them by Mr. A. W. Field and one of us. This work is
now finished, and we have the honor of laying before the Academy a
description of the preparation and properties of the remaining f>ara-
chlorbenzyl compounds, which have been heretofore made in an im-
pure state, and also of a few related substances not as- yet described.

Parachlorbenzylbromide melting-point, 48^° (made from pure para-
toluidine), was used as the starting-point for these compounds, and
therefore they cannot contain the isomeric impurities which caused
the mistakes of our predecessors.

A comparison, in tabular form, of our more important results with
the earlier ones, will be found at the end of the paper.

Parachlorbenzylsulphoacid, CGH4C1CH2S03H.

This substance was first studied by Bohler,* whose paper, published
in 1869, contains a description of the preparation of the potassium
salt by heating chlorbenzylchloride with neutral potassic sulphite. It
was, in fact, one of the papers coming from Strecker's laboratory to
illustrate his general method of making sulphoacids,f first announced

* Bohler, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 154, p. 56.
t Strecker, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 148, p. 90.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 307

in 1868. The salt was thus obtained in colorless needles which
gave with baric chloride glistening crystals of (C7H6ClS03)2Ba. H20 ;
the acid (made from the barium salt with sulphuric acid) formed
when heated with an excess of plumbic hydrate, a basic lead salt,
(C7H6GS08)2Pb . Pb02H2, crystallized in scales with a silvery lustre ;
while with less plumbic hydrate a neutral salt was obtained, which,
however, he did not analyze. All these salts were made from ordi-
nary chlorbenzylchloride, and must therefore have been contaminated
with the corresponding ortho compounds, as indeed was proved by
Vogt and Henninger,* who took up the subject again in 1872, and
by fusing the potassium salt (made according to Bohler's method)
with potassic hydrate obtained a mixture of salicylic and paraoxy-
benzoic acids. They did not try, however, to separate the para from
the ortho compound, but contented themselves with analyzing Bohler's
potassium and barium salts : for the first they found the formula
CrH6ClS03K . H20 ; it crystallized from water in concentric groups of
large flat needles, from alcohol in pearly plates, lost its water of crys-
tallization at 160°, and was decomposed at higher temperatures; their
barium salt agreed in amount of water of crystallization and proper-
ties with that of Border, except that it crystallized in bunches of nee-
dles. In preparing their potassium salt Vogt and Henninger observed
the formation of an insoluble substance which, purified by crystalliza-
tion from alcohol, melted at 167° and had the formula (C7H6C1)2S02 ;
from the mother-liquors small quantities of two other substances were
obtained, melting at 149° and 185°, and apparently having the same
composition ; they supposed, therefore, that the main product (melt-
ing-point 167°) was a mixture of these, and called it chlorinated
benzylosulphide, — a name which, according to our present nomencla-
ture, would be altered to dichlorbenzylsulphone. For a revision of
their work on this substance, see page 314.

In taking up the subject we followed the method of our predeces-
sors, except that we used sodic instead of potassic sulphite,t which
we made by saturating one half of a strong solution of sodic carbo-
nate with sulphurous dioxide, and then adding to it the other half.
After boiling this solution with parachlorbenzylbromide, in the pro-
portion of one molecule of bromide to one of sulphite, in a flask with
a return-cooler for seven hours, the smell of the benzylbromide had
disappeared ; the liquid was therefore allowed to cool, and the insol-

* Vogt and Henninger, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 165, p. 372.
t Potassic sulphite is to be preferred, however. See p. 309.

308

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

uble portion removed by nitration. This should have been the sul-
phone described by Vogt and Henninger, but it melted at about 55°
instead of 167°, and a qualitative test showed that it contained no
sulphur ; from the smell it seemed to be an impure parachlorbenzyl-
alcohol, formed by the action of the water on the bromide, and it was
not thought worth while to investigate it farther. Although we have
repeated the preparation of the sodium salt many times, we have never
observed the formation of Vogt and Henuinger's sulphone, but have
got invariably this substance with a much lower melting-point.

The Sodium Salt, C6H4ClCII2S03Na, was purified by evaporating
the filtrate from the insoluble substance just described to dryness,
boiling the residue with absolute alcohol to remove the organic salt
from the sodic bromide, and finally recrystallizing from a very little
water by spontaneous evaporation.

1.8405 grs. of the salt dried in vacuo lost when heated to 1G0°
0.005 gr., corresponding to 0.27 per cent.

0.4160 gr. lost at 160° 0.002 gr., corresponding to 0.48 per cent.

As one molecule of water corresponds to 7.30 per cent, it is evi-
dent that the salt crystallizes without water, and the slight loss ob-
served is due to a partial decomposition of the substance. This view
is confirmed by the fact that the 1.8405 grs. used in the first experi-
ment lost only 1 ingr. when the temperature was not allowed to go
above 100°.

0.5650 gr. of the salt dried at 160° gave by the method of Carius
0.3512 gr. AgCl and 0.5804 gr. BaS04.

Calculated for C7H6ClS08Na.
15.54
14.00

Found.
15.37
14.11

Chlorine
Sulphur

Crystallized from water it forms large flat colorless crystals with
pointed ends ; from alcohol, pearly scales ; it is freely soluble in water,
but only sparingly in alcohol.

Dr. F. A. Gooch, who has had the kindness to examine the sub-
stance crystallographically for us, reports that " the crystals did not
admit of measurement with the goniometer ; but an examination of
some of the smaller ones, under the microscope, between crossed
Nicols, proved them to be triclinic (see figure) ; the planes of polarizar
tion of the Nicols making, in the case of a crystal lying upon its basal
plane angles of about 5° and 175°, or 85° and 95° respectively with
the edge 100 — 001, when the plane of polarization of the ray from

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

309

the polarizer remains unchanged. The apparent angles of the adjacent
edges, when the crystal lies upon its basal plane, are approximately
as follows : —

Edge 100—001 upon edge 110—001
" 100—001 " " 1T0— 001

« lio—ooi « " no— ooi

141°

147°
72°

OO 1

100

The Potassium Salt, C6H4C1CH2S0.3K, was made by adding potas-
sic sulphate to the barium salt ; the filtrate from the baric sulphate
formed was evaporated to dryness, and the organic salt, dissolved out
from the excess of potassic sulphate with absolute alcohol, purified by
crystallization from water.

1.1328 grs. of the salt dried in vacuo lost when heated to 160°
0.0075 gr., corresponding to 0.66 per cent.

As one molecule of water corresponds to 6.85 per cent, it is evident
that this salt, like that of sodium, is free from water of crystallization.

0.3000 gr. of the salt dried at 160° gave by the method of Carius
0.1760 gr. AgCl.

0.3165 gr. gave by the same method 0.3025 gr. BaS04.
0.3065 gr. gave, when heated with pure H2S04, 0.1075 gr. of
K2S04.

Calculated for C7HSC1S03K. Found.

Chlorine 14.50 14.50

Sulphur 13.08 13.13

Potassium 15.98 15.75

It resembles the sodium salt closely in appearance, but is much
more soluble in alcohol. As, therefore, the separation of this salt from
potassic bromide would be easier than that of the corresponding
sodium compounds, it is better in making a salt of the sulphoacid
from parachlorbenzylbromide to use potassic in place of sodic sulphite.

To prepare the other salts of the parachlorbenzylsulphoacid the
mother-liquor of the sodium salt was treated with a small quantity

310

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of a solution of plumbic acetate, which precipitated plumbic bromide
and sulphite ; after these had been removed by filtration an excess of
plumbic acetate threw down the lead salt of the sulphoacid, which
was purified by recrystallization from water, and then decomposed
with sulphuretted hydrogen; the nitrate from the plumbic sulphide
was concentrated by evaporation, and the solution of parachlorbenzyl-
sulpb.oac.id thus obtained used in the preparation of the following
salts.

The Barium Salt, (C6H4ClCH2S08)2Ba . 2M20, was made by boiling
the acid with pure baric carbonate. It can also be prepared by the
addition of baric chloride to the sodium salt, but in this case it was
found hard to free it from the excess of baric chloride.

0.9290 gr. of the salt dried in vacuo lost when heated to 160°
0.0565 gr.

0.5408 gr. lost 0.0332 gr.

Calculated for (C7II6ClS03)2Ba . 2II20 Found.

Water 6.16 6.08 6.12

0.1575 gr. of the salt dried at 160° gave, after precipitation with
dilute H.,S04, 0.0680 gr. of BaS04.
0.4620 gr. gave 0.1995 gr. BaS04.

Calculated for (C7H6ClS03>2Ba.
Barium 25.00

Found.
25.38 25.39

It crystallizes from water in radiated bunches of white needles
which are moderately soluble in water.

The Calcium Salt, (CfiH4ClCH2S03)2Ca. 7II20, was made by warm-
ing the aqueous solution of the acid with calcic carbonate, filtering
and allowing the concentrated filtrate to evaporate spontaneously ; it
was purified by recrystallization from water.

0.5805 gr. of the air-dried salt lost in vacuo 0.1033 gr. ; when
heated to 160°, 0.0332 gr. ; making in all 0.1365 gr.

0.9536 gr. lost in vacuo 0.1506 gr. ; when heated to 160°, 0.0552
gr. ; making in all 0.2058 gr.

Calculated for (C7H6ClS08)2Ca . 7H20.
Water 21.84

Found.
23.51 21.58

Calculated for (C7HcClS08)2Ca. 2H20.
Water 7.39

Found.
6.96 6.87

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 311

The air-dried salt, therefore, contains seven molecules of water of
crystallization, five of which it gives up in vacuo, while a heat of 160°
is necessary to remove the whole of its water. The very high result
of the first water determination was undoubtedly due to hygroscopic
moisture in the air-dried salt.

0.6976 gr. of the salt dried at 160° gave, after precipitation with
ammonic oxalate and ignition over the blast-lamp, 0.085 gr. of CaO.

Calculated for (C7HBCiS03)2Ca. Found.

Calcium 8.87 8.70

It forms rhombic crystals so nearly square that they look like flat-
tened cubes, freely soluble in water.

The Copper Salt, (C6H4ClCH2SO;,)2Cu . 2HaO, was made by warm-
ing the aqueous solution of the acid with pure cupric carbonate, and
concentrating the filtrate on the water-bath ; the crystals thus obtained
were recrystallized from water.

0.7400 gr. of the salt dried in vacuo lost when heated to 160°
0,0525 gr.

Calculated for (C7H6ClS03)2Cu . 2H20, Found.

Water 7.08 7.05

0.5000 gr. of the salt dried at 160° gave by precipitation with
sodic hydrate 0.0833 gr. of CuO.

Calculated for (C7H6CISOg)9Cu. Found.

Copper 13.37 13.30

It crystallizes in pale green needles grouped in bundles, and is
readily soluble in water.

The neutral Lead Salt, (C6H4ClCH2S03)2Pb . H20, was made by
treating an aqueous solution of the acid with plumbic hydrate not in
excess, the solution was evaporated in vacuo, and the crystals washed
with a little water to free them from the acid. It is probable from
the resemblance in crystalline form, that the precipitate formed on
adding a strong solution of the sodium salt to plumbic acetate consists
of this salt.

0.8695 gr. of the salt dried in vacuo lost when heated to 100°
0.0261 gr.

0.1910 gr. lost at 100° 0.0056 gr.

0.1900 gr. of the salt dried in vacuo gave, after precipitation with
dilute H2S04, 0.0902 gr. of PbS04.

312

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Calculated for (C7H6ClS03).,Pb. H20.
Water 2.83

Lead 32.55

Found.
5.00 2.93

32.43

0.1742 gr. of the salt dried at 100° gave 0.0850 gr. of PbS04.

Calculated for (C7H6ClS03).,Pb.
Lead 33.50

Found.
33.34

It crystallizes in long white needles grouped in sheaves or stars,
which are not freely soluble in water.

Two Basic Lead Salts were obtained by treating the mother-liquor
from the preceding salt with an excess of plumbic hydrate; one crys-
tallized from water by spontaneous evaporation in little spheres made
up of radiating needles, and seemed to be free from water of crystal-
lization, although it blackened and lost weight at 160°.

0.3384 gr. of the salt dried at 1 00° gave, after precipitation with
dilute H2S04, 0.2890 gr. of PbS04.

Calculated for (C.H6ClS03;oPb80.2.
Lead 58.35

Found.
58.34

The formula of this salt is therefore (C6H4ClCH2S03)2Pbs02.
The second salt which crystallized from a hot concentrated solution
in white scales had the formula C6H4ClCH2S08PbOH . H O.

0.2128 gr. of the salt dried in vacuo lost at 120° 0.0087 gr.
0.2747 gr. of the salt dried in vacuo gave with dilute H,SO
0.1870 gr. PbS04.

Calculated for C7H6ClS03PbOH . H20. Found.

Water 4.02 4.08

Lead 46.26 46.49

To obtain the Free Acid the lead salt, which had been purified with
great care, was suspended in water, and decomposed with sulphuretted
hydrogen, the filtrate from the plumbic sulphide formed was evapo-
rated in a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, first on the water-bath,
and finally at a still lower temperature, until it had attained the con-
sistency of syrup ; it was then put in vacuo, where after standing
some time it crystallized in square plates, which, however, soon
turned yellow, while fumes were given off which smelt of hydro-
chloric acid and benzaldehyd. These yellow crystals melted at 108°,
but the evidences of decomposition were so marked that we do not
consider this the true melting-point of the acid, nor did it seem worth

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 313

while at present to follow the investigation of such an unstable sub-
stance farther.

The Chloride, CGH4C1CH2S02C1, was made by grinding the dry
sodium salt with phosphoric pentachloride, and afterward warming
the mixture gently in a porcelain dish on the sand-bath ; the oily
mass thus obtained gave with water the chloride as a heavy oil, which
soon solidified, and was purified by crystallization from ether.

0.1410 gr. of substance gave by the method of Carius 0.1768 gr.
of AgCl and 0.1470 gr. of BaS04.

Calculated for C7H6C1S02C1.

Found.

Chlorine

31.55

31.02

Sulphur

14.22

14.32

It forms white flattened crystals, often arranged in indistinct pen-
nate groups, and having an aromatic odor; melting-point 85^° ; it is
insoluble in water, soluble in ether and alcohol, but seems to be
decomposed by the latter.

Parachlorbenzylsulphide, (C6H4C1CH2)2S.

Pauly * described this substance, which he obtained from chlorben-
zylchloride (or bromide), by the action of an alcoholic solution of
potassic sulphide, as a thick brown oil, with an unpleasant odor; and
adds, that it did not solidify even after standing several days.

On warming an alcoholic solution of parachlorbenzylbromide with
sodic sulphide (prepared by saturating one half of an alcoholic solu-
tion of NaOH with H2S, and then adding the other half) we obtained
by precipitation of the product with water a heavy oil, which we dis-
solved in hot alcohol ; on cooling this saturated solution a purer oil
separated, that solidified on standing over night, and was then purified
by recrystallization from hot alcohol.

0.2760 gr. of the substance dried in vacuo gave on combustion
0.5970 gr. of Co2 and 0.1110 gr. of H20.

Calculated for (C7H6CL)2S.

Found

59.35

59.00

4.24

4.47

Carbon
Hydrogen

It forms thick white needles, often seven centimeters long, with
very little odor ; from a hot alcoholic solution, it is sometimes depos-

* Pauly, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 167, p. 187.

314

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ited as an oil, which solidifies by scratching with a sharp glass rod ;
melting-point, 42° ; it cannot be sublimed without decomposition \
essentially insoluble in water, soluble in cold, more freely in hot alco-
hol, easily soluble in ether, benzole, carbonic disulphide, and glacial
acetic acid.

Diparachhrlmzyhulphone, (C6H4C1CH2)2S02, was made by adding
the calculated amount of chromic anhydride in small quantities at a
time to the preceding substance, both bodies being dissolved in glacial
acetic acid; the product of the oxidation, washed with water until free
from compounds of chromium, was purified by crystallization from alco-
hol. The substance was also formed by the oxidizing action of the air
on parachlorbenzylsulphide.

0.3510 gr. of the substance gave, according to Carius, 0.3195 gr
of AgCl and 0.2610 gr. of BaSO .

Calculated for (C7H6C1)2S0,.
Chlorine 22.54

Sulphur 10.16

It crystallizes in very small needles, melts at 165°, and cannot be
sublimed without decomposition ; it is essentially insoluble in water,
readily soluble in alcohol, ether, carbonic disulphide, glacial acetic
acid, and ligroine. The melting-point of this substance (165°) is
essentially the same as that of the sulphone (167°), obtained in largest
quantity by Vogt and Ilenninger from the action of chlorbenzyl-
chloride on potassic sulphite, and mentioned on page 307. The
isomere, melting at 149°, obtained by them, was probably the cor-
responding orthochlorbenzylsulphone, but it is hard to understand
what the substance melting at 185° could have been. It will be
remembered that we did not succeed in obtaining a sulphone when
we repeated their work.

Found.
22.51
10.21

Parachlorbenzylmercaptan, C6II4C1CH SH.

The first attempt to prepare this substance was made in 1860 by
Beilstein * who heated a somewhat indefinite mixture of dichlor-sub-
stitution products of toluol with potassic sulphydrate, and obtained an
oil which on exposure to the air yielded well-formed octahedra with a
vitreous lustre, melting from the first preparation at 77°-78°, from
the second at 84°-85°. Later, Neuhof f tried the same experiment

* Beilstein, Ann. Cliem. Pharm. 116, p. 336.
t Neuhof, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 147, p. 339.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 315

with a mixture of ortho- and parachlorbenzylchloride, and confirmed
the results of Beilstein, as the melting-point of his crystals was
84°-85°. In repeating their work, we found that on mixing alcoholic
solutions of parachlorbenzylbromide and KSH (prepared by satu-
rating an alcoholic solution of potassic hydrate with sulphuretted
hydrogen), heat was given off, and the action was finished without
the aid of external heat in about half an hour ; on adding water to
the product, a dark-colored oil was precipitated, which, purified by
distillation with steam, was frozen by immersion in ice and salt, and
recrystallized from alcohol with the aid of a freezing mixture.

0.2560 gr. of the substance dried in vacuo, treated by the method
of Carius, gave 0.2276 gr. of AgCl and 0.37.50 gr. of BaS04.

Calculated for C7H6C1SH.

Found

Chlorine

22.40

22.00

Sulphur

20.19

20.12

At ordinary temperatures, it is a colorless liquid with a most repul-
sive and nauseating smell ; in a freezing mixture of ice and salt, it
solidifies in white crystals, which melt from 19° to 20°. We are not
certain that this is the true melting-point of the substance, as a small
portion of it may have been converted into the disulphide by the
action of the air, and the elementary analysis cannot show the pres-
ence of this impurity, but the number here given cannot be very far
from the truth, as we got in no case a melting-point much above 20°,
and the substance was reduced with zinc and dilute sulphuric acid, so
as to convert any disulphide into mercaptan, before taking some of the
melting-points. It distils with steam, and mixes readily with alcohol,
ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide, but not with water. Yellow
mercuric oxide attacks it with great energy, and converts it into the
following compound.

Parachhrbenzyhnercaptid, (CeH4ClCH2S)2Hg, was purified by re-
peated crystallization from boiling alcohol.

0.4820 gr. of the substance dried in vacuo gave by precipitation
with H2S 0.2175 gr. of HgS.

Calculated for (C7H6ClS)2Hg. Found.

Mercury 38.84 38.91

It forms light white needles without odor, which seem to have no
definite melting-point, although the substance turns red or black, and
shrinks to about one half of its original volume in the neighborhood

316

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

of 160° ; it is insoluble in water, very slightly soluble in ether, benzole,
carbonic disulphide, glacial acetic acid, and cold alcohol ; more readily,
but still not very freely, soluble in hot alcohol. It is decomposed by
sulphuretted hydrogen into mercuric sulphide and the mercaptan.

Parachlorbenzyldisulphide, (C6H4C1CH2)2S2.

This substance was made in several different ways : — (1.) When
parachlorbenzylbromide was boiled for two or more clays with an
alcoholic solution of potassic sulphydrate, on evaporating off the
alcohol a mixture of the oily mercaptan with needles of the disulphide
was obtained, which was exposed to the air for some time to oxidize
the mercaptan. (2.) The parachlorbenzylmercaptan was treated with
the calculated amount of bromine dissolved in ether ; the reaction is
as follows : —

2C7H6C1SH + Br2 = (C?H6C1)2S2 + 2HBr.

When a large excess of bromine was added, the product was an oil
with an aromatic smell, the study of which is postponed for the pres-
ent. (3.) Parachlorbenzylbromide was warmed with an alcoholic
solution of sodic disulphide (Na2S2) obtained by dissolving the calcu-
lated amount of flowers of sulphur in an alcoholic solution of sodic
sulphide (Na2S). The products of all these methods had the same
melting-point and properties.

For analysis, a specimen prepared according to the first method
was purified by crystallization from alcohol and dried in vacuo.

0.3925 gr. of the substance gave on combustion 0.7615 gr. of C02
and 0.1475 gr. of II20.

0.2540 gr. gave, according to the method of Carius, 0.3780 gr.
of BaS04.

Calculated for (C7H6C1)2S2. Found.

Carbon 53.34 52.91

Hydrogen 3.81 4.17

Sulphur 20.32 20.44

It forms flattened white needles with a disagreeable smell, somewhat
like that of the mercaptan, but much less nauseating ; melting-point
59° ; insoluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol, glacial acetic acid,
and ligroine, very soluble in ether, benzole, and carbonic disulphide.
Neither mercuric oxide nor mercuric chloride has any action upon it.
Nascent hydrogen made from zinc and dilute sulphuric acid converts
it into the mercaptan.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 317

Beilstein, and afterward Neuhof, obtained their so-called mercaptan
(melting-point 84°-85°) by boiling the substances together for a long
time, which we find, as already stated, gives the disulphide as prin-
cipal product ; furthermore, their crystals were formed only after long
exposure of the liquid product of the reaction to the air. It would
seem, therefore, that their substance must have been the disulphide,
the percentage composition of which is essentially the same as that
of the mercaptan, and therefore the two substances could not be dis-
tinguished by analysis, but only by treatment with mercuric oxide,
which they do not seem to have tried. On the other hand, the melt-
ing-point of their substance (84°) is much higher than that of ours
(59°), and it is certainly strange that a mixture of an ortho- and para-
compound should melt at a higher temperature than the pure para-
compound ; they also describe it as crystallizing in vitreous octahedra,
while our substance crystallizes even by slow evaporation of a benzole
solution in the flattened needles already mentioned.

Parachlorbenzyldisulphidedioxide, (C6H4C1CH2)2S.,02, was made by
adding the necessaiy amount of chromic anhydride dissolved in glacial
acetic acid to a weighed quantity of the disulphide also dissolved in
glacial acetic acid ; on the addition of water, an oil was deposited,
which became solid on standing in the cold, and was purified by crys-
tallization from alcohol.

0.5870 gr. of the substance dried in vacuo gave, by combustion,
1.0390 grs. C02 and 0.1838 gr. of H20.

Calculated for (C7H6C1)2S202.

Found.

Carbon

48.42

48.27

Hydrogen

3.45

3.48

It is a waxy solid, which becomes crystalline after some time ; the
melting-point of the specimen analyzed was 120°; it is insoluble in
water, readily soluble in alcohol, ether, benzole, carbonic disulphide,
and glacial acetic acid.

The Parachlorbenzylethylether was made by boiling parachlorben-
zylbromide with an alcoholic solution of sodic hydrate ; the product
was precipitated with water, and the oil purified by distillation with
steam. It was a colorless liquid, which distilled over between
215°-225°, and did not solidify when cooled to — 12°. As its prop-
erties therefore agreed essentially with those ascribed to it by

318

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Naquet,* who made it as we did, and Neuhof, t who obtained it from
the chlorbenzylacetate and alcoholic potassic hydrate, we did not
think it worth while to analyze or study it more carefully.

We have thus brought our revision of the parachlorbenzyl com-
pounds to an end ; the only one previously obtained that we have not
studied is the amide of the parachloralphatoluylic acid, which we
did not succeed in obtaining by the action of potassic cyanide on
parachlorbenzylbromide, although Neuhof made it in this way from
the chlorbenzylchloride. It is possible, but not very probable, that
this difference between his results and ours is due to the fact that he
used the chloride while we used the bromide.

For convenience of comparison, the melting-points of the sub-
stances described in this paper, with those given by our predecessors,
are collected in the following table, to which is added a comparison
between the amounts of water of crystallization in the salts of the
parachlorbenzylsulphoacid, in those heretofore described as such, and
in the corresponding salts of the benzylsulphoacid.J

COMPARISON OF MELTING-POINTS.

Formula of Substance.

Correct Melting-

Former Melting-

Authority for for-

point

point.

mer Melting-point

C6II4C1CII.1S0.,C1

85*°

425

Oil

Pauly. [ninger.

(CGH4ciciy,so2

105°

1G7°

Vogt and llen-

( 77°-78°

Beilstein.

C6H4C1CII.,SII

19°

) 84°-85°

( 84°-85°

Neuhof.

(08H4CICH2)2So

59°

See above.

(C6H4CTCIL_),S.20.2

120°

C6H4CICH2OC.2H6

Oil

( Oil
I Oil

Naquet.
Neuhof.

* Naquet, Ann. Chem. Pharm., Supp. 2, p. 249.
t Neuhof, Ann. Chem. Pharm. 147, p. 339.
| Bolder, Zeitschrift der Chemie, 18G8, p. 440.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

319

COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF CERTAIN SALTS OF
CHLORBENZYL AND BENZYL SULPHOACIDS.

Name of Salt.

Chlorbenzylsulphoacid.

Benzyl Sulphoacid.

Bohler.

Vogt and

Sodium

No H00

Potassium

No H.20

H,0

H20

H.,0

Barium

2H.,0

H20

H20

2H.,0

( 7H20 )

Calcium

\ or i
( 2H.,0 )

21I20

Copper

2H20

No srood crystals.

Load

H20

No HoO

Basic Lead

PbO.,H2 . 2H20

PbO.,H2

Pb0.,H2

Basic Lead

2PbO

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SKETCH 2. fiisposUion of Bu.nserv Photometer with, moveable

PROCEEDINGS.

Seven hundred and twelfth Meeting.

May 28, 1878. — Annual Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Reports of the Corresponding Secretary, of the Libra-
rian, and of the Treasurer were read.

On the motion of Professor Cooke, it was
Voted, That, when the Academy adjourn, it adjourn to the
second Wednesday in June.

Voted, That a committee of ways and means be appointed
to report, at the adjourned meeting, what appropriations can
be safely made for the ensuing year.

The committee was constituted as follows : The Treasurer,
the Corresponding Secretary, the Librarian, Professor Lover-
ing, and Mr. Agassiz.

The chairman of the Rumford Committee read his annual
report, and also presented the following vote : —

" At a meeting of the Rumford Committee, held May 24,
it was

" Voted, To recommend to the Academy the appropriation
of three hundred dollars ($300) to Professor Young, of
Princeton, in aid of his observations of the solar eclipse of
29th July, 1878."

The annual election resulted in the choice of the following
officers : —

Charles F. Adams, President

Joseph Lovering, Vice-President.

Josiah P. Cooke, Jr., Corresponding Secretary.

John Trowbridge, Recording Secretary.

Theodore Lyman, Treasurer.

Samuel H. Scudder, Librarian.

VOL. XIV. (N. 8. VI.) 21

322

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Edward C. Pickering,
James M. Peirce,
John M. Ordway,

Council.

of Class I.

Benj. E. Cotting,

Asa Gray,
Alexander Agassiz,

of Class II.

Charles E. Norton, \

Robert C. Winthrop, > of Class III.

Benj. F. Thomas, )

Rumford Committee.

WOLCOTT GlBBS. STEPHEN P. RUGGLES.

Edward C. Pickering. John Trowbridge.
John M. Ordway. Josiah P. Cooke, Jr.

Joseph Lovering.

Member of Finance Committee.
Thomas T. Bouv&.

The Hon. Robert C. Winthrop presented the nomination
book of the Academy of 1819.

On the motion of Professor Cooke, it was

Voted, That the thanks of the Academy be presented^ to
Mr. Winthrop for the care he has taken in the preservation
of Count Rumford's tomb, at Paris.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Acad-
emy: —

Jacob Georg Agardh, of Lund, to be a Foreign Honorary
Member in Class II., Section 2, in place of the late Elias
Magnus Fries.

William Elwood Byerly, of Cambridge, to be a Resident
Fellow in Class I., Section 1.

Charles Follen Folsom, of Boston, to be a Resident Fellow
in Class II., Section 4.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 323

Seven hundred and thirteenth Meeting.

June 12, 1878. — Adjourned Annual Meeting.

Professor Asa Gray was elected President pro tempore.

The Committees on Publication and on the Library were
reappointed by the chair.

The committee on ways and means, through their chairman,
Mr. Theodore Lyman, recommended the following appropria-
tions for the ensuing year : —

For the Library $500

For publishing 1,000

The appropriations were voted by the Academy.

On the motion of Professor Cooke, it was

Voted, That the rule of the Academy which furnishes a
member one hundred extra copies of his paper be suspended
for the ensuing year ; and also, that all charges for correcting
composition, over ten per cent, be charged to the author.

Mr. Scudder moved that the Academy take part in the
proposed catalogue of periodical publications to be issued by
the Librarian of Harvard College. No action was taken by
the Academy.

The following papers were presented : —

" On the Embryology of the Gar Pike." By Alexander
Agassiz.

" On a New Form of Electro-Dynamometer." By John
Trowbridge.

" On Standard Measures." By William A. Rogers.

" On the Action of Bromine on Toluol and some of its
Derivatives." By C. Loring Jackson and A. W. Field.

The following papers were presented by title : —

" On a Modification of Regnault's Air-Thermometer."
By Josiah P. Cooke, Jr.

" On the Boiling Point of Iodide of Antimony." By Jo-
siah P. Cooke, Jr. and W. C. Bennet.

"On Two New Forms of Micrometers.'" By Edward C.
Pickering.

324

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Seven hundred and fourteenth Meeting.

October 9, 1878. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the
Academy : —

James Barr Ames, of Cambridge, to be a Resident Fellow
in Class III., Section 1.

John Chipman Gray, Jr., of Boston, to be a Resident
Fellow in Class III., Section 1.

E. D. Leavitt, Jr., of Cambridge, to be a Resident Fellow
in Class I., Section 4.

John Phillips Reynolds, of Boston, to be a Resident Fellow
in Class II., Section 4.

Charles Sprague Sargent, of Brookline, to be a Resident
Fellow in Class II., Section 2.

Thomas Carlyle, of London, to be a Foreign Honorary
Member in Class III., Section 3, in place of the late Louis
Adolphe Thiers.

H. A. J. Munro, of Cambridge, to be a Foreign Honorary
Member in Class III., Section 2, in place of the late Count
Paul Federigo Sclopis di Salerano.

John Ruskin, of Oxford, to be a Foreign Honorary Mem-
ber in Class III., Section 4.

On the motion of Professor Cooke, it was
Voted, That, when this meeting adjourn, it adjourn to the
second Wednesday in November, in order to vote upon nom-
inations ; and that the next meeting be an adjourned stated
meeting.

The chair appointed Messrs. Lovering, Cooke, and Picker-
ing to collect, sort, and count votes for a vacancy in the
Council. Professor James B. Thayer was elected to fill the
vacancy caused by the death of Judge Thomas.
The following papers were presented : —
" On the Limits of Accuracy in Measurements with the
Microscope." By William A. Rogers.

" On a Standard Inch and a Standard Centimetre." By
William A. Rogers.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 325

" On Electric Lights and Methods of Testing the Strength
of the Currents which produce them." By John Trow-
bridge.

Seven hundred and fifteenth Meeting.

November 13, 1878. — Adjourned Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Professor Lovering reported from the Rumford Committee,
that the funds appropriated to Professor C. A. Young, at the
Annual Meeting, had not been required. He also presented
two papers on the Sun, by Professor Langle}% which were
referred to the Publishing Committee.

Professor Lovering also presented the following report of
the Rumford Committee : —

" Voted, To recommend to the Academy to appropriate from
the income of the Rumford Fund, one hundred dollars
(8100), to aid Mr. W. W. Jacques, of the Johns Hopkins
University, in continuing his experiments on the distribution
of heat in the spectrum."

The appropriation was voted.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the
Academy: —

William Sumner Appleton, of Boston, to be a Resident
Fellow in Class III., Section 2.

Henry Van Brunt, of Cambridge, to be a Resident Fellow
in Class III., Section 4.

Henry Cabot Lodge, of Boston, to be a Resident Fellow in
Class III., Section 3.

Henry Hobson Richardson, of Brookline, to be a Resident
Fellow in Class III., Section 4.

Joseph S. Ropes, of Boston, to be a Resident Fellow in
Class III., Section 3.

The following papers were presented : —

" On the Tides of the Gulf of Maine." By Henry Mitchell.

" Researches in Telephony." By Amos E. Dolbear.

326

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Mr. N. D. C. Hodges, by invitation, described his new in-
strument for determining magnetic dip.

Professor Peirce discussed the results of Professor Mitch-
ell's paper.

Seven hundred and sixteenth Meeting.

December 11, 1878. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The following papers were presented : —

" On the Determination of Equipotential Curves and Sur-
faces b}r the Telephone." By A. Graham Bell.

"On the Heat produced by the Magnetization and De-
magnetization of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt." By John Trow-
bridge.

Professor Bell gave a description of various ingenious ap-
pliances of M. Trouve, of Paris. Remarks on this subject
were made by Doctors Putnam and Williams.

Mr. Scndder called attention to a catalogue of the serial
publications which are taken at the chief libraries in Boston
and Cambridge.

Seven hundred and seventeenth Meeting.

January 8, 1879. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary read letters from Messrs.
Ruskin, Carlyle, and Munro, accepting membership in the
Academy.

On the motion of Mr. Winthrop, it was

Voted, That the chair nominate six members of the Acad-
emy who, together with himself, will constitute a committee
of seven to consider the best manner of celebrating the one
hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.

OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 327

Professor Dolbear exhibited a new form of galvanometer
and a new form of electric lamp.

On the motion of the Recording Secretary, it was
Voted, That the Academy adjourn to the second Wednes-
day in February, and that this meeting be an adjourned stated
meeting.

Seven hundred and eighteenth Meeting.

February 12, 1879. — Adjourned Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Mr. S. H. Scudder was appointed Secretary pro tempore.

Professor Lovering reported from the Rumford Committee
a recommendation that the Academy appropriate one thou-
sand dollars ($1,000) from the income of the Rumford Fund
for investigations in light and heat, under the direction of
the committee ; and it was accordingly

Voted, To appropriate this sum from the Rumford Fund for
the above-named investigation.

Professor Pickering made a communication on the Zone
Observations of Harvard College Observatory ; upon which
remarks were made by Messrs. Watson and Rogers.

Professor Gray thought this a fitting opportunity for the
Academy to express its satisfaction at the accomplishment of
a work of such great and general utility ; and, on his motion,
it was

Voted, That the congratulations of the Academy be ex-
tended to the Director and to the Observer, Professor Wil-
liam A. Rogers, on the completion of the Zone Observations
assigned to the Cambridge Observatory.

Professor Gray presented the following papers : —

" Some Remarks upon American Bryology, and Descrip-
tions of some new Species of Mosses." By Leo Lesquereux
and Thomas P. James.

" Characters of some new Genera and Species of Plants,
chiefly of California and Oregon." By Asa Gray.

328

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Mr. N. D. C. Hodges described a new galvanometer.

Professor Shaler read a short paper on explorations in coal
mines. Remarks on this paper were offered by Messrs.
Watson and Ordway.

Seven hundred and nineteenth Meeting.

March 12, 1879. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Chair named six additional members of the Centennial
Committee, in accordance with the vote of the Academy at
its meeting of January 8. The Committee was thus consti-
tuted as follows : —

Charles F. Adams, Chairman, Robert C. Winthrop, Asa
Gray, John A. Lowell, Theodore Lyman, Josiah P. Cooke,
Jr., and Benjamin E. Cotting.

The following papers were presented : —

" On the Degree of Reliability of Marey's Drum for Time
Experiments." By James J. Putnam.

" On a Modified Pendulum Myograph." By James J.
Putnam.

" On the Coefficient of Expansion of the Brass Bars used
by the United States Coast Survey for Standards of Length."
By William A. Rogers.

The following paper was presented by title : —

"On certain Parachlorbenzyl Compounds." By C. L.
Jackson and J. Fleming White.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the
Academy : —

Edward Atkinson, of Boston, to be a Resident Fellow in
Class III., Section 3.

James Freeman Clarke, of Boston, to be a Resident Fellow
in Class III., Section 1.

Frank Winthrop Draper, of Boston, to be a Resident Fel-
low in Class II., Section 4.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 329

Alfred Hosmer, of Watertown, to be a Resident Fellow in
Class II., Section 4.

Robert H. Richards, of Boston, to be a Resident Fellow in
Class I., Section 3.

Asaph Hall, of Washington, to be an Associate Fellow in
Class I., Section 2.

Viscount Ferdinand de Lesseps, of Paris, to be a Foreign
•Honorary Member in Class I., Section 4, in place of the late
Urbain- Jean- Joseph Leverrier.

Franz Cornells Donders, of Utrecht, to be a Foreign Hon-
orary Member in Class II., Section 4, in place of the late
Karl Freiherr von Rokitanski.

Professor Bowditch moved

That the Secretary be instructed, when notifying members
of a meeting of the Academy, to communicate to them the
names of candidates who are to be balloted for at said
meeting.

That the above motion be assigned for discussion at tho
next meeting of the Academy.

Remarks upon the life and services of Doctor Jacob Big-
elow were made by the President and by Professor Gray.

On the motion of Professor Bowditch, it was

Voted, That the Academy adjourn to the second Wednes-
day in April, and that the meeting be an adjourned stated
meeting.

Seven hundred and twentieth Meeting.

April 9, 1879. — Adjourned Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

Professor B. Peirce read a paper on the Meteoric Consti-
tution of the Solar System.

Professor E. C. Pickering described a new form of instru-
ment for measuring the light of the stars.

The following papers were presented by title : —

"On the Distribution of Heat in the Spectra of Various

330 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

Substances raised to Incandescence." By W. W. Jacques,
of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

" On the Action of Bromine on Substituted Toluols." By-
Professor C. L. Jackson and Mr. A. W. Field.

Seven hundred and twenty-first Meeting.

May 14, 1879. — Monthly Meeting.

The President in the chair.

The Corresponding Secretary announced that he had re-
ceived letters from T. W. Draper, of Boston, R. H. Rich-
ards, of Boston, H. H. Richardson, of Brookline, Asaph
Hall, of Washington, T. C. Donders, of Utrecht, and F. de
Lesseps, of Paris, accepting membership in the Academy.

Mr. R. C. Winthrop read the following report from the
committee appointed to consider the best manner of cele-
brating the centennial of the Academy : —

" The committee appointed to report a plan for the com-
memoration of the Centennial Anniversary of the Academy
next spring, recommend that a meeting of the Academy be
arranged for some day in 1880, which shall be decided on as
most suitable, at which a commemorative address or addresses
shall be delivered by the President and any other members
who may be selected for the purpose, and that it be followed
by a social festival of such nature as shall hereafter be thought
best ; that in the mean time efforts be made to raise a centen-
nial fund for securing a hall for the Academy, or for such other
purposes as may be thought desirable ; that the Secretaries,
with such assistance as they may desire, prepare a history of the
foundation, rise, and progress of the Academy, to be printed
in connection with the account of the Centennial Celebra-
tion ; and that, for the purpose of carrying out this pro-
gramme, a committee of arrangements of members be ap-
pointed by the chair, with full powers."

Dr. H. P. Bowditch described a new form of Plethysmo-
graph.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 331

Mr. N. D. C. Hodges read, by invitation, a paper on the
Dimensions of Molecules.

Professor Pickering described a new form of Nebula Pho-
tometer.

Professor Trowbridge read two contributions from the
Physical Laboratory of Harvard College, with the following
titles : —

" On the Vibration of Elliptical Plates."

" On a Method of Studying Wave Motion."

The following papers were presented by title : —

" Characters of New Species of Plants from Mexico, col-
lected by Dr. E. Palmer and Dr. C. C. Parry." By Dr. Asa
Gray.

" A Revision of the North American Liliaceoe, and De-
scriptions of some New Species of other Orders." By Mr.
Sereno Watson.

" On Complex Inorganic Acids." By Dr. Wolcott Gibbs.

" On the Synthesis of Anthracene." By Professor C.
Loring Jackson and Mr. J. Fleming White.

The meeting: then dissolved.

REPOUT OF THE COUNCIL.

MAY 27, 1879.

Since the last report, May 28, 1878, the Academy has received
notice of the deaths of twelve members, as follows : six Fellows,
Jacob Bigelow, Caleb Cushing, Silas Durkee, J. B. S. Jackson,
John Clarke Lee, John M. Merrick, and B. F. Thomas ; three
Associate Fellows, W. C. Bryant, S. T. Olney, and George
B. Wood ; three foreign Honorary Members, Dove, Ritschl,
and Rokitanski.

FELLOWS.

JACOB BIGELOW.

It is greatly to be regretted that the subject of the following brief
notice had not just enough of pardonable egotism and serviceable vanity
to induce bim to leave some record of himself in the shape of an au-
tobiography. His birth dated from the year in which the Constitution
of the United States was adopted. He lived into the last decade of
the century which is reckoned from that event. For sixty-seven
years he was a member of this Academy, and from 1847 to 1863 he
was its President. Sagacious, observant, conversant with men, an in-
telligent student of public affairs, a thoroughly capable man of busi-
ness, fond of social intercourse, eminent in more than one branch of
science, one of the best scholars the classical training of his time had
to show for itself, one of the earliest cultivators of the fine arts among
us, always active in his laborious profession, yet always with time to
spare for other and varied duties, a record of his life during the busy
threescore years which would leave an ample margin for the period
of immaturity and that of decline — a record such as he would have
made — would have been a precious bequest to posterity. Of this
crowded life I can offer but a few scanty hints and memories.

Jacob Bigelow was born in Sudbury, Massachusetts, February 27,
1787. His father, the Rev. Jacob Bigelow, who graduated at Harvard
College in 1766, was minister of Sudbury, dividing his time between the

334 JACOB BIGELOW.

duties of his country parish aud the cultivation of a farm of thirty or
forty acres. His mother, a woman of superior sense and cultivation,
was the daughter of Gershom Flagg, of Boston.

His boyhood was spent in attending a country school during five or
six months of the year, and the labors and amusements of a country
life, work on the farm, the study of natural objects, and the exer-
cise of his constructive ingenuity in various mechanical contrivances.
In the mean time, he conceived a strong desire of obtaining a collegiate
education ; and, though his father would have repressed his somewhat
precocious ambition of mastering the learned languages, he obtained a
Latin grammar, and in the woods and other solitary places found
means to become acquainted wTith declensions and conjugations.

At thirteen years of age, he was sent from home to " fit for college "
under the tuition of the Rev. Samuel Kendall, of Weston, a man
" much renowned," as he says, " in his parish, as a breaker of unruly
horses and refractory boys." He seems to have made the most of his
time in College, so far as his relations with the various societies, re-
ligious, literary, and social, were concerned, besides which he took part
in conducting a poetic periodical circulated in manuscript, his asso-
ciates being his classmates Alexander II. Everett and Joseph G. Cogs-
well. He graduated in 1806. His "part "at Commencement was a
poem ; and on taking his second degree, three years afterward, he was
offered the English oration for the Master's degree, but declined the
honor.

Having chosen the practice of medicine as his profession, he began
its study on leaving college, teaching school at the same time in Wor-
cester. After a year, he returned to Boston, where he continued his
studies with Dr. John Gorham, supporting himself in the mean time
by discharging the duties of Assistant Teacher in the Latin School.
Here he continued to cultivate that knowledge of the classics which
has always been one of his remarkable accomplishments. In 1809,
he was licensed as a practitioner, and in 1810, after attending a course
of lectures at Philadelphia, he took his medical degree at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania.

His introduction to the public as an author was in the form of three
successive Boylston Prize Essays, one of which, that on Burns, is dis-
tinguished by original experiments of a simple and convincing char-
acter. After this, he delivered the annual poem before the Phi Beta
Kappa Society, and gave a course of botanical lectures in association
with Professor Peck, which course was afterwards twice repeated by
Dr. Bhjelow alone.

JACOB BIGELOW. 335

In 1814, he published the " Florula Bostoniensis," a description of
the native plants of Boston and its vicinity. This work, which was
the principal consulting manual of local botanists, went through three
editions, with various successive enlargements. Dr. Bigelow's reputa-
tion became widely extended, and genera of plants were named after
him by English, French, and German botanists. In the following
year, 1815, he was appointed Professor of Materia Medica and Botany
in the Medical School of Harvard University; and in 1816 he
received the additional appointment of Rumford Professor in the
University.

In 1818, Dr. Bigelow began the publication of the "American
Medical Botany," a work which extended to three volumes octavo,
with plates, colored by a new process of his own invention. In 1820
was published the first edition of the Pharmacopoeia of the United
States, prepared by the delegates of a convention appointed from the
various medical colleges and societies of the United States. A com-
mittee of five, Dr. Spalding of New York, Dr. Hewson of Philadel-
phia, Dr. Bigelow of Boston, Dr. Ives of New Haven, and Dr. De
Butts of Baltimore, were charged with the publication. The pai't
assigned to Dr. Bigelow was the list and nomenclature of the Materia
Medica. In performing this task, he departed from the common
usage of the British colleges, and in all possible cases employed a
single name for each drug in place of the double or triple names they
had always used, a plan which is still adhered to in our National
Pharmacopoeia. He followed up this labor by publishing his practical
treatise long familiar to the profession under the name of " Bigelow's
Sequel," a succinct, judicious, and perspicuous commentary on the
characters, qualities, and uses of the remedies adopted by the national
medical representatives.

In 1825, Dr. Bigelow gave the first impulse to a great movement
which has made itself felt in its beneficent influences throughout the
whole length and breadth of the country. His attention had been
accidentally called to the gross abuses associated with the system of
intramural burials. In consequence of this, he invited about a dozen
gentlemen to meet at his house in Summer Street, to consider the
expediency of instituting an extra-urban, ornamental cemetery in the
neighborhood of Boston. This meeting, after long delays and discus-
sions, found the fulfilment of its suggestions in the creation of the ceme-
tery of "Mount Auburn," consecrated in 1831, the first institution of
the kind in the United States, and the pattern after which have been
modelled a great number of similar institutions, which have been grow-

386 JACOB BIGELOW.

ing up, during the last thirty or forty years, in the neighborhood of our
chief cities and towns. It is hard to overrate the importance of this
great innovation on the time-honored custom which was fast becoming
a nuisance to the public health and an offence to the common feelings
of humanity. The close-packed tombs, liable to be used by unscrupu-
lous sextons as lodging-houses for any homeless dead whose means
would purchase a temporary resting-place ; the graves where one body
was piled on another until only a few inches of soil covered the last-
comer's coffin-lid, — gave place to the peaceful and secure rural retreat
where the dead could repose undisturbed and the living could resort
with pleasure. Not only was the project of the Mount Auburn Ceme-
tery due to Dr. Bigelow, but he furnished the designs for the fence
and gateway, the chapel and the tower, and for more than twenty
years officiated as President of the Corporation.

In 1830, Dr. Bigelow published the " Elements of Technology," a
treatise on the application of the sciences to the useful arts, taken
chiefly from the lectures delivered by him as Rumford Professor at
Cambridge. This most convenient and valuable manual has since
been reprinted (1840) with additions, in two volumes, under the title
" The Useful Arts."

In 1832, Dr. Bigelow was commissioned by the City of Boston,
with the late Dr. John Ware and Dr. Joshua B. Flint, to visit New
York to observe and report on the Asiatic cholera, then prevail-
ing in that city. So great was the fear of contagion at the time, that
the Committee, returning in one of the Sound steamers, were stopped
a mile below Providence by the health officers, and forbidden to come
on shore. Landing at Seekonk, they at length, after waiting a whole
day, made- their way to Boston in stage-coaches.

In 1835, Dr. Bigelow delivered, as the annual address before the
Massachusetts Medical Society, his well-known discourse on " Self-
limited Diseases." This remarkable essay has probably had more in-
fluence on medical practice in America than any similar brief treatise,
we might say than any work, ever published in this country. Its
suggestions were scattered abroad at the exact fertilizing moment
when public opinion was matured enough for their reception. The
essay of Louis on blood-letting in pneumonia had shaken the belief
of many in the "strangling" of disease by heroic remedies. The
French expectant practice had been watched in the hospitals of Paris
by multitudes of students, who had become accustomed to see patient
waiting and mild palliatives take the place of the perturbing measures
familiar to English and American usage. Dr. Bigelow's discourse

JACOB BIGELOW. 337

summed up the question between nature and medical art so fairly and
so clearly, that from that day forward the empirical habit of interfer-
ence, for the sake of interfering, with the course of a self-evolving and
self-terminating disease may be said to have declined.

This essay was republished in a volume, with sixteen other papers,
in the year 1854. Every one of these papers will be found marked
by the characteristic excellences of the writer, from the Experiments
on the Effects of Different Methods of Treating Burns, the Boylston
Prize Dissertation before referred to, to the Address delivered before
this Academy at the opening of their course of Lectures in 1852. An-
other little volume, " Expositions of Rational Medicine," published in
1858, illustrated the doctrine of the Discourse on Self-limited Diseases
in a fable called " The Paradise of Doctors," followed by a short essay
and an appendix, containing a reprint of a part of an article by Sir
John Forbes in the British Foreign Medical Review. Dr. Bigelow
always selected the right subject ; he always knew just what iron was
lying white on the anvil. He had the art in which the telegraph has
been giving the new generation lessons, — that of using just as many
words as were needed to convey his meaning clearly, and no more,
except that his wit or his learning would betray itself now and then
by a lively illustration or an apposite quotation. He always went
straight for the vital point in the subject he was handling: it was he
who in our debates before societies waited until others had teased the
subject under discussion until it was wearied and bewildered, and then
gave it the coup de grace. His style was that of a scholar who wears
his robes of learning with such ease that no common-sense movement
of his intelligence is hindered or made awkward by them. The Presi
dent of our Historical Society, Mr. Wiuthrop, always felicitous in his
characterizations, has coupled the name of Dr. Bigelow with that of
" the great Bostonian," Benjamin Fz-anklin. No comparison could be
happier. Franklin was not college-bred, like our contemporary; but
he had a literary turn, and composed ballads in his early youth, and
used language as simple and lucid as any man who ever wrote English.
Both were good-natured and good-tempered ; both had a charming
vein of pleasantry, which often showed itself in genuine wit and humor ;
both were abounding in mechanical ingenuity ; both had a shrewd eye
for the practical, and knew well how to handle their resources so as to
make them tell with the best effect ; both questioned the universe in
a smiling, half-philosophical, half-practical sort of way, having, as one
might say, a constitutional trust that things would come out right in
the end ; both, it may be suspected, carried a good many unsolved
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 22

338 JACOB BIGELOW.

problems quietly resting a little out of sight, — certainly not aggres-
sively thrust forward, — in a receptacle like that in which Time puts
alms for oblivion. I should form this opinion with regard to Dr.
Bigelow, chiefly from the habit of his mind, which was that of explor-
ing Thomas rather than of visionary Paul ; for I never knew him
wanting in reverence, and I have known him to manifest impatience
at what he thought was a want of it.

The last great movement in which Dr. Bigelow took an active part
was that in favor of a change in the educational system by which the
classical languages should cease to be the exclusive or chief tests of a
liberal training. Professor W. P. Atkinson had recently called atten-
tion to the state of education, especially as it regarded the classics
and scientific studies in the great schools of England. Dr. Bigelow
referred to this as a convincing exposition of the state of education in
those institutions, and, following his usual direct method of proceeding,
made a practical application of the facts there given, illustrated with
a good sense and epigrammatic force all his own, to the condition of
things among ourselves. His two papers bearing on this subject, " On
the Limits of Education" (I860), and "On Classical and Utilitarian
Studies" (18G6), were published with other essays in a volume en-
titled "Modern Inquiries" (18G7).

After a record like this, it seems almost trivial to refer to the literary
diversions in which from time to time, generally without attaching his
name to them, he was in the habit of indulging. I think it probable
that he wrote moVe frequently in the papers than any of his friends
were aware ; for I remember more than one article of his, the author-
ship of which was not generally known. His jeux d'esprit could
hardly help betraying themselves, in some instances at least. One of
the most famous was the poem written on the occasion of the trans-
plantation of the gingko-tree from the garden of Mr. Gardiner Green
to Boston Common. Another of his happiest efforts was the Latin
song written for the Harvard Centennial in 1836. It deserves every
epithet Cicero bestowed on the oration which he called concinnam,
distinctam, ornatam, festivam. The little volume of playful parodies
called " Eolopoesis" has always been attributed to him, without having
its authorship disputed. These productions were the mere overflow
of a mind full of wit as well as wisdom.

Dr. Bigelow has done more than adorn all that he has touched :
he has illuminated and enriched, as well as embellished, a range of
subjects so wide that it becomes a wonder how he could embrace them
all. Eew citizens of the republic, certainly no member of the medical

JACOB BIGELOW. 339

profession, can be said to have identified himself with so many and
such permanent contributions to the public welfare. He was fortunate
in living to see the science for which he labored in his youth flourish-
ing in the hands of able successors who have given their lives to it, to
behold the whole land beautified with those rural cemeteries of which
he furnished the American model in Mount Auburn, to witness the
establishment of a more philosophical and safer medical practice as a
consequence of his outspoken appeal to nature and common sense, and
to enjoy the prospect of a more liberal administration in our colleges
and universities as a reward for his manly plea in behalf of the more
practical branches of knowledge.

It would be hard to find any one better fitted to wrestle with the
years that close the labors of a long protracted life than was the strong
and firm-souled man whose career through its more active period we
have been glancing over. His constitution was robust, his habits were
more than temperate, his mind always active, but working easily in
every kind of service to which he called it. And there never was a
man who accepted the combat with his growing infirmities in a more
courageous and cheerful spirit. In the year 1870, at the age of eighty-
three, he was still in the possession of much bodily vigor and mental
vitality. He took a fancy to pay a visit to the other side of the conti-
nent, and carried it out with all the spirit of his younger days. On
his return, he wrote a very lively and pleasant little poem, recalling
the vivacity of the lines to the gingko-tree and others of his earlier
efforts. In the same year, he wrote, and read at a meeting of persons
interested, the Essay on Education before referred to. But the time
was near at hand for all his active labors to cease.

With the exception of some deafness on one side and the fracture of
an arm by a fall, I do not recollect his ever suffering from any in-
firmity that made itself manifest until the last decade of his life. A
dimness of sight, which came on very gradually, was the first sign
which made itself obvious. It was found after a time that this dim-
ness was owing to the formation of cataracts in both eyes. It was
quite wonderful to see the way in which he accepted a fact so threaten-
ing to the happiness of his remaining years. He seemed to look upon
himself with curiosity as the subject of an experiment by Nature.
What he had to do was to train another sense to perform the task of
the one which was failing. Hrs description of the way in which he
taught his hands to work without the guidance of sight was given with
so much apparent delight that one might have thought he enjoyed
more in perfecting the groping organs of tact than he suffered in
losing the swift illimitable potency of vision.

340 JACOB BIGELOW.

Books at length could no longer serve his failing sight; still he
recognized the faces of those around him, and was gladdened hy the
cheerful light of morning. But the curtains were drawn closer and
closer, until at last he could distinguish his friends only by their voices.
And, as the years moved onward, each took something from the grad-
ually yielding organization. A loss of power in the lower limbs
rendered him helpless, and soon confined him wholly to his bed. Who
could have wondered if the burden of his lamentation had borrowed
the words which Milton puts in the mouth of the blind captive, — the
strong man of Israel ?

" Scarce half I seem to live, dead more than half.
0 dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon,
Irrecoverably dark, total eclipse
Without all hope of day ! "

Not such were the words, not such was the spirit in which this once
strong man, now blind and bound in chains heavier than any captive
wears, spoke with his visitors. He greeted them with the same cheer-
ful cordiality with which he had received them in health. His mind
showed much of its old vivacity. He was often intensely interested in
conversation ; and his sense of the ridiculous, which in him was the
sign of exuberant life in a happy temperament and a quick and pene-
trating intelligence, had lost nothing of its acuteness at a time when his
bodily infirmities had become such as to render him entirely helpless.

Dr. Bigelow's life at this time was a kind of intellectual hiberna-
tion. He was living on the stores of a long and active period of mental
labor and acquisition. He called on his memory to restore its buried
treasures, and it obeyed him with singular docility. Passages from
the classic authors, from his favorite English poets, Byron especially,
retraced themselves at his bidding, with an accuracy that was surpris-
ing. Not long before the closing stage of mental decline, I remember
talking with him about his reminiscences of the physicians of an earlier
generation. He always had a keen eye for every kind of pretension,
and could let the nonsense out of a tumid celebrity with an epigram-
matic phrase or a characteristic anecdote in a way which would have
made him terrible, had he not been very good-natured and altogether
too knowing to give babblers and simpletons a chance to quarrel with
him. He never said a malicious thing in my hearing ; but when there
was nothing to restrain him, he made very short work with overrated
celebrities, and the " most magnanimous mouse " that had been pro-
nounced a lion subsided into his proper and harmless dimensions, under
his handling, with wonderful celerity. There never was a kinder sat'

JACOB BIGELOW. 341

irist than he : not only did lie refrain from the use of poisoned shafts,
but he kept his arrows so carefully in their quiver that oiiJy a friend,
who was privileged to feel their points now and then, knew how sharp
they were, and how dangerous they might be. His parodies were
ingenious, with no venomous stinging about them. Consequently he
made no enemies. He kept his wit perfectly in hand, and never let it
betray him into personalities, — at least after his college days, when
he indulged in an excursus or two which showed what a formidable
weapon his ridicule could be, if he chose to wield it.

I was in the habit of visiting Dr. Bigelovv from time to time long
after the period at which the strength of our days was said of old to
be labor and sorrow. But my visits were cheerful, except for the
sight of the once strong man now blind and helpless in the bed from
which he was never to rise. He smiled a welcome as always, laughed
on occasion almost as heartily as ever, spoke of his remarkable freedom
from all pain and discomfort, and wore on his features the look of
serene repose.

I will close my sketch by repeating a few words from my remarks
at a meeting of the Massachusetts Historical Society, where I was
called to speak informally, at one of their meetings, of their late
associate : —

The faculties still declined, gently, gradually, but surely, the mys-
terious presence of life still revealing itself in the simpler and humbler
forms which belong to its infancy and its worn-out stage of decay.
But the intellect still asserted itself in certain limited portions of the
thinking centre. When life had become little more than mere exist-
ence, and persons were hardly if at all recognized, he would finish a
quotation from some favorite author, if a few words or a line of verse
were mentioned in his hearing. He would even go back, if he had
made a mistake, and correct it with automatic accuracy. This me-
chanical action of the memory could not fail to recall the way in
which the phonograph repeats a few connected words of the last sen-
tence which has been dictated to it before it begins reciting its new
lesson. Could he have watched the gradual extinction of his faculties,
as the dying Haller felt the artery at his own wrist, as he himself had
watched the progress of his gradual loss of sight, he would have studied

" with eye serene
The very pulse of the machine,"

and noted the phenomena of mental decadence as quietly as in his
earlier years he watched the disrobing of the flowers which were

342 CALEB CUSH1NG.

dropping their petals. But Nature drugs the victim of her last ex-
periment, and her anodyne saves him from the spectacle of his own
transformation from the strong man up to whom others looked, and on
whom they leaned, to the helpless invalid whose weakness only pity-
ing eyes behold, and whose little remnant of life is only prolonged by
the hourly ministry of gentle and loving hands.

We look back through these last years of infirmity, and see the
quick-witted student, the hard-working young physician, the enthusi-
astic botanist, the accomplished scholar, the eminent practitioner, the
sententious, finished, and effective writer ; the reformer, who, in a lecture
of one hour, inaugurated such a change of medical opinion and practice
as no other essay or work by an American author ever did in this
country ; the social innovator, who, by his origination of rural ceme-
teries, has done more for the beauty and health of our whole land than
perhaps any other one man has ever effected ; the philosopher, who in
health was the most cheerful as well as one of the most unwearied of
workers, and who, when the evil days came upon him, in which he
might have been excused for saying, " There is no pleasure in them,"
bore every burden of infirmity which was laid upon him with more
than resignation, — with an unfaltering equanimity which makes his
years of weakness as memorable as those of his strength and activity.

HON. CALEB CUSHING, LL.D.

The Hon. Caleb Cushing, LL.D., died at his residence, in New-
buryport, Massachusetts, on the 2d of January last. Born on the 17th
of January, 1800, he was on the verge of completing his seventy-
ninth year. He was graduated at Harvard University, as the third
scholar in rank, in the distinguished class of 1817, and remained at
the University for two years as Tutor in Mathematics aud Natural
Philosophy. He soon afterwards entered on the practice of the law,
for which he had studied at Cambridge in the mean time. From this
period, his long life was tilled out, almost to the very end, with pro-
fessional or public labors, and no man of his time has left a record of
more indefatigable industry. He was the Representative of Newbury-
port in the Legislature of Massachusetts in 1825, and was repeatedly
in the service of the State, either as Representative or Senator, in sub-
sequent years. In 1835 he was elected to the House of Representa-
tives of the United States, and remained a member of that body, by
successive elections in the Essex District, until 1843. He was then

SILAS DURKEE. 343

made Commissionei to China, and in that capacity negotiated the first
Treaty between the United States and the " Celestial Empire." Soon
after his return home, and when he had again become a Representative
in the State Legislature, the war with Mexico gave him an opportu-
nity to gratify his early disposition for military service. He raised a
regiment of volunteers, mainly at his own expense, and conducted it as
colonel to the Rio Grande, where he was commissioned a Brigadier-
General. In 1850, he was Mayor of Newburyport, then recently in-
corporated as a City. In 1852, he was appointed one of the Associate
Judges of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts ; and, after a single
year of faithful service in that office, he was taken into the Cabinet of
President Pierce, as Attorney- General of the United States, and held
that distinguished office for four years. The printed volume of his
official opinions during that term bears signal testimony to his ability,
research, and untiring labor. In 1866, he was appointed one of three
commissioners to revise and codify the laws of the United States.
Meantime, during the five previous years, he had spent much of his
time at Washington, and had rendered important aid to more than one
of the Departments in the difficult questions arising out of the Civil
"War. His last conspicuous service was at Geneva, as one of the coun-
sel of the United States at the great International Arbitration of " the
Alabama Claims," where he displayed his accomplishments as a linguist
by making his argument in the French language. Few Americans
have exhibited greater versatility, or greater ability, in so striking a
variety of pursuits and services. As a scholar, as a lawyer, as a
statesman, as a diplomatist, he has left a mark on our State and Na-
tional records which cannot be obliterated. As a speaker, a thinker,
and a writer, too, he has secured for himself no common place among
the literary men of his period. He was elected Fellow of this Acad-
emy Nov. 12, 1823.

SILAS DURKEE, M.D.

Silas Ddrkee, M.D., was born in Hanover, N. H., Nov. 22,
1798, and died in Boston July 17, 1878, in his eightieth year. He
graduated in Arts at Dartmouth College, in 1822, and in Medicine in
•1826. He practised his profession in Portsmouth till 1841, when he
removed to Boston, where he became a prominent practitioner, and
accumulated quite a property for a medical man. He was a frequent
contributor to professional journals; and published two octavo volumes
on dermatology and allied diseases. These works, one of which

344 JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON.

obtained a Boylston Prize, were received with much favor, and went
through several editions. His leisure he devoted to the study of
marine botany and entomology. In 1854, he was elected a Fellow of
this Academy. In 1859, he was chosen an Honorary Member of the
State Society of New York; and in 1860, a Corresponding Member
of the Natural History Society at Montreal. He was for a time a
Consulting Physician of the City of Boston ; and continued on the
Consulting Board of Physicians and Surgeons of the Boston City
Hospital from 1864 to the time of his death.

Dr. Durkee was a warm-hearted and true friend, a faithful physi-
cian, an ardent promoter of science, and a Christian gentleman. His
death is lamented by a large circle of friends, in and out of the pro-
fession.

JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON.

John Barnard Swett Jackson was the fourth and last child of
Captain Henry and Hannah (Swett) Jackson. He was born in Sud-
bury Street, Boston, June 5, 1806, and was named after his mother's
brother, Dr. John Barnard Swett, a much respected physician of New-
buryport.

He was but six months old when his father died. His uncles, the
late Hon. Charles Jackson and Dr. James Jackson, became his natural
guardians, and treated him like one of their own children. After
going to several schools, where he proved himself diligent and exem-
plary in conduct, he went at the age of thirteen to a school kept by
Mr. Hall, where he was fitted for college. At fifteen, he entered Har-
vard College. His classmate, Dr. Samuel Kirkland Lothrop, bears
witness to his being eminently faithful, aiming ever to do in the very
best and most thorough way that he could whatever work or duty he
had to perform. No temptation, he adds, would have made him hesi-
tate or swerve, or do or say any thing that was not honest and true.
" He was true, open, frank, concealing nothing, because there was
nothing he wished or that needed to be concealed. He was modest,
unassuming, as far from all arrogance and pretension as he was from
envy, jealousy, and a spirit of rivalry." He maintained a respectable
if not an eminent rank, and received appointments to two " parts "
during his college career.

He graduated in 1825, and immediately began his medical studies
under the instruction of Dr. James Jackson and others associated with
him. In 1827, he was chosen house apothecary for one year at the

JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON. 345

Massachusetts General Hospital, — " being found better fitted than
any other applicant." In 1829, he took his medical degree and went
to Europe to continue his studies. In Paris, he attended more to sur-
gery than to medicine, following the visits of Dupuytren, Roux, and
Lisfranc. In London, he attended the visits at Guy's Hospital and
the Lectures of Mr. Lawrence; in the evening Dr. Blundell, at 8 A. m.,
then the lectures of Dr. Turner on Chemistry at the London Hospital,
at least three miles off, — back at 12 o'clock to Guy's Hospital. Be-
sides these well-known names, I find that of Mr., afterwards Sir Charles,
Bell, and many others. " Sir Astley Cooper," he says, " was very cour-
teous to me, — spent much time with me in his museum, and treated
me for a dissecting wound on my right hand." "I saw much of Drs.
Bright, Addison, and Hodgkin, — spent much time at hospitals and
autopsies." After passing three mouths in Edinburgh, attending Mr.
Syme's Hospital and the Port Hopetown Dispensary, he sailed for
home, as physician to the ship in which he came, in June, 1831.

He must have been, I should think, considering his training at
home and abroad, and the indefatigable industry with which he
availed himself of all his advantages, the best educated young physi-
cian who had ever established himself in Boston. But in medicine,
as in politics, nothing succeeds (in a certain sense) but success. Dr.
Jackson was too much devoted to the acquisition of knowledge to
expend much thought on acquiring a large circle of patients. He can
have had little lucrative practice, when in 1835 he accepted the posi-
tion of house physician and surgeon at the Massachusetts General
Hospital. During one year of the four while he held this post, he
received a small salary, but the duties of these two offices, which were.
separated when he gave them up, must have occupied the greater
portion of his time, and they must have paid him with only partial
support, but abundant sources of instruction.

In the year 1839, he was chosen one of the physicians in full stand-
ing of the Hospital. He discharged the duties of this office faithfully
for twenty-five years, and after his resignation was chosen one of the
consulting physicians of the Hospital, so that for forty-four continuous
years he was connected with the Institution.

A large part of the most valuable work of Dr. Jackson's life was
done as a member of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement.
This Society, which was organized in the year 1828, has flourished to
the present time. The meetings have been faithfully attended by some
of our busiest practitioners, and from its records great numbers of inter-
esting cases have been given to the public. Of this Society, Dr. Jack-

346 JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON.

son was the centre and the life, in a far truer sense than Louis XIV.
was the throne. Never absent; almost invariably contributing some
new fact, some valuable specimen; full of enthusiasm in his description
of those fractions of diseased organs, the changes of which he studied
with the greatest nicety before he attempted to display and describe
them; saving carefully whatever was worth saving; not wasting him-
self in hoarding duplicates of common lesions which every week of a
city's practice can furnish, — the Society soon found that under the
hands of one man, unpaid except with the empty title of Curator, a
choice Museum was growing month by month and year after year into
completeness. For more than forty years Dr. Jackson was Curator of
this Museum, now known as the Jackson Cabinet, and by a vote of the
Society to be transferred to the Medical Department of Harvard Uni-
versity whenever a new building shall be ready to give it safe and
fitting accommodation. For a great many years it has been a central
point of attraction to all our medical visitors. Dr. Jackson never
appeared to greater advantage than in 'going through this admirable
collection with an intelligent professional brother from some other
town or country. He knew his specimens as a father knows his
children. He was not one of those collectors who gratify their acquis-
itiveness in picking up every thing they can which others want, and
their vanity by showing what they hope nobody else possesses. It
was what a preparation taught or illustrated which rendered it valu-
able in his eyes. The value of the two collections which he in large
measure built up, and thoroughly arranged and described, consisted
very much in the histories of the cases of which they were the material
records, and which he took the greatest pains to have and to set down
in his catalogues. Under many circumstances, he was rather slow
and labored in speech than happy as an orator, but, with one of his
choice specimens in his hand and an interested listener, he became
warmed and inspired with an eloquence all his own. This character-
istic never left him. I remember when he came back not many months
ago from Washington, bringing with him photographs of certain crania
he had there seen and studied, with what boy-like ardor he, now past
the period at which the fiery and impassioned king of Israel "gat no
heat," expatiated on the disappearance of the nasal bones, their jjlace
being supplied by the meeting of the ascending portions of the superior
maxillary. This was only one instance of his inextinguishable youth-
fulness of excitability. In 1847, he published a descriptive catalogue
of the Museum of the Society for Medical Improvement, in a well-
filled octavo volume of three hundred and fifty pages. It was of this

JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON. 347

work that a distinguished Philadelphia Professor spoke, as the most
important contribution yet made in America to pathological anatomy.

In 1847, he was appointed to the Chair of Pathological Anatomy
in the Medical School of Harvard University, a new professorship
created and endowed by the liberality of the late Dr. George Cheyne
Shattuck, with express reference to its being conferred upon Dr. Jack-
son. With this office was joined that of Curator of the Warren Ana-
tomical Museum. This collection, which had been formed by the late
Dr. John Collins Warren, in the midst of the incessant cares and labors
of a great practice, contained much that was of value, but absolutely
required the most complete revision and reorganization. To this
work Dr. Jackson devoted himself with his usual energy. Every
specimen was carefully examined, its proper preservation attended to,
its fitting display obtained by readjustment, its history sought out, —
in short, the same loving care bestowed upon it as had been lavished
on the specimens which belonged to the collection he had himself
brought together and labored over with paternal devotion. He re-
tained the office of Curator until the time of his death, and it was on
returning from his work-room in the Medical College that he com-
plained of t-he first symptoms of the disease which in a week's time
brought his labors with his life to a close. For the last few years he
had not lectured, but his time was still given without stint to caring
for and building up the Warren Museum with which he had incor-
porated so much of his time aud toil.

In addition to the two important volumes which I have mentioned,
Dr. Jackson published a very large number of separate communica-
tions to the Medical Journals, and left behind him a great mass of
manuscripts. His recorded cases are two thousand and sixty-two in
number. The first autopsy entry was in 1830, the last was in 1869.
These records fill five large quartos of nine hundred pages each, and
seven small quartos of five hundred pages each, all in his own small
and compact handwriting. These he had reviewed and tabulated,
with the intention of making them more valuable and probably of
publishing them. Those who know his fidelity, his patience, his keen-
ness of observation, his scrupulous accuracy, will feel assured that, if
this labor is completed by those who come after him, he will need no
other monument.

He diversified his heavier work with pleasant excursions into the
field of comparative anatomy. He dissected an elephant, a spermaceti
whale, a rhinoceros, a male and female dromedary, a horse, and
very numerous lesser animals, often detectiug some point which others

348 JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON.

had overlooked, and showing it with a delight which illuminated every
feature of his refined and delicate countenance.

His vacations were seasons of work, but work was his chief pleasure.
In 1851, he spent six months in Europe, visiting all the principal
museums. He has left a large volume of notes of the rarest and most
interesting specimens he saw, to the uumber of seventeen hundred and
ninety-two. These he arranged and catalogued under suitable heads
in 1858.

He went to Rarbadoes in the spring of 1 867, stayed only a few days,
and after his return wrote an account of the diseases of the island.
He had several intervals of this kind of idleness, which most men
would have called industry. In January, he spent several weeks in
Washington, and it was at that time that he studied the Esquimaux
skulls, and made, as he thought, some original observations upon them.

In his last voyage to Europe, in 1874, he had a remarkable escape
from a disaster which was every thing but shipwreck, the vessel having
been abandoned, and afterwards picked up and carried into port. I
do not remember his ever speaking of it ; but, from the account his son
who was with him gave, the immediate risk must have been very great,
and the danger, as well as the suffering from exposure and hunger,
enough to try the stoutest at the lustiest period of life. A slight ex-
posure, if indeed such were the active cause of his disease, brought on
the consequences which cold and wet, and the smothering forecastle of
the vessel which rescued the passengers drifting in their open boat,
had failed to produce.

On Monday afternoon and evening, December 30th, he was at work
at the College. He came home, felt very weary by half past eight,
lay down on his bed, and never after that voluntarily lifted his head
from his pillow, and quietly passed away on the 6th of January, 1879,
the Monday following that when he was taken with the first symptoms
of his disease, which was pneumonia.

This sketch may be concluded with some extracts from a notice
of Dr. Jackson furnished by the writer to the Boston Medical and
Surgical Journal for January 9, 1879 : —

The death of Dr. Jackson comes upon us as a loss we had little
contemplated and for which we were quite unprepared. Age had not
left him unchanged, but it had never subdued his elastic and almost
youthful nature. A sudden and brief illness, attended with less of
suffering than that which we are too often called to witness, ended in
a few hours of unconsciousness, followed by a quiet release.

JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON. 349

No man has ever died among us who has been more universally loved
and respected, or whose loss has been more felt than his will be by the
members of the profession to which he belonged. He was less widely
known to the community at large than many others, but it would be
safe to say that no one ever heard his name mentioned but in tones of
kindly regard, or his character referred to except as that of a man
without guile, true as truth, pure as purity, honest as Nature herself,
whose works he studied. It may sound like extravagant language to
claim so much for him, but he was quite exceptional in the singular
childlike simplicity and transparency of his character, and in using the
expressions here applied to him it is only among those who did not
know him that such words need fear questioning comment.

It was not in medical practice that Dr. Jackson was chiefly known
among us. He was not in all respects fitted for the every-day work
which belongs to that laborious calling. He was perhaps too sensi-
tive, and, if such a word may be ventured, too scrupulous, to work
quietly and easily to himself, which is one great condition of success.
A great physician must have something of the great general about
him, and more than one great general has left it on record that he
could get a good nap on the battle-field in the interval of its decisive
moments. The singular delicacy of Dr. Jackson's nature stood in the
way of his success in the rough out-door world where men are neces-
sarily jostled together in competition. With his vast knowledge of
disease, it might have seemed that he would be wanted everywhere in
consultation. Perhaps he knew too much, — knew the tricks of Nature
which baffle the most skilful diagnosticians too well to speak with that
positiveness which is often decisive, in virtue of its personal emphasis,
in cases where doubts are plenty and convictions feeble ; where in the
words of the great old master, " The momeut is pressing, experiment
dangerous, judgment difficult."

Nor was it in the routine of medical practice that Dr. Jackson won
that great reputation which reaches all over the land, and beyond it,
wherever pathological science is cultivated. He studied disease in its
effects upon the organs. There was a long series of years during
which the ruined or injured vital machinery of our fellow-citizens, the
cause of whose death was asked by those interested, was almost certain
to pass under his thorough and careful inspection. The results he
found in each case he minutely recorded. The history of the disease
he took the greatest pains to learn. What Morgagni did for Valsalva
he did for the whole medical profession of our city. In this way, he
accumulated a great mass of original materials, fresh transcripts from

350 JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON.

nature, which as far as they professed to go would be more likely to
gain than lose by comparison with the famous works of an earlier day,
the Sepulcretum of Bonetus, the great treatise De Sedibus et Causis
Morborum, or the Glinique Medicate of Andral.

" As far as they professed to go." There is no propriety in com-
paring pathological anatomy as Dr. Jackson studied it with the patho-
logical histology of a later epoch. He was not a microscropist. The
telescope of the infinitesimal universe had not perfected its eyesight
until long after he had become an adept in studying the larger aspects
of diseased structure. What he knew he knew thoroughly, but he
never pretended to have the slightest knowledge beyond what his
honest naked eyes could teach him. He was not ashamed of their
nakedness : in fact, it was next to impossible to coax him to look
through a microscope. He would turn away with, " I know nothing
about it," in a tone that implied he did not want to have any thing to
do with it. But these same honest eyes of his were very keen ones,
and saw things with about as little of chromatic or other aberration as
any that have opened to our daylight. His look penetrated like an
exploring needle, and many a tympanitic fancy of careless observers
has collapsed under its searching scrutiny.

This is not the place to do more than allude to the record he has
left of himself in medical literature. For half a century he has been
at work among us ; and the inventory of his finished labors, were it
made out in full, would astonish many of those who have seen him
only when he was busied with some of those smaller tasks in which
he was punctilious to an extent that now and then provoked a good-
natured smile. He had the true genius of a curator, and was never
tired of working at his specimens, to get them into the best condition
and show them off to the best advantage.

As a lecturer, Dr. Jackson was exact rather than fluent or copious
in expression, but his knowledge was so genuine and so thoroughly
his own that it commanded the closest attention and the greatest
respect. For the last few years he has not lectured, but confined him-
self to his duties as curator. Never was there a more enthusiastic
devotee to that particular kind of work. He was a picture of cheerful
content in the midst of the fragmentary specimens of Nature's handi-
work by which he was wont to be surrounded. No student in the
first flush of his boyish enthusiasm was ever more full of excitement,
more radiant with delight, than this man whom the record called old,
but whom his unquenchable vitality preserved ever youthful and
ever happy in illustrating some fact by a new preparation, or in

JOHN BARNARD SWETT JACKSON. 351

rendering presentable some dilapidated tenant of his immortalizing
receptacles.

In many points, he resembled that model of all the finest qualities
which belong to the student of science, Dr. Jeffries Wyman. In both
the love of knowledge for its own sake was the divine gift which set
them apart from the men of mixed motives, who have a conditional
liking for truth among many other things. It is truly an inspiration,
as much so as that of the poet, which renders students of nature like '
"Wyman and Jackson restless under the stimulus of half knowledge,
and keeps them wakeful until they have got at some secret which
seems to hide itself from their search. Few, very few of our men of
science pass so large a part of their lives in their laboratories. In
both there was the same union of modesty of statement with confi-
dence in the accuracy of what they alleged as the result of their own
observation. Each knew the other's exactness and trustworthiness.
Dr. Jackson often cited the keen observations of Dr. Wyman with the
evident feeling that he was referring to a man whose eyes were as
sharp as his own, — the highest compliment one observer can pay
another. He would not have claimed the discursive range or the in-
ventive ingenuity which so eminently belonged to the Cambridge bio-
logist aud comparative anatomist, whose large outlook took a wider
field of knowledge for its province. But, differing in their special
gifts, their noblest qualities were such as belonged equally to both.
If such a title were known to the calendar as Saints of Science, both
these faithful, sincere, modest, pure-minded students of nature would
be numbered among them.

A new generation had grown up since Dr. Jackson had passed the
middle term of life. The aspect of his chosen branch of knowledge
had greatly changed since he stood forth as its oracle among us. But
the whole profession kuew what he had done for it ; the older mem-
bers had seen him building up the two museums of which he was the
chief architect ; the younger knew, in some measure at least, the
breadth and depth of his long-continued labors. So when a few years
since the proposal was made that he should be invited to sit for his
portrait, it met with a response which showed that the profession
which he had served so long and well could not wait to bear their
testimony to the universal esteem and veneration in which he was
held until that terra should be reached when praise wastes itself
unheard by those upon whom it is lavished. His quiet life will be
long remembered in the truly monumental works it has left as his
record.

352 JOHN CLARKE LEE.

Dr. Jackson married in 1853 Emily J., daughter of William T.
Andrews, Esq. He leaves two sons : Henry, born October 25, 1858 ;
and Robert Tracy, born July 13, 1861.

Many honors have been paid to his memory. His old friend and
schoolmate, Rev. Dr. Chandler Robbins, the Rev. Dr. George E.
Ellis, and his classmate, Rev. Dr. Lothrop, took parkin the funeral
services at the house or in the church, and all bore testimony in
strong and impressive words to the beauty of his true and useful life.
Many of the associations with which he was connected passed resolu-
tions expressing their deep sense of his high qualities and the loss
they had sustained.

JOHN CLARKE LEE.

JonN Clarke Lee was born in Boston, April 9, 1804, and died
in Salem, November 19, 1877. Through his father he belonged to a
family that has borne an honored name through nearly the whole period
of New England history, and he also traced his descent to the Picker-
ings of Salem, — a name held in no less merited reverence. He
belonged to the class of 1823 in Harvard University. After leaving
college, he pursued for a short time the study of the law ; but soon
left it for commercial pursuits. At quite an early age he retired from
business ; but subsequently became the senior partner of the well-
known banking-house of Lee", Iligginson, & Co., of which he was a
member from 1848 till 1862. From 1829 till his death he was a
resident of Salem, in the enjoyment of an ample fortune, and for the
greater part of the time in the possession of a leisure free from all
imperative demands, yet never idle or useless. He was an early and
active member of the Essex County Natural History Society, and
continued his valued services to the Essex Institute, which absorbed
and succeeded it. He was a Trustee and Director of various financial
corporations, and for a few years held the office of Treasurer of the
American Academy. He in general shunned municipal and political
offices, for which he would often have been a preferred candidate, and
the only place of this sort which he is known to have filled is that of
Representative of Salem in the State Legislature for a single year.

Mr. Lee, without being distinguished as a specialist in any depart-
ment, was a man of superior ability, active mind, and generous culture.
His information on a large range of subjects was extensive and accu-
rate. He was a lover of learning and science, and while we cannot
name any original contributions of his own, his encouragement, effi-

JOHN MUDGE MERRICK. 353

cient aid, and warm appreciation were never wanting to those en-
gaged in scientific investigation or in literary labor.

Mr. Lee was a man of sterling integrity, and of a high sense of
honor. In private life, and to a large circle of kindred and friends,
he was endeared by those traits of character which are the ornament
and joy of home and of refined and cultivated society. His kind
offices were never wanting where there was the need or the oppor-
tunity for them. It is hardly enough to say that he was unselfish.
He probably would not have claimed this praise. But he had so
large and comprehensive a self-love, that it could be satisfied only
when he had contributed to the utmost of his ability to the happiness
of those around him, of whatever age or condition. He was thus
loved and honored in life, and for not a few his death seems an
irreparable loss.

JOHN MUDGE MERRICK, S.B.

John Mudge Merrick, of Walpole, was the youngest son of the
late Rev. John Mudge Merrick. He was born at the Swift Hotel, in
"West Sandwich, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, April 12, 1838, at which
place his father was then settled over the Unitarian Society.

Shortly after the birth of his son, Mr. Merrick was called to the
church at Walpole. where he was settled for many years.

In 1857 Mr. Merrick entered the chemical department of the
Lawrence Scientific School, and he was graduated from there summa
cum laude in 1859. After graduating he served for one year as
assistant to Professor Horsford.

In 1862 he was appointed principal of the High School at Natick.
He left this place to take a similar position at Canton, in the spring of
1864. Leaving Canton in 1865 he filled the position of Submaster in
the New Bedford High School until the summer of 1867. During
his vacations he spent his time in chemical work, and on leaving New
Bedford he accepted the position of Superintendent of the Boston
Diatite Company. In 1868 he commenced his active professional life
as an analytical and consulting chemist in the city of Boston, and from
that time until within a few days of his early death he was steadily
employed at commercial chemistry.

During this time he was a constant contributor to the chemical
journals, both at home and abroad. He was also one of the contrib-
utors to Johnson's Cyclopedia. In 1874 he was elected Professor of
Chemistry in the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy.
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 23

354 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN THOMAS.

Mr. Merrick's published contributions to chemistry have been in the
form of short notes on working processes, rather than the results of any
extended investigations. His extended investigations, the most prom-
inent of which are on the nature of aniline black, on nickel-plating,
and on bronzing articles of iron by coating them with linseed-oil and
then subjecting them to a high temperature, have never been published,
except in the records of the United States Courts. It was largely
through his exertions that the optical method of testing the value of
sugar has been introduced into commercial use in this city.

Besides his contributions to chemistry, he wrote many articles for
the daily papers on matters of passing interest.

He was an active member of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society, and wrote and published a valuable essay on the cultivation
of the strawberry. He also made a number of experiments on the
production of wine from our common American grapes.

In 1875 he was elected a member of the American Pharmaceutical
Association.

In 1874 he published, under the title of " Nugas Inutiles," a col-
lection of translations into Latin of many of the popular songs of
the day.

Quiet and reticent in his manners, few were admitted to his intimate
friendship, and it was only after long acquaintance that his worth was
appreciated. Ambitious to do thoroughly good scientific work, he was
hampered by the necessity of struggling for a living, and he had just
commenced to see his way clear before him, when a promising career
was cut short by his sudden death. He died at Walpole on the 25th
day of February, 1879, of pneumonia, after a short illness, having been
previously worn out by watching at the bedside of one of his children.

He was married in August, 1863, to Fannie, daughter of Smith
Gray, of Walpole, who, with three children, survives him. He was
the last surviving member of his immediate family, an only brother,
his father, and his mother all having died within a few years.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN THOMAS.

Benjamin Franklin Thomas was born in Boston, on Feb. 12,
1813, and, entering Brown University at the age of thirteen, graduated
there in 1830. He studied his profession at the Law School of Har-
vard College, remaining there until 1832. Choosing Worcester as his
residence, he was long distinguished as a member of the bar of that
county, and he!d various local offices of honor and trust. In 1842 he

WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. 355

was a Representative from Worcester in the Legislature of the State,
and from 1844 to 1848 was Judge of Probate for the county of
Worcester.

In 1853 he was appointed a Justice of the Supreme Judicial Court of
Massachusetts. He held this office for six years with distinction, and
then resigned it, and, coming to reside in the neighborhood of Boston,
began, as a member of. the bar in that city, a long, honorable, and
profitable career, which ended only with his death.

During this period he was for one term, from 1861 to 1863, a mem-
ber of the national House of Representatives. In 1868 he was nomi-
nated by the Governor to the office of Chief Justice of the Supreme
Judicial Court, to succeed Judge Bigelow ; but a strong opposition, on
political grounds, prevented his confirmation by the Council. He was
also invited to a chair at the Law School of Harvard University ;
but while he did not accept this position, he consented to deliver lec-
tures at this School, and also at that of the institution in Boston.

He died at his summer place, in Beverly, Mass., Sept. 27, 1878, at
the age of sixty-five.

Judge Thomas was a man who would have been distinguished in
any community. He is worthy of special commemoration upon the
records of this Academy, as one of the few men of his profession who
have combined devotion to their calling, and success in it, with the love
and study of philosophy and literature. What is not so rare, but is
rarer than it should be, they were combined also with the preserva-
tion of the ardent affections and the wholesome instincts and tastes of
a generous nature.

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.

WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT.

The death of William Ccllen Bryant removed from the list
of our associate members one of the most eminent names in the annals
of American literature. The familiar phrase of Tacitus has rarely been
applied with more justice than it may be to Mr. Bryant: "Felix nou
vitae tantum claritate, sed etiam opportunitate mortis." For he died,
not only full of years and full of honors, but before age had wasted
his faculties or diminished his powers of service. He had lived long
enough to enjoy his own fame, and to be assured that his name would

356 JOSEPH HENRY.

be inscribed on the roll of the worthies of the nation. He had seen
his country grow from comparative feebleness to a great power, and he
had had a share, not only in influencing its political tendencies, but in
determining its moral ideals. The last was his more important work,
and it is as a poet who gave appropriate, elevated, and refined ex-
pression to the moral sentiment of the community that he will be
chiefly remembered. His verse bears the stamp of New England. It
is the outcome of the grave piety, the sober joys, the reflective serious-
ness, of the elder mood of the country. In this sense it belongs rather
to the past than to the present; but the truth and felicity with which
they express common and natural feelings and emotions will secure to
the most widely known of Mr. Bryant's productions a permanent
place in the pages of the household book of American poetry.

It is not needful here to give even a summary of Mr. Bryant's biog-
raphy. This work has been done well where it might be done more
appropriately. For his intellectual activity displayed itself chiefly out-
side the fields cultivated by this Academy. It is required only of us
to bear our testimony of honor to the memory of a poet and public
servant, who, born in Massachusetts, has, at his death, been claimed
by the nation for its own.

JOSEPH HENRY *

Joseph Henry, who was united with this Academy as an Associate
Fellow on May 26, 1840, was born in Albany, N. Y., on December 17,
1799, and died in Washington, D. C, on May 13, 1878, in the pleni-
tude of his years, his labors, and his honors. The child is always
father to the man : but there was nothing in the childhood or youth of
Henry to proclaim the advent of one whose life would be a blessing to
mankind, and whose death would be felt as a nation's loss. Descended
from Scotch ancestors, who had recently emigrated to this country,
and losing his father at an early age, he passed a large part of his
youth under the care of his maternal grandmother, at Galway, in
Saratoga County. Here he attended the district school until he was
ten years old. Then he was taken into a store, where he was treated
kindly and allowed to be present at the afternoon session of the school.
Obtaining access to the village library, at first by accident, afterwards
by stealth, and finally by permission, he revelled in an ideal world of

* The death of Professor Henry, although reported last year, took place so
near the time of the annual meeting, that this notice was necessarily deferred
until the present Report.

JOSEPH HENRY. 357

fiction, and perhaps cultivated, unconsciously, that faculty of imagina-
tion which served him as the interpreter of Nature.

At the age of about fifteen Henry returned to Albany and entered
a watchmaker's shop as an apprentice. Whatever knowledge of
mechanism and delicacy of touch were thus acquired were not thrown
away upon one destined to plan and handle the nice appliances of
physical research. And yet his heart was not in the new occupation.
The stage, before the scenes and behind the scenes ; private theatri-
cals; a club of amateurs of which he was president, and for which he
wrote and acted tragedy and comedy, — absorbed his time and thoughts.
All who have seen and admired the refined, intellectual face, and the
erect, dignified form of the ripe philosopher, can easily imagine the suc-
cess of the young aspirant for dramatic distinction when these charms of
person and mind were decked in the beauty of youth : the self-posses-
sion, the repose, and the grace of this expounder of physical science
alone remained to tell of his short-lived eccentricity. Those readers
who allow the mythical apple to divide with Newton the glory of a great
discovery will listen eagerly to the statement that the theatrical career
of young Henry was suddenly arrested by his accidental encouuter,
during a brief illness, with Dr. Gregory's popular lectures. The lit-
eral truth of the story is not questioned ; for Professor Henry himself
believed it, and reverently cherished the precious volume to the last
Such, however, was the occasion, but not the cause, of his dedicating
himself henceforth to science. Innumerable accidents of a similar
kind happeu to every one, but not with the same result. Man, espe-
cially such a mau, is not the creation of any accident. The inspira-
tion comes from within : it is the unbidden thought, and not the
external events with which it is associated. Said a great divine, " If
you say that man is the creature of circumstances, it must be with the
understanding that the greatest and most effective of these circum-
stances is the man himself."

Bidding farewell to the stage and his theatrical companions, Henry
went seriously to work to complete his education ; at first in an even-
ing school, then with an itinerant pedagogue, and finally in the Albany
Academy, where he was both pupil and teacher. Next he was private
tutor in the family of the patroon, devoting his leisure to the study of
mathematics, and subjects which would fit him for the medical profes-
sion. In 1826 he made, in connection with Amos Eaton, the survey
for a road across the State of New York. In this work he displayed
so much energy and ability that his friends hoped to find, or to create
for him, a permanent position as engineer. But the State failed to

358 JOSEPH HENRY.

respond, and Henry returned to the Albany Academy as assistant
teacher, and in 1828 as Professor of Mathematics.

Only a few years had elapsed since the science of electricity had
taken a new departure under the name of electro-magnetism. Oersted,
of Copenhagen, had kindled the flame, which passed rapidly from hand
to hand among the scientific workers of Europe, until it culminated in
the splendid generalization of Ampere. This western continent may
have been tardy in welcoming the bright light in the east, but the
response, when given, was not a fire, but a conflagration. Professor
Henry led in the new line of physical research with a self-born
enthusiasm which seven hours of daily teaching in mathematics could
not extinguish or cool. The limits of this notice forbid a lengthened
statement of his contributions to electro-magnetism. But the fertile
principle which he deduced from his experiments must not be passed
over in silence. His distinction between quantity and intensity magnets,
and between quantity and intensity batteries (though now differently
expressed), is all-important and of manifold applications. Every
experiment with electro-magnetism, in the laboratory, in the lecture-
room, and in the arts, is a success or a failure in proportion as this law
is obeyed or ignored. If this discovery has linked Professor Henry's
name with the telegraph especially, it is because that was the great
problem of the hour, — unsolved, and as some supposed unsolvable.
It is not easy to draw the dividing line between the merits of the dis-
coverer and the inventor, when one follows closely upon the heels of
the other. Professor Henry's contribution to the final triumph was
large, and brilliant, and indispensable; but it was not all-sufficient. An
alphabet was wanting ; a sustaining battery must be invented ; more-
over, a man must appear with a capacity for business and a courage
born of hope, with no original knowledge of the familiar laws of elec-
tricity but with an easy absorption of the science of other men, who,
by a happy combination of experimental devices and the devotion of
years, might finally achieve a grand commercial success. In view of
Professor Henry's additional conquests in the realm of physical
research, science will ever rejoice that he was not himself dazzled by
the inviting prospect of riches and popular applause; that he re-
nounced the fruits of invention when they were almost within his
grasp ; that he preferred to any short-lived, meteoric display the chance
of shining for ever as a star in the upper heavens, with Agassiz,
Cuvier, and Faraday.

Loyalty to the devotees of scientific research does not demand any
disparagement of the usefulness or the genius of inventors. If the

JOSEPH HENEY. 359

former enlarge the area of human knowledge, the latter contribute to
the civilization of the race. If there are individuals in one class who
think only of their pecuniary success, the other class is not without
examples of those who mean to achieve, even if they do not deserve,
a high scientific reputation. It is not incumbent on every scientific
man to think, with Cuvier, that he must abandon a discovery the mo-
ment it enters the market, — that its practical application is of no con-
cern to him. No one certainly has a better right to the fruits of this
application than the discoverer himself. Inventors may sometimes
stumble on good fortune; but the rich prizes are comparatively few,
and, on the average, they are dearly earned by years of severe thought
and anxious waiting. No graveyard holds so many buried hopes as
the Patent Office at Washington. Since the first introduction of the
telegraph, discovery and invention have advanced, hand in hand, over
continents and through the ocean, leaving the world in doubt which to
admire the most, — the conceptions of pure science, or the exquisite
mechanism in which they are embodied. If on one occasion this
harmony was disturbed by the repudiation of an indebtedness which
had often before been freely acknowledged, the ingratitude was re-
buked by the indignant voice of science, and the just claims of Mr.
Henry were established on an impregnable foundation.

It does not detract from the merit or the originality of Professor
Henry's early discoveries that the same ground had been covered by
Fechner, in a work published in 1831, and that both had been antici-
pated by Ohm's experimental and mathematical analysis of the gal-
vanic circuit, which dates back to 1827. For Ohm's little book of
that date, which now shines as a foreland light for the guidance of
all who explore in that direction, was known only to a few in Ger-
many, and was unknown in France, England, and America at a time
when, if known, it might have illuminated Professor Henry's re-
searches. At a later period, Pouillet published the results of his own
experiments, without knowing that he himself had been anticipated by
Ohm. The father of Ohm had intended his son for a locksmith ;
but, unlike Henry, he did not even begin his apprenticeship. He pur-
sued his studies to the verge of starvation ; his heated brain worked
while his body shivered before a tireless stove, often covered with ice.
His book, which placed him before his death, in 1854, among the
greatest of German physicists, was coldly received by his colleagues in
the College of Jesuits, at Cologne. On the contrary, Professor Henry's
recognition was prompt and sympathetic, at home and abroad ; at a
single bound he came to the front, and there he always remained.

860 JOSEPH HENRY.

In 1832, Professor Henry removed to Princeton to fill the chair of
Natural Philosophy in the College of New Jersey. Here he fouud
sympathizing associates, congenial duties, aud the opportunity for origi-
nal research. One year earlier Faraday, already widely known by
his chemical discoveries, appeared upon the field of experimental elec-
tricity, and immediately became the most conspicuous figure thereon,
the cynosure of admiring eyes in every land. His discovery of in-
duced currents, and of the evolution of electricity from magnets,
marked a new era in the science of electricity, elucidating facts
which had defied the ingenuity of Arago, Herschel, and Babbage,
creating the science of magneto-electricity as the correlative of
electro-magnetism, and justly claiming for its last-born the splendors
and wonders of the Ruhmkorff coil, the Gramme machine, and the tel-
ephone. Henry supplemented the work of Faraday by his own dis-
coveries of the ea^ra-current in the primitive circuit, and of induced
currents of higher orders in as many adjacent circuits, lie also
succeeded where Faraday had doubts about his own experiments;
viz. in obtaining unequivocal indications of similar induction in the
momentary passage of electricity of high tension ; proving also the
oscillating discharge of the Leyden jar. Numerous experiments were
made on induction by thunder-clouds, and on atmospheric electricity in
general, by means of tandem-kites and lightning-rods.

Nobili and Melloni had widened and deepened the foundations of
thermotics, unveiling new and intimate analogies between radiant light
and heat, and enriching physical cabinets with many novelties, espe-
cially the thermopile and the galvanometer. Henry took advantage of
the new instruments for measuring the heat of different parts of the
sun. Seech i, the late astronomer and meteorologist of the Collegio
Romano, distinguished as the foster-brother of Victor Emmanuel, but
more as the gifted expounder of solar physics, owed his first inspiration
in science, in his youth (for he died in 1878, at the age of fifty-nine),
to Henry, whom he assisted in these experiments. Doubtless, other
young men, if they could be heard, would confess to an equal enthusi-
asm for science, caught from the same high example. But the multi-
tudinous productions which issued in rapid succession from the prolific
brain and pen of Secchi, without the adventitious reinforcement of
imaginary cases, justify and demand the assertion that what Henry led
others to do is second only in importance to what he did himself.

More than fifty years ago, a little book was published under the
fascinating title of " Philosophy in Sport made Science in Earnest."
Of the many ingenious, complex, and costly instruments of research,

JOSEPH HENRY. 361

has any one been richer in its revelations to science than the child's
soap-bubble ? But where the child saw only an evanescent display of
colors, Newton read with mathematical clearness his celebrated theory
of fits of easy transmission and reflection, and Young measured the
constants of the undulations of light. To-day, the microscojjic molar
or molecular motions of the telephone-plate are translated into visible
speech by the colors of a sympathetic film of liquid in the phoneido-
scope. In 1844, Henry experimented with this ever ready minister to
the delight and instruction of all ages, so beautiful but apparently so
tender, and found that its cohesion and its contractile force were those
of a giant if its own thinness were made the standard of measure.
Thus was opened an avenue into the study of molecular action which
Plateau has extended and embellished with the most varied and origi-
nal experiments, not disheartened by the total loss of eyesight : find-
ing by the way a beautiful experimental illustration of the cosmogony
of La Place, and building architectural forms out of liquid films as if
they had the cohesion of marble.

When, at the close of 1846, Professor Henry left the quiet walks
of the Academy for a more public career in Washington, in obedience
to the summons of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, though
all applauded the wisdom of the choice, not a few regretted the sad
interruption in his scientific life, already rich in performance and
bright with the promise of more and perhaps greater discoveries.
The sacrifice seemed to be too great to demand of science in a country
where the taste and the mental qualifications, combined with the oppor-
tunity, for original research are rare. If Professor Henry had re-
mained at Princeton, he would certainly have added other jewels to
his crown : would it, however, have shone more brightly than it now
shines ? When posterity makes up its verdict on his claim to its grat-
itude and remembrance, his discoveries will not be counted, but
weighed.

On the other hand, no friend of science can contemplate with com-
placency the possible alternatives if the Regents had come to a dif-
ferent choice, or if they had been defeated in their first selection.
Literature or science ; popular lectures or original research ; the dif-
fusion of old truth or the discovery of new truth ; a national library,
a national university, or a national museum, — each had warm and
influential advocates. Professor Henry's plan of organization bears
the date of December 8, 1847, and was adopted by the Regents on
the 13th of December. It took its departure from the words of the
founder, viz. an establishment for the increase and diffusion of

362 JOSEPH HENRY.

knowledge among men ; and it emphasized every word of the preg-
nant sentence. Not science in its restricted sense, but knowledge
was to be first increased, and then diffused world-wide, — by the en-
dowment of research ; by the publication and liberal distribution of
contributions to knowledge, which may have little value in the market,
but which are of transcendent importance to man's culture and civ-
ilization; by elaborate reports in special departments, in which the
known would be separated from the unknown for the benefit of
new explorers ; by the translation of writings otherwise inaccessible
to most students ; by opening a highway along which the current
literature and science of the day could easily pass from continent to
continent, and reach their remotest corners. This sober and catholic
scheme, in literal fulfilment of the will of Smithson, was less dazzling
to the popular imagination, and enlisted a smaller numerical support,
than rival propositions which were more on the level of the average
understanding. Because these antagonistic plans narrowed the enjoy-
ment of a benefaction, (itself absolutely unfettered.) to a small com-
munity, they secured a local influence which threatened to defeat the
comprehensive views of the Secretary. These views, recommended by
their reasonableness and indorsed by individuals, academies, and soci-
eties of science and learning, had a tower of strength in the high
scientific reputation and the weight of character of the Secretary him-
self. Winning and persuasive in his manner, he was inflexible in his
purpose.

Experience has proved the truth of that which was the contention
at the time ; viz. that universities, libraries, museums, lectures, because
they confer local benefits, will never lack endowments, whereas the
Christian world had waited eighteen centuries for a large-minded and
large-hearted benefactor, whose bequest was all knowledge, existing or
to be discovered, and whose recipients were all nations of men. Slowly
but steadily time lias revealed the wisdom and foresight of the Secre-
tary ; individuals and communities, in increasing numbers, have felt the
benefits of his administration ; the government of the United States
has known where to look for impartial advice on matters outside of its
own knowledge, in times of prosperity and also in its darkest days ;
and now all opposition has died out; and, after a trial of thirty years,
no one probably desires any thing better for the Smithsonian Institu-
tion than that the plan, so wisely conceived and so faithfully admin-
istered by the first Secretary, should continue the abiding rule for his
successors.

Moreover, the plan of Professor Henry, cosmopolitan in its geo-

JOSEPH HENRY. 363

graphical embrace, did not sacrifice the interests of the unborn to those
of the living. He would not allow the hopes of Smithson to be frus-
trated by lavishing upon a single generation what was intended for all
time ; or, what is worse, sacrificing both the present and the future
upon the altar of an ambitious architecture. Examples abound, if
experience is all which men need, of fatal shipwrecks on these alluring
shores; of endowed churches, colleges, observatories, laboratories,
libraries, which have nothing to show but a mass of masonry, lacking
in the highest beauty of art, (fitness for its purpose,) however much it
may please the eye, even if the merciless architect had left any thing
for administration. The rigid rules of science, unqualified by good
common sense, may work a disaster in matters of business. The con-
summate mathematician, La Place, omnipotent in the domain of physi-
cal astronomy, when appointed by Napoleon I. to a high office of state,
attempted to carry the laws of the infinitesimal calculus into his admin-
istration, and failed. Not a few men of brilliant intellect, masters of
thought and of the pen, have prided themselves on a childlike sim-
plicity in the ways of the world. If Professor Henry had been one of
these, much would have been forgiven to his honesty of purpose, to
his love of truth, and to the success with which he had wooed her in
her most secret recesses. Therefore, it is not the least of his triumphs
that he did not, in imitation of an old astronomer, walk into a pitfall
on this lower earth while gazing into the depths of space. He could
roam with Emerson through the universe of thought, but the feet of
both were firmly planted on the ground. Henry's judicious system of
expenditures, so essential to the permanent prosperity of the Institution,
put to shame the short-sightedness and the short-comings of many pro-
fessed financiers ; and exemplified, by anticipation, the magical products
of the Holtz and Ladd induction machines, in which a trifling capital
of well-invested electricity, the income of which is partly spent and
partly saved, yields an ample return for the present, and by the law of
compound interest secures still more brilliant results for the future.

When Professor Henry left Princeton, he knew, and his friends
knew, that he must leave behind him the object of his highest ambi-
tion, viz. the undisturbed and the unostentatious study of the unfold-
ing laws of the material universe. But he did not, and he could not,
renounce the spirit of independent research which had made him what
he was. As opportunity offered in the discharge of his official duties
he manifested this spirit himself, and communicated it to others. His
second report to the Board of Regents, for 1848, exhibits the prompt-
ness with which he had conceived, and begun to execute, the project

364 JOSEPH HENRY.

of covering the United States, and eventually the North American
continent, with a net-work of meteorological stations, which, with the
facilities of the telegraph, yet in its infancy, would prove a perennial
blessing to commerce and agriculture ; and, by consolidating the scat-
tered efforts of eminent meteorologists (among whom Coffin, Espy,
Loomis, and Guyot were conspicuous), throw some light on the law of
storms and meteorology in general. In the Patent Office Report for
1857, he gave his views of the relations between meteorology and agri-
culture. In this and other ways, the Smithsonian Institution has been
a hot-bed for starting and nursing new projects in their days of in-
fancy and weakness. After they have outgrown its accommodations
and proved their usefulness, they h;ive been adopted by the general
government and transplanted to a richer soil.

Fur many years Professor Henry has been a conspicuous figure, not
merely in scientific circles, but in the full view of the public; his name
and his co-operation have been in constant demand. He naturally
gravitated to places of honor which were often places of additional
labor. Men of leisure have no time to give to occasional calls upon
their public spirit. The hard-workers must also do all the extra work.
Professor Henry was no exception to this rule. To the day of his
death, he filled positions of trust and responsibility, with duties sufficient
to crush an effeminate man. But they seemed to rest lightly upon shoul-
ders which sustained, heside, the weight of a great institution. His mind
was ever in a state of prolonged tension ; but it kept its balance under
these distractions, as do the rings of Saturn amid the multitudinous dis-
turbances of its satellites. Often he waited for the leisure which never
came to him wheu he might write out for publication scientific com-
munications which he had made from a brief. He was President of
the American Association at its second meeting, in Cambridge, in 1849.
He gave the usual address of the retiring President at the fourth meet-
ing, in New Haven, but it was not printed. He was Vice-President
of the National Academy of Sciences in I860, succeeded Dr. Bache
as President in 18G8, and died in office.

The most responsible and the most onerous of the gratuitous ser-
vices which he gave to science and the country were rendered in his
capacity of member of the Light-House Board, of which he was for
seven years the chairman. The substitution of lenses for mirrors began
the revolution in light-houses; but lens or mirror, without the light, is
no better than a steam-engine without steam. To conquer prejudice
by experiment, and save millions to the country by exchanging sperm
oil for lard oil, is not so brilliant a service as the discovery of a new law

JOSEPH HENRY. 365

of nature. But, more than any discovery, it makes science respected
in high places, and enlists the sympathy of the unscientific community.
There are times when sextants, chronometers, tables of the moon, and
even light-houses, are of no avail, and an impenetrable veil of dark-
ness shuts out the mariner from the lights of heaven and earth. But
what is opaque to light may be pierced by sound. The experiments
which have been made by Henry in this country and by Tyudall in
England, in their official capacity, on the fog-penetrating power of the
fog-horn, the fog-bell, the siren, the steam-whistle, and cannonading, have
raised interesting questions in science, to which different answers have
been given ; but the facts remain, above controversy, to instruct gov-
ernments in the best way of supplementing optical signals by acoustic
signals. These last investigations of Professor Henry, to which, it is
feared, he was a willing martyr, will always have a pathetic interest for
those who knew and loved him.

It has been the aim of this notice to place in strong relief a few of
the salient points in the intellectual life of Henry. Any statement in
detail of the accumulations of his long life, in the way of experiment
or deduction, must be very voluminous or very meagre. For he was
not a concentrated specialist. His expanded thought swept the whole
vast horizon of the physical sciences ; not to speculate, but to discover.
The severe discipline of science did not harden him against the fasci-
nations of literature, poetry, and art.

It would be a delicate task, and premature, to attempt to assign to
Henry his exact rank among those who have legislated for science in
this and former centuries. There are laws of perspective in time as
well as in space, whereby a small eminence seems to outclimb the
distant Alps, and the present generation dwarfs apparently all its pre-
decessors. Foreign countries and posterity will pronounce their irre-
versible verdict in this as in other cases. In his own country, and
among his contemporaries, Mr. Henry was long and easily the acknowl-
edged chief of experimental philosophers. If the earlier science
of the country is passed in review, only a few names shine so brightly
across the intervening years as to deserve any comparison with him
who has recently departed. Winthrop and Rittenhouse in astronomy,
Franklin in electricity, Rumford in thermotics, and Bowditch in mathe-
matics, exhaust the catalogue of possible rivals. Of these, all but
Winthrop were self-instructed, as was Henry, at least in what relates
to their higher education. Of these, Franklin and Rumford, no less
than Henry, were as remarkable in administration as in science ;
Franklin and Rumford from taste, and Henry from a sense of duty.

866 JOSEPH HENRY.

All three served their country well, — Franklin and Henry while living,
and Rumford by his bequests. Winthrop, Rittenhouse, and Bowditch
reached their exalted position by paths wholly untrodden by Henry.
They cannot, therefore, be the standard for his measure. Rumford's
mind was essentially practical, even in its science. He had more of
the spirit of an inventor than a discoverer. In Heury's place he would
have been more interested in pushing the telegraph to its final issue
than in supplementing Faraday's laws of electro-dynamical induction.
But in dealing with the heat of friction, Rumford displayed an experi-
mental skill aud a boldness of conception which have vindicated his
claim to a high scientific position. The progress of recent discovery
and the tendency of scientific speculation have promoted Rumford from
the position which he long held, as leader of a forlorn hope, to the
place of hero in the last act of the scientific drama. In this connection
Henry's views on the correlation of the physical and organic forces may
be recalled, which only lacked the fuller development and the wider
publication which he finally gave to them, to have secured for him the
first complete announcement of one of the grandest generalizations of
modern science.

It might seem to be easy to institute a comparison between Franklin
and Henry in reference to the value of their original scientific work,
which was largely in the field of electricity. But a century has made
great changes in the starting-point, the opportunities, and the resources
of the discoverer. Franklin, with humble tools, had a virgin soil to
cultivate. He had also the rare felicity, for which Newton also was
envied, of living at a time when the scattered facts of a new science
were waiting for a comprehensive generalization. If Franklin had
made no experiments on the Leyden jar, or on the thunder-cloud, his
theory of electricity, which has held its own to this day without any
amendment (though its final doom is written upon it), would have
secured for him a place second to no other among the worthies of
science. Now the instruments of physical research are numerous and
delicate ; but useless unless the senses are educated to them. The
literature of science is voluminous and in many languages. Success in
scientific investigations demands now original thought, disciplined
senses, scientific culture, and a well-chosen field, where the discoveries
of other men will not be repeated. Both Franklin and Henry burned
brightly in their allotted spheres, and in the future may differ only as
one star differs from another star in glory.

The funeral services on May 16, 1878, proclaimed to the world that
the republic had lost an illustrious citizen. There was no hollow

STEPHEN THAYER OLNEY. 367

pageant of empty carriages of state, but the highest and best in the
land felt a personal bereavement. A patriotic and devoted servant of
the government was dead ; a bright light in science had gone out ; a
noble man, born to attract and to sway, in wbom science was illumi-
nated by faith, and faith was enlightened by science, lived on earth no
longer except by his example ; a long life, crowded with beneficent ser-
vices to truth and to man, was closed. Not less affecting were the
memorial exercises of January 16, 1879, in the hall of the House of
Representatives, before the assembled wisdom and grandeur of the
nation. Science may be proud of this spontaneous tribute to her
favored child, if she only remembers that it is character which makes
intellect a blessing and not a scourge to mankind, and awakens genuine
sympathy and admiration. Mr. Henry was not the favorite and orna-
ment of a court, but the peer of the greatest and wisest in a free
republic. The monument of Humboldt was not thought to be worthy
of a place in sight of the King's palace in Berlin. That was a spot
consecrated to princes of the blood and military heroes. Will any
American think that any ground in this country is too sacred to con-
tain a monument to Henry ?

STEPHEN THAYER OLNEY.

Stephen Thayer Olney died at Providence, his native city, on
the 27th of July, 1878, at the age of sixty-six, thus reducing to a small
number the list of Associate Fellows in the botanical section. Colonel
Olney was for most of his life actively engaged in business, for several
years at Augusta, Georgia, and afterward in Providence. But he
early became fond of Botany, published a Catalogue of Rhode Island
Plants in the year 1844, and two critical papers on the Botany of
the State a few years later. These appeared in the Proceedings of the
Providence Franklin Society, over which institution he presided for
many years, taking a leading part in the development of its scientific
interests. He was a keen observer, made interesting contributions to
his favorite science through his correspondence with the principal bot-
anists of his day engaged in publication, formed a large and valuable
herbarium and a choice botanical library, and, selecting for special in-
vestigation the very large and difficult genus Car ex, he had become the
leading critical authority in this department. He had planned an
extensive work in illustration of this genus, had begun the distribution
of accurately-named specimens and the preparation of costly figures,
and had entered upon the characterization of new species, in the Pro-

368

GEORGE B. WOOD.

ceedings of our own society, and elsewhere. But now ill health and
sorrow arrested his work, and a cloud of mental infirmity overcast his
last days. He was a man of fine appearance, full of energy, business
talent, and public spirit, and of marked character. He was unmarried.
He gave his botanical collections and library to the University of his
native State, and bequeathed the principal part of the somewhat ample
property which he had acquired to excellent charities, and for the pro-
motion of the study of his favorite science in the State of Rhode
Island. If bis bequest for this purpose is carried into full effect, a
very important foundation will be laid for the study of botany in this
country, which should keep his name in perpetual remembrance. The
name of Olney is borne by more than one species of plant of his own
discovery, and by a remarkable genus, a Leguminous tree of Arizona,
discovered by one of his former associates.

GEORGE B. WOOD.

There are but few names in the medical profession of this country
more widely known than that of Dr. Geouge B. Wood.

Holding as he did, for thirty -eight years, important professorships in
the chief centre of medical learning on this continent, his influence
upon hundreds of students of pharmacy and medicine must necessarily
have been deeply felt and wide spread.

He was born at Greenwich, New Jersey, March 13, 1797, and edu-
cated at the University of Pennsylvania, receiving his degree in 1818.

In two years after graduation he began to teach chemistry, and in
two years more was appointed Professor of that science in the Phila-
delphia College of Pharmacy. From this time onward he was en-
gaged in the teaching of materia medica and of the theory and practice
of medicine, until his appointment as Professor Emeritus in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, in 1860. With this event, however, his in-
terest in medical education did not cease, for in 1865 Dr. Wood
endowed an auxiliary Faculty of Medicine in the University of Penn-
sylvania for the teaching of certain sciences, which are usually some-
what thrust aside or neglected in the hurried three (or two) years of
the usual American medical course.

Dr. Wood was the author of numerous and valuable works, chiefly
relating to his profession, although a volume of historical and bio-
graphical papers was published in 1872.

His most voluminous and best-known works were the United States
Dispensatory, written in conjunction with Dr. Franklin Bache, and

FRIEDRICH WILHELM RITSCHL. 369

first published in 1843, a "Treatise on the Practice of Medicine," in
1847, and a "Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology," in 1856.
All of these went through several editions.

Of these, the first work is probably that in connection with which
his name will be always remembered. Although only a part author,
it is stated that he wrote fully two thirds of the book. A certain
amount of familiarity with this volume and with its subject is neces-
sary for an appreciation of the vast amount of labor and research
which must have been bestowed upon it. Although at the present day
the changes of commerce have made a part of the information con-
tained therein unreliable or useless, and the chemical and therapeutic
sciences must of course leave it behindhand in their rapid progress,
yet there is hardly a subject connected even remotely with materia
medica on which an amount of information commensurate with its
importance cannot be found, and it must always remain, not only a
monument to the fidelity and industry of the authors, but a fixed land-
mark of the most advanced position of the pharmaceutic sciences
at the time of its publication.

The life of Professor Wood was a long and active one, and he was
enabled to see the fruition of his own work, and enjoy the well-earned
honors of the veteran in his profession.

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

FRIEDRICH WILHELM RITSCHL.

Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl died at Leipzig, November 9, 1876.
He was born April 6, 1806, in Grossvargula, near Erfurt, attended
school at Erfurt and Wittenberg, and entered the University of Leip-
zig as student of Law. lie soon transferred himself to the depart-
ment of Classical Philology, in which he ultimately became the first
of living scholars. He finished his academic studies at Halle, where,
in 1829, he began to lecture as Privat-docent. In 1832 he was made
Professor extraordinarius at Halle, and in 1833 Professor ordinarius at
Breslau. In 1839 he went to Bonn as Professor, and there he passed
the most active period of his life as a teacher, from 1839 to 1865.
Few, if any, American students of philology in Germany during that
period failed to spend at least one term in Bonn under the instruction
of Ritschl. No other German professor of his day could inspire his
vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 24

370

KARL FREIHERR VON ROKITANSKI.

audience with such enthusiasm as he. He could rivet the attention of
a hundred young men as easily while he explained the metre of an Ode
of Pindar, as when he discoursed on a poem of Simonides. His personal
influence on his favorite pupils was almost unequalled, and it still sur-
vives as a most important element in the German scholarship of the
present generation. In 1865, in consequence of an unfortunate per-
sonal difference in which a large number of the professors of Bonn
were directly or indirectly involved, Ritschl felt compelled to resign
his professorship. It was a sad day for the University of Bonn when
its first scholar and its chief ornament withdrew ; but the older Uni-
versity of Leipzig wisely improved the opportunity to recover its
ancient glory in philology, which it had lost since the death of Gott-
fried Hermann in 1848. Ritschl was welcomed back to the university
in which he had begun his academic studies, and the throng of two
hundred pupils in his lecture-room soon showed the wisdom of the
authorities of Leipzig in securing him. His health, however, which
had never been strong, soon failed rapidly ; but his mind and his
energy remained firm in spite of bodily infirmities. He continued at
his post of duty until the last, and lectured in the university even
after he was so infirm that he was carried to his desk in a chair.

Ritschl's chief services to philology were his critical labors on the
text of Plautus, of which he has been called the " restorer," and his
investigation of the more ancient forms of the Latin language as a
basis for the scientific study of Latin Grammar. But, like many Ger-
man professors of the highest learning and the widest influence,
he exerted himself chiefly in educating a new generation of scholars,
and inspiring young men with his own high ideal of scholarship, in
which he set them a noble example of conscientious thoroughness,
profound learning, and untiring zeal.

KARL FREIHERR VON ROKITANSKI.

Karl Freiherr von Rokitanski, the world-renowned patholo-
gist, was born at Koniggratz, Bohemia, in 1804. He was educated
first at Leitmeritz. then at Prague, and lastly at Vienna, whither he
went in 1824 as a medical student. He graduated in 1828, having
already become assistant to Johanu Wagner, Professor of Pathology.
On the death of Wagner, in 1832, Rokitanski was made Professor,
and was appointed Prosector at the Vienna General Hospital. Here
his capacity for work proved almost incredible, a thousand autopsies
a year being the usual number he averaged for scores of years.

KARL FREIHERR VON ROKITANSKI. 371

As a lecturer his voice was feeble, his language provincial, and his
manner indifferent. Yet, such was his scientific energy, and so valua-
ble were bis teachings, that students over-crowded the lecture-room
and filled the college yard in their zeal to listen to him. The Vienna
School owes its revival and present ascendency to him more than to
any other individual. Though he propounded dogmas which severe
criticism and further investigations led him to modify, yet under his
leadership the science of medicine made immense progress. Even
therapeutics was advanced by his labors, in spite of the taunts of medi-
cal nihilism unscrupulously thrown upon him and his followers.

In 1849 he was appointed Dean of the Medical Faculty, and in
1850 Rector of the University at Vienna. He was also made Presi-
dent of the Academy of Sciences, and of the Medical Society of
Vienna. After thus attaining almost every academic or scientific honor
possible, attested by unnumbered diplomas and decorations, and after
exercising in public and private life unbounded influence on medical
and general education, he died, universally lamented, July 23, 1878.

Since the last Report, the Academy has received an acces-
sion of twenty-three new members, as follows: sixteen Fel-
lows, J. B. Ames, W. S. Appleton, Edward Atkinson, W.

E. Byerly, James F. Clarke, F. W. Draper, C. F. Folsom, J.
C. Gray, Jr., Alfred Hosmer, E. D. Leavitt, Jr., H. C. Lodge,
J. P. Reynolds, R. H. Richards, H. H. Richardson, J. S.
Ropes, and C. S. Sargent ; one Associate Fellow, Asaph Hall ;
six Foreign Honorary Members, J. G. Agardh in place of
Elias Fries, Thomas Carlyle in place of Louis Adolphe Thiers,

F. C. Donders in place of Karl Rokitanski, F. M. de Lesseps
in place of Victor Regnault, H. A. J. Munro in place of Paul
Frederick Sclopis di Salerano, and John Ruskin at large.
On the other hand, by removal from the State or by resig-
nation, the following members of the Academy have aban-
doned their Fellowships: A. S. Packard, Jr., and J. K. Paine.
The list of the Academy, corrected to the date of this Report,
is hereto added. It includes 192 Fellows, 96 Associate
Fellows, and 72 Honorary Members.

LIST

OF THE FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

FELLOWS. — 192.

(Number limited to two hundred.)

Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 60.

Section I. — 7.
Mathematics.
W. E. Byerly, Cambridge.

Benjamin A. Gould, Cambridge.
Gustavus Hay, Boston.

Benjamin Peirce, Cambridge.

James M. Peirce, Cambridge.

John D. Runkle, Boston.

Edwin P. Seaver, Boston.

Section II. — 10.
Practical Astronomy and Geodesy.
J. Ingersoll Bowditch, Boston.
Alvan Clark, Cambridgeport.

George Clark, Cambridgeport.

Henry Mitchell, Roxbury.

Robert Treat Paine, Boston.
E. C. Pickering, Cambridge.

William A. Rogers, Cambridge.
Arthur Searle, Cambridge.

L. Trouvelot, Cambridge.

Henry L. Whiting, Boston.

Section III. — 28.
Physics and Chemistry.
John Bacon, Boston.

A. Graham Bell, Boston.

John H. Blake, Boston.

Thos. Edwards Clark, Williamstown.
W. J. Clark, Amherst.

Josiah P. Cooke, Jr., Cambridge.
James M. Crafts, Boston.
Charles R. Cross, Boston.
William P. Dexter, Roxbury.
Amos E. Dolbear, Medford.

Charles W. Eliot,
Moses G. Farmer,
WTolcott Gibbs,
Augustus A. Hayes,
Henry B. Hill,
Eben N. Horsford,
T. Sterry Hunt,
Charles L. Jackson,
Joseph Lovering,
William R. Nichols,
John M. Ordway,
Robert H. Richards,
Edward S. Ritchie,
S. P. Sharpies,
Frank H. Storer,
John Trowbridge,
Cyrus M. Warren,
Charles H. Wing,

Cambridge.
Newport.
Boston.
Brookline.
Cambridge.
Cambridge.
Boston.
Cambridge.
Cambridge.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Cambridge.
Jamaica Plain.
Cambridge.
Brookline.
Boston.

Section IV. — 15.

Technology and Engineering.

G. R. Baldwin,
John M. Batchelder,
C. O. Boutelle,
Henry L. Eustis,
James B. Francis,
John B. Henck,
E. D. Leavitt, Jr
William R. Lee,
Hiram F. Mills,
Alfred P. Rockwell,
Stephen P. Ruggles,
Charles S. Storrow,
William R. Ware,
William Watson,
Morrill Wyman,

Woburn.
Cambridge.
Washington.
Cambridge.
Lowell.
Boston. *
Cambridgeport.
Roxbury.
Lawrence.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Cambridge.

374

FELLOWS.

Class II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 67.

Section I. — 9.

Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of
the Globe.

Thomas T. Bouve,
William T. Brigham,
Algernon Coolidge,
John L. Hayes,
Charles T. Jackson,
Jules Marcou,
William B. Rogers,
Nathaniel S. Shaler,
Charles U. Shepard,

Boston.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Boston*

Cambridge.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Amherst.

Section II. — 11.

Botany.

George B. Emerson,
William G. Farlow,
George L. Goodale,
Asa Gray,
II. II. Hunnewell,
Thomas P. James,
John A. Lowell,
C. S. Sargent,
Chas. J. Sprague,
Edward Tuckerman,
Sereno Watson,

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Wellesley.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Brookline.

Boston.

Amherst.

Cambridge.

Section III. — 24.

Zoology and Physiology.

Alex. E. R. Agassiz, Cambridge.

J. A. Allen, Cambridge.

Robert Amory, Brookline.

Nath. E. Atwood, Provincetown.

James M. Barnard, Boston.

Henry P. Bowditch, Boston.

Thomas M. Brewer, Boston.

Edward Burgess, Boston.

Samuel Cabot, Boston.

John Dean,
Hermann A. Hagen,

C. E. Hamlin,
Alpheus Hyatt,
Wm. James,
Samuel Kneeland,
Theodore Lyman,
Edward S. Morse,
L. F. Pourtales,
Frederic W. Putnam,
James J. Putnam,
Samuel II. Scudder,

D. Humphreys Storer,
Henry Wheatland,
James < '. White,

Waltham.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Salem.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Salem.

Boston.

Section- IV
Medicine and
Samuel L. Abbot,
Henry J. Bigelow,
Henry I. Bowditch,
Benjamin E. Cotting
F. W. Draper,
Thomas Dwight,
Robert T. Edes,
Calvin Ellis,
C. F. Folsom,
Richard M. Hodges,
Oliver W. Holmes,
R. W. Hooper,
Alfred Hosmer,
Edward Jarvis,
Francis Minot,
Edward Reynolds,
J. P. Reynolds,
George C. Shattuck,
Horatio R. Storer,
J. Baxter Upham,
Charles E. Ware,
John C. Warren,
Henry W. Williams,

— 23.
Surgery.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Roxbury.
Boston.
Boston.
Roxbury.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Watertown.
Dorchester.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.
Boston.

FELLOWS.

375

Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 65.

Section I. — 17.
Philosophy and Jurisprudence.

J. B. Ames,
C. S. Bradley,
Phillips Brooks,
James F. Clarke,
Richard H. Dana, Jr.
C. C. Everett,
John Fiske,
Horace Gray,
J. C. Gray, Jr.,
L. P. Hicock,
O. W. Holmes, Jr.,
Mark Hopkins,
C. C. Langdell,
John Lowell,
Henry W. Paine,
Theophilus Parsons,
J. B. Thayer,

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Jamaica PI.
, Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.
Northampton.

Boston.
Williamstown.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Section II. — 15.

Philology and At

Ezra Abbot,
W. S. Appleton,
William P. Atkinson,
H. G. Denny,
Epes S. Dixwell,
William Everett,
William W. Goodwin,
Ephraim W. Gurney,
Bennett H. Nash,
Chandler Robbins,
John L. Sibley,
E. A. Sophocles,
John W. White,
Justin Winsor,
Edward J. Young,

chceology.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Section III. — 18.
Political Economy and History.
Chas. F. Adams, Jr., Quincy.
Henry Adams, Boston.

Edward Atkinson, Boston.
Erastus B. Bigelow, Boston.
Charles Deane, Cambridge.

Charles F. Dunbar, Cambridge.
Samuel Eliot, Boston.

George E. Ellis, Boston.

E. L. Godkin, Cambridge.

William Gray, Boston.

Edward Everett Hale, Boston.

H. C. Lodge,
Francis Parkman,
A. P. Peabody,
J. S. Ropes,
Nathaniel Thayer,
Henry W. Torrey,

Boston.

Brookline.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Robert C. Winthrop, Boston.

Section IV. — 15.
Literature and the Fine Arts.

Charles F. Adams,
William T. Andrews,
George S. Boutwell,
J. Elliot Cabot,
Francis J. Child,
Ralph Waldo Emerson
John C. Gray,
Henry W. Longfellow,
Charles G. Loring,
James Russell Lowell,
Charles Eliot Norton,
Thomas W. Parsons,
Charles C. Perkins,
H. H. Richardson,
John G. Whittier,

Boston.

Boston.

Groton.

Brookline.

Cambridge.

, Concord.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Boston.

Cambridge.

Cambridge.

Wayland.

Boston.

Brookline.

Amesbury.

376

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. — 96.

(Number limited to one hundred.)

Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 38.

Section I. — 8.
Mathematics.
Charles Avery, Clinton, N.Y.

E. B. Elliott,
William Ferrel,
Thomas Hill,

Washington, D.C.
Washington.D.C.
Portland, Me.

Simon Newcomb, Washington, D. C.
H. A. Newton, New Haven, Conn.
James E. Oliver, Ithaca, N.Y.
T. II. Safford, Williamstown, Mass.

Section II. — 12.
Practical Astronomy and Geodesy.
S. Alexander, Princeton, N.J.
W.H.C. Bartlett, West Point, N.Y.
J. II. C. Coffin, Washington,!). C.
Wm. H. Emory, Washington, D.C.
Asaph Hall, Washington, D.C.

J. E. Hilgard, Washington,!). C.
George W. Hill, Nyack, N.Y.
Elias Loomis, New Haven, Conn.
Maria Mitchell, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
C. H. F. Peters, Clinton, N.Y.
George M. Searle, New York.
Chas. A. Young, Princeton, N.J.

Section III. — 11.
Physics and Chemistry.
F. A. P. Barnard, New York.
John W. Draper, New York.
S. W. Johnson, New Haven, Conn.
John Le Conte, San Francisco, Cal.
A. M. Mayer, Hoboken, N.J.
W. A. Norton, New Haven, Conn.
Ogden N. Rood, New York.
II. A. Rowland, Baltimore.
L.M. Rutherfurd, New York.
Benj. Silliman, New Haven, Conn.
J. L. Smith, Louisville, Ky.

Section IV. — 7.
Technology and Engineering.
Henry L. Abbot, New York.
R. Delafield, Washington.D.C.

A. A. Humphreys, Washington, D.C.
John Rodgers, Washington, D.C.
Wm. Sellers, Philadelphia.

George Talcott, Albany, N.Y.
W.P.Trowbridge, NewIIaven, Conn.

Class II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 27.

Section I. — 14.

Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of
the Globe.

George J. Brush, New Haven, Conn.
James D. Dana, New Haven, Conn.
J. W. Dawson, Montreal, Canada.
Edward Desor, Neufchatel, Switz.
J. C. Fremont, New York.

F. A. Genth,
Arnold Guyot,
James Hall,
F. S. Holmes,
Joseph Leconte,
J. Peter Lesley,
R. Pumpelly,
Wm. T. Roepper,
Geo. C. Swallow,

Philadelphia.
Princeton, N.J.
Albany, N.Y.
Charleston, S.C.
San Francisco.
Philadelphia.
Owego, N.Y.
Bethlehem, Pa.
Columbia, Mo.

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.

377

Section II. — 3.

Botany.

A. W. Chapman, Apalachicola, Fla.

G. Engelraaun, St. Louis, Mo.

Leo Lesquereux, Columbus, Ohio.

Section III. — 8.
Zoology and Physiology,
S. F. Baird, Washington, D.C.

C. E. Brown-Sequard, London.
J. C. Dalton, New York.

J. L. LeConte, Philadelphia.
Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia.
O. C. Marsh, New Haven, Conn.
S. Weir Mitchell, Philadelphia.
St. Julien Ravenel, Charleston, S.C.

Section IV. — 2.
Medicine and Surgery.

W. A. Hammond, New York.
Isaac Hays, Philadelphia.

Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 31.

Section I. — 8.

Philosophy and Jurisprudence.

D. R. Goodwin, Philadelphia.
R. G. Hazard, Peacedale, R.I.
Nathaniel Holmes, St. Louis, Mo.
James McCosh, Princeton.
Charles S. Peirce, New York.
Noah Porter, New Haven, Conn.
Isaac Ray, Philadelphia.

Jeremiah Smith, Dover, N.H.

Section II. — 11.
Philology and Archaeology.
A. N. Arnold, Hamilton, N.Y.

D. C. Gilman, Baltimore.

S. S. Haldeman, Columbia, Pa.

A. C. Kendrick, Rochester, N.Y.

Geo. P. Marsh, Rome.

L. H. Morgan, Rochester, N.Y.

A. S. Packard, Brunswick, Me.

E. E. Salisbury, New Haven, Conn.

A. D. White, Ithaca, N.Y.

W. D. Whitney, New Haven, Conn.

T. D. Woolsey, New Haven, Conn.

Section III. — 8.
Political Economy and History.
S. G. Arnold, Newport, R.I.
Geo. Bancroft, Washington.
S. G. Brown, Clinton, N.Y.
Henry C. Carey, Philadelphia.
J. L. Diman, Providence, R.I.

Henry C. Lea, Philadelphia.
Barnas Sears, Scranton, Va.
J. H. Trumbull, Hartford.

Section IV. — 4.
Literature and the Fine Arts.
James B. Angell, Ann Arbor, Mich.
F. E. Church, New York.
R. S. Greenough, Florence.
Wm. W. Story, Rome

378

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. — 72.

(Appointed as vacancies occur.)

Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 25.

Section I.

— 7.

Section III

— 10.

Mathematics.

Physics and

Chemistry.

John C. Adams,

Cambridge.

R. Bunsen,

Heidelberg.

Sir George B. Airy,

Greenwich.

E. Chevrcul,

Paris.

Brioschi,

Milan.

J. Dumas,

Paris.

Arthur Cayley,

Cambridge.

II. Helmholtz,

Berlin.

Chasles,

Paris.

A. W. Ilofrnaim,

Berlin.

Liouville,

Paris.

(i. Kirchhoff,

Berlin.

J. J. Sylvester,

Baltimore.

J. C. Maxwell,

Balfour Stewart,
G. G. Stokes,

Cambridge.
Manchester

Cambridge.

Section II

— 5.

V. Wohler,

Gottingen.

Practical Astronomy and Geodesy.

Dcillen, Pulkowa.

H. A. E. A. Faye, Paris.

Peters, Altona.

Otto Struve, Pulkowa.

Emile Plantamour, Geneva.

Section IV. — 2.
Technology and Engineering.
R. Clausius, Bonn.

V. M. de Lesseps, Paris.
Sir Wm. Thomson, Glasgow.

Class II. — Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 25.

Section I. — 7.

Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of
the Globe.

Barrande,
Charles Darwin,
James Prescott Joule,
W. II. Miller.
C. F. Rammelsberg,
A. C. Ramsay,
Sir Edward Sabine,

Prague.
Beckenham.

Manchester.

Cambridge.

Berlin.

London.

London.

Section II. — 7.

Botany.

J. G. Agardh, Lund.

George Bentham, London.

Decaisne, Paris.

Alphonse de Candolle, Geneva.

Oswald Ileer, Zurich.
Joseph Daltou Hooker, London.

Niigeli, Munich.

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

379

Section III. — 8.

Zoology and Physiology.

T. L. W. Bischoff, Munich.

Milne-Edwards, Paris.

Albrecht Kblliker, Wiirzburg.

Rudolph Leuckart, Leipzig.

Richard Owen, London.

C. Th. Von Siebold, Munich.

J. J. S. Steenstrup, Copenhagen
Valentin, Berne.

Section IV. — 3.
Medicine and Surgery.
Sir James Paget,

Virchow,

F. C. Donders,

London.

Berlin.

Utrecht.

Class III. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 22.

Section I. — 3.

Philosophy and Jurisprudence.

T. C. Bluntschli, Heidelberg.

Sir Henry Sumner Maine, London.
James Martineau, London.

Section II. — 6.

Philology and Archceology.

Pascual de Gayangos, Madrid.
Benjamin Jowett, Oxford.
Lepsius, Berlin.

Max Miiller, Oxford.

H. A. J. Munro, Cambridge.

Sir H. C. Rawlinson, London.

Section

III

. — 9.

Political Economy

and History

Thomas Carlyle,

London.

Ernst Curtius,

Berlin.

W. Ewart Gladstone,

London.

Charles Merivale,

Oxford.

F. A. A. Mignet,

Paris.

Mommsen,

Berlin.

Mark Pattison,

Oxford.

Von llanke,

Berlin.

A. P. Stanley,

London.

Section IV. — 4.
Literature and the Fine Arts.
Gerome, Paris.

John Ruskin, Coniston.

Alfred Tennyson, Isle of Wight.
Viollet-Le-Duc, Paris.

INDEX.

A.

Abronia nana, 294.
Allieae, 214, 285.
Allium, 214, 285.

Revision of species, 226.

species, 235-238.
Aloe yuccsefolia, 250.
Amblirion, species, 260, 266.
Amblostima, 242.
Amian tan thus, species, 279, 280.
Amianthium, 224.

species, 280, 281.
Androstephium, 215.

species, 239.
Anniversary, Centennial, of the

Academy, 326, 328, 330.
Anthericum, 286.

species, 241-243.
Anticlea, species, 279, 280.
Appropriations, 321, 323.
Archidium longifolium, 134.
Argopatagus vitreus, 209.
Asagrgea officinalis, 281.
Asarum Lemmoni, 294.
Aspidodiadema, 199.

microtuberculatum, 199.

tonsum, 199.
Asteranthemum, species, 245.
Asthenosoma, species, 200, 201.

B.

Beaucarnia, species, 247, 248.
Benzylsulphoacid Salts, Compari-
son of Composition, 319.
Bessemer Process, account of, 108.
Bessera elegans, 239.
Biographical Notices : —

Jacob Bigelow, 333.

William Cullen Bryant, 355.

Caleb Cushing, 342.

Silas Durkee, 343.

Joseph Henry, 356

Biographical Notices : —

John Barnard Swett Jackson,
344.

John Clarke Lee, 352.

John Mudge Merrick, 353.

Stephen Thayer Olney, 367.

FriedrichWilhelm Ritschl, 369.

Carl Freiherr von Rokitanski,
370.

Benjamin Franklin Thomas,
354.

George B. Wood, 368.
Bloomeria, 215.

aurea, 235.
Bolandra Oregana, 292.
Botany, Contributions to American,

213.
Brevoortia, 215.

species, 239.
Brodiaea, 215.

Revision of species, 236.

cocci nea, 239.

Howellii, 301.

volubilis, 239.
Bruchia, species, 134, 135.

c.

Calliprora, species, 238.
Callitriche, species, 298.
Calochortese, 220.
Calochortus, 220, 287.

Revision of species, 262.
Camassia, 216.

species, 240.
Catopygus recens, 194, 204.
Celtis brevipes, 297.
Chamselirium, 224.

species, 282.
Chlorbenzyl Salts, Comparison of
the Composition of, 319.

Comparison of Melting Points,
318.
Chlorogalese, 216.

382

INDEX.

Chlorogalum, 217.

species, 240, 212, 243.
Chlorophyton, 286.
Cionobrissus reviuctus, 206.
Clintonia, 221.

species, 271.
Cobalt, Results of rapid reversals

of Magnetization, 115.
Color, development of the sense of,

17.
Committees, 321-323, 326, 328, 330.
Communications from Messrs.

A. Agassiz, 1, 65, 190, 323.

A. G. Bell, 320.

W. C. Bennet, o±).

H. P. Bowditch, 330.

J. T. Cooke, Jr., 323.

A. E. Dolbear, 77. 304, 325.

A. W. Field. 56, 323, 330.

W. Gibbs, 331.

A. Gray, 327, 331.
W. KT. Hill, 111.

X. D.C. Hodges, 326, 328, 331.
W. W. Jacques. 112, 330.
C. L. Jackson, 56, 300. 323,

328, 330, 331.
T. P. James, 133, 327.
S. P. Langley, 92, 106, 325.
L. Lesquereux, 133, 327.
II. F. .Mills, 26.
II. Mitchell, 325.
E. W. Morley, 104.

B. Peirce, 329.

E. C. Pickering, 323,329, 331.

J. P. Putnam, 328.

W. A. Rogers, 168, 323. 324,

QOQ

X. S. Shaler, 328.
W. 1'. Schimper, 139.

J. Trowbridge, 114, 122, 323,
325, 326, 331.

S. Watson, 213,331.

J. F. White, 306, 328, 331.
Convallaria, 217.

species, 243-216, 271.
Convallariea?, 217, 286.
Cottaldia Forbesiana. 203.
Cotyledon, species, 292, 293.
Cronyxiuni serotinum, 261.
Croton Californicus, 297.

tenuis, 297.
Cryphsea pendula, 138.
Cupressus Guadalupensis, 300.
Cyclobothra, species, 262-264, 267.
Cystichinus, 207.

species, 193. 208, 209.

D.

Dasylirion. 218-

Revision of, 249.

species, 247, 248.
Dentaria Californica, 289.
Development of Lepidosteus, 65.
Dicbelostemma, species, 236, 237,

239.
Diphalangium graminifolium, 240.
Donations received, 322.
Dorocidaris bracteata, 197.
Draba, species, 289, 290.
Dracaena borealis, 271 .
Dynamo-electric machines, Com-
parison of, 122.

E.

Ecbiandia, 242.

species, 211. 212.

Echini of the "Challenger" Ex-
pedition, 190.
Geographical Distribution of,

193.
Bathymetical Distribution of,
195.

Echinocardium australe, 193.

Echinocrepis cuneata, 206.

Echinocyamus pusillus, 194.

Echinus horridus, 203.

Electric Currents of great strength,
Methods of measuring, 122.

Ephedra, species, 298 300.

Ephemerum, species, 139.

Eriogonum, species, 295j 296.

Eiythronium, 220.

Revision of species, 260.

Eyes, Translation of, in Flounders,
4.

Fellows, Associate, deceased: —
William Cullen Bryant, 333.
Stephen T. Olney, 333*

George B. Wood, 333.
Fellows, Associate, elected: —

Asaph Hall, 329, 330.
Fellows, Associate, List of, 376.
I'ellows deceased: —

Jacob Bigelow, 333.

Caleb Cushing, :;:;:;.

Silas Durkee, 333.

John Barnard Swett Jackson,
333.

INDEX.

383

Fellows deceased: —

John Clarke Lee, 333.

John M. Merrick, 333.

Benjamin Franklin Thomas,
333.
Fellows elected : —

James Barr Ames, 321.

William S. Appleton, 325.

Edward Atkinson, 328.

William Elwood Byerly, 322.

James Freeman Clarke, 328.

Frank Winthrop Draper, 328,
330.

Charles Follen Folsom, 322.

John C. Gray, Jr., 324.

Alfred Hosiner, 329.

E. D. Leavitt, Jr., 324.

Henry Cabot Lodge. 325.

John Phillips Reynolds, 324.

Robert H. Richards, 329, 330.

Henry H. Richardson, 325,
330.

Joseph S. Ropes, 325.

Charles Sprague Sargent, 324.
Fellows, List of, 373.

Removed or resigned, 371.
Fenelonia bracteata, 261.
Fritillaria, 220.

Revision of species, 258.
Fishes, Bony, Young Stage of, 1.
Fissidens, species, 137.
Flounders, Development of, 1.
Foreign Honorary Members de-
ceased : —

H. W. Dove, 333.

Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl,
333.

Karl Freiherr von Rokitanski,
o'o'o.
Foreign Honorary Members elect-
ed:—

Jacob Georg Agardh, 322.

Thomas Carlyle, 324, 326.

Franz Cornells Donders, 329,

• 330.

Ferdinand de Lesseps,329, 330.

H. A. J. Munro, 324, 326.

John Raskin, 324, 326.
Foreign Honorary Members, List
of, 378.

G.

Genicopatagus affinis, 210.
Goniocidaris, species, 194, 198.

Gramme, Dynamo-electric Machine,

122.
Gymnostillingia, 298.

H.

Hastingsia, 217, 286.

alba, 212.
Heat, Distribution of, in various

Spectra, 112.
Heat, produced by rapid reversals
of Magnetization in Metals,
114.
Hekorima rosea, 269.
Heliotype Process of Illustration, 18.
Helonias, 224.

species, 276-282, 284.
Helonieaj, 224, 288.
Hemerocallidege, 219, 287.
Hemiaster, species, 193, 210, 211.
Hesperaloe, 219.

species, 250.
Hesperanthes, 216, 286.

species, 241.
Hesperocallis, 219.

undulata, 250.
Hesperoscordium maritimum, 235.
Hesperoscordum, species, 238.
Hollisteria, 296.

lanata, 296.
Homolampas fulva, 209.
Hookera, species, 236, 237.
Hymenocallis, species, 301.
Hypnum, species, 138, 139, 141.

Iron, Results of rapid reversals of
Magnetization, 115.

J.

Juncus, species, 302, 303.

K.

Kruhsea Tilingii, 269.

Leimanthium, species, 276.
Lepidosteus, development of, 65.

384

INDEX.

Leucocoryne, 285.
Leucocrineae, 216, 286.
Leucocrinum, 216.

montanum, 240.
Ligusticum temiifolium, 293.
Liliacese, Revision of North Amer-
ican, 213.

Geographical Distribution of,
284.
Liliese, 219, 287.
Liliorhiza, species, 258, 259.
Lilium, 220.

species, 255, 259, 302.
Lloydia, 220.

serotina, 26 1.
Lloydiese, 220, 287.
Luzula, species, 301,302.

M.

Magnetic Metals, on the Heat pro-
duced by rapid reversals of
Magnetization, 111.
Maianthemum, 218.

species, 244-246, 271.
Measurements with Microscope,
Limits of Accuracy in, 164.
Measurements with Telescope and
Microscope, Limits of Accu-
racv in, 168.
Medeola, 222.

Virginiana, 272.
Medeolese, 222.
Melanthacese, 214, 288.
Melanthium, 223.

species, 276, 277, 281.
Members, Foreign Honorary. See
Foreign Honorary Members.
Micropyga, 200.

tuberculata, 200.
Microscope, Limits of Accuracy

with, 164, 168.
Milla, 216, 285.

species, 235, 237-240.
Milleae, 215, 285.
Mosses, Description of new Species

of North American, 133.
Muilla, 215, 285.
maritima, 235.

N.

Narthecium, 225.

species, 282, 283.

Nectaroscordium, 285.

Nickel, Results of rapid reversals

of Magnetization, 115.
Nolina, 218.

species, 246.
Nolinese, 218, 287.
Nothoscordum, 215, 285.

species, 235.

O.

Oakesia, 221, 287.

species, 269.
Odontostomeae, 217.
Odontostomum, 217.

Hartwegi, 243.
(Enothera ambigua, 293.
Officers elected, 321, 324.
Ornithogalum, species, 225, 235,

238, 242, 261.
Orthotrichum, species, 140.
Oxytria crocea, 242.

Palseotropus Loveni, 194, 204.
Paleopneustes Murrayi, 192, 210.
Pancratium, .species, 301.
Parachloralphatoluylic Acid, 58.

Argentic Salt, 58.
Parachlorbenzyl Compounds, 54,
306.

Comparison of Melting Points,
318.

Comparison of Composition,
319.
Parachlorbenzylchloride, 54.

alcohol, 56.

cyanide, 57.

sulphocyanate, 59.

amines, 60.

sulphides, 313.

mercaptan, 314.

mercaptid, 315.

disulphide, 316.

ethylether, 317.
Parachlorbenzylsulphoacid, 306.

Sodium salt, 308.

Potassium salt, 309.

Barium salt, 310.

Calcium salt, 310.

Copper salt, 311.

Lead salt, 310.

Chloride, 313.

INDEX.

385

Periaster limicola, 193.

Periodical Publications, Catalogue,
323, 3-26.

Peucedanum, species, 293.

Phalangiese, 210.

Phalangium, species, 240-243, 247.

Phascuin, species, 139, 140.

Phormosoma, species, 201, 202.

Phyllospadix, species, 303.

Piezometers in Hydraulic Investiga-
tions, Experiments upon, 2G.

Pigment Cells in Fishes, Develop-
ment of, 3, 13.

Plagiothecium pseudosilesiacum ,
140.

Plagusia, species, 23.

Platessa, species, 19, 21, 23.

Pleea, 225, 285.
tenuifolia, 283.

Pleuronectes, species, 19, 22.

Podocidaris, species, 198, 199.

Polygonastrum racemosum, 244.

Polygonatum, 218.
species, 244.

Polygonum, species, 294, 295.

Pourtalesia, species, 204-206.

Pourtalesise, 196.

Proceedings, 321.

Prionechinus sagittiger, 202.

Prosartes, 221.
species, 270.

Pseudorhombus, species, 20, 21, 23.

Pseudoscordum striatum, 235.

Psoralea, species, 291.

Ptychomitrium pyginamm, 136.

R.

Ranunculus, species, 289.
Rhinobrissus hemiasteroides, 211.
Rhombus maculatus, 22.
Rotaphone, the, 305.
Rumford Committee, Appropria-
tions, 321, 325, 327.
Rupalleya volubilis, 239.

Salenia hastigera, 198.
Sapium annuum, 298.
Schizaster, species, 211, 212.
Schcenocaulon, 223.

species, 280.
Schcenolirion, 216, 2S6.

species, 242.

vol. xiv. (n. s. vi.) 25

Schcenoprasum lineare, 228.
Scilla, species. 240, 241, 243.
Scoliopese, 222.
Scoliopus, 222.

species, 272.
Sebastiana Treculiana, 298.
Seubertia, species, 237, 238.
Siemen's Dynamo-electric Machine,

122.
Silene, species, 290, 291.
Smilacina, 218.

species, 244, 269, 271, 272.
Spatagocystis Challenger!, 206.
Spatangus purpureus, 193.
Spectra, Distribution of Heat in,
142.

Platinum, 156.

Black oxide of Copper, 159.

Black oxide of Iron, 161.

Green oxide of Chromium, 161.

White oxide of Aluminum, 161.
Spectrum, on certain remarkable

Groups in, 92
Sphagnum Garberi, 133.
Steel, Results of rapid reversals of

Magnetization, 115.
Stenanthium, 223.

species, 277.
Stillingia, species, 297, 298.
Streptanthus sagittatus, 290.
Streptopus, 221.

species, 269.
Stropholirion, 215.

Californicum, 239.
Suseda, species, 296, 297.
Sullivantia, species, 292.
Sun, Temperature of, 106.
Systegium erythrostegium, 140.

T.

Telephone, a new receiving, 304.
Telephony, Researches in, 77.
Telescope, Limits of Accuracy in

Measurements, 168.
Temperature of the Sun, 106.
Thalictrum, species, 288, 289.
Thelypodium ambiguum, 290.
Themis ixioides, 238.
Theresia pudica, 260.
Tofieldia, 224.

species, 282.
Tofieldiea?, 224, 288.
Tovaria, species, 244-246.
Trigonocidaris monolini, 203.

386

INDEX.

Trillieae, 222, 287.
Trillium, 222.

species, 273.
Triteleia, species, 237, 238.

U.

Ureehinus naresianus, 207.
Uvularia, 221, 287.

species, 268-271.
Uvularieaj, 220, 287.

V.

Veatchia crystallina, 238.
Veratreae, 223, 288.
Veratrum, 223.

species, 276-278, 281, 282.
Vicia, species, 291, 292.
Viola cuneata, 290.

W.

Weisia, species, 135, 136.

Weldenia Candida, 240.
Wilde, Dynamo-electric Machine,
122.

Xerophylleae, 225.
XerophyUum, 225.
species, 278, 284.

Yucca, 219.

species, 251.
Yuccea:, 219.

Z.

Zephyranthes, species, 300, 301.
Zone Observations of Harvard Ob-
servatory, 327.
Zygadenus, 223.

species, 276, 278.

University Press: John Wilson & Son,
Cambridge.

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